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+Project Gutenberg's D. Octavius Caesar Augustus, (Augustus)
+by C. Suetonius Tranquillus
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: D. Octavius Caesar Augustus (Augustus)
+       The Lives Of The Twelve Caesars, Volume 2.
+
+Author: C. Suetonius Tranquillus
+
+Release Date: December 13, 2004 [EBook #6387]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK D. OCTAVIUS CAESAR AUGUSTUS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Tapio Riikonen and David Widger
+
+
+
+
+
+                               THE LIVES
+                                   OF
+                           THE TWELVE CAESARS
+
+                                   By
+                       C. Suetonius Tranquillus;
+
+                          To which are added,
+
+         HIS LIVES OF THE GRAMMARIANS, RHETORICIANS, AND POETS.
+
+
+                          The Translation of
+                        Alexander Thomson, M.D.
+
+                        revised and corrected by
+                         T.Forester, Esq., A.M.
+
+
+
+
+D. OCTAVIUS CAESAR AUGUSTUS.
+
+(71)
+
+I.  That the family of the Octavii was of the first distinction in
+Velitrae [106], is rendered evident by many circumstances.  For in the
+most frequented part of the town, there was, not long since, a street
+named the Octavian; and an altar was to be seen, consecrated to one
+Octavius, who being chosen general in a war with some neighbouring
+people, the enemy making a sudden attack, while he was sacrificing to
+Mars, he immediately snatched the entrails of the victim from off the
+fire, and offered them half raw upon the altar; after which, marching out
+to battle, he returned victorious.  This incident gave rise to a law, by
+which it was enacted, that in all future times the entrails should be
+offered to Mars in the same manner; and the rest of the victim be carried
+to the Octavii.
+
+II.  This family, as well as several in Rome, was admitted into the
+senate by Tarquinius Priscus, and soon afterwards placed by Servius
+Tullius among the patricians; but in process of time it transferred
+itself to the plebeian order, and, after the lapse of a long interval,
+was restored by Julius Caesar to the rank of patricians.  The first
+person of the family raised by the suffrages of the people to the
+magistracy, was Caius Rufus.  He obtained the quaestorship, and had two
+sons, Cneius and Caius; from whom are descended the two branches of the
+Octavian family, which have had very different fortunes.  For Cneius, and
+his descendants in uninterrupted succession, held all the highest offices
+of the state; whilst Caius and his posterity, whether from their
+circumstances or their choice, remained in the equestrian order until the
+father of Augustus.  The great-grandfather of Augustus served as a
+military tribune in the second Punic war in Sicily, under the command of
+Aemilius Pappus.  His grandfather contented himself with bearing the
+public offices of his own municipality, and grew old in the tranquil
+enjoyment of an ample patrimony.  Such is the account given (72) by
+different authors.  Augustus himself, however, tells us nothing more than
+that he was descended of an equestrian family, both ancient and rich, of
+which his father was the first who obtained the rank of senator.  Mark
+Antony upbraidingly tells him that his great-grandfather was a freedman
+of the territory of Thurium [107], and a rope-maker, and his grandfather
+a usurer.  This is all the information I have any where met with,
+respecting the ancestors of Augustus by the father's side.
+
+III.  His father Caius Octavius was, from his earliest years, a person
+both of opulence and distinction: for which reason I am surprised at
+those who say that he was a money-dealer [108], and was employed in
+scattering bribes, and canvassing for the candidates at elections, in the
+Campus Martius.  For being bred up in all the affluence of a great
+estate, he attained with ease to honourable posts, and discharged the
+duties of them with much distinction.  After his praetorship, he obtained
+by lot the province of Macedonia; in his way to which he cut off some
+banditti, the relics of the armies of Spartacus and Catiline, who had
+possessed themselves of the territory of Thurium; having received from
+the senate an extraordinary commission for that purpose.  In his
+government of the province, he conducted himself with equal justice and
+resolution; for he defeated the Bessians and Thracians in a great battle,
+and treated the allies of the republic in such a manner, that there are
+extant letters from M. Tullius Cicero, in which he advises and exhorts
+his brother Quintus, who then held the proconsulship of Asia with no
+great reputation, to imitate the example of his neighbour Octavius, in
+gaining the affections of the allies of Rome.
+
+IV.  After quitting Macedonia, before he could declare himself a
+candidate for the consulship, he died suddenly, leaving behind him a
+daughter, the elder Octavia, by Ancharia; and another daughter, Octavia
+the younger, as well as Augustus, by Atia, who was the daughter of Marcus
+Atius Balbus, and Julia, sister to Caius Julius Caesar.  Balbus was, by
+the father's (73) side, of a family who were natives of Aricia [109], and
+many of whom had been in the senate.  By the mother's side he was nearly
+related to Pompey the Great; and after he had borne the office of
+praetor, was one of the twenty commissioners appointed by the Julian law
+to divide the land in Campania among the people.  But Mark Antony,
+treating with contempt Augustus's descent even by the mother's side, says
+that his great grand-father was of African descent, and at one time kept
+a perfumer's shop, and at another, a bake-house, in Aricia.  And Cassius
+of Parma, in a letter, taxes Augustus with being the son not only of a
+baker, but a usurer.  These are his words: "Thou art a lump of thy
+mother's meal, which a money-changer of Nerulum taking from the newest
+bake-house of Aricia, kneaded into some shape, with his hands all
+discoloured by the fingering of money."
+
+V.  Augustus was born in the consulship of Marcus Tullius Cicero and
+Caius Antonius [110], upon the ninth of the calends of October [the 23rd
+September], a little before sunrise, in the quarter of the Palatine Hill
+[111], and the street called The Ox-Heads [112], where now stands a
+chapel dedicated to him, and built a little after his death.  For, as it
+is recorded in the proceedings of the senate, when Caius Laetorius, a
+young man of a patrician family, in pleading before the senators for a
+lighter sentence, upon his being convicted of adultery, alleged, besides
+his youth and quality, that he was the possessor, and as it were the
+guardian, of the ground which the Divine Augustus first touched upon his
+coming into the world; and entreated that (74) he might find favour, for
+the sake of that deity, who was in a peculiar manner his; an act of the
+senate was passed, for the consecration of that part of his house in
+which Augustus was born.
+
+VI.  His nursery is shewn to this day, in a villa belonging to the
+family, in the suburbs of Velitrae; being a very small place, and much
+like a pantry.  An opinion prevails in the neighbourhood, that he was
+also born there.  Into this place no person presumes to enter, unless
+upon necessity, and with great devotion, from a belief, for a long time
+prevalent, that such as rashly enter it are seized with great horror and
+consternation, which a short while since was confirmed by a remarkable
+incident.  For when a new inhabitant of the house had, either by mere
+chance, or to try the truth of the report, taken up his lodging in that
+apartment, in the course of the night, a few hours afterwards, he was
+thrown out by some sudden violence, he knew not how, and was found in a
+state of stupefaction, with the coverlid of his bed, before the door of
+the chamber.
+
+VII.  While he was yet an infant, the surname of Thurinus was given him,
+in memory of the birth-place of his family, or because, soon after he was
+born, his father Octavius had been successful against the fugitive
+slaves, in the country near Thurium.  That he was surnamed Thurinus, I
+can affirm upon good foundation, for when a boy, I had a small bronze
+statue of him, with that name upon it in iron letters, nearly effaced by
+age, which I presented to the emperor [113], by whom it is now revered
+amongst the other tutelary deities in his chamber.  He is also often
+called Thurinus contemptuously, by Mark Antony in his letters; to which
+he makes only this reply: "I am surprised that my former name should be
+made a subject of reproach."  He afterwards assumed the name of Caius
+Caesar, and then of Augustus; the former in compliance with the will of
+his great-uncle, and the latter upon a motion of Munatius Plancus in the
+senate.  For when some proposed to confer upon him the name of Romulus,
+as being, in a manner, a second founder of the city, it was resolved that
+he should rather be called Augustus, a surname not only new, but of more
+dignity, because places devoted to religion, and those in which anything
+(75) is consecrated by augury, are denominated august, either from the
+word auctus, signifying augmentation, or ab avium gestu, gustuve, from
+the flight and feeding of birds; as appears from this verse of Ennius:
+
+    When glorious Rome by august augury was built. [114]
+
+VIII.  He lost his father when he was only four years of age; and, in his
+twelfth year, pronounced a funeral oration in praise of his grand-mother
+Julia.  Four years afterwards, having assumed the robe of manhood, he was
+honoured with several military rewards by Caesar in his African triumph,
+although he took no part in the war, on account of his youth.  Upon his
+uncle's expedition to Spain against the sons of Pompey, he was followed
+by his nephew, although he was scarcely recovered from a dangerous
+sickness; and after being shipwrecked at sea, and travelling with very
+few attendants through roads that were infested with the enemy, he at
+last came up with him.  This activity gave great satisfaction to his
+uncle, who soon conceived an increasing affection for him, on account of
+such indications of character.  After the subjugation of Spain, while
+Caesar was meditating an expedition against the Dacians and Parthians, he
+was sent before him to Apollonia, where he applied himself to his
+studies; until receiving intelligence that his uncle was murdered, and
+that he was appointed his heir, he hesitated for some time whether he
+should call to his aid the legions stationed in the neighbourhood; but he
+abandoned the design as rash and premature.  However, returning to Rome,
+he took possession of his inheritance, although his mother was
+apprehensive that such a measure might be attended with danger, and his
+step-father, Marcius Philippus, a man of consular rank, very earnestly
+dissuaded him from it.  From this time, collecting together a strong
+military force, he first held the government in conjunction with Mark
+Antony and Marcus Lepidus, then with Antony only, for nearly twelve
+years, and at last in his own hands during a period of four and forty.
+
+IX.  Having thus given a very short summary of his life, I shall
+prosecute the several parts of it, not in order of time, but arranging
+his acts into distinct classes, for the sake of (76) perspicuity.  He was
+engaged in five civil wars, namely those of Modena, Philippi, Perugia,
+Sicily, and Actium; the first and last of which were against Antony, and
+the second against Brutus and Cassius; the third against Lucius Antonius,
+the triumvir's brother, and the fourth against Sextus Pompeius, the son
+of Cneius Pompeius.
+
+X.  The motive which gave rise to all these wars was the opinion he
+entertained that both his honour and interest were concerned in revenging
+the murder of his uncle, and maintaining the state of affairs he had
+established.  Immediately after his return from Apollonia, he formed the
+design of taking forcible and unexpected measures against Brutus and
+Cassius; but they having foreseen the danger and made their escape, he
+resolved to proceed against them by an appeal to the laws in their
+absence, and impeach them for the murder.  In the mean time, those whose
+province it was to prepare the sports in honour of Caesar's last victory
+in the civil war, not daring to do it, he undertook it himself.  And that
+he might carry into effect his other designs with greater authority, he
+declared himself a candidate in the room of a tribune of the people who
+happened to die at that time, although he was of a patrician family, and
+had not yet been in the senate.  But the consul, Mark Antony, from whom
+he had expected the greatest assistance, opposing him in his suit, and
+even refusing to do him so much as common justice, unless gratified with
+a large bribe, he went over to the party of the nobles, to whom he
+perceived Sylla to be odious, chiefly for endeavouring to drive Decius
+Brutus, whom he besieged in the town of Modena, out of the province,
+which had been given him by Caesar, and confirmed to him by the senate.
+At the instigation of persons about him, he engaged some ruffians to
+murder his antagonist; but the plot being discovered, and dreading a
+similar attempt upon himself, he gained over Caesar's veteran soldiers,
+by distributing among them all the money he could collect.  Being now
+commissioned by the senate to command the troops he had gathered, with
+the rank of praetor, and in conjunction with Hirtius and Pansa, who had
+accepted the consulship, to carry assistance to Decius Brutus, he put an
+end to the war by two battles in three months.  Antony writes, that in
+the former of these he ran away, and two days afterwards made his
+appearance (77) without his general's cloak and his horse.  In the last
+battle, however, it is certain that he performed the part not only of a
+general, but a soldier; for, in the heat of the battle; when the
+standard-bearer of his legion was severely wounded, he took the eagle
+upon his shoulders, and carried it a long time.
+
+XI.  In this war [115], Hirtius being slain in battle, and Pansa dying a
+short time afterwards of a wound, a report was circulated that they both
+were killed through his means, in order that, when Antony fled, the
+republic having lost its consuls, he might have the victorious armies
+entirely at his own command.  The death of Pansa was so fully believed to
+have been caused by undue means, that Glyco, his surgeon, was placed in
+custody, on a suspicion of having poisoned his wound.  And to this,
+Aquilius Niger adds, that he killed Hirtius, the other consul, in the
+confusion of the battle, with his own hands.
+
+XII.  But upon intelligence that Antony, after his defeat, had been
+received by Marcus Lepidus, and that the rest of the generals and armies
+had all declared for the senate, he, without any hesitation, deserted
+from the party of the nobles; alleging as an excuse for his conduct, the
+actions and sayings of several amongst them; for some said, "he was a
+mere boy," and others threw out, "that he ought to be promoted to
+honours, and cut off," to avoid the making any suitable acknowledgment
+either to him or the veteran legions.  And the more to testify his regret
+for having before attached himself to the other faction, he fined the
+Nursini in a large sum of money, which they were unable to pay, and then
+expelled them from the town, for having inscribed upon a monument,
+erected at the public charge to their countrymen who were slain in the
+battle of Modena, "That they fell in the cause of liberty."
+
+XIII.  Having entered into a confederacy with Antony and Lepidus, he
+brought the war at Philippi to an end in two battles, although he was at
+that time weak, and suffering from sickness [116].  In the first battle
+he was driven from his camp, (78) and with some difficulty made his
+escape to the wing of the army commanded by Antony.  And now, intoxicated
+with success, he sent the head of Brutus [117] to be cast at the foot of
+Caesar's statue, and treated the most illustrious of the prisoners not
+only with cruelty, but with abusive language; insomuch that he is said to
+have answered one of them who humbly intreated that at least he might not
+remain unburied, "That will be in the power of the birds."  Two others,
+father and son, who begged for their lives, he ordered to cast lots which
+of them should live, or settle it between themselves by the sword; and
+was a spectator of both their deaths: for the father offering his life to
+save his son, and being accordingly executed, the son likewise killed
+himself upon the spot.  On this account, the rest of the prisoners, and
+amongst them Marcus Favonius, Cato's rival, being led up in fetters,
+after they had saluted Antony, the general, with much respect, reviled
+Octavius in the foulest language.  After this victory, dividing between
+them the offices of the state, Mark Antony [118] undertook to restore
+order in the east, while Caesar conducted the veteran soldiers back to
+Italy, and settled them in colonies on the lands belonging to the
+municipalities.  But he had the misfortune to please neither the soldiers
+nor the owners of the lands; one party complaining of the injustice done
+them, in being violently ejected from their possessions, and the other,
+that they were not rewarded according to their merit. [119]
+
+XIV.  At this time he obliged Lucius Antony, who, presuming upon his own
+authority as consul, and his brother's power, was raising new commotions,
+to fly to Perugia, and forced him, by famine, to surrender at last,
+although not without having been exposed to great hazards, both before
+the war and during its continuance.  For a common soldier having got into
+the seats of the equestrian order in the theatre, at the public
+spectacles, Caesar ordered him to be removed by an officer; and a rumour
+being thence spread by his enemies, that he had (79) put the man to death
+by torture, the soldiers flocked together so much enraged, that he
+narrowly escaped with his life.  The only thing that saved him, was the
+sudden appearance of the man, safe and sound, no violence having been
+offered him.  And whilst he was sacrificing under the walls of Perugia,
+he nearly fell into the hands of a body of gladiators, who sallied out of
+the town.
+
+XV.  After the taking of Perugia [120], he sentenced a great number of
+the prisoners to death, making only one reply to all who implored pardon,
+or endeavoured to excuse themselves, "You must die."  Some authors write,
+that three hundred of the two orders, selected from the rest, were
+slaughtered, like victims, before an altar raised to Julius Caesar, upon
+the ides of March [15th April] [121].  Nay, there are some who relate,
+that he entered upon the war with no other view, than that his secret
+enemies, and those whom fear more than affection kept quiet, might be
+detected, by declaring themselves, now they had an opportunity, with
+Lucius Antony at their head; and that having defeated them, and
+confiscated their estates, he might be enabled to fulfil his promises to
+the veteran soldiers.
+
+XVI.  He soon commenced the Sicilian war, but it was protracted by
+various delays during a long period [122]; at one time for the purpose of
+repairing his fleets, which he lost twice by storm, even in the summer;
+at another, while patching up a peace, to which he was forced by the
+clamours of the people, in consequence of a famine occasioned by Pompey's
+cutting off the supply of corn by sea.  But at last, having built a new
+fleet, and obtained twenty thousand manumitted slaves [123], who were
+given him for the oar, he formed the Julian harbour at Baiae, by letting
+the sea into the Lucrine and Avernian lakes; and having exercised his
+forces there during the whole winter, he defeated Pompey betwixt Mylae
+and Naulochus; although (80) just as the engagement commenced, he
+suddenly fell into such a profound sleep, that his friends were obliged
+to wake him to give the signal.  This, I suppose, gave occasion for
+Antony's reproach: "You were not able to take a clear view of the fleet,
+when drawn up in line of battle, but lay stupidly upon your back, gazing
+at the sky; nor did you get up and let your men see you, until Marcus
+Agrippa had forced the enemies' ships to sheer off."  Others imputed to
+him both a saying and an action which were indefensible; for, upon the
+loss of his fleets by storm, he is reported to have said: "I will conquer
+in spite of Neptune;" and at the next Circensian games, he would not
+suffer the statue of that God to be carried in procession as usual.
+Indeed he scarcely ever ran more or greater risks in any of his wars than
+in this.  Having transported part of his army to Sicily, and being on his
+return for the rest, he was unexpectedly attacked by Demochares and
+Apollophanes, Pompey's admirals, from whom he escaped with great
+difficulty, and with one ship only.  Likewise, as he was travelling on
+foot through the Locrian territory to Rhegium, seeing two of Pompey's
+vessels passing by that coast, and supposing them to be his own, he went
+down to the shore, and was very nearly taken prisoner.  On this occasion,
+as he was making his escape by some bye-ways, a slave belonging to
+Aemilius Paulus, who accompanied him, owing him a grudge for the
+proscription of Paulus, the father of Aemilius, and thinking he had now
+an opportunity of revenging it, attempted to assassinate him.  After the
+defeat of Pompey, one of his colleagues [124], Marcus Lepidus, whom he
+had summoned to his aid from Africa, affecting great superiority, because
+he was at the head of twenty legions, and claiming for himself the
+principal management of affairs in a threatening manner, he divested him
+of his command, but, upon his humble submission, granted him his life,
+but banished him for life to Circeii.
+
+XVII.  The alliance between him and Antony, which had always been
+precarious, often interrupted, and ill cemented by repeated
+reconciliations, he at last entirely dissolved.  And to make it known to
+the world how far Antony had degenerated from patriotic feelings, he
+caused a will of his, which had been left at Rome, and in which he had
+nominated Cleopatra's children, amongst others, as his heirs, to be
+opened and read in an assembly of the people.  Yet upon his being
+declared an enemy, he sent to him all his relations and friends, among
+whom were Caius Sosius and Titus Domitius, at that time consuls.  He
+likewise spoke favourably in public of the people of Bologna, for joining
+in the association with the rest of Italy to support his cause, because
+they had, in former times, been under the protection of the family of the
+Antonii.  And not long afterwards he defeated him in a naval engagement
+near Actium, which was prolonged to so late an hour, that, after the
+victory, he was obliged to sleep on board his ship.  From Actium he went
+to the isle of Samoa to winter; but being alarmed with the accounts of a
+mutiny amongst the soldiers he had selected from the main body of his
+army sent to Brundisium after the victory, who insisted on their being
+rewarded for their service and discharged, he returned to Italy.  In his
+passage thither, he encountered two violent storms, the first between the
+promontories of Peloponnesus and Aetolia, and the other about the
+Ceraunian mountains; in both which a part of his Liburnian squadron was
+sunk, the spars and rigging of his own ship carried away, and the rudder
+broken in pieces.  He remained only twenty-seven days at Brundisium,
+until the demands of the soldiers were settled, and then went, by way of
+Asia and Syria, to Egypt, where laying siege to Alexandria, whither
+Antony had fled with Cleopatra, he made himself master of it in a short
+time.  He drove Antony to kill himself, after he had used every effort to
+obtain conditions of peace, and he saw his corpse [126].  Cleopatra he
+anxiously wished to save for his triumph; and when she was supposed to
+have been bit to death by an asp, he sent for the Psylli [127] to (82)
+endeavour to suck out the poison.  He allowed them to be buried together
+in the same grave, and ordered a mausoleum, begun by themselves, to be
+completed.  The eldest of Antony's two sons by Fulvia he commanded to be
+taken by force from the statue of Julius Caesar, to which he had fled,
+after many fruitless supplications for his life, and put him to death.
+The same fate attended Caesario, Cleopatra's son by Caesar, as he
+pretended, who had fled for his life, but was retaken.  The children
+which Antony had by Cleopatra he saved, and brought up and cherished in a
+manner suitable to their rank, just as if they had been his own
+relations.
+
+XVIII.  At this time he had a desire to see the sarcophagus and body of
+Alexander the Great, which, for that purpose, were taken out of the cell
+in which they rested [128]; and after viewing them for some time, he paid
+honours to the memory of that prince, by offering a golden crown, and
+scattering flowers upon the body [129].  Being asked if he wished to see
+the tombs of the Ptolemies also; he replied, "I wish to see a king, not
+dead men." [130]  He reduced Egypt into the form of a province and to
+render it more fertile, and more capable of supplying Rome with corn, he
+employed his army to scour the canals, into which the Nile, upon its
+rise, discharges itself; but which during a long series of years had
+become nearly choked up with mud.  To perpetuate the glory of his victory
+at Actium, he built the city of Nicopolis on that part of the coast, and
+established games to be celebrated there every five years; enlarging
+likewise an old temple of Apollo, he ornamented with naval trophies [131]
+the spot on which he had pitched his camp, and consecrated it to Neptune
+and Mars.
+
+(83) XIX.  He afterwards [132] quashed several tumults and insurrections,
+as well as several conspiracies against his life, which were discovered,
+by the confession of accomplices, before they were ripe for execution;
+and others subsequently.  Such were those of the younger Lepidus, of
+Varro Muraena, and Fannius Caepio; then that of Marcus Egnatius,
+afterwards that of Plautius Rufus, and of Lucius Paulus, his
+grand-daughter's husband; and besides these, another of Lucius Audasius,
+an old feeble man, who was under prosecution for forgery; as also of
+Asinius Epicadus, a Parthinian mongrel [133], and at last that of
+Telephus, a lady's prompter [134]; for he was in danger of his life from
+the plots and conspiracies of some of the lowest of the people against
+him. Audasius and Epicadus had formed the design of carrying off to the
+armies his daughter Julia, and his grandson Agrippa, from the islands in
+which they were confined.  Telephus, wildly dreaming that the government
+was destined to him by the fates, proposed to fall both upon Octavius and
+the senate.  Nay, once, a soldier's servant belonging to the army in
+Illyricum, having passed the porters unobserved, was found in the
+night-time standing before his chamber-door, armed with a hunting-dagger.
+Whether the person was really disordered in the head, or only
+counterfeited madness, is uncertain; for no confession was obtained from
+him by torture.
+
+XX.  He conducted in person only two foreign wars; the Dalmatian, whilst
+he was yet but a youth; and, after Antony's final defeat, the Cantabrian.
+He was wounded in the former of these wars; in one battle he received a
+contusion in the right knee from a stone--and in another, he was much
+hurt in (84) one leg and both arms, by the fall of a fridge [135].  His
+other wars he carried on by his lieutenants; but occasionally visited the
+army, in some of the wars of Pannonia and Germany, or remained at no
+great distance, proceeding from Rome as far as Ravenna, Milan, or
+Aquileia.
+
+XXI.  He conquered, however, partly in person, and partly by his
+lieutenants, Cantabria [136], Aquitania and Pannonia [137], Dalmatia,
+with all Illyricum and Rhaetia [138], besides the two Alpine nations, the
+Vindelici and the Salassii [139].  He also checked the incursions of the
+Dacians, by cutting off three of their generals with vast armies, and
+drove the Germans beyond the river Elbe; removing two other tribes who
+submitted, the Ubii and Sicambri, into Gaul, and settling them in the
+country bordering on the Rhine.  Other nations also, which broke into
+revolt, he reduced to submission.  But he never made war upon any nation
+without just and necessary cause; and was so far from being ambitious
+either to extend the empire, or advance his own military glory, that he
+obliged the chiefs of some barbarous tribes to swear in the temple of
+Mars the Avenger [140], that they would faithfully observe their
+engagements, and not violate the peace which they had implored.  Of some
+he demanded a new description of hostages, their women, having found from
+experience that they cared little for their men when given as hostages;
+but he always afforded them the means of getting back their hostages
+whenever they wished it.  Even those who engaged most frequently and with
+the greatest perfidy in their rebellion, he never punished more severely
+than by selling their captives, on the terms (85) of their not serving in
+any neighbouring country, nor being released from their slavery before
+the expiration of thirty years.  By the character which he thus acquired,
+for virtue and moderation, he induced even the Indians and Scythians,
+nations before known to the Romans by report only, to solicit his
+friendship, and that of the Roman people, by ambassadors.  The Parthians
+readily allowed his claim to Armenia; restoring at his demand, the
+standards which they had taken from Marcus Crassus and Mark Antony, and
+offering him hostages besides.  Afterwards, when a contest arose between
+several pretenders to the crown of that kingdom, they refused to
+acknowledge any one who was not chosen by him.
+
+XXII.  The temple of Janus Quirinus, which had been shut twice only, from
+the era of the building of the city to his own time, he closed thrice in
+a much shorter period, having established universal peace both by sea and
+land.  He twice entered the city with the honours of an Ovation [141],
+namely, after the war of Philippi, and again after that of Sicily.  He
+had also three curule triumphs [142] for his several victories in (86)
+Dalmatia, at Actium, and Alexandria; each of which lasted three days.
+
+XXIII.  In all his wars, he never received any signal or ignominious
+defeat, except twice in Germany, under his lieutenants Lollius and Varus.
+The former indeed had in it more of dishonour than disaster; but that of
+Varus threatened the security of the empire itself; three legions, with
+the commander, his lieutenants, and all the auxiliaries, being cut off.
+Upon receiving intelligence of this disaster, he gave orders for keeping
+a strict watch over the city, to prevent any public disturbance, and
+prolonged the appointments of the prefects in the provinces, that the
+allies might be kept in order by experience of persons to whom they were
+used.  He made a vow to celebrate the great games in honour of Jupiter,
+Optimus, Maximus, "if he would be pleased to restore the state to more
+prosperous circumstances."  This had formerly been resorted to in the
+Cimbrian and Marsian wars.  In short, we are informed that he was in such
+consternation at this event, that he let the hair of his head and beard
+grow for several months, and sometimes knocked his head against the
+door-posts, crying out, "O, Quintilius Varus!  Give me back my legions!"
+And (87) ever after, he observed the anniversary of this calamity, as a
+day of sorrow and mourning.
+
+XXIV.  In military affairs he made many alterations, introducing some
+practices entirely new, and reviving others, which had become obsolete.
+He maintained the strictest discipline among the troops; and would not
+allow even his lieutenants the liberty to visit their wives, except
+reluctantly, and in the winter season only.  A Roman knight having cut
+off the thumbs of his two young sons, to render them incapable of serving
+in the wars, he exposed both him and his estate to public sale.  But upon
+observing the farmers of the revenue very greedy for the purchase, he
+assigned him to a freedman of his own, that he might send him into the
+country, and suffer him to retain his freedom.  The tenth legion becoming
+mutinous, he disbanded it with ignominy; and did the same by some others
+which petulantly demanded their discharge; withholding from them the
+rewards usually bestowed on those who had served their stated time in the
+wars.  The cohorts which yielded their ground in time of action, he
+decimated, and fed with barley.  Centurions, as well as common sentinels,
+who deserted their posts when on guard, he punished with death.  For
+other misdemeanors he inflicted upon them various kinds of disgrace; such
+as obliging them to stand all day before the praetorium, sometimes in
+their tunics only, and without their belts, sometimes to carry poles ten
+feet long, or sods of turf.
+
+XXV.  After the conclusion of the civil wars, he never, in any of his
+military harangues, or proclamations, addressed them by the title of
+"Fellow-soldiers," but as "Soldiers" only.  Nor would he suffer them to
+be otherwise called by his sons or step-sons, when they were in command;
+judging the former epithet to convey the idea of a degree of
+condescension inconsistent with military discipline, the maintenance of
+order, and his own majesty, and that of his house.  Unless at Rome, in
+case of incendiary fires, or under the apprehension of public
+disturbances during a scarcity of provisions, he never employed in his
+army slaves who had been made freedmen, except upon two occasions; on
+one, for the security of the colonies bordering upon Illyricum, and on
+the other, to guard (88) the banks of the river Rhine.  Although he
+obliged persons of fortune, both male and female, to give up their
+slaves, and they received their manumission at once, yet he kept them
+together under their own standard, unmixed with soldiers who were better
+born, and armed likewise after different fashion.  Military rewards, such
+as trappings, collars, and other decorations of gold and silver, he
+distributed more readily than camp or mural crowns, which were reckoned
+more honourable than the former.  These he bestowed sparingly, without
+partiality, and frequently even on common soldiers.  He presented M.
+Agrippa, after the naval engagement in the Sicilian war, with a sea-green
+banner.  Those who shared in the honours of a triumph, although they had
+attended him in his expeditions, and taken part in his victories, he
+judged it improper to distinguish by the usual rewards for service,
+because they had a right themselves to grant such rewards to whom they
+pleased.  He thought nothing more derogatory to the character of an
+accomplished general than precipitancy and rashness; on which account he
+had frequently in his mouth those proverbs:
+
+    Speude bradeos,
+    Hasten slowly,
+
+And
+
+    'Asphalaes gar est' ameinon, hae erasus strataelataes.
+    The cautious captain's better than the bold.
+
+And "That is done fast enough, which is done well enough."
+
+He was wont to say also, that "a battle or a war ought never to be
+undertaken, unless the prospect of gain overbalanced the fear of loss.
+For," said he, "men who pursue small advantages with no small hazard,
+resemble those who fish with a golden hook, the loss of which, if the
+line should happen to break, could never be compensated by all the fish
+they might take."
+
+XXVI.  He was advanced to public offices before the age at which he was
+legally qualified for them; and to some, also, of a new kind, and for
+life.  He seized the consulship in the twentieth year of his age,
+quartering his legions in a threatening manner near the city, and sending
+deputies to demand it for him in the name of the army.  When the senate
+demurred, (89) a centurion, named Cornelius, who was at the head of the
+chief deputation, throwing back his cloak, and shewing the hilt of his
+sword, had the presumption to say in the senate-house, "This will make
+him consul, if ye will not."  His second consulship he filled nine years
+afterwards; his third, after the interval of only one year, and held the
+same office every year successively until the eleventh.  From this
+period, although the consulship was frequently offered him, he always
+declined it, until, after a long interval, not less than seventeen years,
+he voluntarily stood for the twelfth, and two years after that, for a
+thirteenth; that he might successively introduce into the forum, on their
+entering public life, his two sons, Caius and Lucius, while he was
+invested with the highest office in the state.  In his five consulships
+from the sixth to the eleventh, he continued in office throughout the
+year; but in the rest, during only nine, six, four, or three months, and
+in his second no more than a few hours.  For having sat for a short time
+in the morning, upon the calends of January [1st January], in his curule
+chair [143], before the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, he abdicated the
+office, and substituted another in his room.  Nor did he enter upon them
+all at Rome, but upon the fourth in Asia, the fifth in the Isle of Samos,
+and the eighth and ninth at Tarragona. [144]
+
+XXVII.  During ten years he acted as one of the triumvirate for settling
+the commonwealth, in which office he for some time opposed his colleagues
+in their design of a proscription; but after it was begun, he prosecuted
+it with more determined rigour than either of them.  For whilst they were
+often prevailed upon, by the interest and intercession of friends, to
+shew mercy, he alone strongly insisted that no one should be spared, and
+even proscribed Caius Toranius [145], his guardian; who had (90) been
+formerly the colleague of his father Octavius in the aedileship.  Junius
+Saturnius adds this farther account of him: that when, after the
+proscription was over, Marcus Lepidus made an apology in the senate for
+their past proceedings, and gave them hopes of a more mild administration
+for the future, because they had now sufficiently crushed their enemies;
+he, on the other hand, declared that the only limit he had fixed to the
+proscription was, that he should be free to act as he pleased.
+Afterwards, however, repenting of his severity, he advanced T. Vinius
+Philopoemen to the equestrian rank, for having concealed his patron at
+the time he was proscribed.  In this same office he incurred great odium
+upon many accounts.  For as he was one day making an harangue, observing
+among the soldiers Pinarius, a Roman knight, admit some private citizens,
+and engaged in taking notes, he ordered him to be stabbed before his
+eyes, as a busy-body and a spy upon him.  He so terrified with his
+menaces Tedius Afer, the consul elect [146], for having reflected upon
+some action of his, that he threw himself from a great height, and died
+on the spot.  And when Quintus Gallius, the praetor, came to compliment
+him with a double tablet under his cloak, suspecting that it was a sword
+he had concealed, and yet not venturing to make a search, lest it should
+be found to be something else, he caused him to be dragged from his
+tribunal by centurions and soldiers, and tortured like a slave: and
+although he made no confession, ordered him to be put to death, after he
+had, with his own hands, plucked out his eyes.  His own account of the
+matter, however, is, that Quintus Gallius sought a private conference
+with him, for the purpose of assassinating him; that he therefore put him
+in prison, but afterwards released him, and banished him the city; when
+he perished either in a storm at sea, or by falling into the hands of
+robbers.
+
+He accepted of the tribunitian power for life, but more than once chose a
+colleague in that office for two lustra [147] successively.  He also had
+the supervision of morality and observance of the laws, for life, but
+without the title of censor; yet he thrice (91) took a census of the
+people, the first and third time with a colleague, but the second by
+himself.
+
+XXVIII.  He twice entertained thoughts of restoring the republic [148];
+first, immediately after he had crushed Antony, remembering that he had
+often charged him with being the obstacle to its restoration.  The second
+time was in consequence of a long illness, when he sent for the
+magistrates and the senate to his own house, and delivered them a
+particular account of the state of the empire.  But reflecting at the
+same time that it would be both hazardous to himself to return to the
+condition of a private person, and might be dangerous to the public to
+have the government placed again under the control of the people, he
+resolved to keep it in his own hands, whether with the better event or
+intention, is hard to say.  His good intentions he often affirmed in
+private discourse, and also published an edict, in which it was declared
+in the following terms: "May it be permitted me to have the happiness of
+establishing the commonwealth on a safe and sound basis, and thus enjoy
+the reward of which I am ambitious, that of being celebrated for moulding
+it into the form best adapted to present circumstances; so that, on my
+leaving the world, I may carry with me the hope that the foundations
+which I have laid for its future government, will stand firm and stable."
+
+XXIX.  The city, which was not built in a manner suitable to the grandeur
+of the empire, and was liable to inundations of the Tiber [149], as well
+as to fires, was so much improved under his administration, that he
+boasted, not without reason, that he "found it of brick, but left it of
+marble." [150]  He also rendered (92) it secure for the time to come
+against such disasters, as far as could be effected by human foresight.
+A great number of public buildings were erected by him, the most
+considerable of which were a forum [151], containing the temple of Mars
+the Avenger, the temple of Apollo on the Palatine hill, and the temple of
+Jupiter Tonans in the Capitol.  The reason of his building a new forum
+was the vast increase in the population, and the number of causes to be
+tried in the courts, for which, the two already existing not affording
+sufficient space, it was thought necessary to have a third.  It was
+therefore opened for public use before the temple of Mars was completely
+finished; and a law was passed, that causes should be tried, and judges
+chosen by lot, in that place.  The temple of Mars was built in fulfilment
+of a vow made during the war of Philippi, undertaken by him to avenge his
+father's murder.  He ordained that the senate should always assemble
+there when they met to deliberate respecting wars and triumphs; that
+thence should be despatched all those who were sent into the provinces in
+the command of armies; and that in it those who returned victorious from
+the wars, should lodge the trophies of their triumphs.  He erected the
+temple of Apollo [152] in that part of his house on the Palatine hill
+which had been struck with lightning, and which, on that account, the
+soothsayers declared the God to have chosen.  He added porticos to it,
+with a library of Latin and Greek authors [153]; and when advanced in
+years, (93) used frequently there to hold the senate, and examine the
+rolls of the judges.
+
+He dedicated the temple to Apollo Tonans [154], in acknowledgment of his
+escape from a great danger in his Cantabrian expedition; when, as he was
+travelling in the night, his litter was struck by lightning, which killed
+the slave who carried a torch before him.  He likewise constructed some
+public buildings in the name of others; for instance, his grandsons, his
+wife, and sister.  Thus he built the portico and basilica of Lucius and
+Caius, and the porticos of Livia and Octavia [155], and the theatre of
+Marcellus [156].  He also often exhorted other persons of rank to
+embellish the city by new buildings, or repairing and improving the old,
+according to their means.  In consequence of this recommendation, many
+were raised; such as the temple of Hercules and the Muses, by Marcius
+Philippus; a temple of Diana by Lucius Cornificius; the Court of Freedom
+by Asinius Pollio; a temple of Saturn by Munatius Plancus; a theatre by
+Cornelius Balbus [157]; an amphitheatre by Statilius Taurus; and several
+other noble edifices by Marcus Agrippa. [158]
+
+(94) XXX.  He divided the city into regions and districts, ordaining that
+the annual magistrates should take by lot the charge of the former; and
+that the latter should be superintended by wardens chosen out of the
+people of each neighbourhood.  He appointed a nightly watch to be on
+their guard against accidents from fire; and, to prevent the frequent
+inundations, he widened and cleansed the bed of the Tiber, which had in
+the course of years been almost dammed up with rubbish, and the channel
+narrowed by the ruins of houses [159].  To render the approaches to the
+city more commodious, he took upon himself the charge of repairing the
+Flaminian way as far as Ariminum [160], and distributed the repairs of
+the other roads amongst several persons who had obtained the honour of a
+triumph; to be defrayed out of the money arising from the spoils of war.
+Temples decayed by time, or destroyed by fire, he either repaired or
+rebuilt; and enriched them, as well as many others, with splendid
+offerings.  On a single occasion, he deposited in the cell of the temple
+of Jupiter Capitolinus, sixteen thousand pounds of gold, with jewels and
+pearls to the amount of fifty millions of sesterces.
+
+XXXI.  The office of Pontifex Maximus, of which he could (95) not
+decently deprive Lepidus as long as he lived [161], he assumed as soon as
+he was dead.  He then caused all prophetical books, both in Latin and
+Greek, the authors of which were either unknown, or of no great
+authority, to be brought in; and the whole collection, amounting to
+upwards of two thousand volumes, he committed to the flames, preserving
+only the Sibylline oracles; but not even those without a strict
+examination, to ascertain which were genuine.  This being done, he
+deposited them in two gilt coffers, under the pedestal of the statue of
+the Palatine Apollo.  He restored the calendar, which had been corrected
+by Julius Caesar, but through negligence was again fallen into confusion
+[162], to its former regularity; and upon that occasion, called the month
+Sextilis [163], by his own name, August, rather than September, in which
+he was born; because in it he had obtained his first consulship, and all
+his most considerable victories [164].  He increased the number, dignity,
+and revenues of the priests, and especially those of the Vestal Virgins.
+And when, upon the death of one of them, a new one was to be taken [165],
+and many persons made interest that their daughters' names might be
+omitted in the lists for election, he replied with an oath, "If either of
+my own grand-daughters were old enough, I would have proposed her."
+
+He likewise revived some old religious customs, which had become
+obsolete; as the augury of public health [166], the office of (96) high
+priest of Jupiter, the religious solemnity of the Lupercalia, with the
+Secular, and Compitalian games.  He prohibited young boys from running in
+the Lupercalia; and in respect of the Secular games, issued an order,
+that no young persons of either sex should appear at any public
+diversions in the night-time, unless in the company of some elderly
+relation.  He ordered the household gods to be decked twice a year with
+spring and summer flowers [167], in the Compitalian festival.
+
+Next to the immortal gods, he paid the highest honours to the memory of
+those generals who had raised the Roman state from its low origin to the
+highest pitch of grandeur.  He accordingly repaired or rebuilt the public
+edifices erected by them; preserving the former inscriptions, and placing
+statues of them all, with triumphal emblems, in both the porticos of his
+forum, issuing an edict on the occasion, in which he made the following
+declaration: "My design in so doing is, that the Roman people may require
+from me, and all succeeding princes, a conformity to those illustrious
+examples."  He likewise removed the statue of Pompey from the
+senate-house, in which Caius Caesar had been killed, and placed it under
+a marble arch, fronting the palace attached to Pompey's theatre.
+
+XXXII.  He corrected many ill practices, which, to the detriment of the
+public, had either survived the licentious habits of the late civil wars,
+or else originated in the long peace.  Bands of robbers showed themselves
+openly, completely armed, under colour of self-defence; and in different
+parts of the country, travellers, freemen and slaves without distinction,
+were forcibly carried off, and kept to work in the houses of correction
+[168].  Several associations were formed under the specious (97) name of
+a new college, which banded together for the perpetration of all kinds of
+villany.  The banditti he quelled by establishing posts of soldiers in
+suitable stations for the purpose; the houses of correction were
+subjected to a strict superintendence; all associations, those only
+excepted which were of ancient standing, and recognised by the laws, were
+dissolved.  He burnt all the notes of those who had been a long time in
+arrear with the treasury, as being the principal source of vexatious
+suits and prosecutions.  Places in the city claimed by the public, where
+the right was doubtful, he adjudged to the actual possessors.  He struck
+out of the list of criminals the names of those over whom prosecutions
+had been long impending, where nothing further was intended by the
+informers than to gratify their own malice, by seeing their enemies
+humiliated; laying it down as a rule, that if any one chose to renew a
+prosecution, he should incur the risk of the punishment which he sought
+to inflict.  And that crimes might not escape punishment, nor business be
+neglected by delay, he ordered the courts to sit during the thirty days
+which were spent in celebrating honorary games.  To the three classes of
+judges then existing, he added a fourth, consisting of persons of
+inferior order, who were called Ducenarii, and decided all litigations
+about trifling sums.  He chose judges from the age of thirty years and
+upwards; that is five years younger than had been usual before.  And a
+great many declining the office, he was with much difficulty prevailed
+upon to allow each class of judges a twelve-month's vacation in turn; and
+the courts to be shut during the months of November and December. [169]
+
+XXXIII.  He was himself assiduous in his functions as a judge, and would
+sometimes prolong his sittings even into the night [170]: if he were
+indisposed, his litter was placed before (98) the tribunal, or he
+administered justice reclining on his couch at home; displaying always
+not only the greatest attention, but extreme lenity.  To save a culprit,
+who evidently appeared guilty of parricide, from the extreme penalty of
+being sewn up in a sack, because none were punished in that manner but
+such as confessed the fact, he is said to have interrogated him thus:
+"Surely you did not kill your father, did you?"  And when, in a trial of
+a cause about a forged will, all those who had signed it were liable to
+the penalty of the Cornelian law, he ordered that his colleagues on the
+tribunal should not only be furnished with the two tablets by which they
+decided, "guilty or not guilty," but with a third likewise, ignoring the
+offence of those who should appear to have given their signatures through
+any deception or mistake.  All appeals in causes between inhabitants of
+Rome, he assigned every year to the praetor of the city; and where
+provincials were concerned, to men of consular rank, to one of whom the
+business of each province was referred.
+
+XXXIV.  Some laws he abrogated, and he made some new ones; such as the
+sumptuary law, that relating to adultery and the violation of chastity,
+the law against bribery in elections, and likewise that for the
+encouragement of marriage.  Having been more severe in his reform of this
+law than the rest, he found the people utterly averse to submit to it,
+unless the penalties were abolished or mitigated, besides allowing an
+interval of three years after a wife's death, and increasing the premiums
+on marriage.  The equestrian order clamoured loudly, at a spectacle in
+the theatre, for its total repeal; whereupon he sent for the children of
+Germanicus, and shewed them partly sitting upon his own lap, and partly
+on their father's; intimating by his looks and gestures, that they ought
+not to think it a grievance to follow the example of that young man.  But
+finding that the force of the law was eluded, by marrying girls under the
+age of puberty, and by frequent change of wives, he limited the time for
+consummation after espousals, and imposed restrictions on divorce.
+
+XXXV.  By two separate scrutinies he reduced to their former number and
+splendour the senate, which had been swamped by a disorderly crowd; for
+they were now more than a (99) thousand, and some of them very mean
+persons, who, after Caesar's death, had been chosen by dint of interest
+and bribery, so that they had the nickname of Orcini among the people
+[171].  The first of these scrutinies was left to themselves, each
+senator naming another; but the last was conducted by himself and
+Agrippa.  On this occasion he is believed to have taken his seat as he
+presided, with a coat of mail under his tunic, and a sword by his side,
+and with ten of the stoutest men of senatorial rank, who were his
+friends, standing round his chair.  Cordus Cremutius [172] relates that
+no senator was suffered to approach him, except singly, and after having
+his bosom searched [for secreted daggers].  Some he obliged to have the
+grace of declining the office; these he allowed to retain the privileges
+of wearing the distinguishing dress, occupying the seats at the solemn
+spectacles, and of feasting publicly, reserved to the senatorial order
+[173].  That those who were chosen and approved of, might perform their
+functions under more solemn obligations, and with less inconvenience, he
+ordered that every senator, before he took his seat in the house, should
+pay his devotions, with an offering of frankincense and wine, at the
+altar of that God in whose temple the senate then assembled [174], and
+that their stated meetings should be only twice in the month, namely, on
+the calends and ides; and that in the months of September and October
+[175], a certain number only, chosen by lot, such as the law required to
+give validity to a decree, should be required to attend.  For himself, he
+resolved to choose every six (100) months a new council, with whom he
+might consult previously upon such affairs as he judged proper at any
+time to lay before the full senate.  He also took the votes of the
+senators upon any subject of importance, not according to custom, nor in
+regular order, but as he pleased; that every one might hold himself ready
+to give his opinion, rather than a mere vote of assent.
+
+XXXVI.  He also made several other alterations in the management of
+public affairs, among which were these following: that the acts of the
+senate should not be published [176]; that the magistrates should not be
+sent into the provinces immediately after the expiration of their office;
+that the proconsuls should have a certain sum assigned them out of the
+treasury for mules and tents, which used before to be contracted for by
+the government with private persons; that the management of the treasury
+should be transferred from the city-quaestors to the praetors, or those
+who had already served in the latter office; and that the decemviri
+should call together the court of One hundred, which had been formerly
+summoned by those who had filled the office of quaestor.
+
+XXXVII.  To augment the number of persons employed in the administration
+of the state, he devised several new offices; such as surveyors of the
+public buildings, of the roads, the aqueducts, and the bed of the Tiber;
+for the distribution of corn to the people; the praefecture of the city;
+a triumvirate for the election of the senators; and another for
+inspecting the several troops of the equestrian order, as often as it was
+necessary.  He revived the office of censor [177], which had been long
+disused, and increased the number of praetors.  He likewise required that
+whenever the consulship was conferred on him, he should have two
+colleagues instead of one; but his proposal (101) was rejected, all the
+senators declaring by acclamation that he abated his high majesty quite
+enough in not filling the office alone, and consenting to share it with
+another.
+
+XXXVIII.  He was unsparing in the reward of military merit, having
+granted to above thirty generals the honour of the greater triumph;
+besides which, he took care to have triamphal decorations voted by the
+senate for more than that number.  That the sons of senators might become
+early acquainted with the administration of affairs, he permitted them,
+at the age when they took the garb of manhood [178], to assume also the
+distinction of the senatorian robe, with its broad border, and to be
+present at the debates in the senate-house.  When they entered the
+military service, he not only gave them the rank of military tribunes in
+the legions, but likewise the command of the auxiliary horse.  And that
+all might have an opportunity of acquiring military experience, he
+commonly joined two sons of senators in command of each troop of horse.
+He frequently reviewed the troops of the equestrian order, reviving the
+ancient custom of a cavalcade [179], which had been long laid aside.  But
+he did not suffer any one to be obliged by an accuser to dismount while
+he passed in review, as had formerly been the practice.  As for such as
+were infirm with age, or (102) any way deformed, he allowed them to send
+their horses before them, coming on foot to answer to their names, when
+the muster roll was called over soon afterwards.  He permitted those who
+had attained the age of thirty-five years, and desired not to keep their
+horse any longer, to have the privilege of giving it up.
+
+XXXIX.  With the assistance of ten senators, he obliged each of the Roman
+knights to give an account of his life: in regard to those who fell under
+his displeasure, some were punished; others had a mark of infamy set
+against their names.  The most part he only reprimanded, but not in the
+same terms.  The mildest mode of reproof was by delivering them tablets
+[180], the contents of which, confined to themselves, they were to read
+on the spot.  Some he disgraced for borrowing money at low interest, and
+letting it out again upon usurious profit.
+
+XL.  In the election of tribunes of the people, if there was not a
+sufficient number of senatorian candidates, he nominated others from the
+equestrian order; granting them the liberty, after the expiration of
+their office, to continue in whichsoever of the two orders they pleased.
+As most of the knights had been much reduced in their estates by the
+civil wars, and therefore durst not sit to see the public games in the
+theatre in the seats allotted to their order, for fear of the penalty
+provided by the law in that case, he enacted, that none were liable to
+it, who had themselves, or whose parents had ever, possessed a knight's
+estate.  He took the census of the Roman people street by street: and
+that the people might not be too often taken from their business to
+receive the distribution of corn, it was his intention to deliver tickets
+three times a year for four months respectively; but at their request, he
+continued the former regulation, that they should receive their (103)
+share monthly.  He revived the former law of elections, endeavouring, by
+various penalties, to suppress the practice of bribery.  Upon the day of
+election, he distributed to the freemen of the Fabian and Scaptian
+tribes, in which he himself was enrolled, a thousand sesterces each, that
+they might look for nothing from any of the candidates.  Considering it
+of extreme importance to preserve the Roman people pure, and untainted
+with a mixture of foreign or servile blood, he not only bestowed the
+freedom of the city with a sparing hand, but laid some restriction upon
+the practice of manumitting slaves.  When Tiberius interceded with him
+for the freedom of Rome in behalf of a Greek client of his, he wrote to
+him for answer, "I shall not grant it, unless he comes himself, and
+satisfies me that he has just grounds for the application."  And when
+Livia begged the freedom of the city for a tributary Gaul, he refused it,
+but offered to release him from payment of taxes, saying, "I shall sooner
+suffer some loss in my exchequer, than that the citizenship of Rome be
+rendered too common."  Not content with interposing many obstacles to
+either the partial or complete emancipation of slaves, by quibbles
+respecting the number, condition and difference of those who were to be
+manumitted; he likewise enacted that none who had been put in chains or
+tortured, should ever obtain the freedom of the city in any degree.  He
+endeavoured also to restore the old habit and dress of the Romans; and
+upon seeing once, in an assembly of the people, a crowd in grey cloaks
+[181], he exclaimed with indignation, "See there,
+
+    Romanos rerum dominos, gentemque togatem." [182]
+
+    Rome's conquering sons, lords of the wide-spread globe,
+    Stalk proudly in the toga's graceful robe.
+
+And he gave orders to the ediles not to permit, in future, any Roman to
+be present in the forum or circus unless they took off their short coats,
+and wore the toga.
+
+(104) XLI.  He displayed his munificence to all ranks of the people on
+various occasions.  Moreover, upon his bringing the treasure belonging to
+the kings of Egypt into the city, in his Alexandrian triumph, he made
+money so plentiful, that interest fell, and the price of land rose
+considerably.  And afterwards, as often as large sums of money came into
+his possession by means of confiscations, he would lend it free of
+interest, for a fixed term, to such as could give security for the double
+of what was borrowed.  The estate necessary to qualify a senator, instead
+of eight hundred thousand sesterces, the former standard, he ordered, for
+the future, to be twelve hundred thousand; and to those who had not so
+much, he made good the deficiency.  He often made donations to the
+people, but generally of different sums; sometimes four hundred,
+sometimes three hundred, or two hundred and fifty sesterces upon which
+occasions, he extended his bounty even to young boys, who before were not
+used to receive anything, until they arrived at eleven years of age.  In
+a scarcity of corn, he would frequently let them have it at a very low
+price, or none at all; and doubled the number of the money tickets.
+
+XLII.  But to show that he was a prince who regarded more the good of his
+people than their applause, he reprimanded them very severely, upon their
+complaining of the scarcity and dearness of wine.  "My son-in-law,
+Agrippa," he said, "has sufficiently provided for quenching your thirst,
+by the great plenty of water with which he has supplied the town."  Upon
+their demanding a gift which he had promised them, he said, "I am a man
+of my word."  But upon their importuning him for one which he had not
+promised, he issued a proclamation upbraiding them for their scandalous
+impudence; at the same time telling them, "I shall now give you nothing,
+whatever I may have intended to do."  With the same strict firmness,
+when, upon a promise he had made of a donative, he found many slaves had
+been emancipated and enrolled amongst the citizens, he declared that no
+one should receive anything who was not included in the promise, and he
+gave the rest less than he had promised them, in order that the amount he
+had set apart might hold out.  On one occasion, in a season of great
+scarcity, which it was difficult to remedy, he ordered out of the city
+the troops of slaves brought for sale, the gladiators (105) belonging to
+the masters of defence, and all foreigners, excepting physicians and the
+teachers of the liberal sciences.  Part of the domestic slaves were
+likewise ordered to be dismissed.  When, at last, plenty was restored, he
+writes thus "I was much inclined to abolish for ever the practice of
+allowing the people corn at the public expense, because they trust so
+much to it, that they are too lazy to till their lands; but I did not
+persevere in my design, as I felt sure that the practice would some time
+or other be revived by some one ambitious of popular favour."  However,
+he so managed the affair ever afterwards, that as much account was taken
+of husbandmen and traders, as of the idle populace. [183]
+
+XLIII.  In the number, variety, and magnificence of his public
+spectacles, he surpassed all former example.  Four-and-twenty times, he
+says, he treated the people with games upon his own account, and
+three-and-twenty times for such magistrates as were either absent, or not
+able to afford the expense.  The performances took place sometimes in the
+different streets of the city, and upon several stages, by players in all
+languages.  The same he did not only in the forum and amphitheatre, but
+in the circus likewise, and in the septa [184]: and sometimes he
+exhibited only the hunting of wild beasts.  He entertained the people
+with wrestlers in the Campus Martius, where wooden seats were erected for
+the purpose; and also with a naval fight, for which he excavated the
+ground near the Tiber, where there is now the grove of the Caesars.
+During these two entertainments he stationed guards in the city, lest, by
+robbers taking advantage of the small number of people left at home, it
+might be exposed to depredations.  In the circus he exhibited chariot and
+foot races, and combats with wild beasts, in which the performers were
+often youths of the highest rank.  His favourite spectacle was the Trojan
+game, acted by a select number of boys, in parties differing in age and
+station; thinking (106) that it was a practice both excellent in itself,
+and sanctioned by ancient usage, that the spirit of the young nobles
+should be displayed in such exercises.  Caius Nonius Asprenas, who was
+lamed by a fall in this diversion, he presented with a gold collar, and
+allowed him and his posterity to bear the surname of Torquati.  But soon
+afterwards he gave up the exhibition of this game, in consequence of a
+severe and bitter speech made in the senate by Asinius Pollio, the
+orator, in which he complained bitterly of the misfortune of Aeserninus,
+his grandson, who likewise broke his leg in the same diversion.
+
+Sometimes he engaged Roman knights to act upon the stage, or to fight as
+gladiators; but only before the practice was prohibited by a decree of
+the senate.  Thenceforth, the only exhibition he made of that kind, was
+that of a young man named Lucius, of a good family, who was not quite two
+feet in height, and weighed only seventeen pounds, but had a stentorian
+voice.  In one of his public spectacles, he brought the hostages of the
+Parthians, the first ever sent to Rome from that nation, through the
+middle of the amphitheatre, and placed them in the second tier of seats
+above him.  He used likewise, at times when there were no public
+entertainments, if any thing was brought to Rome which was uncommon, and
+might gratify curiosity, to expose it to public view, in any place
+whatever; as he did a rhinoceros in the Septa, a tiger upon a stage, and
+a snake fifty cubits lung in the Comitium.  It happened in the Circensian
+games, which he performed in consequence of a vow, that he was taken ill,
+and obliged to attend the Thensae [185], reclining on a litter.  Another
+time, in the games celebrated for the opening of the theatre of
+Marcellus, the joints of his curule chair happening to give way, he fell
+on his back.  And in the games exhibited by his (107) grandsons, when the
+people were in such consternation, by an alarm raised that the theatre
+was falling, that all his efforts to re-assure them and keep them quiet,
+failed, he moved from his place, and seated himself in that part of the
+theatre which was thought to be exposed to most danger.
+
+XLIV.  He corrected the confusion and disorder with which the spectators
+took their seats at the public games, after an affront which was offered
+to a senator at Puteoli, for whom, in a crowded theatre, no one would
+make room.  He therefore procured a decree of the senate, that in all
+public spectacles of any sort, and in any place whatever, the first tier
+of benches should be left empty for the accommodation of senators.  He
+would not even permit the ambassadors of free nations, nor of those which
+were allies of Rome, to sit in the orchestra; having found that some
+manumitted slaves had been sent under that character.  He separated the
+soldiery from the rest of the people, and assigned to married plebeians
+their particular rows of seats.  To the boys he assigned their own
+benches, and to their tutors the seats which were nearest it; ordering
+that none clothed in black should sit in the centre of the circle [186].
+Nor would he allow any women to witness the combats of gladiators, except
+from the upper part of the theatre, although they formerly used to take
+their places promiscuously with the rest of the spectators.  To the
+vestal virgins he granted seats in the theatre, reserved for them only,
+opposite the praetor's bench.  He excluded, however, the whole female sex
+from seeing the wrestlers: so that in the games which he exhibited upon
+his accession to the office of high-priest, he deferred producing a pair
+of combatants which the people called for, until the next morning; and
+intimated by proclamation, "his pleasure that no woman should appear in
+the theatre before five o'clock."
+
+XLV.  He generally viewed the Circensian games himself, from the upper
+rooms of the houses of his friends or freedmen; sometimes from the place
+appointed for the statues of the gods, and sitting in company with his
+wife and children.  He (108) occasionally absented himself from the
+spectacles for several hours, and sometimes for whole days; but not
+without first making an apology, and appointing substitutes to preside in
+his stead.  When present, he never attended to anything else either to
+avoid the reflections which he used to say were commonly made upon his
+father, Caesar, for perusing letters and memorials, and making rescripts
+during the spectacles; or from the real pleasure he took in attending
+those exhibitions; of which he made no secret, he often candidly owning
+it.  This he manifested frequently by presenting honorary crowns and
+handsome rewards to the best performers, in the games exhibited by
+others; and he never was present at any performance of the Greeks,
+without rewarding the most deserving, according to their merit.  He took
+particular pleasure in witnessing pugilistic contests, especially those
+of the Latins, not only between combatants who had been trained
+scientifically, whom he used often to match with the Greek champions; but
+even between mobs of the lower classes fighting in streets, and tilting
+at random, without any knowledge of the art.  In short, he honoured with
+his patronage all sorts of people who contributed in any way to the
+success of the public entertainments.  He not only maintained, but
+enlarged, the privileges of the wrestlers.  He prohibited combats of
+gladiators where no quarter was given.  He deprived the magistrates of
+the power of correcting the stage-players, which by an ancient law was
+allowed them at all times, and in all places; restricting their
+jurisdiction entirely to the time of performance and misdemeanours in the
+theatres.  He would, however, admit, of no abatement, and exacted with
+the utmost rigour the greatest exertions of the wrestlers and gladiators
+in their several encounters.  He went so far in restraining the
+licentiousness of stage-players, that upon discovering that Stephanio, a
+performer of the highest class, had a married woman with her hair
+cropped, and dressed in boy's clothes, to wait upon him at table, he
+ordered him to be whipped through all the three theatres, and then
+banished him.  Hylas, an actor of pantomimes, upon a complaint against
+him by the praetor, he commanded to be scourged in the court of his own
+house, which, however, was open to the public.  And Pylades he not only
+banished from the city, but from Italy also, for pointing with his finger
+at a spectator by whom he was hissed, and turning the eyes of the
+audience upon him.
+
+(109) XLVI.  Having thus regulated the city and its concerns, he
+augmented the population of Italy by planting in it no less than
+twenty-eight colonies [187], and greatly improved it by public works, and
+a beneficial application of the revenues.  In rights and privileges, he
+rendered it in a measure equal to the city itself, by inventing a new kind
+of suffrage, which the principal officers and magistrates of the colonies
+might take at home, and forward under seal to the city, against the time
+of the elections.  To increase the number of persons of condition, and of
+children among the lower ranks, he granted the petitions of all those who
+requested the honour of doing military service on horseback as knights,
+provided their demands were seconded by the recommendation of the town in
+which they lived; and when he visited the several districts of Italy, he
+distributed a thousand sesterces a head to such of the lower class as
+presented him with sons or daughters.
+
+XLVII.  The more important provinces, which could not with ease or safety
+be entrusted to the government of annual magistrates, he reserved for his
+own administration: the rest he distributed by lot amongst the
+proconsuls: but sometimes he made exchanges, and frequently visited most
+of both kinds in person.  Some cities in alliance with Rome, but which by
+their great licentiousness were hastening to ruin, he deprived of their
+independence.  Others, which were much in debt, he relieved, and rebuilt
+such as had been destroyed by earthquakes.  To those that could produce
+any instance of their having deserved well of the Roman people, he
+presented the freedom of Latium, or even that of the City.  There is not,
+I believe, a province, except Africa and Sardinia, which he did not
+visit.  After forcing Sextus Pompeius to take refuge in those provinces,
+he was indeed preparing to cross over from Sicily to them, but was
+prevented by continual and violent storms, and afterwards there was no
+occasion or call for such a voyage.
+
+XLVIII.  Kingdoms, of which he had made himself master by the right of
+conquest, a few only excepted, he either restored to their former
+possessors [188], or conferred upon aliens.  Between (110) kings of
+alliance with Rome, he encouraged most intimate union; being always ready
+to promote or favour any proposal of marriage or friendship amongst them;
+and, indeed, treated them all with the same consideration, as if they
+were members and parts of the empire.  To such of them as were minors or
+lunatics he appointed guardians, until they arrived at age, or recovered
+their senses; and the sons of many of them he brought up and educated
+with his own.
+
+XLIX.  With respect to the army, he distributed the legions and auxiliary
+troops throughout the several provinces, he stationed a fleet at Misenum,
+and another at Ravenna, for the protection of the Upper and Lower Seas
+[189].  A certain number of the forces were selected, to occupy the posts
+in the city, and partly for his own body-guard; but he dismissed the
+Spanish guard, which he retained about him till the fall of Antony; and
+also the Germans, whom he had amongst his guards, until the defeat of
+Varus.  Yet he never permitted a greater force than three cohorts in the
+city, and had no (pretorian) camps [190].  The rest he quartered in the
+neighbourhood of the nearest towns, in winter and summer camps.  All the
+troops throughout the empire he reduced to one fixed model with regard to
+their pay and their pensions; determining these according to their rank
+in the army, the time they had served, and their private means; so that
+after their discharge, they might not be tempted by age or necessities to
+join the agitators for a revolution.  For the purpose of providing a fund
+always ready to meet their pay and pensions, he instituted a military
+exchequer, and appropriated new taxes to that object.  In order to obtain
+the earliest intelligence of what was passing in the provinces, he
+established posts, consisting at first of young men stationed at moderate
+distances along the military roads, and afterwards of regular couriers
+with fast vehicles; which appeared to him the most commodious, because
+the persons who were the bearers of dispatches, written on the spot,
+might then be questioned about the business, as occasion occurred.
+
+L.  In sealing letters-patent, rescripts, or epistles, he at first used
+the figure of a sphinx, afterwards the head of Alexander (111) the Great,
+and at last his own, engraved by the hand of Dioscorides; which practice
+was retained by the succeeding emperors.  He was extremely precise in
+dating his letters, putting down exactly the time of the day or night at
+which they were dispatched.
+
+LI.  Of his clemency and moderation there are abundant and signal
+instances.  For, not to enumerate how many and what persons of the
+adverse party he pardoned, received into favour, and suffered to rise to
+the highest eminence in the state; he thought it sufficient to punish
+Junius Novatus and Cassius Patavinus, who were both plebeians, one of
+them with a fine, and the other with an easy banishment; although the
+former had published, in the name of young Agrippa, a very scurrilous
+letter against him, and the other declared openly, at an entertainment
+where there was a great deal of company, "that he neither wanted
+inclination nor courage to stab him."  In the trial of Aemilius Aelianus,
+of Cordova, when, among other charges exhibited against him, it was
+particularly insisted upon, that he used to calumniate Caesar, he turned
+round to the accuser, and said, with an air and tone of passion, "I wish
+you could make that appear; I shall let Aelianus know that I have a
+tongue too, and shall speak sharper of him than he ever did of me."  Nor
+did he, either then or afterwards, make any farther inquiry into the
+affair.  And when Tiberius, in a letter, complained of the affront with
+great earnestness, he returned him an answer in the following terms: "Do
+not, my dear Tiberius, give way to the ardour of youth in this affair;
+nor be so indignant that any person should speak ill of me.  It is
+enough, for us, if we can prevent any one from really doing us mischief."
+
+LII.  Although he knew that it had been customary to decree temples in
+honour of the proconsuls, yet he would not permit them to be erected in
+any of the provinces, unless in the joint names of himself and Rome.
+Within the limits of the city, he positively refused any honour of that
+kind.  He melted down all the silver statues which had been erected to
+him, and converted the whole into tripods, which he consecrated to the
+Palatine Apollo.  And when the people importuned him to accept the
+dictatorship, he bent down on one knee, with his toga thrown over his
+shoulders, and his breast exposed to view, begging to be excused.
+
+(112) LIII.  He always abhorred the title of Lord [191], as ill-omened
+and offensive.  And when, in a play, performed at the theatre, at which
+he was present, these words were introduced, "O just and gracious lord,"
+and the whole company, with joyful acclamations, testified their
+approbation of them, as applied to him, he instantly put a stop to their
+indecent flattery, by waving his hand, and frowning sternly, and next day
+publicly declared his displeasure, in a proclamation.  He never
+afterwards would suffer himself to be addressed in that manner, even by
+his own children or grand-children, either in jest or earnest and forbad
+them the use of all such complimentary expressions to one another.  He
+rarely entered any city or town, or departed from it, except in the
+evening or the night, to avoid giving any person the trouble of
+complimenting him.  During his consulships, he commonly walked the
+streets on foot; but at other times, rode in a close carriage.  He
+admitted to court even plebeians, in common with people of the higher
+ranks; receiving the petitions of those who approached him with so much
+affability, that he once jocosely rebuked a man, by telling him, "You
+present your memorial with as much hesitation as if you were offering
+money to an elephant."  On senate days, he used to pay his respects to
+the Conscript Fathers only in the house, addressing them each by name as
+they sat, without any prompter; and on his departure, he bade each of
+them farewell, while they retained their seats.  In the same manner, he
+maintained with many of them a constant intercourse of mutual civilities,
+giving them his company upon occasions of any particular festivity in
+their families; until he became advanced in years, and was incommoded by
+the crowd at a wedding.  Being informed that Gallus Terrinius, a senator,
+with whom he had only a slight acquaintance, had suddenly lost his sight,
+and under that privation had resolved to starve himself to death, he paid
+him a visit, and by his consolatory admonitions diverted him from his
+purpose.
+
+LIV.  On his speaking in the senate, he has been told by (113) one of the
+members, "I did not understand you," and by another, "I would contradict
+you, could I do it with safety."  And sometimes, upon his being so much
+offended at the heat with which the debates were conducted in the senate,
+as to quit the house in anger, some of the members have repeatedly
+exclaimed: "Surely, the senators ought to have liberty of speech on
+matters of government."  Antistius Labeo, in the election of a new
+senate, when each, as he was named, chose another, nominated Marcus
+Lepidus, who had formerly been Augustus's enemy, and was then in
+banishment; and being asked by the latter, "Is there no other person more
+deserving?" he replied, "Every man has his own opinion."  Nor was any one
+ever molested for his freedom of speech, although it was carried to the
+extent of insolence.
+
+LV.  Even when some infamous libels against him were dispersed in the
+senate-house, he was neither disturbed, nor did he give himself much
+trouble to refute them.  He would not so much as order an enquiry to be
+made after the authors; but only proposed, that, for the future, those
+who published libels or lampoons, in a borrowed name, against any person,
+should be called to account.
+
+LVI.  Being provoked by some petulant jests, which were designed to
+render him odious, he answered them by a proclamation; and yet he
+prevented the senate from passing an act, to restrain the liberties which
+were taken with others in people's wills.  Whenever he attended at the
+election of magistrates, he went round the tribes, with the candidates of
+his nomination, and begged the votes of the people in the usual manner.
+He likewise gave his own vote in his tribe, as one of the people.  He
+suffered himself to be summoned as a witness upon trials, and not only to
+be questioned, but to be cross-examined, with the utmost patience.  In
+building his Forum, he restricted himself in the site, not presuming to
+compel the owners of the neighbouring houses to give up their property.
+He never recommended his sons to the people, without adding these words,
+"If they deserve it."  And upon the audience rising on their entering the
+theatre, while they were yet minors, and giving them applause in a
+standing position, he made it a matter of serious complaint.
+
+(114) He was desirous that his friends should be great and powerful in
+the state, but have no exclusive privileges, or be exempt from the laws
+which governed others.  When Asprenas Nonius, an intimate friend of his,
+was tried upon a charge of administering poison at the instance of
+Cassius Severus, he consulted the senate for their opinion what was his
+duty under the circumstances: "For," said he, "I am afraid, lest, if I
+should stand by him in the cause, I may be supposed to screen a guilty
+man; and if I do not, to desert and prejudge a friend."  With the
+unanimous concurrence, therefore, of the senate, he took his seat amongst
+his advocates for several hours, but without giving him the benefit of
+speaking to character, as was usual.  He likewise appeared for his
+clients; as on behalf of Scutarius, an old soldier of his, who brought an
+action for slander.  He never relieved any one from prosecution but in a
+single instance, in the case of a man who had given information of the
+conspiracy of Muraena; and that he did only by prevailing upon the
+accuser, in open court, to drop his prosecution.
+
+LVII.  How much he was beloved for his worthy conduct in all these
+respects, it is easy to imagine.  I say nothing of the decrees of the
+senate in his honour, which may seem to have resulted from compulsion or
+deference.  The Roman knights voluntarily, and with one accord, always
+celebrated his birth for two days together; and all ranks of the people,
+yearly, in performance of a vow they had made, threw a piece of money
+into the Curtian lake [192], as an offering for his welfare.  They
+likewise, on the calends [first] of January, presented for his acceptance
+new-year's gifts in the Capitol, though he was not present with which
+donations he purchased some costly images of the Gods, which he erected
+in several streets of the city; as that of Apollo Sandaliarius, Jupiter
+Tragoedus [193], and others.  When his house on the Palatine hill was
+accidentally destroyed by fire, the veteran soldiers, the judges, the
+tribes, and even the people, individually, contributed, according to the
+ability of each, for rebuilding it; but he would (115) accept only of
+some small portion out of the several sums collected, and refused to take
+from any one person more than a single denarius [194].  Upon his return
+home from any of the provinces, they attended him not only with joyful
+acclamations, but with songs.  It is also remarked, that as often as he
+entered the city, the infliction of punishment was suspended for the
+time.
+
+LVIII.  The whole body of the people, upon a sudden impulse, and with
+unanimous consent, offered him the title of FATHER OF HIS COUNTRY.  It
+was announced to him first at Antium, by a deputation from the people,
+and upon his declining the honour, they repeated their offer on his
+return to Rome, in a full theatre, when they were crowned with laurel.
+The senate soon afterwards adopted the proposal, not in the way of
+acclamation or decree, but by commissioning M. Messala, in an unanimous
+vote, to compliment him with it in the following terms: "With hearty
+wishes for the happiness and prosperity of yourself and your family,
+Caesar Augustus, (for we think we thus most effectually pray for the
+lasting welfare of the state), the senate, in agreement with the Roman
+people, salute you by the title of FATHER OF YOUR COUNTRY."  To this
+compliment Augustus replied, with tears in his eyes, in these words (for
+I give them exactly as I have done those of Messala): "Having now arrived
+at the summit of my wishes, O Conscript Fathers [195], what else have I
+to beg of the Immortal (116) Gods, but the continuance of this your
+affection for me to the last moments of my life?"
+
+LIX.  To the physician Antonius Musa [196], who had cured him of a
+dangerous illness, they erected a statue near that of Aesculapius, by a
+general subscription.  Some heads of families ordered in their wills,
+that their heirs should lead victims to the Capitol, with a tablet
+carried before them, and pay their vows, "Because Augustus still
+survived."  Some Italian cities appointed the day upon which he first
+visited them, to be thenceforth the beginning of their year.  And most of
+the provinces, besides erecting temples and altars, instituted games, to
+be celebrated to his honour, in most towns, every five years.
+
+LX.  The kings, his friends and allies, built cities in their respective
+kingdoms, to which they gave the name of Caesarea; and all with one
+consent resolved to finish, at their common expense, the temple of
+Jupiter Olympius, at Athens, which had been begun long before, and
+consecrate it to his Genius.  They frequently also left their kingdoms,
+laid aside the badges of royalty, and assuming the toga, attended and
+paid their respects to him daily, in the manner of clients to their
+patrons; not only at Rome, but when he was travelling through the
+provinces.
+
+LXI.  Having thus given an account of the manner in which he filled his
+public offices both civil and military, and his conduct in the government
+of the empire, both in peace and war; I shall now describe his private
+and domestic life, his habits at home and among his friends and
+dependents, and the fortune attending him in those scenes of retirement,
+from his youth to the day of his death.  He lost his mother in his first
+consulship, and his sister Octavia, when he was in the fifty-fourth year
+of his age [197].  He behaved towards them both with the utmost kindness
+whilst living, and after their decease paid the highest honours to their
+memory.
+
+(117) LXII.  He was contracted when very young to the daughter of Publius
+Servilius Isauricus; but upon his reconciliation with Antony after their
+first rupture [198], the armies on both sides insisting on a family
+alliance between them, he married Antony's step-daughter Claudia, the
+daughter of Fulvia by Publius Claudius, although at that time she was
+scarcely marriageable; and upon a difference arising with his
+mother-in-law Fulvia, he divorced her untouched, and a pure virgin.  Soon
+afterwards he took to wife Scribonia, who had before been twice married
+to men of consular rank [199], and was a mother by one of them.  With her
+likewise he parted [200], being quite tired out, as he himself writes,
+with the perverseness of her temper; and immediately took Livia Drusilla,
+though then pregnant, from her husband Tiberius Nero; and she had never
+any rival in his love and esteem.
+
+LXIII.  By Scribonia he had a daughter named Julia, but no children by
+Livia, although extremely desirous of issue.  She, indeed, conceived
+once, but miscarried.  He gave his daughter Julia in the first instance
+to Marcellus, his sister's son, who had just completed his minority; and,
+after his death, to Marcus Agrippa, having prevailed with his sister to
+yield her son-in-law to his wishes; for at that time Agrippa was married
+to one of the Marcellas, and had children by her.  Agrippa dying also, he
+for a long time thought of several matches for Julia in even the
+equestrian order, and at last resolved upon selecting Tiberius for his
+step-son; and he obliged him to part with his wife at that time pregnant,
+and who had already brought him a child.  Mark Antony writes, "That he
+first contracted Julia to his son, and afterwards to Cotiso, king of the
+Getae [201], demanding at the same time the king's daughter in marriage
+for himself."
+
+(118) LXIV.  He had three grandsons by Agrippa and Julia, namely, Caius,
+Lucius, and Agrippa; and two grand-daughters, Julia and Agrippina.  Julia
+he married to Lucius Paulus, the censor's son, and Agrippina to
+Germanicus, his sister's grandson.  Caius and Lucius he adopted at home,
+by the ceremony of purchase [202] from their father, advanced them, while
+yet very young, to offices in the state, and when they were
+consuls-elect, sent them to visit the provinces and armies.  In bringing
+up his daughter and grand-daughters, he accustomed them to domestic
+employments, and even spinning, and obliged them to speak and act every
+thing openly before the family, that it might be put down in the diary.
+He so strictly prohibited them from all converse with strangers, that he
+once wrote a letter to Lucius Vinicius, a handsome young man of a good
+family, in which he told him, "You have not behaved very modestly, in
+making a visit to my daughter at Baiae."  He usually instructed his
+grandsons himself in reading, swimming, and other rudiments of knowledge;
+and he laboured nothing more than to perfect them in the imitation of his
+hand-writing.  He never supped but he had them sitting at the foot of his
+couch; nor ever travelled but with them in a chariot before him, or riding
+beside him.
+
+LXV.  But in the midst of all his joy and hopes in his numerous and
+well-regulated family, his fortune failed him.  The two Julias, his
+daughter and grand-daughter, abandoned themselves to such courses of
+lewdness and debauchery, that he banished them both.  Caius and Lucius he
+lost within the space of eighteen months; the former dying in Lycia, and
+the latter at Marseilles.  His third grandson Agrippa, with his step-son
+Tiberius, he adopted in the forum, by a law passed for the purpose by the
+Sections [203]; but he soon afterwards discarded Agrippa for his coarse
+and unruly temper, and confined him at Surrentum.  He bore the death of
+his relations with more patience than he did their disgrace; for he was
+not overwhelmed by the loss of Caius and Lucius; but in the case of his
+daughter, he stated the facts to the senate in a message read to them by
+(119) the quaestor, not having the heart to be present himself; indeed, he
+was so much ashamed of her infamous conduct, that for some time he avoided
+all company, and had thoughts of putting her to death.  It is certain that
+when one Phoebe, a freed-woman and confidant of hers, hanged herself about
+the same time, he said, "I had rather be the father of Phoebe than of
+Julia."  In her banishment he would not allow her the use of wine, nor any
+luxury in dress; nor would he suffer her to be waited upon by any male
+servant, either freeman or slave, without his permission, and having
+received an exact account of his age, stature, complexion, and what marks
+or scars he had about him.  At the end of five years he removed her from
+the island [where she was confined] to the continent [204], and treated
+her with less severity, but could never be prevailed upon to recall her.
+When the Roman people interposed on her behalf several times with much
+importunity, all the reply he gave was: "I wish you had all such daughters
+and wives as she is."  He likewise forbad a child, of which his
+grand-daughter Julia was delivered after sentence had passed against her,
+to be either owned as a relation, or brought up. Agrippa, who was equally
+intractable, and whose folly increased every day, he transported to an
+island [205], and placed a guard of soldiers about him; procuring at the
+same time an act of the senate for his confinement there during life.
+Upon any mention of him and the two Julias, he would say, with a heavy
+sigh,
+
+    Aith' ophelon agamos t' emenai, agonos t' apoletai.
+
+    Would I were wifeless, or had childless died! [206]
+
+nor did he usually call them by any other name than that of his "three
+imposthumes or cancers."
+
+LXVI.  He was cautious in forming friendships, but clung to them with
+great constancy; not only rewarding the virtues and merits of his friends
+according to their deserts, but bearing likewise with their faults and
+vices, provided that they were (120) of a venial kind.  For amongst all
+his friends, we scarcely find any who fell into disgrace with him, except
+Salvidienus Rufus, whom he raised to the consulship, and Cornelius
+Gallus, whom he made prefect of Egypt; both of them men of the lowest
+extraction.  One of these, being engaged in plotting a rebellion, he
+delivered over to the senate, for condemnation; and the other, on account
+of his ungrateful and malicious temper, he forbad his house, and his
+living in any of the provinces.  When, however, Gallus, being denounced
+by his accusers, and sentenced by the senate, was driven to the desperate
+extremity of laying violent hands upon himself, he commended, indeed, the
+attachment to his person of those who manifested so much indignation, but
+he shed tears, and lamented his unhappy condition, "That I alone," said
+he, "cannot be allowed to resent the misconduct of my friends in such a
+way only as I would wish."  The rest of his friends of all orders
+flourished during their whole lives, both in power and wealth, in the
+highest ranks of their several orders, notwithstanding some occasional
+lapses.  For, to say nothing of others, he sometimes complained that
+Agrippa was hasty, and Mecaenas a tattler; the former having thrown up
+all his employments and retired to Mitylene, on suspicion of some slight
+coolness, and from jealousy that Marcellus received greater marks of
+favour; and the latter having confidentially imparted to his wife
+Terentia the discovery of Muraena's conspiracy.
+
+He likewise expected from his friends, at their deaths as well as during
+their lives, some proofs of their reciprocal attachment.  For though he
+was far from coveting their property, and indeed would never accept of
+any legacy left him by a stranger, yet he pondered in a melancholy mood
+over their last words; not being able to conceal his chagrin, if in their
+wills they made but a slight, or no very honourable mention of him, nor
+his joy, on the other hand, if they expressed a grateful sense of his
+favours, and a hearty affection for him.  And whatever legacies or shares
+of their property were left him by such as were parents, he used to
+restore to their children, either immediately, or if they were under age,
+upon the day of their assuming the manly dress, or of their marriage;
+with interest.
+
+LXVII.  As a patron and master, his behaviour in general was mild and
+conciliating; but when occasion required it, he (121) could be severe.
+He advanced many of his freedmen to posts of honour and great importance,
+as Licinus, Enceladus, and others; and when his slave, Cosmus, had
+reflected bitterly upon him, he resented the injury no further than by
+putting him in fetters.  When his steward, Diomedes, left him to the
+mercy of a wild boar, which suddenly attacked them while they were
+walking together, he considered it rather a cowardice than a breach of
+duty; and turned an occurrence of no small hazard into a jest, because
+there was no knavery in his steward's conduct.  He put to death Proculus,
+one of his most favourite freedmen, for maintaining a criminal commerce
+with other men's wives.  He broke the legs of his secretary, Thallus, for
+taking a bribe of five hundred denarii to discover the contents of one of
+his letters.  And the tutor and other attendants of his son Caius, having
+taken advantage of his sickness and death, to give loose to their
+insolence and rapacity in the province he governed, he caused heavy
+weights to be tied about their necks, and had them thrown into a river.
+
+LXVIII.  In his early youth various aspersions of an infamous character
+were heaped upon him.  Sextus Pompey reproached him with being an
+effeminate fellow; and M. Antony, with earning his adoption from his
+uncle by prostitution.  Lucius Antony, likewise Mark's brother, charges
+him with pollution by Caesar; and that, for a gratification of three
+hundred thousand sesterces, he had submitted to Aulus Hirtius in the same
+way, in Spain; adding, that he used to singe his legs with burnt
+nut-shells, to make the hair become softer [207].  Nay, the whole
+concourse of the people, at some public diversions in the theatre, when
+the following sentence was recited, alluding to the Gallic priest of the
+mother of the gods [208], beating a drum [209],
+
+    Videsne ut cinaedus orbem digito temperet?
+    See with his orb the wanton's finger play!
+
+applied the passage to him, with great applause.
+
+(122) LXIX.  That he was guilty of various acts of adultery, is not
+denied even by his friends; but they allege in excuse for it, that he
+engaged in those intrigues not from lewdness, but from policy, in order
+to discover more easily the designs of his enemies, through their wives.
+Mark Antony, besides the precipitate marriage of Livia, charges him with
+taking the wife of a man of consular rank from table, in the presence of
+her husband, into a bed-chamber, and bringing her again to the
+entertainment, with her ears very red, and her hair in great disorder:
+that he had divorced Scribonia, for resenting too freely the excessive
+influence which one of his mistresses had gained over him: that his
+friends were employed to pimp for him, and accordingly obliged both
+matrons and ripe virgins to strip, for a complete examination of their
+persons, in the same manner as if Thoranius, the dealer in slaves, had
+them under sale.  And before they came to an open rupture, he writes to
+him in a familiar manner, thus: "Why are you changed towards me?  Because
+I lie with a queen?  She is my wife.  Is this a new thing with me, or
+have I not done so for these nine years?  And do you take freedoms with
+Drusilla only?  May health and happiness so attend you, as when you read
+this letter, you are not in dalliance with Tertulla, Terentilla, Rufilla
+[210], or Salvia Titiscenia, or all of them.  What matters it to you
+where, or upon whom, you spend your manly vigour?"
+
+LXX.  A private entertainment which he gave, commonly called the Supper
+of the Twelve Gods [211], and at which the guests (123) were dressed in
+the habit of gods and goddesses, while he personated Apollo himself,
+afforded subject of much conversation, and was imputed to him not only by
+Antony in his letters, who likewise names all the parties concerned, but
+in the following well-known anonymous verses:
+
+    Cum primum istorum conduxit mensa choragum,
+      Sexque deos vidit Mallia, sexque deas
+    Impia dum Phoebi Caesar mendacia ludit,
+      Dum nova divorum coenat adulteria:
+    Omnia se a terris tunc numina declinarunt:
+      Fugit et auratos Jupiter ipse thronos.
+
+    When Mallia late beheld, in mingled train,
+    Twelve mortals ape twelve deities in vain;
+    Caesar assumed what was Apollo's due,
+    And wine and lust inflamed the motley crew.
+    At the foul sight the gods avert their eyes,
+    And from his throne great Jove indignant flies.
+
+What rendered this supper more obnoxious to public censure, was that it
+happened at a time when there was a great scarcity, and almost a famine,
+in the city.  The day after, there was a cry current among the people,
+"that the gods had eaten up all the corn; and that Caesar was indeed
+Apollo, but Apollo the Tormentor;" under which title that god was
+worshipped in some quarter of the city [212].  He was likewise charged
+with being excessively fond of fine furniture, and Corinthian vessels, as
+well as with being addicted to gaming.  For, during the time of the
+proscription, the following line was written upon his statue:--
+
+    Pater argentarius, ego Corinthiarius;
+    My father was a silversmith [213], my dealings are in brass;
+
+because it was believed, that he had put some persons upon the list of
+the proscribed, only to obtain the Corinthian vessels in (124) their
+possession.  And afterwards, in the Sicilian war, the following epigram
+was published:--
+
+    Postquam bis classe victus naves perdidit,
+    Aliquando ut vincat, ludit assidue aleam.
+
+    Twice having lost a fleet in luckless fight,
+    To win at last, he games both day and night.
+
+LXXI.  With respect to the charge or imputation of loathsome impurity
+before-mentioned, he very easily refuted it by the chastity of his life,
+at the very time when it was made, as well as ever afterwards.  His
+conduct likewise gave the lie to that of luxurious extravagance in his
+furniture, when, upon the taking of Alexandria, he reserved for himself
+nothing of the royal treasures but a porcelain cup, and soon afterwards
+melted down all the vessels of gold, even such as were intended for
+common use.  But his amorous propensities never left him, and, as he grew
+older, as is reported, he was in the habit of debauching young girls, who
+were procured for him, from all quarters, even by his own wife.  To the
+observations on his gaming, he paid not the smallest regard; but played
+in public, but purely for his diversion, even when he was advanced in
+years; and not only in the month of December [214], but at other times,
+and upon all days, whether festivals or not.  This evidently appears from
+a letter under his own hand, in which he says, "I supped, my dear
+Tiberius, with the same company.  We had, besides, Vinicius, and Silvius
+the father.  We gamed at supper like old fellows, both yesterday and
+today.  And as any one threw upon the tali [215] aces or sixes, he put
+down for every talus a denarius; all which was gained by him who threw a
+Venus." [216]  In another letter, he says: "We had, my dear Tiberius, a
+pleasant time of it during the festival of Minerva: for we played every
+day, and kept the gaming-board warm.  Your brother uttered many
+exclamations at a desperate run of ill-fortune; but recovering by
+degrees, and unexpectedly, he in the end lost not much.  I lost twenty
+thousand sesterces for my part; but then I was profusely (125) generous
+in my play, as I commonly am; for had I insisted upon the stakes which I
+declined, or kept what I gave away, I should have won about fifty
+thousand.  But this I like better for it will raise my character for
+generosity to the skies."  In a letter to his daughter, he writes thus:
+"I have sent you two hundred and fifty denarii, which I gave to every one
+of my guests; in case they were inclined at supper to divert themselves
+with the Tali, or at the game of Even-or-Odd."
+
+LXXII.  In other matters, it appears that he was moderate in his habits,
+and free from suspicion of any kind of vice.  He lived at first near the
+Roman Forum, above the Ring-maker's Stairs, in a house which had once
+been occupied by Calvus the orator.  He afterwards moved to the Palatine
+Hill, where he resided in a small house [217] belonging to Hortensius, no
+way remarkable either for size or ornament; the piazzas being but small,
+the pillars of Alban stone [218], and the rooms without any thing of
+marble, or fine paving.  He continued to use the same bed-chamber, both
+winter and summer, during forty years [219]: for though he was sensible
+that the city did not agree with his health in the winter, he
+nevertheless resided constantly in it during that season.  If at any time
+he wished to be perfectly retired, and secure from interruption, he shut
+himself up in an apartment at the top of his house, which he called his
+Syracuse or Technophuon [220], or he went to some villa belonging to his
+freedmen near the city.  But when he was indisposed, he commonly took up
+his residence in the house of Mecaenas [221].  Of all the places of
+retirement from the city, he (126) chiefly frequented those upon the
+sea-coast, and the islands of Campania [222], or the towns nearest the
+city, such as Lanuvium, Praeneste, and Tibur [223], where he often used to
+sit for the administration of justice, in the porticos of the temple of
+Hercules.  He had a particular aversion to large and sumptuous palaces;
+and some which had been raised at a vast expense by his grand-daughter,
+Julia, he levelled to the ground.  Those of his own, which were far from
+being spacious, he adorned, not so much with statues and pictures, as with
+walks and groves, and things which were curious either for their antiquity
+or rarity; such as, at Capri, the huge limbs of sea-monsters and wild
+beasts, which some affect to call the bones of giants; and also the arms
+of ancient heroes.
+
+LXXIII.  His frugality in the furniture of his house appears even at this
+day, from some beds and tables still remaining, most of which are
+scarcely elegant enough for a private family.  It is reported that he
+never lay upon a bed, but such as was low, and meanly furnished.  He
+seldom wore any garment but what was made by the hands of his wife,
+sister, daughter, and grand-daughters.  His togas [224] were neither
+scanty nor full; (127) and the clavus was neither remarkably broad or
+narrow.  His shoes were a little higher than common, to make him appear
+taller than he was.  He had always clothes and shoes, fit to appear in
+public, ready in his bed-chamber for any sudden occasion.
+
+LXXIV.  At his table, which was always plentiful and elegant, he
+constantly entertained company; but was very scrupulous in the choice of
+them, both as to rank and character.  Valerius Messala informs us, that
+he never admitted any freedman to his table, except Menas, when rewarded
+with the privilege of citizenship, for betraying Pompey's fleet.  He
+writes, himself, that he invited to his table a person in whose villa he
+lodged, and who had formerly been employed by him as a spy.  He often
+came late to table, and withdrew early; so that the company began supper
+before his arrival, and continued at table after his departure.  His
+entertainments consisted of three entries, or at most of only six.  But
+if his fare was moderate, his courtesy was extreme.  For those who were
+silent, or talked in whispers, he encouraged to join in the general
+conversation; and introduced buffoons and stage players, or even low
+performers from the circus, and very often itinerant humourists, to
+enliven the company.
+
+LXXV.  Festivals and holidays he usually celebrated very expensively, but
+sometimes only with merriment.  In the Saturnalia, or at any other time
+when the fancy took him, he distributed to his company clothes, gold, and
+silver; sometimes coins of all sorts, even of the ancient kings of Rome
+and of foreign nations; sometimes nothing but towels, sponges, rakes, and
+tweezers, and other things of that kind, with tickets on them, which were
+enigmatical, and had a double meaning [225].  He used likewise to sell by
+lot among his guests articles of very unequal value, and pictures with
+their fronts reversed; and so, by the unknown quality of the lot,
+disappoint or gratify the expectation of the purchasers.  This sort of
+traffic (128) went round the whole company, every one being obliged to
+buy something, and to run the chance of loss or gain wits the rest.
+
+LXXVI.  He ate sparingly (for I must not omit even this), and commonly
+used a plain diet.  He was particularly fond of coarse bread, small
+fishes, new cheese made of cow's milk [226], and green figs of the sort
+which bear fruit twice a year [227].  He did not wait for supper, but
+took food at any time, and in any place, when he had an appetite.  The
+following passages relative to this subject, I have transcribed from his
+letters.  "I ate a little bread and some small dates, in my carriage."
+Again.  "In returning home from the palace in my litter, I ate an ounce
+of bread, and a few raisins."  Again.  "No Jew, my dear Tiberius, ever
+keeps such strict fast upon the Sabbath [228], as I have to-day; for
+while in the bath, and after the first hour of the night, I only ate two
+biscuits, before I began to be rubbed with oil."  From this great
+indifference about his diet, he sometimes supped by himself, before his
+company began, or after they had finished, and would not touch a morsel
+at table with his guests.
+
+LXXVII.  He was by nature extremely sparing in the use of wine.
+Cornelius Nepos says, that he used to drink only three times at supper in
+the camp at Modena; and when he indulged himself the most, he never
+exceeded a pint; or if he did, his stomach rejected it.  Of all wines, he
+gave the (129) preference to the Rhaetian [229], but scarcely ever drank
+any in the day-time.  Instead of drinking, he used to take a piece of
+bread dipped in cold water, or a slice of cucumber, or some leaves of
+lettuce, or a green, sharp, juicy apple.
+
+LXXVIII.  After a slight repast at noon, he used to seek repose [230],
+dressed as he was, and with his shoes on, his feet covered, and his hand
+held before his eyes.  After supper he commonly withdrew to his study, a
+small closet, where he sat late, until he had put down in his diary all
+or most of the remaining transactions of the day, which he had not before
+registered.  He would then go to bed, but never slept above seven hours
+at most, and that not without interruption; for he would wake three or
+four times during that time.  If he could not again fall asleep, as
+sometimes happened, he called for some one to read or tell stories to
+him, until he became drowsy, and then his sleep was usually protracted
+till after day-break.  He never liked to lie awake in the dark, without
+somebody to sit by him.  Very early rising was apt to disagree with him.
+On which account, if he was obliged to rise betimes, for any civil or
+religious functions, in order to guard as much as possible against the
+inconvenience resulting from it, he used to lodge in some apartment near
+the spot, belonging to any of his attendants.  If at any time a fit of
+drowsiness seized him in passing along the streets, his litter was set
+down while he snatched a few moments' sleep.
+
+LXXIX.  In person he was handsome and graceful, through every period of
+his life.  But he was negligent in his dress; and so careless about
+dressing his hair, that he usually had it done in great haste, by several
+barbers at a time.  His beard he sometimes clipped, and sometimes shaved;
+and either read or wrote during the operation.  His countenance, either
+when discoursing or silent, was so calm and serene, that a (130) Gaul of
+the first rank declared amongst his friends, that he was so softened by
+it, as to be restrained from throwing him down a precipice, in his
+passage over the Alps, when he had been admitted to approach him, under
+pretence of conferring with him.  His eyes were bright and piercing; and
+he was willing it should be thought that there was something of a divine
+vigour in them.  He was likewise not a little pleased to see people, upon
+his looking steadfastly at them, lower their countenances, as if the sun
+shone in their eyes.  But in his old age, he saw very imperfectly with
+his left eye.  His teeth were thin set, small and scaly, his hair a
+little curled, and inclining to a yellow colour.  His eye-brows met; his
+ears were small, and he had an aquiline nose.  His complexion was betwixt
+brown and fair; his stature but low; though Julius Marathus, his
+freedman, says he was five feet and nine inches in height.  This,
+however, was so much concealed by the just proportion of his limbs, that
+it was only perceivable upon comparison with some taller person standing
+by him.
+
+LXXX.  He is said to have been born with many spots upon his breast and
+belly, answering to the figure, order, and number of the stars in the
+constellation of the Bear.  He had besides several callosities resembling
+scars, occasioned by an itching in his body, and the constant and violent
+use of the strigil [231] in being rubbed.  He had a weakness in his left
+hip, thigh, and leg, insomuch that he often halted on that side; but he
+received much benefit from the use of sand and reeds.  He likewise
+sometimes found the fore-finger of his right hand so weak, that when it
+was benumbed and contracted with cold, to use it in writing, he was
+obliged to have recourse to a circular piece of horn.  He had
+occasionally a complaint in the bladder; but upon voiding some stones in
+his urine, he was relieved from that pain.
+
+LXXXI.  During the whole course of his life, he suffered, at times,
+dangerous fits of sickness, especially after the conquest of Cantabria;
+when his liver being injured by a defluxion (131) upon it, he was reduced
+to such a condition, that he was obliged to undergo a desperate and
+doubtful method of cure: for warm applications having no effect, Antonius
+Musa [232] directed the use of those which were cold.  He was likewise
+subject to fits of sickness at stated times every year; for about his
+birth-day [233] he was commonly a little indisposed.  In the beginning of
+spring, he was attacked with an inflation of the midriff; and when the
+wind was southerly, with a cold in his head.  By all these complaints,
+his constitution was so shattered, that he could not easily bear either
+heat or cold.
+
+LXXXII.  In winter, he was protected against the inclemency of the
+weather by a thick toga, four tunics, a shirt, a flannel stomacher, and
+swathings upon his legs and thighs [234]. In summer, he lay with the
+doors of his bedchamber open, and frequently in a piazza, refreshed by a
+bubbling fountain, and a person standing by to fan him.  He could not
+bear even the winter's sun; and at home, never walked in the open air
+without a broad-brimmed hat on his head.  He usually travelled in a
+litter, and by night: and so slow, that he was two days in going to
+Praeneste or Tibur.  And if he could go to any place by sea, he preferred
+that mode of travelling.  He carefully nourished his health against his
+many infirmities, avoiding chiefly the free use of the bath; but he was
+often rubbed with oil, and sweated in a stove; after which he was washed
+with tepid water, warmed either by a fire, or by being exposed to the
+heat of the sun.  When, upon account of his nerves, he was obliged to
+have recourse to sea-water, or the waters of Albula [235], he was
+contented with sitting over a wooden tub, which he called by a Spanish
+name (132) Dureta, and plunging his hands and feet in the water by turns.
+
+LXXXIII.  As soon as the civil wars were ended, he gave up riding and
+other military exercises in the Campus Martius, and took to playing at
+ball, or foot-ball; but soon afterwards used no other exercise than that
+of going abroad in his litter, or walking.  Towards the end of his walk,
+he would run leaping, wrapped up in a short cloak or cape.  For amusement
+he would sometimes angle, or play with dice, pebbles, or nuts, with
+little boys, collected from various countries, and particularly Moors and
+Syrians, for their beauty or amusing talk.  But dwarfs, and such as were
+in any way deformed, he held in abhorrence, as lusus naturae (nature's
+abortions), and of evil omen.
+
+LXXXIV.  From early youth he devoted himself with great diligence and
+application to the study of eloquence, and the other liberal arts.  In
+the war of Modena, notwithstanding the weighty affairs in which he was
+engaged, he is said to have read, written, and declaimed every day.  He
+never addressed the senate, the people, or the army, but in a
+premeditated speech, though he did not want the talent of speaking
+extempore on the spur of the occasion.  And lest his memory should fail
+him, as well as to prevent the loss of time in getting up his speeches,
+it was his general practice to recite them.  In his intercourse with
+individuals, and even with his wife Livia, upon subjects of importance he
+wrote on his tablets all he wished to express, lest, if he spoke
+extempore, he should say more or less than was proper.  He delivered
+himself in a sweet and peculiar tone, in which he was diligently
+instructed by a master of elocution.  But when he had a cold, he
+sometimes employed a herald to deliver his speeches to the people.
+
+LXXXV.  He composed many tracts in prose on various subjects, some of
+which he read occasionally in the circle of his friends, as to an
+auditory.  Among these was his "Rescript to Brutus respecting Cato."
+Most of the pages he read himself, although he was advanced in years, but
+becoming fatigued, he gave the rest to Tiberius to finish.  He likewise
+read over to (133) his friends his "Exhortations to Philosophy," and the
+"History of his own Life," which he continued in thirteen books, as far
+as the Cantabrian war, but no farther.  He likewise made some attempts at
+poetry.  There is extant one book written by him in hexameter verse, of
+which both the subject and title is "Sicily."  There is also a book of
+Epigrams, no larger than the last, which he composed almost entirely
+while he was in the bath.  These are all his poetical compositions for
+though he begun a tragedy with great zest, becoming dissatisfied with the
+style, he obliterated the whole; and his friends saying to him, "What is
+your Ajax doing?" he answered, "My Ajax has met with a sponge." [236]
+
+LXXXVI.  He cultivated a style which was neat and chaste, avoiding
+frivolous or harsh language, as well as obsolete words, which he calls
+disgusting.  His chief object was to deliver his thoughts with all
+possible perspicuity.  To attain this end, and that he might nowhere
+perplex, or retard the reader or hearer, he made no scruple to add
+prepositions to his verbs, or to repeat the same conjunction several
+times; which, when omitted, occasion some little obscurity, but give a
+grace to the style.  Those who used affected language, or adopted
+obsolete words, he despised, as equally faulty, though in different ways.
+He sometimes indulged himself in jesting, particularly with his friend
+Mecaenas, whom he rallied upon all occasions for his fine phrases [237],
+and bantered by imitating his way of talking.  Nor did he spare Tiberius,
+who was fond of obsolete and far-fetched expressions.  He charges Mark
+Antony with insanity, writing rather to make men stare, than to be
+understood; and by way of sarcasm upon his depraved and fickle taste in
+the choice of words, he writes to him thus: "And are you yet in doubt,
+whether Cimber Annius or Veranius Flaccus be more proper for your
+imitation?  Whether you will adopt words which Sallustius Crispus has
+borrowed from the 'Origines' of Cato?  Or do you think that the verbose
+empty bombast of Asiatic orators is fit to be transfused into (134) our
+language?"  And in a letter where he commends the talent of his
+grand-daughter, Agrippina, he says, "But you must be particularly careful,
+both in writing and speaking, to avoid affectation."
+
+LXXXVII.  In ordinary conversation, he made use of several peculiar
+expressions, as appears from letters in his own hand-writing; in which,
+now and then, when he means to intimate that some persons would never pay
+their debts, he says, "They will pay at the Greek Calends."  And when he
+advised patience in the present posture of affairs, he would say, "Let us
+be content with our Cato."  To describe anything in haste, he said, "It
+was sooner done than asparagus is cooked."  He constantly puts baceolus
+for stultus, pullejaceus for pullus, vacerrosus for cerritus, vapide se
+habere for male, and betizare for languere, which is commonly called
+lachanizare.  Likewise simus for sumus, domos for domus in the genitive
+singular [238].  With respect to the last two peculiarities, lest any
+person should imagine that they were only slips of his pen, and not
+customary with him, he never varies.  I have likewise remarked this
+singularity in his hand-writing; he never divides his words, so as to
+carry the letters which cannot be inserted at the end of a line to the
+next, but puts them below the other, enclosed by a bracket.
+
+LXXXVIII.  He did not adhere strictly to orthography as laid down by the
+grammarians, but seems to have been of the opinion of those who think,
+that we ought to write as we speak; for as to his changing and omitting
+not only letters but whole syllables, it is a vulgar mistake.  Nor should
+I have taken notice of it, but that it appears strange to me, that any
+person should have told us, that he sent a successor to a consular
+lieutenant of a province, as an ignorant, illiterate fellow, upon his
+observing that he had written ixi for ipsi.  When he had occasion to
+write in cypher, he put b for a, c for b, and so forth; and instead
+of z, aa.
+
+LXXXIX.  He was no less fond of the Greek literature, in which he made
+considerable proficiency; having had Apollodorus (135) of Pergamus, for
+his master in rhetoric; whom, though much advanced in years, he took with
+him from The City, when he was himself very young, to Apollonia.
+Afterwards, being instructed in philology by Sephaerus, he received into
+his family Areus the philosopher, and his sons Dionysius and Nicanor; but
+he never could speak the Greek tongue readily, nor ever ventured to
+compose in it.  For if there was occasion for him to deliver his
+sentiments in that language, he always expressed what he had to say in
+Latin, and gave it another to translate.  He was evidently not
+unacquainted with the poetry of the Greeks, and had a great taste for the
+ancient comedy, which he often brought upon the stage, in his public
+spectacles.  In reading the Greek and Latin authors, he paid particular
+attention to precepts and examples which might be useful in public or
+private life.  Those he used to extract verbatim, and gave to his
+domestics, or send to the commanders of the armies, the governors of the
+provinces, or the magistrates of the city, when any of them seemed to
+stand in need of admonition.  He likewise read whole books to the senate,
+and frequently made them known to the people by his edicts; such as the
+orations of Quintus Metellus "for the Encouragement of Marriage," and
+those of Rutilius "On the Style of Building;" [239] to shew the people
+that he was not the first who had promoted those objects, but that the
+ancients likewise had thought them worthy their attention.  He patronised
+the men of genius of that age in every possible way.  He would hear them
+read their works with a great deal of patience and good nature; and not
+only poetry [240] and history, but orations and dialogues.  He was
+displeased, however, that anything should be written upon himself, except
+in a grave manner, and by men of the most eminent abilities: and he
+enjoined the praetors not to suffer his name to be made too common in the
+contests amongst orators and poets in the theatres.
+
+XC.  We have the following account of him respecting his (136) belief in
+omens and such like.  He had so great a dread of thunder and lightning
+that he always carried about him a seal's skin, by way of preservation.
+And upon any apprehension of a violent storm, he would retire to some
+place of concealment in a vault under ground; having formerly been
+terrified by a flash of lightning, while travelling in the night, as we
+have already mentioned. [241]
+
+XCI.  He neither slighted his own dreams nor those of other people
+relating to himself.  At the battle of Philippi, although he had resolved
+not to stir out of his tent, on account of his being indisposed, yet,
+being warned by a dream of one of his friends, he changed his mind; and
+well it was that he did so, for in the enemy's attack, his couch was
+pierced and cut to pieces, on the supposition of his being in it.  He had
+many frivolous and frightful dreams during the spring; but in the other
+parts of the year, they were less frequent and more significative.  Upon
+his frequently visiting a temple near the Capitol, which he had dedicated
+to Jupiter Tonans, he dreamt that Jupiter Capitolinus complained that his
+worshippers were taken from him, and that upon this he replied, he had
+only given him The Thunderer for his porter [242].  He therefore
+immediately suspended little bells round the summit of the temple;
+because such commonly hung at the gates of great houses.  In consequence
+of a dream, too, he always, on a certain day of the year, begged alms of
+the people, reaching out his hand to receive the dole which they offered
+him.
+
+XCII.  Some signs and omens he regarded as infallible.  If in the morning
+his shoe was put on wrong, the left instead of the right, that boded some
+disaster.  If when he commenced a long journey, by sea or land, there
+happened to fall a mizzling rain, he held it to be a good sign of a
+speedy and happy return.  He was much affected likewise with any thing
+out of the common course of nature.  A palm-tree [243] which (137)
+chanced to grow up between some stone's in the court of his house, he
+transplanted into a court where the images of the Household Gods were
+placed, and took all possible care to make it thrive in the island of
+Capri, some decayed branches of an old ilex, which hung drooping to the
+ground, recovered themselves upon his arrival; at which he was so
+delighted, that he made an exchange with the Republic [244] of Naples, of
+the island of Oenaria [Ischia], for that of Capri.  He likewise observed
+certain days; as never to go from home the day after the Nundiae [245],
+nor to begin any serious business upon the nones [246]; avoiding nothing
+else in it, as he writes to Tiberius, than its unlucky name.
+
+XCIII.  With regard to the religious ceremonies of foreign nations, he
+was a strict observer of those which had been established by ancient
+custom; but others he held in no esteem.  For, having been initiated at
+Athens, and coming afterwards to hear a cause at Rome, relative to the
+privileges of the priests of the Attic Ceres, when some of the mysteries
+of their sacred rites were to be introduced in the pleadings, he
+dismissed those who sat upon the bench as judges with him, as well as the
+by-standers, and beard the argument upon those points himself.  But, on
+the other hand, he not only declined, in his progress through Egypt, to
+go out of his way to pay a visit to Apis, but he likewise commended his
+grandson Caius (138) for not paying his devotions at Jerusalem in his
+passage through Judaea. [247]
+
+XCIV.  Since we are upon this subject, it may not be improper to give an
+account of the omens, before and at his birth, as well as afterwards,
+which gave hopes of his future greatness, and the good fortune that
+constantly attended him.  A part of the wall of Velletri having in former
+times been struck with thunder, the response of the soothsayers was, that
+a native of that town would some time or other arrive at supreme power;
+relying on which prediction, the Velletrians both then, and several times
+afterwards, made war upon the Roman people, to their own ruin.  At last
+it appeared by the event, that the omen had portended the elevation of
+Augustus.
+
+Julius Marathus informs us, that a few months before his birth, there
+happened at Rome a prodigy, by which was signified that Nature was in
+travail with a king for the Roman people; and that the senate, in alarm,
+came to the resolution that no child born that year should be brought up;
+but that those amongst them, whose wives were pregnant, to secure to
+themselves a chance of that dignity, took care that the decree of the
+senate should not be registered in the treasury.
+
+I find in the theological books of Asclepiades the Mendesian [248], that
+Atia, upon attending at midnight a religious solemnity in honour of
+Apollo, when the rest of the matrons retired home, fell asleep on her
+couch in the temple, and that a serpent immediately crept to her, and
+soon after withdrew.  She awaking upon it, purified herself, as usual
+after the embraces of her husband; and instantly there appeared upon her
+body a mark in the form of a serpent, which she never after could efface,
+and which obliged her, during the subsequent part of her life, to decline
+the use of the public baths.  Augustus, it was added, was born in the
+tenth month after, and for that reason was thought to be the son of
+Apollo.  The (139) same Atia, before her delivery, dreamed that her
+bowels stretched to the stars, and expanded through the whole circuit of
+heaven and earth.  His father Octavius, likewise, dreamt that a sun-beam
+issued from his wife's womb.
+
+Upon the day he was born, the senate being engaged in a debate on
+Catiline's conspiracy, and Octavius, in consequence of his wife's being
+in childbirth, coming late into the house, it is a well-known fact, that
+Publius Nigidius, upon hearing the occasion of his coming so late, and
+the hour of his wife's delivery, declared that the world had got a
+master.  Afterwards, when Octavius, upon marching with his army through
+the deserts of Thrace, consulted the oracle in the grove of father
+Bacchus, with barbarous rites, concerning his son, he received from the
+priests an answer to the same purpose; because, when they poured wine
+upon the altar, there burst out so prodigious a flame, that it ascended
+above the roof of the temple, and reached up to the heavens; a
+circumstance which had never happened to any one but Alexander the Great,
+upon his sacrificing at the same altars.  And next night he dreamt that
+he saw his son under a more than human appearance, with thunder and a
+sceptre, and the other insignia of Jupiter, Optimus, Maximus, having on
+his head a radiant crown, mounted upon a chariot decked with laurel, and
+drawn by six pair of milk-white horses.
+
+Whilst he was yet an infant, as Caius Drusus relates, being laid in his
+cradle by his nurse, and in a low place, the next day he was not to be
+found, and after he had been sought for a long time, he was at last
+discovered upon a lofty tower, lying with his face towards the rising sun
+[249].  When he first began to speak, he ordered the frogs that happened
+to make a troublesome noise, upon an estate belonging to the family near
+the town, to be silent; and there goes a report that frogs never croaked
+there since that time.  As he was dining in a grove at the fourth
+mile-stone on the Campanian road, an eagle suddenly snatched a piece of
+bread out of his hand, and, soaring to a prodigious height, after
+hovering, came down most unexpectedly, and returned it to him.
+
+Quintus Catulus had a dream, for two nights successively after his
+dedication of the Capitol.  The first night he dreamt (140) that Jupiter,
+out of several boys of the order of the nobility who were playing about
+his altar, selected one, into whose bosom he put the public seal of the
+commonwealth, which he held in his hand; but in his vision the next
+night, he saw in the bosom of Jupiter Capitolinus, the same boy; whom he
+ordered to be removed, but it was forbidden by the God, who declared that
+it must be brought up to become the guardian of the state.  The next day,
+meeting Augustus, with whom till that hour he had not the least
+acquaintance, and looking at him with admiration, he said he was
+extremely like the boy he had seen in his dream.  Some give a different
+account of Catulus's first dream, namely, that Jupiter, upon several
+noble lads requesting of him that they might have a guardian, had pointed
+to one amongst them, to whom they were to prefer their requests; and
+putting his fingers to the boy's mouth to kiss, he afterwards applied
+them to his own.
+
+Marcus Cicero, as he was attending Caius Caesar to the Capitol, happened
+to be telling some of his friends a dream which he had the preceding
+night, in which he saw a comely youth, let down from heaven by a golden
+chain, who stood at the door of the Capitol, and had a whip put into his
+hands by Jupiter.  And immediately upon sight of Augustus, who had been
+sent for by his uncle Caesar to the sacrifice, and was as yet perfectly
+unknown to most of the company, he affirmed that it was the very boy he
+had seen in his dream.  When he assumed the manly toga, his senatorian
+tunic becoming loose in the seam on each side, fell at his feet.  Some
+would have this to forbode, that the order, of which that was the badge
+of distinction, would some time or other be subject to him.
+
+Julius Caesar, in cutting down a wood to make room for his camp near
+Munda [250], happened to light upon a palm-tree, and ordered it to be
+preserved as an omen of victory.  From the root of this tree there put
+out immediately a sucker, which, in a few days, grew to such a height as
+not only to equal, but overshadow it, and afford room for many nests of
+wild pigeons which built in it, though that species of bird particularly
+avoids a hard and rough leaf.  It is likewise reported, that Caesar was
+chiefly influenced by this prodigy, to prefer his sister's grandson
+before all others for his successor.
+
+(141) In his retirement at Apollonia, he went with his friend Agrippa to
+visit Theogenes, the astrologer, in his gallery on the roof.  Agrippa,
+who first consulted the fates, having great and almost incredible
+fortunes predicted of him, Augustus did not choose to make known his
+nativity, and persisted for some time in the refusal, from a mixture of
+shame and fear, lest his fortunes should be predicted as inferior to
+those of Agrippa.  Being persuaded, however, after much importunity, to
+declare it, Theogenes started up from his seat, and paid him adoration.
+Not long afterwards, Augustus was so confident of the greatness of his
+destiny, that he published his horoscope, and struck a silver coin,
+bearing upon it the sign of Capricorn, under the influence of which he
+was born.
+
+XCV.  After the death of Caesar, upon his return from Apollonia, as he
+was entering the city, on a sudden, in a clear and bright sky, a circle
+resembling the rainbow surrounded the body of the sun; and, immediately
+afterwards, the tomb of Julia, Caesar's daughter, was struck by
+lightning.  In his first consulship, whilst he was observing the
+auguries, twelve vultures presented themselves, as they had done to
+Romulus.  And when he offered sacrifice, the livers of all the victims
+were folded inward in the lower part; a circumstance which was regarded
+by those present, who had skill in things of that nature, as an
+indubitable prognostic of great and wonderful fortune.
+
+XCVI.  He certainly had a presentiment of the issue of all his wars.
+When the troops of the Triumviri were collected about Bolognia, an eagle,
+which sat upon his tent, and was attacked by two crows, beat them both,
+and struck them to the ground, in the view of the whole army; who thence
+inferred that discord would arise between the three colleagues, which
+would be attended with the like event: and it accordingly happened.  At
+Philippi, he was assured of success by a Thessalian, upon the authority,
+as he pretended, of the Divine Caesar himself, who had appeared to him
+while he was travelling in a bye-road.  At Perugia, the sacrifice not
+presenting any favourable intimations, but the contrary, he ordered fresh
+victims; the enemy, however, carrying off the sacred things in a sudden
+sally, it was agreed amongst the augurs, that all the (142) dangers and
+misfortunes which had threatened the sacrificer, would fall upon the
+heads of those who had got possession of the entrails.  And, accordingly,
+so it happened.  The day before the sea-fight near Sicily, as he was
+walking upon the shore, a fish leaped out of the sea, and laid itself at
+his feet.  At Actium, while he was going down to his fleet to engage the
+enemy, he was met by an ass with a fellow driving it.  The name of the
+man was Eutychus, and that of the animal, Nichon [251].  After the
+victory, he erected a brazen statue to each, in a temple built upon the
+spot where he had encamped.
+
+XCVII.  His death, of which I shall now speak, and his subsequent
+deification, were intimated by divers manifest prodigies.  As he was
+finishing the census amidst a great crowd of people in the Campus
+Martius, an eagle hovered round him several times, and then directed its
+course to a neighbouring temple, where it settled upon the name of
+Agrippa, and at the first letter.  Upon observing this, he ordered his
+colleague Tiberius to put up the vows, which it is usual to make on such
+occasions, for the succeeding Lustrum.  For he declared he would not
+meddle with what it was probable he should never accomplish, though the
+tables were ready drawn for it.  About the same time, the first letter of
+his name, in an inscription upon one of his statues, was struck out by
+lightning; which was interpreted as a presage that he would live only a
+hundred days longer, the letter C denoting that number; and that he would
+be placed amongst the Gods, as Aesar, which is the remaining part of the
+word Caesar, signifies, in the Tuscan language, a God [252].  Being,
+therefore, about dispatching Tiberius to Illyricum, and designing to go
+with him as far as Beneventum, but being detained by several persons who
+applied to him respecting causes they had depending, he cried out, (and
+it was afterwards regarded as an omen of his death), "Not all the
+business in the world, shall detain me at home one moment longer;" and
+setting out upon his journey, he went (143) as far as Astura [253];
+whence, contrary to his custom, he put to sea in the night-time, as there
+was a favourable wind.
+
+XCVIII.  His malady proceeded from diarrhoea; notwithstanding which, he
+went round the coast of Campania, and the adjacent islands, and spent
+four days in that of Capri; where he gave himself up entirely to repose
+and relaxation.  Happening to sail by the bay of Puteoli, the passengers
+and mariners aboard a ship of Alexandria [254], just then arrived, clad
+all in white, with chaplets upon their heads, and offering incense,
+loaded him with praises and joyful acclamations, crying out, "By you we
+live, by you we sail securely, by you enjoy our liberty and our
+fortunes."  At which being greatly pleased, he distributed to each of
+those who attended him, forty gold pieces, requiring from them an
+assurance on oath, not to employ the sum given them in any other way,
+than the purchase of Alexandrian merchandize.  And during several days
+afterwards, he distributed Togae [255] and Pallia, among other gifts, on
+condition that the Romans should use the Greek, and the Greeks the Roman
+dress and language.  He likewise constantly attended to see the boys
+perform their exercises, according to an ancient custom still continued
+at Capri.  He gave them likewise an entertainment in his presence, and
+not only permitted, but required from them the utmost freedom in jesting,
+and scrambling for fruit, victuals, and other things which he threw
+amongst them.  In a word, he indulged himself in all the ways of
+amusement he could contrive.
+
+He called an island near Capri, Apragopolis, "The City of the
+Do-littles," from the indolent life which several of his party led there.
+A favourite of his, one Masgabas [256], he used (144) to call Ktistaes.
+as if he had been the planter of the island.  And observing from his room
+a great company of people with torches, assembled at the tomb of this
+Masgabas, who died the year before, he uttered very distinctly this verse,
+which he made extempore.
+
+    Ktistou de tumbo, eisoro pyroumenon.
+    Blazing with lights I see the founder's tomb.
+
+Then turning to Thrasyllus, a companion of Tiberius, who reclined on the
+other side of the table, he asked him, who knew nothing about the matter,
+what poet he thought was the author of that verse; and on his hesitating
+to reply, he added another:
+
+    Oras phaessi Masgaban timomenon.
+    Honor'd with torches Masgabas you see;
+
+and put the same question to him concerning that likewise.  The latter
+replying, that, whoever might be the author, they were excellent verses
+[257], he set up a great laugh, and fell into an extraordinary vein of
+jesting upon it.  Soon afterwards, passing over to Naples, although at
+that time greatly disordered in his bowels by the frequent returns of his
+disease, he sat out the exhibition of the gymnastic games which were
+performed in his honour every five years, and proceeded with Tiberius to
+the place intended.  But on his return, his disorder increasing, he
+stopped at Nola, sent for Tiberius back again, and had a long discourse
+with him in private; after which, he gave no further attention to
+business of any importance.
+
+XCIX.  Upon the day of his death, he now and then enquired, if there was
+any disturbance in the town on his account; and calling for a mirror, he
+ordered his hair to be combed, and his shrunk cheeks to be adjusted.
+Then asking his friends who were admitted into the room, "Do ye think
+that I have acted my part on the stage of life well?"  he immediately
+subjoined,
+
+    Ei de pan echei kalos, to paignio
+    Dote kroton, kai pantes umeis meta charas ktupaesate.
+
+    If all be right, with joy your voices raise,
+    In loud applauses to the actor's praise.
+
+(145) After which, having dismissed them all, whilst he was inquiring of
+some persons who were just arrived from Rome, concerning Drusus's
+daughter, who was in a bad state of health, he expired suddenly, amidst
+the kisses of Livia, and with these words: "Livia! live mindful of our
+union; and now, farewell!" dying a very easy death, and such as he
+himself had always wished for.  For as often as he heard that any person
+had died quickly and without pain, he wished for himself and his friends
+the like euthanasian (an easy death), for that was the word he made use
+of.  He betrayed but one symptom, before he breathed his last, of being
+delirious, which was this: he was all on a sudden much frightened, and
+complained that he was carried away by forty men.  But this was rather a
+presage, than any delirium: for precisely that number of soldiers
+belonging to the pretorian cohort, carried out his corpse.
+
+C.  He expired in the same room in which his father Octavius had died,
+when the two Sextus's, Pompey and Apuleius, were consuls, upon the
+fourteenth of the calends of September [the 19th August], at the ninth
+hour of the day, being seventy-six years of age, wanting only thirty-five
+days [258].  His remains were carried by the magistrates of the municipal
+[259] towns and colonies, from Nola to Bovillae [260], and in the
+nighttime, because of the season of the year.  During the intervals, the
+body lay in some basilica, or great temple, of each town.  At Bovillae it
+was met by the Equestrian Order, who carried it to the city, and
+deposited it in the vestibule of his own house.  The senate proceeded
+with so much zeal in the arrangement of his funeral, and paying honour to
+his memory, that, amongst several other proposals, some were for having
+the funeral procession made through the triumphal gate, preceded by the
+image of Victory which is in the senate-house, and the children of
+highest rank and of both sexes singing the funeral (146) dirge.  Others
+proposed, that on the day of the funeral, they should lay aside their
+gold rings, and wear rings of iron; and others, that his bones should be
+collected by the priests of the principal colleges.  One likewise
+proposed to transfer the name of August to September, because he was born
+in the latter, but died in the former.  Another moved, that the whole
+period of time, from his birth to his death, should be called the
+Augustan age, and be inserted in the calendar under that title.  But at
+last it was judged proper to be moderate in the honours paid to his
+memory.  Two funeral orations were pronounced in his praise, one before
+the temple of Julius, by Tiberius; and the other before the rostra, under
+the old shops, by Drusus, Tiberius's son.  The body was then carried upon
+the shoulders of senators into the Campus Martius, and there burnt.  A
+man of pretorian rank affirmed upon oath, that he saw his spirit ascend
+from the funeral pile to heaven.  The most distinguished persons of the
+equestrian order, bare-footed, and with their tunics loose, gathered up
+his relics [261], and deposited them in the mausoleum, which had been
+built in his sixth consulship between the Flaminian Way and the bank of
+the Tiber [262]; at which time likewise he gave the groves and walks
+about it for the use of the people.
+
+CI.  He had made a will a year and four months before his death, upon the
+third of the nones of April [the 11th of April], in the consulship of
+Lucius Plancus, and Caius Silius.  It consisted of two skins of
+parchment, written partly in his own hand, and partly by his freedmen
+Polybius and Hilarian; and had been committed to the custody of the
+Vestal Virgins, by whom it was now produced, with three codicils under
+seal, as well as the will: all these were opened and read in the senate.
+He appointed as his direct heirs, Tiberius for two (147) thirds of his
+estate, and Livia for the other third, both of whom he desired to assume
+his name.  The heirs in remainder were Drusus, Tiberius's son, for one
+third, and Germanicus with his three sons for the residue.  In the third
+place, failing them, were his relations, and several of his friends.  He
+left in legacies to the Roman people forty millions of sesterces; to the
+tribes [263] three millions five hundred thousand; to the pretorian
+troops a thousand each man; to the city cohorts five hundred; and to the
+legions and soldiers three hundred each; which several sums he ordered to
+be paid immediately after his death, having taken due care that the money
+should be ready in his exchequer.  For the rest he ordered different
+times of payment.  In some of his bequests he went as far as twenty
+thousand sesterces, for the payment of which he allowed a twelvemonth;
+alleging for this procrastination the scantiness of his estate; and
+declaring that not more than a hundred and fifty millions of sesterces
+would come to his heirs: notwithstanding that during the twenty preceding
+years, he had received, in legacies from his friends, the sum of fourteen
+hundred millions; almost the whole of which, with his two paternal
+estates [264], and others which had been left him, he had spent in the
+service of the state.  He left orders that the two Julias, his daughter
+and grand-daughter, if anything happened to them, should not be buried in
+his tomb [265].  With regard to the three codicils before-mentioned, in
+one of them he gave orders about his funeral; another contained a summary
+of his acts, which he intended should be inscribed on brazen plates, and
+placed in front of his mausoleum; in the third he had drawn up a concise
+account of the state of the empire; the number of troops enrolled, what
+money there was in the treasury, the revenue, and arrears of taxes; to
+which were added the names of the freedmen and slaves from whom the
+several accounts might be taken.
+
+     *     *     *     *     *     *
+
+(148) OCTAVIUS CAESAR, afterwards Augustus, had now attained to the same
+position in the state which had formerly been occupied by Julius Caesar;
+and though he entered upon it by violence, he continued to enjoy it
+through life with almost uninterrupted tranquillity.  By the long
+duration of the late civil war, with its concomitant train of public
+calamities, the minds of men were become less averse to the prospect of
+an absolute government; at the same time that the new emperor, naturally
+prudent and politic, had learned from the fate of Julius the art of
+preserving supreme power, without arrogating to himself any invidious
+mark of distinction.  He affected to decline public honours, disclaimed
+every idea of personal superiority, and in all his behaviour displayed a
+degree of moderation which prognosticated the most happy effects, in
+restoring peace and prosperity to the harassed empire.  The tenor of his
+future conduct was suitable to this auspicious commencement.  While he
+endeavoured to conciliate the affections of the people by lending money
+to those who stood in need of it, at low interest, or without any at all,
+and by the exhibition of public shows, of which the Romans were
+remarkably fond; he was attentive to the preservation of a becoming
+dignity in the government, and to the correction of morals.  The senate,
+which, in the time of Sylla, had increased to upwards of four hundred,
+and, during the civil war, to a thousand, members, by the admission of
+improper persons, he reduced to six hundred; and being invested with
+the ancient office of censor, which had for some time been disused, he
+exercised an arbitrary but legal authority over the conduct of every rank
+in the state; by which he could degrade senators and knights, and inflict
+upon all citizens an ignominious sentence for any immoral or indecent
+behaviour.  But nothing contributed more to render the new form of
+government acceptable to the people, than the frequent distribution of
+corn, and sometimes largesses, amongst the commonalty: for an occasional
+scarcity of provisions had always been the chief cause of discontents
+and tumults in the capital.  To the interests of the army he likewise
+paid particular attention.  It was by the assistance of the legions that
+he had risen to power; and they were the men who, in the last resort,
+if such an emergency should ever occur, could alone enable him to
+preserve it.
+
+History relates, that after the overthrow of Antony, Augustus held a
+consultation with Agrippa and Mecaenas about restoring the republican
+form of government; when Agrippa gave his opinion in favour of that
+measure, and Mecaenas opposed it.  (149) The object of this consultation,
+in respect to its future consequences on society, is perhaps the most
+important ever agitated in any cabinet, and required, for the mature
+discussion of it, the whole collective wisdom of the ablest men in the
+empire.  But this was a resource which could scarcely be adopted, either
+with security to the public quiet, or with unbiassed judgment in the
+determination of the question.  The bare agitation of such a point would
+have excited immediate and strong anxiety for its final result; while the
+friends of a republican government, who were still far more numerous than
+those of the other party, would have strained every nerve to procure a
+determination in their own favour; and the pretorian guards, the surest
+protection of Augustus, finding their situation rendered precarious by
+such an unexpected occurrence, would have readily listened to the secret
+propositions and intrigues of the republicans for securing their
+acquiescence to the decision on the popular side.  If, when the subject
+came into debate, Augustus should be sincere in the declaration to abide
+by the resolution of the council, it is beyond all doubt, that the
+restoration of a republican government would have been voted by a great
+majority of the assembly.  If, on the contrary, he should not be sincere,
+which is the more probable supposition, and should incur the suspicion of
+practising secretly with members for a decision according to his wish, he
+would have rendered himself obnoxious to the public odium, and given rise
+to discontents which might have endangered his future security.
+
+But to submit this important question to the free and unbiassed decision
+of a numerous assembly, it is probable, neither suited the inclination of
+Augustus, nor perhaps, in his opinion, consisted with his personal
+safety.  With a view to the attainment of unconstitutional power, he had
+formerly deserted the cause of the republic when its affairs were in a
+prosperous situation; and now, when his end was accomplished, there could
+be little ground to expect, that he should voluntarily relinquish the
+prize for which he had spilt the best blood of Rome, and contended for so
+many years.  Ever since the final defeat of Antony in the battle of
+Actium, he had governed the Roman state with uncontrolled authority; and
+though there is in the nature of unlimited power an intoxicating quality,
+injurious both to public and private virtue, yet all history contradicts
+the supposition of its being endued with any which is unpalatable to the
+general taste of mankind.
+
+There were two chief motives by which Augustus would naturally be
+influenced in a deliberation on this important subject; namely, the love
+of power, and the personal danger which (150) he might incur from
+relinquishing it.  Either of these motives might have been a sufficient
+inducement for retaining his authority; but when they both concurred, as
+they seem to have done upon this occasion, their united force was
+irresistible.  The argument, so far as relates to the love of power,
+rests upon a ground, concerning the solidity of which, little doubt can
+be entertained: but it may be proper to inquire, in a few words, into the
+foundation of that personal danger which he dreaded to incur, on
+returning to the station of a private citizen.
+
+Augustus, as has been already observed, had formerly sided with the party
+which had attempted to restore public liberty after the death of Julius
+Caesar: but he afterwards abandoned the popular cause, and joined in the
+ambitious plans of Antony and Lepidus to usurp amongst themselves the
+entire dominion of the state.  By this change of conduct, he turned his
+arms against the supporters of a form of government which he had
+virtually recognized as the legal constitution of Rome; and it involved a
+direct implication of treason against the sacred representatives of that
+government, the consuls, formally and duly elected.  Upon such a charge
+he might be amenable to the capital laws of his country.  This, however,
+was a danger which might be fully obviated, by procuring from the senate
+and people an act of oblivion, previously to his abdication of the
+supreme power; and this was a preliminary which doubtless they would have
+admitted and ratified with unanimous approbation.  It therefore appears
+that he could be exposed to no inevitable danger on this account: but
+there was another quarter where his person was vulnerable, and where even
+the laws might not be sufficient to protect him against the efforts of
+private resentment.  The bloody proscription of the Triumvirate no act of
+amnesty could ever erase from the minds of those who had been deprived by
+it of their nearest and dearest relations; and amidst the numerous
+connections of the illustrious men sacrificed on that horrible occasion,
+there might arise some desperate avenger, whose indelible resentment
+nothing less would satisfy than the blood of the surviving delinquent.
+Though Augustus, therefore, might not, like his great predecessor, be
+stabbed in the senate-house, he might perish by the sword or the poniard
+in a less conspicuous situation.  After all, there seems to have been
+little danger from this quarter likewise for Sylla, who in the preceding
+age had been guilty of equal enormities, was permitted, on relinquishing
+the place of perpetual dictator, to end his days in quiet retirement; and
+the undisturbed security which Augustus ever afterwards enjoyed, affords
+sufficient proof, that all apprehension of danger to his person was
+merely chimerical.
+
+(151) We have hitherto considered this grand consultation as it might be
+influenced by the passions or prejudices of the emperor: we shall now
+take a short view of the subject in the light in which it is connected
+with considerations of a political nature, and with public utility.  The
+arguments handed down by history respecting this consultation are few,
+and imperfectly delivered; but they may be extended upon the general
+principles maintained on each side of the question.
+
+For the restoration of the republican government, it might be contended,
+that from the expulsion of the kings to the dictatorship of Julius
+Caesar, through a period of upwards of four hundred and sixty years, the
+Roman state, with the exception only of a short interval, had flourished
+and increased with a degree of prosperity unexampled in the annals of
+humankind: that the republican form of government was not only best
+adapted to the improvement of national grandeur, but to the security of
+general freedom, the great object of all political association: that
+public virtue, by which alone nations could subsist in vigour, was
+cherished and protected by no mode of administration so much as by that
+which connected, in the strongest bonds of union, the private interests
+of individuals with those of the community: that the habits and
+prejudices of the Roman people were unalterably attached to the form of
+government established by so long a prescription, and they would never
+submit, for any length of time, to the rule of one person, without making
+every possible effort to recover their liberty: that though despotism,
+under a mild and wise prince, might in some respects be regarded as
+preferable to a constitution which was occasionally exposed to the
+inconvenience of faction and popular tumults, yet it was a dangerous
+experiment to abandon the government of the nation to the contingency of
+such a variety of characters as usually occurs in the succession of
+princes; and, upon the whole, that the interests of the people were more
+safely entrusted in the hands of annual magistrates elected by
+themselves, than in those of any individual whose power was permanent,
+and subject to no legal control.
+
+In favour of despotic government it might be urged, that though Rome had
+subsisted long and gloriously under a republican form of government, yet
+she had often experienced such violent shocks from popular tumults or the
+factions of the great, as had threatened her with imminent destruction:
+that a republican government was only accommodated to a people amongst
+whom the division of property gave to no class of citizens such a degree
+of pre-eminence as might prove dangerous to public freedom: that there
+was required in that form of political constitution, a simplicity (152)
+of life and strictness of manners which are never observed to accompany a
+high degree of public prosperity: that in respect of all these
+considerations, such a form of government was utterly incompatible with
+the present circumstances of the Romans that by the conquest of so many
+foreign nations, by the lucrative governments of provinces, the spoils of
+the enemy in war, and the rapine too often practised in time of peace, so
+great had been the aggrandizement of particular families in the preceding
+age, that though the form of the ancient constitution should still remain
+inviolate, the people would no longer live under a free republic, but an
+aristocratical usurpation, which was always productive of tyranny: that
+nothing could preserve the commonwealth from becoming a prey to some
+daring confederacy, but the firm and vigorous administration of one
+person, invested with the whole executive power of the state, unlimited
+and uncontrolled: in fine, that as Rome had been nursed to maturity by
+the government of six princes successively, so it was only by a similar
+form of political constitution that she could now be saved from
+aristocratical tyranny on one hand, or, on the other, from absolute
+anarchy.
+
+On whichever side of the question the force of argument may be thought to
+preponderate, there is reason to believe that Augustus was guided in his
+resolution more by inclination and prejudice than by reason.  It is
+related, however, that hesitating between the opposite opinions of his
+two counsellors, he had recourse to that of Virgil, who joined with
+Mecaenas in advising him to retain the imperial power, as being the form
+of government most suitable to the circumstances of the times.
+
+It is proper in this place to give some account of the two ministers
+above-mentioned, Agrippa and Mecaenas, who composed the cabinet of
+Augustus at the settlement of his government, and seem to be the only
+persons employed by him in a ministerial capacity during his whole reign.
+
+M. Vipsanius Agrippa was of obscure extraction, but rendered himself
+conspicuous by his military talents.  He obtained a victory over Sextus
+Pompey; and in the battles of Philippi and Actium, where he displayed
+great valour, he contributed not a little to establish the subsequent
+power of Augustus.  In his expeditions afterwards into Gaul and Germany,
+he performed many signal achievements, for which he refused the honours
+of a triumph.  The expenses which others would have lavished on that
+frivolous spectacle, he applied to the more laudable purpose of
+embellishing Rome with magnificent buildings, one of which, the Pantheon,
+still remains.  In consequence of a dispute with Marcellus, the nephew of
+Augustus, he retired to Mitylene, (153) whence, after an absence of two
+years, he was recalled by the emperor.  He first married Pomponia, the
+daughter of the celebrated Atticus, and afterwards one of the Marcellas,
+the nieces of Augustus.  While this lady, by whom he had children, was
+still living, the emperor prevailed upon his sister Octavia to resign to
+him her son-in-law, and gave him in marriage his own daughter Julia; so
+strong was the desire of Augustus to be united with him in the closest
+alliance.  The high degree of favour in which he stood with the emperor
+was soon after evinced by a farther mark of esteem: for during a visit to
+the Roman provinces of Greece and Asia, in which Augustus was absent two
+years, he left the government of the empire to the care of Agrippa.
+While this minister enjoyed, and indeed seems to have merited, all the
+partiality of Augustus, he was likewise a favourite with the people.  He
+died at Rome, in the sixty-first year of his age, universally lamented;
+and his remains were deposited in the tomb which Augustus had prepared
+for himself.  Agrippa left by Julia three sons, Caius, Lucius, and
+Posthumus Agrippa, with two daughters, Agrippina and Julia.
+
+C. Cilnius Mecaenas was of Tuscan extraction, and derived his descent
+from the ancient kings of that country.  Though in the highest degree of
+favour with Augustus, he never aspired beyond the rank of the equestrian
+order; and though he might have held the government of extensive
+provinces by deputies, he was content with enjoying the praefecture of
+the city and Italy; a situation, however, which must have been attended
+with extensive patronage.  He was of a gay and social disposition.  In
+principle he is said to have been of the Epicurean sect, and in his dress
+and manners to have bordered on effeminacy.  With respect to his
+political talents, we can only speak from conjecture; but from his being
+the confidential minister of a prince of so much discernment as Augustus,
+during the infancy of a new form of government in an extensive empire, we
+may presume that he was endowed with no common abilities for that
+important station.  The liberal patronage which he displayed towards men
+of genius and talents, will render his name for ever celebrated in the
+annals of learning.  It is to be regretted that history has transmitted
+no particulars of this extraordinary personage, of whom all we know is
+derived chiefly from the writings of Virgil and Horace; but from the
+manner in which they address him, amidst the familiarity of their
+intercourse, there is the strongest reason to suppose, that he was not
+less amiable and respectable in private life, than illustrious in public
+situation.  "O my glory!" is the emphatic expression employed by them
+both.
+
+(154) O decus, O famae merito pars maxima nostrae.   Vir. Georg. ii.
+              Light of my life, my glory, and my guide!
+          O et praesidium et dulce decus meum.   Hor. Ode I.
+              My glory and my patron thou!
+
+One would be inclined to think, that there was a nicety in the sense and
+application of the word decus, amongst the Romans, with which we are
+unacquainted, and that, in the passages now adduced, it was understood to
+refer to the honour of the emperor's patronage, obtained through the
+means of Mecaenas; otherwise, such language to the minister might have
+excited the jealousy of Augustus.  But whatever foundation there may be
+for this conjecture, the compliment was compensated by the superior
+adulation which the poets appropriated to the emperor, whose deification
+is more than insinuated, in sublime intimations, by Virgil.
+
+    Tuque adeo quem mox quae sint habitura deorum
+    Concilia, incertum est; urbisne invisere, Caesar,
+    Terrarumque velis curam; et te maximus orbis
+    Auctorem frugum, tempestatumque potentem
+    Accipiat, cingens materna tempora myrto:
+    An Deus immensi venias maris, ac tua nautae
+    Numina sola colant: tibi serviat ultima Thule;
+    Teque sibi generum Tethys emat omnibus undis.   Geor. i. 1. 25, vi.
+
+    Thou Caesar, chief where'er thy voice ordain
+    To fix midst gods thy yet unchosen reign--
+    Wilt thou o'er cities fix thy guardian sway,
+    While earth and all her realms thy nod obey?
+    The world's vast orb shall own thy genial power,
+    Giver of fruits, fair sun, and favouring shower;
+    Before thy altar grateful nations bow,
+    And with maternal myrtle wreathe thy brow;
+    O'er boundless ocean shall thy power prevail,
+    Thee her sole lord the world of waters hail,
+    Rule where the sea remotest Thule laves,
+    While Tethys dowers thy bride with all her waves.    Sotheby.
+
+Horace has elegantly adopted the same strain of compliment.
+
+    Te multa prece, te prosequitur mero
+    Defuso pateris; et Laribus tuum
+    Miscet numen, uti Graecia Castoris
+        Et magni memor Herculis.    Carm. IV. 5.
+
+    To thee he chants the sacred song,
+      To thee the rich libation pours;
+    Thee placed his household gods among,
+      With solemn daily prayer adores
+    So Castor and great Hercules of old,
+    Were with her gods by grateful Greece enrolled.
+
+(155) The panegyric bestowed upon Augustus by the great poets of that
+time, appears to have had a farther object than the mere gratification of
+vanity.  It was the ambition of this emperor to reign in the hearts as
+well as over the persons of his subjects; and with this view he was
+desirous of endearing himself to their imagination.  Both he and Mecaenas
+had a delicate sensibility to the beauties of poetical composition; and
+judging from their own feelings, they attached a high degree of influence
+to the charms of poetry.  Impressed with these sentiments, it became an
+object of importance, in their opinion, to engage the Muses in the
+service of the imperial authority; on which account, we find Mecaenas
+tampering with Propertius, and we may presume, likewise with every other
+rising genius in poetry, to undertake an heroic poem, of which Augustus
+should be the hero.  As the application to Propertius cannot have taken
+place until after Augustus had been amply celebrated by the superior
+abilities of Virgil and Horace, there seems to be some reason for
+ascribing Mecaenas's request to a political motive.  Caius and Lucius,
+the emperor's grandsons by his daughter Julia, were still living, and
+both young.  As one of them, doubtless, was intended to succeed to the
+government of the empire, prudence justified the adoption of every
+expedient that might tend to secure a quiet succession to the heir, upon
+the demise of Augustus.  As a subsidiary resource, therefore, the
+expedient above mentioned was judged highly plausible; and the Roman
+cabinet indulged the idea of endeavouring to confirm imperial authority
+by the support of poetical renown.  Lampoons against the government were
+not uncommon even in the time of Augustus; and elegant panegyric on the
+emperor served to counteract their influence upon the minds of the
+people.  The idea was, perhaps, novel in the time of Augustus; but the
+history of later ages affords examples of its having been adopted, under
+different forms of government, with success.
+
+The Roman empire, in the time of Augustus, had attained to a prodigious
+magnitude; and, in his testament, he recommended to his successors never
+to exceed the limits which he had prescribed to its extent.  On the East
+it stretched to the Euphrates; on the South to the cataracts of the Nile,
+the deserts of Africa, and Mount Atlas; on the West to the Atlantic
+Ocean; and on the North to the Danube and the Rhine; including the best
+part of the then known world.  The Romans, therefore, were not improperly
+called rerum domini [266], and Rome, pulcherrima rerum [267], maxima
+rerum [268].  Even the historians, Livy and Tacitus, (156) actuated
+likewise with admiration, bestow magnificent epithets on the capital of
+their country.  The succeeding emperors, in conformity to the advice of
+Augustus, made few additions to the empire.  Trajan, however, subdued
+Mesopotamia and Armenia, east of the Euphrates, with Dacia, north of the
+Danube; and after this period the Roman dominion was extended over
+Britain, as far as the Frith of Forth and the Clyde.
+
+It would be an object of curiosity to ascertain the amount of the Roman
+revenue in the reign of Augustus; but such a problem, even with respect
+to contemporary nations, cannot be elucidated without access to the
+public registers of their governments; and in regard to an ancient
+monarchy, the investigation is impracticable.  We can only be assured
+that the revenue must have been immense, which arose from the accumulated
+contribution of such a number of nations, that had supported their own
+civil establishments with great splendour, and many of which were
+celebrated for their extraordinary riches and commerce.  The tribute paid
+by the Romans themselves, towards the support of the government, was very
+considerable during the latter ages of the republic, and it received an
+increase after the consulship of Hirtius and Pansa.  The establishments,
+both civil and military, in the different provinces, were supported at
+their own expense; the emperor required but a small naval force, an arm
+which adds much to the public expenditure of maritime nations in modern
+times; and the state was burdened with no diplomatic charges.  The vast
+treasure accruing from the various taxes centered in Rome, and the whole
+was at the disposal of the emperor, without any control.  We may
+therefore justly conclude that, in the amount of taxes, customs, and
+every kind of financial resources, Augustus exceeded all sovereigns who
+had hitherto ever swayed the sceptre of imperial dominion; a noble
+acquisition, had it been judiciously employed by his successors, in
+promoting public happiness, with half the profusion in which it was
+lavished in disgracing human nature, and violating the rights of mankind.
+
+The reign of Augustus is distinguished by the most extraordinary event
+recorded in history, either sacred or profane, the nativity of the
+Saviour of mankind; which has since introduced a new epoch into the
+chronology of all Christian nations.  The commencement of the new aera
+being the most flourishing period of the Roman empire, a general view of
+the state of knowledge and taste at this period, may here not be
+improper.
+
+Civilization was at this time extended farther over the world than it had
+ever been in any preceding period; but polytheism rather increased than
+diminished with the advancement of commercial (157) intercourse between
+the nations of Europe, Asia, and Africa; and, though philosophy had been
+cultivated during several ages, at Athens, Cyrene, Rome, and other seats
+of learning, yet the morals of mankind were little improved by the
+diffusion of speculative knowledge.  Socrates had laid an admirable
+foundation for the improvement of human nature, by the exertion of reason
+through the whole economy of life; but succeeding inquirers, forsaking
+the true path of ethic investigation, deviated into specious discussions,
+rather ingenious than useful; and some of them, by gratuitously adopting
+principles, which, so far from being supported by reason, were repugnant
+to its dictates, endeavoured to erect upon the basis of their respective
+doctrines a system peculiar to themselves.  The doctrines of the Stoics
+and Epicureans were, in fact, pernicious to society; and those of the
+different academies, though more intimately connected with reason than
+the two former, were of a nature too abstract to have any immediate or
+useful influence on life and manners.  General discussions of truth and
+probability, with magnificent declamations on the to kalon, and the
+summum bonum, constituted the chief objects of attention amongst those
+who cultivated moral science in the shades of academical retirement.
+Cicero endeavoured to bring back philosophy from speculation to practice,
+and clearly evinced the social duties to be founded in the unalterable
+dictates of virtue; but it was easier to demonstrate the truth of the
+principles which he maintained, than to enforce their observance, while
+the morals of mankind were little actuated by the exercise of reason
+alone.
+
+The science chiefly cultivated at this period was rhetoric, which appears
+to have differed considerably from what now passes under the same name.
+The object of it was not so much justness of sentiment and propriety of
+expression, as the art of declaiming, or speaking copiously upon any
+subject.  It is mentioned by Varro as the reverse of logic; and they are
+distinguished from each other by a simile, that the former resembles the
+palm of the hand expanded, and the latter, contracted into the fist.  It
+is observable that logic, though a part of education in modern times,
+seems not to have been cultivated amongst the Romans.  Perhaps they were
+apprehensive, lest a science which concentered the force of argument,
+might obstruct the cultivation of that which was meant to dilate it.
+Astronomy was long before known in the eastern nations; but there is
+reason to believe, from a passage in Virgil [269], that it was little
+cultivated by the Romans; and it is certain, that in the reformation of
+the calendar, Julius Caesar was chiefly indebted to the scientific
+knowledge of (158) Sosigenes, a mathematician of Alexandria.  The laws of
+the solar system were still but imperfectly known; the popular belief,
+that the sun moved round the earth, was universally maintained, and
+continued until the sixteenth century, when the contrary was proved by
+Copernicus.  There existed many celebrated tracts on mathematics; and
+several of the mechanical powers, particularly that of the lever, were
+cultivated with success.  The more necessary and useful rules of
+arithmetic were generally known.  The use of the load-stone not being as
+yet discovered, navigation was conducted in the day-time by the sun, and
+in the night, by the observation of certain stars.  Geography was
+cultivated during the present period by Strabo and Mela.  In natural
+philosophy little progress was made; but a strong desire of its
+improvement was entertained, particularly by Virgil.  Human anatomy being
+not yet introduced, physiology was imperfect.  Chemistry, as a science,
+was utterly unknown.  In medicine, the writings of Hippocrates, and other
+Greek physicians, were in general the standard of practice; but the
+Materia Medica contained few remedies of approved quality, and abounded
+with useless substances, as well as with many which stood upon no other
+foundation than the whimsical notions of those who first introduced them.
+Architecture flourished, through the elegant taste of Vitruvius, and the
+patronage of the emperor.  Painting, statuary, and music, were
+cultivated, but not with that degree of perfection which they had
+obtained in the Grecian states.  The musical instruments of this period
+were the flute and the lyre, to which may be added the sistrum, lately
+imported from Egypt.  But the chief glory of the period is its
+literature, of which we proceed to give some account.
+
+At the head of the writers of this age, stands the emperor himself, with
+his minister Mecaenas; but the works of both have almost totally
+perished.  It appears from the historian now translated, that Augustus
+was the author of several productions in prose, besides some in verse.
+He wrote Answers to Brutus in relation to Cato, Exhortations to
+Philosophy, and the History of his own Life, which he continued, in
+thirteen books, down to the war of Cantabria.  A book of his, written in
+hexameter verse, under the title of Sicily, was extant in the time of
+Suetonius, as was likewise a book of Epigrams.  He began a tragedy on the
+subject of Ajax, but, being dissatisfied with the composition, destroyed
+it.  Whatever the merits of Augustus may have been as an author, of which
+no judgment can be formed, his attachment to learning and eminent writers
+affords a strong presumption that he was not destitute of taste.
+Mecaenas is said to have written two tragedies, Octavia and Prometheus; a
+History of (159) Animals; a Treatise on Precious Stones; a Journal of the
+Life of Augustus; and other productions.  Curiosity is strongly
+interested to discover the literary talents of a man so much
+distinguished for the esteem and patronage of them in others; but while
+we regret the impossibility of such a development, we scarcely can
+suppose the proficiency to have been small, where the love and admiration
+were so great.
+
+History was cultivated amongst the Romans during the present period, with
+uncommon success.  This species of composition is calculated both for
+information and entertainment; but the chief design of it is to record
+all transactions relative to the public, for the purpose of enabling
+mankind to draw from past events a probable conjecture concerning the
+future; and, by knowing the steps which have led either to prosperity or
+misfortune, to ascertain the best means of promoting the former, and
+avoiding the latter of those objects.  This useful kind of narrative was
+introduced about five hundred years before by Herodotus, who has thence
+received the appellation of the Father of History.  His style, in
+conformity to the habits of thinking, and the simplicity of language, in
+an uncultivated age, is plain and unadorned; yet, by the happy modulation
+of the Ionic dialect, it gratified the ear, and afforded to the states of
+Greece a pleasing mixture of entertainment, enriched not only with
+various information, often indeed fabulous or unauthentic, but with the
+rudiments, indirectly interspersed, of political wisdom.  This writer,
+after a long interval, was succeeded by Thucydides and Xenophon, the
+former of whom carried historical narrative to the highest degree of
+improvement it ever attained among the States of Greece.  The plan of
+Thucydides seems to have continued to be the model of historical
+narrative to the writers of Rome; but the circumstances of the times,
+aided perhaps by the splendid exertion of genius in other departments of
+literature, suggested a new resource, which promised not only to animate,
+but embellish the future productions of the historic Muse.  This
+innovation consisted in an attempt to penetrate the human heart, and
+explore in its innermost recesses the sentiments and secret motives which
+actuate the conduct of men.  By connecting moral effects with their
+probable internal and external causes, it tended to establish a
+systematic consistency in the concatenation of transactions apparently
+anomalous, accidental, or totally independent of each other.
+
+The author of this improvement in history was SALLUST, who likewise
+introduced the method of enlivening narrative with the occasional aid of
+rhetorical declamation, particularly in his account of the Catilinian
+conspiracy.  The notorious (160) characters and motives of the principal
+persons concerned in that horrible plot, afforded the most favourable
+opportunity for exemplifying the former; while the latter, there is
+reason to infer from the facts which must have been at that time publicly
+known, were founded upon documents of unquestionable authority.  Nay, it
+is probable that Sallust was present in the senate during the debate
+respecting the punishment of the Catilinian conspirators; his detail of
+which is agreeable to the characters of the several speakers: but in
+detracting, by invidious silence, or too faint representation, from the
+merits of Cicero on that important occasion, he exhibits a glaring
+instance of the partiality which too often debases the narratives of
+those who record the transactions of their own time.  He had married
+Terentia, the divorced wife of Cicero; and there subsisted between the
+two husbands a kind of rivalship from that cause, to which was probably
+added some degree of animosity, on account of their difference in
+politics, during the late dictatorship of Julius Caesar, by whom Sallust
+was restored to the senate, whence he had been expelled for
+licentiousness, and was appointed governor of Numidia.  Excepting the
+injustice with which Sallust treats Cicero, he is entitled to high
+commendation.  In both his remaining works, the Conspiracy of Catiline,
+and the War of Jugurtha, there is a peculiar air of philosophical
+sentiment, which, joined to the elegant conciseness of style, and
+animated description of characters, gives to his writings a degree of
+interest, superior to that which is excited in any preceding work of the
+historical kind.  In the occasional use of obsolete words, and in
+laboured exordiums to both his histories, he is liable to the charge of
+affectation; but it is an affectation of language which supports
+solemnity without exciting disgust; and of sentiment which not only
+exalts human nature, but animates to virtuous exertions.  It seems to be
+the desire of Sallust to atone for the dissipation of his youth by a
+total change of conduct; and whoever peruses his exordiums with the
+attention which they deserve, must feel a strong persuasion of the
+justness of his remarks, if not the incentives of a resolution to be
+governed by his example.  It seems to be certain, that from the first
+moment of his reformation, he incessantly practised the industry which he
+so warmly recommends.  He composed a History of Rome, of which nothing
+remains but a few fragments.  Sallust, during his administration of
+Numidia, is said to have exercised great oppression.  On his return to
+Rome he built a magnificent house, and bought delightful gardens, the
+name of which, with his own, is to this day perpetuated on the spot which
+they formerly occupied.  Sallust was born at Amiternum, in the country of
+the Sabines, and (161) received his education at Rome.  He incurred great
+scandal by an amour with Fausta, the daughter of Sylla, and wife of Milo;
+who detecting the criminal intercourse, is said to have beat him with
+stripes, and extorted from him a large sum of money.  He died, according
+to tradition, in the fifty-first year of his age.
+
+CORNELIUS NEPOS was born at Hostilia, near the banks of the Po.  Of his
+parentage we meet with no account; but from his respectable connections
+early in life, it is probable that he was of good extraction.  Among his
+most intimate friends were Cicero and Atticus.  Some authors relate that
+he composed three books of Chronicles, with a biographical account of all
+the most celebrated sovereigns, generals, and writers of antiquity.
+
+The language of Cornelius Nepos is pure, his style perspicuous, and he
+holds a middle and agreeable course between diffuseness and brevity.  He
+has not observed the same rule with respect to the treatment of every
+subject; for the account of some of the lives is so short, that we might
+suspect them to be mutilated, did they not contain evident marks of their
+being completed in miniature.  The great extent of his plan induced him,
+as he informs us, to adopt this expedient.  "Sed plura persequi, tum
+magnitudo voluminis prohibet, tum festinatio, ut ea explicem, quae
+exorsus sum." [270]
+
+Of his numerous biographical works, twenty-two lives only remain, which
+are all of Greeks, except two Carthaginians, Hamilcar and Hannibal; and
+two Romans, M. Porcius Cato and T. Pomponius Atticus.  Of his own
+life,--of him who had written the lives of so many, no account is
+transmitted; but from the multiplicity of his productions, we may
+conclude that it was devoted to literature.
+
+TITUS LIVIUS may be ranked among the most celebrated historians the world
+has ever produced.  He composed a history of Rome from the foundation of
+the city, to the conclusion of the German war conducted by Drusus in the
+time of the emperor Augustus.  This great work consisted, originally, of
+one hundred and forty books; of which there now remain only thirty-five,
+viz., the first decade, and the whole from book twenty-one to book
+forty-five, both inclusive.  Of the other hundred and five books, nothing
+more has survived the ravages of time and barbarians than their general
+contents.  In a perspicuous arrangement of his subject, in a full and
+circumstantial account of transactions, in the delineation of characters
+and other objects of description, to justness and aptitude of sentiment,
+and in an air of majesty (162) pervading the whole composition, this
+author may be regarded as one of the best models extant of historical
+narrative.  His style is splendid without meretricious ornament, and
+copious without being redundant; a fluency to which Quintilian gives the
+expressive appellation of "lactea ubertas."  Amongst the beauties which
+we admire in his writings, besides the animated speeches frequently
+interspersed, are those concise and peculiarly applicable eulogiums, with
+which he characterises every eminent person mentioned, at the close of
+their life.  Of his industry in collating, and his judgment in deciding
+upon the preference due to, dissentient authorities, in matters of
+testimony, the work affords numberless proofs.  Of the freedom and
+impartiality with which he treated even of the recent periods of history,
+there cannot be more convincing evidence, than that he was rallied by
+Augustus as a favourer of Pompey; and that, under the same emperor, he
+not only bestowed upon Cicero the tribute of warm approbation, but dared
+to ascribe, in an age when their names were obnoxious, even to Brutus and
+Cassius the virtues of consistency and patriotism.  If in any thing the
+conduct of Livy violates our sentiments of historical dignity, it is the
+apparent complacency and reverence with which he every where mentions the
+popular belief in omens and prodigies; but this was the general
+superstition of the times; and totally to renounce the prejudices of
+superstitious education, is the last heroic sacrifice to philosophical
+scepticism.  In general, however, the credulity of Livy appears to be
+rather affected than real; and his account of the exit of Romulus, in the
+following passage, may be adduced as an instance in confirmation of this
+remark.
+
+"His immortalibus editis operibus, quum ad exercitum recensendum
+concionem in campo ad Caprae paludem haberet, subita coorta tempestate
+cum magno fragore tonitribusque tam denso regem operuit nimbo, ut
+conspectum ejus concioni abstulerit; nec deinde in terris Romulus fuit.
+Romana pubes, sedato tandem pavore, postquam ex tam turbido die serena,
+et tranquilla lux rediit, ubi vacuam sedem regiam vidit; etsi satis
+credebat Patribus, qui proximi steterant, sublimem raptum procella; tamen
+veluti orbitatis metu icta, maestum aliquamdiu silentium obtinuit.
+Deinde a paucis initio facto, Deum, Deo natum, regem parentemque urbis
+Romanae, salvere universi Romulum jubent; pacem precibus exposcunt, uti
+volens propitius suam semper sospitet progeniem.  Fuisse credo tum quoque
+aliquos, qui discerptum regem Patrum manibus taciti arguerent; manavit
+enim haec quoque, et perobscura, fama.  Illam alteram admiratio viri, et
+pavor praesens nobilitavit.  Consilio etiam unius hominis addita rei
+dicitur fides; namque Proculus Julius sollicita civitate desiderio (163)
+regis, et infensa Patribus, gravis, ut traditur, quamvis magnae rei
+auctor, in concionem prodit.  'Romulus, inquit, Quirites, parens urbis
+hujus, prima hodierna luce coelo repente delapsus, se mihi obvium dedit;
+quam profusus horrore venerabundusque astitissem, petens precibus, ut
+contra intueri fas esset; Abi, nuncia, inquit, Romanis, Coelestes ita
+velle, ut mea Roma caput orbis terrarum sit; proinde rem militarem
+colant; sciantque, et ita posteris tradant, nullas opes humanas armis
+Romanis resistere posse.'  Haec, inquit, locutus, sublimis abiit.  Mirum,
+quantum illi viro nuncianti haec fidei fuerit; quamque desiderium Romuli
+apud plebem exercitumque, facta fide immortalitatis, lenitum sit." [271]
+
+Scarcely any incident in ancient history savours more of the (164)
+marvellous than the account above delivered respecting the first Roman
+king; and amidst all the solemnity with which it is related, we may
+perceive that the historian was not the dupe of credulity.  There is more
+implied than the author thought proper to avow, in the sentence, Fuisse
+credo, etc.  In whatever light this anecdote be viewed, it is involved in
+perplexity.  That Romulus affected a despotic power, is not only highly
+probable, from his aspiring disposition, but seems to be confirmed by his
+recent appointment of the Celeres, as a guard to his person.  He might,
+therefore, naturally incur the odium of the patricians, whose importance
+was diminished, and their institution rendered abortive, by the increase
+of his power.  But that they should choose the opportunity of a military
+review, for the purpose of removing the tyrant by a violent death, seems
+not very consistent with the dictates even of common prudence; and it is
+the more incredible, as the circumstance which favoured the execution of
+the plot is represented to have been entirely a fortuitous occurrence.
+The tempest which is said to have happened, is not easily reconcilable
+with our knowledge of that phenomenon.  Such a cloud, or mist, as could
+have enveloped Romulus from the eyes of the assembly, is not a natural
+concomitant of a thunder-storm.  There is some reason to suspect that
+both the noise and cloud, if they actually existed, were artificial; the
+former intended to divert the attention of the spectators, and the latter
+to conceal the transaction.  The word fragor, a noise or crash, appears
+to be an unnecessary addition where thunder is expressed, though
+sometimes so used by the poets, and may therefore, perhaps, imply such a
+noise from some other cause.  If Romulus was killed by any pointed or
+sharp-edged weapon, his blood might have been discovered on the spot; or,
+if by other means, still the body was equally an object for public
+observation.  If the people suspected the patricians to be guilty of
+murder, why did they not endeavour to trace the fact by this evidence?
+And if the patricians were really innocent, why did they not urge the
+examination?  But the body, without doubt, was secreted, to favour the
+imposture.  The whole narrative is strongly marked with circumstances
+calculated to affect credulity with ideas of national importance; and, to
+countenance the design, there is evidently a chasm in the Roman history
+immediately preceding this transaction and intimately connected with it.
+
+Livy was born at Patavium [272], and has been charged by Asinius Pollio
+and others with the provincial dialect of his country.  The objections to
+his Pativinity, as it is called, relate chiefly to the (165) spelling of
+some words; in which, however, there seems to be nothing so peculiar, as
+either to occasion any obscurity or merit reprehension.
+
+Livy and Sallust being the only two existing rivals in Roman history, it
+may not be improper to draw a short comparison between them, in respect
+of their principal qualities, as writers.  With regard to language, there
+is less apparent affectation in Livy than in Sallust.  The narrative of
+both is distinguished by an elevation of style: the elevation of Sallust
+seems to be often supported by the dignity of assumed virtue; that of
+Livy by a majestic air of historical, and sometimes national, importance.
+In delineating characters, Sallust infuses more expression, and Livy more
+fulness, into the features.  In the speeches ascribed to particular
+persons, these writers are equally elegant and animated.
+
+So great was the fame of Livy in his own life-time, that people came from
+the extremity of Spain and Gaul, for the purpose only of beholding so
+celebrated a historian, who was regarded, for his abilities, as a
+prodigy.  This affords a strong proof, not only of the literary taste
+which then prevailed over the most extensive of the Roman provinces, but
+of the extraordinary pains with which so great a work must have been
+propagated, when the art of printing was unknown.  In the fifteenth
+century, on the revival of learning in Europe, the name of this great
+writer recovered its ancient veneration; and Alphonso of Arragon, with a
+superstition characteristic of that age, requested of the people of
+Padua, where Livy was born, and is said to have been buried, to be
+favoured by them with the hand which had written so admirable a work.--
+
+The celebrity of VIRGIL has proved the means of ascertaining his birth
+with more exactness than is common in the biographical memoirs of ancient
+writers.  He was born at Andes, a village in the neighbourhood of Mantua,
+on the 15th of October, seventy years before the Christian aera.  His
+parents were of moderate condition; but by their industry acquired some
+territorial possessions, which descended to their son.  The first seven
+years of his life was spent at Cremona, whence he went to Mediolanum, now
+Milan, at that time the seat of the liberal arts, denominated, as we
+learn from Pliny the younger, Novae Athenae.  From this place he
+afterwards moved to Naples, where he applied himself with great assiduity
+to Greek and Roman literature, particularly to the physical and
+mathematical sciences; for which he expressed a strong predilection in
+the second book of his Georgics.
+
+    Me vero primum dulces ante omnia Musae,
+    Quarum sacra fero ingenti perculsus amore,
+    (166) Accipiant; coelique vias et sidera monstrent;
+    Defectus Solis varios, Lunaeque labores:
+    Unde tremor terris: qua vi maria alta tumescant
+    Obicibus ruptis, rursusque in seipsa residant:
+    Quid tantum Oceano properent se tingere soles
+    Hiberni: vel quae tardis mora noctibus obstet.
+                                            Geor. ii. 1. 591, etc.
+
+    But most beloved, ye Muses, at whose fane,
+    Led by pure zeal, I consecrate my strain,
+    Me first accept!  And to my search unfold,
+    Heaven and her host in beauteous order rolled,
+    The eclipse that dims the golden orb of day,
+    And changeful labour of the lunar ray;
+    Whence rocks the earth, by what vast force the main
+    Now bursts its barriers, now subsides again;
+    Why wintry suns in ocean swiftly fade,
+    Or what delays night's slow-descending shade.    Sotheby.
+
+When, by a proscription of the Triumvirate, the lands of Cremona and
+Mantua were distributed amongst the veteran soldiers, Virgil had the good
+fortune to recover his possessions, through the favour of Asinius Pollio,
+the deputy of Augustus in those parts; to whom, as well as to the
+emperor, he has testified his gratitude in beautiful eclogues.
+
+The first production of Virgil was his Bucolics, consisting of ten
+eclogues, written in imitation of the Idyllia or pastoral poems of
+Theocritus.  It may be questioned whether any language which has its
+provincial dialects, but is brought to perfection, can ever be well
+adapted, in that state, to the use of pastoral poetry.  There is such an
+apparent incongruity between the simple ideas of the rural swain and the
+polished language of the courtier, that it seems impossible to reconcile
+them together by the utmost art of composition.  The Doric dialect of
+Theocritus, therefore, abstractedly from all consideration of simplicity
+of sentiment, must ever give to the Sicilian bard a pre-eminence in this
+species of poetry.  The greater part of the Bucolics of Virgil may be
+regarded as poems of a peculiar nature, into which the author has happily
+transfused, in elegant versification, the native manners and ideas,
+without any mixture of the rusticity of pastoral life.  With respect to
+the fourth eclogue, addressed to Pollio, it is avowedly of a nature
+superior to that of pastoral subjects:
+
+    Sicelides Musae, paullo majora canamus.
+    Sicilian Muse, be ours a loftier strain.
+
+Virgil engaged in bucolic poetry at the request of Asinius Pollio, whom
+he highly esteemed, and for one of whose sons in particular, (167) with
+Cornelius Gallus, a poet likewise, he entertained the warmest affection.
+He has celebrated them all in these poems, which were begun, we are told,
+in the twenty-ninth year of his age, and completed in three years.  They
+were held in so great esteem amongst the Romans, immediately after their
+publication, that it is said they were frequently recited upon the stage
+for the entertainment of the audience.  Cicero, upon hearing some lines
+of them, perceived that they were written in no common strain of poetry,
+and desired that the whole eclogue might be recited: which being done, he
+exclaimed, "Magnae spes altera Romae."  Another hope of mighty Rome!
+[273]
+
+Virgil's next work was the Georgics, the idea of which is taken from the
+Erga kai Hmerai, the Works and Days of Hesiod, the poet of Ascra.  But
+between the productions of the two poets, there is no other similarity
+than that of their common subject.  The precepts of Hesiod, in respect of
+agriculture, are delivered with all the simplicity of an unlettered
+cultivator of the fields, intermixed with plain moral reflections,
+natural and apposite; while those of Virgil, equally precise and
+important, are embellished with all the dignity of sublime versification.
+The work is addressed to Mecaenas, at whose request it appears to have
+been undertaken.  It is divided into four books.  The first treats of
+ploughing; the second, of planting; the third, of cattle, horses, sheep,
+goats, dogs, and of things which are hurtful to cattle; the fourth is
+employed on bees, their proper habitations, food, polity, the diseases to
+which they are liable, and the remedies of them, with the method of
+making honey, and a variety of other considerations connected with the
+subject.  The Georgics (168) were written at Naples, and employed the
+author during a period of seven years.  It is said that Virgil had
+concluded the Georgics with a laboured eulogium on his poetical friend
+Gallus; but the latter incurring about this time the displeasure of
+Augustus, he was induced to cancel it, and substitute the charming
+episode of Astaeus and Eurydice.
+
+These beautiful poems, considered merely as didactic, have the justest
+claim to utility.  In what relates to agriculture in particular, the
+precepts were judiciously adapted to the climate of Italy, and must have
+conveyed much valuable information to those who were desirous of
+cultivating that important art, which was held in great honour amongst
+the Romans.  The same remark may be made, with greater latitude of
+application, in respect of the other subjects.  But when we examine the
+Georgics as poetical compositions, when we attend to the elevated style
+in which they are written, the beauty of the similes, the emphatic
+sentiments interspersed, the elegance of diction, the animated strain of
+the whole, and the harmony of the versification, our admiration is
+excited, at beholding subjects, so common in their nature, embellished
+with the most magnificent decorations of poetry.
+
+During four days which Augustus passed at Atella, to refresh himself from
+fatigue, in his return to Rome, after the battle of Actium, the Georgics,
+just then finished, were read to him by the author, who was occasionally
+relieved in the task by his friend Mecaenas.  We may easily conceive the
+satisfaction enjoyed by the emperor, at finding that while he himself had
+been gathering laurels in the achievements of war, another glorious
+wreath was prepared by the Muses to adorn his temples; and that an
+intimation was given of his being afterwards celebrated in a work more
+congenial to the subject of heroic renown.
+
+It is generally supposed that the Aeneid was written at the particular
+desire of Augustus, who was ambitious of having the Julian family
+represented as lineal descendants of the Trojan Aeneas.  In this
+celebrated poem, Virgil has happily united the characteristics of the
+Iliad and Odyssey, and blended them so judiciously together, that they
+mutually contribute to the general effect of the whole.  By the esteem
+and sympathy excited for the filial piety and misfortunes of Aeneas at
+the catastrophe of Troy, the reader is strongly interested in his
+subsequent adventures; and every obstacle to the establishment of the
+Trojans in the promised land of Hesperia produces fresh sensations of
+increased admiration and attachment.  The episodes, characters, and
+incidents, all concur to give beauty or grandeur to the poem.  The
+picture of Troy in flames can never be sufficiently (169) admired!  The
+incomparable portrait of Priam, in Homer, is admirably accommodated to a
+different situation, in the character of Anchises, in the Aeneid.  The
+prophetic rage of the Cumaean Sibyl displays in the strongest colours the
+enthusiasm of the poet.  For sentiment, passion, and interesting
+description, the episode of Dido is a master-piece in poetry.  But Virgil
+is not more conspicuous for strength of description than propriety of
+sentiment; and wherever he takes a hint from the Grecian bard, he
+prosecutes the idea with a judgment peculiar to himself.  It may be
+sufficient to mention one instance.  In the sixth book of the Iliad,
+while the Greeks are making great slaughter amongst the Trojans, Hector,
+by the advice of Helenus, retires into the city, to desire that his
+mother would offer up prayers to the goddess Pallas, and vow to her a
+noble sacrifice, if she would drive Diomede from the walls of Troy.
+Immediately before his return to the field of battle, he has his last
+interview with Andromache, whom he meets with his infant son Astyanax,
+carried by a nurse.  There occurs, upon this occasion, one of the most
+beautiful scenes in the Iliad, where Hector dandles the boy in his arms,
+and pours forth a prayer, that he may one day be superior in fame to his
+father.  In the same manner, Aeneas, having armed himself for the
+decisive combat with Turnus, addresses his son Ascanius in a beautiful
+speech, which, while expressive of the strongest paternal affection,
+contains, instead of a prayer, a noble and emphatic admonition, suitable
+to a youth who had nearly attained the period of adult age.  It is as
+follows:
+
+    Disce, puer, virtutem ex me, verumque laborem;
+    Fortunam ex aliis; nunc te mea dextera bello
+    Defensum dabit, et magna inter praemia ducet.
+    Tu facito, mox cum matura adoleverit aetas,
+    Sis memor: et te animo repetentem exempla tuorum,
+    Et pater Aeneas, et avunculus excitet Hector.--Aeneid, xii.
+
+    My son! from my example learn the war
+    In camps to suffer, and in feuds to dare,
+    But happier chance than mine attend thy care!
+    This day my hand thy tender age shall shield,
+    And crown with honours of the conquered field:
+    Thou when thy riper years shall send thee forth
+    To toils of war, be mindful of my worth;
+    Assert thy birthright, and in arms be known,
+    For Hector's nephew and Aeneas' son.
+
+Virgil, though born to shine by his own intrinsic powers, certainly owed
+much of his excellence to the wonderful merits of Homer.  His susceptible
+imagination, vivid and correct, was (170) impregnated by the Odyssey, and
+warmed with the fire of the Iliad.  Rivalling, or rather on some
+occasions surpassing his glorious predecessor in the characters of heroes
+and of gods, he sustains their dignity with so uniform a lustre, that
+they seem indeed more than mortal.
+
+Whether the Iliad or the Aeneid be the more perfect composition, is a
+question which has often been agitated, but perhaps will never be
+determined to general satisfaction.  In comparing the genius of the two
+poets, however, allowance ought to be made for the difference of
+circumstances under which they composed their respective works.  Homer
+wrote in an age when mankind had not as yet made any great progress in
+the exertion of either intellect or imagination, and he was therefore
+indebted for big resources to the vast capacity of his own mind.  To this
+we must add, that he composed both his poems in a situation of life
+extremely unfavourable to the cultivation of poetry.  Virgil, on the
+contrary, lived at a period when literature had attained to a high state
+of improvement.  He had likewise not only the advantage of finding a
+model in the works of Homer, but of perusing the laws of epic poetry,
+which had been digested by Aristotle, and the various observations made
+on the writings of the Greek bard by critics of acuteness and taste;
+amongst the chief of whom was his friend Horace, who remarks that
+
+    --------quandoque bonus dormitat Homerus.--De Arte Poet.
+
+            E'en sometimes the good Homer naps.
+
+Virgil, besides, composed his poem in a state remote from indigence,
+where he was roused to exertion by the example of several contemporary
+poets; and what must have animated him beyond every other consideration,
+he wrote both at the desire, and under the patronage of the emperor and
+his minister Mecaenas.  In what time Homer composed either of his poems,
+we know not; but the Aeneid, we are informed, was the employment of
+Virgil during eleven years.  For some years, the repeated entreaties of
+Augustus could not extort from him the smallest specimen of the work; but
+at length, when considerably advanced in it, he condescended to recite
+three books--the second, the fourth, and the sixth--in the presence of
+the emperor and his sister Octavia, to gratify the latter of whom, in
+particular, the recital of the last book now mentioned, was intended.
+When the poet came to the words, Tu Marcellus eris, alluding to Octavia's
+son, a youth of great hopes, who had lately died, the mother fainted.
+After she had recovered from this fit, by the care of her attendants, she
+ordered ten sesterces to be given to Virgil for every line relating (171)
+to that subject; a gratuity which amounted to about two thousand pounds
+sterling.
+
+In the composition of the Aeneid, Virgil scrupled not to introduce whole
+lines of Homer, and of the Latin poet Ennius; many of whose sentences he
+admired.  In a few instances he has borrowed from Lucretius.  He is said
+to have been at extraordinary pains in polishing his numbers; and when he
+was doubtful of any passage, he would read it to some of his friends,
+that he might have their opinion.  On such occasions, it was usual with
+him to consult in particular his freedman and librarian Erotes, an old
+domestic, who, it is related, supplied extempore a deficiency in two
+lines, and was desired by his master to write them in the manuscript.
+
+When this immortal work was completed, Virgil resolved on retiring into
+Greece and Asia for three years, that he might devote himself entirely to
+polishing it, and have leisure afterwards to pass the remainder of his
+life in the cultivation of philosophy.  But meeting at Athens with
+Augustus, who was on his return from the East, he determined on
+accompanying the emperor back to Rome.  Upon a visit to Megara, a town in
+the neighbourhood of Athens, he was seized with a languor, which
+increased during the ensuing voyage; and he expired a few days after
+landing at Brundisium, on the 22nd of September, in the fifty-second year
+of his age.  He desired that his body might be carried to Naples, where
+he had passed many happy years; and that the following distich, written
+in his last sickness, should be inscribed upon his tomb:
+
+    Mantua me genuit: Calabri rapuere: tenet nunc
+      Parthenope: cecini pascua, rura, duces. [274]
+
+He was accordingly interred, by the order of Augustus, with great funeral
+pomp, within two miles of Naples, near the road to Puteoli, where his
+tomb still exists.  Of his estate, which was very considerable by the
+liberality of his friends, he left the greater part to Valerius Proculus
+and his brother, a fourth to Augustus, a twelfth to Mecaenas, besides
+legacies to L. Varius and Plotius Tucca, who, in consequence of his own
+request, and the command of Augustus, revised and corrected the Aeneid
+after his death.  Their instructions from the emperor were, to expunge
+whatever they thought improper, but upon no account to make any addition.
+This restriction is supposed to be the cause that many lines in the
+Aeneid are imperfect.
+
+Virgil was of large stature, had a dark complexion, and his (172)
+features are said to have been such as expressed no uncommon abilities.
+He was subject to complaints of the stomach and throat, as well as to
+head-ache, and had frequent discharges of blood upwards: but from what
+part, we are not informed.  He was very temperate both in food and wine.
+His modesty was so great, that at Naples they commonly gave him the name
+of Parthenias, "the modest man."  On the subject of his modesty; the
+following anecdote is related.
+
+Having written a distich, in which he compared Augustus to Jupiter, he
+placed it in the night-time over the gate of the emperor's palace.  It
+was in these words:
+
+    Nocte pluit tota, redeunt spectacula mane:
+      Divisum imperium cum Jove Caesar habet.
+
+    All night it rained, with morn the sports appear,
+    Caesar and Jove between them rule the year.
+
+By order of Augustus, an inquiry was made after the author; and Virgil
+not declaring himself, the verses were claimed by Bathyllus, a
+contemptible poet, but who was liberally rewarded on the occasion.
+Virgil, provoked at the falsehood of the impostor, again wrote the verses
+on some conspicuous part of the palace, and under them the following
+line:
+
+    Hos ego versiculos feci, tulit alter honorem;
+    I wrote the verse, another filched the praise;
+
+with the beginning of another line in these words:
+
+    Sic vos, non vobis,
+    Not for yourselves, you----
+
+repeated four times.  Augustus expressing a desire that the lines should
+be finished, and Bathyllus proving unequal to the task, Virgil at last
+filled up the blanks in this manner:
+
+    Sic vos, non vobis, nidificatis, aves;
+    Sic vos, non vobis, vellera fertis, oves;
+    Sic vos, non vobis, mellificatis, apes;
+    Sic vos, non vobis, fertis aratra, boves.
+
+    Not for yourselves, ye birds, your nests ye build;
+    Not for yourselves, ye sheep, your fleece ye yield;
+    Not for yourselves, ye bees, your cells ye fill;
+    Not for yourselves, ye beeves, ye plough and till.
+
+The expedient immediately evinced him to be the author of the distich,
+and Bathyllus became the theme of public ridicule.
+
+When at any time Virgil came to Rome, if the people, as was commonly the
+case, crowded to gaze upon him, or pointed at him with the finger in
+admiration, he blushed, and stole away (173) from them; frequently taking
+refuge in some shop.  When he went to the theatre, the audience
+universally rose up at his entrance, as they did to Augustus, and
+received him with the loudest plaudits; a compliment which, however
+highly honourable, he would gladly have declined.  When such was the just
+respect which they paid to the author of the Bucolics and Georgics, how
+would they have expressed their esteem, had they beheld him in the
+effulgence of epic renown!  In the beautiful episode of the Elysian
+fields, in the Aeneid, where he dexterously introduced a glorious display
+of their country, he had touched the most elastic springs of Roman
+enthusiasm.  The passion would have rebounded upon himself, and they
+would, in the heat of admiration, have idolized him.
+
+HORACE was born at Venusia, on the tenth of December, in the consulship
+of L. Cotta and L. Torquatus.  According to his own acknowledgment, his
+father was a freedman; by some it is said that he was a collector of the
+revenue, and by others, a fishmonger, or a dealer in salted meat.
+Whatever he was, he paid particular attention to the education of his
+son, for, after receiving instruction from the best masters in Rome, he
+sent him to Athens to study philosophy.  From this place, Horace followed
+Brutus, in the quality of a military tribune, to the battle of Philippi,
+where, by his own confession, being seized with timidity, he abandoned
+the profession of a soldier, and returning to Rome, applied himself to
+the cultivation of poetry.  In a short time he acquired the friendship of
+Virgil and Valerius, whom he mentions in his Satires, in terms of the
+most tender affection.
+
+    Postera lux oritur multo gratissima: namque
+    Plotius et Varius Sinuessae, Virgiliusque,
+    Occurrunt; animae, quales neque candidiores
+    Terra tulit, neque queis me sit devinctior alter.
+    O qui complexus, et gaudia quanta fuerunt!
+    Nil ego contulerim jucundo sanus amico.--Sat. I. 5.
+
+    Next rising morn with double joy we greet,
+    For Plotius, Varius, Virgil, here we meet:
+    Pure spirits these; the world no purer knows,
+    For none my heart with more affection glows:
+    How oft did we embrace, our joys how great!
+    For sure no blessing in the power of fate
+    Can be compared, in sanity of mind,
+    To friends of such companionable kind.--Francis.
+
+By the two friends above mentioned, he was recommended to the patronage
+not only of Mecaenas, but of Augustus, with whom he, as well as Virgil,
+lived on a footing of the greatest intimacy.  Satisfied with the luxury
+which he enjoyed at the first tables in (174) Rome, he was so unambitious
+of any public employment, that when the emperor offered him the place of
+his secretary, he declined it.  But as he lived in an elegant manner,
+having, besides his house in town, a cottage on his Sabine farm, and a
+villa at Tibur, near the falls of the Anio, he enjoyed, beyond all doubt.
+a handsome establishment, from the liberality of Augustus.  He indulged
+himself in indolence and social pleasure, but was at the same time much
+devoted to reading; and enjoyed a tolerable good state of health,
+although often incommoded with a fluxion of rheum upon the eyes.
+
+Horace, in the ardour of youth, and when his bosom beat high with the
+raptures of fancy, had, in the pursuit of Grecian literature, drunk
+largely, at the source, of the delicious springs of Castalia; and it
+seems to have been ever after his chief ambition, to transplant into the
+plains of Latium the palm of lyric poetry.  Nor did he fail of success:
+
+    Exegi monumentum aere perennius.--Carm. iii. 30.
+    More durable than brass a monument I've raised.
+
+In Greece, and other countries, the Ode appears to have been the most
+ancient, as well as the most popular species of literary production.
+Warm in expression, and short in extent, it concentrates in narrow bounds
+the fire of poetical transport: on which account, it has been generally
+employed to celebrate the fervours of piety, the raptures of love, the
+enthusiasm of praise; and to animate warriors to glorious exertions of
+valour:
+
+    Musa dedit fidibus Divos, puerosque Deorum,
+    Et pugilem victorem, et equum certamine primnm,
+    Et juvenum curas, et libera vina referre.--Hor. De Arte Poet.
+
+    The Muse to nobler subjects tunes her lyre;
+    Gods, and the sons of Gods, her song inspire;
+    Wrestler and steed, who gained the Olympic prize,
+    Love's pleasing cares, and wine's unbounded joys.--Francis.
+
+    Misenum Aeoliden, quo non praestantior alter
+    Aere ciere viros, Martemque accendere cnatu. [275]
+                                                Virgil, Aeneid, vi.
+         .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .
+
+    Sed tum forte cava dum personat aequora concha
+    Demens, et canto vocat in certamina Divos.--Ibid.
+
+    Misenus, son of Oeolus, renowned
+    The warrior trumpet in the field to sound;
+    With breathing brass to kindle fierce alarms,
+    And rouse to dare their fate in honourable arms.
+
+       .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .
+
+    (175) Swollen with applause, and aiming still at more,
+    He now provokes the sea-gods from the shore.--Dryden
+
+There arose in this department, among the Greeks, nine eminent poets,
+viz. Alcaeus, Alcman, Anacreon, Bacchylides, Ibicus, Sappho, Stesichorus,
+Simonides, and Pindar.  The greater number of this distinguished class
+are now known only by name.  They seem all to have differed from one
+another, no less in the kind of measure which they chiefly or solely
+employed, than in the strength or softness, the beauty or grandeur, the
+animated rapidity or the graceful ease of their various compositions.  Of
+the amorous effusions of the lyre, we yet have examples in the odes of
+Anacreon, and the incomparable ode of Sappho: the lyric strains which
+animated to battle, have sunk into oblivion; but the victors in the
+public games of Greece have their fame perpetuated in the admirable
+productions of Pindar.
+
+Horace, by adopting, in the multiplicity of his subjects, almost all the
+various measures of the different Greek poets, and frequently combining
+different measures in the same composition, has compensated for the
+dialects of that tongue, so happily suited to poetry, and given to a
+language less distinguished for soft inflexions, all the tender and
+delicate modulations of the Eastern song.  While he moves in the measures
+of the Greeks with an ease and gracefulness which rivals their own
+acknowledged excellence, he has enriched the fund of lyric harmony with a
+stanza peculiar to himself.  In the artificial construction of the Ode,
+he may justly be regarded as the first of lyric poets.  In beautiful
+imagery, he is inferior to none: in variety of sentiment and felicity of
+expression, superior to every existing competitor in Greek or Roman
+poetry.  He is elegant without affectation; and what is more remarkable,
+in the midst of gaiety he is moral.  We seldom meet in his Odes with the
+abrupt apostrophes of passionate excursion; but his transitions are
+conducted with ease, and every subject introduced with propriety.
+
+The Carmen Seculare was written at the express desire of Augustus, for
+the celebration of the Secular Games, performed once in a hundred years,
+and which continued during three days and three nights, whilst all Rome
+resounded with the mingled effusions of choral addresses to gods and
+goddesses, and of festive joy.  An occasion which so much interested the
+ambition of the poet, called into exertion the most vigorous efforts of
+his genius.  More concise in mythological attributes than the hymns
+ascribed to Homer, this beautiful production, in variety and grandeur of
+invocation, and in pomp of numbers, surpasses all that Greece, (176)
+melodious but simple in the service of the altar, ever poured forth from
+her vocal groves in solemn adoration.  By the force of native genius, the
+ancients elevated their heroes to a pitch of sublimity that excites
+admiration, but to soar beyond which they could derive no aid from
+mythology; and it was reserved for a bard, inspired with nobler
+sentiments than the Muses could supply, to sing the praises of that Being
+whose ineffable perfections transcend all human imagination.  Of the
+praises of gods and heroes, there is not now extant a more beautiful
+composition, than the 12th Ode of the first book of Horace:
+
+    Quem virum aut heroa lyra vel acri
+    Tibia sumes celebrare, Clio?
+    Quem Deum? cujus recinet jocosa
+      Nomen imago,
+    Aut in umbrosis Heliconis oris, etc.
+
+    What man, what hero, on the tuneful lyre,
+    Or sharp-toned flute, will Clio choose to raise,
+    Deathless, to fame?  What God? whose hallowed name
+      The sportive image of the voice
+    Shall in the shades of Helicon repeat, etc.
+
+The Satires of Horace are far from being remarkable for poetical harmony,
+as he himself acknowledges.  Indeed, according to the plan upon which
+several of them are written, it could scarcely be otherwise.  They are
+frequently colloquial, sometimes interrogatory, the transitions quick,
+and the apostrophes abrupt.  It was not his object in those compositions,
+to soothe the ear with the melody of polished numbers, but to rally the
+frailties of the heart, to convince the understanding by argument, and
+thence to put to shame both the vices and follies of mankind.  Satire is
+a species of composition, of which the Greeks furnished no model; and the
+preceding Roman writers of this class, though they had much improved it
+from its original rudeness and licentiousness, had still not brought it
+to that degree of perfection which might answer the purpose of moral
+reform in a polished state of society.  It received the most essential
+improvement from Horace, who has dexterously combined wit and argument,
+raillery and sarcasm, on the side of morality and virtue, of happiness
+and truth.
+
+The Epistles of this author may be reckoned amongst the most valuable
+productions of antiquity.  Except those of the second book, and one or
+two in the first, they are in general of the familiar kind; abounding in
+moral sentiments, and judicious observations on life and manners.
+
+The poem De Arte Poetica comprises a system of criticism, in justness of
+principle and extent of application, correspondent to the various
+exertions of genius on subjects of invention and taste.  (177) That in
+composing this excellent production, he availed himself of the most
+approved works of Grecian original, we may conclude from the advice which
+he there recommends:
+
+    ------------Vos exemplaria Graeca
+    Nocturna versate manu, versate diurna.
+
+    Make the Greek authors your supreme delight;
+    Read them by day, and study them by night.--Francis.
+
+In the writings of Horace there appears a fund of good sense, enlivened
+with pleasantry, and refined by philosophical reflection.  He had
+cultivated his judgment with great application, and his taste was guided
+by intuitive perception of moral beauty, aptitude, and propriety.  The
+few instances of indelicacy which occur in his compositions, we may
+ascribe rather to the manners of the times, than to any blameable
+propensity in the author.  Horace died in the fifty-seventh year of his
+age, surviving his beloved Mecaenas only three weeks; a circumstance
+which, added to the declaration in an ode [276] to that personage,
+supposed to have been written in Mecaenas's last illness, has given rise
+to a conjecture, that Horace ended his days by a violent death, to
+accompany his friend.  But it is more natural to conclude that he died of
+excessive grief, as, had he literally adhered to the affirmation
+contained in the ode, he would have followed his patron more closely.
+This seems to be confirmed by a fact immediately preceding his death; for
+though he declared Augustus heir to his whole estate, he was not able, on
+account of weakness, to put his signature to the will; a failure which it
+is probable that he would have taken care to obviate, had his death been
+premeditated.  He was interred, at his own desire, near the tomb of
+Mecaenas.----
+
+OVID was born of an equestrian family, at Sulmo, a town of the Peligni,
+on the 21st of March, in the consulship of Hirtius and Pansa.  His father
+intended him for the bar; and after passing him through the usual course
+of instruction at Rome, he was sent to Athens, the emporium of learning,
+to complete his education.  On his return to Rome, in obedience to the
+desire of his father, he entered upon the offices of public life in the
+forum, and declaimed with great applause.  But this was the effect of
+paternal authority, not of choice: for, from his earliest years, he
+discovered an extreme attachment to poetry; and no sooner was his father
+dead, than, renouncing the bar, he devoted himself entirely to the
+cultivation of that fascinating art, his propensity to which was
+invincible.  His productions, all written either in heroic or pentameter
+verse, are numerous, and on various subjects.  It will be sufficient to
+mention them briefly.
+
+(178) The Heroides consist of twenty-one Epistles, all which, except
+three, are feigned to be written from celebrated women of antiquity, to
+their husbands or lovers, such as Penelope to Ulysses, Dido to Aeneas,
+Sappho to Phaon, etc.  These compositions are nervous, animated and
+elegant: they discover a high degree of poetic enthusiasm, but blended
+with that lascivious turn of thought, which pervades all the amorous
+productions of this celebrated author.
+
+The elegies on subjects of love, particularly the Ars Amandi, or Ars
+Amatoria, though not all uniform in versification, possess the same
+general character, of warmth of passion, and luscious description, as the
+epistles.
+
+The Fasti were divided into twelve books, of which only the first six now
+remain.  The design of them was to deliver an account of the Roman
+festivals in every month of the year, with a description of the rites and
+ceremonies, as well as the sacrifices on those occasions.  It is to be
+regretted, that, on a subject so interesting, this valuable work should
+not have been transmitted entire: but in the part which remains, we are
+furnished with a beautiful description of the ceremonial transactions in
+the Roman calendar, from the first of January to the end of June.  The
+versification, as in all the compositions of this author, is easy and
+harmonious.
+
+The most popular production of this poet is his Metamorphoses, not less
+extraordinary for the nature of the subject, than for the admirable art
+with which the whole is conducted.  The work is founded upon the
+traditions and theogony of the ancients, which consisted of various
+detached fables.  Those Ovid has not only so happily arranged, that they
+form a coherent series of narratives, one rising out of another; but he
+describes the different changes with such an imposing plausibility, as to
+give a natural appearance to the most incredible fictions.  This
+ingenious production, however perfect it may appear, we are told by
+himself, had not received his last corrections when he was ordered into
+banishment.
+
+In the Ibis, the author imitates a poem of the same name, written by
+Callimachus.  It is an invective against some person who publicly
+traduced his character at Rome, after his banishment.  A strong
+sensibility, indignation, and implacable resentment, are conspicuous
+through the whole.
+
+The Tristia were composed in his exile, in which, though his vivacity
+forsook him, he still retained a genius prolific in versification.  In
+these poems, as well as in many epistles to different persons, he bewails
+his unhappy situation, and deprecates in the strongest terms the
+inexorable displeasure of Augustus.
+
+Several other productions written by Ovid are now lost, and (179) amongst
+them a tragedy called Medea, of which Quintilian expresses a high
+opinion.  Ovidii Medea videtur mihi ostendere quantum vir ille praestare
+potuerit, si ingenio suo temperare quam indulgere maluisset [277].  Lib.
+x. c. 1.
+
+It is a peculiarity in the productions of this author, that, on whatever
+he employs his pen, he exhausts the subject; not with any prolixity that
+fatigues the attention, but by a quick succession of new ideas, equally
+brilliant and apposite, often expressed in antitheses.  Void of obscenity
+in expression, but lascivious in sentiment, he may be said rather to
+stimulate immorally the natural passions, than to corrupt the
+imagination.  No poet is more guided in versification by the nature of
+his subject than Ovid.  In common narrative, his ideas are expressed with
+almost colloquial simplicity; but when his fancy glows with sentiment, or
+is animated by objects of grandeur, his style is proportionably elevated,
+and he rises to a pitch of sublimity.
+
+No point in ancient history has excited more variety of conjectures than
+the banishment of Ovid; but after all the efforts of different writers to
+elucidate the subject, the cause of this extraordinary transaction
+remains involved in obscurity.  It may therefore not be improper, in this
+place, to examine the foundation of the several conjectures which have
+been formed, and if they appear to be utterly imadmissible, to attempt a
+solution of the question upon principles more conformable to probability,
+and countenanced by historical evidence.
+
+The ostensible reason assigned by Augustus for banishing Ovid, was his
+corrupting the Roman youth by lascivious publications; but it is evident,
+from various passages in the poet's productions after this period, that
+there was, besides, some secret reason, which would not admit of being
+divulged.  He says in his Tristia, Lib. ii. 1--
+
+    Perdiderent cum me duo crimina, carmen et errors. [278]
+
+It appears from another passage in the same work, that this inviolable
+arcanum was something which Ovid had seen, and, as he insinuates, through
+his own ignorance and mistake.
+
+    Cur aliquid vidi? cur conscia lumina feci?
+      Cur imprudenti cognita culpa mihi est?--Ibid.
+         *     *     *     *     *     *
+    (180) Inscia quod crimen viderunt lumina, plector:
+      Peccatumque oculos est habuisse meum. [279]     De Trist. iii. 5.
+
+It seems, therefore, to be a fact sufficiently established, that Ovid had
+seen something of a very indecent nature, in which Augustus was
+concerned.  What this was, is the question.  Some authors, conceiving it
+to have been of a kind extremely atrocious, have gone so far as to
+suppose, that it must have been an act of criminality between Augustus
+and his own daughter Julia, who, notwithstanding the strict attention
+paid to her education by her father, became a woman of the most infamous
+character; suspected of incontinence during her marriage with Agrippa,
+and openly profligate after her union with her next husband, Tiberius.
+This supposition, however, rests entirely upon conjecture, and is not
+only discredited by its own improbability, but by a yet more forcible
+argument.  It is certain that Julia was at this time in banishment for
+her scandalous life.  She was about the same age with Tiberius, who was
+now forty seven, and they had not cohabited for many years.  We know not
+exactly the year in which Augustus sent her into exile, but we may
+conclude with confidence, that it happened soon after her separation from
+Tiberius; whose own interest with the emperor, as well as that of his
+mother Livia, could not fail of being exerted, if any such application
+was necessary, towards removing from the capital a woman, who, by the
+notoriety of her prostitution, reflected disgrace upon all with whom she
+was connected, either by blood or alliance.  But no application from
+Tiberius or his mother could be necessary, when we are assured that
+Augustus even presented to the senate a narrative respecting the infamous
+behaviour of his daughter, which was read by the quaestor.  He was so
+much ashamed of her profligacy, that he for a long time declined all
+company, and had thoughts of putting her to death.  She was banished to
+an island on the coast of Campania for five years; at the expiration of
+which period, she was removed to the continent, and the severity of her
+treatment a little mitigated; but though frequent applications were made
+in her behalf by the people, Augustus never could be prevailed upon to
+permit her return.
+
+(181) Other writers have conjectured, that, instead of Julia, the
+daughter of Augustus, the person seen with him by Ovid may have been
+Julia his grand-daughter, who inherited the vicious disposition of her
+mother, and was on that account likewise banished by Augustus.  The epoch
+of this lady's banishment it is impossible to ascertain; and therefore no
+argument can be drawn from that source to invalidate the present
+conjecture.  But Augustus had shown the same solicitude for her being
+trained up in virtuous habits, as he had done in respect of her mother,
+though in both cases unsuccessfully; and this consideration, joined to
+the enormity of the supposed crime, and the great sensibility which
+Augustus had discovered with regard to the infamy of his daughter, seems
+sufficient to exonerate his memory from so odious a charge.  Besides, is
+it possible that he could have sent her into banishment for the infamy of
+her prostitution, while (upon the supposition of incest) she was mistress
+of so important a secret, as that he himself had been more criminal with
+her than any other man in the empire?
+
+Some writers, giving a wider scope to conjecture, have supposed the
+transaction to be of a nature still more detestable, and have even
+dragged Mecaenas, the minister, into a participation of the crime.
+Fortunately, however, for the reputation of the illustrious patron of
+polite learning, as well as for that of the emperor, this crude
+conjecture may be refuted upon the evidence of chronology.  The
+commencement of Ovid's exile happened in the ninth year of the Christian
+aera, and the death of Mecaenas, eight years before that period.  Between
+this and other calculations, we find a difference of three or four years;
+but allowing the utmost latitude of variation, there intervened, from the
+death of Mecaenas to the banishment of Ovid, a period of eleven years; an
+observation which fully invalidates the conjecture above-mentioned.
+
+Having now refuted, as it is presumed, the opinions of the different
+commentators on this subject, we shall proceed to offer a new conjecture,
+which seems to have a greater claim to probability than any that has
+hitherto been suggested.
+
+Suetonius informs us, that Augustus, in the latter part of his life,
+contracted a vicious inclination for the enjoyment of young virgins, who
+were procured for him from all parts, not only with the connivance, but
+by the clandestine management of his consort Livia.  It was therefore
+probably with one of those victims that he was discovered by Ovid.
+Augustus had for many years affected a decency of behaviour, and he
+would, therefore, naturally be not a little disconcerted at the
+unseasonable intrusion of the poet.  That Ovid knew not of Augustus's
+being in the place, is beyond all doubt: and Augustus's consciousness
+(182) of this circumstance, together with the character of Ovid, would
+suggest an unfavourable suspicion of the motive which had brought the
+latter thither.  Abstracted from the immorality of the emperor's own
+conduct, the incident might be regarded as ludicrous, and certainly was
+more fit to excite the shame than the indignation of Augustus.  But the
+purpose of Ovid's visit appears, from his own acknowledgment, to have
+been not entirely free from blame, though of what nature we know not:
+
+    Non equidem totam possum defendere culpam:
+      Sed partem nostri criminis error habet.
+                                       De Trist. Lib. iii. Eleg. 5.
+
+    I know I cannot wholly be defended,
+    Yet plead 'twas chance, no ill was then intended.--Catlin.
+
+Ovid was at this time turned of fifty, and though by a much younger man
+he would not have been regarded as any object of jealousy in love, yet by
+Augustus, now in his sixty-ninth year, he might be deemed a formidable
+rival.  This passion, therefore, concurring with that which arose from
+the interruption or disappointment of gratification, inflamed the
+emperor's resentment, and he resolved on banishing to a distant country a
+man whom he considered as his rival, and whose presence, from what had
+happened, he never more could endure.
+
+Augustus having determined on the banishment of Ovid, could find little
+difficulty in accommodating the ostensible to the secret and real cause
+of this resolution.
+
+No argument to establish the date of publication, can be drawn from the
+order in which the various productions of Ovid are placed in the
+collection of his works: but reasoning from probability, we should
+suppose that the Ars Amandi was written during the period of his youth;
+and this seems to be confirmed by the following passage in the second
+book of the Fasti:
+
+    Certe ego vos habui faciles in amore ministros;
+      Cum lusit numeris prima juventa suis. [280]
+
+That many years must have elapsed since its original publication, is
+evident from the subsequent lines in the second book of the Tristia:
+
+    Nos quoque jam pridem scripto peccavimus uno.
+      Supplicium patitur non nova culpa novum.
+    Carminaque edideram, cum te delicta notantem
+      Praeterii toties jure quietus eques.
+    (183) Ergo, quae juveni mihi non nocitura putavi
+    Scripta parum prudens, nunc nocuere seni? [281]
+
+With what show, then, of justice, it may be asked, could Augustus now
+punish a fault, which, in his solemn capacity of censor, he had so long
+and repeatedly overlooked?  The answer is obvious: in a production so
+popular as we may be assured the Ars Amandi was amongst the Roman youth,
+it must have passed through several editions in the course of some years:
+and one of those coinciding with the fatal discovery, afforded the
+emperor a specious pretext for the execution of his purpose.  The
+severity exercised on this occasion, however, when the poet was suddenly
+driven into exile, unaccompanied even by the partner of his bed, who had
+been his companion for many years, was an act so inconsistent with the
+usual moderation of Augustus, that we cannot justly ascribe it to any
+other motive than personal resentment; especially as this arbitrary
+punishment of the author could answer no end of public utility, while the
+obnoxious production remained to affect, if it really ever did
+essentially affect, the morals of society.  If the sensibility of
+Augustus could not thenceforth admit of any personal intercourse with
+Ovid, or even of his living within the limits of Italy, there would have
+been little danger from the example, in sending into honourable exile,
+with every indulgence which could alleviate so distressful a necessity, a
+man of respectable rank in the state, who was charged with no actual
+offence against the laws, and whose genius, with all its indiscretion,
+did immortal honour to his country.  It may perhaps be urged, that,
+considering the predicament in which Augustus stood, he discovered a
+forbearance greater than might have been expected from an absolute
+prince, in sparing the life of Ovid.  It will readily be granted, that
+Ovid, in the same circumstances, under any one of the four subsequent
+emperors, would have expiated the incident with his blood.  Augustus,
+upon a late occasion, had shown himself equally sanguinary, for he put to
+death, by the hand of Varus, a poet of Parma, named Cassius, on account
+of his having written some satirical verses against him.  By that recent
+example, therefore, and the power of pardoning which the emperor still
+retained, there was sufficient hold of the poet's secrecy respecting the
+fatal transaction, which, if divulged (184) to the world, Augustus would
+reprobate as a false and infamous libel, and punish the author
+accordingly.  Ovid, on his part, was sensible, that, should he dare to
+violate the important but tacit injunction, the imperial vengeance would
+reach him even on the shores of the Euxine.  It appears, however, from a
+passage in the Ibis, which can apply to no other than Augustus, that Ovid
+was not sent into banishment destitute of pecuniary provision:
+
+    Di melius! quorum longe mihi maximus ille,
+      Qui nostras inopes noluit esse vias.
+    Huic igitur meritas grates, ubicumque licebit,
+      Pro tam mansueto pectore semper agam.
+
+    The gods defend! of whom he's far the chief,
+    Who lets me not, though banished, want relief.
+    For this his favour therefore whilst I live,
+    Where'er I am, deserved thanks I'll give.
+
+What sum the emperor bestowed, for the support of a banishment which he
+was resolved should be perpetual, it is impossible to ascertain; but he
+had formerly been liberal to Ovid, as well as to other poets.
+
+If we might hazard a conjecture respecting the scene of the intrigue
+which occasioned the banishment of Ovid, we should place it in some
+recess in the emperor's gardens.  His house, though called Palatium, the
+palace, as being built on the Palatine hill, and inhabited by the
+sovereign, was only a small mansion, which had formerly belonged to
+Hortensius, the orator.  Adjoining to this place Augustus had built the
+temple of Apollo, which he endowed with a public library, and allotted
+for the use of poets, to recite their compositions to each other.  Ovid
+was particularly intimate with Hyginus, one of Augustus's freedmen, who
+was librarian of the temple.  He might therefore have been in the
+library, and spying from the window a young female secreting herself in
+the gardens, he had the curiosity to follow her.
+
+The place of Ovid's banishment was Tomi [282], now said to be Baba, a
+town of Bulgaria, towards the mouth of the Ister, where is a lake still
+called by the natives Ouvidouve Jesero, the lake of Ovid.  In this
+retirement, and the Euxine Pontus, he passed the remainder of his life, a
+melancholy period of seven years.  Notwithstanding the lascivious
+writings of Ovid, it does not appear that he was in his conduct a
+libertine.  He was three times married: his first wife, who was of mean
+extraction, and (185) whom he had married when he was very young, he
+divorced; the second he dismissed on account of her immodest behaviour;
+and the third appears to have survived him.  He had a number of
+respectable friends, and seems to have been much beloved by them.----
+
+TIBULLUS was descended of an equestrian family, and is said, but
+erroneously, as will afterwards appear, to have been born on the same day
+with Ovid.  His amiable accomplishments procured him the friendship of
+Messala Corvinus, whom he accompanied in a military expedition to the
+island of Corcyra.  But an indisposition with which he was seized, and a
+natural aversion to the toils of war, induced him to return to Rome,
+where he seems to have resigned himself to a life of indolence and
+pleasure, amidst which he devoted a part of his time to the composition
+of elegies.  Elegiac poetry had been cultivated by several Greek writers,
+particularly Callimachus, Mimnermus, and Philetas; but, so far as we can
+find, had, until the present age, been unknown to the Romans in their own
+tongue.  It consisted of a heroic and pentameter line alternately, and
+was not, like the elegy of the moderns, usually appropriated to the
+lamentation of the deceased, but employed chiefly in compositions
+relative to love or friendship, and might, indeed, be used upon almost
+any subject; though, from the limp in the pentameter line, it is not
+suitable to sublime subjects, which require a fulness of expression, and
+an expansion of sound.  To this species of poetry Tibullus restricted his
+application, by which he cultivated that simplicity and tenderness, and
+agreeable ease of sentiment, which constitute the characteristic
+perfections of the elegiac muse.
+
+In the description of rural scenes, the peaceful occupations of the
+field, the charms of domestic happiness, and the joys of reciprocal love,
+scarcely any poet surpasses Tibullus.  His luxuriant imagination collects
+the most beautiful flowers of nature, and he displays them with all the
+delicate attraction of soft and harmonious numbers.  With a dexterity
+peculiar to himself, in whatever subject he engages, he leads his readers
+imperceptibly through devious paths of pleasure, of which, at the outset
+of the poem, they could form no conception.  He seems to have often
+written without any previous meditation or design.  Several of his
+elegies may be said to have neither middle nor end: yet the transitions
+are so natural, and the gradations so easy, that though we wander through
+Elysian scenes of fancy, the most heterogeneous in their nature, we are
+sensible of no defect in the concatenation which has joined them
+together.  It is, however, to be regretted that, in some instances,
+Tibullus betrays that licentiousness of manners which (186) formed too
+general a characteristic even of this refined age.  His elegies addressed
+to Messala contain a beautiful amplification of sentiments founded in
+friendship and esteem, in which it is difficult to say, whether the
+virtues of the patron or the genius of the poet be more conspicuous.
+
+Valerius Messala Corvinus, whom he celebrates, was descended of a very
+ancient family.  In the civil wars which followed the death of Julius
+Caesar he joined the republican party, and made himself master of the
+camp of Octavius at Philippi; but he was afterwards reconciled to his
+opponent, and lived to an advanced age in favour and esteem with
+Augustus.  He was distinguished not only by his military talents, but by
+his eloquence, integrity, and patriotism.
+
+From the following passage in the writings of Tibullus, commentators have
+conjectured that he was deprived of his lands by the same proscription in
+which those of Virgil had been involved:
+
+    Cui fuerant flavi ditantes ordine sulci
+    Horrea, faecundas ad deficientia messes,
+    Cuique pecus denso pascebant agmine colles,
+    Et domino satis, et nimium furique lupoque:
+    Nunc desiderium superest: nam cura novatur,
+    Cum memor anteactos semper dolor admovet annos.
+                                              Lib. iv. El. 1.
+
+But this seems not very probable, when we consider that Horace, several
+years after that period, represents him as opulent.
+
+    Dii tibi divitias dederant, artemque fruendi.
+                                            Epist. Lib. i. 4.
+    To thee the gods a fair estate
+    In bounty gave, with heart to know
+    How to enjoy what they bestow.--Francis.
+
+We know not the age of Tibullus at the time of his death; but in an elegy
+written by Ovid upon that occasion, he is spoken of as a young man.  Were
+it true, as is said by biographers, that he was born the same day with
+Ovid, we must indeed assign the event to an early period: for Ovid cannot
+have written the elegy after the forty-third year of his own life, and
+how long before is uncertain.  In the tenth elegy of the fourth book, De
+Tristibus, he observes, that the fates had allowed little time for the
+cultivation of his friendship with Tibullus.
+
+    Virgilium vidi tantum: nec avara Tibullo
+      Tempus amicitiae fata dedere meae.
+    Successor fuit hic tibi, Galle; Propertius illi:
+      Quartus ab his serie temporis ipse fui.
+    Utque ego majores, sic me coluere minores.
+
+    (187) Virgil I only saw, and envious fate
+    Did soon my friend Tibullus hence translate.
+    He followed Gallus, and Propertius him,
+    And I myself was fourth in course of time.--Catlin.
+
+As both Ovid and Tibullus lived at Rome, were both of the equestrian
+order, and of congenial dispositions, it is natural to suppose that their
+acquaintance commenced at an early period; and if, after all, it was of
+short duration, there would be no improbability in concluding, that
+Tibullus died at the age of some years under thirty.  It is evident,
+however, that biographers have committed a mistake with regard to the
+birth of this poet; for in the passage above cited of the Tristia, Ovid
+mentions Tibullus as a writer, who, though his contemporary, was much
+older than himself.  From this passage we should be justified in placing
+the death of Tibullus between the fortieth and fiftieth year of his age,
+and rather nearer to the latter period; for, otherwise, Horace would
+scarcely have mentioned him in the manner he does in one of his epistles.
+
+    Albi, nostrorum sermonum candide judex,
+    Quid nunc te dicam facere in regione Pedana?
+    Scribere quod Cassi Parmensis opuscula vincat;
+    An tacitum silvas inter reptare salubres,
+    Curantem quicquid dignam sapiente bonoque est?--Epist. i. 4.
+
+        Albius, in whom my satires find
+        A critic, candid, just, and kind,
+        Do you, while at your country seat,
+        Some rhyming labours meditate,
+        That shall in volumed bulk arise,
+        And e'en from Cassius bear the prize;
+        Or saunter through the silent wood,
+        Musing on what befits the good.--Francis.
+
+This supposition is in no degree inconsistent with the authority of Ovid,
+where he mentions him as a young man; for the Romans extended the period
+of youth to the fiftieth year.----
+
+PROPERTIUS was born at Mevania, a town of Umbria, seated at the
+confluence of the Tina and Clitumnus.  This place was famous for its
+herds of white cattle, brought up there for sacrifice, and supposed to be
+impregnated with that colour by the waters of the river last mentioned.
+
+    Hinc albi, Clitumne, greges, et maxima taurus
+    Victima, saepe tuo perfusi fluorine sacro,
+    Romanos ad templa Deum duxere triumphos.--Georg. ii.
+
+    And where thy sacred streams, Clitumnus! flow,
+    White herds, and stateliest bulls that oft have led
+    Triumphant Rome, and on her altars bled.--Sotheby.
+
+(188) His father is said by some to have been a Roman knight, and they
+add, that he was one of those who, when L. Antony was starved out of
+Perasia, were, by the order of Octavius, led to the altar of Julius
+Caesar, and there slain.  Nothing more is known with certainty, than that
+Propertius lost his father at an early age, and being deprived of a great
+part of his patrimony, betook himself to Rome, where his genius soon
+recommended him to public notice, and he obtained the patronage of
+Mecaenas.  From his frequent introduction of historical and mythological
+subjects into his poems, he received the appellation of "the learned."
+
+Of all the Latin elegiac poets, Propertius has the justest claim to
+purity of thought and expression.  He often draws his imagery from
+reading, more than from the imagination, and abounds less in description
+than sentiment.  For warmth of passion he is not conspicuous, and his
+tenderness is seldom marked with a great degree of sensibility; but,
+without rapture, he is animated, and, like Horace, in the midst of
+gaiety, he is moral.  The stores with which learning supplies him
+diversify as well as illustrate his subject, while delicacy every where
+discovers a taste refined by the habit of reflection.  His versification,
+in general, is elegant, but not uniformly harmonious.
+
+Tibullus and Propertius have each written four books of Elegies; and it
+has been disputed which of them is superior in this department of poetry.
+Quintilian has given his suffrage in favour of Tibullus, who, so far as
+poetical merit alone is the object of consideration, seems entitled to
+the preference.----
+
+GALLUS was a Roman knight, distinguished not only for poetical, but
+military talents.  Of his poetry we have only six elegies, written, in
+the person of an old man, on the subject of old age, but which, there is
+reason to think, were composed at an earlier part of the author's life.
+Except the fifth elegy, which is tainted with immodesty, the others,
+particularly the first, are highly beautiful, and may be placed in
+competition with any other productions of the elegiac kind.  Gallus was,
+for some time, in great favour with Augustus, who appointed him governor
+of Egypt.  It is said, however, that he not only oppressed the province
+by extortion, but entered into a conspiracy against his benefactor, for
+which he was banished.  Unable to sustain such a reverse of fortune, he
+fell into despair, and laid violent hands on himself.  This is the Gallus
+in honour of whom Virgil composed his tenth eclogue.
+
+Such are the celebrated productions of the Augustan age, which have been
+happily preserved, for the delight and admiration of mankind, and will
+survive to the latest posterity.  Many (189) more once existed, of
+various merit, and of different authors, which have left few or no
+memorials behind them, but have perished promiscuously amidst the
+indiscriminate ravages of time, of accidents, and of barbarians.  Amongst
+the principal authors whose works are lost, are Varius and Valgius; the
+former of whom, besides a panegyric upon Augustus, composed some
+tragedies.  According to Quintilian, his Thyestes was equal to any
+composition of the Greek tragic poets.
+
+The great number of eminent writers, poets in particular, who adorned
+this age, has excited general admiration, and the phenomenon is usually
+ascribed to a fortuitous occurrence, which baffles all inquiry: but we
+shall endeavour to develop the various causes which seem to have produced
+this effect; and should the explanation appear satisfactory, it may
+favour an opinion, that under similar circumstances, if ever they should
+again be combined, a period of equal glory might arise in other ages and
+nations.
+
+The Romans, whether from the influence of climate, or their mode of
+living, which in general was temperate, were endowed with a lively
+imagination, and, as we before observed, a spirit of enterprise.  Upon
+the final termination of the Punic war, and the conquest of Greece, their
+ardour, which had hitherto been exercised in military achievements, was
+diverted into the channel of literature; and the civil commotions which
+followed, having now ceased, a fresh impulse was given to activity in the
+ambitious pursuit of the laurel, which was now only to be obtained by
+glorious exertions of intellect.  The beautiful productions of Greece,
+operating strongly upon their minds, excited them to imitation;
+imitation, when roused amongst a number, produced emulation; and
+emulation cherished an extraordinary thirst of fame, which, in every
+exertion of the human mind, is the parent of excellence.  This liberal
+contention was not a little promoted by the fashion introduced at Rome,
+for poets to recite their compositions in public; a practice which seems
+to have been carried even to a ridiculous excess.--Such was now the rage
+for poetical composition in the Roman capital, that Horace describes it
+in the following terms:
+
+    Mutavit mentem populus levis, et calet uno
+    Scribendi studio: pueri patresque severi
+    Fronde comas vincti coenant, et carmina dictant.--Epist. ii. 1.
+         *     *     *     *     *     *
+
+        Now the light people bend to other aims;
+        A lust of scribbling every breast inflames;
+        Our youth, our senators, with bays are crowned,
+        And rhymes eternal as our feasts go round.
+
+    (190) Scribimus indocti doctique poemata passim.--Hor. Epeat. ii. 1.
+
+        But every desperate blockhead dares to write,
+        Verse is the trade of every living wight.--Francis.
+
+The thirst of fame above mentioned, was a powerful incentive, and is
+avowed both by Virgil and Horace.  The former, in the third book of his
+Georgics, announces a resolution of rendering himself celebrated, if
+possible.
+
+        --------tentanda via est qua me quoque possim
+        Tollere humo, victorque virum volitare per ora.
+
+    I, too, will strive o'er earth my flight to raise,
+    And wing'd by victory, catch the gale of praise.--Sotheby.
+
+And Horace, in the conclusion of his first Ode, expresses himself in
+terms which indicate a similar purpose.
+
+        Quad si me lyricis vatibis inseres,
+        Sublimi feriam sidera vertice.
+
+    But if you rank me with the choir,
+    Who tuned with art the Grecian lyre;
+    Swift to the noblest heights of fame,
+    Shall rise thy poet's deathless name.--Francis.
+
+Even Sallust, a historian, in his introduction to Catiline's Conspiracy,
+scruples not to insinuate the same kind of ambition.  Quo mihi rectius
+videtur ingenii quam virium opibus gloriam quaerere; et quoniam vita
+ipsa, qua fruimur, brevis est, memoriam nostri quam maxume longam
+efficere. [283]
+
+Another circumstance of great importance, towards the production of such
+poetry as might live through every age, was the extreme attention which
+the great poets of this period displayed, both in the composition, and
+the polishing of their works.  Virgil, when employed upon the Georgics,
+usually wrote in the morning, and applied much of the subsequent part of
+the day to correction and improvement.  He compared himself to a bear,
+that licks her cub into form.  If this was his regular practice in the
+Georgics, we may justly suppose that it was the same in the Aeneid.  Yet,
+after all this labour, he intended to devote three years entirely to its
+farther amendment.  Horace has gone so far in recommending careful
+correction, that he figuratively mentions nine years as an adequate
+period for that purpose.  But whatever may be the time, there is no
+precept which he urges either oftener or more forcibly, than a due
+attention to this important subject.
+
+    (191) Saepe stylum vertas, iterum quae digna legi sint
+    Scripturus.--Sat. i. x.
+
+    Would you a reader's just esteem engage?
+    Correct with frequent care the blotted page.--Francis.
+
+                               --------Vos, O
+    Pompilius sanguis, carmen reprehendite, quod non
+    Multa dies et multa litura coercuit, atque
+    Perfectum decies non castigavit ad uuguem.
+                                          De. Art. Poet.
+
+    Sons of Pompilius, with contempt receive,
+    Nor let the hardy poem hope to live,
+    Where time and full correction don't refine
+    The finished work, and polish every line.--Francis.
+
+To the several causes above enumerated, as concurring to form the great
+superiority of the Augustan age, as respects the productions of
+literature, one more is to be subjoined, of a nature the most essential:
+the liberal and unparalleled encouragement given to distinguished talents
+by the emperor and his minister.  This was a principle of the most
+powerful energy: it fanned the flame of genius, invigorated every
+exertion; and the poets who basked in the rays of imperial favour, and
+the animating patronage of Mecaenas, experienced a poetic enthusiasm
+which approached to real inspiration.
+
+Having now finished the proposed explanation, relative to the celebrity
+of the Augustan age, we shall conclude with recapitulating in a few words
+the causes of this extraordinary occurrence.
+
+The models, then, which the Romans derived from Grecian poetry, were the
+finest productions of human genius; their incentives to emulation were
+the strongest that could actuate the heart.  With ardour, therefore, and
+industry in composing, and with unwearied patience in polishing their
+compositions, they attained to that glorious distinction in literature,
+which no succeeding age has ever rivalled.
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+
+[106]  A town in the ancient Volscian territory, now called Veletra.  It
+stands on the verge of the Pontine Marshes, on the road to Naples.
+
+[107]  Thurium was a territory in Magna Graecia, on the coast, near
+Tarentum.
+
+[108]  Argentarius; a banker, one who dealt in exchanging money, as well
+as lent his own funds at interest to borrowers.  As a class, they
+possessed great wealth, and were persons of consideration in Rome at this
+period.
+
+[109]  Now Laricia, or Riccia, a town of the Campagna di Roma, on the
+Appian Way, about ten miles from Rome.
+
+[110]  A.U.C. 691.  A.C. (before Christ) 61.
+
+[111]  The Palatine hill was not only the first seat of the colony of
+Romulus, but gave its name to the first and principal of the four regions
+into which the city was divided, from the time of Servius Tullius, the
+sixth king of Rome, to that of Augustus; the others being the Suburra,
+Esquilina, and Collina.
+
+[112]  There were seven streets or quarters in the Palatine region, one
+of which was called "Ad Capita Bubula," either from the butchers' stalls
+at which ox-heads are hung up for sale, or from their being sculptured on
+some edifice.  Thus the remains of a fortification near the tomb of
+Cecilia Metella are now called Capo di Bove, from the arms of the Gaetani
+family over the gate.
+
+[113]  Adrian, to whom Suetonius was secretary.
+
+[114]  Augusto augurio postquam inclyta condita Roma est.
+
+[115]  A.U.C. 711.
+
+[116]  A.U.C. 712.
+
+[117]  After being defeated in the second engagement, Brutus retired to a
+hill, and slew himself in the night.
+
+[118]  The triumvir.  There were three distinguished brothers of the name
+of Antony; Mark, the consul; Caius, who was praetor; and Lucius, a
+tribune of the people.
+
+[119]  Virgil was one of the fugitives, having narrowly escaped being
+killed by the centurion Ario; and being ejected from his farm.  Eclog. i.
+
+[120]  A.U.C. 714.
+
+[121]  The anniversary of Julius Caesar's death.
+
+[122]  A.U.C. 712-718-
+
+[123]  The Romans employed slaves in their wars only in cases of great
+emergency, and with much reluctance.  After the great slaughter at the
+battle of Cannae, eight thousand were bought and armed by the republic.
+Augustus was the first who manumitted them, and employed them as rowers
+in his gallies.
+
+[124]  In the triumvirate, consisting of Augustus, Mark Antony, and
+Lepidus.
+
+[125]  A.U.C. 723.
+
+[126]  There is no other authority for Augustus having viewed Antony's
+corpse.  Plutarch informs us, that on hearing his death, Augustus retired
+into the interior of his tent, and wept over the fate of his colleague
+and friend, his associate in so many former struggles, both in war and
+the administration of affairs.
+
+[127]  The poison proved fatal, as every one knows, see Velleius, ii. 27;
+Florus, iv. 11.  The Psylli were a people of Africa, celebrated for
+sucking the poison from wounds inflicted by serpents, with which that
+country anciently abounded.  They pretended to be endowed with an
+antidote, which rendered their bodies insensible to the virulence of that
+species of poison; and the ignorance of those times gave credit to the
+physical immunity which they arrogated.  But Celsus, who flourished about
+fifty years after the period we speak of, has exploded the vulgar
+prejudice which prevailed in their favour.  He justly observes, that the
+venom of serpents, like some other kinds of poison, proves noxious only
+when applied to the naked fibre; and that, provided there is no ulcer in
+the gums or palate, the poison may be received into the mouth with
+perfect safety.
+
+[128]  Strabo informs us that Ptolemy caused it to be deposited in a
+golden sarcophagus, which was afterwards exchanged for one of glass, in
+which probably Augustus saw the remains.
+
+[129]  A custom of all ages and of people the most remote from each
+other.
+
+[130]  Meaning the degenerate race of the Ptolomean kings.
+
+[131]  The naval trophies were formed of the prows of ships.
+
+[132]  A.U.C. 721.
+
+[133]  Because his father was a Roman and his mother of the race of the
+Parthini, an Illyrian tribe.
+
+[134]  It was usual at Rome, before the elections, for the candidates to
+endeavour to gain popularity by the usual arts.  They would therefore go
+to the houses of the citizens, shake hands with those they met, and
+address them in a kindly manner.  It being of great consequence, upon
+those occasions, to know the names of persons, they were commonly
+attended by a nomenclator, who whispered into their ears that
+information, wherever it was wanted.  Though this kind of officer was
+generally an attendant on men, we meet with instances of their having
+been likewise employed in the service of ladies; either with the view of
+serving candidates to whom they were allied, or of gaining the affections
+of the people.
+
+[135]  Not a bridge over a river, but a military engine used for gaining
+admittance into a fortress.
+
+[136]  Cantabria, in the north of Spain, now the Basque province.
+
+[137]  The ancient Pannonia includes Hungary and part of Austria, Styria
+and Carniola.
+
+[138]  The Rhaetian Alps are that part of the chain bordering on the
+Tyrol.
+
+[139]  The Vindelici principally occupied the country which is now the
+kingdom of Bavaria; and the Salassii, that part of Piedmont which
+includes the valley of Aost.
+
+[140]  The temple of Mars Ultor was erected by Augustus in fulfilment of
+a vow made by him at the battle of Philippi.  It stood in the Forum which
+he built, mentioned in chap. xxxix.  There are no remains of either.
+
+[141]  "The Ovatio was an inferior kind of Triumph, granted in cases
+where the victory was not of great importance, or had been obtained
+without difficulty.  The general entered the city on foot or on
+horseback, crowned with myrtle, not with laurel; and instead of bullocks,
+the sacrifice was performed with a sheep, whence this procession acquired
+its name."--Thomson.
+
+[142]  "The greater Triumph, in which the victorious general and his army
+advanced in solemn procession through the city to the Capitol, was the
+highest military honour which could be obtained in the Roman state.
+Foremost in the procession went musicians of various kinds, singing and
+playing triumphal songs.  Next were led the oxen to be sacrificed, having
+their horns gilt, and their heads adorned with fillets and garlands.
+Then in carriages were brought the spoils taken from the enemy, statues,
+pictures, plate, armour, gold and silver, and brass; with golden crowns,
+and other gifts, sent by the allied and tributary states.  The captive
+princes and generals followed in chains, with their children and
+attendants.  After them came the lictors, having their fasces wreathed
+with laurel, followed by a great company of musicians and dancers dressed
+like Satyrs, and wearing crowns of gold; in the midst of whom was one in
+a female dress, whose business it was, with his looks and gestures, to
+insult the vanquished.  Next followed a long train of persons carrying
+perfumes.  Then came the victorious general, dressed in purple
+embroidered with gold, with a crown of laurel on his head, a branch of
+laurel in his right hand, and in his left an ivory sceptre, with an eagle
+on the top; having his face painted with vermilion, in the same manner as
+the statue of Jupiter on festival days, and a golden Bulla hanging on his
+breast, and containing some amulet, or magical preservative against envy.
+He stood in a gilded chariot, adorned with ivory, and drawn by four white
+horses, sometimes by elephants, attended by his relations, and a great
+crowd of citizens, all in white.  His children used to ride in the
+chariot with him; and that he might not be too much elated, a slave,
+carrying a golden crown sparkling with gems, stood behind him, and
+frequently whispered in his ear, 'Remember that thou art a man!'  After
+the general, followed the consuls and senators on foot, at least
+according to the appointment of Augustus; for they formerly used to go
+before him.  His Legati and military Tribunes commonly rode by his side.
+The victorious army, horse and foot, came last, crowned with laurel, and
+decorated with the gifts which they had received for their valour,
+singing their own and their general's praises, but sometimes throwing out
+railleries against him; and often exclaiming, 'Io Triumphe!' in which
+they were joined by all the citizens, as they passed along.  The oxen
+having been sacrificed, the general gave a magnificent entertainment in
+the Capitol to his friends and the chief men of the city; after which he
+was conducted home by the people, with music and a great number of lamps
+and torches."--Thomson.
+
+[143]  "The Sella Curulis was a chair on which the principal magistrates
+sat in the tribunal upon solemn occasions.  It had no back, but stood on
+four crooked feet, fixed to the extremities of cross pieces of wood,
+joined by a common axis, somewhat in the form of the letter X; was
+covered with leather, and inlaid with ivory.  From its construction, it
+might be occasionally folded together for the convenience of carriage,
+and set down where the magistrate chose to use it."--Thomson.
+
+[144]  Now Saragossa.
+
+[145]  A great and wise man, if he is the same person to whom Cicero's
+letters on the calamities of the times were addressed.  Fam. Epist. c.
+vi, 20, 21.
+
+[146]  A.U.C. 731.
+
+[147]  The Lustrum was a period of five years, at the end of which the
+census of the people was taken.  It was first made by the Roman kings,
+then by the consuls, but after the year 310 from the building of the
+city, by the censors, who were magistrates created for that purpose.  It
+appears, however, that the census was not always held at stated periods,
+and sometimes long intervals intervened.
+
+[148]  Augustus appears to have been in earnest on these occasions, at
+least, in his desire to retire into private life and release himself from
+the cares of government, if we may believe Seneca.  De Brev. Vit. c. 5.
+Of his two intimate advisers, Agrippa gave this counsel, while Mecaenas
+was for continuing his career of ambition.--Eutrop. 1. 53.
+
+[149]  The Tiber has been always remarkable for the frequency of its
+inundations and the ravages they occasioned, as remarked by Pliny, iii.
+5.  Livy mentions several such occurrences, as well as one extensive
+fire, which destroyed great part of the city.
+
+[150]  The well-known saying of Augustus, recorded by Suetonius, that he
+found a city of bricks, but left it of marble, has another version given
+it by Dio, who applies it to his consolidation of the government, to the
+following effect: "That Rome, which I found built of mud, I shall leave
+you firm as a rock."--Dio. lvi. p. 589.
+
+[151]  The same motive which engaged Julius Caesar to build a new forum,
+induced Augustus to erect another.  See his life c. xx.  It stood behind
+the present churches of St. Adrian and St. Luke, and was almost parallel
+with the public forum, but there are no traces of it remaining.  The
+temple of Mars Ultor, adjoining, has been mentioned before, p. 84.
+
+[152]  The temple of the Palatine Apollo stood, according to Bianchini, a
+little beyond the triumphal arch of Titus.  It appears, from the reverse
+of a medal of Augustus, to have been a rotondo, with an open portico,
+something like the temple of Vesta.  The statues of the fifty daughters
+of Danae surrounded the portico; and opposite to them were their husbands
+on horseback.  In this temple were preserved some of the finest works of
+the Greek artists, both in sculpture and painting.  Here, in the presence
+of Augustus, Horace's Carmen Seculare was sung by twenty-seven noble
+youths and as many virgins.  And here, as our author informs us,
+Augustus, towards the end of his reign, often assembled the senate.
+
+[153]  The library adjoined the temple, and was under the protection of
+Apollo.  Caius Julius Hegenus, a freedman of Augustus, and an eminent
+grammarian, was the librarian.
+
+[154]  The three fluted Corinthian columns of white marble, which stand
+on the declivity of the Capitoline hill, are commonly supposed to be the
+remains of the temple of Jupiter Tonans, erected by Augustus.  Part of
+the frieze and cornice are attached to them, which with the capitals of
+the columns are finely wrought.  Suetonius tells us on what occasion this
+temple was erected.  Of all the epithets given to Jupiter, none conveyed
+more terror to superstitious minds than that of the Thunderer--
+
+    Coelo tonantem credidimus Jovem
+    Regnare.--Hor. 1. iii. Ode 5.
+
+We shall find this temple mentioned again in c. xci. of the life of
+Augustus.
+
+[155]  The Portico of Octavia stood between the Flaminian circus and the
+theatre of Marcellus, enclosing the temples of Jupiter and Juno, said to
+have been built in the time of the republic.  Several remains of them
+exist, in the Pescheria or fish-market; they were of the Corinthian
+order, and have been traced and engraved by Piranesi.
+
+[156]  The magnificent theatre of Marcellus was built on the site where
+Suetonius has before informed us that Julius Caesar intended to erect one
+(p. 30).  It stood between the portico of Octavia and the hill of the
+Capitol.  Augustus gave it the name of his nephew Marcellus, though he
+was then dead.  Its ruins are still to be seen in the Piazza Montanara,
+where the Orsini family have a palace erected on the site.
+
+[157]  The theatre of Balbus was the third of the three permanent
+theatres of Rome.  Those of Pompey and Marcellus have been already
+mentioned.
+
+[158]  Among these were, at least, the noble portico, if not the whole,
+of the Pantheon, still the pride of Rome, under the name of the Rotondo,
+on the frieze of which may be seen the inscription,
+
+    M. AGRIPPA. L. F. COS: TERTIUM. FECIT.
+
+Agrippa also built the temple of Neptune, and the portico of the
+Argonauts.
+
+[159]  To whatever extent Augustus may have cleared out the bed of the
+Tiber, the process of its being encumbered with an alluvium of ruins and
+mud has been constantly going on.  Not many years ago, a scheme was set
+on foot for clearing it by private enterprise, principally for the sake
+of the valuable remains of art which it is supposed to contain.
+
+[160]  The Via Flaminia was probably undertaken by the censor Caius
+Flaminius, and finished by his son of the same name, who was consul
+A.U.C. 566, and employed his soldiers in forming it after subduing the
+Ligurians.  It led from the Flumentan gate, now the Porta del Popolo,
+through Etruria and Umbria into the Cisalpine Gaul, ending at Ariminum,
+the frontier town of the territories of the republic, now Rimini, on the
+Adriatic; and is travelled by every tourist who takes the route, north of
+the Appenines, through the States of the Church, to Rome.  Every one
+knows that the great highways, not only in Italy but in the provinces,
+were among the most magnificent and enduring works of the Roman people.
+
+[161]  It had formed a sort of honourable retirement in which Lepidus was
+shelved, to use a familiar expression, when Augustus got rid of him
+quietly from the Triumvirate.  Augustus assumed it A.U.C. 740, thus
+centring the last of all the great offices of the state in his own
+person; that of Pontifex Maximus, being of high importance, from the
+sanctity attached to it, and the influence it gave him over the whole
+system of religion.
+
+[162]  In the thirty-six years since the calendar was corrected by Julius
+Caesar, the priests had erroneously intercalated eleven days instead of
+nine.  See JULIUS, c. xl.
+
+[163]  Sextilis, the sixth month, reckoning from March, in which the year
+of Romulus commenced.
+
+[164]  So Cicero called the day on which he returned from exile, the day
+of his "nativity" and his "new birth," paligennesian, a word which had
+afterwards a theological sense, from its use in the New Testament.
+
+[165]  Capi.  There is a peculiar force in the word here adopted by
+Suetonius; the form used by the Pontifex Maximus, when he took the novice
+from the hand of her father, being Te capio amata, "I have you, my dear,"
+implying the forcible breach of former ties, as in the case of a captive
+taken in war.
+
+[166]  At times when the temple of Janus was shut, and then only, certain
+divinations were made, preparatory to solemn supplication for the public
+health, "as if," says Dio, "even that could not be implored from the
+gods, unless the signs were propitious."  It would be an inquiry of some
+interest, now that the care of the public health is becoming a department
+of the state, with what sanatory measures these becoming solemnities were
+attended.
+
+[167]  Theophrastus mentions the spring and summer flowers most suited
+for these chaplets.  Among the former, were hyacinths, roses, and white
+violets; among the latter, lychinis, amaryllis, iris, and some species of
+lilies.
+
+[168]  Ergastulis.  These were subterranean strong rooms, with narrow
+windows, like dungeons, in the country houses, where incorrigible slaves
+were confined in fetters, in the intervals of the severe tasks in
+grinding at the hand-mills, quarrying stones, drawing water, and other
+hard agricultural labour in which they were employed.
+
+[169]  These months were not only "the Long Vacation" of the lawyers, but
+during them there was a general cessation of business at Rome; the
+calendar exhibiting a constant succession of festivals.  The month of
+December, in particular, was devoted to pleasure and relaxation.
+
+[170]  Causes are mentioned, the hearing of which was so protracted that
+lights were required in the court; and sometimes they lasted, we are
+told, as long as eleven or twelve days.
+
+[171]  Orcini.  They were also called Charonites, the point of the
+sarcasm being, that they owed their elevation to a dead man, one who was
+gone to Orcus, namely Julius Caesar, after whose death Mark Antony
+introduced into the senate many persons of low rank who were designated
+for that honour in a document left by the deceased emperor.
+
+[172]  Cordus Cremutius wrote a History of the Civil Wars, and the Times
+of Augustus, as we are informed by Dio, 6, 52.
+
+[173]  In front of the orchestra.
+
+[174]  The senate usually assembled in one of the temples, and there was
+an altar consecrated to some god in the curia, where they otherwise met,
+as that to Victory in the Julian Curia.
+
+[175]  To allow of their absence during the vintage, always an important
+season in rural affairs in wine-growing countries.  In the middle and
+south of Italy, it begins in September, and, in the worst aspects, the
+grapes are generally cleared before the end of October.  In elevated
+districts they hung on the trees, as we have witnessed, till the month of
+November.
+
+[176]  Julius Caesar had introduced the contrary practice.  See JULIUS,
+c. xx.
+
+[177]  A.U.C. 312, two magistrates were created, under the name of
+Censors, whose office, at first, was to take an account of the number of
+the people, and the value of their estates.  Power was afterwards granted
+them to inspect the morals of the people; and from this period the office
+became of great importance.  After Sylla, the election of censors was
+intermitted for about seventeen years.  Under the emperors, the office of
+censor was abolished; but the chief functions of it were exercised by the
+emperors themselves, and frequently both with caprice and severity.
+
+[178]  Young men until they were seventeen years of age, and young women
+until they were married, wore a white robe bordered with purple, called
+Toga Praetexta.  The former, when they had completed this period, laid
+aside the dress of minority, and assumed the Toga Virilis, or manly
+habit.  The ceremony of changing the Toga was performed with great
+solemnity before the images of the Lares, to whom the Bulla was
+consecrated.  On this occasion, they went either to the Capitol, or to
+some temple, to pay their devotions to the Gods.
+
+[179]  Transvectio: a procession of the equestrian order, which they made
+with great splendour through the city, every year, on the fifteenth of
+July.  They rode on horseback from the temple of Honour, or of Mars,
+without the city, to the Capitol, with wreaths of olive on their heads,
+dressed in robes of scarlet, and bearing in their hands the military
+ornaments which they had received from their general, as a reward of
+their valour.  The knights rode up to the censor, seated on his curule
+chair in front of the Capitol, and dismounting, led their horses in
+review before him.  If any of the knights was corrupt in his morals, had
+diminished his fortune below the legal standard, or even had not taken
+proper care of his horse, the censor ordered him to sell his horse, by
+which he was considered as degraded from the equestrian order.
+
+[180]  Pugillaria were a kind of pocket book, so called, because
+memorandums were written or impinged by the styli, on their waxed
+surface.  They appear to have been of very ancient origin, for we read of
+them in Homer under the name of pinokes.--II. z. 169.
+
+    Graphas en pinaki ptukto thyrophthora polla.
+    Writing dire things upon his tablet's roll.
+
+[181]  Pullatorum; dusky, either from their dark colour, or their being
+soiled.  The toga was white, and was the distinguishing costume of the
+sovereign people of Rome, without which, they were not to appear in
+public; as members of an university are forbidden to do so, without the
+academical dress, or officers in garrisons out of their regimentals.
+
+[182]  Aen. i. 186.
+
+[183]  It is hardly necessary to direct the careful reader's attention to
+views of political economy so worthy of an enlightened prince.  But it
+was easier to make the Roman people wear the toga, than to forego the cry
+of "Panem et Circenses."
+
+[184]  Septa were enclosures made with boards, commonly for the purpose
+of distributing the people into distinct classes, and erected
+occasionally like our hustings.
+
+[185]  The Thensa was a splendid carriage with four wheels, and four
+horses, adorned with ivory and silver, in which, at the Circensian games,
+the images of the gods were drawn in solemn procession from their
+shrines, to a place in the circus, called the Pulvinar, where couches
+were prepared for their reception.  It received its name from thongs
+(lora tensa) stretched before it; and was attended in the procession by
+persons of the first rank, in their most magnificent apparel.  The
+attendants took delight in putting their hands to the traces: and if a
+boy happened to let go the thong which he held, it was an indispensable
+rule that the procession should be renewed.
+
+[186]  The Cavea was the name of the whole of that part of the theatre
+where the spectators sat.  The foremost rows were called cavea prima, of
+cavea; the last, cavea ultima, or summa; and the middle, cavea media.
+
+[187]  A.U.C. 726.
+
+[188]  As in the case of Herod, Joseph. Antiq. Jud. xv. 10.
+
+[189]  The Adriatic and the Tuscan.
+
+[190]  It was first established by Tiberius.  See c. xxxvii.
+
+[191]  Tertullian, in his Apology, c. 34, makes the same remark.  The
+word seems to have conveyed then, as it does in its theological sense
+now, the idea of Divinity, for it is coupled with Deus, God; nunquum se
+dominum vel deum appellare voluerit.
+
+[192]  An inclosure in the middle of the Forum, marking the spot where
+Curtius leapt into the lake, which had been long since filled up.
+
+[193]  Sandalarium, Tragoedum; names of streets, in which temples of tame
+gouts stood, as we now say St. Peter, Cornhill, etc.
+
+[194]  A coin, in value about 8 3/4 d. of our money.
+
+[195]  The senate, as instituted by Romulus, consisted of one hundred
+members, who were called Patres, i. e. Fathers, either upon account of
+their age, or their paternal care of the state.  The number received some
+augmentation under Tullus Hostilius; and Tarquinius Priscus, the fifth
+king of Rome, added a hundred more, who were called Patres minorum
+gentium; those created by Romulus being distinguished by the name of
+Patres majorum gentium.  Those who were chosen into the senate by Brutus,
+after the expulsion of Tarquin the Proud, to supply the place of those
+whom that king had slain, were called Conscripti, i. e. persons written
+or enrolled among the old senators, who alone were properly styled
+Patres.  Hence arose the custom of summoning to the senate those who were
+Patres, and those who were Conscripti; and hence also was applied to the
+senators in general the designation of Patres Conscripti, the particle
+et, and, being understood to connect the two classes of senators.  In the
+time of Julius Caesar, the number of senators was increased to nine
+hundred, and after his death to a thousand; many worthless persons having
+been admitted into the senate during the civil wars.  Augustus afterwards
+reduced the number to six hundred.
+
+[196]  Antonius Musa was a freedman, and had acquired his knowledge of
+medicine while a domestic slave; a very common occurrence.
+
+[197]  A.U.C. 711.
+
+[198]  See cc. x. xi. xii. and xiii.
+
+[199]  One of them was Scipio, the father of Cornelia, whose death is
+lamented by Propertius, iv. 12.  The other is unknown.
+
+[200]  A.U.C. 715.
+
+[201]  He is mentioned by Horace:
+
+    Occidit Daci Cotisonis agimen.  Ode 8, b. iii.
+
+Most probably Antony knew the imputation to be unfounded, and made it for
+the purpose of excusing his own marriage with Cleopatra.
+
+[202]  This form of adoption consisted in a fictitious sale.  See Cicero,
+Topic. iii.
+
+[203]  Curiae.  Romulus divided the people of Rome into three tribes; and
+each tribe into ten Curiae.  The number of tribes was afterwards
+increased by degrees to thirty-five; but that of the Curiae always
+remained the same.
+
+[204]  She was removed to Reggio in Calabria.
+
+[205]  Agrippa was first banished to the little desolate island of
+Planasia, now Pianosa.  It is one of the group in the Tuscan sea, between
+Elba and Corsica.
+
+[206]  A quotation from the Iliad, 40, iii.; where Hector is venting his
+rage on Paris.  The inflexion is slightly changed, the line in the
+original commencing, "Aith' opheles, etc., would thou wert, etc."
+
+[207]  Women called ustriculae, the barbers, were employed in thin
+delicate operation.  It is alluded to by Juvenal, ix. 4, and Martial,
+v. 61.
+
+[208]  Cybele.--Gallus was either the name of a river in Phrygia,
+supposed to cause a certain frenzy in those who drank of its waters, or
+the proper name of the first priest of Cybele.
+
+[209]  A small drum, beat by the finger or thumb, was used by the priests
+of Cybele in their lascivious rites and in other orgies of a similar
+description, These drums were made of inflated skin, circular in shape,
+so that they had some resemblance to the orb which, in the statues of the
+emperor, he is represented as holding in his hand.  The populace, with
+the coarse humour which was permitted to vent itself freely at the
+spectacles, did not hesitate to apply what was said in the play of the
+lewd priest of Cybele, to Augustus, in reference to the scandals attached
+to his private character.  The word cinaedus, translated "wanton," might
+have been rendered by a word in vulgar use, the coarsest in the English
+language, and there is probably still more in the allusion too indelicate
+to be dwelt upon.
+
+[210]  Mark Antony makes use of fondling diminutives of the names of
+Tertia, Terentia, and Rufa, some of Augustus's favourites.
+
+[211]  Dodekatheos; the twelve Dii Majores; they are enumerated in two
+verses by Ennius:--
+
+    Juno, Vesta, Minerva, Ceres, Diana, Venus, Mars;
+    Mercurius, Jovis, Neptunus, Vulcanus, Apollo.
+
+[212]  Probably in the Suburra, where Martial informs us that torturing
+scourges were sold:
+
+    Tonatrix Suburrae faucibus sed et primis,
+    Cruenta pendent qua flagella tortorum.
+                                    Mart. xi. 15, 1.
+
+[213]  Like the gold and silver-smiths of the middle ages, the Roman
+money-lenders united both trades.  See afterwards, NERO, c. 5.  It is
+hardly necessary to remark that vases or vessels of the compound metal
+which went by the name of Corinthian brass, or bronze, were esteemed even
+more valuable than silver plate.
+
+[214]  See c. xxxii. and note.
+
+[215]  The Romans, at their feasts, during the intervals of drinking,
+often played at dice, of which there were two kinds, the tesserae and
+tali.  The former had six sides, like the modern dice; the latter, four
+oblong sides, for the two ends were not regarded.  In playing, they used
+three tesserae and four tali, which were all put into a box wider below
+than above, and being shaken, were thrown out upon the gaming-board or
+table.
+
+[216]  The highest cast was so called.
+
+[217]  Enlarged by Tiberius and succeeding emperors.  The ruins of the
+palace of the Caesars are still seen on the Palatine.
+
+[218]  Probably travertine, a soft limestone, from the Alban Mount, which
+was, therefore, cheaply procured and easily worked.
+
+[219]  It was usual among the Romans to have separate sets of apartments
+for summer and winter use, according to their exposure to the sun.
+
+[220]  This word may be interpreted the Cabinet of Arts.  It was common,
+in the houses of the great, among the Romans, to have an apartment called
+the Study, or Museum.  Pliny says, beautifully, "O mare! O littus! verum
+secretumque mouseion, quam multa invenitis, quam multa dictatis?"  O sea!
+O shore!  Thou real and secluded museum; what treasures of science do you
+not discover to us, how much do you teach us!--Epist. i. 9.
+
+[221]  Mecaenas had a house and gardens on the Esquiline Hill, celebrated
+for their salubrity--
+
+  Nunc licet Esquiliis habitore salubribus.--Hor. Sat. i. 3, 14.
+
+[222]  Such as Baiae, and the islands of Ischia, Procida, Capri, and
+others; the resorts of the opulent nobles, where they had magnificent
+marine villas.
+
+[223]  Now Tivoli, a delicious spot, where Horace had a villa, in which
+he hoped to spend his declining years.
+
+    Ver ubi longum, tepidasque praebet
+    Jupiter brumas: . . . . . . . . . .
+    . . . . . . . . ibi, tu calentem
+    Debita sparges lachryma favillam
+        Vatis amici.        Odes, B. ii. 5.
+
+Adrian also had a magnificent villa near Tibur.
+
+[224]  The Toga was a loose woollen robe, which covered the whole body,
+close at the bottom, but open at the top down to the girdle, and without
+sleeves.  The right arm was thus at liberty, and the left supported a
+flap of the toga, which was drawn up, and thrown back over the left
+shoulder; forming what is called the Sinus, a fold or cavity upon the
+breast, in which things might be carried, and with which the face or head
+might be occasionally covered.  When a person did any work, he tucked up
+his toga, and girt it round him.  The toga of the rich and noble was
+finer and larger than that of others; and a new toga was called Pexa.
+None but Roman citizens were permitted to wear the toga; and banished
+persons were prohibited the use of it.  The colour of the toga was white.
+The clavus was a purple border, by which the senators, and other orders,
+with the magistrates, were distinguished; the breadth of the stripe
+corresponding with their rank.
+
+[225]  In which the whole humour of the thing consisted either in the
+uses to which these articles were applied, or in their names having in
+Latin a double signification; matters which cannot be explained with any
+decency.
+
+[226]  Casum bubulum manu pressum; probably soft cheese, not reduced to
+solid consistence in the cheese-press.
+
+[227]  A species of fig tree, known in some places as Adam's fig.  We
+have gathered them, in those climates, of the latter crop, as late as the
+month of November.
+
+[228]  Sabbatis Jejunium.  Augustus might have been better informed of
+the Jewish rites, from his familiarity with Herod and others; for it is
+certain that their sabbath was not a day of fasting.  Justin, however,
+fell into the same error: he says, that Moses appointed the sabbath-day
+to be kept for ever by the Jews as a fast, in memory of their fasting for
+seven days in the deserts of Arabia, xxxvi. 2. 14.  But we find that
+there was a weekly fast among the Jews, which is perhaps what is here
+meant; the Sabbatis Jejunium being equivalent to the Naesteuo dis tou
+sabbatou, 'I fast twice in the week' of the Pharisee, in St. Luke
+xviii. 12.
+
+[229]  The Rhaetian wines had a great reputation; Virgil says,
+
+    ------Ex quo te carmine dicam,
+    Rhaetica.                  Georg. ii. 96.
+
+The vineyards lay at the foot of the Rhaetian Alps; their produce, we
+have reason to believe, was not a very generous liquor.
+
+[230]  A custom in all warm countries; the siesta of the Italians in
+later times.
+
+[231]  The strigil was used in the baths for scraping the body when in a
+state of perspiration.  It was sometimes made of gold or silver, and not
+unlike in form the instrument used by grooms about horses when profusely
+sweating or splashed with mud.
+
+[232]  His physician, mentioned c. lix.
+
+[233]  Sept. 21st, a sickly season at Rome.
+
+[234]  Feminalibus et tibialibus: Neither the ancient Romans or the
+Greeks wore breeches, trews, or trowsers, which they despised as
+barbarian articles of dress.  The coverings here mentioned were swathings
+for the legs and thighs, used mostly in cases of sickness or infirmity,
+and when otherwise worn, reckoned effeminate.  But soon after the Romans
+became acquainted with the German and Celtic nations, the habit of
+covering the lower extremities, barbarous as it had been held, was
+generally adopted.
+
+[235]  Albula.  On the left of the road to Tivoli, near the ruins of
+Adrian's villa.  The waters are sulphureous, and the deposit from them
+causes incrustations on twigs and other matters plunged in the springs.
+See a curious account of this stream in Gell's Topography, published by
+Bohn, p 40.
+
+[236]  In spongam incubuisse, literally has fallen upon a sponge, as Ajax
+is said to have perished by falling on his own sword.
+
+[237]  Myrobrecheis.  Suetonius often preserves expressive Greek phrases
+which Augustus was in the habit of using.  This compound word meant
+literally, myrrh-scented, perfumed.
+
+[238]  These are variations of language of small importance, which can
+only be understood in the original language.
+
+[239]  It may create a smile to hear that, to prevent danger to the
+public, Augustus decreed that no new buildings erected in a public
+thoroughfare should exceed in height seventy feet.  Trajan reduced it to
+sixty.
+
+[240]  Virgil is said to have recited before him the whole of the second,
+fourth, and sixth books of the Aeneid; and Octavia, being present, when
+the poet came to the passage referring to her son, commencing, "Tu
+Marcellus eris," was so much affected that she was carried out fainting.
+
+[241]  Chap. xix.
+
+[242]  Perhaps the point of the reply lay in the temple of Jupiter Tonans
+being placed at the approach to the Capitol from the Forum?  See c. xxix.
+and c. xv., with the note.
+
+[243]  If these trees flourished at Rome in the time of Augustus, the
+winters there must have been much milder than they now are.  There was
+one solitary palm standing in the garden of a convent some years ago, but
+it was of very stunted growth.
+
+[244]  The Republican forms were preserved in some of the larger towns.
+
+[245]  "The Nundinae occurred every ninth day, when a market was held at
+Rome, and the people came to it from the country.  The practice was not
+then introduced amongst the Romans, of dividing their time into weeks, as
+we do, in imitation of the Jews.  Dio, who flourished under Severus, says
+that it first took place a little before his time, and was derived from
+the Egyptians."--Thomson.  A fact, if well founded, of some importance.
+
+[246]  "The Romans divided their months into calends, nones, and ides.
+The first day of the month was the calends of that month; whence they
+reckoned backwards, distinguishing the time by the day before the
+calends, the second day before the calends, and so on, to the ides of the
+preceding month.  In eight months of the year, the nones were the fifth
+day, and the ides the thirteenth: but in March, May, July, and October,
+the nones fell on the seventh, and the ides on the fifteenth.  From the
+nones they reckoned backwards to the calends, as they also did from the
+ides to the nones."--Ib.
+
+[247]  The early Christians shared with the Jews the aversion of the
+Romans to their religion, more than that of others, arising probably from
+its monotheistic and exclusive character.  But we find from Josephus and
+Philo that Augustus was in other respects favourable to the Jews.
+
+[248]  Strabo tells us that Mendes was a city of Egypt near Lycopolis.
+Asclepias wrote a book in Greek with the idea of theologoumenon, in
+defence of some very strange religious rites, of which the example in the
+text is a specimen.
+
+[249]  Velletri stands on very high ground, commanding extensive views of
+the Pontine marshes and the sea.
+
+[250]  Munda was a city in the Hispania Boetica, where Julius Caesar
+fought a battle.  See c. lvi.
+
+[251]  The good omen, in this instance, was founded upon the etymology of
+the names of the ass and its driver; the former of which, in Greek,
+signifies fortunate, and the latter, victorious.
+
+[252]  Aesar is a Greek word with an Etruscan termination; aisa
+signifying fate.
+
+[253]  Astura stood not far from Terracina, on the road to Naples.
+Augustus embarked there for the islands lying off that coast.
+
+[254]  "Puteoli"--"A ship of Alexandria."  Words which bring to our
+recollection a passage in the voyage of St. Paul, Acts xxviii. 11-13.
+Alexandria was at that time the seat of an extensive commerce, and not
+only exported to Rome and other cities of Italy, vast quantities of corn
+and other products of Egypt, but was the mart for spices and other
+commodities, the fruits of the traffic with the east.
+
+[255]  The Toga has been already described in a note to c. lxxiii.  The
+Pallium was a cloak, generally worn by the Greeks, both men and women,
+freemen and slaves, but particularly by philosophers.
+
+[256]  Masgabas seems, by his name, to have been of African origin.
+
+[257]  A courtly answer from the Professor of Science, in which character
+he attended Tiberius.  We shall hear more of him in the reign of that
+emperor.
+
+[258]  Augustus was born A.U.C. 691, and died A.U.C. 766.
+
+[259]  Municipia were towns which had obtained the rights of Roman
+citizens.  Some of them had all which could be enjoyed without residing
+at Rome.  Others had the right of serving in the Roman legions, but not
+that of voting, nor of holding civil offices.  The municipia retained
+their own laws and customs; nor were they obliged to receive the Roman
+laws unless they chose it.
+
+[260]  Bovillae, a small place on the Appian Way, about nineteen miles
+from Rome, now called Frattochio.
+
+[261]  Dio tells us that the devoted Livia joined with the knights in
+this pious office, which occupied them during five days.
+
+[262]  For the Flaminian Way, see before, p. 94, note.  The superb
+monument erected by Augustus over the sepulchre of the imperial family
+was of white marble, rising in stages to a great height, and crowned by a
+dome, on which stood a statue of Augustus.  Marcellus was the first who
+was buried in the sepulchre beneath.  It stood near the present Porta del
+Popolo; and the Bustum, where the bodies of the emperor and his family
+were burnt, is supposed to have stood on the site of the church of the
+Madonna of that name.
+
+[263]  The distinction between the Roman people and the tribes, is also
+observed by Tacitus, who substitutes the word plebs, meaning, the lowest
+class of the populace.
+
+[264]  Those of his father Octavius, and his father by adoption, Julius
+Caesar.
+
+[265]  See before, c. 65.  But he bequeathed a legacy to his daughter,
+Livia.
+
+[266]  Virgil.
+
+[267]  Ibid.
+
+[268]  Ibid.
+
+[269]  Geor. ii.
+
+[270]  I am prevented from entering into greater details, both by the
+size of my volume, and my anxiety to complete the undertaking.
+
+[271]  After performing these immortal achievements, while he was holding
+an assembly of the people for reviewing his army in the plain near the
+lake of Capra, a storm suddenly rose, attended with great thunder and
+lightning, and enveloped the king in so dense a mist, that it took all
+sight of him from the assembly.  Nor was Romulus after this seen on
+earth.  The consternation being at length over, and fine clear weather
+succeeding so turbulent a day, when the Roman youth saw the royal seat
+empty, though they readily believed the Fathers who had stood nearest
+him, that he was carried aloft by the storm, yet struck with the dread as
+it were of orphanage, they preserved a sorrowful silence for a
+considerable time.  Then a commencement having been made by a few, the
+whole multitude salute Romulus a god, son of a god, the king and parent
+of the Roman city; they implore his favour with prayers, that he would be
+pleased always propitiously to preserve his own offspring.  I believe
+that even then there were some who silently surmised that the king had
+been torn in pieces by the hands of the Fathers; for this rumour also
+spread, but was not credited; their admiration of the man and the
+consternation felt at the moment, attached importance to the other
+report.  By the contrivance also of one individual, additional credit is
+said to have been gained to the matter.  For Proculus Julius, whilst the
+state was still troubled with regret for the king, and felt incensed
+against the senators, a person of weight, as we are told, in any matter,
+however important, comes forward to the assembly.  "Romans," he said,
+"Romulus, the father of this city, suddenly descending from heaven,
+appeared to me this day at day-break.  While I stood covered with awe,
+and filled with a religious dread, beseeching him to allow me to see him
+face to face, he said; 'Go tell the Romans, that the gods do will, that
+my Rome should become the capital of the world.  Therefore let them
+cultivate the art of war, and let them know and hand down to posterity,
+that no human power shall be able to withstand the Roman arms.'  Having
+said this, he ascended up to heaven."  It is surprising what credit was
+given to the man on his making this announcement, and how much the regret
+of the common people and army for the loss of Romulus, was assuaged upon
+the assurance of his immortality.
+
+[272]  Padua.
+
+[273]  Commentators seem to have given an erroneous and unbecoming sense
+to Cicero's exclamation, when they suppose that the object understood, as
+connected with altera, related to himself.  Hope is never applied in this
+signification, but to a young person, of whom something good or great is
+expected; and accordingly, Virgil, who adopted the expression, has very
+properly applied it to Ascanius:
+
+    Et juxta Ascanius, magmae spes altera Romae.    Aeneid, xii.
+
+    And by his side Ascanius took his place,
+    The second hope of Rome's immortal race.
+
+Cicero, at the time when he could have heard a specimen of Virgil's
+Eclogues, must have been near his grand climacteric; besides that, his
+virtues and talents had long been conspicuous, and were past the state of
+hope.  It is probable, therefore, that altera referred to some third
+person, spoken of immediately before, as one who promised to do honour to
+his country.  It might refer to Octavius, of whom Cicero at this time,
+entertained a high opinion; or it may have been spoken in an absolute
+manner, without reference to any person.
+
+[274]  I was born at Mantua, died in Calabria, and my tomb is at
+Parthenope: pastures, rural affairs, and heroes are the themes of my
+poems.
+
+[275]  The last members of these two lines, from the commas to the end
+are said to have been supplied by Erotes, Virgil's librarian.
+
+[276]  Carm. i. 17.
+
+[277]  "The Medea of Ovid proves, in my opinion, how surpassing would
+have been his success, if he had allowed his genius free scope, instead
+of setting bounds to it."
+
+[278]  Two faults have ruined me; my verse, and my mistake.
+
+[279]  These lines are thus rendered in the quaint version of Zachary
+Catlin.
+
+    I suffer 'cause I chanced a fault to spy,
+    So that my crime doth in my eyesight lie.
+
+    Alas! why wait my luckless hap to see
+    A fault at unawares to ruin me?
+
+[280]  "I myself employed you as ready agents in love, when my early
+youth sported in numbers adapted to it."--Riley's Ovid.
+
+[281]  "I long since erred by one composition; a fault that is not recent
+endures a punishment inflicted thus late.  I had already published my
+poems, when, according to my privilege, I passed in review so many times
+unmolested as one of the equestrian order, before you the enquirer into
+criminal charges.  Is it then possible that the writings which, in my
+want of confidence, I supposed would not have injured me when young, have
+now been my ruin in my old age?"--Riley's Ovid.
+
+[282]  This place, now called Temisvar, or Tomisvar, stands on one of the
+mouths of the Danube, about sixty-five miles E.N.E. from Silistria.  The
+neighbouring bay of the Black Sea is still called the Gulf of Baba.
+
+[283]  "It appears to me, therefore, more reasonable to pursue glory by
+means of the intellect, than of bodily strength; and, since the life we
+enjoy is short to make the remembrance of it as lasting as possible."
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of D. Octavius Caesar Augustus (Augustus)
+by C. Suetonius Tranquillus
+
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook The Lives Of The Caesars, by Suetonius, V2
+#2 in our series by C. Suetonious Tranquillus
+
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+Title: The Lives Of The Twelve Caesars, Volume 2.
+       [AUGUSTUS] 
+
+Author: C. Suetonius Tranquillus
+
+Release Date: August, 2004  [EBook #6387]
+[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule]
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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LIVES OF THE CAESARS, SUETONIUS, V2 ***
+
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+This eBook was produced by Tapio Riikonen
+and David Widger <widger@cecomet.net>
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+
+
+                               THE LIVES
+                                   OF
+                           THE TWELVE CAESARS
+
+                                   By
+                       C. Suetonius Tranquillus;
+
+                          To which are added,
+
+         HIS LIVES OF THE GRAMMARIANS, RHETORICIANS, AND POETS.
+
+
+                          The Translation of
+                        Alexander Thomson, M.D.
+
+                        revised and corrected by
+                         T.Forester, Esq., A.M.
+
+
+
+
+
+(71)
+
+
+                       D. OCTAVIUS CAESAR AUGUSTUS.
+
+
+I.  That the family of the Octavii was of the first distinction in
+Velitrae [106], is rendered evident by many circumstances.  For in the
+most frequented part of the town, there was, not long since, a street
+named the Octavian; and an altar was to be seen, consecrated to one
+Octavius, who being chosen general in a war with some neighbouring
+people, the enemy making a sudden attack, while he was sacrificing to
+Mars, he immediately snatched the entrails of the victim from off the
+fire, and offered them half raw upon the altar; after which, marching out
+to battle, he returned victorious.  This incident gave rise to a law, by
+which it was enacted, that in all future times the entrails should be
+offered to Mars in the same manner; and the rest of the victim be carried
+to the Octavii.
+
+II.  This family, as well as several in Rome, was admitted into the
+senate by Tarquinius Priscus, and soon afterwards placed by Servius
+Tullius among the patricians; but in process of time it transferred
+itself to the plebeian order, and, after the lapse of a long interval,
+was restored by Julius Caesar to the rank of patricians.  The first
+person of the family raised by the suffrages of the people to the
+magistracy, was Caius Rufus.  He obtained the quaestorship, and had two
+sons, Cneius and Caius; from whom are descended the two branches of the
+Octavian family, which have had very different fortunes.  For Cneius, and
+his descendants in uninterrupted succession, held all the highest offices
+of the state; whilst Caius and his posterity, whether from their
+circumstances or their choice, remained in the equestrian order until the
+father of Augustus.  The great-grandfather of Augustus served as a
+military tribune in the second Punic war in Sicily, under the command of
+Aemilius Pappus.  His grandfather contented himself with bearing the
+public offices of his own municipality, and grew old in the tranquil
+enjoyment of an ample patrimony.  Such is the account given (72) by
+different authors.  Augustus himself, however, tells us nothing more than
+that he was descended of an equestrian family, both ancient and rich, of
+which his father was the first who obtained the rank of senator.  Mark
+Antony upbraidingly tells him that his great-grandfather was a freedman
+of the territory of Thurium [107], and a rope-maker, and his grandfather
+a usurer.  This is all the information I have any where met with,
+respecting the ancestors of Augustus by the father's side.
+
+III.  His father Caius Octavius was, from his earliest years, a person
+both of opulence and distinction: for which reason I am surprised at
+those who say that he was a money-dealer [108], and was employed in
+scattering bribes, and canvassing for the candidates at elections, in the
+Campus Martius.  For being bred up in all the affluence of a great
+estate, he attained with ease to honourable posts, and discharged the
+duties of them with much distinction.  After his praetorship, he obtained
+by lot the province of Macedonia; in his way to which he cut off some
+banditti, the relics of the armies of Spartacus and Catiline, who had
+possessed themselves of the territory of Thurium; having received from
+the senate an extraordinary commission for that purpose.  In his
+government of the province, he conducted himself with equal justice and
+resolution; for he defeated the Bessians and Thracians in a great battle,
+and treated the allies of the republic in such a manner, that there are
+extant letters from M. Tullius Cicero, in which he advises and exhorts
+his brother Quintus, who then held the proconsulship of Asia with no
+great reputation, to imitate the example of his neighbour Octavius, in
+gaining the affections of the allies of Rome.
+
+IV.  After quitting Macedonia, before he could declare himself a
+candidate for the consulship, he died suddenly, leaving behind him a
+daughter, the elder Octavia, by Ancharia; and another daughter, Octavia
+the younger, as well as Augustus, by Atia, who was the daughter of Marcus
+Atius Balbus, and Julia, sister to Caius Julius Caesar.  Balbus was, by
+the father's (73) side, of a family who were natives of Aricia [109], and
+many of whom had been in the senate.  By the mother's side he was nearly
+related to Pompey the Great; and after he had borne the office of
+praetor, was one of the twenty commissioners appointed by the Julian law
+to divide the land in Campania among the people.  But Mark Antony,
+treating with contempt Augustus's descent even by the mother's side, says
+that his great grand-father was of African descent, and at one time kept
+a perfumer's shop, and at another, a bake-house, in Aricia.  And Cassius
+of Parma, in a letter, taxes Augustus with being the son not only of a
+baker, but a usurer.  These are his words: "Thou art a lump of thy
+mother's meal, which a money-changer of Nerulum taking from the newest
+bake-house of Aricia, kneaded into some shape, with his hands all
+discoloured by the fingering of money."
+
+V.  Augustus was born in the consulship of Marcus Tullius Cicero and
+Caius Antonius [110], upon the ninth of the calends of October [the 23rd
+September], a little before sunrise, in the quarter of the Palatine Hill
+[111], and the street called The Ox-Heads [112], where now stands a
+chapel dedicated to him, and built a little after his death.  For, as it
+is recorded in the proceedings of the senate, when Caius Laetorius, a
+young man of a patrician family, in pleading before the senators for a
+lighter sentence, upon his being convicted of adultery, alleged, besides
+his youth and quality, that he was the possessor, and as it were the
+guardian, of the ground which the Divine Augustus first touched upon his
+coming into the world; and entreated that (74) he might find favour, for
+the sake of that deity, who was in a peculiar manner his; an act of the
+senate was passed, for the consecration of that part of his house in
+which Augustus was born.
+
+VI.  His nursery is shewn to this day, in a villa belonging to the
+family, in the suburbs of Velitrae; being a very small place, and much
+like a pantry.  An opinion prevails in the neighbourhood, that he was
+also born there.  Into this place no person presumes to enter, unless
+upon necessity, and with great devotion, from a belief, for a long time
+prevalent, that such as rashly enter it are seized with great horror and
+consternation, which a short while since was confirmed by a remarkable
+incident.  For when a new inhabitant of the house had, either by mere
+chance, or to try the truth of the report, taken up his lodging in that
+apartment, in the course of the night, a few hours afterwards, he was
+thrown out by some sudden violence, he knew not how, and was found in a
+state of stupefaction, with the coverlid of his bed, before the door of
+the chamber.
+
+VII.  While he was yet an infant, the surname of Thurinus was given him,
+in memory of the birth-place of his family, or because, soon after he was
+born, his father Octavius had been successful against the fugitive
+slaves, in the country near Thurium.  That he was surnamed Thurinus, I
+can affirm upon good foundation, for when a boy, I had a small bronze
+statue of him, with that name upon it in iron letters, nearly effaced by
+age, which I presented to the emperor [113], by whom it is now revered
+amongst the other tutelary deities in his chamber.  He is also often
+called Thurinus contemptuously, by Mark Antony in his letters; to which
+he makes only this reply: "I am surprised that my former name should be
+made a subject of reproach."  He afterwards assumed the name of Caius
+Caesar, and then of Augustus; the former in compliance with the will of
+his great-uncle, and the latter upon a motion of Munatius Plancus in the
+senate.  For when some proposed to confer upon him the name of Romulus,
+as being, in a manner, a second founder of the city, it was resolved that
+he should rather be called Augustus, a surname not only new, but of more
+dignity, because places devoted to religion, and those in which anything
+(75) is consecrated by augury, are denominated august, either from the
+word auctus, signifying augmentation, or ab avium gestu, gustuve, from
+the flight and feeding of birds; as appears from this verse of Ennius:
+
+    When glorious Rome by august augury was built. [114]
+
+VIII.  He lost his father when he was only four years of age; and, in his
+twelfth year, pronounced a funeral oration in praise of his grand-mother
+Julia.  Four years afterwards, having assumed the robe of manhood, he was
+honoured with several military rewards by Caesar in his African triumph,
+although he took no part in the war, on account of his youth.  Upon his
+uncle's expedition to Spain against the sons of Pompey, he was followed
+by his nephew, although he was scarcely recovered from a dangerous
+sickness; and after being shipwrecked at sea, and travelling with very
+few attendants through roads that were infested with the enemy, he at
+last came up with him.  This activity gave great satisfaction to his
+uncle, who soon conceived an increasing affection for him, on account of
+such indications of character.  After the subjugation of Spain, while
+Caesar was meditating an expedition against the Dacians and Parthians, he
+was sent before him to Apollonia, where he applied himself to his
+studies; until receiving intelligence that his uncle was murdered, and
+that he was appointed his heir, he hesitated for some time whether he
+should call to his aid the legions stationed in the neighbourhood; but he
+abandoned the design as rash and premature.  However, returning to Rome,
+he took possession of his inheritance, although his mother was
+apprehensive that such a measure might be attended with danger, and his
+step-father, Marcius Philippus, a man of consular rank, very earnestly
+dissuaded him from it.  From this time, collecting together a strong
+military force, he first held the government in conjunction with Mark
+Antony and Marcus Lepidus, then with Antony only, for nearly twelve
+years, and at last in his own hands during a period of four and forty.
+
+IX.  Having thus given a very short summary of his life, I shall
+prosecute the several parts of it, not in order of time, but arranging
+his acts into distinct classes, for the sake of (76) perspicuity.  He was
+engaged in five civil wars, namely those of Modena, Philippi, Perugia,
+Sicily, and Actium; the first and last of which were against Antony, and
+the second against Brutus and Cassius; the third against Lucius Antonius,
+the triumvir's brother, and the fourth against Sextus Pompeius, the son
+of Cneius Pompeius.
+
+X.  The motive which gave rise to all these wars was the opinion he
+entertained that both his honour and interest were concerned in revenging
+the murder of his uncle, and maintaining the state of affairs he had
+established.  Immediately after his return from Apollonia, he formed the
+design of taking forcible and unexpected measures against Brutus and
+Cassius; but they having foreseen the danger and made their escape, he
+resolved to proceed against them by an appeal to the laws in their
+absence, and impeach them for the murder.  In the mean time, those whose
+province it was to prepare the sports in honour of Caesar's last victory
+in the civil war, not daring to do it, he undertook it himself.  And that
+he might carry into effect his other designs with greater authority, he
+declared himself a candidate in the room of a tribune of the people who
+happened to die at that time, although he was of a patrician family, and
+had not yet been in the senate.  But the consul, Mark Antony, from whom
+he had expected the greatest assistance, opposing him in his suit, and
+even refusing to do him so much as common justice, unless gratified with
+a large bribe, he went over to the party of the nobles, to whom he
+perceived Sylla to be odious, chiefly for endeavouring to drive Decius
+Brutus, whom he besieged in the town of Modena, out of the province,
+which had been given him by Caesar, and confirmed to him by the senate.
+At the instigation of persons about him, he engaged some ruffians to
+murder his antagonist; but the plot being discovered, and dreading a
+similar attempt upon himself, he gained over Caesar's veteran soldiers,
+by distributing among them all the money he could collect.  Being now
+commissioned by the senate to command the troops he had gathered, with
+the rank of praetor, and in conjunction with Hirtius and Pansa, who had
+accepted the consulship, to carry assistance to Decius Brutus, he put an
+end to the war by two battles in three months.  Antony writes, that in
+the former of these he ran away, and two days afterwards made his
+appearance (77) without his general's cloak and his horse.  In the last
+battle, however, it is certain that he performed the part not only of a
+general, but a soldier; for, in the heat of the battle; when the
+standard-bearer of his legion was severely wounded, he took the eagle
+upon his shoulders, and carried it a long time.
+
+XI.  In this war [115], Hirtius being slain in battle, and Pansa dying a
+short time afterwards of a wound, a report was circulated that they both
+were killed through his means, in order that, when Antony fled, the
+republic having lost its consuls, he might have the victorious armies
+entirely at his own command.  The death of Pansa was so fully believed to
+have been caused by undue means, that Glyco, his surgeon, was placed in
+custody, on a suspicion of having poisoned his wound.  And to this,
+Aquilius Niger adds, that he killed Hirtius, the other consul, in the
+confusion of the battle, with his own hands.
+
+XII.  But upon intelligence that Antony, after his defeat, had been
+received by Marcus Lepidus, and that the rest of the generals and armies
+had all declared for the senate, he, without any hesitation, deserted
+from the party of the nobles; alleging as an excuse for his conduct, the
+actions and sayings of several amongst them; for some said, "he was a
+mere boy," and others threw out, "that he ought to be promoted to
+honours, and cut off," to avoid the making any suitable acknowledgment
+either to him or the veteran legions.  And the more to testify his regret
+for having before attached himself to the other faction, he fined the
+Nursini in a large sum of money, which they were unable to pay, and then
+expelled them from the town, for having inscribed upon a monument,
+erected at the public charge to their countrymen who were slain in the
+battle of Modena, "That they fell in the cause of liberty."
+
+XIII.  Having entered into a confederacy with Antony and Lepidus, he
+brought the war at Philippi to an end in two battles, although he was at
+that time weak, and suffering from sickness [116].  In the first battle
+he was driven from his camp, (78) and with some difficulty made his
+escape to the wing of the army commanded by Antony.  And now, intoxicated
+with success, he sent the head of Brutus [117] to be cast at the foot of
+Caesar's statue, and treated the most illustrious of the prisoners not
+only with cruelty, but with abusive language; insomuch that he is said to
+have answered one of them who humbly intreated that at least he might not
+remain unburied, "That will be in the power of the birds."  Two others,
+father and son, who begged for their lives, he ordered to cast lots which
+of them should live, or settle it between themselves by the sword; and
+was a spectator of both their deaths: for the father offering his life to
+save his son, and being accordingly executed, the son likewise killed
+himself upon the spot.  On this account, the rest of the prisoners, and
+amongst them Marcus Favonius, Cato's rival, being led up in fetters,
+after they had saluted Antony, the general, with much respect, reviled
+Octavius in the foulest language.  After this victory, dividing between
+them the offices of the state, Mark Antony [118] undertook to restore
+order in the east, while Caesar conducted the veteran soldiers back to
+Italy, and settled them in colonies on the lands belonging to the
+municipalities.  But he had the misfortune to please neither the soldiers
+nor the owners of the lands; one party complaining of the injustice done
+them, in being violently ejected from their possessions, and the other,
+that they were not rewarded according to their merit. [119]
+
+XIV.  At this time he obliged Lucius Antony, who, presuming upon his own
+authority as consul, and his brother's power, was raising new commotions,
+to fly to Perugia, and forced him, by famine, to surrender at last,
+although not without having been exposed to great hazards, both before
+the war and during its continuance.  For a common soldier having got into
+the seats of the equestrian order in the theatre, at the public
+spectacles, Caesar ordered him to be removed by an officer; and a rumour
+being thence spread by his enemies, that he had (79) put the man to death
+by torture, the soldiers flocked together so much enraged, that he
+narrowly escaped with his life.  The only thing that saved him, was the
+sudden appearance of the man, safe and sound, no violence having been
+offered him.  And whilst he was sacrificing under the walls of Perugia,
+he nearly fell into the hands of a body of gladiators, who sallied out of
+the town.
+
+XV.  After the taking of Perugia [120], he sentenced a great number of
+the prisoners to death, making only one reply to all who implored pardon,
+or endeavoured to excuse themselves, "You must die."  Some authors write,
+that three hundred of the two orders, selected from the rest, were
+slaughtered, like victims, before an altar raised to Julius Caesar, upon
+the ides of March [15th April] [121].  Nay, there are some who relate,
+that he entered upon the war with no other view, than that his secret
+enemies, and those whom fear more than affection kept quiet, might be
+detected, by declaring themselves, now they had an opportunity, with
+Lucius Antony at their head; and that having defeated them, and
+confiscated their estates, he might be enabled to fulfil his promises to
+the veteran soldiers.
+
+XVI.  He soon commenced the Sicilian war, but it was protracted by
+various delays during a long period [122]; at one time for the purpose of
+repairing his fleets, which he lost twice by storm, even in the summer;
+at another, while patching up a peace, to which he was forced by the
+clamours of the people, in consequence of a famine occasioned by Pompey's
+cutting off the supply of corn by sea.  But at last, having built a new
+fleet, and obtained twenty thousand manumitted slaves [123], who were
+given him for the oar, he formed the Julian harbour at Baiae, by letting
+the sea into the Lucrine and Avernian lakes; and having exercised his
+forces there during the whole winter, he defeated Pompey betwixt Mylae
+and Naulochus; although (80) just as the engagement commenced, he
+suddenly fell into such a profound sleep, that his friends were obliged
+to wake him to give the signal.  This, I suppose, gave occasion for
+Antony's reproach: "You were not able to take a clear view of the fleet,
+when drawn up in line of battle, but lay stupidly upon your back, gazing
+at the sky; nor did you get up and let your men see you, until Marcus
+Agrippa had forced the enemies' ships to sheer off."  Others imputed to
+him both a saying and an action which were indefensible; for, upon the
+loss of his fleets by storm, he is reported to have said: "I will conquer
+in spite of Neptune;" and at the next Circensian games, he would not
+suffer the statue of that God to be carried in procession as usual.
+Indeed he scarcely ever ran more or greater risks in any of his wars than
+in this.  Having transported part of his army to Sicily, and being on his
+return for the rest, he was unexpectedly attacked by Demochares and
+Apollophanes, Pompey's admirals, from whom he escaped with great
+difficulty, and with one ship only.  Likewise, as he was travelling on
+foot through the Locrian territory to Rhegium, seeing two of Pompey's
+vessels passing by that coast, and supposing them to be his own, he went
+down to the shore, and was very nearly taken prisoner.  On this occasion,
+as he was making his escape by some bye-ways, a slave belonging to
+Aemilius Paulus, who accompanied him, owing him a grudge for the
+proscription of Paulus, the father of Aemilius, and thinking he had now
+an opportunity of revenging it, attempted to assassinate him.  After the
+defeat of Pompey, one of his colleagues [124], Marcus Lepidus, whom he
+had summoned to his aid from Africa, affecting great superiority, because
+he was at the head of twenty legions, and claiming for himself the
+principal management of affairs in a threatening manner, he divested him
+of his command, but, upon his humble submission, granted him his life,
+but banished him for life to Circeii.
+
+XVII.  The alliance between him and Antony, which had always been
+precarious, often interrupted, and ill cemented by repeated
+reconciliations, he at last entirely dissolved.  And to make it known to
+the world how far Antony had degenerated from patriotic feelings, he
+caused a will of his, which had been left at Rome, and in which he had
+nominated Cleopatra's children, amongst others, as his heirs, to be
+opened and read in an assembly of the people.  Yet upon his being
+declared an enemy, he sent to him all his relations and friends, among
+whom were Caius Sosius and Titus Domitius, at that time consuls.  He
+likewise spoke favourably in public of the people of Bologna, for joining
+in the association with the rest of Italy to support his cause, because
+they had, in former times, been under the protection of the family of the
+Antonii.  And not long afterwards he defeated him in a naval engagement
+near Actium, which was prolonged to so late an hour, that, after the
+victory, he was obliged to sleep on board his ship.  From Actium he went
+to the isle of Samoa to winter; but being alarmed with the accounts of a
+mutiny amongst the soldiers he had selected from the main body of his
+army sent to Brundisium after the victory, who insisted on their being
+rewarded for their service and discharged, he returned to Italy.  In his
+passage thither, he encountered two violent storms, the first between the
+promontories of Peloponnesus and Aetolia, and the other about the
+Ceraunian mountains; in both which a part of his Liburnian squadron was
+sunk, the spars and rigging of his own ship carried away, and the rudder
+broken in pieces.  He remained only twenty-seven days at Brundisium,
+until the demands of the soldiers were settled, and then went, by way of
+Asia and Syria, to Egypt, where laying siege to Alexandria, whither
+Antony had fled with Cleopatra, he made himself master of it in a short
+time.  He drove Antony to kill himself, after he had used every effort to
+obtain conditions of peace, and he saw his corpse [126].  Cleopatra he
+anxiously wished to save for his triumph; and when she was supposed to
+have been bit to death by an asp, he sent for the Psylli [127] to (82)
+endeavour to suck out the poison.  He allowed them to be buried together
+in the same grave, and ordered a mausoleum, begun by themselves, to be
+completed.  The eldest of Antony's two sons by Fulvia he commanded to be
+taken by force from the statue of Julius Caesar, to which he had fled,
+after many fruitless supplications for his life, and put him to death.
+The same fate attended Caesario, Cleopatra's son by Caesar, as he
+pretended, who had fled for his life, but was retaken.  The children
+which Antony had by Cleopatra he saved, and brought up and cherished in a
+manner suitable to their rank, just as if they had been his own
+relations.
+
+XVIII.  At this time he had a desire to see the sarcophagus and body of
+Alexander the Great, which, for that purpose, were taken out of the cell
+in which they rested [128]; and after viewing them for some time, he paid
+honours to the memory of that prince, by offering a golden crown, and
+scattering flowers upon the body [129].  Being asked if he wished to see
+the tombs of the Ptolemies also; he replied, "I wish to see a king, not
+dead men." [130]  He reduced Egypt into the form of a province and to
+render it more fertile, and more capable of supplying Rome with corn, he
+employed his army to scour the canals, into which the Nile, upon its
+rise, discharges itself; but which during a long series of years had
+become nearly choked up with mud.  To perpetuate the glory of his victory
+at Actium, he built the city of Nicopolis on that part of the coast, and
+established games to be celebrated there every five years; enlarging
+likewise an old temple of Apollo, he ornamented with naval trophies [131]
+the spot on which he had pitched his camp, and consecrated it to Neptune
+and Mars.
+
+(83) XIX.  He afterwards [132] quashed several tumults and insurrections,
+as well as several conspiracies against his life, which were discovered,
+by the confession of accomplices, before they were ripe for execution;
+and others subsequently.  Such were those of the younger Lepidus, of
+Varro Muraena, and Fannius Caepio; then that of Marcus Egnatius,
+afterwards that of Plautius Rufus, and of Lucius Paulus, his grand-
+daughter's husband; and besides these, another of Lucius Audasius, an old
+feeble man, who was under prosecution for forgery; as also of Asinius
+Epicadus, a Parthinian mongrel [133], and at last that of Telephus, a
+lady's prompter [134]; for he was in danger of his life from the plots
+and conspiracies of some of the lowest of the people against him.
+Audasius and Epicadus had formed the design of carrying off to the armies
+his daughter Julia, and his grandson Agrippa, from the islands in which
+they were confined.  Telephus, wildly dreaming that the government was
+destined to him by the fates, proposed to fall both upon Octavius and the
+senate.  Nay, once, a soldier's servant belonging to the army in
+Illyricum, having passed the porters unobserved, was found in the night-
+time standing before his chamber-door, armed with a hunting-dagger.
+Whether the person was really disordered in the head, or only
+counterfeited madness, is uncertain; for no confession was obtained from
+him by torture.
+
+XX.  He conducted in person only two foreign wars; the Dalmatian, whilst
+he was yet but a youth; and, after Antony's final defeat, the Cantabrian.
+He was wounded in the former of these wars; in one battle he received a
+contusion in the right knee from a stone--and in another, he was much
+hurt in (84) one leg and both arms, by the fall of a fridge [135].  His
+other wars he carried on by his lieutenants; but occasionally visited the
+army, in some of the wars of Pannonia and Germany, or remained at no
+great distance, proceeding from Rome as far as Ravenna, Milan, or
+Aquileia.
+
+XXI.  He conquered, however, partly in person, and partly by his
+lieutenants, Cantabria [136], Aquitania and Pannonia [137], Dalmatia,
+with all Illyricum and Rhaetia [138], besides the two Alpine nations, the
+Vindelici and the Salassii [139].  He also checked the incursions of the
+Dacians, by cutting off three of their generals with vast armies, and
+drove the Germans beyond the river Elbe; removing two other tribes who
+submitted, the Ubii and Sicambri, into Gaul, and settling them in the
+country bordering on the Rhine.  Other nations also, which broke into
+revolt, he reduced to submission.  But he never made war upon any nation
+without just and necessary cause; and was so far from being ambitious
+either to extend the empire, or advance his own military glory, that he
+obliged the chiefs of some barbarous tribes to swear in the temple of
+Mars the Avenger [140], that they would faithfully observe their
+engagements, and not violate the peace which they had implored.  Of some
+he demanded a new description of hostages, their women, having found from
+experience that they cared little for their men when given as hostages;
+but he always afforded them the means of getting back their hostages
+whenever they wished it.  Even those who engaged most frequently and with
+the greatest perfidy in their rebellion, he never punished more severely
+than by selling their captives, on the terms (85) of their not serving in
+any neighbouring country, nor being released from their slavery before
+the expiration of thirty years.  By the character which he thus acquired,
+for virtue and moderation, he induced even the Indians and Scythians,
+nations before known to the Romans by report only, to solicit his
+friendship, and that of the Roman people, by ambassadors.  The Parthians
+readily allowed his claim to Armenia; restoring at his demand, the
+standards which they had taken from Marcus Crassus and Mark Antony, and
+offering him hostages besides.  Afterwards, when a contest arose between
+several pretenders to the crown of that kingdom, they refused to
+acknowledge any one who was not chosen by him.
+
+XXII.  The temple of Janus Quirinus, which had been shut twice only, from
+the era of the building of the city to his own time, he closed thrice in
+a much shorter period, having established universal peace both by sea and
+land.  He twice entered the city with the honours of an Ovation [141],
+namely, after the war of Philippi, and again after that of Sicily.  He
+had also three curule triumphs [142] for his several victories in (86)
+Dalmatia, at Actium, and Alexandria; each of which lasted three days.
+
+XXIII.  In all his wars, he never received any signal or ignominious
+defeat, except twice in Germany, under his lieutenants Lollius and Varus.
+The former indeed had in it more of dishonour than disaster; but that of
+Varus threatened the security of the empire itself; three legions, with
+the commander, his lieutenants, and all the auxiliaries, being cut off.
+Upon receiving intelligence of this disaster, he gave orders for keeping
+a strict watch over the city, to prevent any public disturbance, and
+prolonged the appointments of the prefects in the provinces, that the
+allies might be kept in order by experience of persons to whom they were
+used.  He made a vow to celebrate the great games in honour of Jupiter,
+Optimus, Maximus, "if he would be pleased to restore the state to more
+prosperous circumstances."  This had formerly been resorted to in the
+Cimbrian and Marsian wars.  In short, we are informed that he was in such
+consternation at this event, that he let the hair of his head and beard
+grow for several months, and sometimes knocked his head against the door-
+posts, crying out, "O, Quintilius Varus!  Give me back my legions!"  And
+(87) ever after, he observed the anniversary of this calamity, as a day
+of sorrow and mourning.
+
+XXIV.  In military affairs he made many alterations, introducing some
+practices entirely new, and reviving others, which had become obsolete.
+He maintained the strictest discipline among the troops; and would not
+allow even his lieutenants the liberty to visit their wives, except
+reluctantly, and in the winter season only.  A Roman knight having cut
+off the thumbs of his two young sons, to render them incapable of serving
+in the wars, he exposed both him and his estate to public sale.  But upon
+observing the farmers of the revenue very greedy for the purchase, he
+assigned him to a freedman of his own, that he might send him into the
+country, and suffer him to retain his freedom.  The tenth legion becoming
+mutinous, he disbanded it with ignominy; and did the same by some others
+which petulantly demanded their discharge; withholding from them the
+rewards usually bestowed on those who had served their stated time in the
+wars.  The cohorts which yielded their ground in time of action, he
+decimated, and fed with barley.  Centurions, as well as common sentinels,
+who deserted their posts when on guard, he punished with death.  For
+other misdemeanors he inflicted upon them various kinds of disgrace; such
+as obliging them to stand all day before the praetorium, sometimes in
+their tunics only, and without their belts, sometimes to carry poles ten
+feet long, or sods of turf.
+
+XXV.  After the conclusion of the civil wars, he never, in any of his
+military harangues, or proclamations, addressed them by the title of
+"Fellow-soldiers," but as "Soldiers" only.  Nor would he suffer them to
+be otherwise called by his sons or step-sons, when they were in command;
+judging the former epithet to convey the idea of a degree of
+condescension inconsistent with military discipline, the maintenance of
+order, and his own majesty, and that of his house.  Unless at Rome, in
+case of incendiary fires, or under the apprehension of public
+disturbances during a scarcity of provisions, he never employed in his
+army slaves who had been made freedmen, except upon two occasions; on
+one, for the security of the colonies bordering upon Illyricum, and on
+the other, to guard (88) the banks of the river Rhine.  Although he
+obliged persons of fortune, both male and female, to give up their
+slaves, and they received their manumission at once, yet he kept them
+together under their own standard, unmixed with soldiers who were better
+born, and armed likewise after different fashion.  Military rewards, such
+as trappings, collars, and other decorations of gold and silver, he
+distributed more readily than camp or mural crowns, which were reckoned
+more honourable than the former.  These he bestowed sparingly, without
+partiality, and frequently even on common soldiers.  He presented M.
+Agrippa, after the naval engagement in the Sicilian war, with a sea-green
+banner.  Those who shared in the honours of a triumph, although they had
+attended him in his expeditions, and taken part in his victories, he
+judged it improper to distinguish by the usual rewards for service,
+because they had a right themselves to grant such rewards to whom they
+pleased.  He thought nothing more derogatory to the character of an
+accomplished general than precipitancy and rashness; on which account he
+had frequently in his mouth those proverbs:
+
+    Speude bradeos,
+    Hasten slowly,
+
+And
+
+    'Asphalaes gar est' ameinon, hae erasus strataelataes.
+    The cautious captain's better than the bold.
+
+And "That is done fast enough, which is done well enough."
+
+He was wont to say also, that "a battle or a war ought never to be
+undertaken, unless the prospect of gain overbalanced the fear of loss.
+For," said he, "men who pursue small advantages with no small hazard,
+resemble those who fish with a golden hook, the loss of which, if the
+line should happen to break, could never be compensated by all the fish
+they might take."
+
+XXVI.  He was advanced to public offices before the age at which he was
+legally qualified for them; and to some, also, of a new kind, and for
+life.  He seized the consulship in the twentieth year of his age,
+quartering his legions in a threatening manner near the city, and sending
+deputies to demand it for him in the name of the army.  When the senate
+demurred, (89) a centurion, named Cornelius, who was at the head of the
+chief deputation, throwing back his cloak, and shewing the hilt of his
+sword, had the presumption to say in the senate-house, "This will make
+him consul, if ye will not."  His second consulship he filled nine years
+afterwards; his third, after the interval of only one year, and held the
+same office every year successively until the eleventh.  From this
+period, although the consulship was frequently offered him, he always
+declined it, until, after a long interval, not less than seventeen years,
+he voluntarily stood for the twelfth, and two years after that, for a
+thirteenth; that he might successively introduce into the forum, on their
+entering public life, his two sons, Caius and Lucius, while he was
+invested with the highest office in the state.  In his five consulships
+from the sixth to the eleventh, he continued in office throughout the
+year; but in the rest, during only nine, six, four, or three months, and
+in his second no more than a few hours.  For having sat for a short time
+in the morning, upon the calends of January [1st January], in his curule
+chair [143], before the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, he abdicated the
+office, and substituted another in his room.  Nor did he enter upon them
+all at Rome, but upon the fourth in Asia, the fifth in the Isle of Samos,
+and the eighth and ninth at Tarragona. [144]
+
+XXVII.  During ten years he acted as one of the triumvirate for settling
+the commonwealth, in which office he for some time opposed his colleagues
+in their design of a proscription; but after it was begun, he prosecuted
+it with more determined rigour than either of them.  For whilst they were
+often prevailed upon, by the interest and intercession of friends, to
+shew mercy, he alone strongly insisted that no one should be spared, and
+even proscribed Caius Toranius [145], his guardian; who had (90) been
+formerly the colleague of his father Octavius in the aedileship.  Junius
+Saturnius adds this farther account of him: that when, after the
+proscription was over, Marcus Lepidus made an apology in the senate for
+their past proceedings, and gave them hopes of a more mild administration
+for the future, because they had now sufficiently crushed their enemies;
+he, on the other hand, declared that the only limit he had fixed to the
+proscription was, that he should be free to act as he pleased.
+Afterwards, however, repenting of his severity, he advanced T. Vinius
+Philopoemen to the equestrian rank, for having concealed his patron at
+the time he was proscribed.  In this same office he incurred great odium
+upon many accounts.  For as he was one day making an harangue, observing
+among the soldiers Pinarius, a Roman knight, admit some private citizens,
+and engaged in taking notes, he ordered him to be stabbed before his
+eyes, as a busy-body and a spy upon him.  He so terrified with his
+menaces Tedius Afer, the consul elect [146], for having reflected upon
+some action of his, that he threw himself from a great height, and died
+on the spot.  And when Quintus Gallius, the praetor, came to compliment
+him with a double tablet under his cloak, suspecting that it was a sword
+he had concealed, and yet not venturing to make a search, lest it should
+be found to be something else, he caused him to be dragged from his
+tribunal by centurions and soldiers, and tortured like a slave: and
+although he made no confession, ordered him to be put to death, after he
+had, with his own hands, plucked out his eyes.  His own account of the
+matter, however, is, that Quintus Gallius sought a private conference
+with him, for the purpose of assassinating him; that he therefore put him
+in prison, but afterwards released him, and banished him the city; when
+he perished either in a storm at sea, or by falling into the hands of
+robbers.
+
+He accepted of the tribunitian power for life, but more than once chose a
+colleague in that office for two lustra [147] successively.  He also had
+the supervision of morality and observance of the laws, for life, but
+without the title of censor; yet he thrice (91) took a census of the
+people, the first and third time with a colleague, but the second by
+himself.
+
+XXVIII.  He twice entertained thoughts of restoring the republic [148];
+first, immediately after he had crushed Antony, remembering that he had
+often charged him with being the obstacle to its restoration.  The second
+time was in consequence of a long illness, when he sent for the
+magistrates and the senate to his own house, and delivered them a
+particular account of the state of the empire.  But reflecting at the
+same time that it would be both hazardous to himself to return to the
+condition of a private person, and might be dangerous to the public to
+have the government placed again under the control of the people, he
+resolved to keep it in his own hands, whether with the better event or
+intention, is hard to say.  His good intentions he often affirmed in
+private discourse, and also published an edict, in which it was declared
+in the following terms: "May it be permitted me to have the happiness of
+establishing the commonwealth on a safe and sound basis, and thus enjoy
+the reward of which I am ambitious, that of being celebrated for moulding
+it into the form best adapted to present circumstances; so that, on my
+leaving the world, I may carry with me the hope that the foundations
+which I have laid for its future government, will stand firm and stable."
+
+XXIX.  The city, which was not built in a manner suitable to the grandeur
+of the empire, and was liable to inundations of the Tiber [149], as well
+as to fires, was so much improved under his administration, that he
+boasted, not without reason, that he "found it of brick, but left it of
+marble." [150]  He also rendered (92) it secure for the time to come
+against such disasters, as far as could be effected by human foresight.
+A great number of public buildings were erected by him, the most
+considerable of which were a forum [151], containing the temple of Mars
+the Avenger, the temple of Apollo on the Palatine hill, and the temple of
+Jupiter Tonans in the Capitol.  The reason of his building a new forum
+was the vast increase in the population, and the number of causes to be
+tried in the courts, for which, the two already existing not affording
+sufficient space, it was thought necessary to have a third.  It was
+therefore opened for public use before the temple of Mars was completely
+finished; and a law was passed, that causes should be tried, and judges
+chosen by lot, in that place.  The temple of Mars was built in fulfilment
+of a vow made during the war of Philippi, undertaken by him to avenge his
+father's murder.  He ordained that the senate should always assemble
+there when they met to deliberate respecting wars and triumphs; that
+thence should be despatched all those who were sent into the provinces in
+the command of armies; and that in it those who returned victorious from
+the wars, should lodge the trophies of their triumphs.  He erected the
+temple of Apollo [152] in that part of his house on the Palatine hill
+which had been struck with lightning, and which, on that account, the
+soothsayers declared the God to have chosen.  He added porticos to it,
+with a library of Latin and Greek authors [153]; and when advanced in
+years, (93) used frequently there to hold the senate, and examine the
+rolls of the judges.
+
+He dedicated the temple to Apollo Tonans [154], in acknowledgment of his
+escape from a great danger in his Cantabrian expedition; when, as he was
+travelling in the night, his litter was struck by lightning, which killed
+the slave who carried a torch before him.  He likewise constructed some
+public buildings in the name of others; for instance, his grandsons, his
+wife, and sister.  Thus he built the portico and basilica of Lucius and
+Caius, and the porticos of Livia and Octavia [155], and the theatre of
+Marcellus [156].  He also often exhorted other persons of rank to
+embellish the city by new buildings, or repairing and improving the old,
+according to their means.  In consequence of this recommendation, many
+were raised; such as the temple of Hercules and the Muses, by Marcius
+Philippus; a temple of Diana by Lucius Cornificius; the Court of Freedom
+by Asinius Pollio; a temple of Saturn by Munatius Plancus; a theatre by
+Cornelius Balbus [157]; an amphitheatre by Statilius Taurus; and several
+other noble edifices by Marcus Agrippa. [158]
+
+(94) XXX.  He divided the city into regions and districts, ordaining that
+the annual magistrates should take by lot the charge of the former; and
+that the latter should be superintended by wardens chosen out of the
+people of each neighbourhood.  He appointed a nightly watch to be on
+their guard against accidents from fire; and, to prevent the frequent
+inundations, he widened and cleansed the bed of the Tiber, which had in
+the course of years been almost dammed up with rubbish, and the channel
+narrowed by the ruins of houses [159].  To render the approaches to the
+city more commodious, he took upon himself the charge of repairing the
+Flaminian way as far as Ariminum [160], and distributed the repairs of
+the other roads amongst several persons who had obtained the honour of a
+triumph; to be defrayed out of the money arising from the spoils of war.
+Temples decayed by time, or destroyed by fire, he either repaired or
+rebuilt; and enriched them, as well as many others, with splendid
+offerings.  On a single occasion, he deposited in the cell of the temple
+of Jupiter Capitolinus, sixteen thousand pounds of gold, with jewels and
+pearls to the amount of fifty millions of sesterces.
+
+XXXI.  The office of Pontifex Maximus, of which he could (95) not
+decently deprive Lepidus as long as he lived [161], he assumed as soon as
+he was dead.  He then caused all prophetical books, both in Latin and
+Greek, the authors of which were either unknown, or of no great
+authority, to be brought in; and the whole collection, amounting to
+upwards of two thousand volumes, he committed to the flames, preserving
+only the Sibylline oracles; but not even those without a strict
+examination, to ascertain which were genuine.  This being done, he
+deposited them in two gilt coffers, under the pedestal of the statue of
+the Palatine Apollo.  He restored the calendar, which had been corrected
+by Julius Caesar, but through negligence was again fallen into confusion
+[162], to its former regularity; and upon that occasion, called the month
+Sextilis [163], by his own name, August, rather than September, in which
+he was born; because in it he had obtained his first consulship, and all
+his most considerable victories [164].  He increased the number, dignity,
+and revenues of the priests, and especially those of the Vestal Virgins.
+And when, upon the death of one of them, a new one was to be taken [165],
+and many persons made interest that their daughters' names might be
+omitted in the lists for election, he replied with an oath, "If either of
+my own grand-daughters were old enough, I would have proposed her."
+
+He likewise revived some old religious customs, which had become
+obsolete; as the augury of public health [166], the office of (96) high
+priest of Jupiter, the religious solemnity of the Lupercalia, with the
+Secular, and Compitalian games.  He prohibited young boys from running in
+the Lupercalia; and in respect of the Secular games, issued an order,
+that no young persons of either sex should appear at any public
+diversions in the night-time, unless in the company of some elderly
+relation.  He ordered the household gods to be decked twice a year with
+spring and summer flowers [167], in the Compitalian festival.
+
+Next to the immortal gods, he paid the highest honours to the memory of
+those generals who had raised the Roman state from its low origin to the
+highest pitch of grandeur.  He accordingly repaired or rebuilt the public
+edifices erected by them; preserving the former inscriptions, and placing
+statues of them all, with triumphal emblems, in both the porticos of his
+forum, issuing an edict on the occasion, in which he made the following
+declaration: "My design in so doing is, that the Roman people may require
+from me, and all succeeding princes, a conformity to those illustrious
+examples."  He likewise removed the statue of Pompey from the senate-
+house, in which Caius Caesar had been killed, and placed it under a
+marble arch, fronting the palace attached to Pompey's theatre.
+
+XXXII.  He corrected many ill practices, which, to the detriment of the
+public, had either survived the licentious habits of the late civil wars,
+or else originated in the long peace.  Bands of robbers showed themselves
+openly, completely armed, under colour of self-defence; and in different
+parts of the country, travellers, freemen and slaves without distinction,
+were forcibly carried off, and kept to work in the houses of correction
+[168].  Several associations were formed under the specious (97) name of
+a new college, which banded together for the perpetration of all kinds of
+villany.  The banditti he quelled by establishing posts of soldiers in
+suitable stations for the purpose; the houses of correction were
+subjected to a strict superintendence; all associations, those only
+excepted which were of ancient standing, and recognised by the laws, were
+dissolved.  He burnt all the notes of those who had been a long time in
+arrear with the treasury, as being the principal source of vexatious
+suits and prosecutions.  Places in the city claimed by the public, where
+the right was doubtful, he adjudged to the actual possessors.  He struck
+out of the list of criminals the names of those over whom prosecutions
+had been long impending, where nothing further was intended by the
+informers than to gratify their own malice, by seeing their enemies
+humiliated; laying it down as a rule, that if any one chose to renew a
+prosecution, he should incur the risk of the punishment which he sought
+to inflict.  And that crimes might not escape punishment, nor business be
+neglected by delay, he ordered the courts to sit during the thirty days
+which were spent in celebrating honorary games.  To the three classes of
+judges then existing, he added a fourth, consisting of persons of
+inferior order, who were called Ducenarii, and decided all litigations
+about trifling sums.  He chose judges from the age of thirty years and
+upwards; that is five years younger than had been usual before.  And a
+great many declining the office, he was with much difficulty prevailed
+upon to allow each class of judges a twelve-month's vacation in turn; and
+the courts to be shut during the months of November and December. [169]
+
+XXXIII.  He was himself assiduous in his functions as a judge, and would
+sometimes prolong his sittings even into the night [170]: if he were
+indisposed, his litter was placed before (98) the tribunal, or he
+administered justice reclining on his couch at home; displaying always
+not only the greatest attention, but extreme lenity.  To save a culprit,
+who evidently appeared guilty of parricide, from the extreme penalty of
+being sewn up in a sack, because none were punished in that manner but
+such as confessed the fact, he is said to have interrogated him thus:
+"Surely you did not kill your father, did you?"  And when, in a trial of
+a cause about a forged will, all those who had signed it were liable to
+the penalty of the Cornelian law, he ordered that his colleagues on the
+tribunal should not only be furnished with the two tablets by which they
+decided, "guilty or not guilty," but with a third likewise, ignoring the
+offence of those who should appear to have given their signatures through
+any deception or mistake.  All appeals in causes between inhabitants of
+Rome, he assigned every year to the praetor of the city; and where
+provincials were concerned, to men of consular rank, to one of whom the
+business of each province was referred.
+
+XXXIV.  Some laws he abrogated, and he made some new ones; such as the
+sumptuary law, that relating to adultery and the violation of chastity,
+the law against bribery in elections, and likewise that for the
+encouragement of marriage.  Having been more severe in his reform of this
+law than the rest, he found the people utterly averse to submit to it,
+unless the penalties were abolished or mitigated, besides allowing an
+interval of three years after a wife's death, and increasing the premiums
+on marriage.  The equestrian order clamoured loudly, at a spectacle in
+the theatre, for its total repeal; whereupon he sent for the children of
+Germanicus, and shewed them partly sitting upon his own lap, and partly
+on their father's; intimating by his looks and gestures, that they ought
+not to think it a grievance to follow the example of that young man.  But
+finding that the force of the law was eluded, by marrying girls under the
+age of puberty, and by frequent change of wives, he limited the time for
+consummation after espousals, and imposed restrictions on divorce.
+
+XXXV.  By two separate scrutinies he reduced to their former number and
+splendour the senate, which had been swamped by a disorderly crowd; for
+they were now more than a (99) thousand, and some of them very mean
+persons, who, after Caesar's death, had been chosen by dint of interest
+and bribery, so that they had the nickname of Orcini among the people
+[171].  The first of these scrutinies was left to themselves, each
+senator naming another; but the last was conducted by himself and
+Agrippa.  On this occasion he is believed to have taken his seat as he
+presided, with a coat of mail under his tunic, and a sword by his side,
+and with ten of the stoutest men of senatorial rank, who were his
+friends, standing round his chair.  Cordus Cremutius [172] relates that
+no senator was suffered to approach him, except singly, and after having
+his bosom searched [for secreted daggers].  Some he obliged to have the
+grace of declining the office; these he allowed to retain the privileges
+of wearing the distinguishing dress, occupying the seats at the solemn
+spectacles, and of feasting publicly, reserved to the senatorial order
+[173].  That those who were chosen and approved of, might perform their
+functions under more solemn obligations, and with less inconvenience, he
+ordered that every senator, before he took his seat in the house, should
+pay his devotions, with an offering of frankincense and wine, at the
+altar of that God in whose temple the senate then assembled [174], and
+that their stated meetings should be only twice in the month, namely, on
+the calends and ides; and that in the months of September and October
+[175], a certain number only, chosen by lot, such as the law required to
+give validity to a decree, should be required to attend.  For himself, he
+resolved to choose every six (100) months a new council, with whom he
+might consult previously upon such affairs as he judged proper at any
+time to lay before the full senate.  He also took the votes of the
+senators upon any subject of importance, not according to custom, nor in
+regular order, but as he pleased; that every one might hold himself ready
+to give his opinion, rather than a mere vote of assent.
+
+XXXVI.  He also made several other alterations in the management of
+public affairs, among which were these following: that the acts of the
+senate should not be published [176]; that the magistrates should not be
+sent into the provinces immediately after the expiration of their office;
+that the proconsuls should have a certain sum assigned them out of the
+treasury for mules and tents, which used before to be contracted for by
+the government with private persons; that the management of the treasury
+should be transferred from the city-quaestors to the praetors, or those
+who had already served in the latter office; and that the decemviri
+should call together the court of One hundred, which had been formerly
+summoned by those who had filled the office of quaestor.
+
+XXXVII.  To augment the number of persons employed in the administration
+of the state, he devised several new offices; such as surveyors of the
+public buildings, of the roads, the aqueducts, and the bed of the Tiber;
+for the distribution of corn to the people; the praefecture of the city;
+a triumvirate for the election of the senators; and another for
+inspecting the several troops of the equestrian order, as often as it was
+necessary.  He revived the office of censor [177], which had been long
+disused, and increased the number of praetors.  He likewise required that
+whenever the consulship was conferred on him, he should have two
+colleagues instead of one; but his proposal (101) was rejected, all the
+senators declaring by acclamation that he abated his high majesty quite
+enough in not filling the office alone, and consenting to share it with
+another.
+
+XXXVIII.  He was unsparing in the reward of military merit, having
+granted to above thirty generals the honour of the greater triumph;
+besides which, he took care to have triamphal decorations voted by the
+senate for more than that number.  That the sons of senators might become
+early acquainted with the administration of affairs, he permitted them,
+at the age when they took the garb of manhood [178], to assume also the
+distinction of the senatorian robe, with its broad border, and to be
+present at the debates in the senate-house.  When they entered the
+military service, he not only gave them the rank of military tribunes in
+the legions, but likewise the command of the auxiliary horse.  And that
+all might have an opportunity of acquiring military experience, he
+commonly joined two sons of senators in command of each troop of horse.
+He frequently reviewed the troops of the equestrian order, reviving the
+ancient custom of a cavalcade [179], which had been long laid aside.  But
+he did not suffer any one to be obliged by an accuser to dismount while
+he passed in review, as had formerly been the practice.  As for such as
+were infirm with age, or (102) any way deformed, he allowed them to send
+their horses before them, coming on foot to answer to their names, when
+the muster roll was called over soon afterwards.  He permitted those who
+had attained the age of thirty-five years, and desired not to keep their
+horse any longer, to have the privilege of giving it up.
+
+XXXIX.  With the assistance of ten senators, he obliged each of the Roman
+knights to give an account of his life: in regard to those who fell under
+his displeasure, some were punished; others had a mark of infamy set
+against their names.  The most part he only reprimanded, but not in the
+same terms.  The mildest mode of reproof was by delivering them tablets
+[180], the contents of which, confined to themselves, they were to read
+on the spot.  Some he disgraced for borrowing money at low interest, and
+letting it out again upon usurious profit.
+
+XL.  In the election of tribunes of the people, if there was not a
+sufficient number of senatorian candidates, he nominated others from the
+equestrian order; granting them the liberty, after the expiration of
+their office, to continue in whichsoever of the two orders they pleased.
+As most of the knights had been much reduced in their estates by the
+civil wars, and therefore durst not sit to see the public games in the
+theatre in the seats allotted to their order, for fear of the penalty
+provided by the law in that case, he enacted, that none were liable to
+it, who had themselves, or whose parents had ever, possessed a knight's
+estate.  He took the census of the Roman people street by street: and
+that the people might not be too often taken from their business to
+receive the distribution of corn, it was his intention to deliver tickets
+three times a year for four months respectively; but at their request, he
+continued the former regulation, that they should receive their (103)
+share monthly.  He revived the former law of elections, endeavouring, by
+various penalties, to suppress the practice of bribery.  Upon the day of
+election, he distributed to the freemen of the Fabian and Scaptian
+tribes, in which he himself was enrolled, a thousand sesterces each, that
+they might look for nothing from any of the candidates.  Considering it
+of extreme importance to preserve the Roman people pure, and untainted
+with a mixture of foreign or servile blood, he not only bestowed the
+freedom of the city with a sparing hand, but laid some restriction upon
+the practice of manumitting slaves.  When Tiberius interceded with him
+for the freedom of Rome in behalf of a Greek client of his, he wrote to
+him for answer, "I shall not grant it, unless he comes himself, and
+satisfies me that he has just grounds for the application."  And when
+Livia begged the freedom of the city for a tributary Gaul, he refused it,
+but offered to release him from payment of taxes, saying, "I shall sooner
+suffer some loss in my exchequer, than that the citizenship of Rome be
+rendered too common."  Not content with interposing many obstacles to
+either the partial or complete emancipation of slaves, by quibbles
+respecting the number, condition and difference of those who were to be
+manumitted; he likewise enacted that none who had been put in chains or
+tortured, should ever obtain the freedom of the city in any degree.  He
+endeavoured also to restore the old habit and dress of the Romans; and
+upon seeing once, in an assembly of the people, a crowd in grey cloaks
+[181], he exclaimed with indignation, "See there,
+
+    Romanos rerum dominos, gentemque togatem." [182]
+
+    Rome's conquering sons, lords of the wide-spread globe,
+    Stalk proudly in the toga's graceful robe.
+
+And he gave orders to the ediles not to permit, in future, any Roman to
+be present in the forum or circus unless they took off their short coats,
+and wore the toga.
+
+(104) XLI.  He displayed his munificence to all ranks of the people on
+various occasions.  Moreover, upon his bringing the treasure belonging to
+the kings of Egypt into the city, in his Alexandrian triumph, he made
+money so plentiful, that interest fell, and the price of land rose
+considerably.  And afterwards, as often as large sums of money came into
+his possession by means of confiscations, he would lend it free of
+interest, for a fixed term, to such as could give security for the double
+of what was borrowed.  The estate necessary to qualify a senator, instead
+of eight hundred thousand sesterces, the former standard, he ordered, for
+the future, to be twelve hundred thousand; and to those who had not so
+much, he made good the deficiency.  He often made donations to the
+people, but generally of different sums; sometimes four hundred,
+sometimes three hundred, or two hundred and fifty sesterces upon which
+occasions, he extended his bounty even to young boys, who before were not
+used to receive anything, until they arrived at eleven years of age.  In
+a scarcity of corn, he would frequently let them have it at a very low
+price, or none at all; and doubled the number of the money tickets.
+
+XLII.  But to show that he was a prince who regarded more the good of his
+people than their applause, he reprimanded them very severely, upon their
+complaining of the scarcity and dearness of wine.  "My son-in-law,
+Agrippa," he said, "has sufficiently provided for quenching your thirst,
+by the great plenty of water with which he has supplied the town."  Upon
+their demanding a gift which he had promised them, he said, "I am a man
+of my word."  But upon their importuning him for one which he had not
+promised, he issued a proclamation upbraiding them for their scandalous
+impudence; at the same time telling them, "I shall now give you nothing,
+whatever I may have intended to do."  With the same strict firmness,
+when, upon a promise he had made of a donative, he found many slaves had
+been emancipated and enrolled amongst the citizens, he declared that no
+one should receive anything who was not included in the promise, and he
+gave the rest less than he had promised them, in order that the amount he
+had set apart might hold out.  On one occasion, in a season of great
+scarcity, which it was difficult to remedy, he ordered out of the city
+the troops of slaves brought for sale, the gladiators (105) belonging to
+the masters of defence, and all foreigners, excepting physicians and the
+teachers of the liberal sciences.  Part of the domestic slaves were
+likewise ordered to be dismissed.  When, at last, plenty was restored, he
+writes thus "I was much inclined to abolish for ever the practice of
+allowing the people corn at the public expense, because they trust so
+much to it, that they are too lazy to till their lands; but I did not
+persevere in my design, as I felt sure that the practice would some time
+or other be revived by some one ambitious of popular favour."  However,
+he so managed the affair ever afterwards, that as much account was taken
+of husbandmen and traders, as of the idle populace. [183]
+
+XLIII.  In the number, variety, and magnificence of his public
+spectacles, he surpassed all former example.  Four-and-twenty times, he
+says, he treated the people with games upon his own account, and three-
+and-twenty times for such magistrates as were either absent, or not able
+to afford the expense.  The performances took place sometimes in the
+different streets of the city, and upon several stages, by players in all
+languages.  The same he did not only in the forum and amphitheatre, but
+in the circus likewise, and in the septa [184]: and sometimes he
+exhibited only the hunting of wild beasts.  He entertained the people
+with wrestlers in the Campus Martius, where wooden seats were erected for
+the purpose; and also with a naval fight, for which he excavated the
+ground near the Tiber, where there is now the grove of the Caesars.
+During these two entertainments he stationed guards in the city, lest, by
+robbers taking advantage of the small number of people left at home, it
+might be exposed to depredations.  In the circus he exhibited chariot and
+foot races, and combats with wild beasts, in which the performers were
+often youths of the highest rank.  His favourite spectacle was the Trojan
+game, acted by a select number of boys, in parties differing in age and
+station; thinking (106) that it was a practice both excellent in itself,
+and sanctioned by ancient usage, that the spirit of the young nobles
+should be displayed in such exercises.  Caius Nonius Asprenas, who was
+lamed by a fall in this diversion, he presented with a gold collar, and
+allowed him and his posterity to bear the surname of Torquati.  But soon
+afterwards he gave up the exhibition of this game, in consequence of a
+severe and bitter speech made in the senate by Asinius Pollio, the
+orator, in which he complained bitterly of the misfortune of Aeserninus,
+his grandson, who likewise broke his leg in the same diversion.
+
+Sometimes he engaged Roman knights to act upon the stage, or to fight as
+gladiators; but only before the practice was prohibited by a decree of
+the senate.  Thenceforth, the only exhibition he made of that kind, was
+that of a young man named Lucius, of a good family, who was not quite two
+feet in height, and weighed only seventeen pounds, but had a stentorian
+voice.  In one of his public spectacles, he brought the hostages of the
+Parthians, the first ever sent to Rome from that nation, through the
+middle of the amphitheatre, and placed them in the second tier of seats
+above him.  He used likewise, at times when there were no public
+entertainments, if any thing was brought to Rome which was uncommon, and
+might gratify curiosity, to expose it to public view, in any place
+whatever; as he did a rhinoceros in the Septa, a tiger upon a stage, and
+a snake fifty cubits lung in the Comitium.  It happened in the Circensian
+games, which he performed in consequence of a vow, that he was taken ill,
+and obliged to attend the Thensae [185], reclining on a litter.  Another
+time, in the games celebrated for the opening of the theatre of
+Marcellus, the joints of his curule chair happening to give way, he fell
+on his back.  And in the games exhibited by his (107) grandsons, when the
+people were in such consternation, by an alarm raised that the theatre
+was falling, that all his efforts to re-assure them and keep them quiet,
+failed, he moved from his place, and seated himself in that part of the
+theatre which was thought to be exposed to most danger.
+
+XLIV.  He corrected the confusion and disorder with which the spectators
+took their seats at the public games, after an affront which was offered
+to a senator at Puteoli, for whom, in a crowded theatre, no one would
+make room.  He therefore procured a decree of the senate, that in all
+public spectacles of any sort, and in any place whatever, the first tier
+of benches should be left empty for the accommodation of senators.  He
+would not even permit the ambassadors of free nations, nor of those which
+were allies of Rome, to sit in the orchestra; having found that some
+manumitted slaves had been sent under that character.  He separated the
+soldiery from the rest of the people, and assigned to married plebeians
+their particular rows of seats.  To the boys he assigned their own
+benches, and to their tutors the seats which were nearest it; ordering
+that none clothed in black should sit in the centre of the circle [186].
+Nor would he allow any women to witness the combats of gladiators, except
+from the upper part of the theatre, although they formerly used to take
+their places promiscuously with the rest of the spectators.  To the
+vestal virgins he granted seats in the theatre, reserved for them only,
+opposite the praetor's bench.  He excluded, however, the whole female sex
+from seeing the wrestlers: so that in the games which he exhibited upon
+his accession to the office of high-priest, he deferred producing a pair
+of combatants which the people called for, until the next morning; and
+intimated by proclamation, "his pleasure that no woman should appear in
+the theatre before five o'clock."
+
+XLV.  He generally viewed the Circensian games himself, from the upper
+rooms of the houses of his friends or freedmen; sometimes from the place
+appointed for the statues of the gods, and sitting in company with his
+wife and children.  He (108) occasionally absented himself from the
+spectacles for several hours, and sometimes for whole days; but not
+without first making an apology, and appointing substitutes to preside in
+his stead.  When present, he never attended to anything else either to
+avoid the reflections which he used to say were commonly made upon his
+father, Caesar, for perusing letters and memorials, and making rescripts
+during the spectacles; or from the real pleasure he took in attending
+those exhibitions; of which he made no secret, he often candidly owning
+it.  This he manifested frequently by presenting honorary crowns and
+handsome rewards to the best performers, in the games exhibited by
+others; and he never was present at any performance of the Greeks,
+without rewarding the most deserving, according to their merit.  He took
+particular pleasure in witnessing pugilistic contests, especially those
+of the Latins, not only between combatants who had been trained
+scientifically, whom he used often to match with the Greek champions; but
+even between mobs of the lower classes fighting in streets, and tilting
+at random, without any knowledge of the art.  In short, he honoured with
+his patronage all sorts of people who contributed in any way to the
+success of the public entertainments.  He not only maintained, but
+enlarged, the privileges of the wrestlers.  He prohibited combats of
+gladiators where no quarter was given.  He deprived the magistrates of
+the power of correcting the stage-players, which by an ancient law was
+allowed them at all times, and in all places; restricting their
+jurisdiction entirely to the time of performance and misdemeanours in the
+theatres.  He would, however, admit, of no abatement, and exacted with
+the utmost rigour the greatest exertions of the wrestlers and gladiators
+in their several encounters.  He went so far in restraining the
+licentiousness of stage-players, that upon discovering that Stephanio, a
+performer of the highest class, had a married woman with her hair
+cropped, and dressed in boy's clothes, to wait upon him at table, he
+ordered him to be whipped through all the three theatres, and then
+banished him.  Hylas, an actor of pantomimes, upon a complaint against
+him by the praetor, he commanded to be scourged in the court of his own
+house, which, however, was open to the public.  And Pylades he not only
+banished from the city, but from Italy also, for pointing with his finger
+at a spectator by whom he was hissed, and turning the eyes of the
+audience upon him.
+
+(109) XLVI.  Having thus regulated the city and its concerns, he
+augmented the population of Italy by planting in it no less than twenty-
+eight colonies [187], and greatly improved it by public works, and a
+beneficial application of the revenues.  In rights and privileges, he
+rendered it in a measure equal to the city itself, by inventing a new
+kind of suffrage, which the principal officers and magistrates of the
+colonies might take at home, and forward under seal to the city, against
+the time of the elections.  To increase the number of persons of
+condition, and of children among the lower ranks, he granted the
+petitions of all those who requested the honour of doing military service
+on horseback as knights, provided their demands were seconded by the
+recommendation of the town in which they lived; and when he visited the
+several districts of Italy, he distributed a thousand sesterces a head to
+such of the lower class as presented him with sons or daughters.
+
+XLVII.  The more important provinces, which could not with ease or safety
+be entrusted to the government of annual magistrates, he reserved for his
+own administration: the rest he distributed by lot amongst the
+proconsuls: but sometimes he made exchanges, and frequently visited most
+of both kinds in person.  Some cities in alliance with Rome, but which by
+their great licentiousness were hastening to ruin, he deprived of their
+independence.  Others, which were much in debt, he relieved, and rebuilt
+such as had been destroyed by earthquakes.  To those that could produce
+any instance of their having deserved well of the Roman people, he
+presented the freedom of Latium, or even that of the City.  There is not,
+I believe, a province, except Africa and Sardinia, which he did not
+visit.  After forcing Sextus Pompeius to take refuge in those provinces,
+he was indeed preparing to cross over from Sicily to them, but was
+prevented by continual and violent storms, and afterwards there was no
+occasion or call for such a voyage.
+
+XLVIII.  Kingdoms, of which he had made himself master by the right of
+conquest, a few only excepted, he either restored to their former
+possessors [188], or conferred upon aliens.  Between (110) kings of
+alliance with Rome, he encouraged most intimate union; being always ready
+to promote or favour any proposal of marriage or friendship amongst them;
+and, indeed, treated them all with the same consideration, as if they
+were members and parts of the empire.  To such of them as were minors or
+lunatics he appointed guardians, until they arrived at age, or recovered
+their senses; and the sons of many of them he brought up and educated
+with his own.
+
+XLIX.  With respect to the army, he distributed the legions and auxiliary
+troops throughout the several provinces, he stationed a fleet at Misenum,
+and another at Ravenna, for the protection of the Upper and Lower Seas
+[189].  A certain number of the forces were selected, to occupy the posts
+in the city, and partly for his own body-guard; but he dismissed the
+Spanish guard, which he retained about him till the fall of Antony; and
+also the Germans, whom he had amongst his guards, until the defeat of
+Varus.  Yet he never permitted a greater force than three cohorts in the
+city, and had no (pretorian) camps [190].  The rest he quartered in the
+neighbourhood of the nearest towns, in winter and summer camps.  All the
+troops throughout the empire he reduced to one fixed model with regard to
+their pay and their pensions; determining these according to their rank
+in the army, the time they had served, and their private means; so that
+after their discharge, they might not be tempted by age or necessities to
+join the agitators for a revolution.  For the purpose of providing a fund
+always ready to meet their pay and pensions, he instituted a military
+exchequer, and appropriated new taxes to that object.  In order to obtain
+the earliest intelligence of what was passing in the provinces, he
+established posts, consisting at first of young men stationed at moderate
+distances along the military roads, and afterwards of regular couriers
+with fast vehicles; which appeared to him the most commodious, because
+the persons who were the bearers of dispatches, written on the spot,
+might then be questioned about the business, as occasion occurred.
+
+L.  In sealing letters-patent, rescripts, or epistles, he at first used
+the figure of a sphinx, afterwards the head of Alexander (111) the Great,
+and at last his own, engraved by the hand of Dioscorides; which practice
+was retained by the succeeding emperors.  He was extremely precise in
+dating his letters, putting down exactly the time of the day or night at
+which they were dispatched.
+
+LI.  Of his clemency and moderation there are abundant and signal
+instances.  For, not to enumerate how many and what persons of the
+adverse party he pardoned, received into favour, and suffered to rise to
+the highest eminence in the state; he thought it sufficient to punish
+Junius Novatus and Cassius Patavinus, who were both plebeians, one of
+them with a fine, and the other with an easy banishment; although the
+former had published, in the name of young Agrippa, a very scurrilous
+letter against him, and the other declared openly, at an entertainment
+where there was a great deal of company, "that he neither wanted
+inclination nor courage to stab him."  In the trial of Aemilius Aelianus,
+of Cordova, when, among other charges exhibited against him, it was
+particularly insisted upon, that he used to calumniate Caesar, he turned
+round to the accuser, and said, with an air and tone of passion, "I wish
+you could make that appear; I shall let Aelianus know that I have a
+tongue too, and shall speak sharper of him than he ever did of me."  Nor
+did he, either then or afterwards, make any farther inquiry into the
+affair.  And when Tiberius, in a letter, complained of the affront with
+great earnestness, he returned him an answer in the following terms: "Do
+not, my dear Tiberius, give way to the ardour of youth in this affair;
+nor be so indignant that any person should speak ill of me.  It is
+enough, for us, if we can prevent any one from really doing us mischief."
+
+LII.  Although he knew that it had been customary to decree temples in
+honour of the proconsuls, yet he would not permit them to be erected in
+any of the provinces, unless in the joint names of himself and Rome.
+Within the limits of the city, he positively refused any honour of that
+kind.  He melted down all the silver statues which had been erected to
+him, and converted the whole into tripods, which he consecrated to the
+Palatine Apollo.  And when the people importuned him to accept the
+dictatorship, he bent down on one knee, with his toga thrown over his
+shoulders, and his breast exposed to view, begging to be excused.
+
+(112) LIII.  He always abhorred the title of Lord [191], as ill-omened
+and offensive.  And when, in a play, performed at the theatre, at which
+he was present, these words were introduced, "O just and gracious lord,"
+and the whole company, with joyful acclamations, testified their
+approbation of them, as applied to him, he instantly put a stop to their
+indecent flattery, by waving his hand, and frowning sternly, and next day
+publicly declared his displeasure, in a proclamation.  He never
+afterwards would suffer himself to be addressed in that manner, even by
+his own children or grand-children, either in jest or earnest and forbad
+them the use of all such complimentary expressions to one another.  He
+rarely entered any city or town, or departed from it, except in the
+evening or the night, to avoid giving any person the trouble of
+complimenting him.  During his consulships, he commonly walked the
+streets on foot; but at other times, rode in a close carriage.  He
+admitted to court even plebeians, in common with people of the higher
+ranks; receiving the petitions of those who approached him with so much
+affability, that he once jocosely rebuked a man, by telling him, "You
+present your memorial with as much hesitation as if you were offering
+money to an elephant."  On senate days, he used to pay his respects to
+the Conscript Fathers only in the house, addressing them each by name as
+they sat, without any prompter; and on his departure, he bade each of
+them farewell, while they retained their seats.  In the same manner, he
+maintained with many of them a constant intercourse of mutual civilities,
+giving them his company upon occasions of any particular festivity in
+their families; until he became advanced in years, and was incommoded by
+the crowd at a wedding.  Being informed that Gallus Terrinius, a senator,
+with whom he had only a slight acquaintance, had suddenly lost his sight,
+and under that privation had resolved to starve himself to death, he paid
+him a visit, and by his consolatory admonitions diverted him from his
+purpose.
+
+LIV.  On his speaking in the senate, he has been told by (113) one of the
+members, "I did not understand you," and by another, "I would contradict
+you, could I do it with safety."  And sometimes, upon his being so much
+offended at the heat with which the debates were conducted in the senate,
+as to quit the house in anger, some of the members have repeatedly
+exclaimed: "Surely, the senators ought to have liberty of speech on
+matters of government."  Antistius Labeo, in the election of a new
+senate, when each, as he was named, chose another, nominated Marcus
+Lepidus, who had formerly been Augustus's enemy, and was then in
+banishment; and being asked by the latter, "Is there no other person more
+deserving?" he replied, "Every man has his own opinion."  Nor was any one
+ever molested for his freedom of speech, although it was carried to the
+extent of insolence.
+
+LV.  Even when some infamous libels against him were dispersed in the
+senate-house, he was neither disturbed, nor did he give himself much
+trouble to refute them.  He would not so much as order an enquiry to be
+made after the authors; but only proposed, that, for the future, those
+who published libels or lampoons, in a borrowed name, against any person,
+should be called to account.
+
+LVI.  Being provoked by some petulant jests, which were designed to
+render him odious, he answered them by a proclamation; and yet he
+prevented the senate from passing an act, to restrain the liberties which
+were taken with others in people's wills.  Whenever he attended at the
+election of magistrates, he went round the tribes, with the candidates of
+his nomination, and begged the votes of the people in the usual manner.
+He likewise gave his own vote in his tribe, as one of the people.  He
+suffered himself to be summoned as a witness upon trials, and not only to
+be questioned, but to be cross-examined, with the utmost patience.  In
+building his Forum, he restricted himself in the site, not presuming to
+compel the owners of the neighbouring houses to give up their property.
+He never recommended his sons to the people, without adding these words,
+"If they deserve it."  And upon the audience rising on their entering the
+theatre, while they were yet minors, and giving them applause in a
+standing position, he made it a matter of serious complaint.
+
+(114) He was desirous that his friends should be great and powerful in
+the state, but have no exclusive privileges, or be exempt from the laws
+which governed others.  When Asprenas Nonius, an intimate friend of his,
+was tried upon a charge of administering poison at the instance of
+Cassius Severus, he consulted the senate for their opinion what was his
+duty under the circumstances: "For," said he, "I am afraid, lest, if I
+should stand by him in the cause, I may be supposed to screen a guilty
+man; and if I do not, to desert and prejudge a friend."  With the
+unanimous concurrence, therefore, of the senate, he took his seat amongst
+his advocates for several hours, but without giving him the benefit of
+speaking to character, as was usual.  He likewise appeared for his
+clients; as on behalf of Scutarius, an old soldier of his, who brought an
+action for slander.  He never relieved any one from prosecution but in a
+single instance, in the case of a man who had given information of the
+conspiracy of Muraena; and that he did only by prevailing upon the
+accuser, in open court, to drop his prosecution.
+
+LVII.  How much he was beloved for his worthy conduct in all these
+respects, it is easy to imagine.  I say nothing of the decrees of the
+senate in his honour, which may seem to have resulted from compulsion or
+deference.  The Roman knights voluntarily, and with one accord, always
+celebrated his birth for two days together; and all ranks of the people,
+yearly, in performance of a vow they had made, threw a piece of money
+into the Curtian lake [192], as an offering for his welfare.  They
+likewise, on the calends [first] of January, presented for his acceptance
+new-year's gifts in the Capitol, though he was not present with which
+donations he purchased some costly images of the Gods, which he erected
+in several streets of the city; as that of Apollo Sandaliarius, Jupiter
+Tragoedus [193], and others.  When his house on the Palatine hill was
+accidentally destroyed by fire, the veteran soldiers, the judges, the
+tribes, and even the people, individually, contributed, according to the
+ability of each, for rebuilding it; but he would (115) accept only of
+some small portion out of the several sums collected, and refused to take
+from any one person more than a single denarius [194].  Upon his return
+home from any of the provinces, they attended him not only with joyful
+acclamations, but with songs.  It is also remarked, that as often as he
+entered the city, the infliction of punishment was suspended for the
+time.
+
+LVIII.  The whole body of the people, upon a sudden impulse, and with
+unanimous consent, offered him the title of FATHER OF HIS COUNTRY.  It
+was announced to him first at Antium, by a deputation from the people,
+and upon his declining the honour, they repeated their offer on his
+return to Rome, in a full theatre, when they were crowned with laurel.
+The senate soon afterwards adopted the proposal, not in the way of
+acclamation or decree, but by commissioning M. Messala, in an unanimous
+vote, to compliment him with it in the following terms: "With hearty
+wishes for the happiness and prosperity of yourself and your family,
+Caesar Augustus, (for we think we thus most effectually pray for the
+lasting welfare of the state), the senate, in agreement with the Roman
+people, salute you by the title of FATHER OF YOUR COUNTRY."  To this
+compliment Augustus replied, with tears in his eyes, in these words (for
+I give them exactly as I have done those of Messala): "Having now arrived
+at the summit of my wishes, O Conscript Fathers [195], what else have I
+to beg of the Immortal (116) Gods, but the continuance of this your
+affection for me to the last moments of my life?"
+
+LIX.  To the physician Antonius Musa [196], who had cured him of a
+dangerous illness, they erected a statue near that of Aesculapius, by a
+general subscription.  Some heads of families ordered in their wills,
+that their heirs should lead victims to the Capitol, with a tablet
+carried before them, and pay their vows, "Because Augustus still
+survived."  Some Italian cities appointed the day upon which he first
+visited them, to be thenceforth the beginning of their year.  And most of
+the provinces, besides erecting temples and altars, instituted games, to
+be celebrated to his honour, in most towns, every five years.
+
+LX.  The kings, his friends and allies, built cities in their respective
+kingdoms, to which they gave the name of Caesarea; and all with one
+consent resolved to finish, at their common expense, the temple of
+Jupiter Olympius, at Athens, which had been begun long before, and
+consecrate it to his Genius.  They frequently also left their kingdoms,
+laid aside the badges of royalty, and assuming the toga, attended and
+paid their respects to him daily, in the manner of clients to their
+patrons; not only at Rome, but when he was travelling through the
+provinces.
+
+LXI.  Having thus given an account of the manner in which he filled his
+public offices both civil and military, and his conduct in the government
+of the empire, both in peace and war; I shall now describe his private
+and domestic life, his habits at home and among his friends and
+dependents, and the fortune attending him in those scenes of retirement,
+from his youth to the day of his death.  He lost his mother in his first
+consulship, and his sister Octavia, when he was in the fifty-fourth year
+of his age [197].  He behaved towards them both with the utmost kindness
+whilst living, and after their decease paid the highest honours to their
+memory.
+
+(117) LXII.  He was contracted when very young to the daughter of Publius
+Servilius Isauricus; but upon his reconciliation with Antony after their
+first rupture [198], the armies on both sides insisting on a family
+alliance between them, he married Antony's step-daughter Claudia, the
+daughter of Fulvia by Publius Claudius, although at that time she was
+scarcely marriageable; and upon a difference arising with his mother-in-
+law Fulvia, he divorced her untouched, and a pure virgin.  Soon
+afterwards he took to wife Scribonia, who had before been twice married
+to men of consular rank [199], and was a mother by one of them.  With her
+likewise he parted [200], being quite tired out, as he himself writes,
+with the perverseness of her temper; and immediately took Livia Drusilla,
+though then pregnant, from her husband Tiberius Nero; and she had never
+any rival in his love and esteem.
+
+LXIII.  By Scribonia he had a daughter named Julia, but no children by
+Livia, although extremely desirous of issue.  She, indeed, conceived
+once, but miscarried.  He gave his daughter Julia in the first instance
+to Marcellus, his sister's son, who had just completed his minority; and,
+after his death, to Marcus Agrippa, having prevailed with his sister to
+yield her son-in-law to his wishes; for at that time Agrippa was married
+to one of the Marcellas, and had children by her.  Agrippa dying also, he
+for a long time thought of several matches for Julia in even the
+equestrian order, and at last resolved upon selecting Tiberius for his
+step-son; and he obliged him to part with his wife at that time pregnant,
+and who had already brought him a child.  Mark Antony writes, "That he
+first contracted Julia to his son, and afterwards to Cotiso, king of the
+Getae [201], demanding at the same time the king's daughter in marriage
+for himself."
+
+(118) LXIV.  He had three grandsons by Agrippa and Julia, namely, Caius,
+Lucius, and Agrippa; and two grand-daughters, Julia and Agrippina.  Julia
+he married to Lucius Paulus, the censor's son, and Agrippina to
+Germanicus, his sister's grandson.  Caius and Lucius he adopted at home,
+by the ceremony of purchase [202] from their father, advanced them, while
+yet very young, to offices in the state, and when they were consuls-
+elect, sent them to visit the provinces and armies.  In bringing up his
+daughter and grand-daughters, he accustomed them to domestic employments,
+and even spinning, and obliged them to speak and act every thing openly
+before the family, that it might be put down in the diary.  He so
+strictly prohibited them from all converse with strangers, that he once
+wrote a letter to Lucius Vinicius, a handsome young man of a good family,
+in which he told him, "You have not behaved very modestly, in making a
+visit to my daughter at Baiae."  He usually instructed his grandsons
+himself in reading, swimming, and other rudiments of knowledge; and he
+laboured nothing more than to perfect them in the imitation of his hand-
+writing.  He never supped but he had them sitting at the foot of his
+couch; nor ever travelled but with them in a chariot before him, or
+riding beside him.
+
+LXV.  But in the midst of all his joy and hopes in his numerous and well-
+regulated family, his fortune failed him.  The two Julias, his daughter
+and grand-daughter, abandoned themselves to such courses of lewdness and
+debauchery, that he banished them both.  Caius and Lucius he lost within
+the space of eighteen months; the former dying in Lycia, and the latter
+at Marseilles.  His third grandson Agrippa, with his step-son Tiberius,
+he adopted in the forum, by a law passed for the purpose by the Sections
+[203]; but he soon afterwards discarded Agrippa for his coarse and unruly
+temper, and confined him at Surrentum.  He bore the death of his
+relations with more patience than he did their disgrace; for he was not
+overwhelmed by the loss of Caius and Lucius; but in the case of his
+daughter, he stated the facts to the senate in a message read to them by
+(119) the quaestor, not having the heart to be present himself; indeed,
+he was so much ashamed of her infamous conduct, that for some time he
+avoided all company, and had thoughts of putting her to death.  It is
+certain that when one Phoebe, a freed-woman and confidant of hers, hanged
+herself about the same time, he said, "I had rather be the father of
+Phoebe than of Julia."  In her banishment he would not allow her the use
+of wine, nor any luxury in dress; nor would he suffer her to be waited
+upon by any male servant, either freeman or slave, without his
+permission, and having received an exact account of his age, stature,
+complexion, and what marks or scars he had about him.  At the end of five
+years he removed her from the island [where she was confined] to the
+continent [204], and treated her with less severity, but could never be
+prevailed upon to recall her.  When the Roman people interposed on her
+behalf several times with much importunity, all the reply he gave was: "I
+wish you had all such daughters and wives as she is."  He likewise forbad
+a child, of which his grand-daughter Julia was delivered after sentence
+had passed against her, to be either owned as a relation, or brought up.
+Agrippa, who was equally intractable, and whose folly increased every
+day, he transported to an island [205], and placed a guard of soldiers
+about him; procuring at the same time an act of the senate for his
+confinement there during life.  Upon any mention of him and the two
+Julias, he would say, with a heavy sigh,
+
+    Aith' ophelon agamos t' emenai, agonos t' apoletai.
+
+    Would I were wifeless, or had childless died! [206]
+
+nor did he usually call them by any other name than that of his "three
+imposthumes or cancers."
+
+LXVI.  He was cautious in forming friendships, but clung to them with
+great constancy; not only rewarding the virtues and merits of his friends
+according to their deserts, but bearing likewise with their faults and
+vices, provided that they were (120) of a venial kind.  For amongst all
+his friends, we scarcely find any who fell into disgrace with him, except
+Salvidienus Rufus, whom he raised to the consulship, and Cornelius
+Gallus, whom he made prefect of Egypt; both of them men of the lowest
+extraction.  One of these, being engaged in plotting a rebellion, he
+delivered over to the senate, for condemnation; and the other, on account
+of his ungrateful and malicious temper, he forbad his house, and his
+living in any of the provinces.  When, however, Gallus, being denounced
+by his accusers, and sentenced by the senate, was driven to the desperate
+extremity of laying violent hands upon himself, he commended, indeed, the
+attachment to his person of those who manifested so much indignation, but
+he shed tears, and lamented his unhappy condition, "That I alone," said
+he, "cannot be allowed to resent the misconduct of my friends in such a
+way only as I would wish."  The rest of his friends of all orders
+flourished during their whole lives, both in power and wealth, in the
+highest ranks of their several orders, notwithstanding some occasional
+lapses.  For, to say nothing of others, he sometimes complained that
+Agrippa was hasty, and Mecaenas a tattler; the former having thrown up
+all his employments and retired to Mitylene, on suspicion of some slight
+coolness, and from jealousy that Marcellus received greater marks of
+favour; and the latter having confidentially imparted to his wife
+Terentia the discovery of Muraena's conspiracy.
+
+He likewise expected from his friends, at their deaths as well as during
+their lives, some proofs of their reciprocal attachment.  For though he
+was far from coveting their property, and indeed would never accept of
+any legacy left him by a stranger, yet he pondered in a melancholy mood
+over their last words; not being able to conceal his chagrin, if in their
+wills they made but a slight, or no very honourable mention of him, nor
+his joy, on the other hand, if they expressed a grateful sense of his
+favours, and a hearty affection for him.  And whatever legacies or shares
+of their property were left him by such as were parents, he used to
+restore to their children, either immediately, or if they were under age,
+upon the day of their assuming the manly dress, or of their marriage;
+with interest.
+
+LXVII.  As a patron and master, his behaviour in general was mild and
+conciliating; but when occasion required it, he (121) could be severe.
+He advanced many of his freedmen to posts of honour and great importance,
+as Licinus, Enceladus, and others; and when his slave, Cosmus, had
+reflected bitterly upon him, he resented the injury no further than by
+putting him in fetters.  When his steward, Diomedes, left him to the
+mercy of a wild boar, which suddenly attacked them while they were
+walking together, he considered it rather a cowardice than a breach of
+duty; and turned an occurrence of no small hazard into a jest, because
+there was no knavery in his steward's conduct.  He put to death Proculus,
+one of his most favourite freedmen, for maintaining a criminal commerce
+with other men's wives.  He broke the legs of his secretary, Thallus, for
+taking a bribe of five hundred denarii to discover the contents of one of
+his letters.  And the tutor and other attendants of his son Caius, having
+taken advantage of his sickness and death, to give loose to their
+insolence and rapacity in the province he governed, he caused heavy
+weights to be tied about their necks, and had them thrown into a river.
+
+LXVIII.  In his early youth various aspersions of an infamous character
+were heaped upon him.  Sextus Pompey reproached him with being an
+effeminate fellow; and M. Antony, with earning his adoption from his
+uncle by prostitution.  Lucius Antony, likewise Mark's brother, charges
+him with pollution by Caesar; and that, for a gratification of three
+hundred thousand sesterces, he had submitted to Aulus Hirtius in the same
+way, in Spain; adding, that he used to singe his legs with burnt nut-
+shells, to make the hair become softer [207].  Nay, the whole concourse
+of the people, at some public diversions in the theatre, when the
+following sentence was recited, alluding to the Gallic priest of the
+mother of the gods [208], beating a drum [209],
+
+    Videsne ut cinaedus orbem digito temperet?
+    See with his orb the wanton's finger play!
+
+applied the passage to him, with great applause.
+
+(122) LXIX.  That he was guilty of various acts of adultery, is not
+denied even by his friends; but they allege in excuse for it, that he
+engaged in those intrigues not from lewdness, but from policy, in order
+to discover more easily the designs of his enemies, through their wives.
+Mark Antony, besides the precipitate marriage of Livia, charges him with
+taking the wife of a man of consular rank from table, in the presence of
+her husband, into a bed-chamber, and bringing her again to the
+entertainment, with her ears very red, and her hair in great disorder:
+that he had divorced Scribonia, for resenting too freely the excessive
+influence which one of his mistresses had gained over him: that his
+friends were employed to pimp for him, and accordingly obliged both
+matrons and ripe virgins to strip, for a complete examination of their
+persons, in the same manner as if Thoranius, the dealer in slaves, had
+them under sale.  And before they came to an open rupture, he writes to
+him in a familiar manner, thus: "Why are you changed towards me?  Because
+I lie with a queen?  She is my wife.  Is this a new thing with me, or
+have I not done so for these nine years?  And do you take freedoms with
+Drusilla only?  May health and happiness so attend you, as when you read
+this letter, you are not in dalliance with Tertulla, Terentilla, Rufilla
+[210], or Salvia Titiscenia, or all of them.  What matters it to you
+where, or upon whom, you spend your manly vigour?"
+
+LXX.  A private entertainment which he gave, commonly called the Supper
+of the Twelve Gods [211], and at which the guests (123) were dressed in
+the habit of gods and goddesses, while he personated Apollo himself,
+afforded subject of much conversation, and was imputed to him not only by
+Antony in his letters, who likewise names all the parties concerned, but
+in the following well-known anonymous verses:
+
+    Cum primum istorum conduxit mensa choragum,
+      Sexque deos vidit Mallia, sexque deas
+    Impia dum Phoebi Caesar mendacia ludit,
+      Dum nova divorum coenat adulteria:
+    Omnia se a terris tunc numina declinarunt:
+      Fugit et auratos Jupiter ipse thronos.
+
+    When Mallia late beheld, in mingled train,
+    Twelve mortals ape twelve deities in vain;
+    Caesar assumed what was Apollo's due,
+    And wine and lust inflamed the motley crew.
+    At the foul sight the gods avert their eyes,
+    And from his throne great Jove indignant flies.
+
+What rendered this supper more obnoxious to public censure, was that it
+happened at a time when there was a great scarcity, and almost a famine,
+in the city.  The day after, there was a cry current among the people,
+"that the gods had eaten up all the corn; and that Caesar was indeed
+Apollo, but Apollo the Tormentor;" under which title that god was
+worshipped in some quarter of the city [212].  He was likewise charged
+with being excessively fond of fine furniture, and Corinthian vessels, as
+well as with being addicted to gaming.  For, during the time of the
+proscription, the following line was written upon his statue:--
+
+    Pater argentarius, ego Corinthiarius;
+    My father was a silversmith [213], my dealings are in brass;
+
+because it was believed, that he had put some persons upon the list of
+the proscribed, only to obtain the Corinthian vessels in (124) their
+possession.  And afterwards, in the Sicilian war, the following epigram
+was published:--
+
+    Postquam bis classe victus naves perdidit,
+    Aliquando ut vincat, ludit assidue aleam.
+
+    Twice having lost a fleet in luckless fight,
+    To win at last, he games both day and night.
+
+LXXI.  With respect to the charge or imputation of loathsome impurity
+before-mentioned, he very easily refuted it by the chastity of his life,
+at the very time when it was made, as well as ever afterwards.  His
+conduct likewise gave the lie to that of luxurious extravagance in his
+furniture, when, upon the taking of Alexandria, he reserved for himself
+nothing of the royal treasures but a porcelain cup, and soon afterwards
+melted down all the vessels of gold, even such as were intended for
+common use.  But his amorous propensities never left him, and, as he grew
+older, as is reported, he was in the habit of debauching young girls, who
+were procured for him, from all quarters, even by his own wife.  To the
+observations on his gaming, he paid not the smallest regard; but played
+in public, but purely for his diversion, even when he was advanced in
+years; and not only in the month of December [214], but at other times,
+and upon all days, whether festivals or not.  This evidently appears from
+a letter under his own hand, in which he says, "I supped, my dear
+Tiberius, with the same company.  We had, besides, Vinicius, and Silvius
+the father.  We gamed at supper like old fellows, both yesterday and
+today.  And as any one threw upon the tali [215] aces or sixes, he put
+down for every talus a denarius; all which was gained by him who threw a
+Venus." [216]  In another letter, he says: "We had, my dear Tiberius, a
+pleasant time of it during the festival of Minerva: for we played every
+day, and kept the gaming-board warm.  Your brother uttered many
+exclamations at a desperate run of ill-fortune; but recovering by
+degrees, and unexpectedly, he in the end lost not much.  I lost twenty
+thousand sesterces for my part; but then I was profusely (125) generous
+in my play, as I commonly am; for had I insisted upon the stakes which I
+declined, or kept what I gave away, I should have won about fifty
+thousand.  But this I like better for it will raise my character for
+generosity to the skies."  In a letter to his daughter, he writes thus:
+"I have sent you two hundred and fifty denarii, which I gave to every one
+of my guests; in case they were inclined at supper to divert themselves
+with the Tali, or at the game of Even-or-Odd."
+
+LXXII.  In other matters, it appears that he was moderate in his habits,
+and free from suspicion of any kind of vice.  He lived at first near the
+Roman Forum, above the Ring-maker's Stairs, in a house which had once
+been occupied by Calvus the orator.  He afterwards moved to the Palatine
+Hill, where he resided in a small house [217] belonging to Hortensius, no
+way remarkable either for size or ornament; the piazzas being but small,
+the pillars of Alban stone [218], and the rooms without any thing of
+marble, or fine paving.  He continued to use the same bed-chamber, both
+winter and summer, during forty years [219]: for though he was sensible
+that the city did not agree with his health in the winter, he
+nevertheless resided constantly in it during that season.  If at any time
+he wished to be perfectly retired, and secure from interruption, he shut
+himself up in an apartment at the top of his house, which he called his
+Syracuse or Technophuon [220], or he went to some villa belonging to his
+freedmen near the city.  But when he was indisposed, he commonly took up
+his residence in the house of Mecaenas [221].  Of all the places of
+retirement from the city, he (126) chiefly frequented those upon the sea-
+coast, and the islands of Campania [222], or the towns nearest the city,
+such as Lanuvium, Praeneste, and Tibur [223], where he often used to sit
+for the administration of justice, in the porticos of the temple of
+Hercules.  He had a particular aversion to large and sumptuous palaces;
+and some which had been raised at a vast expense by his grand-daughter,
+Julia, he levelled to the ground.  Those of his own, which were far from
+being spacious, he adorned, not so much with statues and pictures, as
+with walks and groves, and things which were curious either for their
+antiquity or rarity; such as, at Capri, the huge limbs of sea-monsters
+and wild beasts, which some affect to call the bones of giants; and also
+the arms of ancient heroes.
+
+LXXIII.  His frugality in the furniture of his house appears even at this
+day, from some beds and tables still remaining, most of which are
+scarcely elegant enough for a private family.  It is reported that he
+never lay upon a bed, but such as was low, and meanly furnished.  He
+seldom wore any garment but what was made by the hands of his wife,
+sister, daughter, and grand-daughters.  His togas [224] were neither
+scanty nor full; (127) and the clavus was neither remarkably broad or
+narrow.  His shoes were a little higher than common, to make him appear
+taller than he was.  He had always clothes and shoes, fit to appear in
+public, ready in his bed-chamber for any sudden occasion.
+
+LXXIV.  At his table, which was always plentiful and elegant, he
+constantly entertained company; but was very scrupulous in the choice of
+them, both as to rank and character.  Valerius Messala informs us, that
+he never admitted any freedman to his table, except Menas, when rewarded
+with the privilege of citizenship, for betraying Pompey's fleet.  He
+writes, himself, that he invited to his table a person in whose villa he
+lodged, and who had formerly been employed by him as a spy.  He often
+came late to table, and withdrew early; so that the company began supper
+before his arrival, and continued at table after his departure.  His
+entertainments consisted of three entries, or at most of only six.  But
+if his fare was moderate, his courtesy was extreme.  For those who were
+silent, or talked in whispers, he encouraged to join in the general
+conversation; and introduced buffoons and stage players, or even low
+performers from the circus, and very often itinerant humourists, to
+enliven the company.
+
+LXXV.  Festivals and holidays he usually celebrated very expensively, but
+sometimes only with merriment.  In the Saturnalia, or at any other time
+when the fancy took him, he distributed to his company clothes, gold, and
+silver; sometimes coins of all sorts, even of the ancient kings of Rome
+and of foreign nations; sometimes nothing but towels, sponges, rakes, and
+tweezers, and other things of that kind, with tickets on them, which were
+enigmatical, and had a double meaning [225].  He used likewise to sell by
+lot among his guests articles of very unequal value, and pictures with
+their fronts reversed; and so, by the unknown quality of the lot,
+disappoint or gratify the expectation of the purchasers.  This sort of
+traffic (128) went round the whole company, every one being obliged to
+buy something, and to run the chance of loss or gain wits the rest.
+
+LXXVI.  He ate sparingly (for I must not omit even this), and commonly
+used a plain diet.  He was particularly fond of coarse bread, small
+fishes, new cheese made of cow's milk [226], and green figs of the sort
+which bear fruit twice a year [227].  He did not wait for supper, but
+took food at any time, and in any place, when he had an appetite.  The
+following passages relative to this subject, I have transcribed from his
+letters.  "I ate a little bread and some small dates, in my carriage."
+Again.  "In returning home from the palace in my litter, I ate an ounce
+of bread, and a few raisins."  Again.  "No Jew, my dear Tiberius, ever
+keeps such strict fast upon the Sabbath [228], as I have to-day; for
+while in the bath, and after the first hour of the night, I only ate two
+biscuits, before I began to be rubbed with oil."  From this great
+indifference about his diet, he sometimes supped by himself, before his
+company began, or after they had finished, and would not touch a morsel
+at table with his guests.
+
+LXXVII.  He was by nature extremely sparing in the use of wine.
+Cornelius Nepos says, that he used to drink only three times at supper in
+the camp at Modena; and when he indulged himself the most, he never
+exceeded a pint; or if he did, his stomach rejected it.  Of all wines, he
+gave the (129) preference to the Rhaetian [229], but scarcely ever drank
+any in the day-time.  Instead of drinking, he used to take a piece of
+bread dipped in cold water, or a slice of cucumber, or some leaves of
+lettuce, or a green, sharp, juicy apple.
+
+LXXVIII.  After a slight repast at noon, he used to seek repose [230],
+dressed as he was, and with his shoes on, his feet covered, and his hand
+held before his eyes.  After supper he commonly withdrew to his study, a
+small closet, where he sat late, until he had put down in his diary all
+or most of the remaining transactions of the day, which he had not before
+registered.  He would then go to bed, but never slept above seven hours
+at most, and that not without interruption; for he would wake three or
+four times during that time.  If he could not again fall asleep, as
+sometimes happened, he called for some one to read or tell stories to
+him, until he became drowsy, and then his sleep was usually protracted
+till after day-break.  He never liked to lie awake in the dark, without
+somebody to sit by him.  Very early rising was apt to disagree with him.
+On which account, if he was obliged to rise betimes, for any civil or
+religious functions, in order to guard as much as possible against the
+inconvenience resulting from it, he used to lodge in some apartment near
+the spot, belonging to any of his attendants.  If at any time a fit of
+drowsiness seized him in passing along the streets, his litter was set
+down while he snatched a few moments' sleep.
+
+LXXIX.  In person he was handsome and graceful, through every period of
+his life.  But he was negligent in his dress; and so careless about
+dressing his hair, that he usually had it done in great haste, by several
+barbers at a time.  His beard he sometimes clipped, and sometimes shaved;
+and either read or wrote during the operation.  His countenance, either
+when discoursing or silent, was so calm and serene, that a (130) Gaul of
+the first rank declared amongst his friends, that he was so softened by
+it, as to be restrained from throwing him down a precipice, in his
+passage over the Alps, when he had been admitted to approach him, under
+pretence of conferring with him.  His eyes were bright and piercing; and
+he was willing it should be thought that there was something of a divine
+vigour in them.  He was likewise not a little pleased to see people, upon
+his looking steadfastly at them, lower their countenances, as if the sun
+shone in their eyes.  But in his old age, he saw very imperfectly with
+his left eye.  His teeth were thin set, small and scaly, his hair a
+little curled, and inclining to a yellow colour.  His eye-brows met; his
+ears were small, and he had an aquiline nose.  His complexion was betwixt
+brown and fair; his stature but low; though Julius Marathus, his
+freedman, says he was five feet and nine inches in height.  This,
+however, was so much concealed by the just proportion of his limbs, that
+it was only perceivable upon comparison with some taller person standing
+by him.
+
+LXXX.  He is said to have been born with many spots upon his breast and
+belly, answering to the figure, order, and number of the stars in the
+constellation of the Bear.  He had besides several callosities resembling
+scars, occasioned by an itching in his body, and the constant and violent
+use of the strigil [231] in being rubbed.  He had a weakness in his left
+hip, thigh, and leg, insomuch that he often halted on that side; but he
+received much benefit from the use of sand and reeds.  He likewise
+sometimes found the fore-finger of his right hand so weak, that when it
+was benumbed and contracted with cold, to use it in writing, he was
+obliged to have recourse to a circular piece of horn.  He had
+occasionally a complaint in the bladder; but upon voiding some stones in
+his urine, he was relieved from that pain.
+
+LXXXI.  During the whole course of his life, he suffered, at times,
+dangerous fits of sickness, especially after the conquest of Cantabria;
+when his liver being injured by a defluxion (131) upon it, he was reduced
+to such a condition, that he was obliged to undergo a desperate and
+doubtful method of cure: for warm applications having no effect, Antonius
+Musa [232] directed the use of those which were cold.  He was likewise
+subject to fits of sickness at stated times every year; for about his
+birth-day [233] he was commonly a little indisposed.  In the beginning of
+spring, he was attacked with an inflation of the midriff; and when the
+wind was southerly, with a cold in his head.  By all these complaints,
+his constitution was so shattered, that he could not easily bear either
+heat or cold.
+
+LXXXII.  In winter, he was protected against the inclemency of the
+weather by a thick toga, four tunics, a shirt, a flannel stomacher, and
+swathings upon his legs and thighs [234]. In summer, he lay with the
+doors of his bedchamber open, and frequently in a piazza, refreshed by a
+bubbling fountain, and a person standing by to fan him.  He could not
+bear even the winter's sun; and at home, never walked in the open air
+without a broad-brimmed hat on his head.  He usually travelled in a
+litter, and by night: and so slow, that he was two days in going to
+Praeneste or Tibur.  And if he could go to any place by sea, he preferred
+that mode of travelling.  He carefully nourished his health against his
+many infirmities, avoiding chiefly the free use of the bath; but he was
+often rubbed with oil, and sweated in a stove; after which he was washed
+with tepid water, warmed either by a fire, or by being exposed to the
+heat of the sun.  When, upon account of his nerves, he was obliged to
+have recourse to sea-water, or the waters of Albula [235], he was
+contented with sitting over a wooden tub, which he called by a Spanish
+name (132) Dureta, and plunging his hands and feet in the water by turns.
+
+LXXXIII.  As soon as the civil wars were ended, he gave up riding and
+other military exercises in the Campus Martius, and took to playing at
+ball, or foot-ball; but soon afterwards used no other exercise than that
+of going abroad in his litter, or walking.  Towards the end of his walk,
+he would run leaping, wrapped up in a short cloak or cape.  For amusement
+he would sometimes angle, or play with dice, pebbles, or nuts, with
+little boys, collected from various countries, and particularly Moors and
+Syrians, for their beauty or amusing talk.  But dwarfs, and such as were
+in any way deformed, he held in abhorrence, as lusus naturae (nature's
+abortions), and of evil omen.
+
+LXXXIV.  From early youth he devoted himself with great diligence and
+application to the study of eloquence, and the other liberal arts.  In
+the war of Modena, notwithstanding the weighty affairs in which he was
+engaged, he is said to have read, written, and declaimed every day.  He
+never addressed the senate, the people, or the army, but in a
+premeditated speech, though he did not want the talent of speaking
+extempore on the spur of the occasion.  And lest his memory should fail
+him, as well as to prevent the loss of time in getting up his speeches,
+it was his general practice to recite them.  In his intercourse with
+individuals, and even with his wife Livia, upon subjects of importance he
+wrote on his tablets all he wished to express, lest, if he spoke
+extempore, he should say more or less than was proper.  He delivered
+himself in a sweet and peculiar tone, in which he was diligently
+instructed by a master of elocution.  But when he had a cold, he
+sometimes employed a herald to deliver his speeches to the people.
+
+LXXXV.  He composed many tracts in prose on various subjects, some of
+which he read occasionally in the circle of his friends, as to an
+auditory.  Among these was his "Rescript to Brutus respecting Cato."
+Most of the pages he read himself, although he was advanced in years, but
+becoming fatigued, he gave the rest to Tiberius to finish.  He likewise
+read over to (133) his friends his "Exhortations to Philosophy," and the
+"History of his own Life," which he continued in thirteen books, as far
+as the Cantabrian war, but no farther.  He likewise made some attempts at
+poetry.  There is extant one book written by him in hexameter verse, of
+which both the subject and title is "Sicily."  There is also a book of
+Epigrams, no larger than the last, which he composed almost entirely
+while he was in the bath.  These are all his poetical compositions for
+though he begun a tragedy with great zest, becoming dissatisfied with the
+style, he obliterated the whole; and his friends saying to him, "What is
+your Ajax doing?" he answered, "My Ajax has met with a sponge." [236]
+
+LXXXVI.  He cultivated a style which was neat and chaste, avoiding
+frivolous or harsh language, as well as obsolete words, which he calls
+disgusting.  His chief object was to deliver his thoughts with all
+possible perspicuity.  To attain this end, and that he might nowhere
+perplex, or retard the reader or hearer, he made no scruple to add
+prepositions to his verbs, or to repeat the same conjunction several
+times; which, when omitted, occasion some little obscurity, but give a
+grace to the style.  Those who used affected language, or adopted
+obsolete words, he despised, as equally faulty, though in different ways.
+He sometimes indulged himself in jesting, particularly with his friend
+Mecaenas, whom he rallied upon all occasions for his fine phrases [237],
+and bantered by imitating his way of talking.  Nor did he spare Tiberius,
+who was fond of obsolete and far-fetched expressions.  He charges Mark
+Antony with insanity, writing rather to make men stare, than to be
+understood; and by way of sarcasm upon his depraved and fickle taste in
+the choice of words, he writes to him thus: "And are you yet in doubt,
+whether Cimber Annius or Veranius Flaccus be more proper for your
+imitation?  Whether you will adopt words which Sallustius Crispus has
+borrowed from the 'Origines' of Cato?  Or do you think that the verbose
+empty bombast of Asiatic orators is fit to be transfused into (134) our
+language?"  And in a letter where he commends the talent of his grand-
+daughter, Agrippina, he says, "But you must be particularly careful, both
+in writing and speaking, to avoid affectation."
+
+LXXXVII.  In ordinary conversation, he made use of several peculiar
+expressions, as appears from letters in his own hand-writing; in which,
+now and then, when he means to intimate that some persons would never pay
+their debts, he says, "They will pay at the Greek Calends."  And when he
+advised patience in the present posture of affairs, he would say, "Let us
+be content with our Cato."  To describe anything in haste, he said, "It
+was sooner done than asparagus is cooked."  He constantly puts baceolus
+for stultus, pullejaceus for pullus, vacerrosus for cerritus, vapide se
+habere for male, and betizare for languere, which is commonly called
+lachanizare.  Likewise simus for sumus, domos for domus in the genitive
+singular [238].  With respect to the last two peculiarities, lest any
+person should imagine that they were only slips of his pen, and not
+customary with him, he never varies.  I have likewise remarked this
+singularity in his hand-writing; he never divides his words, so as to
+carry the letters which cannot be inserted at the end of a line to the
+next, but puts them below the other, enclosed by a bracket.
+
+LXXXVIII.  He did not adhere strictly to orthography as laid down by the
+grammarians, but seems to have been of the opinion of those who think,
+that we ought to write as we speak; for as to his changing and omitting
+not only letters but whole syllables, it is a vulgar mistake.  Nor should
+I have taken notice of it, but that it appears strange to me, that any
+person should have told us, that he sent a successor to a consular
+lieutenant of a province, as an ignorant, illiterate fellow, upon his
+observing that he had written ixi for ipsi.  When he had occasion to
+write in cypher, he put b for a, c for b, and so forth; and instead
+of z, aa.
+
+LXXXIX.  He was no less fond of the Greek literature, in which he made
+considerable proficiency; having had Apollodorus (135) of Pergamus, for
+his master in rhetoric; whom, though much advanced in years, he took with
+him from The City, when he was himself very young, to Apollonia.
+Afterwards, being instructed in philology by Sephaerus, he received into
+his family Areus the philosopher, and his sons Dionysius and Nicanor; but
+he never could speak the Greek tongue readily, nor ever ventured to
+compose in it.  For if there was occasion for him to deliver his
+sentiments in that language, he always expressed what he had to say in
+Latin, and gave it another to translate.  He was evidently not
+unacquainted with the poetry of the Greeks, and had a great taste for the
+ancient comedy, which he often brought upon the stage, in his public
+spectacles.  In reading the Greek and Latin authors, he paid particular
+attention to precepts and examples which might be useful in public or
+private life.  Those he used to extract verbatim, and gave to his
+domestics, or send to the commanders of the armies, the governors of the
+provinces, or the magistrates of the city, when any of them seemed to
+stand in need of admonition.  He likewise read whole books to the senate,
+and frequently made them known to the people by his edicts; such as the
+orations of Quintus Metellus "for the Encouragement of Marriage," and
+those of Rutilius "On the Style of Building;" [239] to shew the people
+that he was not the first who had promoted those objects, but that the
+ancients likewise had thought them worthy their attention.  He patronised
+the men of genius of that age in every possible way.  He would hear them
+read their works with a great deal of patience and good nature; and not
+only poetry [240] and history, but orations and dialogues.  He was
+displeased, however, that anything should be written upon himself, except
+in a grave manner, and by men of the most eminent abilities: and he
+enjoined the praetors not to suffer his name to be made too common in the
+contests amongst orators and poets in the theatres.
+
+XC.  We have the following account of him respecting his (136) belief in
+omens and such like.  He had so great a dread of thunder and lightning
+that he always carried about him a seal's skin, by way of preservation.
+And upon any apprehension of a violent storm, he would retire to some
+place of concealment in a vault under ground; having formerly been
+terrified by a flash of lightning, while travelling in the night, as we
+have already mentioned. [241]
+
+XCI.  He neither slighted his own dreams nor those of other people
+relating to himself.  At the battle of Philippi, although he had resolved
+not to stir out of his tent, on account of his being indisposed, yet,
+being warned by a dream of one of his friends, he changed his mind; and
+well it was that he did so, for in the enemy's attack, his couch was
+pierced and cut to pieces, on the supposition of his being in it.  He had
+many frivolous and frightful dreams during the spring; but in the other
+parts of the year, they were less frequent and more significative.  Upon
+his frequently visiting a temple near the Capitol, which he had dedicated
+to Jupiter Tonans, he dreamt that Jupiter Capitolinus complained that his
+worshippers were taken from him, and that upon this he replied, he had
+only given him The Thunderer for his porter [242].  He therefore
+immediately suspended little bells round the summit of the temple;
+because such commonly hung at the gates of great houses.  In consequence
+of a dream, too, he always, on a certain day of the year, begged alms of
+the people, reaching out his hand to receive the dole which they offered
+him.
+
+XCII.  Some signs and omens he regarded as infallible.  If in the morning
+his shoe was put on wrong, the left instead of the right, that boded some
+disaster.  If when he commenced a long journey, by sea or land, there
+happened to fall a mizzling rain, he held it to be a good sign of a
+speedy and happy return.  He was much affected likewise with any thing
+out of the common course of nature.  A palm-tree [243] which (137)
+chanced to grow up between some stone's in the court of his house, he
+transplanted into a court where the images of the Household Gods were
+placed, and took all possible care to make it thrive.  in the island of
+Capri, some decayed branches of an old ilex, which hung drooping to the
+ground, recovered themselves upon his arrival; at which he was so
+delighted, that he made an exchange with the Republic [244] of Naples, of
+the island of Oenaria [Ischia], for that of Capri.  He likewise observed
+certain days; as never to go from home the day after the Nundiae [245],
+nor to begin any serious business upon the nones [246]; avoiding nothing
+else in it, as he writes to Tiberius, than its unlucky name.
+
+XCIII.  With regard to the religious ceremonies of foreign nations, he
+was a strict observer of those which had been established by ancient
+custom; but others he held in no esteem.  For, having been initiated at
+Athens, and coming afterwards to hear a cause at Rome, relative to the
+privileges of the priests of the Attic Ceres, when some of the mysteries
+of their sacred rites were to be introduced in the pleadings, he
+dismissed those who sat upon the bench as judges with him, as well as the
+by-standers, and beard the argument upon those points himself.  But, on
+the other hand, he not only declined, in his progress through Egypt, to
+go out of his way to pay a visit to Apis, but he likewise commended his
+grandson Caius (138) for not paying his devotions at Jerusalem in his
+passage through Judaea. [247]
+
+XCIV.  Since we are upon this subject, it may not be improper to give an
+account of the omens, before and at his birth, as well as afterwards,
+which gave hopes of his future greatness, and the good fortune that
+constantly attended him.  A part of the wall of Velletri having in former
+times been struck with thunder, the response of the soothsayers was, that
+a native of that town would some time or other arrive at supreme power;
+relying on which prediction, the Velletrians both then, and several times
+afterwards, made war upon the Roman people, to their own ruin.  At last
+it appeared by the event, that the omen had portended the elevation of
+Augustus.
+
+Julius Marathus informs us, that a few months before his birth, there
+happened at Rome a prodigy, by which was signified that Nature was in
+travail with a king for the Roman people; and that the senate, in alarm,
+came to the resolution that no child born that year should be brought up;
+but that those amongst them, whose wives were pregnant, to secure to
+themselves a chance of that dignity, took care that the decree of the
+senate should not be registered in the treasury.
+
+I find in the theological books of Asclepiades the Mendesian [248], that
+Atia, upon attending at midnight a religious solemnity in honour of
+Apollo, when the rest of the matrons retired home, fell asleep on her
+couch in the temple, and that a serpent immediately crept to her, and
+soon after withdrew.  She awaking upon it, purified herself, as usual
+after the embraces of her husband; and instantly there appeared upon her
+body a mark in the form of a serpent, which she never after could efface,
+and which obliged her, during the subsequent part of her life, to decline
+the use of the public baths.  Augustus, it was added, was born in the
+tenth month after, and for that reason was thought to be the son of
+Apollo.  The (139) same Atia, before her delivery, dreamed that her
+bowels stretched to the stars, and expanded through the whole circuit of
+heaven and earth.  His father Octavius, likewise, dreamt that a sun-beam
+issued from his wife's womb.
+
+Upon the day he was born, the senate being engaged in a debate on
+Catiline's conspiracy, and Octavius, in consequence of his wife's being
+in childbirth, coming late into the house, it is a well-known fact, that
+Publius Nigidius, upon hearing the occasion of his coming so late, and
+the hour of his wife's delivery, declared that the world had got a
+master.  Afterwards, when Octavius, upon marching with his army through
+the deserts of Thrace, consulted the oracle in the grove of father
+Bacchus, with barbarous rites, concerning his son, he received from the
+priests an answer to the same purpose; because, when they poured wine
+upon the altar, there burst out so prodigious a flame, that it ascended
+above the roof of the temple, and reached up to the heavens; a
+circumstance which had never happened to any one but Alexander the Great,
+upon his sacrificing at the same altars.  And next night he dreamt that
+he saw his son under a more than human appearance, with thunder and a
+sceptre, and the other insignia of Jupiter, Optimus, Maximus, having on
+his head a radiant crown, mounted upon a chariot decked with laurel, and
+drawn by six pair of milk-white horses.
+
+Whilst he was yet an infant, as Caius Drusus relates, being laid in his
+cradle by his nurse, and in a low place, the next day he was not to be
+found, and after he had been sought for a long time, he was at last
+discovered upon a lofty tower, lying with his face towards the rising sun
+[249].  When he first began to speak, he ordered the frogs that happened
+to make a troublesome noise, upon an estate belonging to the family near
+the town, to be silent; and there goes a report that frogs never croaked
+there since that time.  As he was dining in a grove at the fourth mile-
+stone on the Campanian road, an eagle suddenly snatched a piece of bread
+out of his hand, and, soaring to a prodigious height, after hovering,
+came down most unexpectedly, and returned it to him.
+
+Quintus Catulus had a dream, for two nights successively after his
+dedication of the Capitol.  The first night he dreamt (140) that Jupiter,
+out of several boys of the order of the nobility who were playing about
+his altar, selected one, into whose bosom he put the public seal of the
+commonwealth, which he held in his hand; but in his vision the next
+night, he saw in the bosom of Jupiter Capitolinus, the same boy; whom he
+ordered to be removed, but it was forbidden by the God, who declared that
+it must be brought up to become the guardian of the state.  The next day,
+meeting Augustus, with whom till that hour he had not the least
+acquaintance, and looking at him with admiration, he said he was
+extremely like the boy he had seen in his dream.  Some give a different
+account of Catulus's first dream, namely, that Jupiter, upon several
+noble lads requesting of him that they might have a guardian, had pointed
+to one amongst them, to whom they were to prefer their requests; and
+putting his fingers to the boy's mouth to kiss, he afterwards applied
+them to his own.
+
+Marcus Cicero, as he was attending Caius Caesar to the Capitol, happened
+to be telling some of his friends a dream which he had the preceding
+night, in which he saw a comely youth, let down from heaven by a golden
+chain, who stood at the door of the Capitol, and had a whip put into his
+hands by Jupiter.  And immediately upon sight of Augustus, who had been
+sent for by his uncle Caesar to the sacrifice, and was as yet perfectly
+unknown to most of the company, he affirmed that it was the very boy he
+had seen in his dream.  When he assumed the manly toga, his senatorian
+tunic becoming loose in the seam on each side, fell at his feet.  Some
+would have this to forbode, that the order, of which that was the badge
+of distinction, would some time or other be subject to him.
+
+Julius Caesar, in cutting down a wood to make room for his camp near
+Munda [250], happened to light upon a palm-tree, and ordered it to be
+preserved as an omen of victory.  From the root of this tree there put
+out immediately a sucker, which, in a few days, grew to such a height as
+not only to equal, but overshadow it, and afford room for many nests of
+wild pigeons which built in it, though that species of bird particularly
+avoids a hard and rough leaf.  It is likewise reported, that Caesar was
+chiefly influenced by this prodigy, to prefer his sister's grandson
+before all others for his successor.
+
+(141) In his retirement at Apollonia, he went with his friend Agrippa to
+visit Theogenes, the astrologer, in his gallery on the roof.  Agrippa,
+who first consulted the fates, having great and almost incredible
+fortunes predicted of him, Augustus did not choose to make known his
+nativity, and persisted for some time in the refusal, from a mixture of
+shame and fear, lest his fortunes should be predicted as inferior to
+those of Agrippa.  Being persuaded, however, after much importunity, to
+declare it, Theogenes started up from his seat, and paid him adoration.
+Not long afterwards, Augustus was so confident of the greatness of his
+destiny, that he published his horoscope, and struck a silver coin,
+bearing upon it the sign of Capricorn, under the influence of which he
+was born.
+
+XCV.  After the death of Caesar, upon his return from Apollonia, as he
+was entering the city, on a sudden, in a clear and bright sky, a circle
+resembling the rainbow surrounded the body of the sun; and, immediately
+afterwards, the tomb of Julia, Caesar's daughter, was struck by
+lightning.  In his first consulship, whilst he was observing the
+auguries, twelve vultures presented themselves, as they had done to
+Romulus.  And when he offered sacrifice, the livers of all the victims
+were folded inward in the lower part; a circumstance which was regarded
+by those present, who had skill in things of that nature, as an
+indubitable prognostic of great and wonderful fortune.
+
+XCVI.  He certainly had a presentiment of the issue of all his wars.
+When the troops of the Triumviri were collected about Bolognia, an eagle,
+which sat upon his tent, and was attacked by two crows, beat them both,
+and struck them to the ground, in the view of the whole army; who thence
+inferred that discord would arise between the three colleagues, which
+would be attended with the like event: and it accordingly happened.  At
+Philippi, he was assured of success by a Thessalian, upon the authority,
+as he pretended, of the Divine Caesar himself, who had appeared to him
+while he was travelling in a bye-road.  At Perugia, the sacrifice not
+presenting any favourable intimations, but the contrary, he ordered fresh
+victims; the enemy, however, carrying off the sacred things in a sudden
+sally, it was agreed amongst the augurs, that all the (142) dangers and
+misfortunes which had threatened the sacrificer, would fall upon the
+heads of those who had got possession of the entrails.  And, accordingly,
+so it happened.  The day before the sea-fight near Sicily, as he was
+walking upon the shore, a fish leaped out of the sea, and laid itself at
+his feet.  At Actium, while he was going down to his fleet to engage the
+enemy, he was met by an ass with a fellow driving it.  The name of the
+man was Eutychus, and that of the animal, Nichon [251].  After the
+victory, he erected a brazen statue to each, in a temple built upon the
+spot where he had encamped.
+
+XCVII.  His death, of which I shall now speak, and his subsequent
+deification, were intimated by divers manifest prodigies.  As he was
+finishing the census amidst a great crowd of people in the Campus
+Martius, an eagle hovered round him several times, and then directed its
+course to a neighbouring temple, where it settled upon the name of
+Agrippa, and at the first letter.  Upon observing this, he ordered his
+colleague Tiberius to put up the vows, which it is usual to make on such
+occasions, for the succeeding Lustrum.  For he declared he would not
+meddle with what it was probable he should never accomplish, though the
+tables were ready drawn for it.  About the same time, the first letter of
+his name, in an inscription upon one of his statues, was struck out by
+lightning; which was interpreted as a presage that he would live only a
+hundred days longer, the letter C denoting that number; and that he would
+be placed amongst the Gods, as Aesar, which is the remaining part of the
+word Caesar, signifies, in the Tuscan language, a God [252].  Being,
+therefore, about dispatching Tiberius to Illyricum, and designing to go
+with him as far as Beneventum, but being detained by several persons who
+applied to him respecting causes they had depending, he cried out, (and
+it was afterwards regarded as an omen of his death), "Not all the
+business in the world, shall detain me at home one moment longer;" and
+setting out upon his journey, he went (143) as far as Astura [253];
+whence, contrary to his custom, he put to sea in the night-time, as there
+was a favourable wind.
+
+XCVIII.  His malady proceeded from diarrhoea; notwithstanding which, he
+went round the coast of Campania, and the adjacent islands, and spent
+four days in that of Capri; where he gave himself up entirely to repose
+and relaxation.  Happening to sail by the bay of Puteoli, the passengers
+and mariners aboard a ship of Alexandria [254], just then arrived, clad
+all in white, with chaplets upon their heads, and offering incense,
+loaded him with praises and joyful acclamations, crying out, "By you we
+live, by you we sail securely, by you enjoy our liberty and our
+fortunes."  At which being greatly pleased, he distributed to each of
+those who attended him, forty gold pieces, requiring from them an
+assurance on oath, not to employ the sum given them in any other way,
+than the purchase of Alexandrian merchandize.  And during several days
+afterwards, he distributed Togae [255] and Pallia, among other gifts, on
+condition that the Romans should use the Greek, and the Greeks the Roman
+dress and language.  He likewise constantly attended to see the boys
+perform their exercises, according to an ancient custom still continued
+at Capri.  He gave them likewise an entertainment in his presence, and
+not only permitted, but required from them the utmost freedom in jesting,
+and scrambling for fruit, victuals, and other things which he threw
+amongst them.  In a word, he indulged himself in all the ways of
+amusement he could contrive.
+
+He called an island near Capri, Apragopolis, "The City of the Do-
+littles," from the indolent life which several of his party led there.  A
+favourite of his, one Masgabas [256], he used (144) to call Ktistaes.  as
+if he had been the planter of the island.  And observing from his room a
+great company of people with torches, assembled at the tomb of this
+Masgabas, who died the year before, he uttered very distinctly this
+verse, which he made extempore.
+
+    Ktistou de tumbo, eisoro pyroumenon.
+    Blazing with lights I see the founder's tomb.
+
+Then turning to Thrasyllus, a companion of Tiberius, who reclined on the
+other side of the table, he asked him, who knew nothing about the matter,
+what poet he thought was the author of that verse; and on his hesitating
+to reply, he added another:
+
+    Oras phaessi Masgaban timomenon.
+    Honor'd with torches Masgabas you see;
+
+and put the same question to him concerning that likewise.  The latter
+replying, that, whoever might be the author, they were excellent verses
+[257], he set up a great laugh, and fell into an extraordinary vein of
+jesting upon it.  Soon afterwards, passing over to Naples, although at
+that time greatly disordered in his bowels by the frequent returns of his
+disease, he sat out the exhibition of the gymnastic games which were
+performed in his honour every five years, and proceeded with Tiberius to
+the place intended.  But on his return, his disorder increasing, he
+stopped at Nola, sent for Tiberius back again, and had a long discourse
+with him in private; after which, he gave no further attention to
+business of any importance.
+
+XCIX.  Upon the day of his death, he now and then enquired, if there was
+any disturbance in the town on his account; and calling for a mirror, he
+ordered his hair to be combed, and his shrunk cheeks to be adjusted.
+Then asking his friends who were admitted into the room, "Do ye think
+that I have acted my part on the stage of life well?"  he immediately
+subjoined,
+
+    Ei de pan echei kalos, to paignio
+    Dote kroton, kai pantes umeis meta charas ktupaesate.
+
+    If all be right, with joy your voices raise,
+    In loud applauses to the actor's praise.
+
+(145) After which, having dismissed them all, whilst he was inquiring of
+some persons who were just arrived from Rome, concerning Drusus's
+daughter, who was in a bad state of health, he expired suddenly, amidst
+the kisses of Livia, and with these words: "Livia! live mindful of our
+union; and now, farewell!" dying a very easy death, and such as he
+himself had always wished for.  For as often as he heard that any person
+had died quickly and without pain, he wished for himself and his friends
+the like euthanasian (an easy death), for that was the word he made use
+of.  He betrayed but one symptom, before he breathed his last, of being
+delirious, which was this: he was all on a sudden much frightened, and
+complained that he was carried away by forty men.  But this was rather a
+presage, than any delirium: for precisely that number of soldiers
+belonging to the pretorian cohort, carried out his corpse.
+
+C.  He expired in the same room in which his father Octavius had died,
+when the two Sextus's, Pompey and Apuleius, were consuls, upon the
+fourteenth of the calends of September [the 19th August], at the ninth
+hour of the day, being seventy-six years of age, wanting only thirty-five
+days [258].  His remains were carried by the magistrates of the municipal
+[259] towns and colonies, from Nola to Bovillae [260], and in the
+nighttime, because of the season of the year.  During the intervals, the
+body lay in some basilica, or great temple, of each town.  At Bovillae it
+was met by the Equestrian Order, who carried it to the city, and
+deposited it in the vestibule of his own house.  The senate proceeded
+with so much zeal in the arrangement of his funeral, and paying honour to
+his memory, that, amongst several other proposals, some were for having
+the funeral procession made through the triumphal gate, preceded by the
+image of Victory which is in the senate-house, and the children of
+highest rank and of both sexes singing the funeral (146) dirge.  Others
+proposed, that on the day of the funeral, they should lay aside their
+gold rings, and wear rings of iron; and others, that his bones should be
+collected by the priests of the principal colleges.  One likewise
+proposed to transfer the name of August to September, because he was born
+in the latter, but died in the former.  Another moved, that the whole
+period of time, from his birth to his death, should be called the
+Augustan age, and be inserted in the calendar under that title.  But at
+last it was judged proper to be moderate in the honours paid to his
+memory.  Two funeral orations were pronounced in his praise, one before
+the temple of Julius, by Tiberius; and the other before the rostra, under
+the old shops, by Drusus, Tiberius's son.  The body was then carried upon
+the shoulders of senators into the Campus Martius, and there burnt.  A
+man of pretorian rank affirmed upon oath, that he saw his spirit ascend
+from the funeral pile to heaven.  The most distinguished persons of the
+equestrian order, bare-footed, and with their tunics loose, gathered up
+his relics [261], and deposited them in the mausoleum, which had been
+built in his sixth consulship between the Flaminian Way and the bank of
+the Tiber [262]; at which time likewise he gave the groves and walks
+about it for the use of the people.
+
+CI.  He had made a will a year and four months before his death, upon the
+third of the nones of April [the 11th of April], in the consulship of
+Lucius Plancus, and Caius Silius.  It consisted of two skins of
+parchment, written partly in his own hand, and partly by his freedmen
+Polybius and Hilarian; and had been committed to the custody of the
+Vestal Virgins, by whom it was now produced, with three codicils under
+seal, as well as the will: all these were opened and read in the senate.
+He appointed as his direct heirs, Tiberius for two (147) thirds of his
+estate, and Livia for the other third, both of whom he desired to assume
+his name.  The heirs in remainder were Drusus, Tiberius's son, for one
+third, and Germanicus with his three sons for the residue.  In the third
+place, failing them, were his relations, and several of his friends.  He
+left in legacies to the Roman people forty millions of sesterces; to the
+tribes [263] three millions five hundred thousand; to the pretorian
+troops a thousand each man; to the city cohorts five hundred; and to the
+legions and soldiers three hundred each; which several sums he ordered to
+be paid immediately after his death, having taken due care that the money
+should be ready in his exchequer.  For the rest he ordered different
+times of payment.  In some of his bequests he went as far as twenty
+thousand sesterces, for the payment of which he allowed a twelvemonth;
+alleging for this procrastination the scantiness of his estate; and
+declaring that not more than a hundred and fifty millions of sesterces
+would come to his heirs: notwithstanding that during the twenty preceding
+years, he had received, in legacies from his friends, the sum of fourteen
+hundred millions; almost the whole of which, with his two paternal
+estates [264], and others which had been left him, he had spent in the
+service of the state.  He left orders that the two Julias, his daughter
+and grand-daughter, if anything happened to them, should not be buried in
+his tomb [265].  With regard to the three codicils before-mentioned, in
+one of them he gave orders about his funeral; another contained a summary
+of his acts, which he intended should be inscribed on brazen plates, and
+placed in front of his mausoleum; in the third he had drawn up a concise
+account of the state of the empire; the number of troops enrolled, what
+money there was in the treasury, the revenue, and arrears of taxes; to
+which were added the names of the freedmen and slaves from whom the
+several accounts might be taken.
+
+     *     *     *     *     *     *
+
+(148) OCTAVIUS CAESAR, afterwards Augustus, had now attained to the same
+position in the state which had formerly been occupied by Julius Caesar;
+and though he entered upon it by violence, he continued to enjoy it
+through life with almost uninterrupted tranquillity.  By the long
+duration of the late civil war, with its concomitant train of public
+calamities, the minds of men were become less averse to the prospect of
+an absolute government; at the same time that the new emperor, naturally
+prudent and politic, had learned from the fate of Julius the art of
+preserving supreme power, without arrogating to himself any invidious
+mark of distinction.  He affected to decline public honours, disclaimed
+every idea of personal superiority, and in all his behaviour displayed a
+degree of moderation which prognosticated the most happy effects, in
+restoring peace and prosperity to the harassed empire.  The tenor of his
+future conduct was suitable to this auspicious commencement.  While he
+endeavoured to conciliate the affections of the people by lending money
+to those who stood in need of it, at low interest, or without any at all,
+and by the exhibition of public shows, of which the Romans were
+remarkably fond; he was attentive to the preservation of a becoming
+dignity in the government, and to the correction of morals.  The senate,
+which, in the time of Sylla, had increased to upwards of four hundred,
+and, during the civil war, to a thousand, members, by the admission of
+improper persons, he reduced to six hundred; and being invested with
+the ancient office of censor, which had for some time been disused, he
+exercised an arbitrary but legal authority over the conduct of every rank
+in the state; by which he could degrade senators and knights, and inflict
+upon all citizens an ignominious sentence for any immoral or indecent
+behaviour.  But nothing contributed more to render the new form of
+government acceptable to the people, than the frequent distribution of
+corn, and sometimes largesses, amongst the commonalty: for an occasional
+scarcity of provisions had always been the chief cause of discontents
+and tumults in the capital.  To the interests of the army he likewise
+paid particular attention.  It was by the assistance of the legions that
+he had risen to power; and they were the men who, in the last resort,
+if such an emergency should ever occur, could alone enable him to
+preserve it.
+
+History relates, that after the overthrow of Antony, Augustus held a
+consultation with Agrippa and Mecaenas about restoring the republican
+form of government; when Agrippa gave his opinion in favour of that
+measure, and Mecaenas opposed it.  (149) The object of this consultation,
+in respect to its future consequences on society, is perhaps the most
+important ever agitated in any cabinet, and required, for the mature
+discussion of it, the whole collective wisdom of the ablest men in the
+empire.  But this was a resource which could scarcely be adopted, either
+with security to the public quiet, or with unbiassed judgment in the
+determination of the question.  The bare agitation of such a point would
+have excited immediate and strong anxiety for its final result; while the
+friends of a republican government, who were still far more numerous than
+those of the other party, would have strained every nerve to procure a
+determination in their own favour; and the pretorian guards, the surest
+protection of Augustus, finding their situation rendered precarious by
+such an unexpected occurrence, would have readily listened to the secret
+propositions and intrigues of the republicans for securing their
+acquiescence to the decision on the popular side.  If, when the subject
+came into debate, Augustus should be sincere in the declaration to abide
+by the resolution of the council, it is beyond all doubt, that the
+restoration of a republican government would have been voted by a great
+majority of the assembly.  If, on the contrary, he should not be sincere,
+which is the more probable supposition, and should incur the suspicion of
+practising secretly with members for a decision according to his wish, he
+would have rendered himself obnoxious to the public odium, and given rise
+to discontents which might have endangered his future security.
+
+But to submit this important question to the free and unbiassed decision
+of a numerous assembly, it is probable, neither suited the inclination of
+Augustus, nor perhaps, in his opinion, consisted with his personal
+safety.  With a view to the attainment of unconstitutional power, he had
+formerly deserted the cause of the republic when its affairs were in a
+prosperous situation; and now, when his end was accomplished, there could
+be little ground to expect, that he should voluntarily relinquish the
+prize for which he had spilt the best blood of Rome, and contended for so
+many years.  Ever since the final defeat of Antony in the battle of
+Actium, he had governed the Roman state with uncontrolled authority; and
+though there is in the nature of unlimited power an intoxicating quality,
+injurious both to public and private virtue, yet all history contradicts
+the supposition of its being endued with any which is unpalatable to the
+general taste of mankind.
+
+There were two chief motives by which Augustus would naturally be
+influenced in a deliberation on this important subject; namely, the love
+of power, and the personal danger which (150) he might incur from
+relinquishing it.  Either of these motives might have been a sufficient
+inducement for retaining his authority; but when they both concurred, as
+they seem to have done upon this occasion, their united force was
+irresistible.  The argument, so far as relates to the love of power,
+rests upon a ground, concerning the solidity of which, little doubt can
+be entertained: but it may be proper to inquire, in a few words, into the
+foundation of that personal danger which he dreaded to incur, on
+returning to the station of a private citizen.
+
+Augustus, as has been already observed, had formerly sided with the party
+which had attempted to restore public liberty after the death of Julius
+Caesar: but he afterwards abandoned the popular cause, and joined in the
+ambitious plans of Antony and Lepidus to usurp amongst themselves the
+entire dominion of the state.  By this change of conduct, he turned his
+arms against the supporters of a form of government which he had
+virtually recognized as the legal constitution of Rome; and it involved a
+direct implication of treason against the sacred representatives of that
+government, the consuls, formally and duly elected.  Upon such a charge
+he might be amenable to the capital laws of his country.  This, however,
+was a danger which might be fully obviated, by procuring from the senate
+and people an act of oblivion, previously to his abdication of the
+supreme power; and this was a preliminary which doubtless they would have
+admitted and ratified with unanimous approbation.  It therefore appears
+that he could be exposed to no inevitable danger on this account: but
+there was another quarter where his person was vulnerable, and where even
+the laws might not be sufficient to protect him against the efforts of
+private resentment.  The bloody proscription of the Triumvirate no act of
+amnesty could ever erase from the minds of those who had been deprived by
+it of their nearest and dearest relations; and amidst the numerous
+connections of the illustrious men sacrificed on that horrible occasion,
+there might arise some desperate avenger, whose indelible resentment
+nothing less would satisfy than the blood of the surviving delinquent.
+Though Augustus, therefore, might not, like his great predecessor, be
+stabbed in the senate-house, he might perish by the sword or the poniard
+in a less conspicuous situation.  After all, there seems to have been
+little danger from this quarter likewise for Sylla, who in the preceding
+age had been guilty of equal enormities, was permitted, on relinquishing
+the place of perpetual dictator, to end his days in quiet retirement; and
+the undisturbed security which Augustus ever afterwards enjoyed, affords
+sufficient proof, that all apprehension of danger to his person was
+merely chimerical.
+
+(151) We have hitherto considered this grand consultation as it might be
+influenced by the passions or prejudices of the emperor: we shall now
+take a short view of the subject in the light in which it is connected
+with considerations of a political nature, and with public utility.  The
+arguments handed down by history respecting this consultation are few,
+and imperfectly delivered; but they may be extended upon the general
+principles maintained on each side of the question.
+
+For the restoration of the republican government, it might be contended,
+that from the expulsion of the kings to the dictatorship of Julius
+Caesar, through a period of upwards of four hundred and sixty years, the
+Roman state, with the exception only of a short interval, had flourished
+and increased with a degree of prosperity unexampled in the annals of
+humankind: that the republican form of government was not only best
+adapted to the improvement of national grandeur, but to the security of
+general freedom, the great object of all political association: that
+public virtue, by which alone nations could subsist in vigour, was
+cherished and protected by no mode of administration so much as by that
+which connected, in the strongest bonds of union, the private interests
+of individuals with those of the community: that the habits and
+prejudices of the Roman people were unalterably attached to the form of
+government established by so long a prescription, and they would never
+submit, for any length of time, to the rule of one person, without making
+every possible effort to recover their liberty: that though despotism,
+under a mild and wise prince, might in some respects be regarded as
+preferable to a constitution which was occasionally exposed to the
+inconvenience of faction and popular tumults, yet it was a dangerous
+experiment to abandon the government of the nation to the contingency of
+such a variety of characters as usually occurs in the succession of
+princes; and, upon the whole, that the interests of the people were more
+safely entrusted in the hands of annual magistrates elected by
+themselves, than in those of any individual whose power was permanent,
+and subject to no legal control.
+
+In favour of despotic government it might be urged, that though Rome had
+subsisted long and gloriously under a republican form of government, yet
+she had often experienced such violent shocks from popular tumults or the
+factions of the great, as had threatened her with imminent destruction:
+that a republican government was only accommodated to a people amongst
+whom the division of property gave to no class of citizens such a degree
+of pre-eminence as might prove dangerous to public freedom: that there
+was required in that form of political constitution, a simplicity (152)
+of life and strictness of manners which are never observed to accompany a
+high degree of public prosperity: that in respect of all these
+considerations, such a form of government was utterly incompatible with
+the present circumstances of the Romans that by the conquest of so many
+foreign nations, by the lucrative governments of provinces, the spoils of
+the enemy in war, and the rapine too often practised in time of peace, so
+great had been the aggrandizement of particular families in the preceding
+age, that though the form of the ancient constitution should still remain
+inviolate, the people would no longer live under a free republic, but an
+aristocratical usurpation, which was always productive of tyranny: that
+nothing could preserve the commonwealth from becoming a prey to some
+daring confederacy, but the firm and vigorous administration of one
+person, invested with the whole executive power of the state, unlimited
+and uncontrolled: in fine, that as Rome had been nursed to maturity by
+the government of six princes successively, so it was only by a similar
+form of political constitution that she could now be saved from
+aristocratical tyranny on one hand, or, on the other, from absolute
+anarchy.
+
+On whichever side of the question the force of argument may be thought to
+preponderate, there is reason to believe that Augustus was guided in his
+resolution more by inclination and prejudice than by reason.  It is
+related, however, that hesitating between the opposite opinions of his
+two counsellors, he had recourse to that of Virgil, who joined with
+Mecaenas in advising him to retain the imperial power, as being the form
+of government most suitable to the circumstances of the times.
+
+It is proper in this place to give some account of the two ministers
+above-mentioned, Agrippa and Mecaenas, who composed the cabinet of
+Augustus at the settlement of his government, and seem to be the only
+persons employed by him in a ministerial capacity during his whole reign.
+
+M. Vipsanius Agrippa was of obscure extraction, but rendered himself
+conspicuous by his military talents.  He obtained a victory over Sextus
+Pompey; and in the battles of Philippi and Actium, where he displayed
+great valour, he contributed not a little to establish the subsequent
+power of Augustus.  In his expeditions afterwards into Gaul and Germany,
+he performed many signal achievements, for which he refused the honours
+of a triumph.  The expenses which others would have lavished on that
+frivolous spectacle, he applied to the more laudable purpose of
+embellishing Rome with magnificent buildings, one of which, the Pantheon,
+still remains.  In consequence of a dispute with Marcellus, the nephew of
+Augustus, he retired to Mitylene, (153) whence, after an absence of two
+years, he was recalled by the emperor.  He first married Pomponia, the
+daughter of the celebrated Atticus, and afterwards one of the Marcellas,
+the nieces of Augustus.  While this lady, by whom he had children, was
+still living, the emperor prevailed upon his sister Octavia to resign to
+him her son-in-law, and gave him in marriage his own daughter Julia; so
+strong was the desire of Augustus to be united with him in the closest
+alliance.  The high degree of favour in which he stood with the emperor
+was soon after evinced by a farther mark of esteem: for during a visit to
+the Roman provinces of Greece and Asia, in which Augustus was absent two
+years, he left the government of the empire to the care of Agrippa.
+While this minister enjoyed, and indeed seems to have merited, all the
+partiality of Augustus, he was likewise a favourite with the people.  He
+died at Rome, in the sixty-first year of his age, universally lamented;
+and his remains were deposited in the tomb which Augustus had prepared
+for himself.  Agrippa left by Julia three sons, Caius, Lucius, and
+Posthumus Agrippa, with two daughters, Agrippina and Julia.
+
+C. Cilnius Mecaenas was of Tuscan extraction, and derived his descent
+from the ancient kings of that country.  Though in the highest degree of
+favour with Augustus, he never aspired beyond the rank of the equestrian
+order; and though he might have held the government of extensive
+provinces by deputies, he was content with enjoying the praefecture of
+the city and Italy; a situation, however, which must have been attended
+with extensive patronage.  He was of a gay and social disposition.  In
+principle he is said to have been of the Epicurean sect, and in his dress
+and manners to have bordered on effeminacy.  With respect to his
+political talents, we can only speak from conjecture; but from his being
+the confidential minister of a prince of so much discernment as Augustus,
+during the infancy of a new form of government in an extensive empire, we
+may presume that he was endowed with no common abilities for that
+important station.  The liberal patronage which he displayed towards men
+of genius and talents, will render his name for ever celebrated in the
+annals of learning.  It is to be regretted that history has transmitted
+no particulars of this extraordinary personage, of whom all we know is
+derived chiefly from the writings of Virgil and Horace; but from the
+manner in which they address him, amidst the familiarity of their
+intercourse, there is the strongest reason to suppose, that he was not
+less amiable and respectable in private life, than illustrious in public
+situation.  "O my glory!" is the emphatic expression employed by them
+both.
+
+(154) O decus, O famae merito pars maxima nostrae.   Vir. Georg. ii.
+              Light of my life, my glory, and my guide!
+          O et praesidium et dulce decus meum.   Hor. Ode I.
+              My glory and my patron thou!
+
+One would be inclined to think, that there was a nicety in the sense and
+application of the word decus, amongst the Romans, with which we are
+unacquainted, and that, in the passages now adduced, it was understood to
+refer to the honour of the emperor's patronage, obtained through the
+means of Mecaenas; otherwise, such language to the minister might have
+excited the jealousy of Augustus.  But whatever foundation there may be
+for this conjecture, the compliment was compensated by the superior
+adulation which the poets appropriated to the emperor, whose deification
+is more than insinuated, in sublime intimations, by Virgil.
+
+    Tuque adeo quem mox quae sint habitura deorum
+    Concilia, incertum est; urbisne invisere, Caesar,
+    Terrarumque velis curam; et te maximus orbis
+    Auctorem frugum, tempestatumque potentem
+    Accipiat, cingens materna tempora myrto:
+    An Deus immensi venias maris, ac tua nautae
+    Numina sola colant: tibi serviat ultima Thule;
+    Teque sibi generum Tethys emat omnibus undis.   Geor. i. 1. 25, vi.
+
+    Thou Caesar, chief where'er thy voice ordain
+    To fix midst gods thy yet unchosen reign--
+    Wilt thou o'er cities fix thy guardian sway,
+    While earth and all her realms thy nod obey?
+    The world's vast orb shall own thy genial power,
+    Giver of fruits, fair sun, and favouring shower;
+    Before thy altar grateful nations bow,
+    And with maternal myrtle wreathe thy brow;
+    O'er boundless ocean shall thy power prevail,
+    Thee her sole lord the world of waters hail,
+    Rule where the sea remotest Thule laves,
+    While Tethys dowers thy bride with all her waves.    Sotheby.
+
+Horace has elegantly adopted the same strain of compliment.
+
+    Te multa prece, te prosequitur mero
+    Defuso pateris; et Laribus tuum
+    Miscet numen, uti Graecia Castoris
+        Et magni memor Herculis.    Carm. IV. 5.
+
+    To thee he chants the sacred song,
+      To thee the rich libation pours;
+    Thee placed his household gods among,
+      With solemn daily prayer adores
+    So Castor and great Hercules of old,
+    Were with her gods by grateful Greece enrolled.
+
+(155) The panegyric bestowed upon Augustus by the great poets of that
+time, appears to have had a farther object than the mere gratification of
+vanity.  It was the ambition of this emperor to reign in the hearts as
+well as over the persons of his subjects; and with this view he was
+desirous of endearing himself to their imagination.  Both he and Mecaenas
+had a delicate sensibility to the beauties of poetical composition; and
+judging from their own feelings, they attached a high degree of influence
+to the charms of poetry.  Impressed with these sentiments, it became an
+object of importance, in their opinion, to engage the Muses in the
+service of the imperial authority; on which account, we find Mecaenas
+tampering with Propertius, and we may presume, likewise with every other
+rising genius in poetry, to undertake an heroic poem, of which Augustus
+should be the hero.  As the application to Propertius cannot have taken
+place until after Augustus had been amply celebrated by the superior
+abilities of Virgil and Horace, there seems to be some reason for
+ascribing Mecaenas's request to a political motive.  Caius and Lucius,
+the emperor's grandsons by his daughter Julia, were still living, and
+both young.  As one of them, doubtless, was intended to succeed to the
+government of the empire, prudence justified the adoption of every
+expedient that might tend to secure a quiet succession to the heir, upon
+the demise of Augustus.  As a subsidiary resource, therefore, the
+expedient above mentioned was judged highly plausible; and the Roman
+cabinet indulged the idea of endeavouring to confirm imperial authority
+by the support of poetical renown.  Lampoons against the government were
+not uncommon even in the time of Augustus; and elegant panegyric on the
+emperor served to counteract their influence upon the minds of the
+people.  The idea was, perhaps, novel in the time of Augustus; but the
+history of later ages affords examples of its having been adopted, under
+different forms of government, with success.
+
+The Roman empire, in the time of Augustus, had attained to a prodigious
+magnitude; and, in his testament, he recommended to his successors never
+to exceed the limits which he had prescribed to its extent.  On the East
+it stretched to the Euphrates; on the South to the cataracts of the Nile,
+the deserts of Africa, and Mount Atlas; on the West to the Atlantic
+Ocean; and on the North to the Danube and the Rhine; including the best
+part of the then known world.  The Romans, therefore, were not improperly
+called rerum domini [266], and Rome, pulcherrima rerum [267], maxima
+rerum [268].  Even the historians, Livy and Tacitus, (156) actuated
+likewise with admiration, bestow magnificent epithets on the capital of
+their country.  The succeeding emperors, in conformity to the advice of
+Augustus, made few additions to the empire.  Trajan, however, subdued
+Mesopotamia and Armenia, east of the Euphrates, with Dacia, north of the
+Danube; and after this period the Roman dominion was extended over
+Britain, as far as the Frith of Forth and the Clyde.
+
+It would be an object of curiosity to ascertain the amount of the Roman
+revenue in the reign of Augustus; but such a problem, even with respect
+to contemporary nations, cannot be elucidated without access to the
+public registers of their governments; and in regard to an ancient
+monarchy, the investigation is impracticable.  We can only be assured
+that the revenue must have been immense, which arose from the accumulated
+contribution of such a number of nations, that had supported their own
+civil establishments with great splendour, and many of which were
+celebrated for their extraordinary riches and commerce.  The tribute paid
+by the Romans themselves, towards the support of the government, was very
+considerable during the latter ages of the republic, and it received an
+increase after the consulship of Hirtius and Pansa.  The establishments,
+both civil and military, in the different provinces, were supported at
+their own expense; the emperor required but a small naval force, an arm
+which adds much to the public expenditure of maritime nations in modern
+times; and the state was burdened with no diplomatic charges.  The vast
+treasure accruing from the various taxes centered in Rome, and the whole
+was at the disposal of the emperor, without any control.  We may
+therefore justly conclude that, in the amount of taxes, customs, and
+every kind of financial resources, Augustus exceeded all sovereigns who
+had hitherto ever swayed the sceptre of imperial dominion; a noble
+acquisition, had it been judiciously employed by his successors, in
+promoting public happiness, with half the profusion in which it was
+lavished in disgracing human nature, and violating the rights of mankind.
+
+The reign of Augustus is distinguished by the most extraordinary event
+recorded in history, either sacred or profane, the nativity of the
+Saviour of mankind; which has since introduced a new epoch into the
+chronology of all Christian nations.  The commencement of the new aera
+being the most flourishing period of the Roman empire, a general view of
+the state of knowledge and taste at this period, may here not be
+improper.
+
+Civilization was at this time extended farther over the world than it had
+ever been in any preceding period; but polytheism rather increased than
+diminished with the advancement of commercial (157) intercourse between
+the nations of Europe, Asia, and Africa; and, though philosophy had been
+cultivated during several ages, at Athens, Cyrene, Rome, and other seats
+of learning, yet the morals of mankind were little improved by the
+diffusion of speculative knowledge.  Socrates had laid an admirable
+foundation for the improvement of human nature, by the exertion of reason
+through the whole economy of life; but succeeding inquirers, forsaking
+the true path of ethic investigation, deviated into specious discussions,
+rather ingenious than useful; and some of them, by gratuitously adopting
+principles, which, so far from being supported by reason, were repugnant
+to its dictates, endeavoured to erect upon the basis of their respective
+doctrines a system peculiar to themselves.  The doctrines of the Stoics
+and Epicureans were, in fact, pernicious to society; and those of the
+different academies, though more intimately connected with reason than
+the two former, were of a nature too abstract to have any immediate or
+useful influence on life and manners.  General discussions of truth and
+probability, with magnificent declamations on the to kalon, and the
+summum bonum, constituted the chief objects of attention amongst those
+who cultivated moral science in the shades of academical retirement.
+Cicero endeavoured to bring back philosophy from speculation to practice,
+and clearly evinced the social duties to be founded in the unalterable
+dictates of virtue; but it was easier to demonstrate the truth of the
+principles which he maintained, than to enforce their observance, while
+the morals of mankind were little actuated by the exercise of reason
+alone.
+
+The science chiefly cultivated at this period was rhetoric, which appears
+to have differed considerably from what now passes under the same name.
+The object of it was not so much justness of sentiment and propriety of
+expression, as the art of declaiming, or speaking copiously upon any
+subject.  It is mentioned by Varro as the reverse of logic; and they are
+distinguished from each other by a simile, that the former resembles the
+palm of the hand expanded, and the latter, contracted into the fist.  It
+is observable that logic, though a part of education in modern times,
+seems not to have been cultivated amongst the Romans.  Perhaps they were
+apprehensive, lest a science which concentered the force of argument,
+might obstruct the cultivation of that which was meant to dilate it.
+Astronomy was long before known in the eastern nations; but there is
+reason to believe, from a passage in Virgil [269], that it was little
+cultivated by the Romans; and it is certain, that in the reformation of
+the calendar, Julius Caesar was chiefly indebted to the scientific
+knowledge of (158) Sosigenes, a mathematician of Alexandria.  The laws of
+the solar system were still but imperfectly known; the popular belief,
+that the sun moved round the earth, was universally maintained, and
+continued until the sixteenth century, when the contrary was proved by
+Copernicus.  There existed many celebrated tracts on mathematics; and
+several of the mechanical powers, particularly that of the lever, were
+cultivated with success.  The more necessary and useful rules of
+arithmetic were generally known.  The use of the load-stone not being as
+yet discovered, navigation was conducted in the day-time by the sun, and
+in the night, by the observation of certain stars.  Geography was
+cultivated during the present period by Strabo and Mela.  In natural
+philosophy little progress was made; but a strong desire of its
+improvement was entertained, particularly by Virgil.  Human anatomy being
+not yet introduced, physiology was imperfect.  Chemistry, as a science,
+was utterly unknown.  In medicine, the writings of Hippocrates, and other
+Greek physicians, were in general the standard of practice; but the
+Materia Medica contained few remedies of approved quality, and abounded
+with useless substances, as well as with many which stood upon no other
+foundation than the whimsical notions of those who first introduced them.
+Architecture flourished, through the elegant taste of Vitruvius, and the
+patronage of the emperor.  Painting, statuary, and music, were
+cultivated, but not with that degree of perfection which they had
+obtained in the Grecian states.  The musical instruments of this period
+were the flute and the lyre, to which may be added the sistrum, lately
+imported from Egypt.  But the chief glory of the period is its
+literature, of which we proceed to give some account.
+
+At the head of the writers of this age, stands the emperor himself, with
+his minister Mecaenas; but the works of both have almost totally
+perished.  It appears from the historian now translated, that Augustus
+was the author of several productions in prose, besides some in verse.
+He wrote Answers to Brutus in relation to Cato, Exhortations to
+Philosophy, and the History of his own Life, which he continued, in
+thirteen books, down to the war of Cantabria.  A book of his, written in
+hexameter verse, under the title of Sicily, was extant in the time of
+Suetonius, as was likewise a book of Epigrams.  He began a tragedy on the
+subject of Ajax, but, being dissatisfied with the composition, destroyed
+it.  Whatever the merits of Augustus may have been as an author, of which
+no judgment can be formed, his attachment to learning and eminent writers
+affords a strong presumption that he was not destitute of taste.
+Mecaenas is said to have written two tragedies, Octavia and Prometheus; a
+History of (159) Animals; a Treatise on Precious Stones; a Journal of the
+Life of Augustus; and other productions.  Curiosity is strongly
+interested to discover the literary talents of a man so much
+distinguished for the esteem and patronage of them in others; but while
+we regret the impossibility of such a development, we scarcely can
+suppose the proficiency to have been small, where the love and admiration
+were so great.
+
+History was cultivated amongst the Romans during the present period, with
+uncommon success.  This species of composition is calculated both for
+information and entertainment; but the chief design of it is to record
+all transactions relative to the public, for the purpose of enabling
+mankind to draw from past events a probable conjecture concerning the
+future; and, by knowing the steps which have led either to prosperity or
+misfortune, to ascertain the best means of promoting the former, and
+avoiding the latter of those objects.  This useful kind of narrative was
+introduced about five hundred years before by Herodotus, who has thence
+received the appellation of the Father of History.  His style, in
+conformity to the habits of thinking, and the simplicity of language, in
+an uncultivated age, is plain and unadorned; yet, by the happy modulation
+of the Ionic dialect, it gratified the ear, and afforded to the states of
+Greece a pleasing mixture of entertainment, enriched not only with
+various information, often indeed fabulous or unauthentic, but with the
+rudiments, indirectly interspersed, of political wisdom.  This writer,
+after a long interval, was succeeded by Thucydides and Xenophon, the
+former of whom carried historical narrative to the highest degree of
+improvement it ever attained among the States of Greece.  The plan of
+Thucydides seems to have continued to be the model of historical
+narrative to the writers of Rome; but the circumstances of the times,
+aided perhaps by the splendid exertion of genius in other departments of
+literature, suggested a new resource, which promised not only to animate,
+but embellish the future productions of the historic Muse.  This
+innovation consisted in an attempt to penetrate the human heart, and
+explore in its innermost recesses the sentiments and secret motives which
+actuate the conduct of men.  By connecting moral effects with their
+probable internal and external causes, it tended to establish a
+systematic consistency in the concatenation of transactions apparently
+anomalous, accidental, or totally independent of each other.
+
+The author of this improvement in history was SALLUST, who likewise
+introduced the method of enlivening narrative with the occasional aid of
+rhetorical declamation, particularly in his account of the Catilinian
+conspiracy.  The notorious (160) characters and motives of the principal
+persons concerned in that horrible plot, afforded the most favourable
+opportunity for exemplifying the former; while the latter, there is
+reason to infer from the facts which must have been at that time publicly
+known, were founded upon documents of unquestionable authority.  Nay, it
+is probable that Sallust was present in the senate during the debate
+respecting the punishment of the Catilinian conspirators; his detail of
+which is agreeable to the characters of the several speakers: but in
+detracting, by invidious silence, or too faint representation, from the
+merits of Cicero on that important occasion, he exhibits a glaring
+instance of the partiality which too often debases the narratives of
+those who record the transactions of their own time.  He had married
+Terentia, the divorced wife of Cicero; and there subsisted between the
+two husbands a kind of rivalship from that cause, to which was probably
+added some degree of animosity, on account of their difference in
+politics, during the late dictatorship of Julius Caesar, by whom Sallust
+was restored to the senate, whence he had been expelled for
+licentiousness, and was appointed governor of Numidia.  Excepting the
+injustice with which Sallust treats Cicero, he is entitled to high
+commendation.  In both his remaining works, the Conspiracy of Catiline,
+and the War of Jugurtha, there is a peculiar air of philosophical
+sentiment, which, joined to the elegant conciseness of style, and
+animated description of characters, gives to his writings a degree of
+interest, superior to that which is excited in any preceding work of the
+historical kind.  In the occasional use of obsolete words, and in
+laboured exordiums to both his histories, he is liable to the charge of
+affectation; but it is an affectation of language which supports
+solemnity without exciting disgust; and of sentiment which not only
+exalts human nature, but animates to virtuous exertions.  It seems to be
+the desire of Sallust to atone for the dissipation of his youth by a
+total change of conduct; and whoever peruses his exordiums with the
+attention which they deserve, must feel a strong persuasion of the
+justness of his remarks, if not the incentives of a resolution to be
+governed by his example.  It seems to be certain, that from the first
+moment of his reformation, he incessantly practised the industry which he
+so warmly recommends.  He composed a History of Rome, of which nothing
+remains but a few fragments.  Sallust, during his administration of
+Numidia, is said to have exercised great oppression.  On his return to
+Rome he built a magnificent house, and bought delightful gardens, the
+name of which, with his own, is to this day perpetuated on the spot which
+they formerly occupied.  Sallust was born at Amiternum, in the country of
+the Sabines, and (161) received his education at Rome.  He incurred great
+scandal by an amour with Fausta, the daughter of Sylla, and wife of Milo;
+who detecting the criminal intercourse, is said to have beat him with
+stripes, and extorted from him a large sum of money.  He died, according
+to tradition, in the fifty-first year of his age.
+
+CORNELIUS NEPOS was born at Hostilia, near the banks of the Po.  Of his
+parentage we meet with no account; but from his respectable connections
+early in life, it is probable that he was of good extraction.  Among his
+most intimate friends were Cicero and Atticus.  Some authors relate that
+he composed three books of Chronicles, with a biographical account of all
+the most celebrated sovereigns, generals, and writers of antiquity.
+
+The language of Cornelius Nepos is pure, his style perspicuous, and he
+holds a middle and agreeable course between diffuseness and brevity.  He
+has not observed the same rule with respect to the treatment of every
+subject; for the account of some of the lives is so short, that we might
+suspect them to be mutilated, did they not contain evident marks of their
+being completed in miniature.  The great extent of his plan induced him,
+as he informs us, to adopt this expedient.  "Sed plura persequi, tum
+magnitudo voluminis prohibet, tum festinatio, ut ea explicem, quae
+exorsus sum." [270]
+
+Of his numerous biographical works, twenty-two lives only remain, which
+are all of Greeks, except two Carthaginians, Hamilcar and Hannibal; and
+two Romans, M. Porcius Cato and T. Pomponius Atticus.  Of his own life,--
+of him who had written the lives of so many, no account is transmitted;
+but from the multiplicity of his productions, we may conclude that it was
+devoted to literature.
+
+TITUS LIVIUS may be ranked among the most celebrated historians the world
+has ever produced.  He composed a history of Rome from the foundation of
+the city, to the conclusion of the German war conducted by Drusus in the
+time of the emperor Augustus.  This great work consisted, originally, of
+one hundred and forty books; of which there now remain only thirty-five,
+viz., the first decade, and the whole from book twenty-one to book forty-
+five, both inclusive.  Of the other hundred and five books, nothing more
+has survived the ravages of time and barbarians than their general
+contents.  In a perspicuous arrangement of his subject, in a full and
+circumstantial account of transactions, in the delineation of characters
+and other objects of description, to justness and aptitude of sentiment,
+and in an air of majesty (162) pervading the whole composition, this
+author may be regarded as one of the best models extant of historical
+narrative.  His style is splendid without meretricious ornament, and
+copious without being redundant; a fluency to which Quintilian gives the
+expressive appellation of "lactea ubertas."  Amongst the beauties which
+we admire in his writings, besides the animated speeches frequently
+interspersed, are those concise and peculiarly applicable eulogiums, with
+which he characterises every eminent person mentioned, at the close of
+their life.  Of his industry in collating, and his judgment in deciding
+upon the preference due to, dissentient authorities, in matters of
+testimony, the work affords numberless proofs.  Of the freedom and
+impartiality with which he treated even of the recent periods of history,
+there cannot be more convincing evidence, than that he was rallied by
+Augustus as a favourer of Pompey; and that, under the same emperor, he
+not only bestowed upon Cicero the tribute of warm approbation, but dared
+to ascribe, in an age when their names were obnoxious, even to Brutus and
+Cassius the virtues of consistency and patriotism.  If in any thing the
+conduct of Livy violates our sentiments of historical dignity, it is the
+apparent complacency and reverence with which he every where mentions the
+popular belief in omens and prodigies; but this was the general
+superstition of the times; and totally to renounce the prejudices of
+superstitious education, is the last heroic sacrifice to philosophical
+scepticism.  In general, however, the credulity of Livy appears to be
+rather affected than real; and his account of the exit of Romulus, in the
+following passage, may be adduced as an instance in confirmation of this
+remark.
+
+"His immortalibus editis operibus, quum ad exercitum recensendum
+concionem in campo ad Caprae paludem haberet, subita coorta tempestate
+cum magno fragore tonitribusque tam denso regem operuit nimbo, ut
+conspectum ejus concioni abstulerit; nec deinde in terris Romulus fuit.
+Romana pubes, sedato tandem pavore, postquam ex tam turbido die serena,
+et tranquilla lux rediit, ubi vacuam sedem regiam vidit; etsi satis
+credebat Patribus, qui proximi steterant, sublimem raptum procella; tamen
+veluti orbitatis metu icta, maestum aliquamdiu silentium obtinuit.
+Deinde a paucis initio facto, Deum, Deo natum, regem parentemque urbis
+Romanae, salvere universi Romulum jubent; pacem precibus exposcunt, uti
+volens propitius suam semper sospitet progeniem.  Fuisse credo tum quoque
+aliquos, qui discerptum regem Patrum manibus taciti arguerent; manavit
+enim haec quoque, et perobscura, fama.  Illam alteram admiratio viri, et
+pavor praesens nobilitavit.  Consilio etiam unius hominis addita rei
+dicitur fides; namque Proculus Julius sollicita civitate desiderio (163)
+regis, et infensa Patribus, gravis, ut traditur, quamvis magnae rei
+auctor, in concionem prodit.  'Romulus, inquit, Quirites, parens urbis
+hujus, prima hodierna luce coelo repente delapsus, se mihi obvium dedit;
+quam profusus horrore venerabundusque astitissem, petens precibus, ut
+contra intueri fas esset; Abi, nuncia, inquit, Romanis, Coelestes ita
+velle, ut mea Roma caput orbis terrarum sit; proinde rem militarem
+colant; sciantque, et ita posteris tradant, nullas opes humanas armis
+Romanis resistere posse.'  Haec, inquit, locutus, sublimis abiit.  Mirum,
+quantum illi viro nuncianti haec fidei fuerit; quamque desiderium Romuli
+apud plebem exercitumque, facta fide immortalitatis, lenitum sit." [271]
+
+Scarcely any incident in ancient history savours more of the (164)
+marvellous than the account above delivered respecting the first Roman
+king; and amidst all the solemnity with which it is related, we may
+perceive that the historian was not the dupe of credulity.  There is more
+implied than the author thought proper to avow, in the sentence, Fuisse
+credo, etc.  In whatever light this anecdote be viewed, it is involved in
+perplexity.  That Romulus affected a despotic power, is not only highly
+probable, from his aspiring disposition, but seems to be confirmed by his
+recent appointment of the Celeres, as a guard to his person.  He might,
+therefore, naturally incur the odium of the patricians, whose importance
+was diminished, and their institution rendered abortive, by the increase
+of his power.  But that they should choose the opportunity of a military
+review, for the purpose of removing the tyrant by a violent death, seems
+not very consistent with the dictates even of common prudence; and it is
+the more incredible, as the circumstance which favoured the execution of
+the plot is represented to have been entirely a fortuitous occurrence.
+The tempest which is said to have happened, is not easily reconcilable
+with our knowledge of that phenomenon.  Such a cloud, or mist, as could
+have enveloped Romulus from the eyes of the assembly, is not a natural
+concomitant of a thunder-storm.  There is some reason to suspect that
+both the noise and cloud, if they actually existed, were artificial; the
+former intended to divert the attention of the spectators, and the latter
+to conceal the transaction.  The word fragor, a noise or crash, appears
+to be an unnecessary addition where thunder is expressed, though
+sometimes so used by the poets, and may therefore, perhaps, imply such a
+noise from some other cause.  If Romulus was killed by any pointed or
+sharp-edged weapon, his blood might have been discovered on the spot; or,
+if by other means, still the body was equally an object for public
+observation.  If the people suspected the patricians to be guilty of
+murder, why did they not endeavour to trace the fact by this evidence?
+And if the patricians were really innocent, why did they not urge the
+examination?  But the body, without doubt, was secreted, to favour the
+imposture.  The whole narrative is strongly marked with circumstances
+calculated to affect credulity with ideas of national importance; and, to
+countenance the design, there is evidently a chasm in the Roman history
+immediately preceding this transaction and intimately connected with it.
+
+Livy was born at Patavium [272], and has been charged by Asinius Pollio
+and others with the provincial dialect of his country.  The objections to
+his Pativinity, as it is called, relate chiefly to the (165) spelling of
+some words; in which, however, there seems to be nothing so peculiar, as
+either to occasion any obscurity or merit reprehension.
+
+Livy and Sallust being the only two existing rivals in Roman history, it
+may not be improper to draw a short comparison between them, in respect
+of their principal qualities, as writers.  With regard to language, there
+is less apparent affectation in Livy than in Sallust.  The narrative of
+both is distinguished by an elevation of style: the elevation of Sallust
+seems to be often supported by the dignity of assumed virtue; that of
+Livy by a majestic air of historical, and sometimes national, importance.
+In delineating characters, Sallust infuses more expression, and Livy more
+fulness, into the features.  In the speeches ascribed to particular
+persons, these writers are equally elegant and animated.
+
+So great was the fame of Livy in his own life-time, that people came from
+the extremity of Spain and Gaul, for the purpose only of beholding so
+celebrated a historian, who was regarded, for his abilities, as a
+prodigy.  This affords a strong proof, not only of the literary taste
+which then prevailed over the most extensive of the Roman provinces, but
+of the extraordinary pains with which so great a work must have been
+propagated, when the art of printing was unknown.  In the fifteenth
+century, on the revival of learning in Europe, the name of this great
+writer recovered its ancient veneration; and Alphonso of Arragon, with a
+superstition characteristic of that age, requested of the people of
+Padua, where Livy was born, and is said to have been buried, to be
+favoured by them with the hand which had written so admirable a work.----
+
+The celebrity of VIRGIL has proved the means of ascertaining his birth
+with more exactness than is common in the biographical memoirs of ancient
+writers.  He was born at Andes, a village in the neighbourhood of Mantua,
+on the 15th of October, seventy years before the Christian aera.  His
+parents were of moderate condition; but by their industry acquired some
+territorial possessions, which descended to their son.  The first seven
+years of his life was spent at Cremona, whence he went to Mediolanum, now
+Milan, at that time the seat of the liberal arts, denominated, as we
+learn from Pliny the younger, Novae Athenae.  From this place he
+afterwards moved to Naples, where he applied himself with great assiduity
+to Greek and Roman literature, particularly to the physical and
+mathematical sciences; for which he expressed a strong predilection in
+the second book of his Georgics.
+
+    Me vero primum dulces ante omnia Musae,
+    Quarum sacra fero ingenti perculsus amore,
+    (166) Accipiant; coelique vias et sidera monstrent;
+    Defectus Solis varios, Lunaeque labores:
+    Unde tremor terris: qua vi maria alta tumescant
+    Obicibus ruptis, rursusque in seipsa residant:
+    Quid tantum Oceano properent se tingere soles
+    Hiberni: vel quae tardis mora noctibus obstet.
+                                            Geor. ii. 1. 591, etc.
+
+    But most beloved, ye Muses, at whose fane,
+    Led by pure zeal, I consecrate my strain,
+    Me first accept!  And to my search unfold,
+    Heaven and her host in beauteous order rolled,
+    The eclipse that dims the golden orb of day,
+    And changeful labour of the lunar ray;
+    Whence rocks the earth, by what vast force the main
+    Now bursts its barriers, now subsides again;
+    Why wintry suns in ocean swiftly fade,
+    Or what delays night's slow-descending shade.    Sotheby.
+
+When, by a proscription of the Triumvirate, the lands of Cremona and
+Mantua were distributed amongst the veteran soldiers, Virgil had the good
+fortune to recover his possessions, through the favour of Asinius Pollio,
+the deputy of Augustus in those parts; to whom, as well as to the
+emperor, he has testified his gratitude in beautiful eclogues.
+
+The first production of Virgil was his Bucolics, consisting of ten
+eclogues, written in imitation of the Idyllia or pastoral poems of
+Theocritus.  It may be questioned whether any language which has its
+provincial dialects, but is brought to perfection, can ever be well
+adapted, in that state, to the use of pastoral poetry.  There is such an
+apparent incongruity between the simple ideas of the rural swain and the
+polished language of the courtier, that it seems impossible to reconcile
+them together by the utmost art of composition.  The Doric dialect of
+Theocritus, therefore, abstractedly from all consideration of simplicity
+of sentiment, must ever give to the Sicilian bard a pre-eminence in this
+species of poetry.  The greater part of the Bucolics of Virgil may be
+regarded as poems of a peculiar nature, into which the author has happily
+transfused, in elegant versification, the native manners and ideas,
+without any mixture of the rusticity of pastoral life.  With respect to
+the fourth eclogue, addressed to Pollio, it is avowedly of a nature
+superior to that of pastoral subjects:
+
+    Sicelides Musae, paullo majora canamus.
+    Sicilian Muse, be ours a loftier strain.
+
+Virgil engaged in bucolic poetry at the request of Asinius Pollio, whom
+he highly esteemed, and for one of whose sons in particular, (167) with
+Cornelius Gallus, a poet likewise, he entertained the warmest affection.
+He has celebrated them all in these poems, which were begun, we are told,
+in the twenty-ninth year of his age, and completed in three years.  They
+were held in so great esteem amongst the Romans, immediately after their
+publication, that it is said they were frequently recited upon the stage
+for the entertainment of the audience.  Cicero, upon hearing some lines
+of them, perceived that they were written in no common strain of poetry,
+and desired that the whole eclogue might be recited: which being done, he
+exclaimed, "Magnae spes altera Romae."  Another hope of mighty Rome!
+[273]
+
+Virgil's next work was the Georgics, the idea of which is taken from the
+Erga kai Hmerai, the Works and Days of Hesiod, the poet of Ascra.  But
+between the productions of the two poets, there is no other similarity
+than that of their common subject.  The precepts of Hesiod, in respect of
+agriculture, are delivered with all the simplicity of an unlettered
+cultivator of the fields, intermixed with plain moral reflections,
+natural and apposite; while those of Virgil, equally precise and
+important, are embellished with all the dignity of sublime versification.
+The work is addressed to Mecaenas, at whose request it appears to have
+been undertaken.  It is divided into four books.  The first treats of
+ploughing; the second, of planting; the third, of cattle, horses, sheep,
+goats, dogs, and of things which are hurtful to cattle; the fourth is
+employed on bees, their proper habitations, food, polity, the diseases to
+which they are liable, and the remedies of them, with the method of
+making honey, and a variety of other considerations connected with the
+subject.  The Georgics (168) were written at Naples, and employed the
+author during a period of seven years.  It is said that Virgil had
+concluded the Georgics with a laboured eulogium on his poetical friend
+Gallus; but the latter incurring about this time the displeasure of
+Augustus, he was induced to cancel it, and substitute the charming
+episode of Astaeus and Eurydice.
+
+These beautiful poems, considered merely as didactic, have the justest
+claim to utility.  In what relates to agriculture in particular, the
+precepts were judiciously adapted to the climate of Italy, and must have
+conveyed much valuable information to those who were desirous of
+cultivating that important art, which was held in great honour amongst
+the Romans.  The same remark may be made, with greater latitude of
+application, in respect of the other subjects.  But when we examine the
+Georgics as poetical compositions, when we attend to the elevated style
+in which they are written, the beauty of the similes, the emphatic
+sentiments interspersed, the elegance of diction, the animated strain of
+the whole, and the harmony of the versification, our admiration is
+excited, at beholding subjects, so common in their nature, embellished
+with the most magnificent decorations of poetry.
+
+During four days which Augustus passed at Atella, to refresh himself from
+fatigue, in his return to Rome, after the battle of Actium, the Georgics,
+just then finished, were read to him by the author, who was occasionally
+relieved in the task by his friend Mecaenas.  We may easily conceive the
+satisfaction enjoyed by the emperor, at finding that while he himself had
+been gathering laurels in the achievements of war, another glorious
+wreath was prepared by the Muses to adorn his temples; and that an
+intimation was given of his being afterwards celebrated in a work more
+congenial to the subject of heroic renown.
+
+It is generally supposed that the Aeneid was written at the particular
+desire of Augustus, who was ambitious of having the Julian family
+represented as lineal descendants of the Trojan Aeneas.  In this
+celebrated poem, Virgil has happily united the characteristics of the
+Iliad and Odyssey, and blended them so judiciously together, that they
+mutually contribute to the general effect of the whole.  By the esteem
+and sympathy excited for the filial piety and misfortunes of Aeneas at
+the catastrophe of Troy, the reader is strongly interested in his
+subsequent adventures; and every obstacle to the establishment of the
+Trojans in the promised land of Hesperia produces fresh sensations of
+increased admiration and attachment.  The episodes, characters, and
+incidents, all concur to give beauty or grandeur to the poem.  The
+picture of Troy in flames can never be sufficiently (169) admired!  The
+incomparable portrait of Priam, in Homer, is admirably accommodated to a
+different situation, in the character of Anchises, in the Aeneid.  The
+prophetic rage of the Cumaean Sibyl displays in the strongest colours the
+enthusiasm of the poet.  For sentiment, passion, and interesting
+description, the episode of Dido is a master-piece in poetry.  But Virgil
+is not more conspicuous for strength of description than propriety of
+sentiment; and wherever he takes a hint from the Grecian bard, he
+prosecutes the idea with a judgment peculiar to himself.  It may be
+sufficient to mention one instance.  In the sixth book of the Iliad,
+while the Greeks are making great slaughter amongst the Trojans, Hector,
+by the advice of Helenus, retires into the city, to desire that his
+mother would offer up prayers to the goddess Pallas, and vow to her a
+noble sacrifice, if she would drive Diomede from the walls of Troy.
+Immediately before his return to the field of battle, he has his last
+interview with Andromache, whom he meets with his infant son Astyanax,
+carried by a nurse.  There occurs, upon this occasion, one of the most
+beautiful scenes in the Iliad, where Hector dandles the boy in his arms,
+and pours forth a prayer, that he may one day be superior in fame to his
+father.  In the same manner, Aeneas, having armed himself for the
+decisive combat with Turnus, addresses his son Ascanius in a beautiful
+speech, which, while expressive of the strongest paternal affection,
+contains, instead of a prayer, a noble and emphatic admonition, suitable
+to a youth who had nearly attained the period of adult age.  It is as
+follows:
+
+    Disce, puer, virtutem ex me, verumque laborem;
+    Fortunam ex aliis; nunc te mea dextera bello
+    Defensum dabit, et magna inter praemia ducet.
+    Tu facito, mox cum matura adoleverit aetas,
+    Sis memor: et te animo repetentem exempla tuorum,
+    Et pater Aeneas, et avunculus excitet Hector.--Aeneid, xii.
+
+    My son! from my example learn the war
+    In camps to suffer, and in feuds to dare,
+    But happier chance than mine attend thy care!
+    This day my hand thy tender age shall shield,
+    And crown with honours of the conquered field:
+    Thou when thy riper years shall send thee forth
+    To toils of war, be mindful of my worth;
+    Assert thy birthright, and in arms be known,
+    For Hector's nephew and Aeneas' son.
+
+Virgil, though born to shine by his own intrinsic powers, certainly owed
+much of his excellence to the wonderful merits of Homer.  His susceptible
+imagination, vivid and correct, was (170) impregnated by the Odyssey, and
+warmed with the fire of the Iliad.  Rivalling, or rather on some
+occasions surpassing his glorious predecessor in the characters of heroes
+and of gods, he sustains their dignity with so uniform a lustre, that
+they seem indeed more than mortal.
+
+Whether the Iliad or the Aeneid be the more perfect composition, is a
+question which has often been agitated, but perhaps will never be
+determined to general satisfaction.  In comparing the genius of the two
+poets, however, allowance ought to be made for the difference of
+circumstances under which they composed their respective works.  Homer
+wrote in an age when mankind had not as yet made any great progress in
+the exertion of either intellect or imagination, and he was therefore
+indebted for big resources to the vast capacity of his own mind.  To this
+we must add, that he composed both his poems in a situation of life
+extremely unfavourable to the cultivation of poetry.  Virgil, on the
+contrary, lived at a period when literature had attained to a high state
+of improvement.  He had likewise not only the advantage of finding a
+model in the works of Homer, but of perusing the laws of epic poetry,
+which had been digested by Aristotle, and the various observations made
+on the writings of the Greek bard by critics of acuteness and taste;
+amongst the chief of whom was his friend Horace, who remarks that
+
+    --------quandoque bonus dormitat Homerus.--De Arte Poet.
+            E'en sometimes the good Homer naps.
+
+Virgil, besides, composed his poem in a state remote from indigence,
+where he was roused to exertion by the example of several contemporary
+poets; and what must have animated him beyond every other consideration,
+he wrote both at the desire, and under the patronage of the emperor and
+his minister Mecaenas.  In what time Homer composed either of his poems,
+we know not; but the Aeneid, we are informed, was the employment of
+Virgil during eleven years.  For some years, the repeated entreaties of
+Augustus could not extort from him the smallest specimen of the work; but
+at length, when considerably advanced in it, he condescended to recite
+three books--the second, the fourth, and the sixth--in the presence of
+the emperor and his sister Octavia, to gratify the latter of whom, in
+particular, the recital of the last book now mentioned, was intended.
+When the poet came to the words, Tu Marcellus eris, alluding to Octavia's
+son, a youth of great hopes, who had lately died, the mother fainted.
+After she had recovered from this fit, by the care of her attendants, she
+ordered ten sesterces to be given to Virgil for every line relating (171)
+to that subject; a gratuity which amounted to about two thousand pounds
+sterling.
+
+In the composition of the Aeneid, Virgil scrupled not to introduce whole
+lines of Homer, and of the Latin poet Ennius; many of whose sentences he
+admired.  In a few instances he has borrowed from Lucretius.  He is said
+to have been at extraordinary pains in polishing his numbers; and when he
+was doubtful of any passage, he would read it to some of his friends,
+that he might have their opinion.  On such occasions, it was usual with
+him to consult in particular his freedman and librarian Erotes, an old
+domestic, who, it is related, supplied extempore a deficiency in two
+lines, and was desired by his master to write them in the manuscript.
+
+When this immortal work was completed, Virgil resolved on retiring into
+Greece and Asia for three years, that he might devote himself entirely to
+polishing it, and have leisure afterwards to pass the remainder of his
+life in the cultivation of philosophy.  But meeting at Athens with
+Augustus, who was on his return from the East, he determined on
+accompanying the emperor back to Rome.  Upon a visit to Megara, a town in
+the neighbourhood of Athens, he was seized with a languor, which
+increased during the ensuing voyage; and he expired a few days after
+landing at Brundisium, on the 22nd of September, in the fifty-second year
+of his age.  He desired that his body might be carried to Naples, where
+he had passed many happy years; and that the following distich, written
+in his last sickness, should be inscribed upon his tomb:
+
+    Mantua me genuit: Calabri rapuere: tenet nunc
+      Parthenope: cecini pascua, rura, duces. [274]
+
+He was accordingly interred, by the order of Augustus, with great funeral
+pomp, within two miles of Naples, near the road to Puteoli, where his
+tomb still exists.  Of his estate, which was very considerable by the
+liberality of his friends, he left the greater part to Valerius Proculus
+and his brother, a fourth to Augustus, a twelfth to Mecaenas, besides
+legacies to L. Varius and Plotius Tucca, who, in consequence of his own
+request, and the command of Augustus, revised and corrected the Aeneid
+after his death.  Their instructions from the emperor were, to expunge
+whatever they thought improper, but upon no account to make any addition.
+This restriction is supposed to be the cause that many lines in the
+Aeneid are imperfect.
+
+Virgil was of large stature, had a dark complexion, and his (172)
+features are said to have been such as expressed no uncommon abilities.
+He was subject to complaints of the stomach and throat, as well as to
+head-ache, and had frequent discharges of blood upwards: but from what
+part, we are not informed.  He was very temperate both in food and wine.
+His modesty was so great, that at Naples they commonly gave him the name
+of Parthenias, "the modest man."  On the subject of his modesty; the
+following anecdote is related.
+
+Having written a distich, in which he compared Augustus to Jupiter, he
+placed it in the night-time over the gate of the emperor's palace.  It
+was in these words:
+
+    Nocte pluit tota, redeunt spectacula mane:
+      Divisum imperium cum Jove Caesar habet.
+
+    All night it rained, with morn the sports appear,
+    Caesar and Jove between them rule the year.
+
+By order of Augustus, an inquiry was made after the author; and Virgil
+not declaring himself, the verses were claimed by Bathyllus, a
+contemptible poet, but who was liberally rewarded on the occasion.
+Virgil, provoked at the falsehood of the impostor, again wrote the verses
+on some conspicuous part of the palace, and under them the following
+line:
+
+    Hos ego versiculos feci, tulit alter honorem;
+    I wrote the verse, another filched the praise;
+
+with the beginning of another line in these words:
+
+    Sic vos, non vobis,
+    Not for yourselves, you----
+
+repeated four times.  Augustus expressing a desire that the lines should
+be finished, and Bathyllus proving unequal to the task, Virgil at last
+filled up the blanks in this manner:
+
+    Sic vos, non vobis, nidificatis, aves;
+    Sic vos, non vobis, vellera fertis, oves;
+    Sic vos, non vobis, mellificatis, apes;
+    Sic vos, non vobis, fertis aratra, boves.
+
+    Not for yourselves, ye birds, your nests ye build;
+    Not for yourselves, ye sheep, your fleece ye yield;
+    Not for yourselves, ye bees, your cells ye fill;
+    Not for yourselves, ye beeves, ye plough and till.
+
+The expedient immediately evinced him to be the author of the distich,
+and Bathyllus became the theme of public ridicule.
+
+When at any time Virgil came to Rome, if the people, as was commonly the
+case, crowded to gaze upon him, or pointed at him with the finger in
+admiration, he blushed, and stole away (173) from them; frequently taking
+refuge in some shop.  When he went to the theatre, the audience
+universally rose up at his entrance, as they did to Augustus, and
+received him with the loudest plaudits; a compliment which, however
+highly honourable, he would gladly have declined.  When such was the just
+respect which they paid to the author of the Bucolics and Georgics, how
+would they have expressed their esteem, had they beheld him in the
+effulgence of epic renown!  In the beautiful episode of the Elysian
+fields, in the Aeneid, where he dexterously introduced a glorious display
+of their country, he had touched the most elastic springs of Roman
+enthusiasm.  The passion would have rebounded upon himself, and they
+would, in the heat of admiration, have idolized him.
+
+HORACE was born at Venusia, on the tenth of December, in the consulship
+of L. Cotta and L. Torquatus.  According to his own acknowledgment, his
+father was a freedman; by some it is said that he was a collector of the
+revenue, and by others, a fishmonger, or a dealer in salted meat.
+Whatever he was, he paid particular attention to the education of his
+son, for, after receiving instruction from the best masters in Rome, he
+sent him to Athens to study philosophy.  From this place, Horace followed
+Brutus, in the quality of a military tribune, to the battle of Philippi,
+where, by his own confession, being seized with timidity, he abandoned
+the profession of a soldier, and returning to Rome, applied himself to
+the cultivation of poetry.  In a short time he acquired the friendship of
+Virgil and Valerius, whom he mentions in his Satires, in terms of the
+most tender affection.
+
+    Postera lux oritur multo gratissima: namque
+    Plotius et Varius Sinuessae, Virgiliusque,
+    Occurrunt; animae, quales neque candidiores
+    Terra tulit, neque queis me sit devinctior alter.
+    O qui complexus, et gaudia quanta fuerunt!
+    Nil ego contulerim jucundo sanus amico.--Sat. I. 5.
+
+    Next rising morn with double joy we greet,
+    For Plotius, Varius, Virgil, here we meet:
+    Pure spirits these; the world no purer knows,
+    For none my heart with more affection glows:
+    How oft did we embrace, our joys how great!
+    For sure no blessing in the power of fate
+    Can be compared, in sanity of mind,
+    To friends of such companionable kind.--Francis.
+
+By the two friends above mentioned, he was recommended to the patronage
+not only of Mecaenas, but of Augustus, with whom he, as well as Virgil,
+lived on a footing of the greatest intimacy.  Satisfied with the luxury
+which he enjoyed at the first tables in (174) Rome, he was so unambitious
+of any public employment, that when the emperor offered him the place of
+his secretary, he declined it.  But as he lived in an elegant manner,
+having, besides his house in town, a cottage on his Sabine farm, and a
+villa at Tibur, near the falls of the Anio, he enjoyed, beyond all doubt.
+a handsome establishment, from the liberality of Augustus.  He indulged
+himself in indolence and social pleasure, but was at the same time much
+devoted to reading; and enjoyed a tolerable good state of health,
+although often incommoded with a fluxion of rheum upon the eyes.
+
+Horace, in the ardour of youth, and when his bosom beat high with the
+raptures of fancy, had, in the pursuit of Grecian literature, drunk
+largely, at the source, of the delicious springs of Castalia; and it
+seems to have been ever after his chief ambition, to transplant into the
+plains of Latium the palm of lyric poetry.  Nor did he fail of success:
+
+    Exegi monumentum aere perennius.--Carm. iii. 30.
+    More durable than brass a monument I've raised.
+
+In Greece, and other countries, the Ode appears to have been the most
+ancient, as well as the most popular species of literary production.
+Warm in expression, and short in extent, it concentrates in narrow bounds
+the fire of poetical transport: on which account, it has been generally
+employed to celebrate the fervours of piety, the raptures of love, the
+enthusiasm of praise; and to animate warriors to glorious exertions of
+valour:
+
+    Musa dedit fidibus Divos, puerosque Deorum,
+    Et pugilem victorem, et equum certamine primnm,
+    Et juvenum curas, et libera vina referre.--Hor. De Arte Poet.
+
+    The Muse to nobler subjects tunes her lyre;
+    Gods, and the sons of Gods, her song inspire;
+    Wrestler and steed, who gained the Olympic prize,
+    Love's pleasing cares, and wine's unbounded joys.--Francis.
+
+    Misenum Aeoliden, quo non praestantior alter
+    Aere ciere viros, Martemque accendere cnatu. [275]
+                                                Virgil, Aeneid, vi.
+         .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .
+
+    Sed tum forte cava dum personat aequora concha
+    Demens, et canto vocat in certamina Divos.--Ibid.
+
+    Misenus, son of Oeolus, renowned
+    The warrior trumpet in the field to sound;
+    With breathing brass to kindle fierce alarms,
+    And rouse to dare their fate in honourable arms.
+
+       .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .
+
+    (175) Swollen with applause, and aiming still at more,
+    He now provokes the sea-gods from the shore.--Dryden
+
+There arose in this department, among the Greeks, nine eminent poets,
+viz. Alcaeus, Alcman, Anacreon, Bacchylides, Ibicus, Sappho, Stesichorus,
+Simonides, and Pindar.  The greater number of this distinguished class
+are now known only by name.  They seem all to have differed from one
+another, no less in the kind of measure which they chiefly or solely
+employed, than in the strength or softness, the beauty or grandeur, the
+animated rapidity or the graceful ease of their various compositions.  Of
+the amorous effusions of the lyre, we yet have examples in the odes of
+Anacreon, and the incomparable ode of Sappho: the lyric strains which
+animated to battle, have sunk into oblivion; but the victors in the
+public games of Greece have their fame perpetuated in the admirable
+productions of Pindar.
+
+Horace, by adopting, in the multiplicity of his subjects, almost all the
+various measures of the different Greek poets, and frequently combining
+different measures in the same composition, has compensated for the
+dialects of that tongue, so happily suited to poetry, and given to a
+language less distinguished for soft inflexions, all the tender and
+delicate modulations of the Eastern song.  While he moves in the measures
+of the Greeks with an ease and gracefulness which rivals their own
+acknowledged excellence, he has enriched the fund of lyric harmony with a
+stanza peculiar to himself.  In the artificial construction of the Ode,
+he may justly be regarded as the first of lyric poets.  In beautiful
+imagery, he is inferior to none: in variety of sentiment and felicity of
+expression, superior to every existing competitor in Greek or Roman
+poetry.  He is elegant without affectation; and what is more remarkable,
+in the midst of gaiety he is moral.  We seldom meet in his Odes with the
+abrupt apostrophes of passionate excursion; but his transitions are
+conducted with ease, and every subject introduced with propriety.
+
+The Carmen Seculare was written at the express desire of Augustus, for
+the celebration of the Secular Games, performed once in a hundred years,
+and which continued during three days and three nights, whilst all Rome
+resounded with the mingled effusions of choral addresses to gods and
+goddesses, and of festive joy.  An occasion which so much interested the
+ambition of the poet, called into exertion the most vigorous efforts of
+his genius.  More concise in mythological attributes than the hymns
+ascribed to Homer, this beautiful production, in variety and grandeur of
+invocation, and in pomp of numbers, surpasses all that Greece, (176)
+melodious but simple in the service of the altar, ever poured forth from
+her vocal groves in solemn adoration.  By the force of native genius, the
+ancients elevated their heroes to a pitch of sublimity that excites
+admiration, but to soar beyond which they could derive no aid from
+mythology; and it was reserved for a bard, inspired with nobler
+sentiments than the Muses could supply, to sing the praises of that Being
+whose ineffable perfections transcend all human imagination.  Of the
+praises of gods and heroes, there is not now extant a more beautiful
+composition, than the 12th Ode of the first book of Horace:
+
+    Quem virum aut heroa lyra vel acri
+    Tibia sumes celebrare, Clio?
+    Quem Deum? cujus recinet jocosa
+      Nomen imago,
+    Aut in umbrosis Heliconis oris, etc.
+
+    What man, what hero, on the tuneful lyre,
+    Or sharp-toned flute, will Clio choose to raise,
+    Deathless, to fame?  What God? whose hallowed name
+      The sportive image of the voice
+    Shall in the shades of Helicon repeat, etc.
+
+The Satires of Horace are far from being remarkable for poetical harmony,
+as he himself acknowledges.  Indeed, according to the plan upon which
+several of them are written, it could scarcely be otherwise.  They are
+frequently colloquial, sometimes interrogatory, the transitions quick,
+and the apostrophes abrupt.  It was not his object in those compositions,
+to soothe the ear with the melody of polished numbers, but to rally the
+frailties of the heart, to convince the understanding by argument, and
+thence to put to shame both the vices and follies of mankind.  Satire is
+a species of composition, of which the Greeks furnished no model; and the
+preceding Roman writers of this class, though they had much improved it
+from its original rudeness and licentiousness, had still not brought it
+to that degree of perfection which might answer the purpose of moral
+reform in a polished state of society.  It received the most essential
+improvement from Horace, who has dexterously combined wit and argument,
+raillery and sarcasm, on the side of morality and virtue, of happiness
+and truth.
+
+The Epistles of this author may be reckoned amongst the most valuable
+productions of antiquity.  Except those of the second book, and one or
+two in the first, they are in general of the familiar kind; abounding in
+moral sentiments, and judicious observations on life and manners.
+
+The poem De Arte Poetica comprises a system of criticism, in justness of
+principle and extent of application, correspondent to the various
+exertions of genius on subjects of invention and taste.  (177) That in
+composing this excellent production, he availed himself of the most
+approved works of Grecian original, we may conclude from the advice which
+he there recommends:
+
+    ------------Vos exemplaria Graeca
+    Nocturna versate manu, versate diurna.
+
+    Make the Greek authors your supreme delight;
+    Read them by day, and study them by night.--Francis.
+
+In the writings of Horace there appears a fund of good sense, enlivened
+with pleasantry, and refined by philosophical reflection.  He had
+cultivated his judgment with great application, and his taste was guided
+by intuitive perception of moral beauty, aptitude, and propriety.  The
+few instances of indelicacy which occur in his compositions, we may
+ascribe rather to the manners of the times, than to any blameable
+propensity in the author.  Horace died in the fifty-seventh year of his
+age, surviving his beloved Mecaenas only three weeks; a circumstance
+which, added to the declaration in an ode [276] to that personage,
+supposed to have been written in Mecaenas's last illness, has given rise
+to a conjecture, that Horace ended his days by a violent death, to
+accompany his friend.  But it is more natural to conclude that he died of
+excessive grief, as, had he literally adhered to the affirmation
+contained in the ode, he would have followed his patron more closely.
+This seems to be confirmed by a fact immediately preceding his death; for
+though he declared Augustus heir to his whole estate, he was not able, on
+account of weakness, to put his signature to the will; a failure which it
+is probable that he would have taken care to obviate, had his death been
+premeditated.  He was interred, at his own desire, near the tomb of
+Mecaenas.----
+
+OVID was born of an equestrian family, at Sulmo, a town of the Peligni,
+on the 21st of March, in the consulship of Hirtius and Pansa.  His father
+intended him for the bar; and after passing him through the usual course
+of instruction at Rome, he was sent to Athens, the emporium of learning,
+to complete his education.  On his return to Rome, in obedience to the
+desire of his father, he entered upon the offices of public life in the
+forum, and declaimed with great applause.  But this was the effect of
+paternal authority, not of choice: for, from his earliest years, he
+discovered an extreme attachment to poetry; and no sooner was his father
+dead, than, renouncing the bar, he devoted himself entirely to the
+cultivation of that fascinating art, his propensity to which was
+invincible.  His productions, all written either in heroic or pentameter
+verse, are numerous, and on various subjects.  It will be sufficient to
+mention them briefly.
+
+(178) The Heroides consist of twenty-one Epistles, all which, except
+three, are feigned to be written from celebrated women of antiquity, to
+their husbands or lovers, such as Penelope to Ulysses, Dido to Aeneas,
+Sappho to Phaon, etc.  These compositions are nervous, animated and
+elegant: they discover a high degree of poetic enthusiasm, but blended
+with that lascivious turn of thought, which pervades all the amorous
+productions of this celebrated author.
+
+The elegies on subjects of love, particularly the Ars Amandi, or Ars
+Amatoria, though not all uniform in versification, possess the same
+general character, of warmth of passion, and luscious description, as the
+epistles.
+
+The Fasti were divided into twelve books, of which only the first six now
+remain.  The design of them was to deliver an account of the Roman
+festivals in every month of the year, with a description of the rites and
+ceremonies, as well as the sacrifices on those occasions.  It is to be
+regretted, that, on a subject so interesting, this valuable work should
+not have been transmitted entire: but in the part which remains, we are
+furnished with a beautiful description of the ceremonial transactions in
+the Roman calendar, from the first of January to the end of June.  The
+versification, as in all the compositions of this author, is easy and
+harmonious.
+
+The most popular production of this poet is his Metamorphoses, not less
+extraordinary for the nature of the subject, than for the admirable art
+with which the whole is conducted.  The work is founded upon the
+traditions and theogony of the ancients, which consisted of various
+detached fables.  Those Ovid has not only so happily arranged, that they
+form a coherent series of narratives, one rising out of another; but he
+describes the different changes with such an imposing plausibility, as to
+give a natural appearance to the most incredible fictions.  This
+ingenious production, however perfect it may appear, we are told by
+himself, had not received his last corrections when he was ordered into
+banishment.
+
+In the Ibis, the author imitates a poem of the same name, written by
+Callimachus.  It is an invective against some person who publicly
+traduced his character at Rome, after his banishment.  A strong
+sensibility, indignation, and implacable resentment, are conspicuous
+through the whole.
+
+The Tristia were composed in his exile, in which, though his vivacity
+forsook him, he still retained a genius prolific in versification.  In
+these poems, as well as in many epistles to different persons, he bewails
+his unhappy situation, and deprecates in the strongest terms the
+inexorable displeasure of Augustus.
+
+Several other productions written by Ovid are now lost, and (179) amongst
+them a tragedy called Medea, of which Quintilian expresses a high
+opinion.  Ovidii Medea videtur mihi ostendere quantum vir ille praestare
+potuerit, si ingenio suo temperare quam indulgere maluisset [277].  Lib.
+x. c. 1.
+
+It is a peculiarity in the productions of this author, that, on whatever
+he employs his pen, he exhausts the subject; not with any prolixity that
+fatigues the attention, but by a quick succession of new ideas, equally
+brilliant and apposite, often expressed in antitheses.  Void of obscenity
+in expression, but lascivious in sentiment, he may be said rather to
+stimulate immorally the natural passions, than to corrupt the
+imagination.  No poet is more guided in versification by the nature of
+his subject than Ovid.  In common narrative, his ideas are expressed with
+almost colloquial simplicity; but when his fancy glows with sentiment, or
+is animated by objects of grandeur, his style is proportionably elevated,
+and he rises to a pitch of sublimity.
+
+No point in ancient history has excited more variety of conjectures than
+the banishment of Ovid; but after all the efforts of different writers to
+elucidate the subject, the cause of this extraordinary transaction
+remains involved in obscurity.  It may therefore not be improper, in this
+place, to examine the foundation of the several conjectures which have
+been formed, and if they appear to be utterly imadmissible, to attempt a
+solution of the question upon principles more conformable to probability,
+and countenanced by historical evidence.
+
+The ostensible reason assigned by Augustus for banishing Ovid, was his
+corrupting the Roman youth by lascivious publications; but it is evident,
+from various passages in the poet's productions after this period, that
+there was, besides, some secret reason, which would not admit of being
+divulged.  He says in his Tristia, Lib. ii. 1--
+
+    Perdiderent cum me duo crimina, carmen et errors. [278]
+
+It appears from another passage in the same work, that this inviolable
+arcanum was something which Ovid had seen, and, as he insinuates, through
+his own ignorance and mistake.
+
+    Cur aliquid vidi? cur conscia lumina feci?
+      Cur imprudenti cognita culpa mihi est?--Ibid.
+         *     *     *     *     *     *
+    (180) Inscia quod crimen viderunt lumina, plector:
+      Peccatumque oculos est habuisse meum. [279]     De Trist. iii. 5.
+
+It seems, therefore, to be a fact sufficiently established, that Ovid had
+seen something of a very indecent nature, in which Augustus was
+concerned.  What this was, is the question.  Some authors, conceiving it
+to have been of a kind extremely atrocious, have gone so far as to
+suppose, that it must have been an act of criminality between Augustus
+and his own daughter Julia, who, notwithstanding the strict attention
+paid to her education by her father, became a woman of the most infamous
+character; suspected of incontinence during her marriage with Agrippa,
+and openly profligate after her union with her next husband, Tiberius.
+This supposition, however, rests entirely upon conjecture, and is not
+only discredited by its own improbability, but by a yet more forcible
+argument.  It is certain that Julia was at this time in banishment for
+her scandalous life.  She was about the same age with Tiberius, who was
+now forty seven, and they had not cohabited for many years.  We know not
+exactly the year in which Augustus sent her into exile, but we may
+conclude with confidence, that it happened soon after her separation from
+Tiberius; whose own interest with the emperor, as well as that of his
+mother Livia, could not fail of being exerted, if any such application
+was necessary, towards removing from the capital a woman, who, by the
+notoriety of her prostitution, reflected disgrace upon all with whom she
+was connected, either by blood or alliance.  But no application from
+Tiberius or his mother could be necessary, when we are assured that
+Augustus even presented to the senate a narrative respecting the infamous
+behaviour of his daughter, which was read by the quaestor.  He was so
+much ashamed of her profligacy, that he for a long time declined all
+company, and had thoughts of putting her to death.  She was banished to
+an island on the coast of Campania for five years; at the expiration of
+which period, she was removed to the continent, and the severity of her
+treatment a little mitigated; but though frequent applications were made
+in her behalf by the people, Augustus never could be prevailed upon to
+permit her return.
+
+(181) Other writers have conjectured, that, instead of Julia, the
+daughter of Augustus, the person seen with him by Ovid may have been
+Julia his grand-daughter, who inherited the vicious disposition of her
+mother, and was on that account likewise banished by Augustus.  The epoch
+of this lady's banishment it is impossible to ascertain; and therefore no
+argument can be drawn from that source to invalidate the present
+conjecture.  But Augustus had shown the same solicitude for her being
+trained up in virtuous habits, as he had done in respect of her mother,
+though in both cases unsuccessfully; and this consideration, joined to
+the enormity of the supposed crime, and the great sensibility which
+Augustus had discovered with regard to the infamy of his daughter, seems
+sufficient to exonerate his memory from so odious a charge.  Besides, is
+it possible that he could have sent her into banishment for the infamy of
+her prostitution, while (upon the supposition of incest) she was mistress
+of so important a secret, as that he himself had been more criminal with
+her than any other man in the empire?
+
+Some writers, giving a wider scope to conjecture, have supposed the
+transaction to be of a nature still more detestable, and have even
+dragged Mecaenas, the minister, into a participation of the crime.
+Fortunately, however, for the reputation of the illustrious patron of
+polite learning, as well as for that of the emperor, this crude
+conjecture may be refuted upon the evidence of chronology.  The
+commencement of Ovid's exile happened in the ninth year of the Christian
+aera, and the death of Mecaenas, eight years before that period.  Between
+this and other calculations, we find a difference of three or four years;
+but allowing the utmost latitude of variation, there intervened, from the
+death of Mecaenas to the banishment of Ovid, a period of eleven years; an
+observation which fully invalidates the conjecture above-mentioned.
+
+Having now refuted, as it is presumed, the opinions of the different
+commentators on this subject, we shall proceed to offer a new conjecture,
+which seems to have a greater claim to probability than any that has
+hitherto been suggested.
+
+Suetonius informs us, that Augustus, in the latter part of his life,
+contracted a vicious inclination for the enjoyment of young virgins, who
+were procured for him from all parts, not only with the connivance, but
+by the clandestine management of his consort Livia.  It was therefore
+probably with one of those victims that he was discovered by Ovid.
+Augustus had for many years affected a decency of behaviour, and he
+would, therefore, naturally be not a little disconcerted at the
+unseasonable intrusion of the poet.  That Ovid knew not of Augustus's
+being in the place, is beyond all doubt: and Augustus's consciousness
+(182) of this circumstance, together with the character of Ovid, would
+suggest an unfavourable suspicion of the motive which had brought the
+latter thither.  Abstracted from the immorality of the emperor's own
+conduct, the incident might be regarded as ludicrous, and certainly was
+more fit to excite the shame than the indignation of Augustus.  But the
+purpose of Ovid's visit appears, from his own acknowledgment, to have
+been not entirely free from blame, though of what nature we know not:
+
+    Non equidem totam possum defendere culpam:
+      Sed partem nostri criminis error habet.
+                                       De Trist. Lib. iii. Eleg. 5.
+
+    I know I cannot wholly be defended,
+    Yet plead 'twas chance, no ill was then intended.--Catlin.
+
+Ovid was at this time turned of fifty, and though by a much younger man
+he would not have been regarded as any object of jealousy in love, yet by
+Augustus, now in his sixty-ninth year, he might be deemed a formidable
+rival.  This passion, therefore, concurring with that which arose from
+the interruption or disappointment of gratification, inflamed the
+emperor's resentment, and he resolved on banishing to a distant country a
+man whom he considered as his rival, and whose presence, from what had
+happened, he never more could endure.
+
+Augustus having determined on the banishment of Ovid, could find little
+difficulty in accommodating the ostensible to the secret and real cause
+of this resolution.
+
+No argument to establish the date of publication, can be drawn from the
+order in which the various productions of Ovid are placed in the
+collection of his works: but reasoning from probability, we should
+suppose that the Ars Amandi was written during the period of his youth;
+and this seems to be confirmed by the following passage in the second
+book of the Fasti:
+
+    Certe ego vos habui faciles in amore ministros;
+      Cum lusit numeris prima juventa suis. [280]
+
+That many years must have elapsed since its original publication, is
+evident from the subsequent lines in the second book of the Tristia:
+
+    Nos quoque jam pridem scripto peccavimus uno.
+      Supplicium patitur non nova culpa novum.
+    Carminaque edideram, cum te delicta notantem
+      Praeterii toties jure quietus eques.
+    (183) Ergo, quae juveni mihi non nocitura putavi
+    Scripta parum prudens, nunc nocuere seni? [281]
+
+With what show, then, of justice, it may be asked, could Augustus now
+punish a fault, which, in his solemn capacity of censor, he had so long
+and repeatedly overlooked?  The answer is obvious: in a production so
+popular as we may be assured the Ars Amandi was amongst the Roman youth,
+it must have passed through several editions in the course of some years:
+and one of those coinciding with the fatal discovery, afforded the
+emperor a specious pretext for the execution of his purpose.  The
+severity exercised on this occasion, however, when the poet was suddenly
+driven into exile, unaccompanied even by the partner of his bed, who had
+been his companion for many years, was an act so inconsistent with the
+usual moderation of Augustus, that we cannot justly ascribe it to any
+other motive than personal resentment; especially as this arbitrary
+punishment of the author could answer no end of public utility, while the
+obnoxious production remained to affect, if it really ever did
+essentially affect, the morals of society.  If the sensibility of
+Augustus could not thenceforth admit of any personal intercourse with
+Ovid, or even of his living within the limits of Italy, there would have
+been little danger from the example, in sending into honourable exile,
+with every indulgence which could alleviate so distressful a necessity, a
+man of respectable rank in the state, who was charged with no actual
+offence against the laws, and whose genius, with all its indiscretion,
+did immortal honour to his country.  It may perhaps be urged, that,
+considering the predicament in which Augustus stood, he discovered a
+forbearance greater than might have been expected from an absolute
+prince, in sparing the life of Ovid.  It will readily be granted, that
+Ovid, in the same circumstances, under any one of the four subsequent
+emperors, would have expiated the incident with his blood.  Augustus,
+upon a late occasion, had shown himself equally sanguinary, for he put to
+death, by the hand of Varus, a poet of Parma, named Cassius, on account
+of his having written some satirical verses against him.  By that recent
+example, therefore, and the power of pardoning which the emperor still
+retained, there was sufficient hold of the poet's secrecy respecting the
+fatal transaction, which, if divulged (184) to the world, Augustus would
+reprobate as a false and infamous libel, and punish the author
+accordingly.  Ovid, on his part, was sensible, that, should he dare to
+violate the important but tacit injunction, the imperial vengeance would
+reach him even on the shores of the Euxine.  It appears, however, from a
+passage in the Ibis, which can apply to no other than Augustus, that Ovid
+was not sent into banishment destitute of pecuniary provision:
+
+    Di melius! quorum longe mihi maximus ille,
+      Qui nostras inopes noluit esse vias.
+    Huic igitur meritas grates, ubicumque licebit,
+      Pro tam mansueto pectore semper agam.
+
+    The gods defend! of whom he's far the chief,
+    Who lets me not, though banished, want relief.
+    For this his favour therefore whilst I live,
+    Where'er I am, deserved thanks I'll give.
+
+What sum the emperor bestowed, for the support of a banishment which he
+was resolved should be perpetual, it is impossible to ascertain; but he
+had formerly been liberal to Ovid, as well as to other poets.
+
+If we might hazard a conjecture respecting the scene of the intrigue
+which occasioned the banishment of Ovid, we should place it in some
+recess in the emperor's gardens.  His house, though called Palatium, the
+palace, as being built on the Palatine hill, and inhabited by the
+sovereign, was only a small mansion, which had formerly belonged to
+Hortensius, the orator.  Adjoining to this place Augustus had built the
+temple of Apollo, which he endowed with a public library, and allotted
+for the use of poets, to recite their compositions to each other.  Ovid
+was particularly intimate with Hyginus, one of Augustus's freedmen, who
+was librarian of the temple.  He might therefore have been in the
+library, and spying from the window a young female secreting herself in
+the gardens, he had the curiosity to follow her.
+
+The place of Ovid's banishment was Tomi [282], now said to be Baba, a
+town of Bulgaria, towards the mouth of the Ister, where is a lake still
+called by the natives Ouvidouve Jesero, the lake of Ovid.  In this
+retirement, and the Euxine Pontus, he passed the remainder of his life, a
+melancholy period of seven years.  Notwithstanding the lascivious
+writings of Ovid, it does not appear that he was in his conduct a
+libertine.  He was three times married: his first wife, who was of mean
+extraction, and (185) whom he had married when he was very young, he
+divorced; the second he dismissed on account of her immodest behaviour;
+and the third appears to have survived him.  He had a number of
+respectable friends, and seems to have been much beloved by them.----
+
+TIBULLUS was descended of an equestrian family, and is said, but
+erroneously, as will afterwards appear, to have been born on the same day
+with Ovid.  His amiable accomplishments procured him the friendship of
+Messala Corvinus, whom he accompanied in a military expedition to the
+island of Corcyra.  But an indisposition with which he was seized, and a
+natural aversion to the toils of war, induced him to return to Rome,
+where he seems to have resigned himself to a life of indolence and
+pleasure, amidst which he devoted a part of his time to the composition
+of elegies.  Elegiac poetry had been cultivated by several Greek writers,
+particularly Callimachus, Mimnermus, and Philetas; but, so far as we can
+find, had, until the present age, been unknown to the Romans in their own
+tongue.  It consisted of a heroic and pentameter line alternately, and
+was not, like the elegy of the moderns, usually appropriated to the
+lamentation of the deceased, but employed chiefly in compositions
+relative to love or friendship, and might, indeed, be used upon almost
+any subject; though, from the limp in the pentameter line, it is not
+suitable to sublime subjects, which require a fulness of expression, and
+an expansion of sound.  To this species of poetry Tibullus restricted his
+application, by which he cultivated that simplicity and tenderness, and
+agreeable ease of sentiment, which constitute the characteristic
+perfections of the elegiac muse.
+
+In the description of rural scenes, the peaceful occupations of the
+field, the charms of domestic happiness, and the joys of reciprocal love,
+scarcely any poet surpasses Tibullus.  His luxuriant imagination collects
+the most beautiful flowers of nature, and he displays them with all the
+delicate attraction of soft and harmonious numbers.  With a dexterity
+peculiar to himself, in whatever subject he engages, he leads his readers
+imperceptibly through devious paths of pleasure, of which, at the outset
+of the poem, they could form no conception.  He seems to have often
+written without any previous meditation or design.  Several of his
+elegies may be said to have neither middle nor end: yet the transitions
+are so natural, and the gradations so easy, that though we wander through
+Elysian scenes of fancy, the most heterogeneous in their nature, we are
+sensible of no defect in the concatenation which has joined them
+together.  It is, however, to be regretted that, in some instances,
+Tibullus betrays that licentiousness of manners which (186) formed too
+general a characteristic even of this refined age.  His elegies addressed
+to Messala contain a beautiful amplification of sentiments founded in
+friendship and esteem, in which it is difficult to say, whether the
+virtues of the patron or the genius of the poet be more conspicuous.
+
+Valerius Messala Corvinus, whom he celebrates, was descended of a very
+ancient family.  In the civil wars which followed the death of Julius
+Caesar he joined the republican party, and made himself master of the
+camp of Octavius at Philippi; but he was afterwards reconciled to his
+opponent, and lived to an advanced age in favour and esteem with
+Augustus.  He was distinguished not only by his military talents, but by
+his eloquence, integrity, and patriotism.
+
+From the following passage in the writings of Tibullus, commentators have
+conjectured that he was deprived of his lands by the same proscription in
+which those of Virgil had been involved:
+
+    Cui fuerant flavi ditantes ordine sulci
+    Horrea, faecundas ad deficientia messes,
+    Cuique pecus denso pascebant agmine colles,
+    Et domino satis, et nimium furique lupoque:
+    Nunc desiderium superest: nam cura novatur,
+    Cum memor anteactos semper dolor admovet annos.
+                                              Lib. iv. El. 1.
+
+But this seems not very probable, when we consider that Horace, several
+years after that period, represents him as opulent.
+
+    Dii tibi divitias dederant, artemque fruendi.
+                                            Epist. Lib. i. 4.
+    To thee the gods a fair estate
+    In bounty gave, with heart to know
+    How to enjoy what they bestow.--Francis.
+
+We know not the age of Tibullus at the time of his death; but in an elegy
+written by Ovid upon that occasion, he is spoken of as a young man.  Were
+it true, as is said by biographers, that he was born the same day with
+Ovid, we must indeed assign the event to an early period: for Ovid cannot
+have written the elegy after the forty-third year of his own life, and
+how long before is uncertain.  In the tenth elegy of the fourth book, De
+Tristibus, he observes, that the fates had allowed little time for the
+cultivation of his friendship with Tibullus.
+
+    Virgilium vidi tantum: nec avara Tibullo
+      Tempus amicitiae fata dedere meae.
+    Successor fuit hic tibi, Galle; Propertius illi:
+      Quartus ab his serie temporis ipse fui.
+    Utque ego majores, sic me coluere minores.
+
+    (187) Virgil I only saw, and envious fate
+    Did soon my friend Tibullus hence translate.
+    He followed Gallus, and Propertius him,
+    And I myself was fourth in course of time.--Catlin.
+
+As both Ovid and Tibullus lived at Rome, were both of the equestrian
+order, and of congenial dispositions, it is natural to suppose that their
+acquaintance commenced at an early period; and if, after all, it was of
+short duration, there would be no improbability in concluding, that
+Tibullus died at the age of some years under thirty.  It is evident,
+however, that biographers have committed a mistake with regard to the
+birth of this poet; for in the passage above cited of the Tristia, Ovid
+mentions Tibullus as a writer, who, though his contemporary, was much
+older than himself.  From this passage we should be justified in placing
+the death of Tibullus between the fortieth and fiftieth year of his age,
+and rather nearer to the latter period; for, otherwise, Horace would
+scarcely have mentioned him in the manner he does in one of his epistles.
+
+    Albi, nostrorum sermonum candide judex,
+    Quid nunc te dicam facere in regione Pedana?
+    Scribere quod Cassi Parmensis opuscula vincat;
+    An tacitum silvas inter reptare salubres,
+    Curantem quicquid dignam sapiente bonoque est?--Epist. i. 4.
+
+        Albius, in whom my satires find
+        A critic, candid, just, and kind,
+        Do you, while at your country seat,
+        Some rhyming labours meditate,
+        That shall in volumed bulk arise,
+        And e'en from Cassius bear the prize;
+        Or saunter through the silent wood,
+        Musing on what befits the good.--Francis.
+
+This supposition is in no degree inconsistent with the authority of Ovid,
+where he mentions him as a young man; for the Romans extended the period
+of youth to the fiftieth year.----
+
+PROPERTIUS was born at Mevania, a town of Umbria, seated at the
+confluence of the Tina and Clitumnus.  This place was famous for its
+herds of white cattle, brought up there for sacrifice, and supposed to be
+impregnated with that colour by the waters of the river last mentioned.
+
+    Hinc albi, Clitumne, greges, et maxima taurus
+    Victima, saepe tuo perfusi fluorine sacro,
+    Romanos ad templa Deum duxere triumphos.--Georg. ii.
+
+    And where thy sacred streams, Clitumnus! flow,
+    White herds, and stateliest bulls that oft have led
+    Triumphant Rome, and on her altars bled.--Sotheby.
+
+(188) His father is said by some to have been a Roman knight, and they
+add, that he was one of those who, when L. Antony was starved out of
+Perasia, were, by the order of Octavius, led to the altar of Julius
+Caesar, and there slain.  Nothing more is known with certainty, than that
+Propertius lost his father at an early age, and being deprived of a great
+part of his patrimony, betook himself to Rome, where his genius soon
+recommended him to public notice, and he obtained the patronage of
+Mecaenas.  From his frequent introduction of historical and mythological
+subjects into his poems, he received the appellation of "the learned."
+
+Of all the Latin elegiac poets, Propertius has the justest claim to
+purity of thought and expression.  He often draws his imagery from
+reading, more than from the imagination, and abounds less in description
+than sentiment.  For warmth of passion he is not conspicuous, and his
+tenderness is seldom marked with a great degree of sensibility; but,
+without rapture, he is animated, and, like Horace, in the midst of
+gaiety, he is moral.  The stores with which learning supplies him
+diversify as well as illustrate his subject, while delicacy every where
+discovers a taste refined by the habit of reflection.  His versification,
+in general, is elegant, but not uniformly harmonious.
+
+Tibullus and Propertius have each written four books of Elegies; and it
+has been disputed which of them is superior in this department of poetry.
+Quintilian has given his suffrage in favour of Tibullus, who, so far as
+poetical merit alone is the object of consideration, seems entitled to
+the preference.----
+
+GALLUS was a Roman knight, distinguished not only for poetical, but
+military talents.  Of his poetry we have only six elegies, written, in
+the person of an old man, on the subject of old age, but which, there is
+reason to think, were composed at an earlier part of the author's life.
+Except the fifth elegy, which is tainted with immodesty, the others,
+particularly the first, are highly beautiful, and may be placed in
+competition with any other productions of the elegiac kind.  Gallus was,
+for some time, in great favour with Augustus, who appointed him governor
+of Egypt.  It is said, however, that he not only oppressed the province
+by extortion, but entered into a conspiracy against his benefactor, for
+which he was banished.  Unable to sustain such a reverse of fortune, he
+fell into despair, and laid violent hands on himself.  This is the Gallus
+in honour of whom Virgil composed his tenth eclogue.
+
+Such are the celebrated productions of the Augustan age, which have been
+happily preserved, for the delight and admiration of mankind, and will
+survive to the latest posterity.  Many (189) more once existed, of
+various merit, and of different authors, which have left few or no
+memorials behind them, but have perished promiscuously amidst the
+indiscriminate ravages of time, of accidents, and of barbarians.  Amongst
+the principal authors whose works are lost, are Varius and Valgius; the
+former of whom, besides a panegyric upon Augustus, composed some
+tragedies.  According to Quintilian, his Thyestes was equal to any
+composition of the Greek tragic poets.
+
+The great number of eminent writers, poets in particular, who adorned
+this age, has excited general admiration, and the phenomenon is usually
+ascribed to a fortuitous occurrence, which baffles all inquiry: but we
+shall endeavour to develop the various causes which seem to have produced
+this effect; and should the explanation appear satisfactory, it may
+favour an opinion, that under similar circumstances, if ever they should
+again be combined, a period of equal glory might arise in other ages and
+nations.
+
+The Romans, whether from the influence of climate, or their mode of
+living, which in general was temperate, were endowed with a lively
+imagination, and, as we before observed, a spirit of enterprise.  Upon
+the final termination of the Punic war, and the conquest of Greece, their
+ardour, which had hitherto been exercised in military achievements, was
+diverted into the channel of literature; and the civil commotions which
+followed, having now ceased, a fresh impulse was given to activity in the
+ambitious pursuit of the laurel, which was now only to be obtained by
+glorious exertions of intellect.  The beautiful productions of Greece,
+operating strongly upon their minds, excited them to imitation;
+imitation, when roused amongst a number, produced emulation; and
+emulation cherished an extraordinary thirst of fame, which, in every
+exertion of the human mind, is the parent of excellence.  This liberal
+contention was not a little promoted by the fashion introduced at Rome,
+for poets to recite their compositions in public; a practice which seems
+to have been carried even to a ridiculous excess.--Such was now the rage
+for poetical composition in the Roman capital, that Horace describes it
+in the following terms:
+
+    Mutavit mentem populus levis, et calet uno
+    Scribendi studio: pueri patresque severi
+    Fronde comas vincti coenant, et carmina dictant.--Epist. ii. 1.
+         *     *     *     *     *     *
+
+        Now the light people bend to other aims;
+        A lust of scribbling every breast inflames;
+        Our youth, our senators, with bays are crowned,
+        And rhymes eternal as our feasts go round.
+
+    (190) Scribimus indocti doctique poemata passim.--Hor. Epeat. ii. 1.
+
+        But every desperate blockhead dares to write,
+        Verse is the trade of every living wight.--Francis.
+
+The thirst of fame above mentioned, was a powerful incentive, and is
+avowed both by Virgil and Horace.  The former, in the third book of his
+Georgics, announces a resolution of rendering himself celebrated, if
+possible.
+
+        --------tentanda via est qua me quoque possim
+        Tollere humo, victorque virum volitare per ora.
+
+    I, too, will strive o'er earth my flight to raise,
+    And wing'd by victory, catch the gale of praise.--Sotheby.
+
+And Horace, in the conclusion of his first Ode, expresses himself in
+terms which indicate a similar purpose.
+
+        Quad si me lyricis vatibis inseres,
+        Sublimi feriam sidera vertice.
+
+    But if you rank me with the choir,
+    Who tuned with art the Grecian lyre;
+    Swift to the noblest heights of fame,
+    Shall rise thy poet's deathless name.--Francis.
+
+Even Sallust, a historian, in his introduction to Catiline's Conspiracy,
+scruples not to insinuate the same kind of ambition.  Quo mihi rectius
+videtur ingenii quam virium opibus gloriam quaerere; et quoniam vita
+ipsa, qua fruimur, brevis est, memoriam nostri quam maxume longam
+efficere. [283]
+
+Another circumstance of great importance, towards the production of such
+poetry as might live through every age, was the extreme attention which
+the great poets of this period displayed, both in the composition, and
+the polishing of their works.  Virgil, when employed upon the Georgics,
+usually wrote in the morning, and applied much of the subsequent part of
+the day to correction and improvement.  He compared himself to a bear,
+that licks her cub into form.  If this was his regular practice in the
+Georgics, we may justly suppose that it was the same in the Aeneid.  Yet,
+after all this labour, he intended to devote three years entirely to its
+farther amendment.  Horace has gone so far in recommending careful
+correction, that he figuratively mentions nine years as an adequate
+period for that purpose.  But whatever may be the time, there is no
+precept which he urges either oftener or more forcibly, than a due
+attention to this important subject.
+
+    (191) Saepe stylum vertas, iterum quae digna legi sint
+    Scripturus.--Sat. i. x.
+
+    Would you a reader's just esteem engage?
+    Correct with frequent care the blotted page.--Francis.
+
+                               --------Vos, O
+    Pompilius sanguis, carmen reprehendite, quod non
+    Multa dies et multa litura coercuit, atque
+    Perfectum decies non castigavit ad uuguem.
+                                          De. Art. Poet.
+
+    Sons of Pompilius, with contempt receive,
+    Nor let the hardy poem hope to live,
+    Where time and full correction don't refine
+    The finished work, and polish every line.--Francis.
+
+To the several causes above enumerated, as concurring to form the great
+superiority of the Augustan age, as respects the productions of
+literature, one more is to be subjoined, of a nature the most essential:
+the liberal and unparalleled encouragement given to distinguished talents
+by the emperor and his minister.  This was a principle of the most
+powerful energy: it fanned the flame of genius, invigorated every
+exertion; and the poets who basked in the rays of imperial favour, and
+the animating patronage of Mecaenas, experienced a poetic enthusiasm
+which approached to real inspiration.
+
+Having now finished the proposed explanation, relative to the celebrity
+of the Augustan age, we shall conclude with recapitulating in a few words
+the causes of this extraordinary occurrence.
+
+The models, then, which the Romans derived from Grecian poetry, were the
+finest productions of human genius; their incentives to emulation were
+the strongest that could actuate the heart.  With ardour, therefore, and
+industry in composing, and with unwearied patience in polishing their
+compositions, they attained to that glorious distinction in literature,
+which no succeeding age has ever rivalled.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+
+[106]  A town in the ancient Volscian territory, now called Veletra.  It
+stands on the verge of the Pontine Marshes, on the road to Naples.
+
+[107]  Thurium was a territory in Magna Graecia, on the coast, near
+Tarentum.
+
+[108]  Argentarius; a banker, one who dealt in exchanging money, as well
+as lent his own funds at interest to borrowers.  As a class, they
+possessed great wealth, and were persons of consideration in Rome at this
+period.
+
+[109]  Now Laricia, or Riccia, a town of the Campagna di Roma, on the
+Appian Way, about ten miles from Rome.
+
+[110]  A.U.C. 691.  A.C. (before Christ) 61.
+
+[111]  The Palatine hill was not only the first seat of the colony of
+Romulus, but gave its name to the first and principal of the four regions
+into which the city was divided, from the time of Servius Tullius, the
+sixth king of Rome, to that of Augustus; the others being the Suburra,
+Esquilina, and Collina.
+
+[112]  There were seven streets or quarters in the Palatine region, one
+of which was called "Ad Capita Bubula," either from the butchers' stalls
+at which ox-heads are hung up for sale, or from their being sculptured on
+some edifice.  Thus the remains of a fortification near the tomb of
+Cecilia Metella are now called Capo di Bove, from the arms of the Gaetani
+family over the gate.
+
+[113]  Adrian, to whom Suetonius was secretary.
+
+[114]  Augusto augurio postquam inclyta condita Roma est.
+
+[115]  A.U.C. 711.
+
+[116]  A.U.C. 712.
+
+[117]  After being defeated in the second engagement, Brutus retired to a
+hill, and slew himself in the night.
+
+[118]  The triumvir.  There were three distinguished brothers of the name
+of Antony; Mark, the consul; Caius, who was praetor; and Lucius, a
+tribune of the people.
+
+[119]  Virgil was one of the fugitives, having narrowly escaped being
+killed by the centurion Ario; and being ejected from his farm.  Eclog. i.
+
+[120]  A.U.C. 714.
+
+[121]  The anniversary of Julius Caesar's death.
+
+[122]  A.U.C. 712-718-
+
+[123]  The Romans employed slaves in their wars only in cases of great
+emergency, and with much reluctance.  After the great slaughter at the
+battle of Cannae, eight thousand were bought and armed by the republic.
+Augustus was the first who manumitted them, and employed them as rowers
+in his gallies.
+
+[124]  In the triumvirate, consisting of Augustus, Mark Antony, and
+Lepidus.
+
+[125]  A.U.C. 723.
+
+[126]  There is no other authority for Augustus having viewed Antony's
+corpse.  Plutarch informs us, that on hearing his death, Augustus retired
+into the interior of his tent, and wept over the fate of his colleague
+and friend, his associate in so many former struggles, both in war and
+the administration of affairs.
+
+[127]  The poison proved fatal, as every one knows, see Velleius, ii. 27;
+Florus, iv. 11.  The Psylli were a people of Africa, celebrated for
+sucking the poison from wounds inflicted by serpents, with which that
+country anciently abounded.  They pretended to be endowed with an
+antidote, which rendered their bodies insensible to the virulence of that
+species of poison; and the ignorance of those times gave credit to the
+physical immunity which they arrogated.  But Celsus, who flourished about
+fifty years after the period we speak of, has exploded the vulgar
+prejudice which prevailed in their favour.  He justly observes, that the
+venom of serpents, like some other kinds of poison, proves noxious only
+when applied to the naked fibre; and that, provided there is no ulcer in
+the gums or palate, the poison may be received into the mouth with
+perfect safety.
+
+[128]  Strabo informs us that Ptolemy caused it to be deposited in a
+golden sarcophagus, which was afterwards exchanged for one of glass, in
+which probably Augustus saw the remains.
+
+[129]  A custom of all ages and of people the most remote from each
+other.
+
+[130]  Meaning the degenerate race of the Ptolomean kings.
+
+[131]  The naval trophies were formed of the prows of ships.
+
+[132]  A.U.C. 721.
+
+[133]  Because his father was a Roman and his mother of the race of the
+Parthini, an Illyrian tribe.
+
+[134]  It was usual at Rome, before the elections, for the candidates to
+endeavour to gain popularity by the usual arts.  They would therefore go
+to the houses of the citizens, shake hands with those they met, and
+address them in a kindly manner.  It being of great consequence, upon
+those occasions, to know the names of persons, they were commonly
+attended by a nomenclator, who whispered into their ears that
+information, wherever it was wanted.  Though this kind of officer was
+generally an attendant on men, we meet with instances of their having
+been likewise employed in the service of ladies; either with the view of
+serving candidates to whom they were allied, or of gaining the affections
+of the people.
+
+[135]  Not a bridge over a river, but a military engine used for gaining
+admittance into a fortress.
+
+[136]  Cantabria, in the north of Spain, now the Basque province.
+
+[137]  The ancient Pannonia includes Hungary and part of Austria, Styria
+and Carniola.
+
+[138]  The Rhaetian Alps are that part of the chain bordering on the
+Tyrol.
+
+[139]  The Vindelici principally occupied the country which is now the
+kingdom of Bavaria; and the Salassii, that part of Piedmont which
+includes the valley of Aost.
+
+[140]  The temple of Mars Ultor was erected by Augustus in fulfilment of
+a vow made by him at the battle of Philippi.  It stood in the Forum which
+he built, mentioned in chap. xxxix.  There are no remains of either.
+
+[141]  "The Ovatio was an inferior kind of Triumph, granted in cases
+where the victory was not of great importance, or had been obtained
+without difficulty.  The general entered the city on foot or on
+horseback, crowned with myrtle, not with laurel; and instead of bullocks,
+the sacrifice was performed with a sheep, whence this procession acquired
+its name."--Thomson.
+
+[142]  "The greater Triumph, in which the victorious general and his army
+advanced in solemn procession through the city to the Capitol, was the
+highest military honour which could be obtained in the Roman state.
+Foremost in the procession went musicians of various kinds, singing and
+playing triumphal songs.  Next were led the oxen to be sacrificed, having
+their horns gilt, and their heads adorned with fillets and garlands.
+Then in carriages were brought the spoils taken from the enemy, statues,
+pictures, plate, armour, gold and silver, and brass; with golden crowns,
+and other gifts, sent by the allied and tributary states.  The captive
+princes and generals followed in chains, with their children and
+attendants.  After them came the lictors, having their fasces wreathed
+with laurel, followed by a great company of musicians and dancers dressed
+like Satyrs, and wearing crowns of gold; in the midst of whom was one in
+a female dress, whose business it was, with his looks and gestures, to
+insult the vanquished.  Next followed a long train of persons carrying
+perfumes.  Then came the victorious general, dressed in purple
+embroidered with gold, with a crown of laurel on his head, a branch of
+laurel in his right hand, and in his left an ivory sceptre, with an eagle
+on the top; having his face painted with vermilion, in the same manner as
+the statue of Jupiter on festival days, and a golden Bulla hanging on his
+breast, and containing some amulet, or magical preservative against envy.
+He stood in a gilded chariot, adorned with ivory, and drawn by four white
+horses, sometimes by elephants, attended by his relations, and a great
+crowd of citizens, all in white.  His children used to ride in the
+chariot with him; and that he might not be too much elated, a slave,
+carrying a golden crown sparkling with gems, stood behind him, and
+frequently whispered in his ear, 'Remember that thou art a man!'  After
+the general, followed the consuls and senators on foot, at least
+according to the appointment of Augustus; for they formerly used to go
+before him.  His Legati and military Tribunes commonly rode by his side.
+The victorious army, horse and foot, came last, crowned with laurel, and
+decorated with the gifts which they had received for their valour,
+singing their own and their general's praises, but sometimes throwing out
+railleries against him; and often exclaiming, 'Io Triumphe!' in which
+they were joined by all the citizens, as they passed along.  The oxen
+having been sacrificed, the general gave a magnificent entertainment in
+the Capitol to his friends and the chief men of the city; after which he
+was conducted home by the people, with music and a great number of lamps
+and torches."--Thomson.
+
+[143]  "The Sella Curulis was a chair on which the principal magistrates
+sat in the tribunal upon solemn occasions.  It had no back, but stood on
+four crooked feet, fixed to the extremities of cross pieces of wood,
+joined by a common axis, somewhat in the form of the letter X; was
+covered with leather, and inlaid with ivory.  From its construction, it
+might be occasionally folded together for the convenience of carriage,
+and set down where the magistrate chose to use it."--Thomson.
+
+[144]  Now Saragossa.
+
+[145]  A great and wise man, if he is the same person to whom Cicero's
+letters on the calamities of the times were addressed.  Fam. Epist. c.
+vi, 20, 21.
+
+[146]  A.U.C. 731.
+
+[147]  The Lustrum was a period of five years, at the end of which the
+census of the people was taken.  It was first made by the Roman kings,
+then by the consuls, but after the year 310 from the building of the
+city, by the censors, who were magistrates created for that purpose.  It
+appears, however, that the census was not always held at stated periods,
+and sometimes long intervals intervened.
+
+[148]  Augustus appears to have been in earnest on these occasions, at
+least, in his desire to retire into private life and release himself from
+the cares of government, if we may believe Seneca.  De Brev. Vit. c. 5.
+Of his two intimate advisers, Agrippa gave this counsel, while Mecaenas
+was for continuing his career of ambition.--Eutrop. 1. 53.
+
+[149]  The Tiber has been always remarkable for the frequency of its
+inundations and the ravages they occasioned, as remarked by Pliny, iii.
+5.  Livy mentions several such occurrences, as well as one extensive
+fire, which destroyed great part of the city.
+
+[150]  The well-known saying of Augustus, recorded by Suetonius, that he
+found a city of bricks, but left it of marble, has another version given
+it by Dio, who applies it to his consolidation of the government, to the
+following effect: "That Rome, which I found built of mud, I shall leave
+you firm as a rock."--Dio. lvi. p. 589.
+
+[151]  The same motive which engaged Julius Caesar to build a new forum,
+induced Augustus to erect another.  See his life c. xx.  It stood behind
+the present churches of St. Adrian and St. Luke, and was almost parallel
+with the public forum, but there are no traces of it remaining.  The
+temple of Mars Ultor, adjoining, has been mentioned before, p. 84.
+
+[152]  The temple of the Palatine Apollo stood, according to Bianchini, a
+little beyond the triumphal arch of Titus.  It appears, from the reverse
+of a medal of Augustus, to have been a rotondo, with an open portico,
+something like the temple of Vesta.  The statues of the fifty daughters
+of Danae surrounded the portico; and opposite to them were their husbands
+on horseback.  In this temple were preserved some of the finest works of
+the Greek artists, both in sculpture and painting.  Here, in the presence
+of Augustus, Horace's Carmen Seculare was sung by twenty-seven noble
+youths and as many virgins.  And here, as our author informs us,
+Augustus, towards the end of his reign, often assembled the senate.
+
+[153]  The library adjoined the temple, and was under the protection of
+Apollo.  Caius Julius Hegenus, a freedman of Augustus, and an eminent
+grammarian, was the librarian.
+
+[154]  The three fluted Corinthian columns of white marble, which stand
+on the declivity of the Capitoline hill, are commonly supposed to be the
+remains of the temple of Jupiter Tonans, erected by Augustus.  Part of
+the frieze and cornice are attached to them, which with the capitals of
+the columns are finely wrought.  Suetonius tells us on what occasion this
+temple was erected.  Of all the epithets given to Jupiter, none conveyed
+more terror to superstitious minds than that of the Thunderer--
+
+    Coelo tonantem credidimus Jovem
+    Regnare.--Hor. 1. iii. Ode 5.
+
+We shall find this temple mentioned again in c. xci. of the life of
+Augustus.
+
+[155]  The Portico of Octavia stood between the Flaminian circus and the
+theatre of Marcellus, enclosing the temples of Jupiter and Juno, said to
+have been built in the time of the republic.  Several remains of them
+exist, in the Pescheria or fish-market; they were of the Corinthian
+order, and have been traced and engraved by Piranesi.
+
+[156]  The magnificent theatre of Marcellus was built on the site where
+Suetonius has before informed us that Julius Caesar intended to erect one
+(p. 30).  It stood between the portico of Octavia and the hill of the
+Capitol.  Augustus gave it the name of his nephew Marcellus, though he
+was then dead.  Its ruins are still to be seen in the Piazza Montanara,
+where the Orsini family have a palace erected on the site.
+
+[157]  The theatre of Balbus was the third of the three permanent
+theatres of Rome.  Those of Pompey and Marcellus have been already
+mentioned.
+
+[158]  Among these were, at least, the noble portico, if not the whole,
+of the Pantheon, still the pride of Rome, under the name of the Rotondo,
+on the frieze of which may be seen the inscription,
+
+    M. AGRIPPA. L. F. COS: TERTIUM. FECIT.
+
+Agrippa also built the temple of Neptune, and the portico of the
+Argonauts.
+
+[159]  To whatever extent Augustus may have cleared out the bed of the
+Tiber, the process of its being encumbered with an alluvium of ruins and
+mud has been constantly going on.  Not many years ago, a scheme was set
+on foot for clearing it by private enterprise, principally for the sake
+of the valuable remains of art which it is supposed to contain.
+
+[160]  The Via Flaminia was probably undertaken by the censor Caius
+Flaminius, and finished by his son of the same name, who was consul
+A.U.C. 566, and employed his soldiers in forming it after subduing the
+Ligurians.  It led from the Flumentan gate, now the Porta del Popolo,
+through Etruria and Umbria into the Cisalpine Gaul, ending at Ariminum,
+the frontier town of the territories of the republic, now Rimini, on the
+Adriatic; and is travelled by every tourist who takes the route, north of
+the Appenines, through the States of the Church, to Rome.  Every one
+knows that the great highways, not only in Italy but in the provinces,
+were among the most magnificent and enduring works of the Roman people.
+
+[161]  It had formed a sort of honourable retirement in which Lepidus was
+shelved, to use a familiar expression, when Augustus got rid of him
+quietly from the Triumvirate.  Augustus assumed it A.U.C. 740, thus
+centring the last of all the great offices of the state in his own
+person; that of Pontifex Maximus, being of high importance, from the
+sanctity attached to it, and the influence it gave him over the whole
+system of religion.
+
+[162]  In the thirty-six years since the calendar was corrected by Julius
+Caesar, the priests had erroneously intercalated eleven days instead of
+nine.  See JULIUS, c. xl.
+
+[163]  Sextilis, the sixth month, reckoning from March, in which the year
+of Romulus commenced.
+
+[164]  So Cicero called the day on which he returned from exile, the day
+of his "nativity" and his "new birth," paligennesian, a word which had
+afterwards a theological sense, from its use in the New Testament.
+
+[165]  Capi.  There is a peculiar force in the word here adopted by
+Suetonius; the form used by the Pontifex Maximus, when he took the novice
+from the hand of her father, being Te capio amata, "I have you, my dear,"
+implying the forcible breach of former ties, as in the case of a captive
+taken in war.
+
+[166]  At times when the temple of Janus was shut, and then only, certain
+divinations were made, preparatory to solemn supplication for the public
+health, "as if," says Dio, "even that could not be implored from the
+gods, unless the signs were propitious."  It would be an inquiry of some
+interest, now that the care of the public health is becoming a department
+of the state, with what sanatory measures these becoming solemnities were
+attended.
+
+[167]  Theophrastus mentions the spring and summer flowers most suited
+for these chaplets.  Among the former, were hyacinths, roses, and white
+violets; among the latter, lychinis, amaryllis, iris, and some species of
+lilies.
+
+[168]  Ergastulis.  These were subterranean strong rooms, with narrow
+windows, like dungeons, in the country houses, where incorrigible slaves
+were confined in fetters, in the intervals of the severe tasks in
+grinding at the hand-mills, quarrying stones, drawing water, and other
+hard agricultural labour in which they were employed.
+
+[169]  These months were not only "the Long Vacation" of the lawyers, but
+during them there was a general cessation of business at Rome; the
+calendar exhibiting a constant succession of festivals.  The month of
+December, in particular, was devoted to pleasure and relaxation.
+
+[170]  Causes are mentioned, the hearing of which was so protracted that
+lights were required in the court; and sometimes they lasted, we are
+told, as long as eleven or twelve days.
+
+[171]  Orcini.  They were also called Charonites, the point of the
+sarcasm being, that they owed their elevation to a dead man, one who was
+gone to Orcus, namely Julius Caesar, after whose death Mark Antony
+introduced into the senate many persons of low rank who were designated
+for that honour in a document left by the deceased emperor.
+
+[172]  Cordus Cremutius wrote a History of the Civil Wars, and the Times
+of Augustus, as we are informed by Dio, 6, 52.
+
+[173]  In front of the orchestra.
+
+[174]  The senate usually assembled in one of the temples, and there was
+an altar consecrated to some god in the curia, where they otherwise met,
+as that to Victory in the Julian Curia.
+
+[175]  To allow of their absence during the vintage, always an important
+season in rural affairs in wine-growing countries.  In the middle and
+south of Italy, it begins in September, and, in the worst aspects, the
+grapes are generally cleared before the end of October.  In elevated
+districts they hung on the trees, as we have witnessed, till the month of
+November.
+
+[176]  Julius Caesar had introduced the contrary practice.  See JULIUS,
+c. xx.
+
+[177]  A.U.C. 312, two magistrates were created, under the name of
+Censors, whose office, at first, was to take an account of the number of
+the people, and the value of their estates.  Power was afterwards granted
+them to inspect the morals of the people; and from this period the office
+became of great importance.  After Sylla, the election of censors was
+intermitted for about seventeen years.  Under the emperors, the office of
+censor was abolished; but the chief functions of it were exercised by the
+emperors themselves, and frequently both with caprice and severity.
+
+[178]  Young men until they were seventeen years of age, and young women
+until they were married, wore a white robe bordered with purple, called
+Toga Praetexta.  The former, when they had completed this period, laid
+aside the dress of minority, and assumed the Toga Virilis, or manly
+habit.  The ceremony of changing the Toga was performed with great
+solemnity before the images of the Lares, to whom the Bulla was
+consecrated.  On this occasion, they went either to the Capitol, or to
+some temple, to pay their devotions to the Gods.
+
+[179]  Transvectio: a procession of the equestrian order, which they made
+with great splendour through the city, every year, on the fifteenth of
+July.  They rode on horseback from the temple of Honour, or of Mars,
+without the city, to the Capitol, with wreaths of olive on their heads,
+dressed in robes of scarlet, and bearing in their hands the military
+ornaments which they had received from their general, as a reward of
+their valour.  The knights rode up to the censor, seated on his curule
+chair in front of the Capitol, and dismounting, led their horses in
+review before him.  If any of the knights was corrupt in his morals, had
+diminished his fortune below the legal standard, or even had not taken
+proper care of his horse, the censor ordered him to sell his horse, by
+which he was considered as degraded from the equestrian order.
+
+[180]  Pugillaria were a kind of pocket book, so called, because
+memorandums were written or impinged by the styli, on their waxed
+surface.  They appear to have been of very ancient origin, for we read of
+them in Homer under the name of pinokes.--II. z. 169.
+
+    Graphas en pinaki ptukto thyrophthora polla.
+    Writing dire things upon his tablet's roll.
+
+[181]  Pullatorum; dusky, either from their dark colour, or their being
+soiled.  The toga was white, and was the distinguishing costume of the
+sovereign people of Rome, without which, they were not to appear in
+public; as members of an university are forbidden to do so, without the
+academical dress, or officers in garrisons out of their regimentals.
+
+[182]  Aen. i. 186.
+
+[183]  It is hardly necessary to direct the careful reader's attention to
+views of political economy so worthy of an enlightened prince.  But it
+was easier to make the Roman people wear the toga, than to forego the cry
+of "Panem et Circenses."
+
+[184]  Septa were enclosures made with boards, commonly for the purpose
+of distributing the people into distinct classes, and erected
+occasionally like our hustings.
+
+[185]  The Thensa was a splendid carriage with four wheels, and four
+horses, adorned with ivory and silver, in which, at the Circensian games,
+the images of the gods were drawn in solemn procession from their
+shrines, to a place in the circus, called the Pulvinar, where couches
+were prepared for their reception.  It received its name from thongs
+(lora tensa) stretched before it; and was attended in the procession by
+persons of the first rank, in their most magnificent apparel.  The
+attendants took delight in putting their hands to the traces: and if a
+boy happened to let go the thong which he held, it was an indispensable
+rule that the procession should be renewed.
+
+[186]  The Cavea was the name of the whole of that part of the theatre
+where the spectators sat.  The foremost rows were called cavea prima, of
+cavea; the last, cavea ultima, or summa; and the middle, cavea media.
+
+[187]  A.U.C. 726.
+
+[188]  As in the case of Herod, Joseph. Antiq. Jud. xv. 10.
+
+[189]  The Adriatic and the Tuscan.
+
+[190]  It was first established by Tiberius.  See c. xxxvii.
+
+[191]  Tertullian, in his Apology, c. 34, makes the same remark.  The
+word seems to have conveyed then, as it does in its theological sense
+now, the idea of Divinity, for it is coupled with Deus, God; nunquum se
+dominum vel deum appellare voluerit.
+
+[192]  An inclosure in the middle of the Forum, marking the spot where
+Curtius leapt into the lake, which had been long since filled up.
+
+[193]  Sandalarium, Tragoedum; names of streets, in which temples of tame
+gouts stood, as we now say St. Peter, Cornhill, etc.
+
+[194]  A coin, in value about 8 3/4 d. of our money.
+
+[195]  The senate, as instituted by Romulus, consisted of one hundred
+members, who were called Patres, i. e. Fathers, either upon account of
+their age, or their paternal care of the state.  The number received some
+augmentation under Tullus Hostilius; and Tarquinius Priscus, the fifth
+king of Rome, added a hundred more, who were called Patres minorum
+gentium; those created by Romulus being distinguished by the name of
+Patres majorum gentium.  Those who were chosen into the senate by Brutus,
+after the expulsion of Tarquin the Proud, to supply the place of those
+whom that king had slain, were called Conscripti, i. e. persons written
+or enrolled among the old senators, who alone were properly styled
+Patres.  Hence arose the custom of summoning to the senate those who were
+Patres, and those who were Conscripti; and hence also was applied to the
+senators in general the designation of Patres Conscripti, the particle
+et, and, being understood to connect the two classes of senators.  In the
+time of Julius Caesar, the number of senators was increased to nine
+hundred, and after his death to a thousand; many worthless persons having
+been admitted into the senate during the civil wars.  Augustus afterwards
+reduced the number to six hundred.
+
+[196]  Antonius Musa was a freedman, and had acquired his knowledge of
+medicine while a domestic slave; a very common occurrence.
+
+[197]  A.U.C. 711.
+
+[198]  See cc. x. xi. xii. and xiii.
+
+[199]  One of them was Scipio, the father of Cornelia, whose death is
+lamented by Propertius, iv. 12.  The other is unknown.
+
+[200]  A.U.C. 715.
+
+[201]  He is mentioned by Horace:
+
+    Occidit Daci Cotisonis agimen.  Ode 8, b. iii.
+
+Most probably Antony knew the imputation to be unfounded, and made it for
+the purpose of excusing his own marriage with Cleopatra.
+
+[202]  This form of adoption consisted in a fictitious sale.  See Cicero,
+Topic. iii.
+
+[203]  Curiae.  Romulus divided the people of Rome into three tribes; and
+each tribe into ten Curiae.  The number of tribes was afterwards
+increased by degrees to thirty-five; but that of the Curiae always
+remained the same.
+
+[204]  She was removed to Reggio in Calabria.
+
+[205]  Agrippa was first banished to the little desolate island of
+Planasia, now Pianosa.  It is one of the group in the Tuscan sea, between
+Elba and Corsica.
+
+[206]  A quotation from the Iliad, 40, iii.; where Hector is venting his
+rage on Paris.  The inflexion is slightly changed, the line in the
+original commencing, "Aith' opheles, etc., would thou wert, etc."
+
+[207]  Women called ustriculae, the barbers, were employed in thin
+delicate operation.  It is alluded to by Juvenal, ix. 4, and Martial,
+v. 61.
+
+[208]  Cybele.--Gallus was either the name of a river in Phrygia,
+supposed to cause a certain frenzy in those who drank of its waters, or
+the proper name of the first priest of Cybele.
+
+[209]  A small drum, beat by the finger or thumb, was used by the priests
+of Cybele in their lascivious rites and in other orgies of a similar
+description, These drums were made of inflated skin, circular in shape,
+so that they had some resemblance to the orb which, in the statues of the
+emperor, he is represented as holding in his hand.  The populace, with
+the coarse humour which was permitted to vent itself freely at the
+spectacles, did not hesitate to apply what was said in the play of the
+lewd priest of Cybele, to Augustus, in reference to the scandals attached
+to his private character.  The word cinaedus, translated "wanton," might
+have been rendered by a word in vulgar use, the coarsest in the English
+language, and there is probably still more in the allusion too indelicate
+to be dwelt upon.
+
+[210]  Mark Antony makes use of fondling diminutives of the names of
+Tertia, Terentia, and Rufa, some of Augustus's favourites.
+
+[211]  Dodekatheos; the twelve Dii Majores; they are enumerated in two
+verses by Ennius:--
+
+    Juno, Vesta, Minerva, Ceres, Diana, Venus, Mars;
+    Mercurius, Jovis, Neptunus, Vulcanus, Apollo.
+
+[212]  Probably in the Suburra, where Martial informs us that torturing
+scourges were sold:
+
+    Tonatrix Suburrae faucibus sed et primis,
+    Cruenta pendent qua flagella tortorum.
+                                    Mart. xi. 15, 1.
+
+[213]  Like the gold and silver-smiths of the middle ages, the Roman
+money-lenders united both trades.  See afterwards, NERO, c. 5.  It is
+hardly necessary to remark that vases or vessels of the compound metal
+which went by the name of Corinthian brass, or bronze, were esteemed even
+more valuable than silver plate.
+
+[214]  See c. xxxii. and note.
+
+[215]  The Romans, at their feasts, during the intervals of drinking,
+often played at dice, of which there were two kinds, the tesserae and
+tali.  The former had six sides, like the modern dice; the latter, four
+oblong sides, for the two ends were not regarded.  In playing, they used
+three tesserae and four tali, which were all put into a box wider below
+than above, and being shaken, were thrown out upon the gaming-board or
+table.
+
+[216]  The highest cast was so called.
+
+[217]  Enlarged by Tiberius and succeeding emperors.  The ruins of the
+palace of the Caesars are still seen on the Palatine.
+
+[218]  Probably travertine, a soft limestone, from the Alban Mount, which
+was, therefore, cheaply procured and easily worked.
+
+[219]  It was usual among the Romans to have separate sets of apartments
+for summer and winter use, according to their exposure to the sun.
+
+[220]  This word may be interpreted the Cabinet of Arts.  It was common,
+in the houses of the great, among the Romans, to have an apartment called
+the Study, or Museum.  Pliny says, beautifully, "O mare! O littus! verum
+secretumque mouseion, quam multa invenitis, quam multa dictatis?"  O sea!
+O shore!  Thou real and secluded museum; what treasures of science do you
+not discover to us, how much do you teach us!--Epist. i. 9.
+
+[221]  Mecaenas had a house and gardens on the Esquiline Hill, celebrated
+for their salubrity--
+
+  Nunc licet Esquiliis habitore salubribus.--Hor. Sat. i. 3, 14.
+
+[222]  Such as Baiae, and the islands of Ischia, Procida, Capri, and
+others; the resorts of the opulent nobles, where they had magnificent
+marine villas.
+
+[223]  Now Tivoli, a delicious spot, where Horace had a villa, in which
+he hoped to spend his declining years.
+
+    Ver ubi longum, tepidasque praebet
+    Jupiter brumas: . . . . . . . . . .
+    . . . . . . . . ibi, tu calentem
+    Debita sparges lachryma favillam
+        Vatis amici.        Odes, B. ii. 5.
+
+Adrian also had a magnificent villa near Tibur.
+
+[224]  The Toga was a loose woollen robe, which covered the whole body,
+close at the bottom, but open at the top down to the girdle, and without
+sleeves.  The right arm was thus at liberty, and the left supported a
+flap of the toga, which was drawn up, and thrown back over the left
+shoulder; forming what is called the Sinus, a fold or cavity upon the
+breast, in which things might be carried, and with which the face or head
+might be occasionally covered.  When a person did any work, he tucked up
+his toga, and girt it round him.  The toga of the rich and noble was
+finer and larger than that of others; and a new toga was called Pexa.
+None but Roman citizens were permitted to wear the toga; and banished
+persons were prohibited the use of it.  The colour of the toga was white.
+The clavus was a purple border, by which the senators, and other orders,
+with the magistrates, were distinguished; the breadth of the stripe
+corresponding with their rank.
+
+[225]  In which the whole humour of the thing consisted either in the
+uses to which these articles were applied, or in their names having in
+Latin a double signification; matters which cannot be explained with any
+decency.
+
+[226]  Casum bubulum manu pressum; probably soft cheese, not reduced to
+solid consistence in the cheese-press.
+
+[227]  A species of fig tree, known in some places as Adam's fig.  We
+have gathered them, in those climates, of the latter crop, as late as the
+month of November.
+
+[228]  Sabbatis Jejunium.  Augustus might have been better informed of
+the Jewish rites, from his familiarity with Herod and others; for it is
+certain that their sabbath was not a day of fasting.  Justin, however,
+fell into the same error: he says, that Moses appointed the sabbath-day
+to be kept for ever by the Jews as a fast, in memory of their fasting for
+seven days in the deserts of Arabia, xxxvi. 2. 14.  But we find that
+there was a weekly fast among the Jews, which is perhaps what is here
+meant; the Sabbatis Jejunium being equivalent to the Naesteuo dis tou
+sabbatou, 'I fast twice in the week' of the Pharisee, in St. Luke
+xviii. 12.
+
+[229]  The Rhaetian wines had a great reputation; Virgil says,
+
+    ------Ex quo te carmine dicam,
+    Rhaetica.                  Georg. ii. 96.
+
+The vineyards lay at the foot of the Rhaetian Alps; their produce, we
+have reason to believe, was not a very generous liquor.
+
+[230]  A custom in all warm countries; the siesta of the Italians in
+later times.
+
+[231]  The strigil was used in the baths for scraping the body when in a
+state of perspiration.  It was sometimes made of gold or silver, and not
+unlike in form the instrument used by grooms about horses when profusely
+sweating or splashed with mud.
+
+[232]  His physician, mentioned c. lix.
+
+[233]  Sept. 21st, a sickly season at Rome.
+
+[234]  Feminalibus et tibialibus: Neither the ancient Romans or the
+Greeks wore breeches, trews, or trowsers, which they despised as
+barbarian articles of dress.  The coverings here mentioned were swathings
+for the legs and thighs, used mostly in cases of sickness or infirmity,
+and when otherwise worn, reckoned effeminate.  But soon after the Romans
+became acquainted with the German and Celtic nations, the habit of
+covering the lower extremities, barbarous as it had been held, was
+generally adopted.
+
+[235]  Albula.  On the left of the road to Tivoli, near the ruins of
+Adrian's villa.  The waters are sulphureous, and the deposit from them
+causes incrustations on twigs and other matters plunged in the springs.
+See a curious account of this stream in Gell's Topography, published by
+Bohn, p 40.
+
+[236]  In spongam incubuisse, literally has fallen upon a sponge, as Ajax
+is said to have perished by falling on his own sword.
+
+[237]  Myrobrecheis.  Suetonius often preserves expressive Greek phrases
+which Augustus was in the habit of using.  This compound word meant
+literally, myrrh-scented, perfumed.
+
+[238]  These are variations of language of small importance, which can
+only be understood in the original language.
+
+[239]  It may create a smile to hear that, to prevent danger to the
+public, Augustus decreed that no new buildings erected in a public
+thoroughfare should exceed in height seventy feet.  Trajan reduced it to
+sixty.
+
+[240]  Virgil is said to have recited before him the whole of the second,
+fourth, and sixth books of the Aeneid; and Octavia, being present, when
+the poet came to the passage referring to her son, commencing, "Tu
+Marcellus eris," was so much affected that she was carried out fainting.
+
+[241]  Chap. xix.
+
+[242]  Perhaps the point of the reply lay in the temple of Jupiter Tonans
+being placed at the approach to the Capitol from the Forum?  See c. xxix.
+and c. xv., with the note.
+
+[243]  If these trees flourished at Rome in the time of Augustus, the
+winters there must have been much milder than they now are.  There was
+one solitary palm standing in the garden of a convent some years ago, but
+it was of very stunted growth.
+
+[244]  The Republican forms were preserved in some of the larger towns.
+
+[245]  "The Nundinae occurred every ninth day, when a market was held at
+Rome, and the people came to it from the country.  The practice was not
+then introduced amongst the Romans, of dividing their time into weeks, as
+we do, in imitation of the Jews.  Dio, who flourished under Severus, says
+that it first took place a little before his time, and was derived from
+the Egyptians."--Thomson.  A fact, if well founded, of some importance.
+
+[246]  "The Romans divided their months into calends, nones, and ides.
+The first day of the month was the calends of that month; whence they
+reckoned backwards, distinguishing the time by the day before the
+calends, the second day before the calends, and so on, to the ides of the
+preceding month.  In eight months of the year, the nones were the fifth
+day, and the ides the thirteenth: but in March, May, July, and October,
+the nones fell on the seventh, and the ides on the fifteenth.  From the
+nones they reckoned backwards to the calends, as they also did from the
+ides to the nones."--Ib.
+
+[247]  The early Christians shared with the Jews the aversion of the
+Romans to their religion, more than that of others, arising probably from
+its monotheistic and exclusive character.  But we find from Josephus and
+Philo that Augustus was in other respects favourable to the Jews.
+
+[248]  Strabo tells us that Mendes was a city of Egypt near Lycopolis.
+Asclepias wrote a book in Greek with the idea of theologoumenon, in
+defence of some very strange religious rites, of which the example in the
+text is a specimen.
+
+[249]  Velletri stands on very high ground, commanding extensive views of
+the Pontine marshes and the sea.
+
+[250]  Munda was a city in the Hispania Boetica, where Julius Caesar
+fought a battle.  See c. lvi.
+
+[251]  The good omen, in this instance, was founded upon the etymology of
+the names of the ass and its driver; the former of which, in Greek,
+signifies fortunate, and the latter, victorious.
+
+[252]  Aesar is a Greek word with an Etruscan termination; aisa
+signifying fate.
+
+[253]  Astura stood not far from Terracina, on the road to Naples.
+Augustus embarked there for the islands lying off that coast.
+
+[254]  "Puteoli"--"A ship of Alexandria."  Words which bring to our
+recollection a passage in the voyage of St. Paul, Acts xxviii. 11-13.
+Alexandria was at that time the seat of an extensive commerce, and not
+only exported to Rome and other cities of Italy, vast quantities of corn
+and other products of Egypt, but was the mart for spices and other
+commodities, the fruits of the traffic with the east.
+
+[255]  The Toga has been already described in a note to c. lxxiii.  The
+Pallium was a cloak, generally worn by the Greeks, both men and women,
+freemen and slaves, but particularly by philosophers.
+
+[256]  Masgabas seems, by his name, to have been of African origin.
+
+[257]  A courtly answer from the Professor of Science, in which character
+he attended Tiberius.  We shall hear more of him in the reign of that
+emperor.
+
+[258]  Augustus was born A.U.C. 691, and died A.U.C. 766.
+
+[259]  Municipia were towns which had obtained the rights of Roman
+citizens.  Some of them had all which could be enjoyed without residing
+at Rome.  Others had the right of serving in the Roman legions, but not
+that of voting, nor of holding civil offices.  The municipia retained
+their own laws and customs; nor were they obliged to receive the Roman
+laws unless they chose it.
+
+[260]  Bovillae, a small place on the Appian Way, about nineteen miles
+from Rome, now called Frattochio.
+
+[261]  Dio tells us that the devoted Livia joined with the knights in
+this pious office, which occupied them during five days.
+
+[262]  For the Flaminian Way, see before, p. 94, note.  The superb
+monument erected by Augustus over the sepulchre of the imperial family
+was of white marble, rising in stages to a great height, and crowned by a
+dome, on which stood a statue of Augustus.  Marcellus was the first who
+was buried in the sepulchre beneath.  It stood near the present Porta del
+Popolo; and the Bustum, where the bodies of the emperor and his family
+were burnt, is supposed to have stood on the site of the church of the
+Madonna of that name.
+
+[263]  The distinction between the Roman people and the tribes, is also
+observed by Tacitus, who substitutes the word plebs, meaning, the lowest
+class of the populace.
+
+[264]  Those of his father Octavius, and his father by adoption, Julius
+Caesar.
+
+[265]  See before, c. 65.  But he bequeathed a legacy to his daughter,
+Livia.
+
+[266]  Virgil.
+
+[267]  Ibid.
+
+[268]  Ibid.
+
+[269]  Geor. ii.
+
+[270]  I am prevented from entering into greater details, both by the
+size of my volume, and my anxiety to complete the undertaking.
+
+[271]  After performing these immortal achievements, while he was holding
+an assembly of the people for reviewing his army in the plain near the
+lake of Capra, a storm suddenly rose, attended with great thunder and
+lightning, and enveloped the king in so dense a mist, that it took all
+sight of him from the assembly.  Nor was Romulus after this seen on
+earth.  The consternation being at length over, and fine clear weather
+succeeding so turbulent a day, when the Roman youth saw the royal seat
+empty, though they readily believed the Fathers who had stood nearest
+him, that he was carried aloft by the storm, yet struck with the dread as
+it were of orphanage, they preserved a sorrowful silence for a
+considerable time.  Then a commencement having been made by a few, the
+whole multitude salute Romulus a god, son of a god, the king and parent
+of the Roman city; they implore his favour with prayers, that he would be
+pleased always propitiously to preserve his own offspring.  I believe
+that even then there were some who silently surmised that the king had
+been torn in pieces by the hands of the Fathers; for this rumour also
+spread, but was not credited; their admiration of the man and the
+consternation felt at the moment, attached importance to the other
+report.  By the contrivance also of one individual, additional credit is
+said to have been gained to the matter.  For Proculus Julius, whilst the
+state was still troubled with regret for the king, and felt incensed
+against the senators, a person of weight, as we are told, in any matter,
+however important, comes forward to the assembly.  "Romans," he said,
+"Romulus, the father of this city, suddenly descending from heaven,
+appeared to me this day at day-break.  While I stood covered with awe,
+and filled with a religious dread, beseeching him to allow me to see him
+face to face, he said; 'Go tell the Romans, that the gods do will, that
+my Rome should become the capital of the world.  Therefore let them
+cultivate the art of war, and let them know and hand down to posterity,
+that no human power shall be able to withstand the Roman arms.'  Having
+said this, he ascended up to heaven."  It is surprising what credit was
+given to the man on his making this announcement, and how much the regret
+of the common people and army for the loss of Romulus, was assuaged upon
+the assurance of his immortality.
+
+[272]  Padua.
+
+[273]  Commentators seem to have given an erroneous and unbecoming sense
+to Cicero's exclamation, when they suppose that the object understood, as
+connected with altera, related to himself.  Hope is never applied in this
+signification, but to a young person, of whom something good or great is
+expected; and accordingly, Virgil, who adopted the expression, has very
+properly applied it to Ascanius:
+
+    Et juxta Ascanius, magmae spes altera Romae.    Aeneid, xii.
+
+    And by his side Ascanius took his place,
+    The second hope of Rome's immortal race.
+
+Cicero, at the time when he could have heard a specimen of Virgil's
+Eclogues, must have been near his grand climacteric; besides that, his
+virtues and talents had long been conspicuous, and were past the state of
+hope.  It is probable, therefore, that altera referred to some third
+person, spoken of immediately before, as one who promised to do honour to
+his country.  It might refer to Octavius, of whom Cicero at this time,
+entertained a high opinion; or it may have been spoken in an absolute
+manner, without reference to any person.
+
+[274]  I was born at Mantua, died in Calabria, and my tomb is at
+Parthenope: pastures, rural affairs, and heroes are the themes of my
+poems.
+
+[275]  The last members of these two lines, from the commas to the end
+are said to have been supplied by Erotes, Virgil's librarian.
+
+[276]  Carm. i. 17.
+
+[277]  "The Medea of Ovid proves, in my opinion, how surpassing would
+have been his success, if he had allowed his genius free scope, instead
+of setting bounds to it."
+
+[278]  Two faults have ruined me; my verse, and my mistake.
+
+[279]  These lines are thus rendered in the quaint version of Zachary
+Catlin.
+
+    I suffer 'cause I chanced a fault to spy,
+    So that my crime doth in my eyesight lie.
+
+    Alas! why wait my luckless hap to see
+    A fault at unawares to ruin me?
+
+[280]  "I myself employed you as ready agents in love, when my early
+youth sported in numbers adapted to it."--Riley's Ovid.
+
+[281]  "I long since erred by one composition; a fault that is not recent
+endures a punishment inflicted thus late.  I had already published my
+poems, when, according to my privilege, I passed in review so many times
+unmolested as one of the equestrian order, before you the enquirer into
+criminal charges.  Is it then possible that the writings which, in my
+want of confidence, I supposed would not have injured me when young, have
+now been my ruin in my old age?"--Riley's Ovid.
+
+[282]  This place, now called Temisvar, or Tomisvar, stands on one of the
+mouths of the Danube, about sixty-five miles E.N.E. from Silistria.  The
+neighbouring bay of the Black Sea is still called the Gulf of Baba.
+
+[283]  "It appears to me, therefore, more reasonable to pursue glory by
+means of the intellect, than of bodily strength; and, since the life we
+enjoy is short to make the remembrance of it as lasting as possible."
+
+
+
+
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LIVES OF THE CAESARS, SUETONIUS, V2 ***
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