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If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: A monograph on sleep and dream: their physiology and psychology - -Author: Edward William Cox - -Release Date: February 22, 2021 [eBook #64610] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -Produced by: Turgut Dincer and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at - https://www.pgdp.net - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A MONOGRAPH ON SLEEP AND DREAM: -THEIR PHYSIOLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY *** - - - - - - A MONOGRAPH - ON - SLEEP AND DREAM: - THEIR - PHYSIOLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY. - - BY - EDWARD W. COX, - PRESIDENT OF THE PSYCHOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF GREAT BRITAIN; - AUTHOR OF - _“The Mechanism of Man,” “Heredity and Hybridism,” &c._ - - LONDON: - LONGMAN AND CO., PATERNOSTER ROW. - 1878. - - - - -PREFACE. - - -Some papers on the Phenomena of Sleep and Dream, read before _The -Psychological Society of Great Britain_, having excited much interest -and caused considerable discussion, I was requested to put them into the -more formal shape of a treatise. For this purpose I found it necessary to -recast and rewrite the whole. - -The modern endeavour to pursue Psychology, as all the physical sciences -are now pursued, by the study of facts and phenomena, instead of by -metaphysical abstractions, consulting of inner consciousness and -argument _à priori_, has invested the subject of this monograph with -extraordinary importance, because Sleep and Dream are familiar physical -and psychical conditions, disputed by none and which cannot be ascribed -to prepossession, dominant ideas, or diluted insanity. Therefore a -profound, fearless, and searching investigation of their characteristics, -causes, and operations could not fail to throw a flood of light upon many -of the seeming mysteries of mental philosophy and psychology, promising a -solution of some most difficult problems of life and mind, and revealing -to us—as do the phenomena of dream—much of the structure and action of -the Mechanism of Man. - -The marvel is that such obvious means of access to hidden springs of -that mechanism should have been so long neglected by Physiologists and -Psychologists. - -In dealing with a subject so old and yet so new, I can do little -more than _suggest_ explanations of phenomena. I do not venture to -_assert_ them. Those suggestions are submitted to the reader to induce -him to think and as subjects for further examination and discussion -rather than as dogmatic assumptions of ascertained truths. The _facts_ -and _phenomena_ reported are vouched for so far as my own means of -ascertaining their truth enable me; but _causes_ and _conclusions_ -can of necessity be little more than conjecture until a much larger -collection of the facts be made. To the gathering of such facts I -hope this little book may stimulate many observers. I shall deem the -communication of them a valuable contribution to science, and a favour to -myself. - - EDWARD W. COX. - -CARLTON CLUB, _1st January, 1878_. - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - CHAPTER I. - - WHAT SLEEP IS _page_ 1 - - CHAPTER II. - - THE PHYSIOLOGY OF SLEEP 4 - - CHAPTER III. - - THE MENTAL CONDITION OF SLEEP 8 - - CHAPTER IV. - - THE SEAT OF SLEEP 12 - - CHAPTER V. - - OF DREAM 17 - - CHAPTER VI. - - THE MATERIAL MECHANISM OF DREAM 21 - - CHAPTER VII. - - THE PSYCHOLOGY OF DREAM 42 - - CHAPTER VIII. - - THE PHENOMENA OF DREAM 51 - - CHAPTER IX. - - THE PSYCHOLOGY OF DREAM 72 - - CHAPTER X. - - FALLACIES OF DREAM 76 - - CHAPTER XI. - - CONCLUSIONS 88 - - - - -SLEEP AND DREAM: THEIR PHYSIOLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -WHAT SLEEP IS. - - -Sleep is necessary to the health of the human organism. The Mechanism of -Man depends for its sustainment and reparation upon recurring seasons of -rest. - -The condition of sleep is probably a requirement of organic structure. -So far as we can trace it, all animal life sleeps. There is almost -conclusive evidence that vegetable life sleeps also. - -In this respect organic structure differs from inorganic structure. -Minerals do not sleep. Only things that have _life_ sleep. Wheresoever -life is there is probably (it is not _proved_) a conscious individuality -that “goes to sleep.” As sleep seems, so far as we can trace it, to be an -attendant upon consciousness, a requirement, in fact, of nerve structure, -the sleep of vegetable life would appear to indicate the presence of -consciousness. - -But sleep is not a suspension of vital action. The processes conducted -by the vital force continue their work in sleep often more vigorously. -The intelligence, also, is not wholly suspended in sleep. The functions -of nutrition are performed even more perfectly than in the waking state. -Rest appears to be required mainly for the muscular structure and for the -nerve system that moves the muscles. The senses are often wholly, always -partially, sealed in sleep. But it is doubtful if this be the result of a -requirement for rest by the senses. The more probable inference is that -the suspension of the senses is necessary to the suspension of muscular -action. - -Sleep, therefore, may be defined in general terms as the suspension, -more or less perfect, of the action of the external senses, so that they -cease to convey vividly to the mind the impressions made upon them. The -action of the Will is likewise suspended, so that it ceases to convey -the commands of the mind to the body. Thus is the rest procured that is -required for the body. - -The entire mechanism of the body and mind does not sleep, but only a -part of it. In sleep the _body_ performs all functions necessary for its -continued healthy being. The _mind_ dreams. The consciousness of the -Individual Self is awake, for we note our dreams as they occur, believe -that we are acting them and remember them afterwards. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -THE PHYSIOLOGY OF SLEEP. - - -Various conjectures have been advanced as to the precise physiological -change that attends the condition of sleep. Some have located the source -of sleep in the heart and others in the head. It was formerly a favourite -theory that the action of the heart slackened and then the blood, -flowing slowly through the brain, caused a kind of congestion there. -This was, in fact, to look upon sleep as a species of coma that produced -unconsciousness by pressure upon the fibres of the brain. - -The later and better opinion is, that sleep is produced by the reverse of -this process; that it is not a state of congestion but of collapse; that -the blood flows _from_ the part of the brain that sleeps, which is thus -left in a state of depletion, with a consequent collapse of the brain -fibres. - -Observation of the actual brain of a man who had been trepanned and -over a part of whose brain a movable silver plate was placed entirely -confirmed this conjecture. In sleep, the convolutions of his brain were -depressed; when awake, they resumed their normal form; when his mind was -exerted, they swelled visibly. - -Any reader who has been suddenly wakened may recal a sensation as of -swelling of the brain by the blood rushing into it. This sensation was -probably the result of the rapid erection of the flaccid brain fibres. - -Other facts strongly support this theory. When the action of the heart -is stimulated by any excitement, mental or bodily, sleep will not come. -So long as the brain is busy we court sleep in vain. To induce sleep -we apply remedies that tend to draw the blood from the brain to the -extremities. A full meal engenders sleep; but not, as formerly supposed, -by congesting the brain, but by attracting the blood to the stomach and -so depleting the brain. Rapid motion in a cold wind causes drowsiness -when warmth is restored. Why? The blood is borne swiftly back to the -surface of the body and quits the brain. Many other instances will -readily occur to the reader. - -Note in another the process of “falling sleep.” The eyes move more and -more slowly, the eyelids descend, the head nods and droops, the limbs -relax, the book falls from the hand. Usually, before positive sleep -occurs, involuntary endeavours at resistance are made. The eyes open with -a stare. Consciousness is regained with an effort and a start. The thread -of waking thought is resumed. But it is for a moment only. Again the head -nods, the eyes blink and close, the limbs relax. He is _asleep_. - -What are our own sensations when we _go to sleep_? Thought wanders. -Ideas come straying into the mind unbidden and with no apparent -association. External objects grow dim to the eye and sounds fall faint -upon the ear. The communications of the senses to the brain are dull and -uncertain. We are conscious that the power of the _Will_ is relaxed. We -strive to retain it. We recover it by an effort. We resume the work on -which we were engaged. Vain the struggle. The thoughts wander still. The -unbidden pictures flit again before the mind’s eye. We are conscious of -the relaxation of the limbs and the closing of the eyelids. Then we cease -to be conscious of external existence. We sleep. - -But we are not conscious of _the act_ of falling asleep—for itself is a -suspension of consciousness. With some sleepers sleep is, as they affirm, -a condition of entire unconsciousness. These tell us they have no sense -of existence until the moment of waking and that, however protracted -their slumber, the moment of waking is to them as the moment after having -fallen asleep. It is impossible to contradict those who thus affirm, -for their mental condition in sleep cannot be read. But if a judgment -may be formed from their _actions_ in sleep, as talking and motions of -the limbs, the probable explanation will be that they dream but do not -remember their dreams. _All_ dreams vanish from _their_ memories as -_some_ dreams vanish from the memories of those who habitually dream. - -If we observe the aspect of a sleeper, we note the features placid, the -breathing regular, the pulse soft and even, the limbs relaxed, the skin -moist. Occasionally there are quiverings of the limbs and expressions of -the face which betray the presence of mental emotions. - -This is the _physiological_ condition of Sleep. - -We turn now to its _mental_ condition. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -THE MENTAL CONDITION OF SLEEP. - - -Of all the phenomena exhibited in Psychology and Mental Physiology there -is none more marvellous than that which is presented to every one of us -every night. It only does not astonish us because it is so familiar. -Perhaps the reason why so few have given a moment of reflection to its -marvels is because they are seen so often. When the attention of the -reader is more closely invited to these phenomena he will doubtless be -surprised to find what a world of wonder is opened to him. - -The passage from waking to sleeping is momentary. The closest observer -of his own mental action fails to note it. But what a change is made in -that moment! A complete mental revolution has been effected. The man -himself has changed entirely. He has ceased to be a rational being! He is -almost wholly severed from the external world, which exists for him no -longer! His _Will_ (which is the name we give to the _expression_ of the -Conscious Self) is paralysed. He has ceased to command his thoughts and -his emotions. He has no control over his limbs. With the sole exception -that he dreams, he is but a breathing clod. Of the forces that move his -Mechanism, Life alone is active, working steadily and harmoniously as -before. As we shall presently see, the other forces that move and direct -the mechanism—the forces of _Mind_ and _Soul_—are not inactive. But they -have withdrawn from their waking work. They exist and their existence is -manifest. But they have ceased to control and the mechanism has ceased to -obey. - -Some proof this—is it not?—that these Psychic Forces are distinct from -the vital force and from the physical forces and have another origin. -These phenomena of sleep supply further and most cogent evidence of the -fallacy of the contention of the Materialists, that the vital force alone -governs the mechanism of Man, and that all the forces that direct the -mechanism are generated within the machine. - -In sleep the vital force continues to do its normal work. At the same -moment some other force or forces are engaged in doing abnormal work, -thus establishing the fact that some force or forces, other than the -vital force or the physical forces, are employed in moving the mechanism -of Man. - -Pause to think for a moment what is this wonderful mental change that in -a moment converts _the Man_ into something less than a mere animal—into -little more than a senseless vegetable! - -What, then, is the _mental_ process of sleep? - -The first perceptible signs of its coming are what are well called -“wandering thoughts.” The Will resigns its control, at first fitfully, -then at intervals continually diminishing. Nevertheless the Will strives -to retain its hold upon the brain, then relaxes, then seizes it again, -but with ever lessening power. “_Attention_” to the subject before the -mind wanders—is recalled—wanders again—and then ceases altogether. - -With this relaxation of the _Will_, and consequently of -“attention,”—which is an effort of the Will—ideas begin to flow unbidden -into the mind. At first they are banished almost as soon as they appear. -But presently they return and disturb the train of waking thought; then -they mingle with it; then they put it altogether to rout, and usurp its -place. At the beginning, we are competent to sever the intruding ideas -from the true ones and we make an effort to banish them if we desire to -be wakeful. But they return ever more vividly and persistently, until at -length they take possession of the mind. If we are courting sleep, we -welcome the intruders and willingly resign the control of our thoughts. -In either case the state of actual sleep occurs at the instant when the -_Will_ ceases to work and _attention_ ends. - -Then begins the condition of _Dream_, to be treated of presently. - -Our business now is to trace, so far as we can, the _mental_ change that -attends the condition of sleep. The phenomena just described are the -action of the mind in the process of _falling asleep_. The _state of -sleep_ presents other features. - -The mental condition of sleep, apart from dream, is very remarkable and -should be carefully noted and remembered by the Student of Psychology. - -The _Senses_ are suspended—but not entirely. They are rather dulled than -paralysed. We hear, but imperfectly, and we are unable to measure the -sound. Often a loud noise is not heard when a whisper wakens; or a slight -sound seems to the sleeper like the report of cannon. The sense of touch -is only dulled, as we know by the manner in which it influences dream. -Whether the sense of sight ceases entirely we cannot know, because the -eyelids veil the eyes and external impressions are consequently not made -upon them. Taste and smell are dimmed but not effaced. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -THE SEAT OF SLEEP. - - -These facts point to the conclusion that the partial paralysis to -which the senses are subjected in sleep does not occur at the points -of communication with the external world, but somewhere between the -extremity of the sense-nerves and the brain, or at the point of -communication between the brain and the Conscious Self. There can be -little doubt that impressions are made upon the nerves in sleep as when -we are awake. There is some evidence that the impressions so made are -conveyed by the afferent nerve to the ganglion at the base of the brain -hemispheres. The experiments of Professor FERRIER have proved this -ganglion to be the centre upon which the sense-nerves converge; that to -this centre those impressions are conveyed and thence are transmitted -to the brain hemispheres, or at this point the hemispheres of the -intelligence receive notice of their presence. - -In Sleep the brain is unable to convey its commands to the body. The -nerves do not obey. Something that operates between the brain and the -nerves and which was active in the waking state is inactive in sleep. -What is that _something_? It is the _Will_. The Will has ceased to act -and thus the body has ceased to be controlled by the mind. This is the -process by which the needful rest of the body is brought about. - -Here the question comes, in what part of the mechanism does the change -occur that thus causes the suspension of the power of the Will and the -partial severance of the Conscious Self from its normal control of the -body? _How_ does sleep accomplish so great a revolution? If the whole -mental mechanism were inactive in sleep this question would be answered -easily. We should say, “the entire of the brain is sleeping and therefore -the whole mechanism is at rest. The motive forces that move and direct -the machine in its waking state have ceased for a time from their work -and the structure stands still.” - -But that is not the condition. All the forces have not ceased from their -work. The vital force continues in full activity, keeping the machinery -in motion and performing the work of nutrition, reparation and growth. -The _mind_ is not at rest; the phenomena of dream directly contradict -such a conclusion. The whole mental mechanism is certainly not at rest. A -part of it is very busy. The hemispheres of the brain are not sleeping—or -sleeping but partially. They are enacting dreams. They are in truth -working with infinitely greater speed and power when we are asleep than -when we are awake! - -If, then, the brain hemispheres are waking above and the body is sleeping -below, the communication between them must be severed by sleep at -some part of the mechanism below the brain hemispheres (which are the -mechanism of the Intelligence) and the point where the brain branches -into the nerve system—which is the mechanism by whose action the vital -force forms and sustains the organic structure. - -_That point is obviously the point at which the Will exercises its power -of control over the body._ Thus does this inquiry into the Psychology -of Sleep and Dream promise to throw light upon that mysterious part -of the mechanism of man. Professor FERRIER has proved that _the Will_ -is exercised through the brain hemispheres, which are the organs of -the Intelligence. In the waking and normal condition of the structure -the Will commands and controls the body. In sleep and other abnormal -conditions the Will ceases to command the body. Between the brain -hemispheres and the nerves that move the body something seems to be -interposed which either paralyses the Will or ceases to transmit its -commands. What is that _something_? Anatomically we find two ganglia, one -being the centre upon which the nerves of the senses converge. We know, -also, that in sleep the senses cease to transmit their impressions, or -do so but dimly. The conclusion is, that the seat of sleep is in this -ganglion. Because that is slumbering, the commands of the Will cannot be -conveyed from the brain to the body, nor can the messages sent by the -senses from the body be conveyed to the brain. - -It is a moot point if the entire of the mechanism of the brain, or parts -of it only, and, if so, what parts, fall into the condition of sleep. -But, however that may be, there can be little doubt, from the facts -stated above, that the ganglion at the base of the brain hemispheres -is the seat of sleep. It is certain that the entire of the two brain -hemispheres does not always sleep or dream could not be. Whether the -ganglion that interposes between the cerebral centre and the body, and -whence streams the nerve system, succumbs to sleep we have no certain -knowledge. The presumption is that it does not, for the nerves whose -office is to sustain the functions of the vital organs do not sleep. Why -they need not the rest that is required by other parts of the mechanism -we do not know. Rest appears to be necessary for that portion of the -mechanism only that is subject to _voluntary action_. Where _the Will_ -controls, the repose of sleep is required for all structure subjected to -it. Why? - -Does the nerve system that moves the mechanism of the body sleep? The -bonds that link brain and body are relaxed. The Will has ceased to -control either of them. The material form is at rest. But it rests only -because the power of the controlling Will is paralysed. All _in_voluntary -actions continue and with the more regularity and efficiency because they -are not subjected to the disturbing influences of the Will. - -And what is this potent Will? - -_The Will_ is merely the expression of the Conscious Self—the power which -the Conscious Self exercises over the material mechanism of the body and -through the body upon the material world without. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -OF DREAM. - - -As already stated, at the first approach of sleep we are conscious of -inability so to control our thoughts as to keep them in the orderly train -they had been pursuing previously. Ideas come uncalled for. Pictures -rise before the mental eye and vanish instantly. Other pictures intrude, -having no apparent association with their predecessors. They enter -and pass before us unbidden. The mind falls into confusion. There is -entanglement of the threads of thought. Even while the eye is yet open, -the objects on which it gazes fade and vanish. Sounds fall faintly upon -the ear and die away. The vision of the mind grows dim or is eclipsed -by other unsummoned pictures, often altogether incongruous, which blend -with the picture present, then melt into it, then usurp its place, and -then are in their turn displaced. We are conscious that we can no longer -control the movements of the mind. Momentary resistance to the influence -but provokes its more vigorous return. For an instant we wake with a -start to consciousness of the external world. If we desire to resist -the coming on of sleep, we exert the Will fitfully, start into waking -life for a few moments, contract the relaxed muscles, open the drooped -eyelids, stare with a peculiar expression of imbecile amazement, strive -to look as if we had _not_ been surprised by sleep, and for a while -the mind resumes its normal action. But soon again the thoughts are -dislocated and replaced by a swarm of yet more dissevered ideas. We feel -again the dropping lid, the relaxing muscle, the nodding head. Strive as -we may, we are unable to note the moment when unconsciousness begins. We -remember _falling asleep_, but we do not remember, and no human being has -ever yet remembered, the very act of _going to sleep_. - -The mental condition of _falling asleep_ resembles very closely the -dissolving views at exhibitions. So do the pictures of the mind steal -into the field of view and mingle and melt away; nor can we discover -where one ceases and the other begins, so imperceptibly do they glide in -and blend. - -We sleep. - -What is then our _mental_ condition? - -It is a condition of _partial unconsciousness_. In this respect it -differs from the condition of coma and of trance, in which there -is _entire_ unconsciousness. In the most profound sleep perfect -unconsciousness never prevails. Impressions may be made upon the senses -of the soundest sleeper that will waken him. The degree of oblivion -caused by sleep varies immensely with various persons and with all -persons at various times. Some are “light” and others “heavy” sleepers. -Some are wakened by the slightest noise or the gentlest touch. Others -will slumber, though rudely shaken, or while cannon are roaring. It -is a remarkable fact, not yet sufficiently explained, that a whisper -will often waken a sleeper by whose side a gun might be fired without -disturbing him. Others will answer aloud to questions whispered to them -when sleeping, and there are recorded cases of conversations being thus -sustained and inconvenient revelations made by the sleeper which have -astonished him on their subsequent repetition—there being in such case no -after memory of the dialogue so strangely conducted. - -The _senses_, therefore, are but partially sealed in sleep. They are -dulled, not paralysed. They convey imperfect sensations—or the sensations -conveyed are imperfectly perceived—we know not which. As will be shown -presently, they more or less influence mental action. They suggest -dreams. But their reflex action has ceased. The nerves that convey the -messages to the brain are sluggish. The nerves that convey the consequent -message from the brain to the body are for the most part inactive. - -The aspect of the sleeper to the observer is that of unconsciousness. -There are occasional motions of the limbs, but these are involuntary. He -seems dead to the external world and to have ceased from active life. - -Nevertheless, while that form is so still and seemingly so -senseless—while consciousness of a world without is suspended—in this -sleep that has been called the twin brother of death—the senseless -sleeper is making a world and living a life of his own within himself. -That brain is not sleeping with that body. It is awake and busy—often -more busy than when the body is awake. It is enacting whole dramas—living -new lives—wandering away among worlds of its own creation—crowding into -an hour the events of years—doing, saying, seeing, hearing, feeling, even -while we gaze, a hundredfold more than the waking senses could possibly -convey or the waking frame perform. - -Is it not marvellous when we thus think of it? Would it not be pronounced -incredible—impossible—the narrator a “rogue and vagabond”—the believer a -credulous fool—were it not that it is _a fact_ familiar to all of us? Is -it not in itself as marvellous as any of the phenomena of other abnormal -mental conditions, which are received with such incredulity and ridicule -only because they are of less frequent occurrence and less familiar? - -But before we pursue the inquiry into the phenomena of Dream, it will -be necessary to describe the material mechanism by the operations of -which those phenomena are produced. This will be properly the theme of a -distinct chapter. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -THE MATERIAL MECHANISM OF DREAM. - - -It is difficult to describe, without the use of technical terms, the -structure of the mechanism by which Dream is produced. But as these -are at once unintelligible and repulsive to the non-scientific reader, -indulgence is entreated for an endeavour to present the subject in shape -and language that may be understood by everybody. - -It must be premised that this description is partly derived from the -recent treatise of Professor FERRIER on “The Functions of the Brain,”[1] -in which he details the experiments that have thrown so much light alike -upon physiology and psychology. - -The spinal cord expands at its upper end into a ganglion or cluster of -nerves called the _medulla oblongata_. - -At this point the brain is said to cease and the nerve system to begin. -But there is no perceptible beginning nor ending either of the brain or -of the nerves. The entire nerve system is, in fact, only an extension -of the brain. When a nerve is irritated at the point of the finger the -brain as well as the nerve is affected. The nerve transmits the sensation -and the brain feels it. Psychologists would venture a step further, and -say, “It is not the brain that feels, but the intelligent individual -entity, the living soul or self, of whom the brain is only the material -transmitting organ.” - -It is at the extremity of this ganglion that the cords wrapped within -that great bundle of nerve cords which constitutes the spinal cord cross -each other and pass into opposite sides of the brain and of the body. -The nerves that control the left side of the body pass into the right -side of the brain, and those that control the right side of the body pass -into the left side of the brain. As the consequence of this exchange, the -right side of the brain controls and directs the left side of the body, -and the left side of the brain the right side of the body. - -Above this basal ganglion, but connected with it, is a ganglion which -anatomists have divided into two parts, but which for the present purpose -it will be convenient to recognize as one whole lying at the base of the -brain and crowned and inclosed by the cerebral hemispheres. From this -great basal ganglion small white threads radiate into the two cerebral -hemispheres in the form of a hollow cone. - -Above the basal ganglion lies another great ganglion (the _cerebellum_), -also divided into lobes, and which is connected with the basal ganglion -by two bands (or peduncles). It is connected also with the two cerebral -hemispheres by two bands. It is connected with the central ganglion by a -thin lamina, which stretches to the other ganglia, thus connecting all -the ganglia with the centres of the senses and the centres of motion—that -is to say, with the centre that receives the messages of the senses and -with the centre that conveys the commands of the Will to the body. - -Above and extending in front of these are the _cerebrum_, the organ of -the intelligence, composed of two hemispheres, which crown, inclose, and -overlap the ganglia at the base of the brain. - -These two great hemispheres are distinct bodies, each complete in itself -but united by fibres that pass from one hemisphere to the other and thus -secure their united action. These fibres are observed to connect together -corresponding regions of the two hemispheres. - -At their bases the two hemispheres are in direct contact with the -ganglion above described as the central ganglion, but which has been -anatomically subdivided into two pairs of ganglia. For the purposes of -this treatise, however, minute divisions are not necessary. - -This ganglion is the centre upon which all the nerves of the senses -converge and each division of it is supposed to be appropriated to a -distinct sense. But even if each part has its own work to do, it is not -less a whole than is the cerebral hemisphere, which is now proved to have -various parts devoted to various mental operations. - -The cerebral hemispheres are formed of great bundles of fibres, in the -shape of rolls, plainly visible on the outside, but which baffle the -attempts of the most dexterous anatomist to sever them below the surface. - -And the whole brain is covered with an extremely delicate and highly -sensitive membrane, which is now conjectured to be the medium by means of -which all the parts of the brain are brought into communication, and the -co-ordination and unity of action of the entire organ preserved. - -The substance of the brain itself is insensible, although it is the -recipient and supposed seat of the pains and pleasures of the body—or -rather of the nerves, for what we call the body is only the insensible -clothing of the nerves. The nerves feel; the flesh and bones do not feel. - -Is not this fact another powerful argument _against_ the doctrine of the -Materialists that consciousness and mind are only states of brain or -conditions of matter? If the brain is not conscious of injuries done to -itself, if it is insensible even to its own destruction, how can it be -the “_Conscious_ Self?” - -But the enveloping membrane of the brain is exquisitely sensitive. It -is the seat of headache, of _delirium tremens_, of brain fever, of -hydrocephalus, and probably of many more diseases which we are wont to -refer to the substance of the brain. - -_We_ refer—_Who_ refers? _What_ refers? The brain to the brain? Or one -part of the brain to another part of the brain? Will the Materialists -explain? - -It is probable that this envelope of nerves unites all the parts of the -brain and by transmitting to each part the condition of all the other -parts produces co-ordination of the parts and unity of action. But this -membrane of nerve cannot surely be deemed by the most bigoted Materialist -to constitute the Conscious Self. - -Professor FERRIER has proved, by a multitude of minutely detailed -experiments, that not only has each ganglion its function, but that each -part of each ganglion is devoted to some special duty, thus completely -shattering the theory that holds every mental operation to be an act -of the whole brain. He establishes at least the grand basis of modern -mental Science, the assumption that the brain is the material organ of -the mind; that distinct parts of the brain are devoted to distinct mental -operations; that not the whole brain, but only parts of it, are employed -in any mental operation. The question is still open for observation and -experiment to ascertain what are the parts of the brain so appropriated -and what are the precise functions of each part. - -Professor FERRIER has made considerable advances towards the -determination of this question. His experiments have demonstrated what -are the functions of the ganglia at the base of the brain, not being -the seat of the Intelligence. His experiments were attended with more -cruelty than I could excuse even for the important accessions they have -brought to our knowledge. But they are not therefore the less valuable as -contributions to Physiology and Psychology. I can but briefly describe -the results of such of them as bear immediately upon the subject here -treated of. - -Let me, however, first confirm, by the authority of Professor FERRIER, -the proposition I have ventured to advance as to the various functions of -various parts of the brain. - -“That the brain is the organ of the mind,” he says, “and that mental -operations are possible only in and through the brain, is now so -thoroughly well established and recognized that we may, without further -question, start from this as an ultimate fact.” He proceeds: - - The physiological activity of the brain is not, however, - altogether co-extensive with its psychological functions. The - brain as an organ of motion and sensation, or presentative - consciousness, is a single organ composed of two halves; - the brain as an organ of ideation, or re-presentative - consciousness, is a dual organ, each hemisphere complete - in itself. When one hemisphere is removed or destroyed by - disease, motion and sensation are abolished unilaterally, but - mental operations are still capable of being carried on in - their completeness through the agency of the one hemisphere. - The individual who is paralysed as to sensation and motion by - disease of the opposite side of the brain (say the right), - is not paralysed mentally, for he can still feel and will and - think, and intelligently comprehend with the one hemisphere. - If these functions are not carried on with the same vigour as - before, they at least do not appear to suffer in respect of - completeness. - -As the object of this treatise is not anatomy but psychology, it will be -unnecessary to describe minutely the entire of the brain structure. It -will suffice for the present purpose to view the brain, above roughly -sketched, as having three well marked divisions, each with definite and -distinct functions. - -The ganglia at the base of the brain govern the actions of the body. The -ganglia in the centre of the brain are the recipients of the impressions -made upon the senses and thus connect us with the external world. The two -hemispheres at the summit of the brain are the organs of the Intelligence. - -Professor FERRIER’S experiments were made with a view to ascertain -whether the theory of Dr. CARPENTER is true, that the whole brain works -in each mental action, or if the phrenological doctrine be the true one, -that the several parts of the brain have several and distinct functions. -Dr. CARPENTER had prematurely boasted that he had killed Phrenology. -The boast would have been justified if his assertion (for it was merely -a dogma, not a proved fact) had been found to be true. But Professor -FERRIER’S experiments have decisively _disproved_ the boast of Dr. -CARPENTER and killed his theory of mental unity. - -The experiments were conducted chiefly with monkeys and dogs. The former -were the most valuable, because the brain structure of the monkey is -almost identical with that of man. The experiments were certainly cruel -and I should object to procure even such valuable knowledge at such a -price. But, as it is obtained, we may use it. - -The experiments were performed by making the animal insensible by -chloroform and then extracting in mass certain portions of the brain, -or destroying parts of the brain by the actual cautery. Electrodes were -applied to the various parts of the brain to which access had been thus -obtained and their effects upon the actions of the animal were carefully -observed. - -I will not attempt to detail these experiments—but merely state some of -the results. For the many important facts that were discovered by them -reference must be made to the valuable volume in which they are reported. - -He found the entire brain to be connected with the nerve system by the -process of interlacing. Excitation of the right brain was shown by the -left side of the body; of the left brain by the right side. So it was -with the nerves of the senses. Whether the like structure exists in the -duplex organ of the intelligence he could not trace, because the mental -results were incapable of being expressed by experiment upon animals, -who cannot tell us what are their emotions. But he entertains no doubt -that the same structural scheme is observed in the action of the two -hemispheres also. - -The great ganglia at the base of the brain, whether excited by -electricity or destroyed by cautery, yielded the same result. They proved -beyond doubt that _their_ function is to direct the actions of the body -under the peculiar conditions of its duplex structure—that is to say, a -formation by two distinct and not wholly similar halves joined together -and requiring community of action. This process of separate action for -each part combined with motion in _co-ordination_—that is to say, the -regulation of the motions of the limbs, so that the two halves of which -the body is builded may act in definite relationship—was found to be the -special business of those basal ganglia, any disturbance in those ganglia -being attended with imperfect movements of the body, even to the extent -of causing the animal to walk in a circle, having lost entirely the -power to “walk straight.” The results of this ingenious experiment are -extremely curious and throw great light on the physiology of locomotion. - -The second division of the brain, lying in its centre, overlapped behind -by the cerebrum, resting on the centres that direct bodily actions and -dominated by the hemispheres that are the organs of the intelligence, -is shown by these experiments to be the centre upon which the senses -converge. To this common centre the impressions made upon the senses by -the external world are conveyed. The experiments seem to indicate that -a distinct ganglion is devoted to each sense, although all are united -in one mass for the common purpose of reception of the information they -bring. The destruction of different parts of this brain centre is found -to be followed by the loss or impairment of different senses. It was -found, also, that this part of the brain was duplex, like the other -parts, for destruction of the right side of the ganglion caused paralysis -of the senses on the left side of the body and _vice versâ_. - -A question of much interest arises here. What is the precise function -of this sense-receiving portion of the brain? Is _itself_ perceptive -of the sense-impressions brought to it, or is it merely the medium -for transmitting those impressions to the hemispheres above? That in -health it does communicate to the intelligence the same impressions that -it receives there can be no doubt, for we take cognisance of them in -almost every mental act. We know also that when the brain is diseased -false impressions are conveyed to the Intelligence. But in exploring -the psychology of Sleep and Dream, it would be of great advantage to -ascertain if the same receiving portion of the brain is an active or -merely a passive agent. - -The experiments of Professor FERRIER are almost conclusive upon this most -important point. He removed the two brain hemispheres of a monkey and -of a dog. The animals lived and appeared to enjoy health, but _they had -lost intelligence_. They had not, however, lost the use of the _senses_ -and they were manifestly conscious of the impressions brought by the -nerves of sense. The external world continued to exist for them and was -perceived by them as before the organs of the intelligence were removed. -But when this central division of the brain was taken away and nothing -left but the lower lobes that govern muscular motion, all the senses -ceased to act, or consciousness of action had ceased. Nevertheless the -power of locomotion and the co-ordinate action of the limbs was preserved -with very little loss of power. - -Above the central sense-organ tower two hemispheres—_two_ brains, each -distinct and complete in itself and each capable to act without the -other. The function of these hemispheres is that we term _mental_. They -are the organs of the intellect and of the sentiments. Through them we -think, reason and feel. Injury to parts of these injures more or less, -_not_ the _whole_ mind, but _parts of the mind_—certain mental faculties -only. Destruction of the entire of these hemispheres is not death but -idiotcy. - -Let it then be clear in the mind of the reader, when surveying the -phenomena of sleep and dream and inquiring into their causes, that for -the purpose of such an outline of the Physiology of the Mind as this, -the brain is to be viewed by him as having _three_ marked divisions—the -organ of the _intelligence_ at the summit, of the _senses_ in the centre, -of _bodily motion_ at the base. - -There are many sub-divisions of the brain known to anatomists and -necessary to be known by the Student of Physiology. But these will -suffice for the Student of Psychology. They are easily understood and -readily remembered. - -In the waking and normal state, the whole brain is awake, all its parts -acting in concert and preserving strict co-ordination. The reasoning -faculties correct the senses; the senses correct the imagination; the -intelligence controls the emotions; the emotions give vigour to the Will; -the Will commands the entire mechanism of the body and expresses upon the -external world the results of that combination of intelligent actions and -emotions which we term “_the mind_.” - -In sleep this relationship is changed. The reasoning faculties cease to -correct the senses; the senses no longer correct the imagination; the -emotions are unable to influence the Will; the Will loses its command of -body and mind alike. - -However it may be in dreamless sleep, in the condition of dream the -entire mechanism certainly does not sleep. Some part of it is awake and -active. What is that waking part? - -It is undoubted that the cerebral hemispheres are wholly or partially -awake in the process of dream. In deep sleep the sense-ganglia are -wholly asleep. In all sleep the senses sleep, only sometimes not so -profoundly as completely to exclude cognizance, by the Conscious Self, of -the sense-borne impressions. Sleep affects also the ganglia at the base -of the brain that control the actions of the body. This, indeed, would -appear to be the primary purpose of sleep. Sleep is obviously designed -to give rest to the _material structure_—time for growth and renovation. -It is for this reason that the Will, which in the waking state directs -the motions of the structure, ceases to control it during sleep. The -Will itself wakes—for we are self-conscious in dream—but in sleep the -material mechanism does not obey the command of the Will, because itself -is sleeping. - -The central and basal portions of the brain are, therefore, the seat of -sleep. Unless they sleep we do not sleep. If they sleep we sleep, even -although both brain hemispheres are at the same time wide awake. - -And this raises the question, so important in the Psychology of Dream; -do the brain hemispheres, that duplex organ of the intelligence, -sleep wholly or partially, or do they continue to be awake while the -sense-brain and the body-moving brain are sleeping? - -This problem can be solved only by careful examination of the phenomena -of dream. Suppose that Professor FERRIER could do with us as he did -with the monkeys and dogs—take out a portion of the brain—and it were -possible to remove altogether the middle and basal sections, leaving -the hemispheres alone in the skull, would they sleep wholly or in part -or, if awake, would they exhibit the phenomena of dream as they are now -experienced? - -Contemplate, then, if you can, a duplex intelligent brain, in a state -of activity, but cut off from all communication with the external world -through the media of the senses and from all control over the body;—in -fact, an isolated, self-acting, self-contained mechanism, the organ of -intelligence and emotion. - -How would it work? - -First, it must be set in motion. Thus we are brought directly to the -problem “What moves the mind?” Why does _this_ particular thought or -feeling come into the mind at this moment rather than some other? - -The solution commonly accepted is that ideas come by _suggestion_. This -means that ideas are, as it were, linked together and consequently that -when one idea comes it is followed by certain other ideas which at some -former time were connected with it. Probably the greater portion of the -ideas that come to us apparently without such association are suggested -by some impression brought by the senses, but received by the sensorium -unconsciously to ourselves and that thus the “train of thought” is -started. - -If it be so in one waking time, when the mind is busy with a multitude of -impressions flowing in upon it from every sense—much more is it likely so -to be when the impressions made by the senses are few, as is proved by -the experience of every reader. In sleep, a slight sound falling upon the -ear will suggest a dream of roaring cannon or rattling thunder. - -But the idea, once suggested, draws after it whole trains of associated -ideas, and these ideas excite the _emotions_ precisely as they would have -done had they been brought by the senses in the waking state. Thus far, -then, we learn that the faculties which produce what we call ideas and -sentiments and passions are not asleep. Some, if not all, of them are -certainly awake and as active as in waking life. - -The Will, too, is not asleep, although powerless to command. In dream we -_will_ to speak and do, but the body does not obey the Will. The efforts -of the Will to command the limbs to move—as to escape from dreamed-of -danger—and the failure of the limbs to obey, are often attended with -consciousness of painful efforts made in vain. - -So far the phenomena of dream are consistent with the entire of the -duplex brain organ of the intelligence being awake while the lower -portion of the brain is sleeping. Certainly it is difficult to conceive -of parts of such an organ as the two hemispheres sleeping, relaxed, and -insensible, while other parts of it are awake and active. - -For, if Professor FERRIER is right, and distinct functions belong, not -only to each ganglion but to various parts of each ganglion, the brain -hemispheres, which are the material mechanism of the intelligence, must -consist of many parts having different duties. We know that anatomically -these parts, if they exist, are in intimate connection, lying closely -packed together if not actually interlacing, and it is difficult to -suppose that one part can be sleeping while its neighbour is awake, -especially as sleep is attended, if not caused, by a depletion of blood -from the fibres of the brain, retreating from the entire hemisphere and -not from parts of it. - -Nevertheless, there are characteristics of Dream which appear to indicate -a suspension of activity in some parts of the intellectual mechanism. -Although perfectly conscious of the presence of the dream, we are unable -to discover that it is not real; we cannot discern incongruities, nor -recognize impossibilities. The dead of long ago come to us and we are not -amazed. We walk the waters and float in the air and are not astonished. -Nothing is too impossible to be done and nothing too monstrous to be -implicitly believed. We are, in fact, insane in dream. - -What is the solution of this problem? Some faculty that corrects the -action of the mind when we are awake is certainly absent or paralysed -during dream. Something must come to us from without or operate upon the -mind within that restores us to sanity when we wake, enabling us then -to discern the false from the true, the shadow from the substance, the -impossible from the possible. - -What is this absent faculty? - -The solution most favoured by psychologists is that in sleep we lack the -correcting influence of the senses. The mind, they say, having nothing -wherewith to compare its own creations, necessarily accepts them as -realities; it puts implicit faith in them, however monstrous, simply -because they are presented to it as facts and in the same manner as facts -are presented when it is awake. - -I confess to great doubt if this explanation be adequate. True, that we -believe the impossibilities of our dreams _to be_ because they appear -to the mind to be. But that does not explain the strange absence of -perplexity and wonder when we witness (as we then verily believe) the -dead alive, the distant near, and impossible things performed with ease. -In our waking state, if the like dreams come into the mind at some moment -of idleness, they are never mistaken for realities. Reason rejects them, -and if entertained for awhile it is only as a pleasant vision. Nor is -the problem solved by the suggested slumber of the reasoning faculties. -These are not always asleep in dream, for often we dream that we are -exercising them readily and effectively. The power of reasoning employed -in dream is, however, very limited. It can exercise itself on the subject -of the dream, but not upon its surroundings. It is not uncommon for the -sleeper to dream that he is making a speech or preaching a sermon. The -discourse is argumentative and logical. It is not merely that he dreams -he is logical; he is so in fact, for the dream is often remembered after -waking and no flaw is found in the argument. Nevertheless, at the moment -that our reasoning faculties are constructing a strictly logical and -perfectly rational discourse, they are unable to inform us—as when we are -awake they would have done—that the place where we suppose the speech to -be spoken, the occurrence and the occasion, are not merely fictitious but -attended with the most palpable absurdities. - -Looking, then, at one hemisphere only of the brain, it is difficult to -infer that one or more parts of it are sleeping while the other parts -are awake. May the solution of the problem be found in the fact that -we have _two_ brains? Can it be that in the condition of dream one -hemisphere—that is, one mind—is awake while the other is asleep? - -To answer this it is necessary to inquire what is the action of _two_ -brains working, like the two eyes, together or separately? - -For the common purposes of life the two brains act in complete accord. -Like the two nerves of vision, they co-ordinate. Either can act alone -for the ordinary uses of existence, just as one eye will do the usual -work of sight. But as we see more perfectly, extensively, and roundly -with two eyes than with one—so it may be reasonably concluded that we -think more truly and clearly, and feel more strongly, when the two brains -act together than when one is working alone. The faculty of _comparison_ -is one of the most important of the mental powers, for it is the basis of -accurate knowledge. But it is doubtful if this faculty can do its work in -one brain unless co-ordinated with the same faculty in the other brain. -Unlike the other mental faculties, “comparison” can exercise itself -only upon _two_ ideas. Its very purpose is to make us conscious of the -resemblances and differences between any two ideas presented to it. All -mental processes are successive—that is to say, no two mental actions -are performed by the same mental faculty at the same instant of time. -Consequently, the faculty of comparison cannot exercise itself without -having before it _two_ ideas to contrast. As one brain can present only -one idea at any one moment, one brain cannot provide the materials -wherewith comparison can work. The process of comparison cannot therefore -be effected without the aid of the other brain. This, in healthy waking -life, is done instantly, perfectly and unconsciously, by means of the -power of co-ordination possessed by the two hemispheres. - -Such being the action of the waking brain, does sleep present any -conditions that might be explained in like manner? Suppose the state of -dream to be the slumber of one hemisphere only, the other being awake. -May not this solve the problem? - -In dream we believe shadows to be substances, ideas to be things, -incongruities to be natural, and impossibilities to be realities; and so -believing, we have no sense of surprise and reason is not shocked. - -Nothing of these results presents itself when we are awake. Why? - -Waking, the faculty of _Comparison_ is enabled to do its work. It -compares the idea with the reality, the shadow with the substance, the -dream within with the impression without, the present picture of the -mind with the stored knowledge of the past. The differences being thus -discovered, the mind dismisses them as being the mere visions that they -are. - -The mental operation is performed somewhat in this manner. Two ideas are -present in the mind, which compares them and traces their resemblances -and differences. The sense-borne idea being thus brought face to face, as -it were, with the brain-born idea, the distinction is discovered, and the -latter is relegated to the limbo of visions, the former is accepted as a -reality and made the basis of action. - -But inasmuch as two ideas cannot be presented at the same instant of -time by one brain hemisphere, the presence of the two ideas requisite -to the process of comparison can be had only by the combined action of -both hemispheres. Hence the usual inability of persons afflicted with -hemiplegia to compare or reason accurately. - -If the action of the faculty of comparison were paralysed, we should -dream when awake. The suspension of the action of this faculty in dream -would suffice to account for the accepted incongruities of dream, without -assuming the sleep of the entire hemisphere. - -But, as observed above, it is difficult to assume the slumber of one -mental faculty alone, packed as all are among many with which they are -intimately united. It is more probable that in dream the entire of one -hemisphere sleeps. The facts are in accordance with such a suggestion. - -But, however this may be, it does not disturb the conclusion, that the -seat of sleep is in the ganglia at the base of the brain. That portion -of the brain which directs the motions of the body sleeps always. Sleep -reigns more or less perfectly in the portions of the brain that receive -the impressions of the senses. Sleep is very partial in the cerebrum, the -duplex organ of the intelligence, and probably—(for it is as yet only -conjectural)—partial sleep prevails there, if at all, by the contrivance -of slumber by one hemisphere while the other is awake. - -Such being the _Physiology_ of Dream—so far as science has yet succeeded -in tracing it—we proceed now to investigate its _Psychology_. - -[1] _The Functions of the Brain._ By DAVID FERRIER, M.D., F.R.S. London: -Smith, Elder, & Co., 1876. - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -THE PSYCHOLOGY OF DREAM. - - -The base of the brain being quite asleep, the central ganglia being -partially asleep, the cerebral hemispheres or some part of them being -awake, we have the physiological condition in which occur the Phenomena -of Dream. - -The first coming on of Dream is found at the moment of “falling asleep,” -before actual sleep has begun. _Then_ we _are_ conscious for an instant -that we are dreaming—that the mental impressions are not external -realities. But this consciousness is for a moment only. Either we start -into waking life and the incipient dream is banished, or we fall into -actual sleep and the condition of complete dream is established. - -The process is worthy of note. You are engaged in some occupation—say -that you are reading a novel. You “feel sleepy;” your eyes continue to -pass over the page; your mind pictures the persons, actions and emotions -of the story. But by degrees the ideas become dim and shadowy and the -_attention_ flags. Then your mind wanders away to other scenes and -persons, which come into it uncalled for and even against your Will. But -the power of that Will is lessening also. At first it is strong to banish -the intruding thoughts; but as “the attention” relaxes more and more, -so more and more does your Will cease to control the now thick-coming -fancies. In that incipient stage of dream you know that these -dream-pictures are only dreams. Never do you mistake them for realities. -Soon the influence of sleep steals over the mind. The eyelids close and -exclude the impressions of the external world that are made through the -sense of sight. The other senses are paralyzed also. The creations of -the brain take full possession of the mind. You are now _asleep_ and -_dreaming_. - -If the condition of dream were not so familiar—if it did not occur to -all of us, but only to some few persons in abnormal conditions, it would -appear to the whole world as very wonderful. Suppose that dreaming were -a faculty possessed only by persons of a certain constitution; that -a Dreamer had told you how, when he was asleep, he saw and conversed -with the dead, beheld distant places, lived another life, walked upon -water, flew through the air, performed impossibilities, felt passions -and sentiments and exercised intellectual powers far exceeding those of -his waking life, should we not say of him that he was a madman or an -impostor? Would he not be prosecuted by the high priests of physical -science as a rogue and vagabond, and sent to prison by the Scientists or -to an asylum by the Doctors? - -But because all of us do these things nightly the wonder of them does -not strike us. We do not pause to think how great the marvel is, nor how -it comes _to be_. May I venture to hope that the reader will be induced -to look upon this marvellous mental phenomenon with some curiosity and -hereafter to recognise in the phenomena of dream, not only something to -awaken curiosity, but something to command his serious attention, as -being peculiarly fitted to reveal to the inquirer some of the mysteries -of Mind, its structure, its faculties, the manner of its action. The -phenomena of Dream open to us the path by which we may hope to make the -first advances into the science of Psychology, for they are _facts_ -known to all, disputed by none and which even the Materialists cannot -deny. Happily, neither their vocabulary of abuse, nor their weapons -of prosecution and persecution, can be directed against those who -investigate the phenomena of dream. Their existence cannot be denied, nor -can they be explained by attributing them to imposture. - -How comes this transformation from sanity to insanity, wrought in a -moment, when Sleep has closed upon the Mind the portals of the senses and -left it almost isolated from the real material external world to revel in -its own imaginary world? - -Some rein that held the mind in check when awake has certainly been taken -from it at the instant sleep occurs. - -What is that lost rein—that paralyzed power? - -It is not _Consciousness_. We do not lose our individuality in dream. -Never does the dreamer suppose himself to be another person. He may dream -that he has assumed other characters, that he is a king, or a beggar, but -still it is _himself_ who has become a king and is _acting_ king. - -Nor is _the Will_ absent. The dreaming mind is conscious of the exercise -of its Will and believes that its commands are obeyed. But the Will is -powerless to compel action. Its commands are _not_ obeyed. In dream we -_will_ to speak, to run, to do what the body does freely when in our -waking state we _will_ to do. We _will_ in dream as we _will_ when awake, -but the mechanism of the nerves that move the body refuses to obey the -mandate of the Will however strenuously exerted. - -_Imagination_, on the other hand, is even more lively in dream than in -our waking time. - -The _Reasoning Faculties_ are not asleep, for we _argue_, often -rightly—only we reason upon wrong premisses. We accept the visions of the -mind—the ideas presented to the Conscious Self—as being real and then we -reason upon them rationally. What Lawyer has not often dreamed that he -was addressing a logical legal argument to an approving Court and, when -wakened, remembering and reviewing that argument, has found it to be -without a flaw? - -The _Emotions_ are not extinguished when we dream. The presentation of -imaginary incidents which, if they had been real, would have kindled -the passions in waking life, rouse those self-same passions to equal if -not to greater fury in dream. Nor is the _passion_ fanciful. We do not -merely dream that we are angry. Very real and hot anger is kindled by the -fancy-born picture of the dream, as the reader will readily discover if -he recalls the sensation that attends upon being awakened at the moment -of irritation in a dream. It is with all the other passions and emotions -as with anger. The incidents of a dream excite them as if those incidents -were true. Wherefore? Because they appear to the mind to be true. - -Thus by a process of exhaustion we may hope to arrive at some knowledge -of the cause of the special characteristic of dream—that is to say, -the _absolute belief we have in its reality during its enactment_. The -inquiry cannot fail to throw a great light upon mental structure and upon -the relationship of the mind to the body and to the external world. - -The first fact we learn from observing the action of the mind, when -thus severed from communication with the external world, is its perfect -independence, its entire unconsciousness of its loss, its capacity -to create a world for itself and live a life of its own. If such a -condition could be imagined as a mind continuing to live in a dead body, -we might find in this phenomenon of sleep how the mind could exist in the -same state of activity as now, feel the same emotions of pleasure and of -pain, and enjoy a life as real to itself, although imaginary in fact, as -is the actual existence of any living man. - -But it teaches a lesson yet more important. If the mind can thus live -a life of its own when severed from the influences of the body by the -paralysis of a section of the brain in sleep, is not the presumption -strong that this _something_ that does not sleep with the body, that -preserves an individual consciousness, that has memory and a Will, can -create a world of its own and live and act in it with entire belief in -its reality and which has a perfect sense of pleasure and of pain, is not -the material brain merely, but something other than brain and of which -the brain hemispheres are only the material mechanism? If the Conscious -Self lives and works thus when the body is dead to it in sleep, may it -not well be—(nay, does it not suggest even a probability?)—that when -permanent severance by death is substituted for the temporary severance -by sleep, the same Conscious Self may continue to exist with other -perceptive and receptive powers adapted to its changed conditions of -being? - -Why, then, are we in dream so credulous as to believe implicitly that -whatever visions are presented to us by the busy fancy are realities? -Why do we accept impossibilities and incongruities without a question of -their truth and scarcely with a sense of surprise or wonder? We have seen -that it is _not_ because the _reasoning_ faculties are asleep,—for often -they are very active in dream. - -Simply, it is because we accept as real and as having been -sense-conveyed, and therefore as representing external objects, the ideas -that are in fact created by the mind itself. - -And wherefore do we thus accept them? - -The answer throws a flood of light upon the Mechanism of Mind and the -Mechanism of Man. - -All our sensations are mental. Whether self-created within or brought -from without by the senses, we are conscious only of the _mental_ -impression. That alone is _real_ to us. That alone _exists_ for us. - -But by what faculty do we, in the waking state, distinguish between -the self-created and the sense-borne ideas and impressions, so as to -recognise the former as ideal and the latter as real? - -For instance; you think of an absent friend, and you have in your mind -a picture of him more or less accurate. You see your friend in person -and then another picture of him is in your mind, brought to it by the -sense of sight. Your perceptions of both are merely mental pictures. -But, nevertheless, you readily distinguish them and call the mind-drawn -image _ideal_ and the sense-brought image _real_—meaning by these phrases -that the former has no objective existence, but the latter is actually -existing without you. - -By what process is this result obtained? What enables you so to -distinguish them? - -It can only be that you are _conscious_ of the action of the _senses_. -You feel that your eye is employed in the process. You have learned by -_experience_ that the actual presence of an external object is only to -be accepted when the information of it is brought to you by one of your -senses. - -Thus it is that, when we are awake, the senses correct the action of the -mind and our capacity to distinguish the real from the ideal is due to -the information given by the senses. - -It is plain now why in dream we believe the ideal to be real. The -_senses_ being severed from the Mind by sleep, the Mind has lost the -instrument by which it learns, when awake, what is shadow and what -substance. As the necessary consequence, all ideas appear to it to be -real because they are all alike. Inasmuch, then, as all the pictures that -throng the mind were originally brought to it by the senses, it has no -means, when an idea comes before it, of discerning whether it is a newly -brought idea or only the revival of an idea already existing in itself. -Hence it is that the Mind cannot but accept all its self-creations as -realities and when these are combined in a connected drama, the whole is -viewed by the Conscious Self as an actual adventure of the body, and not, -as in the waking time it would have been viewed, as merely a creation of -the busy fancy. - -But the conclusion from this is that there is a Conscious Self, distinct -from the brain action which it contemplates and criticises. - -That in fact we _have_ Souls. - -Or rather that we _are_ Souls, clothed with a molecular mechanism -necessary for communication with the molecular part of creation, in which -the present stage of being is to be passed. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -THE PHENOMENA OF DREAM. - - -Such being the _Physiology and Psychology of Dream_—that is to say, the -conditions of the bodily and mental mechanism under which the phenomena -of Dream are presented—let us observe those phenomena and from the facts -noted endeavour to learn what light is thrown by them upon Psychology. -A mental state so strange and abnormal cannot fail to assist in the -solution of that great problem of the Mechanism of Man which it is the -vocation of Psychology to solve. Is that Mechanism moved or directed by -any but a self-generated force? Is it compounded of any but the tangible -material structure? Does Soul exist and, if it exists, what is its -relationship to the body? - -A Dream is not a confused crowd of disconnected ideas. It is a succession -of associated incidents more or less orderly, even when incongruous, -improbable or even impossible. The mind of the sleeper constructs a -drama, often having many parts played by many persons; but always himself -is one of the actors. As _suggestion_ is the process by which the mind -works in waking life—one idea suggesting another with which it had -been at some past time associated and then another linked with that, -and so forth—so does the unsleeping mind of the sleeper present to the -Conscious Self a succession of suggested pictures which other mental -faculties weave into a story that is enacted before himself with all its -scenery and machinery! And this drama is not performed in dumb show or -in pantomime merely, but it is a drama spoken as well as acted by the -players, men, women, or animal, who appear to the dreamer to play before -him and with him their several parts as perfectly as they would have been -enacted in actual life. - -Hence we learn that in dream, as in the waking state, the mind acts in -obedience to the laws of mind. The various mental functions are not -exercised vaguely, but in more or less of orderly relationship to one -another. Thus, imagination presents pictures which are accepted as having -been brought from without by the senses and therefore to the sleeper -are as real as if they had been objects of sight. These ideal pictures, -thus received as real, according to their various characteristics excite -precisely the same emotions as they would have excited had they been -real. But although the picture is imaginary, the emotion is actual. We do -not merely dream that we are angry or fearful; we feel actual anger and -real fear. The reader may remember that often the emotion excited by the -dream has continued to be felt after waking and when the dream itself has -vanished. Indeed we know not how much the mental character of the day is -influenced by the passions and emotions that have been stimulated by the -dreams of the night, the mental excitement continuing after the cause of -it has vanished and is forgotten. - -The most wonderful of the many wonders that attend the condition of dream -is the development of the _inventive_ faculty so far beyond its capacity -in the waking state. Reflect for a moment what this performance is. Every -dreamer, however ignorant, however stupid, however young, performs a feat -which few could accomplish in the waking state, when in full command -of all their mental faculties. Every dream is a story. Most dreams -are dramas, having not a story merely, but often many actors, whose -characters are as various as on the stage of real life. - -What does the dreaming mind? - -Not merely does it invent the ideal story; it invents also all the -characters that play parts in it! Nor this only. It places in the mouth -of each of those characters speech appropriate to the character of each! -Yet are all of these dialogues invented by the mind of the sleeper! In -a restless night many such dream-dramas, each having its own distinct -plot and actors, will be invented by the dreamer, and a dialogue will -be constructed by himself in which each of the actors will play his -proper part. Strange as the assertion may appear, it is _a fact_ which -a moment’s reflection will confirm, that the ignorant ploughboy in his -dreams has made more stories and invented vastly more characters to enact -them and constructed more appropriate dialogues for those characters than -the most copious dramatist or novelist—aye, more than Shakespeare himself! - -Another suggestive feature of the phenomena of dream is the _marvellous -speed_ of the mental action. Working untrammelled by the slow motions of -the body, the dreaming mind sets at defiance all the waking conceptions -of time. A dream of a series of adventures which would extend over many -days is, by the mind in dream, enacted in a few minutes; yet it is all -performed—all perfect—all minutely perceived, said and done; proving -that, when the mind is untrammelled by the body, it has other very -different conceptions of time. May it not be that time, as counted by -our waking thoughts, is in truth the ideal time, and that mental time as -measured in dream is the real time? - -Not long ago I was enabled to apply some measure to this remarkable -difference between the action of the mind independently of the body and -its action when conducted through the slow moving mechanism of the body. -Called at the usual hour in the morning, I looked at my watch and in -about two minutes fell asleep again. I dreamed a dream of a series of -events that in their performance occupied what the mind conceived to be -a whole day—events in which I was an actor and played a part that would -have occupied a day in actual doing. Waking suddenly with the influence -of the dream upon me and the memory of it full before me, I looked at -my watch again, thinking that I must have been sleeping for an hour and -had lost the train. I found that, in fact, I had been asleep but four -minutes. In four minutes my mind had passed through the history of a -day, had invented that history, and contemplated it as a whole day’s -action, although it was in fact a day’s work done by the mind in four -minutes. This may give us some conception of what is the capacity of the -Soul for perception and action when, if ever, there is a falling away -from it of the cumbrous bodily material mechanism through which alone, -in its present stage of evolution, it is adapted to communicate with the -external material world. - -Another phenomenon of Dream is _exaltation of the mental faculties_ -generally. Often there is an extraordinary development of special -faculties in special dreams. A proof of this is found in the fact, -already noted, that dream itself is an invention of the mind whose then -capacities far exceed anything of which it is capable when the body -is awake and imposing upon it the conditions of its own slow, because -material—that is molecular—action. Not only do we _invent_ the dream, -but we _act it_ in thought. Not merely do we act in it ourselves, but -we paint the scenery, construct the dresses and decorations, invent the -characters, and put into their mouths the language that would properly -be theirs had they been beings of flesh and blood instead of shadows -summoned by the fancy. Almost every faculty of the mind must be exercised -upon such a work. Even the waking mental condition will not enable us -to do this. If you doubt, try it. Set yourself to invent a dream and -describe it on paper, making each one of the personages with whom you -have peopled it talk in his proper character. Unless you are a skilful -and practised dramatist you will find yourself wholly at fault. Remember -that what you in the full possession of your intellect have failed to do, -the most ignorant and stupid do every night and you will begin to measure -this marvel of the exaltation of the mental powers that attends upon the -condition of dream. If you indulge in the pleasant but dangerous practice -of reading in bed, have you not often, on closing the book, extinguishing -the candle, and turning to sleep, continued in a state of dream to read -on, believing that you were still reading the book. But what was the -fact? Your mind was then composing all you dreamed that you were reading. -It was inventing a continuation of the argument or narrative, or whatever -you may have been perusing when sleep stole upon you and you lapsed -into dream. Have you never dreamed that you were preaching a sermon, -or reading aloud, or composing music, or singing a song? Probably, in -your waking state, you could do neither. In dream, your mind does it all -without a conscious effort. Nor is it, as some have suggested, merely a -fancy that the mind is so acting and not a positive action of the mind. -If wakened while so dreaming, the argument, the speech, the song, will -recur to the waking consciousness and become a positive memory capable -of being subsequently recalled. Sometimes the dream vanishes after an -interval and cannot be recollected by any effort of the Will, although -it may recur in dream long years afterwards. In this manner COLERIDGE -composed that beautiful fragment of a poem, “Kublai Khan.” His mind had -wrought the whole in a dream. Suddenly waking with a vivid impression of -that dream, he grasped a pen and began to write the remembered rhymes of -what had been a long poem, although composed in dream with the speed at -which the mind works when untrammelled by the conditions of its material -mechanism. He seized pen and paper and had set down the beautiful -lines that have been preserved when he was interrupted by some matter -of business. On his return to resume the work, the dream had vanished -and the world to its great loss has received nothing but the exquisite -fragment we read now. - -This mental exaltation so frequent in dream is recognised in some -familiar practices, the reason for which is, perhaps, not known to -those who resort to them. In our schooldays, a lesson was best learned -by reading it when going to bed. It was then easily remembered in the -morning. The advice so often given, when a matter of moment is presented, -to “Sleep upon it,” is a recognition of this higher mental action in -sleep. The Mind seems in sleep unconsciously to work upon the idea -presented to it, and we wake with clearer conceptions and larger views -of the _pros_ and _cons_. I have known cases in which a doubting mind -has thus been “made up” without conscious perception of the convincing -argument. - -Although in dream the mind works with such wonderful rapidity that the -events of a day may be enacted in a few minutes, it has not quite lost -its consciousness of the measure of external time. A desire to wake at -a particular hour will often be followed by an actual awakening at that -hour. Continued mental consciousness of the desire is unintelligible. But -in what manner does the mind count the flight of a time whose measure is -so different from its own conceptions of time? - -Say, that you want to wake at six o’clock. You fall asleep with this -impression upon the mind; but you fall also into the condition of dream -and in that condition your mind is engaged in inventing adventures -that are the business of a long day. Nevertheless, it preserves the -consciousness of the time as it is in the external world and you wake -at the desired hour. I can suggest no other solution of this than that -the brain that dreams, and the Conscious Self that perceives the dream, -are two entities, and that it is the Conscious Self or Soul that notes -the flight of time in the external world, while the dreaming brain is -revelling in its own conception of time as measured by the flow of its -own ideas, and not in hours measured by the motions of the earth and -moon. Another solution suggests itself. May not the duality of the mind, -the action of the double brain, which explains so many other mental -phenomena, account for this also? - -But these phenomena of dream are proofs that to the mind “time” is more -ideal than real; that the measure of it may differ in individuals and -still more in races. May it not be that thus lives are equalised and that -to the ephemera its one day of life may appear to be as long as our lives -appear to us? A life is practically as long or short as it _appears_ to -the mind to be. - -Dreams are rarely, if ever, without foundation; that is to say, they are -the product of some _suggestion_, although it may be difficult to trace -them to their sources. Very slight suggestions suffice to set the mind in -motion, as is proved by a multitude of recorded cases which the memory of -every reader will present to him. The senses are not wholly paralysed in -ordinary sleep. They carry to the mind impressions of various degrees -of power and act with more or less of force according to the condition -of the recipient ganglion. Sounds are heard and suggest dreams. But the -loudest sounds are not always perceived most readily. The unaccustomed -sound most startles the consciousness. Often a whisper will waken when -the roar of cannon makes no impression upon the sleeper. A dweller in a -noisy street sleeps soundly amid the roar of carts and carriages and is -wakeful in the country by reason of the silence. Habit governs this as so -many others of our sense impressions. We learn _not_ to hear. Hence the -influence of trifling impressions upon the sleeping senses when powerful -ones fail to reach us. Very slight impressions suffice to suggest the -subjects of dreams. The mind having taken the direction given by that -impulse forthwith employs its inventive faculties in the construction of -a story based upon the faint lines of that suggested subject. - -Even when awake we are ignorant what impulses set up trains of thought. -We know not why this or that idea “comes into the head.” The suggesting -cause is often so slight as to be imperceptible. The brain is an organ of -inconceivable sensitiveness. Its fibres are so delicate that millions are -packed into the circumference of a sixpence. Yet has each fibre its own -function and each is a musical chord competent to catch and to vibrate to -motions of the ether which the senses cannot perceive. It is probable -(not proved) that in sleep, when not distracted by the claims of the -nerve system and the thronging impressions brought by the senses; these -brain fibres are vastly more sensitive and moved by still slighter action -of the ether than in waking life. - -In Dream we never lose the consciousness of our own identity. We retain -our individuality. You dream often that you are _something_ other than -you are, but never that you are some other _person_. Does not this -indicate the existence of an entity, other than the dreaming brain, which -preserves its oneness and its sanity while the material organ with which -it is associated and through which it communicates with the external -world is, as it were, forgetting its reason, its experience and itself, -and so becoming in very truth insane. - -And here we touch upon the most perplexing characteristic of dream. We -are conscious of existence, of individuality, and, in a slight degree, -of sense impressions. We have ideas, reflections, emotions, sentiments, -passions. We can invent stories, construct characters, endow them with -dramatic language, paint ideal pictures, make speeches, compose music -and conduct a train of argument. But withal we are not rational. We can -_think_ wise things, but we _are_ the veriest fools of nature. Every -mental faculty is awake and alive—save one—namely, the faculty, whatever -it be, that enables us to distinguish between fancy and fact, between -the possible and the impossible, the congruous and the incongruous; the -faculty, in brief, which separates sanity from insanity. - -In dream, with rare exceptions, we are not conscious that we are -dreaming. Fancies are accepted as facts, shadows as substances, the -ideal as the real. And they are so accepted without suspicion or doubt. -We _see_ them, _hear_ them, _feel_ them. Nothing in our actual waking -life is more real to us than are the unrealities of dream at the moment -of dreaming. Probably there are few readers who have not occasionally -dreamed that they were dreaming, and while noting the drama have said -to themselves “this is a dream.” But these are rare exceptions to the -rule that a dream is accepted by the sleeping mind as an event of actual -occurrence and the scenes and persons implicitly believed to be objective -and not subjective; that is to say—as being then actually existing in the -external world. - -So believing, what are the materials to which this implicit credence is -given? Here we arrive at the most perplexing of the problems presented by -the phenomena of dream. - -We accept without hesitation, or questioning, or even a suspicion of its -unreality, that which in waking life would have been banished instantly -as the baseless fabric of a vision. We believe implicitly in objects and -actions which, when awake, we should have pronounced to be impossible. -Moreover we contemplate the wildest conceptions of the fancy without the -slightest consciousness of their incongruity or folly. Nothing is too -impossible or unreal for acceptance by the dreamer as facts that cause -him neither surprise at their presence nor wonder how they come to be. - -What is the change in the mental condition that has wrought this mental -revolution—not slowly and by degrees, but wholly and in a moment? At this -instant, the mind is competent to discern the ideal from the real, the -shadow from the substance, the practical from the impossible. In the next -moment it can distinguish neither—all appears to itself to be equally -possible, probable, real. Starting from sleep, the normal state is -recovered, but not so speedily as it is lost. The dream itself sometimes -continues after the senses are restored. The memory of it remains longer -and its unconscious influence longer still. Passions and emotions which -the dream has kindled do not subside at once and often the agitation -continues to disturb the mind long after the cause of it has vanished -from the memory. - -Two answers present themselves. - -1. This marvellous character of dream may be consequent upon the -severance of the mind from its communication with the external world by -reason of the partial paralysis of the senses. - -2. Some one or more of the mental faculties may be sleeping while others -are awake and active. - -The first is the solution commonly accepted. It is contended that -the senses correct the vagaries of the mind; that we are enabled to -distinguish between the creations of the mind and the impressions brought -to it from the external world solely by the consciousness we have, when -we are awake, of the action of the senses and the knowledge we have that -the impressions borne to us by the senses are objective—that is, made by -something existing without ourselves. If, for instance, you close your -eyes and give rein to the imagination, a stream of ideas—pictures of -persons and places—flows before the mind’s eye. You do not mistake these -for realities. You are conscious that they are born of your own brain. -Had you been asleep and dreaming, instead of being awake and using your -senses, you would not have discovered that these mental pictures were -subjective only; you would have accepted them implicitly as objective -impressions brought to you by your senses. - -This, however, explains but a portion of the phenomenon. Even if it be -a true solution, it accounts only for the acceptance in dream of the -ideal as real. It leaves wholly unexplained the more remarkable feature -exhibited in the entire unconsciousness by the dreamer of the absurdities -and impossibilities presented in the dream and the absence of surprise -and wonder how such things can be. In the waking state, the mind would -therefore reject them instantly as the illusions they are. Hence the -reasonable conclusion that, in addition to the sleep of the senses and -of the _will_, some part of the material mechanism of the mind is also -sleeping or its activity is suspended during dream. - -The investigation is of serious moment, for it raises some other -questions of even greater importance. If the explanation be sufficient, -it determines some moot points in Mental Physiology. It proves that the -mental machine, the brain, is _not_ one and indivisible—that the _whole_ -brain is not employed in each mental act, as contended by Dr. CARPENTER. - -To what mental faculties are we indebted for our waking consciousness of -incongruity, impracticability, absurdity, irrationality? Obviously these -faculties must be slumbering in dream. To _their_ temporary paralysis -this most remarkable phenomenon of dream is certainly due. - -The popular notion is that _reason_ is the slumbering faculty. We talk -of reason as being the special attribute of Man. In fact there is no -such faculty. There is a mental process we call reasoning; but it is -performed by the joint action of various mental faculties. One presents -the things to be reasoned upon; another compares them and presents their -resemblances and differences; a third enables us, by the process we call -_reasoning_, to apply these resemblances and differences to some third -subject and thus from the known to predicate the unknown. - -It is familiar to every reader that this process of reasoning is not -always suspended in dream. On the contrary, it is sometimes abnormally -active. We reason rightly often, but on wrong premisses. What we are -unable to discover in dream is the unreality of the subject matter upon -which we are reasoning. - -If, for instance, you dream that you are making a speech or preaching a -sermon. In your dream you pursue a logical argument, but you found it -upon imagined facts that are untrue and improbable, which the waking mind -would not entertain for a moment, but which in your dream you accept as -true and implicitly believe to be real. - -We shall, perhaps, arrive at the solution of this problem by the process -of exhaustion. - -The faculty of imagination, that shapes to the dream ideal pictures -of things, is not sleeping. The faculties that perform the process of -reasoning are not sleeping. _Comparison_—the power to compare the ideal -with the real—alone is wanting. We mistake the shadows of the mind for -substances. We accept the brain-born visions as realities. Why? Because -we are unable to compare them. In brief, Comparison is the faculty, -paralysed in sleep, whose absence causes the credulity of dream. - -Of this fact there can be no doubt. But a very formidable difficulty here -presents itself. How and why is it that this faculty alone is found to -slumber when the greater part of the mental mechanism is awake and active? - -It has been one of the most perplexing problems of Psychology. A solution -of it has occurred to me which I submit to the consideration of the -reader, but as a suggestion merely. It is too novel to be offered as -anything more than a suggestion. - -Each mental faculty can perform only one act at the same instant of time. -It is one of the conditions of existence here that all consciousness -shall be in succession. Hence indeed our conception of time. If any -other being could obtain many perceptions simultaneously, and not in -succession, to that being there would be no _time_, in our sense of the -term. But the process of comparison involves the contemplation together -of the two things (or ideas of things) to be compared. This difficulty -is removed by the double brain. Each brain presents one of the ideas to -be compared and upon these the faculty of comparison employs itself, -discerning their resemblances and differences. If so it be, the cause -of our incapacity to discover the absurdities of dream is the partial -paralysis (or sleep) of one of the two mental faculties that present -the ideas of objects and the consequent incapacity of the faculty of -comparison to discharge its proper function of informing us what of our -mental impressions are real and what illusory. - -And this raises a curious question as to the relative functions and -operations of the two brains. In profound slumber, when both brains are -sleeping, there is no consciousness—time is annihilated to such a sleeper -and awakening seems to follow immediately upon falling asleep, although -in reality many hours may have passed. When the brain is sleeping but -partially there is some consciousness of time in sleep and of the lapse -of time upon awaking. Is such partial sleep the slumber of _one brain -only_, and are these phenomena of dream due to the action of that one -brain deprived of the correcting influence of the other brain? Does the -faculty of comparison fail to show us that our mental impressions are -subjective and not objective because it is not assisted by the normal -action of the duplicate faculty of the other brain? Comparison is the -foundation of the process of reasoning. It has been noticed that persons -suffering from hemiplegia—that is, from disease of one brain only—often -lose the power to compare and consequently the capacity for reasoning -readily and correctly. May it not be that a similar condition is produced -by temporary paralysis of the brain in sleep? As already stated, the -power to reason is not absent in dream. We often reason elaborately -and well, taking the ideal pictures as real incidents. We accept as -objective facts what are merely mental impressions and thus build an -argument on an incorrect assumption. The reasoning is right, but the -basis of it is false. Question each mental faculty in turn and it will -appear that but one is at fault in dream—namely, _comparison_. We are -unable to discern the difference between the mental and the sensual -impression—the self-created and the sense-borne idea—because we are -incompetent to compare them and it is by comparison alone that we can -distinguish the false from the true. I throw out this, as a suggestion -merely, to Mental Philosophers and Psychologists. - -Indeed, the fact that we have two perfect brains with every mental -faculty in duplicate (as contended by Sir HENRY HOLLAND and now -conclusively established by the experiments of BROWN-SEQUARD and -Professor FERRIER), has opened a new field to the Mental Philosopher and -Psychologist. It must have the most intimate relationship, not to the -phenomena of Sleep and Dream alone but to all the phenomena of Mind. In -this great fact will doubtless be found the obvious solution of many -problems hitherto insoluble. Foremost among those philosophical puzzles -has been the instantaneous lapse of the Mind into _insanity_ in dream, -and the no less marvellous manner in which upon waking we pass almost as -quickly out of that insane condition into sanity. - -These are the principal phenomena of Dream and the study of them cannot -fail to throw a flood of light upon mental physiology and psychology. -In them we are enabled to view the operations of the mind and the -relationship of soul and body under conditions that reveal to us parts -of the mechanism of man that are wholly concealed from us in the normal -state of that relationship. The strange neglect of such an obvious means -of knowledge is doubtless due to the fundamental error that has excluded -Mind and Soul from the category of physical sciences and consigned them -to the hopeless region of metaphysics, persisting in their pursuit by -abstractions, argument and conjecture, and refusing to them investigation -by _facts_, as the other sciences are now investigated. If the phenomena -of dream were strange and rare as are those of somnambulism, they would -as much excite our curiosity and strike us with amazement. But they are -not wondered at only because they are so familiar. If dream, instead of -being common to us all, were developed only in a few, the persons subject -to it would certainly be denounced as impostors and prosecuted as rogues -and vagabonds by the High Priests of Science. But the very facility -for examination of the mental condition of dream should induce those -who really desire to promote the most important of all knowledge—the -knowledge of ourselves, our constitution, our mechanism, and our -destiny—to seek where we may most reasonably expect to find it—in the -condition in which the Mind is every night practically severed from its -connection with the body and works by its own impulses, without the aid -or incumbrance of the senses, and without the directing power of the -intelligence and its _Will_. - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -THE PSYCHOLOGY OF DREAM. - - -Dream is essentially a psychological condition and therefore an important -study for the Psychologist, for in dream we learn, not only what is -the mechanism of the Mind, but also much of the manner in which its -operations are performed. Dream teaches us what recent physiologists -have by their experiments confirmed—that the mind is not structured as -one homogeneous entity, the whole of which is employed in every mental -act; but that it is a machine composed of parts, each of which has its -own special function, exhibited in the various expressions which we call -ideas, sentiments and emotions. - -For convenience we have given to the entity, of which these various -faculties are parts, the collective name of “Mind.” But it may well be -questioned if such an entity exists. Certainly we cannot find it, whether -we observe the action of our own minds or that of others. All that we can -discover by help of our senses and by reasoning upon their information is -the existence of a wonderful piece of Mechanism—the brain—by which the -functions of Mind are performed and whose structure regulates the entire -character of the Mind. - -It is conclusively established that the individual Self, in its normal -state of relationship to the body, can receive and convey impressions -only through the medium of the brain. Remove the brain and _mind_ ceases -to be, although life may linger long. Extract a part of the brain and a -part of “the mind” goes with it. This result is sometimes obscured by -the fact, not sufficiently recognised by the Physician and the Mental -Philosopher, that we have _two_ brains—two organs of Mind—one of which -can act alone when the other is wholly or partially disabled. If a -Dream be analysed, it is not difficult to trace the action of each -separate faculty. The imagination supplies the picture, which we mistake -for a reality because we have lost the means by which, when awake, we -distinguish the mere mental creation from the impressions borne to us by -the senses. Hence mental action precisely as if the ideal picture had -been real as it is believed to be. The other mental faculties are called -into play by the drama of the dream as they would have been by a living -drama. It is not an imagined anger, or fear, or hate, that we feel in -dream. The passions, emotions and sentiments are actually excited as they -would be by the same objects presented when we are awake, only they are -kindled by shadows created within and not by substances existing without. - -But Psychology will gather from the phenomena of dream some very -important conclusions. In dream the Mind is awake and at work, but it -works wildly, insanely, without self-control. Something is absent in -sleep that controls its action when we are awake. That absent controlling -and directing force is the WILL. - -What is THE WILL? - -The WILL is the expression of the SELF—of the INDIVIDUAL BEING. It is the -“I”—the YOU—that commands, controls and directs thought and action. - -This Conscious Self, which possesses the power we call the _Will_, is -not, and cannot be, the material brain, nor the product of the brain, as -the Materialists assert; for we see that in Dream the brain is in part -awake and working without the assistance or control of the Will; proving -that the Self, of whom the Will is the expression, is not identical with -the brain. - -Moreover, the Conscious Self, although taking cognizance of the action -of the mind in dream, is nevertheless unable to direct its action; -thus affording another proof that the Conscious Self and the material -mechanism are not identical. - -The phenomena of Dream, then, are the _facts_ first presented in the -scientific investigation of Psychology from which we derive physical -_proofs_ of the existence of a _Soul in Man_, not as a vague theory -merely, but as shown by the positive _evidence_ of his mechanism in -action. - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -FALLACIES OF DREAM. - - -Always and everywhere Superstition has dallied with Dream. The notion -that dreams are sometimes prophetic is still so widely diffused and so -often made the theme for gossip and material for fiction that there are -few, even among the educated, who can wholly divest themselves of the -influence of a startling dream. - -Neither evidence nor argument has been adduced to support this claim -of the sleeping mind to prophetic power. There are no natural means by -which _new_ impressions can be conveyed to the mind in sleep, and we have -already seen that in this condition the mind is less, not more, capable -of reasoning out the probabilities of the future. - -It will be said, perhaps, that prophecy is not an act of reason but -a gift of inspiration; that the prophet only speaks—his are not the -thoughts uttered. But in what manner is this gift made more easy by -sleep? It _should_ be more active in the waking state. The prophetic -dream is either a creation of the sleeping mind or it is brought into -the sleeping mind by a miracle. It is highly improbable that the mind -should have superior wisdom when in its most imperfect condition. It -is still more improbable that a miracle should be wrought for such a -purpose. Moreover, the information alleged to be imparted thus is always -of something _to come_, while there is no instance of a revelation of -things that have been done in the past and therefore capable of being -tested. A gift to tell what _has been_ would surely be more easy than a -gift to tell what is _to be_. It is strange and suspicious that none are -seers of _the past_. - -The widespread notion of prophetic dream is probably based upon a belief, -almost as widely diffused, that in sleep the Soul can and does sometimes -pass out of the body and obtain information by direct impressions -received through its own vastly extended power of perception. It is not -uncommon to hear an assertion, when a place is seen for the first time, -that there is a memory of the same place having been seen before, and -there are some curious reports of cases of this kind that deserve to be -investigated. But many of these apparent marvels may be accounted for -by coincidence or by memories of which the link has been lost. When the -multiplicity of dreams that occur in a lifetime are taken into account, -occasional resemblances of external objects or events to some portions -of former dreams are by no means improbable. The same explanation -applies to many dreams that are supposed to have been prophetic because -something afterwards occurs having some resemblance to the dream. Memory -also has a large share in these recognitions. Memory may exist without -recollection. Thousands of things are stored away in the memory which we -cannot recal even if we try to do so, but which come back to us suddenly, -at unexpected times, for no cause that we can trace although certainly -suggested by something associated with the revived idea. Thus the eye may -well recognise a strange place as having been seen when, in fact, the -memory has unconsciously received some picture of it or of some place -very like it, the existence of which had been forgotten, but which is now -revived by the suggestion of the place itself. - -Somnambulism, although commonly supposed to be a phase of sleep, has -really no relationship to it. Its physiological and psychical conditions -are entirely different. There is the aspect of sleep, but nothing more. -The somnambule is not sleeping, for he performs often the work of his -waking life although with certainly closed eyes and probably sealed up -senses. The somnambule has no memory of the doings of either mind or body -during his trance existence. The sleeper is conscious at the time of -dreaming and remembers his dream. As there is Somnambulism without sleep, -so there may be Somnambulism in sleep, and indeed, with a constitutional -tendency to it, the state of sleep is so favourable to the inducement of -the condition of Somnambulism that the one may well lapse into the other. - -Nor is “sleep walking” the only exhibition of Somnambulism; it is but one -stage of it. Somnambulism often occurs without action of any limb, for it -is a mental and not a muscular condition. But, inasmuch as the uninformed -spectator notes only the instances of “sleep walking,” the much more -numerous cases of somnambulism occurring with the patient at rest are -unnoticed. - -To this cause, then, may many of the reported phenomena of dream be -assigned. It would be beyond the scope of this monograph to treat at any -length of the manifold phenomena of Somnambulism, but some of them will -certainly explain cases of dream apparently not to be accounted for, as -all facts and phenomena may be, if rightly investigated, by reference -to natural causes, without invoking the assistance of the supernatural. -Somnambulism proves the presence of two abnormal mental conditions, -namely, supersensuous perception and mental sympathy. The former is -the name given to a faculty the mind has, under certain conditions, of -perception beyond the range of the senses (whatever the _modus operandi_ -may be). The other refers to a special form of sympathy of thoughts -and emotions of one sensitive mind with other minds having a certain -relationship with it. - -Many of the authentic cases of cognizance of the distant in dream may -be thus accounted for. The sleeper has lapsed into somnambulism, is -then, in fact, a somnambulist and not a dreamer. Possessing the abnormal -development of the perceptive sense which is so familiar a fact in -natural somnambulism, the mind has perceptions beyond the range of the -senses and is susceptible of sympathies with other minds which the bodily -senses cannot convey. - -That such mental conditions exist is proved conclusively by the -numberless cases of natural somnambulism recorded in the medical journals -of all countries and which are indeed familiar to every reader because of -their frequent occurrence in common life. - -Dream is not merely a reproduction in new combinations of impressions -made upon the mind unconsciously as well as consciously, forgotten -as well as remembered. The fact must also be taken into account that -in dream mental action is vastly increased and the flow of ideas so -accelerated that if life be measured, as it should be, by the number -of ideas that are presented by the mind, the life of dream is vastly -longer than waking life. If the ideas that would occupy many waking -hours are compressed into a sleep of one hour, the whole dream-life must -have presented to the mind infinitely more ideas than the whole waking -life. The wonder would be if, of this vast multitude, many were not -found to be coincident with events of actual occurrence afterwards. A -further explanation of dreams that appear to convey information from some -external intelligence, or to be prophetic, will be found in this—that -many things impress themselves upon the mind when we are not giving -attention to them and, therefore, unconsciously to ourselves. We thus -lose some of the links of association which, if they had been perceived, -would have shown us the connection between the dream and the incidents to -which the dream related and which, if we had known, would have stripped -the coincidence of its marvellousness. Yet a further explanation will -be found in the exaltation of the mental faculties in dream, which -enables us often to perceive, more clearly than in our waking state, -ideas and chains of ideas and to think about them more correctly than -is practicable in waking life, when the influx of external impressions -represses to some extent the independent action of the mental faculties. - -There is a popular belief that in sleep the Soul sometimes quits the -body and personally visits the scenes and persons of the dream which, in -truth, is not all a dream. This is nothing more than a poetical fancy. -There is no evidence of such journeying. The proof of it would be if -the dreamer could tell us of actual occurrences passing elsewhere at -the moment of his dream. There is, indeed, abundant evidence of mental -communion in sleep, suggesting a dream that has relation to that distant -person; but there is no satisfactory evidence of a positive perception -of an event then passing far off. It is remarkable, indeed, that dreams -to which this solution has been applied usually refer to something that -is _to be_, or that _has been_, and not to events actually happening at -the moment and which alone could be positively conclusively proved by -reference to the persons whose sayings and doings are seen, heard and -reported. The same remark applies to this as to prophecies generally. -Why do they not tell us of something that _is doing_ far away, or -something that _has been done_ in the distant past and therefore capable -of verification? Surely the power that could prophesy the future, the -dreaming that foreshadows what _is to be_, could, with vastly more ease, -tell us what has been done or what is being done elsewhere at the moment -of its exercise! Why is so simple a test invariably avoided? - -_Sympathetic_ dreams admit of another explanation. Two persons dream -the same dream at the same time. They may be in the same room, in the -same house, or far apart. The two dreams are not always identical in -their details, but the main incident is substantially the same in both. -The instances of this are too many to be accidental coincidences. The -explanation is to be found in that _mental sympathy_ the existence of -which cannot be doubted by any person who investigates psychological -phenomena. The limit to which that sympathy extends is not yet measured. -We know only that it is not bounded by the narrow range of the senses. -Perhaps it is a purely _psychic_ faculty. If it be, we know as yet so -little of the nature and powers of the Soul that it would be vain to -speculate in what manner the operation is performed. But of this we may -be assured, that, whatever the capacity of the Soul when we are waking -and the external world is, as it were, pressing in upon us at all sides -and occupying the whole mind, those powers are vastly extended when the -material mechanism is at rest and the sleepless Soul alone is busy. If -there be, under any conditions, communication between minds without -the intervention of the senses, we may reasonably conclude that these -would be greatly facilitated in the time of sleep, when the Soul is -less subjected to the restraints of that mechanism by means of which it -communicates with the _material_—that is to say, the _molecular_—world in -which the present stage of its evolution is to be passed. - -The proofs are many that dreams may be suggested by the influence of -other minds in unconscious communication with the sleeper. If the finger -be placed upon the head where, according to the phrenologists, is the -seat of the mental faculty of mirth, a smile will be seen soon to -steal upon the sleeping face. Touch in like manner the asserted seats -of combativeness or destructiveness, the features assume an aspect -of excitement which will be removed by touching the asserted seat of -benevolence. The explanation of this phenomenon is that the brain thus -excited to action suggests or moulds a dream in accordance with the -emotion thus denoted. This fact has been advanced by the phrenologists as -proof that they have rightly mapped out the brain. But such is not the -necessary conclusion from the fact. It may well be that it is the _mind_, -and not the finger, of the waking operator that directs the mental action -of the unconscious sleeper. The waking _Will_ possibly controls the -sleeping Will. We know that it does so in Somnambulism and it is probable -that it does the like in ordinary sleep. - -But, explain it as we may, the fact remains. - -Direct suggestion of dream by external causes is less disputable. -So sensitive is the mind in sleep, when relieved from the thronging -impressions of the senses, that impressions so slight as to be wholly -unnoticed in our waking state are doubtless perceptible and operate as -suggestions when we are asleep. A slight touch or sound often serves to -change the entire character and direction of a dream, the mere sound -giving rise to the train of new ideas thus suggested, because it is -uncontrolled by the Will. The surest method of banishing an unpleasant -dream is to turn in the bed. Continuance in the same posture and with -the same pressure of blood within and of the pillow without upon the -same part of the brain seems to preserve the action of the dream, which -is disturbed at once by directing the flow of blood and the pressure to -another part of the brain. If a sleeper is seen to be agitated in his -sleep by painful dream, exhibited in moaning, restlessness and expression -of distress upon the countenance, remedy may be found in gently moving -the head into another position, if the body cannot be moved and it is not -desired to waken. - -It is said that musicians are very prone to the composition of music -in dream. It was thus that Tartini wrote the Devil’s Sonata. The most -unmusical are often haunted by scraps of tune that no effort will banish. -Airs are composed in dream which are remembered upon waking. Perhaps -it is not that music is more the subject of dream than other mental -creations, but it is the most capable of being retained by the mind -and expressed after the dream has vanished. My own experience of this -capacity of the dreaming mind has been to myself very surprising; but -perhaps the like may have occurred to others, although not recorded. Some -time ago I dreamed that I was present and heard as well as witnessed the -performance of an entire opera of my own composing. The strange part -of it was that I am not a musician and never composed a bar of music -in my life. I have a bad musical ear and no musical memory. Yet did my -utterly unmusical mind in the dream compose the whole of an opera in two -acts, overture and all, with a full band and half a dozen characters, -each acting his own part, and the stage, the scenery, machinery and -decorations, as perfect as any I have ever beheld and enjoyed at Covent -Garden. Certainly it was not a mere dream of a dream. What other solution -is there than this—and it is sufficiently marvellous—that my mind, -free to act without the incumbering trammels of the sleeping body and -exercising its unfettered faculties far beyond their capacity in waking -life, had made me a musician, a dramatist, an actor, a painter—for all -these that mind was in the invention and performance of that dream? -If that mind or Soul be nothing more than the material form, or a -function of that form, how comes it that it is more active and that its -faculties are more exalted when the body, of which it is said to be a -part, is asleep? If the mind or soul be a part of the body, or, as the -Materialists contend, a mere function of the body, it ought, according to -all known laws of science, to be sleeping with the body, or at least its -activity and capacity ought not to increase in proportion as the activity -and capacity of the body decrease. - -I have here used the term “Mind,” because it is familiar to the reader, -and any other name would mislead by the prejudices that attach to -it. But I must be understood as intending by that term the thing, -whatever it be, which, in the Mechanism of Man, directs and controls it -intelligently, whether it be called Soul or Mind, and if it be a distinct -entity, as Psychology contends, or only the product of the material -structure, as the Materialists assert. This, indeed, is the great problem -of this age, to be solved, not by dogmatic assertions, but by scientific -proof. - -There are many other Phenomena of Dream of less interest or importance, -the description of which would occupy many pages; but those above will -suffice for the purposes of this monograph. - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - -CONCLUSIONS. - - -This view of the Physiology and Psychology of the very familiar but very -marvellous condition of Sleep and Dream seems to conduct the inquirer to -some conclusions, whose importance and interest it would be impossible -to exaggerate; for, if there be any truth in them, they point directly -to revelations of the hidden structure of the Mechanism of Man, which -have been taught as a dogma and accepted as a faith, but for the proof of -which by science as a fact in nature evidence has hitherto been wanting. - -The condition of Sleep indicates a _dual_ structure—that mind and body -are not one, as the Materialists teach; for when the body sleeps the mind -is awake, and often the mind is more active and more able when it is thus -partially released from the burden of the body. - -In sleep the phenomena of dream exhibit this independence of the body -yet more powerfully. The mind lives a life of its own, with its own -measurements of time and space, so different from those to which it is -limited by the material structure of the body. - -Self-consciousness is preserved in dream while the mind is inventing -a whole drama of events and persons, so that we contemplate the work -of the mind as if it was something existing without. This proves that -the contemplating consciousness is something other than the thing -contemplated. The “I” that views and remembers the action of the brain -(which is the material organ of the mind) cannot be the brain itself, nor -the mind itself, but must be something distinct from either, although -intimately associated with both. - -That conscious and contemplating something is the _thing_—the entity—the -“I”—the “You”—the being—the individual—which may be called “Soul” or -“Spirit,” or by any other name, but which we intend to designate when we -use those terms. - -These phenomena go far to prove that Man is a “living Soul” clothed with -a material body—that this Soul is in fact the person—the individual—the -being—of whom the molecular body is but the incrustation, the atoms -agglomerated into molecules at the point of contact with the molecularly -constructed world in which the present stage of its existence is to be -passed. - -True it is that the phenomena of dream, while throwing so much light -upon the structure of the mind and the manner of its action and going -far to prove the existence of Soul, does not impart to us any knowledge -of the structure of Soul. But we may learn this much, that although it -is imperceptible by any of our senses, which are constructed to perceive -only that form of matter we call molecular, it is not also and therefore -unknowable, as the materialists contend. The existence of Soul can be -proved in precisely the same manner as the existence of electricity -and magnetism and heat are proved, which also are imperceptible by our -senses, but not therefore unknowable. We learn the fact of their being by -their operations upon the molecular structure our senses are constructed -to perceive. In like manner we learn something of their qualities and -powers. The process of proof is identical. If it be admissible evidence -for the one, it is no less admissible for the other. To what extent it -goes in the way of proof of the existence of Soul is, of course, a fair -question for argument and investigation. My contention is only that the -inquiry “if Soul be” must not be permitted to be summarily disposed of by -any such dogmatic dictum of Physicists as that Soul not being perceptible -to our senses is incapable of proving its existence through the senses, -and therefore is, and must ever remain, unknowable and consequently a -vain pursuit and an impossible Science. - -In the phenomena of dream we find abundant proof that there is something -other than the sleeping molecular structure that does not sleep—that the -individual “I” preserves its consciousness of identity, its sense of -oneness in dream. This something cannot well be the body contemplating -itself—at once the actor and the spectator. Reason concludes that it must -be one thing contemplating another thing and Psychology contends that -this contemplating thing that wakes and dreams when the body is asleep -is what has been called by many names, but which here is designated as -“Soul,” without affirming anything of its structure, its nature, its -qualities, or its destiny. - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A MONOGRAPH ON SLEEP AND DREAM: -THEIR PHYSIOLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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