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If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: Athletics and Games of the Ancient Greeks - -Author: Edward Marwick Plummer - -Release Date: February 25, 2021 [eBook #64627] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -Produced by: Ian Crann, Turgut Dincer and the Online Distributed - Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was - produced from images generously made available by The Internet - Archive) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ATHLETICS AND GAMES OF THE ANCIENT -GREEKS *** - - - - - ATHLETICS AND GAMES OF THE - ANCIENT GREEKS. - - - EDWARD M. PLUMMER, M.D., - - AURAL SURGEON TO THE CARNEY HOSPITAL; ASSISTANT AURAL SURGEON - TO THE MASSACHUSETTS CHARITABLE EYE AND EAR INFIRMARY; - INSTRUCTOR, BOSTON POLYCLINIC; FELLOW OF THE - MASSACHUSETTS MEDICAL SOCIETY, ETC. - - - Reprinted from the _American Physical Education Review_, 1898. - - - CAMBRIDGE, MASS., - LOMBARD & CAUSTIC, PRINTERS, 26A BRATTLE ST. - 1898. - - Copyrighted - By EDWARD M. PLUMMER, M.D. - Boston, 1898. - - - - - I. ATHLETIC GAMES AMONG THE HOMERIC HEROES. - - BY EDWARD M. PLUMMER, OF BOSTON. - - -Few kinds of labor develop the body in a symmetrical manner. This -is true even in an elementary division of labor. The carpenter and -the blacksmith usually have strong, large shoulders and arms, but -small and weak legs. The farmer, from excessive bending over his -work, loses, in a greater or less degree, his elasticity of body, and -often becomes stoop-shouldered. If such defects result from the more -primitive forms of labor, it is not at all strange that the laborers of -the modern industrial world show bodily peculiarities and variations -that correspond, in a marked degree, to their respective trades. A -well-known teacher of gymnastics in a New England college has declared -himself able to designate the various occupations of laborers in a -Boston Labor Day parade, without reference to any sign or banner, -merely by inspecting their carriage and physical peculiarities. It may, -therefore, be asserted that, while labor involving muscular exertion, -if performed in healthful surroundings, supplies the conditions -essential to good digestion and assimilation, to a more complete -respiration, and to the maintenance of healthy nerves, yet, only -rarely, if ever, does it tend to develop the ideal body. - -Physical culture differs from labor. Labor, having the design to -produce a change in the world of matter outside the body, is not -deliberately modified to suit the requirements of perfect physical -development. Physical culture, on the other hand, if it really be such, -is a system of exercises that, taken together, bring all parts and -powers of the body into play, with the sole purpose of producing not -only a healthy, but also a symmetrical and graceful body; or, in other -words, of developing what the Greeks called εὐρυθμία. - -Of all the peoples, whose deeds have been recorded, the Greeks alone -made physical culture a matter of study. They did this not so much -because they considered it from the standpoint of philosophy to be -a duty to perfect the body, as because they clearly discerned the -advantages and prestige that accrued to the possessor of a powerful and -graceful body. - -For the earliest account of this phase of Hellenic life one naturally -turns to the poems of Homer. Yet one must not presume that these -poems, simply because they are the earliest literary records of the -Greeks, exhibit this or any other feature of Hellenic civilization -in its initial state. The art of literature, mechanical on the one -hand and artistic on the other, though when its technique is once -learned, it becomes inseparable from civilization, and though now -we justly consider the nation that has nothing to transcribe as -uncivilized;--this art of literature is, nevertheless, only one phase -of the life of civilized man! If we reflect that even today the lives -of the majority of persons are, in most of their relations, outside the -sphere of literature, it becomes easy to conceive how a people that -has not yet mastered this art could, notwithstanding, be versed in -simpler arts that would fully entitle them to the epithet civilized; -and if we should find portrayed in the earliest literary records of -that people a very high and perfect social life, our conception would -be corroborated. We must not, therefore, regard the Homeric poems -as affording data concerning the origin and initial condition of -this phase of Hellenic life. On the contrary, the Homeric athletics -especially presuppose a long antecedent course of development. Hellenic -legend strengthens this inference. According to a myth, Apollo enjoyed -the diskos no less than music. He practiced for amusement with his -favorite Hyakinthos, whom, as it is related, he accidentally killed by -an unlucky throw. Other traditions inform us, that Orion challenged -Artemis to a contest with the diskos, and that Autolykos, son of -Hermes, instructed young Herakles in the art of wrestling. - -It must be remembered, again, that Homer sang of the deeds of a very -select aristocracy, just as in later times, the French Troubadours -and Trouvères were to sing exclusively of the nobility and to them. -French literature remained aristocratic until the closing years of -the seventeenth century, when Molière made room on his stage for -the Parisian bourgeois. For Homer, even the noblest men were not -sufficient, and the gods themselves were made to act in his scenes. -There is, accordingly, some room for doubt as to whether the régime, -described in the Homeric poems, may be taken without modification, -as the régime of the Hellenic race at large at that time. It must be -remembered, too, that the poems were sung to the very class whose deeds -they portrayed, so that any additional splendor, with which the scenes -of this high life were adorned, would add to the credit of the poet. - -Let us, therefore, rightly appraise the Iliad, with reference to our -subject: “Athletic Games among the Homeric Heroes.” The Homeric poems -give us the idealistic picture of the lives of a band of Greek nobles -who, with their followers, had left their native land, to besiege a -foreign and hostile city. - -Occasionally, however, we find the poet dropping a line that throws -light on the pleasures and employments of the less notable classes. -Such a side reference are the lines in the second book of the Iliad, -where the followers of Achilles, unable to engage in the martial -occupations of the rest of the army, because of Achilles’ estrangement -from Agamemnon, are described as contending in games. _Il._ ii, -773-775. λαοὶ δὲ παρὰ, ῥηγμῖνι θαλάσσης δίσκοισιν τέρποντο καὶ -αἰγανέῃσιν ἱέντες, τόξοισίν θ’. - -The word λαός, here used, is usually considered as denoting the -people or multitude. The λαός before Troy, however, was undoubtedly -of the minor nobility, since at this time the servants of the Greeks -were, probably, the vanquished portions of other peoples. And so the -“folk” regaled themselves along the shore of the sea with the diskos, -spear-throwing, and archery. Of the three missiles, the diskos alone -was originally invented for athletic purposes. The spear, in this case -at least, was an implement of hunting, while the bow was used both in -the chase and in war. - -The training of the Homeric youth and heroes in athletic sports was, to -a considerable extent, the result of the prestige of those qualities -required in war and in hunting. Athletics were a means to an end, but -they were also an end in themselves. Bodily exercise was not an irksome -task, but an agreeable pastime. The ancient Hellenes were therefore -a very happy people, the ends that they sought to attain prescribed -tasks that were congenial with their national temperament. Accordingly, -we find, in a well-established condition, a system of athletic sports -that were not directly related to the feats of battle. Such a sport -was diskos throwing. The diskos was in shape a transverse section of a -cylinder, and in Homeric times was made of stone. The contestant who -hurled the diskos farthest from him was victor in the game. Doubtless -the advantageous positions and movements were well understood by the -skilled diskobolos. - -That athletics were regarded as a mode of enjoyment, as well as of -military training, is shown by the fact that when for any reason -the exercises of war were suspended, the heroes and their followers -resorted to games. It was hardly necessary for warriors with years of -experience, to train for the next day’s battle; they exercised, because -to do so was a congenial pleasure. Habitual fighting will not alone -explain this temperament. With the Hellenes, bodily exercise was almost -synonymous with life itself. When they desired to escape from the -chilling effect of a hero’s death, they instituted games, and thereby -reasserted life. Perhaps the sufficient cause of this predilection for -athletic exercise was the climate of the Grecian peninsula. The clear, -serene sky over Hellas, the mild, bracing air which permitted nudity -but did not dispose to indolence, the picturesque country, girdled -by the sea, and presenting such a wonderful interchange of mountains -and valleys, smiling plains, and beautifully winding rivers, must -necessarily have aroused in the hearts of its people the desire for a -free life full of activity in the open air, and thus have contributed -to the formation of strong minds in vigorous bodies. - -In order to understand Homeric athletics--the substantial basis of all -subsequent athletics--one must become interested in the method and -details of Greek warfare. For to the Greek the road to distinction lay -in the acquisition of the qualities required of the successful warrior, -and it was only natural that pleasure and expediency should combine -to make a pastime of the feats of war. Victory in modern warfare is -achieved largely by the use of superior machines and by advantage -of position. Until the time of Alexander, victory among the Greeks, -depended on the muscular power, endurance, and skill of the individual -warriors. The central and principal feature of early Greek warfare -was a personal hand-to-hand grapple. Therefore, it was essential in -preparing for war that each separate soldier should be made as active -and vigorous as possible. That this mode of warfare prevailed until -a late date, may be seen from the fact that Plutarch attributed the -victory of the Thebans over the Spartans at the battle of Leuktra, -B. C. 371, to the superiority of the former in the art of wrestling. - -Battle itself was an effective, even if a very perilous, mode of -physical culture. It often involved, to be sure, the death of the -weaker adversary, who was weak only comparatively, and who, considered -by himself, was usually an admirable specimen of man. But, throughout -all historic time, a branch of athletic sports has existed that could -not be practiced without risk, as fencing, boxing, or wrestling. And it -is certain that those who have survived the risks of these sports--the -fittest--had developed bodies far superior in agility, and attained far -greater command over the muscular system, as a whole, than would have -been possible from practicing sports that do not involve risk. - -Chariots drawn by swift horses drew the combatants quickly into each -other’s presence. Hereupon, either from the chariot or from the ground, -they hurled at each other, their far-shadowing spears (δολιχόσκια -ἔγχεα) _Il._ iii, 346. If neither of the adversaries succumbed, both -came closer together, and with the same or other spears thrust at each -other again. - -Failing to injure each other with spears, the adversaries resorted -to their swords or to any other available implement of offense. -Their object was to disable the opponent, rather than to conform to -conventions of war. Any mode of attack was fair in the Homeric combat. -In a battle between Hector and Telamonian Aias, the two heroes, after -using their spears, seize huge stones and hurl them at each other -(_Il._ vii, 264-270). - -The weapons, employed by the Homeric heroes were as heavy as could be -handled skilfully, and of course varied in weight according to the -strength of the respective warriors. As the heavier weapons, in the -hands of a man who could use them, were more effective, it was but -natural that warriors should vie with one another in developing the -strength requisite for adopting them. - -Their defensive armor consisted of the helmet, corselet, girdle, -greaves and shield. The Greek helmet was a close-fitting skull-cap, -covering the head in front above the eyes, and extending down in the -back, to the nape of the neck from ear to ear. Some forms show that the -lower part was prolonged and carried round so as to cover all above -the shoulders. The corselet consisted of two pieces, a breast-plate -and a back-plate, which were laced together by cords passed through -eyelet holes made in the sides, below the bottom of which the body was -protected by metal girdle. The greaves, which were made of flexible -metal plates, fastened behind with buckles, covered the front part of -the legs from the ankles to just above the knees. The shield consisted -of a frame of bronze and several layers of tough oxhide, and reached -from the neck to the knee. The shield is described by Homer and is -pictured on Mycenæan gems. - -For the risks, exigencies, and regular feats of this kind of warfare, -the Homeric youth trained himself, and Homer makes it plain that the -attainment of brute strength alone was not sufficient. Nestor is deemed -happy because his sons were “wise-minded and mighty with the spear.” -The poet frequently makes sly fun of Telamonian Aias, who, although -gigantic in size and of immense strength, was, nevertheless, somewhat -dull of intellect. To train the senses, and above all the eye, to -make the body alert and immediately responsive to the perceptions, -was considered quite as requisite as to train the muscles. For, in -the exigencies of battle, a certain quickness of intellect was often -more effective than brute strength. Agility was, therefore, prized -and cultivated above all other qualities. When the ponderous spear of -Menelaos smote and pierced the shield of Paris the latter “swerved and -escaped black death.” (_Il._ iii, 392.) To fight successfully from -the chariot, to dismount and grapple with the adversary, necessitated -not only muscular strength, but also unabating alertness of mind, an -ability to seize instantly the advantageous opportunity, to dodge or -fend instantly the deadly thrust. - -While agonistic sports were practiced in an especially notable way -on certain unique occasions, such as the death of a hero, yet it -should not be supposed that such contests were at all uncommon. On -the contrary, Homer is continually dropping epithets and sentences -that presuppose the utmost frequency and universality of competitive -games. Achilles is called fleet-footed (ποδάρκης, πόδας ὠκὺς) _Il._ ix, -307; Polydeukes, brother of Helen, is called the skilful boxer (πὺξ -ἀγαθός) _Il._ iii, 237. Indeed, such skill as Homer depicts as being -shown at the more notable gatherings, could not have been exhibited, -had there not been incessant practice and continual emulation. Again, -Homer often speaks of certain heroes as if their ability in certain -lines of athletics was well known, and had been often sustained against -challengers. When Achilles summons contestants for the boxing-match, he -asks for the two who are best (ὥπερ ἀρίστω), _Il._ xxiii, 659, to come -forward, as if it were well known who the skilful boxers were. When -Antilochos is mentioned as a competitor in the foot-race, he is called -the champion of foot-racers among the youth (ὁ γὰρ αὖτε νέους ποσὶ -πάντας ἐνίκα). _Il._ xxiii, 756. Yet in this particular race, owing to -the fact that his competitors were older than he, he took last prize. -Athletic skill can be maintained only by dint of continuous practice. -We may conclude, therefore, that agonistic contests, by the time of -which Homer wrote, were of very frequent occurrence,--so frequent that -they were taken as a matter of course,--and that on special occasions, -such as the death of a hero, the arrival of a distinguished guest, or -the anniversary of some god’s benefaction, the games were conducted in -a more public and ceremonious manner; and that on such occasions prizes -were offered and intense excitement prevailed. - -Funeral games were customary in Homeric times. Nestor, when an old man, -tells of competing in his youth in the various games held in honor of -Amarynkes at Buprasion; on which occasion, Nestor was in his prime and -was victor in the boxing-match, the foot-race, and the spear-throwing -contest; being surpassed only in the chariot-races. Certain recorded -myths sustain the scholar in referring the origin of funeral games to a -time much preceding the age of the Homeric heroes. Pausanias speaks of -the funeral games in honor of Azan, son of Arkas, and the nymph Erato, -as the most ancient. Minos, according to Plutarch, celebrated a funeral -contest in honor of Androgeos. - -In the Twenty-Third Iliad, Homer describes with considerable minuteness -the games held in honor of Patroklos, Achilles’ friend, whom Hector -slew in battle. - -The chariot-race was ordained as the first event. This mode of racing -was not improvised before the walls of Troy. Hellenic legend assigns -the origin of the races far back of Homeric times, in the dark heroic -age of mythology. While the site of stately Thebes was still covered -with forests, Onchestos is said to have seen in Poseidon’s grove, -horses yoked to the chariot, and panting from the race. When Apollo -thought of building a temple for himself at the sacred spring of the -nymph, Telphoussa, she dissuaded him, declaring that the god would be -disturbed by the incessant noise of chariots and the hoof-beats of -horses, and that every one would prefer to see the beautifully-built -chariots and the swift-footed horses, and so fail to appreciate the -temple with its treasures. Oinomaos is said to have offered to her -suitors his daughter, Hippodameia, as a prize for the victory in a -chariot-race. - -To the competitors in the race, Achilles offered five prizes, and -called for five contestants. Eumelos, Diomedes, Menelaos, Antilochos, -and Meriones sprang forward and yoked each a span of swift horses to -his war-chariot. The competitors were directed to round a goal in the -distance and return. Says Nestor, in advising his son, Antilochos: “A -fathom’s height above the ground standeth a withered stump, whether -of oak or pine; it decayeth not in the rain, and two white stones, on -either side thereof, are fixed at the joining of the track, and all -around it is smooth driving ground. Whether it be a monument of some -man dead long ago, or hath been made their goal in the race by ancient -men, this now is the mark fixed by fleet-footed goodly Achilles.” It is -easy to see that victory depended largely on the skill and cunning of -the charioteer in obtaining for himself the shortest course round this -goal. Indeed, Nestor, in advising his son, makes cunning (μῆτις) the -principal factor of victory: “By cunning hath charioteer the better of -charioteer. For whoso, trusting in his horses and car alone, wheeleth -heedlessly and wide at either end, his horses swerve on the course, -and he keepeth them not in hand. But whoso is of crafty mind, though -he drive worse horses, he ever keeping his eye upon the post turneth -closely by it, neither is unaware how far at first to force his horses -by the oxhide reins, but holdeth them safe in hand and watcheth the -leader in the race.” - -On the other hand the Homeric heroes were well aware of the advantage -that lay in the possession of powerful and well-matched horses. -Admetos, son of Pheres, is said by Homer to have possessed the best -horses of those that were gathered before Troy; they were very swift, -and were classified and paired with regard to speed, color, age, and -stature; they were “matched to the measure of a levelling-line across -their backs.” _Il._ ii, 763-765. - -Achilles, being the distributor of prizes and the chief mourner of -Patroklos, his beloved friend, did not contend in the chariot-race, -although his own skill and his horses, Xanthos and Balios--the immortal -steeds bestowed on Peleus by Poseidon--would undoubtedly have won for -him the victory. Through skill and cunning, Antilochos quickly overtook -Menelaos, left him behind and won the race, although his horses were -much inferior to those of the latter. - -It should be mentioned that in the race, as in hostile combat, the -Homeric hero made use of two horses. In the race he stood alone in -his chariot and managed his horses himself, but in the turmoil of -battle, he was accompanied by a comrade as driver (ἡνίοχος). This was -beautifully illustrated by scenes on the Cypseline chest, a work of -art, which belonged, probably, to the seventh century B. C. - -After the chariot-race came the boxing-match. Achilles offered two -prizes to the antagonists, one to the winner and one to the loser. -He stipulated that the two contestants should be men of first-class -reputation. The well-known champion, Epeios, boldly claimed the first -prize, and in order to deter any one from contesting this claim, -gave voice to the following prediction: “I will utterly bruise mine -adversary’s flesh and break his bones; so let his friends abide -together here to bear him forth when vanquished by my hands.” - -Euryalos alone dared to accept this challenge. The antagonists cast -about themselves girdles and wound about their hand strips of raw -oxhide. The struggle was violent, for “sweat flowed from all their -limbs.” But finally, Epeios smote the other on the cheek, and Euryalos -collapsed. “As when beneath the North wind’s ripple a fish leapeth on a -tangled-covered beach, and then the black wave hideth it, so leapt up -Euryalos at that blow.” - -The wrestling-match was ordained as the next event. Again Achilles -offered two prizes, one for the winner and one for the loser. Only -Odysseus, the type of artfulness and trickery, and Telamonian Aias, the -representative of bodily size and brute force, essayed to struggle. -After they had girt themselves they went into the midst of the ring. -Here they stood locked in each other’s arms, like two gable rafters -joined by a builder. Their backs were gripped with such force that they -creaked; the sweat ran down their bodies in streams; blood-colored -welts appeared on their sides and shoulders. Thus they struggled with -the advantage on neither side until the spectators began to grow weary. -At last when Aias had lifted Odysseus off his feet, the latter mindful -of his wiles, smote the former in the hollow of his knee, and Aias fell -backward, and Odysseus fell upon his chest. But victory was not bought -with one throw. So they rose again and locked. After Odysseus had tried -futilely to lift Aias from the ground the two fell together in the -dust. They rose and would have wrestled the third time had not Achilles -restrained them by declaring the contest a draw. - -From this detailed account it is evident that the Homeric athletes -practiced what has been styled the standing wrestling, as distinguished -from wrestling on the ground. In the former variety the antagonists -struggled until they fell, whereupon they rose and struggled again. -When an antagonist had been thrown three times the contest was decided -in favor of the other. In the latter variety the contestants continued -the struggle on the ground, after they had fallen. At a later period -standing wrestling was practiced at all the great games. Plato, who was -always alive to the value of these contests, as a preparation for war, -greatly preferred standing wrestling, because it exercised the muscles -of the upper part of the body as those of the arms, sides, shoulders, -and neck. Wrestling insures not only health and strength, but also a -fine carriage, and is an exercise well adapted to draw out all the -resources of the athlete. Plutarch then rightly calls wrestling the -most artistic and cunning of athletic exercises. - -In heroic times, it should be noted that athletes did not wrestle -entirely naked. The oil which the Homeric heroes employed after the -bath and in anointing the dead, was never used in their gymnastic -exercises. The poet, who often minutely describes minor and unimportant -things, does not mention oil in this connection. He certainly would not -have passed over in complete silence, the use of oil in these contests -had he been familiar with the custom. - -After the wrestling-match had been concluded, the foot-race was -ordained, and prizes for it were offered by Achilles. The competitors -were three,--Odysseus, Aias, son of Oileus, and Antilochos, son of -Nestor. Odysseus was the victor in the race. - -That portion of the twenty-third book of the Iliad, that describes the -duel with spears, between Diomedes and Telamonian Aias, the contest -with the iron diskos, and the contest of archery, has been pronounced, -on good internal evidence, to be a late interpolation. It should -accordingly be considered as data for an account of the athletics of -later times. - -The final contest at the funeral games for Patroklos was that of -javelin-throwing. When Agamemnon and Meriones rose to compete, Achilles -at once adjudged Agamemnon victor because of his well-known excellence -in this feat. - -The scenes of the Iliad are too serious to allow the poet to dwell upon -the amusements of the common soldiery. Only at the close of the poem, -after a lull in the tumultuous succession of events, is a thought given -to sport. But even here, excepting the chariot race, the descriptions -are made with a certain careless brevity, as if the poet would dispose -of them as quickly as possible, and as if he would say: “This is not my -theme.” Achilles superintends the games with a lofty indifference, and -even cuts some of them short, as if other things were on his mind. - -In the Odyssey, on the other hand, the poet seems to evince a greater -inclination to linger over the scenes of sport, as being more in -harmony with his theme. A certain voluptuousness pervades the Odyssey; -the stern scenes of war, have vanished from the poet’s imagination, and -have been replaced by those of festivity and pleasure. A new generation -is described. Athletics have become less violent and the scenes are -embellished by the interspersion of music, dancing, and poetry. - -The poet, conscious of the change, portrays the new order of things -among the Phæacians, a people inhabiting a blissful island on the -western edge of the world. Hither he leads the ocean-tossed Odysseus, -the representative of the older generation. The shipwrecked stranger -does not ask in vain of King Alkinoös for an escort that may guide him -homeward. Says Alkinoös to Odysseus: - “Say from what city, from what regions tossed, - And what inhabitants those regions boast? - So shalt thou quickly reach the realm assigned - In wondrous ships, self-moved, instinct with mind; - No helm secures their course, no pilot guides; - Like man intelligent they plow the tides, - Conscious of every coast and every bay - That lies beneath the sun’s all-seeing ray.” - _Odyssey_, Book viii. -But the hospitable king will not allow him to depart until a royal -entertainment has been provided. - -First a feast was spread at the royal palace for Odysseus and the -Phæacian nobles; the famous bard, Demodokos, sang tales of heroes and -of gods. Then Alkinoös bade the Phæacian young men prepare for the -games in order that they might exhibit to the stranger their skill -in manly sports. Thereupon, the festive throng issued forth from the -palace to the assembly-place, and the Phæacian athletes exhibited -themselves in the foot-race and at the wrestling match, at leaping, -throwing the diskos, and boxing. All of these games, except leaping, -are mentioned also in the Iliad. - -Then the son of Alkinoös, complimenting Odysseus on his massive body, -invites him to show his athletic skill. “There is no greater glory for -a man in all his life than what he wins with his own feet and hands,” -says Laodamas. - -At first Odysseus declines, but when stung by the taunt of Euryalos he -decides to show his skill. “He spoke, and, with his cloak still on, he -sprang and seized a diskos, larger than the rest and thick, heavier by -not a little than those which the Phæacians were using for themselves. -This with a twist he sent from his stout hand. The stone hummed as it -went. Past all the marks it flew, swift speeding from his hands.” - -Then Odysseus challenges the Phæacians to match his throw; and he -challenges any of the Phæacians, except his host, Laodamas, to contend -with him either in boxing, wrestling, or the foot-race,--it matters not -to him. - -Odysseus claims for himself the honor of being an “all-round” athlete. -“Not at all weak am I, in any games men practice. I understand full -well handling the polished bow. None except Philoktetes excelled me -with the bow at Troy, when we Achæans tried the bow. I send the spear -farther than other men an arrow.” - -Then the benevolent Alkinoös endeavors to soften the stern mood of -the visitor. “We are not faultless boxers,” says the king, “no, nor -wrestlers; but in the foot-race we run swiftly, and in our ships excel. -Dear to us ever is the feast, the harp, the dance, changes of clothes, -warm baths, and bed. Come then, Phæacian dancers the best among you -make us sport, that so the stranger on returning home may tell his -friends how we surpass all other men in sailing, running, in the dance -and song.”[A] - -[A] Palmer’s Translation. - -The scene that follows is one of exquisite grace. Nine umpires (the -mention of whom shows how important athletics have become), clear the -ring for the dance: A page brings the “melodious lyre,” Demodokos, the -blind bard, steps into the centre of the ring, and is surrounded by -youthful men skilled in dancing. “They struck the splendid dance-ground -with their feet; Odysseus watched their twinkling feet, and was -astonished.” - -No languid ease was the delight of the Homeric aristocracy, but -activity of the most virile type. And, although Homer’s two epics grew -into form long after the splendid Achæan civilization of which he wrote -existed only in legend, yet he artfully excludes any references to -contemporary facts. Only by subtle inferences can information about -the Dorian successors be extracted. For instance, although works of -art were very common in the Achæan days, yet Homer rarely describes -them and when he does so it is with astonishment and admiration. It is -therefore held that in this passage the poet has inadvertently made -an admission with regard to his own times,--times, which, in fact -were characterized by a paucity of works of art. Archæologists have -demonstrated, however, that the legends, of which the two Homeric -epics are the poetic form, and that attested the vanished Achæan -civilization, were in very many details faithful to the facts of the -Mycenæan age. There is every reason to believe that the Achæan nobility -practiced athletics as Homer represents them. But it must be said in -addition that the authors of the Iliad and the Odyssey do not speak as -if athletic sports were a spectacle unfamiliar to themselves. It is -recorded by Plutarch that Hesiod won a tripod, as prize, in the funeral -games in honor of Amphidamos. - - - - - II. THE OLYMPIC GAMES IN ANCIENT TIMES. - - -In historic times the great national festivals were already -established. They had undoubtedly grown out of local athletic -festivals of very ancient origin. Of these Panhellenic festivals, that -celebrated once in every four years at Olympia in Elis was the oldest -and the greatest. The nationalization of this festival is assigned -traditionally to the year 776 B. C. This date depends on a list of -Olympic victors, compiled in the last part of the fifth century by the -sophist Hippias of Elis, and handed down by Eusebios. Modern historians -are not unanimous in accepting the early part of this register, and -the minority have supported their charge of spuriousness by adducing -unharmonious facts. In itself the date 776 B. C. is not unreasonable. -And when it is considered how comparatively easy and common travel was -in Hellas, it is not rash to suppose that the festival, when once it -had become celebrated as a local affair was resorted to by travellers, -if not as participants, at least as spectators. Certain it is that the -Olympic festival was already a Panhellenic institution, when the other -three festivals were established early in the sixth century, and that -to the close of Greek history it continued the most glorious. - -The Pythian games were celebrated on the Krissean Plain in Phokis in -honor of Apollo. These games were held for several days in January in -the third year of each Olympiad. The prize was a wreath of laurel and a -palm. - -The Nemean games were held in the groves of Nemea, near Kleonai in -Argolis, in the winter and summer alternately of the second and fourth -years of each Olympiad. The prize was a wreath of parsley. - -The Isthmian games, instituted in honor of Poseidon, took place at -Corinth in the spring and summer alternately of the first and third -years of each Olympiad. This alternation was arranged to avoid -interference with the Olympian and Pythian festivals. The victor’s -prize at the Isthmia was a wreath of pine native to the spot. - -Beside the four national festivals, minor games of more frequent -recurrence existed all over Hellas. How eagerly the victor in a local -exhibition must have turned his eyes towards Nemea, the Isthmus, Pytho, -and perhaps even to Olympia may be imagined. Each of the four great -festivals had peculiar features of its own. Thus, the Pythian games, -probably next to the Olympian in importance, were characterized by -competitions in music and poetry in addition to the athletic contests. -The Isthmian games were distinguished by the addition of boat-racing -and swimming contests. - -But all were essentially alike. All were designed as glorifications of -the strong and agile body. All were marked with patriotism. All were -embellished with the greatest products of Hellenic art. All were held -in honor of gods. And a fitting tribute and worship they furnished, -not the mumbled prayers of a sallow-visaged, stunted race, but the -exultant feats of proud, self-reliant men. All were attended by the -most studied and artistic pomp. The greatest lyric poets of Hellas, -Simonides and Pindar, for instance, celebrated the victors. Of Pindar’s -ἐπινίκια or “Odes of Victory,” we possess fourteen Ὀλυμπιονῖκαι for -winners in the Olympian games. Twelve Πυθιονῖκαι for the Pythian -games, seven Νεμεονῖκαι for the Nemean games, and eleven Ἰσθμεονῖκαι -for the Isthmian games. Even the wise men and famous bards of Greece -could not resist the desire to be present. It is said that the Spartan -Chilon, one of the seven wise men of Greece, died while witnessing -these games, being overcome with joy at his son’s victory. Sages like -Pythagoras, Anaxagoras, Sokrates, Plato, Aristippos, Diogenes and -Thales came, lured not only by the desire of beholding athletic feats, -but also eager to engage in debate, or perhaps to explain some new -theory of the universe. Statesmen like Themistokles and Kimon resorted -to the games and there met the rulers of distant states. Orators and -sophists like Gorgias, Lysias and Demosthenes, were present at the -Olympian games. The first two made great panegyric speeches. The games -on the Isthmus were attended by the great dramatists Aischylos and -Ion. Historians like Herodotos carried their scrolls to read before -assembled Hellas. Artists came to exhibit their works of art, and -perhaps to obtain new customers. Sculptors showed models of their -skill, and potters exhibited vases. These games, like the Schwingfest -and the shooting-matches of Switzerland, served not only as pleasant -occasions of reunion, but tended to the diffusion of national ideas. -In the language of John Fiske, “young men of the noblest families and -from the farthest Greek colonies came to them, and wrestled and ran, -undraped, before countless multitudes of admiring spectators.” - -The victor in the foot-race at Olympia was regarded as an honor to his -country, and gave his name to the current Olympiad, and on reaching -home entered his native city to the notes of a triumphal song written -by a Pindar or Simonides. Another significant fact is that the Greek -era began with the Olympic games; every period of four years was called -an Olympiad. - -About twenty miles above the mouth of the Alpheios, in a long, narrow -valley surrounded by well-wooded hills, it is joined by the ancient -Kladeos, coming from the north. At the angle formed by the junction of -the two rivers is the area known as Olympia, the scene of the greatest -athletic festival that the world has ever witnessed. - -To the north of this plain was a range of rocky hills, the nearest of -which was the famous Kronion, conical in shape and about 400 feet in -height. As its name signifies, this hill was sacred to Kronos, the -father of Zeus. Another low range bounded the valley on the south. -The western boundary was the Kladeos. Eastward was the hill of Pisa, -and further in the distance were visible the snow-crowned summits of -Erymanthos and Kyllene. - -During the long centuries that succeeded the extinction of Greek -civilization, the precinct of the games, and the equipments, buildings -and statues that remained, were gradually covered by a stratum of -alluvium from the Alpheios, mixed with a deposit of clay from Kronion. -The rest of the world was not interested enough to record the process, -and when in modern times scholars saw no trace of the original scene, -it was supposed that the Alpheios by its overflowings had destroyed all -monuments. Recent excavations, however, have revealed a very precious -remnant at the bottom of the alluvium. It was indeed not really a -misfortune that during periods when the products of old civilizations -were treated with fanaticism on the one hand, and rapacity on the -other, the Olympian scene was covered with earth rather than left -exposed to the hand of Middle Age barbarians. - -The systematic excavation of Olympia was undertaken in 1875 by the -German government. The work involved great expense, and the willingness -of the Germans to undertake and execute the task has brought them much -praise from the scholars of other countries. The excavations were -completed on the 20th of March, 1881. - -During these six years a space in the form of a square, measuring 1,000 -feet on each side, was stripped of the accumulated deposit of twelve -centuries; the average depth of this covering was estimated to be over -sixteen feet. - -Archæologically, this excavation involved expert care and much labor. -Neither the care nor the labor was withheld. The result may best -be described in the language of an eminent professor of classical -archæology:-- - -“The result of these excavations, carried on there at great cost and -with supreme disinterestedness by the German people, has been to -enable the traveller at Olympia not only to study the scene of the -greatest of Greek athletic festivals, but to trace the celebration -from hour to hour and from point to point. He not only sees the hill -of Cronion, where the spectators crowded, wades through Olympic dust, -and feels the sun of Olympia beat on his head, but he can wander on -the threshold of the temple of Zeus, pass from building to building -in the sacred enclosure of the Altis, and stand at the starting-point -of the runners in the Stadium. Taking the guidebook of the old Greek -traveller Pausanias in our hand, we can follow in his steps, and out of -broken pillars, truncated pedestals and the foundations of demolished -buildings, we can conjure forth the beautiful Olympia of old, with its -glorious temples, its rows of altars, its statues of gods and godlike -men who conquered in the games, its treasuries full of the noblest -works of art and the richest spoils of war. And we can people the -solitude with the combatants and with the spectators, a crowd filled -with the enthusiasm of the place and with delight in manly contests; -a crowd over whom emotions swept as rapidly as chariots through the -hippodrome, and who were ever breaking out into wild cries of delight, -or loud shouts of scorn and derision. We can see the bestowal of the -crowns of wild olive, and can hear the heralds recite the names of -those who have been victorious.” - -Here, then, in the summer time was held the great athletic festival in -honor of Olympian Zeus. At the beginning of authentic history it was -already a venerable institution. We have already learned that early in -the sixth century the other three Panhellenic festivals were modeled -upon it. Many myths very early sprang into existence to explain its -origin. Pindar, it is well known, in one of his Olympian odes makes -the Dorian Herakles the founder. Of course, the myths do not agree, -and if they did would establish nothing directly; indirectly, however, -they show that at the time of their first promulgation the festival -had attained so approved a system, so wide a celebrity, and so great a -prestige as to need accounting for and to be compatible with an exalted -origin. And as a matter of fact, system, celebrity and prestige do not -fall to the lot of an institution in the period of a single generation. - -The festival was from the first under the charge of the Eleians. But -so liberal a policy did this nation adopt and pursue that people from -neighboring states were glad to send competitors. Rapidly the custom of -resorting to the games spread to more distant states. From an Eleian -event, the festival became Peloponnesian, and finally Panhellenic. -The Athenians and Thebans at a very early date achieved splendid -victories in these games. The Theban Pagondas was crowned victor in the -four-horse chariot race in the 25th Olympiad, when for the first time -this was a feature of the festival. Thus one state after another turned -its attention to the venerable celebration, and if it happened that a -citizen of one state was crowned victor in a contest, interest in the -games was sure to be increased in that locality. - -Even in the absence of positive evidence it would be contrary to -reason to suppose that the games were originally established as they -existed at the time of Pindar. In fact, the different features were -added successively. According to a fairly reliable tradition, there -was originally and for twelve following Olympiads only one contest: -the δρόμος, a foot-race consisting of a single lap of a stadion of two -hundred yards. About 720 B. C., according to the tradition, was added -the δίαυλος, a race in which the stadion was traversed twice. Soon -afterward was added the δόλιχος, or long race, consisting of seven, -then of twelve and perhaps twenty-four laps. The next contest to be -introduced was the wrestling-match. In the same year that wrestling -was introduced, about the 18th Olympiad, the pentathlon made its -appearance. This feature, though consisting of five contests--leaping, -spear-throwing, diskos-pitching, running and wrestling--was -nevertheless a single event, inasmuch as victory in one contest alone -was not rewarded; an athlete to be crowned victor in the pentathlon -must win at least three of the contests. Boxing and the chariot race -are said to have been added in the 23d Olympiad. Thus the games grew -more elaborate, and the time over which they extended was increased -from a single day to five or six. - -The festival was conducted by judges, called Hellanodikai, elected -by the people of Elis a year beforehand. The number of these judges -was about ten; they were expected to give close attention to their -duties. Thirty days before the festival, candidates for the various -contests presented themselves before the Hellanodikai for examination. -In order that the name of a candidate could be considered, he must -prove himself to be of pure Hellenic stock, and must give evidence of -having practised in a gymnasium for ten months previously; finally, -the candidate must practise for thirty days in the great gymnasium of -Elis, under the supervision of the Hellanodikai. The names of those -who were able to satisfy the judges were placed on a white board which -was exposed to view at Olympia. After an athlete had been entered for -a contest, it was considered the greatest ignominy for him to withdraw -for any reason; indeed, for so doing he was heavily fined. Theagenes, -an athlete of wide fame, was unable to enter the pankration because he -had been disabled in the boxing-match; but inasmuch as he had had his -name entered for both events, he was fined. - -Eleven days before the festival, the Hellanodikai caused to be -proclaimed by heralds throughout all the cities of Hellas the truce, -sacred to Olympian Zeus, which was to last a month. It was this truce -that made the Olympia possible as a Panhellenic institution. During the -month that followed the proclamations of the heralds, all wars between -Hellenic states were held in abeyance, and travellers were allowed to -journey through them unmolested. The awful name of Zeus coupled with -the decrees of rulers made this truce effective. - -During the eleven days pilgrims from all over Hellas were approaching -Olympia. Some of the scenes may be imagined. In the language of -Professor Percy Gardner: “From all the shores of the Mediterranean -and the Euxine seas the Greek colonies sent deputations to represent -them at the games, to bear offerings to the temple, and to perform -sacrifices on their behalf. And the Greeks readily took a tinge from -the land wherein they dwelt. There were dwellers on the northern -shore of the Black Sea, to whom continual intercourse and frequent -intermarriage with their Scythian neighbors gave almost the aspect -of nomads; and colonists from Massilia, who in dress and blood were -half Gauls. There were people from Cyrene, with the hot blood and dark -complexions of Africa, and oriental Ionians, with trailing robes and -effeminate airs. There were rude pirates from Acarnania, and delicate -sensualists from Cyprus.” - -To give a detailed account of the competitions at each of the great -festivals would involve much unnecessary repetition. That held at -Olympia, therefore, may be taken as the type and the ideal of the -others. But even at Olympia, the celebrations of which have been most -widely written of both by ancient and modern scholars, it is not always -easy to determine the exact order of the various contests. - -There is hardly a doubt that at the Olympic festival as well as at -the others the foot-races were the initial competitions. Plato says -that at his time when a contest took place the herald first called on -the σταδιοδρόμος to do his part. The reason for beginning with the -foot-race was probably an historical one; as has been said, it was -originally the sole competition at the Olympic celebration. According -to the old Eleian priest legends, the Idaian Herakles, one of the -Cretan Kouretes, came to Elis in the reign of Kronos, in the golden -age, and arranged a foot-race in which the victor was crowned with wild -olive. The legends further state that the place thus honored by the -priest of Olympian Zeus was afterward called Olympia, and that in time -the celebration was repeated at intervals of four years. Of course the -foregoing is a tale invented to explain the priority of the foot-race -as well as the founding of the festival. Another legend recounts that -at one of these subsequent celebrations Endymion, son of Æthlios, -offered the kingdom of Klymenos, whom he had conquered, as a prize to -that one of his sons who should be first in the foot-race. Such are -some of the myths that helped to sanction and endear an inviolable -Olympic custom. It is noteworthy in this connection that in the Odyssey -the Phæacians had opened their games with the foot-race. - -The technique of foot-racing, the style of running most advantageous, -and the training and qualities necessary for it, differ considerably -with the distance covered. Accordingly very early in the history of the -Olympic festival races of varying length were one by one introduced, -and the variety doubtless tended to attract a larger number of -competitors and to make the occasion more interesting. - -For thirteen Olympiads, however, the race called the δρόμος was the -only feature. In this race the stadion was traversed but once. As the -course of the stadion was about 200 yards, the δρόμος was what we -call a sprint, and required that a runner exert himself to the utmost -from start to finish. This simple race remained a favorite mode of -competition among the Greeks until a late time--being practised by -Alexander. - -The δίαυλος, or double course of the stadion, was introduced in -the 14th Olympiad. This race required that the runner, after having -traversed the 200 yards and reached the goal, should return to the -point of starting. As he rounded the goal he described an arc, and on -his way back took the opposite side of the track in order that he might -not collide with other runners. - -Very soon after the introduction of the δίαυλος the ἵππιος δρόμος and -then the δόλιχος were instituted. The ἵππιος δρόμος, which implies a -horse-race, was in reality a foot-race, the contestant running the -distance generally covered in a horse-race--namely, four times the -length of the stadion, or 800 yards. - -The δόλιχος was added to the Olympic games in the 15th Olympiad, and -was, like our long runs, a test primarily of endurance and lung-power. -The distance covered varied from seven to twenty-four laps of the -stadion, or from less than a mile to about three miles. At Olympia, -however, the distance was twelve stadia. As the δόλιχος was run on the -same track on which the single and double races took place, it was -really only a series of double races. - -In the 65th Olympiad, the ὁπλίτων δρόμος was introduced. In this race -the competitors wore helmets and greaves, and carried shields on their -left arms. Pausanias claims to have seen the statue of Demaratos -equipped with a round shield, helmet and antique greaves. At a later -period, however, the helmet and greaves were discarded at Olympia, and -the race was run with shields alone. The distance covered in this race -was two stadia--the length of the δίαυλος. Pindar, the poet laureate -of the Olympians, mentions the race with shields, and with poetic -privilege ascribes its origin to heroic times. Plato considered the -exercise very valuable as war training, and prescribed it as a part -of the athletics of his ideal commonwealth. Plato devised two other -races involving armor: in one the competitor should be equipped as -a heavy-armed hoplite, and should cover a distance of sixty stadia -on a level plain; in the other the competitor should wear the light -equipments of an archer, and should cover one hundred stadia over hills -and valleys. - -The running contests at the great games were governed by certain -established rules. No fraud or guile was allowed to be used by the -contestant on the track for the purpose of impeding his companions. -They were very particular that all should start at the same time and -from the same line, so that no one might have the advantage over -the others. It was also contrary to rule for an athlete voluntarily -to slacken his speed and allow his fellow-contestants to win. The -competitors were appointed by lot and arranged in groups. These groups -raced in heats of four, ranged in the places assigned them by lot. The -first group was followed by the second, the second by the third, etc. -When all groups had finished, the victors of each again entered the -contest and strove for the prize; so that every σταδιοδρόμος had to win -twice before he was crowned victor. - -The physicians of olden times mentioned two other foot-races which -in their opinion afforded excellent gymnastic exercise. The first of -these was practised in the sixth division of the stadion and consisted -of running first forward and then backward. In this race the body was -not turned once, but the distance that was run forward was continually -shortened by backward running until the contestant finally stood at the -starting-point. In the second race the contestant ran on tiptoe with -outstretched arms which he swung violently to and fro. It was practised -along a wall so that, should the balance be lost, the runner could hold -and support himself against it. - -Among the less important foot-races were two that had their origin in -certain local celebrations, namely, the torch race and the race of the -vintage festival, held at Athens. Similar races took place at Sparta -during the great national festival of the Κάρνεια held in honor of -Apollo. - -In the preparation for these different kinds of foot-races everything -was done in the way of training that would tend to make the body as -light as possible and increase its rapidity, although the different -cities of Greece varied to some extent as regards the question of diet, -rubbing and baths. - -In practising for the foot-race the contestant, having divested himself -of every shred of clothing and anointed his body with oil, was made to -exert himself as much as possible. The exertion was often increased -by making the run in deep sand instead of on firm ground; the foot -having a less firm support, the runner was obliged to work harder and -more quickly. In this way these exercises gave to the body not only -great power of endurance, but also increased speed, and as a result the -δολιχοδρόμοι possessed strong and well-developed legs. The shoulders -and upper part of the body, on the other hand, owing to insufficient -exercise were small and narrow. On that account Sokrates did not favor -the races because they did not produce a harmonious development of the -body. The skilled runner naturally strove to preserve an erect carriage -while running, and to conform to all established rules regarding the -contest. In this connection it may be interesting to mention the -strange ideas entertained among the Greeks regarding the influence of -the spleen over the powers of the body. This little organ, situated -behind the stomach on the left side of the abdomen, and exercising -some function which still remains unknown, would in their opinion if -diseased prove a great hindrance to a contestant in the race. In order, -therefore, to prevent such a catastrophe they resorted to extraordinary -means, namely, the use of certain plants which they believed would -dissolve or eat away the spleen; or even to surgical operations, such -as cutting or burning it out. On the other hand, they believed that a -diseased spleen was greatly benefited by exercise in running. Laomedon -of Orchomenos is quoted as furnishing an example of this kind. - -The attitude of the runners we learn from vases. Those who were -contending in the short race or dash swung their arms backward and -forward alternately. This is beautifully shown by a painting on a -Panathenæan vase in the possession of Koller. It represents four -athletes running, hardly touching the ground with one foot, while -the other is raised and moved forward in order to cover the greatest -possible distance with one step. The hands are wide open; the arms are -moved about freely and appear to act as the wings of the body, and -their motion is in harmony with that of the lower limbs. Another vase, -discovered in the ancient tombs of Volci, also shows a similar method -of running. The athletes are moving rapidly, and using their arms -as wings. On the other hand, those who were running a long distance -clenched their fists and held their arms close to their sides, as do -our modern runners. A peculiar custom prevailed during the games. It -is said the contestants kept up a loud shouting in order to retain -their courage, while at the same time the admiring spectators cheered -wildly as some favorite or friend neared the goal. As the Greeks did -not possess the modern mechanical means of communication, they had -to rely mostly upon messengers; hence the great necessity for expert -runners. To this fact is due to a considerable degree the development -of agonistic and running contests in Greece. It is said that after the -battle of Platæa all the sacred fires which had been profaned by the -Persians were extinguished, and that Ἐνχίδας, a Platæan, covered in one -day the distance of a thousand stadia from Platæa to Delphi and back -again, and brought his fellow-citizens the pure fire from the altar -of Apollo. As a result of this terrible strain he sank to the ground -and died. The Cretans were especially noted in the δόλιχος. Sotades -and Ergoteles were among the most famous. The Arcadian Dromeos was -another celebrated runner, having been like the former twelve times -victorious in the δόλιχος. Ladas, the famous Spartan runner, was also -victorious in the δόλιχος, but according to Pausanias died at the goal -on completing a race. - -Comparison of the speed of Hellenic athletes with that of modern -runners is exceedingly difficult, because the Hellenes had no means of -measuring minutes of time; they did not say of an athlete that he ran -the δίαυλος in such a time, but that he won (_i. e._, surpassed his -competitors) in a certain Olympic celebration. - -Probably the next event was the pentathlon. This competition was -introduced into the festival at about the 18th Olympiad. As the -etymology of the word signifies, the pentathlon consisted of five -distinct competitions, enumerated in a well-known pentameter ascribed -to Simonides: leaping (ἅλμα), running (ποδωκείην), diskos-throwing -(δίσκον), spear-throwing (ἄκοντα), wrestling (πάλην). That the poet -arranged the events in this order cannot be taken as positive proof -that this was the real order, as it is hard to see how these words -could be arranged otherwise in a pentameter. It is probable, however, -that wrestling was the final contest. There is some uncertainty as to -what constituted a victory in the pentathlon, but it is evident that -the purpose of this competition was to develop what we call “all-round -athletes,” and the assertion that the victor must have won three out of -the five contests cannot be far from the truth. - -In such a combination of exercises it would certainly be good athletic -policy to make leaping the first contest. It may be questioned whether -an athlete could leap so well after having engaged in the more violent -exercises, whereas leaping itself, instead of disqualifying for the -other exercises, would on the contrary rouse the animal spirits without -bringing on exhaustion, and thereby put the athletes at once in good -condition. For the leap requires not only vigor and elasticity, but -also courage and determination. - -The beneficent results of this exercise were recognized at a very early -period by the Hellenes, although in the heroic world the leap was not -considered so important as the other modes of contest. In the games -of Achilles the leap is not mentioned. In the Odyssey, however, the -Phæacians, a light-hearted people, more fond of amusement than of war, -are said to be skilled in leaping. It is in historic times, however, -that leaping, as an important event in the pentathlon of the public -games, acquires its technique, and receives the careful attention of -athletes. - -What may be called the pure leap, that is the standing leap without -accessory aids, was not practised at Olympia. The leaper held in his -hands weights resembling our dumb-bells, and known as ἁλτῆρες. To -determine the dynamic advantage of these weights is not easy, but -it is certain that with them the exercise required more skill, and -accordingly more practice, that it called into play more muscles, and -that it was more attractive to athletes as a mode of competition. - -While little information can be obtained from classic writers -concerning the ἁλτῆρες, much can be learned from archæological -specimens. Pausanias describes them as having the form of a semi-oval, -or inaccurately-rounded ring that could be grasped by the fingers as a -shield was grasped. This description corresponds with a drawing of the -ἁλτῆρες on a vase in Hamilton’s second collection. Ἁλτῆρες of another -shape, however, resembling very closely the modern dumb-bells, are -seen on many other vases and gems. These had both ends rounded, and -were narrow in the middle in order that they might be easily held. In -Hamilton’s first collection are vases giving representations of these -ἁλτῆρες. In the Museo Borbonico may be seen on a patera a drawing in -which the ἁλτῆρες have still another form: when the hand has grasped -the handle of these, beyond the hand, on one side only, a club-shaped -part protrudes. The ἁλτῆρες were usually made of lead. - -In the pentathla, leaping never took place without ἁλτῆρες, which the -athlete usually held directly in front of him, and then, as he sprang, -brought behind him, thus helping to propel his body forward. - -In addition to the ἁλτῆρες, professional athletes made use of another -aid--the βατήρ. The latter was a board on which they stood before -taking the leap, and which may indeed have been provided with a spring. - -Pausanias especially mentions the fact that the leaping of the -pentathli in the Olympic festival was accompanied by airs on the flute. -This music was probably to open the pentathlon, the most splendid and -stirring of gymnastic contests, as well as to increase the courage of -the leapers. - -The only leap that belonged to the pentathlon was the standing long -jump. There is no trace of anything like the hop, step and jump. The -figures of athletes on vases are represented not as running, but as -standing and swinging the ἁλτῆρες. Then, too, it would seem that in -the running jump the weights would be an impediment rather than an -aid. With the aid of the ἁλτῆρες and the βατήρ enormous distances -were covered. Phaÿllos of Rhegium is said to have covered more than -fifty-five feet at a leap. But the record is incredible. Some German -professors, however, are inclined to credit the record on the ground -that the ancients had studied the theory of leaping more scientifically -than have the moderns. For the sake of comparison the modern records -in jumping may be introduced. On May 28, 1890, J. Darby of England, -without the aid of weights, made a standing long jump of 12½ feet. At -Romeo, Mich., October 3, 1879, with 22-pound weights, G. W. Hamilton -made a standing jump of 14 feet, 5½ inches. A record of 23 feet, 6½ -inches, in the running long jump has been made twice: by C. L. Reber at -Detroit, July 4, 1891, and by C. B. Frye of England, March 4, 1893. A -jump of 48 feet, 8 inches, without weights and preceded by a hop and a -step, was made October 18, 1884, by T. Burrows of Worcester. - -In the palæstra and the gymnasium, leaping was practised in many -different ways, as through a hoop, or over a rope. That the high jump -also was practised is evident from the fact that the athletes leaped -not only over pointed poles fixed in the ground, but also over one -another’s heads, after the manner of modern circus performers. Leaping -from a higher place to a lower was also practised. Leaping took place -in dancing and in various other sports. A dance, consisting principally -of leaping was practised at Sparta, particularly by young women and -girls. In this the dancers aimed to hit their backs with their heels. -Aristophanes alludes to this custom in the following dialogue between -Lysistrata and Lampito: - - LYSISTRATA. - Hail! Lampito, dearest of Lakonian women. - How shines thy beauty, O, my sweetest friend! - How fair thy colour, full of life thy frame! - Why, thou couldst choke a bull. - - LAMPITO. - Yes, by the twain; - For I do practise the gymnastic art, - And, leaping, strike my backbone with my heels. - - LYSISTRATA. - In sooth, thy bust is lovely to behold. - -It is probable that in the Olympic pentathlon leaping was followed by -diskos-hurling,--a contest of great antiquity. An old myth represents -Apollo as a diskos-thrower. - -The diskos was circular in form with perhaps an average diameter of a -little less than a foot, and was made of various materials at different -periods and places. The heroic diskos, as has been said, was made of -stone, while that of a later period was of metal, and even of wood. -The diskos in common use at the Olympic festival was metallic, and -resembled a small shield. - -In the local gymnasia the size and weight of the diskos varied in -order that an athlete might select one in accord with his strength. -But in the men’s pentathlon at the public games a standard diskos was -required,--uniform in material, form, and weight, in order that the -strength and skill of the competitors might be impartially tested and -the victory correspondingly awarded. There is considerable doubt as to -the dimensions and weight of this standard diskos. It is likely that -the weight was between four and five pounds. A specimen found at Ægina -and now preserved among the bronzes at Munich is about eight inches -in diameter and slightly less than four pounds in weight. But another -specimen at present in the British Museum weighs twelve pounds. - -There is also doubt as to the distance to which a skilful athlete -could hurl the diskos. An extravagant record of one hundred cubits is -preserved in the writings of Philostratos. It is probable, however, -that one hundred feet was an extraordinary throw and was exceeded only -by the best athletes. While it is unlikely that the throws of renowned -athletes were carelessly measured at the time, it is probable that -many subsequent accounts were more or less exaggerated. It is well to -bear in mind that the statue of Phaÿllos was greatly admired among the -Greeks because that athlete had thrown the diskos ninety-five feet. - -It is interesting in this connection to note that at the International -Athletic Games, celebrated at Athens in 1896, the victor in the -diskos-throwing competition made a record of 95.64 feet. The diskos -used in this competition weighed 4¾ pounds. Although three skilful -Greek athletes participated in this competition and exhibited a -technique much superior to that of the foreign competitors, yet the -victory was won by Mr. Garret, an American, who though never having -handled the diskos before threw it to the above distance, thereby -surpassing the best throw of M. Paraskevopoulos, the Greek champion, -by .64 feet. - -To return to the ancient contests, the Homeric heroes practised -diskos-throwing without completely disrobing,--the upper garment only -being laid aside. But at Olympia after the 15th Olympiad all clothing -was dispensed with, and the advantage of entire nudity in this sport -came to be clearly recognized. Nudity characterized, of course, the -diskoboloi of the other great athletic festivals. Again, while the -Homeric heroes did not anoint the body with oil, the athlete of -historic times did not consider his preparation complete without it. - -After roughening his hands and the diskos with earth, in order to grasp -it more firmly and handle it more deftly, the diskobolos ascended an -eminence, called the βαλβίς. When about to throw, the body of the -diskobolos was bent quite a little to the right and forward. At the -same time the head was bent to the right so far that it was possible -for him to see the upper left side of his body. The right arm was now -moved from below, first backward to the height of the shoulders, and -then with a rapid movement forward it described a semi-circle, giving -the diskos at once velocity and direction. In throwing the diskos, the -diskobolos rested first on the right foot and then on the left. At the -moment of hurling the diskos the left knee was slightly bent, while the -other was kept backward. As the diskos left his hand he took one or -more steps forward, like a person throwing a ball in a bowling alley. - -Again we are indebted to the archæologist who has brought to the light -of day not only statues but also vases and gems with their elaborate -scenes of the diskobolos in various attitudes, for they reveal to us -many facts about which the ancient historians are silent. - -In classifying these works of art three different attitudes may be -recognized: - (1) The diskobolos preparing to throw. - (2) The diskobolos in the act of throwing. - (3) The diskobolos having hurled the diskos and still following it -with his eyes, or where he has already been declared victor. - -In the Museo Pio Clementino is a statue representing an athlete about -to hurl the diskos. In his left hand he is testing the weight of -the diskos, but holding the right ready to receive it and hurl it -into space. This statue was supposed by Visconti to be a copy of a -diskobolos by Naukydes, the pupil of Polykleitos. Many other copies are -also seen on vases and gems. On one of Hamilton’s vases the diskobolos -holds the diskos in his right hand, supporting its weight in his left. - -Of the statues representing the athlete in the act of throwing, we -will consider only Myron’s Diskobolos, the beau ideal of athletic -motion, famous even in antiquity. Eight copies in a more or less -mutilated condition have come down to us. That which was found in the -Villa Palombara in 1781 on the Esquiline is the best reproduction of -the original. This statue passed from the palace known as that of the -_Massimi alle Colonne_ to the _Lancelotti Palace_, Rome, where it still -remains. The attitude of the diskobolos is very nearly that described -by Lucian and Quintilian. In the _Philopseudes_--1, 8, Lucian gives -the following description of Myron’s Diskobolos: “Thou speakest of -the disk-thrower, who is bending forward for the throw, with his face -turned away towards the hand that holds the disk, and with one foot -slightly pointed, as if he would raise himself with the action of -throwing.” - -The statue reveals probably the most approved attitude of a diskobolos -just before making a throw. The centre of gravity falls upon the right -foot, which, though the leg is bent in a slight curve, rests firmly on -the ground; both legs are bent at the knees, but the left more acutely; -the right fore-leg is perpendicular, while the left is thrust backward -obliquely; the left foot, forming a noticeable curve, is upright and -touches the ground only at the tips of the toes; the thighs, close -together, slant upward, making an angle of over 45° with the ground; -the upper part of the body is bent forward, and is steadied by the left -arm whose hand rests against the right knee; the upper half of the body -is twisted to the right; the right arm is extended backwards and is -straight; the fingers of the right hand, which is somewhat above the -level of the right shoulder, firmly grip the edge of the diskos; the -head is turned so far to the right that the right side of the body is -plainly visible; the eyes are fastened on the diskos. - -It is evident that the diskobolos must have swung the disk in a -semi-circle, and have hurled it from below forward, and that the whole -body must have relaxed and readjusted itself as the right arm moved -forward and imparted the pent-up energy to the disk. - -The pose of the large cast in the Boston Athenæum, as well as that -of the cast in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts, is not in accordance -with Lucian’s description. Both represent the head as not turned aside -but directly forward, with the eyes looking straight ahead. There is, -however, in the Fourth Greek Room, a cast of a small bronze statuette, -which is preserved in the Antiquarium at Munich. This is in many -respects an excellent copy of Myron’s diskobolos. In the catalogue -of the casts in the Museum, this statuette is pronounced especially -satisfactory from an æsthetic point of view because the line of -equilibrium falls perpendicularly through the centre from whatever -point of view the statuette is seen. - -Besides this copy of Myron’s statue, we find on many vases and gems the -diskobolos in the act of hurling the diskos. For instance, on one of -Hamilton’s vases we see a diskobolos with a diskos in his right hand, -while the right arm is bent and held forward, showing that he is on the -point of moving the arm backward, and then forcibly hurling the diskos -from below, forward. The left arm is bent over the head, the eyes are -fixed on the diskos, the right foot is placed forward, so that the -centre of gravity falls on the left, which is obliquely bent at the -knee. - -We will now consider the third class of statues, gems and -vase-paintings representing the diskobolos as having thrown the diskos, -and still following it with his eye, or where he has already been -declared victor and adorned with the palm. In 1754 there was discovered -at Herculaneum the bronze statue of a diskobolos from whose hand the -diskos has just flown. He is still standing, however, with the upper -portion of his body bent forward, the eyes looking sharply into space, -the face full of expectation. The position of the right arm indicates -that the hand is only just freed from the heavy diskos. Both feet are -placed wide apart, as may be observed in several other instances, at -the moment of throwing. In the _Galerie de Florence_ is a gem which -represents a diskobolos who has been declared victor. He holds the -diskos in his left hand, the palm of victory in his right. At his -right stands a prize cup, while at his left is a tripod upon which is -a wreath and a palm. A painting from Herculaneum also represents a -diskobolos after having thrown the diskos. - -If space permitted, many other statues, vase and gem pictures could -be cited to show the different positions of the skilled diskobolos. -But enough has been said to show that to hurl the diskos through the -air at once gracefully and effectively required the greatest skill -and dexterity, and was an art acquired only through long practice. In -diskos-throwing, distance, not height, determined the victor. He who -threw the farthest beyond the mark or σῆμα was awarded the prize. - -Diskos-throwing was a good preparation for war, as it developed great -skill in stone-throwing--a very important feature in the war practices -of the ancients. This exercise must have developed to a remarkable -degree the muscles of the upper part of the body, shoulders, arms and -hands--especially those of the right side of the body. At the same time -the feet were trained in a firm and secure step, and, although the -diskos was thrown at no fixed point, the eye was nevertheless used and -trained. So beneficial was the exercise in certain cases that it was -often ordered by the ancient physicians. Among the Spartans the diskos -was especially loved, ostensibly on account of Apollo’s contest with -Hyakinthos on Spartan soil. - - - - - III. THE OLYMPIC GAMES IN ANCIENT TIMES. - - -The third event of the pentathlon was spear-throwing. In the athletic -training of an Hellenic youth, spear-throwing came after the hand and -arm had been strengthened by ball-playing and diskos-throwing. - -Spear-throwing, as has been shown, growing out of the very early -necessity of war-training, was a primitive mode of exercise. The spear -(δόρυ, λόγχη) used by the Homeric heroes was very large, and as heavy -as they could handle effectively. None but that warrior himself could -wield the spear of Achilles. Hector’s spear was 16 feet long; the -shaft was made of ash. A socket was fitted to the upper end of the -spear, in which was inserted a bronze spear point. But that used at the -pentathlon, and denoted by the term ἄκων, was smaller and lighter. - -The attitude of the body, the movement of the arms and shoulders, -and the carriage of the head were very different in spear-throwing -from those in diskos-hurling. The athlete stood erect, and raised his -right arm upward and slightly backward; his right foot was generally -placed backward, while his left was advanced; his eye was fixed on a -goal straight ahead. He grasped the spear in the middle and held it -in a horizontal position on a level with his right ear; sometimes he -moved it backward and forward before throwing, but as often omitted -such preliminary exercise. Sometimes it was thrown by means of a strap -attached to it, as is still the custom in many countries. - -In the pentathlon, spear-throwing was a test rather of skill than of -strength; an athlete who could win the victory with the diskos might -suffer defeat with the spear, although diskos-throwing required more -strength than spear-throwing. Spear-throwing trained the eye and made -the arm deft in executing the eye’s direction. - -It conferred upon the body other peculiar benefits; the organs of -respiration were stimulated; the chest was strengthened and enlarged; -the right arm was strengthened; in order to throw the spear effectively -the athlete must maintain a graceful poise and have command of his -entire body; to do so with a weight held aloft, strengthened the lower -limbs, made their muscles more facile, and the step more sure. - -By inserting this particular exercise into the pentathlon the early -Olympians not only recognized the foregoing advantages, but they also -honored the characteristic exercise of their ancestors, and subsequent -Olympians followed their example. For the spear was the traditional -sign of the freeman; as far back as myth and memory could go, it had -been carried, even in peace, as an honorable and distinguishing token. - -Plato, in his scheme of the ideal state, prescribed spear-throwing as a -training for war, and directed that it should be practiced by women as -well as by men. - -At Rome, during the time of the emperors, spear-throwing was included -among the gymnastic exercises of that city. Instruction in this -art was received from the Mauritanians. But it is said that the -Emperor Commodus surpassed even the skill of his instructors; in the -amphitheatre he killed, according to the story, a hundred lions with -as many spears; at another time he astonished the spectators by the -dexterity with which he hurled his spear at the Mauritanian ostriches, -as they ran by the amphitheatre at full speed; with every throw he -severed a bird’s head from its body. - -We have no accounts to show as to how far a Greek athlete could hurl -a spear, but we know that savages of today can hurl it to a great -distance. It is said by travellers that a Kaffir who suddenly comes -upon game will hit an antelope ten or fifteen yards away without -raising his arm. - -The three events that have been described, leaping, diskos-throwing -and spear-throwing, were probably the essential features of the -pentathlon; that is to say, an athlete who won in all three events -was probably crowned victor. If, however, the victories in the three -events were not secured by the same man, the competition was decided by -additional contests in running and wrestling. But as at other stages of -the festival these two exercises were distinct events, a description -of their technique may be omitted in this place. Among those who -distinguished themselves in the pentathlon, were included some of the -most illustrious men of Greece. - -The pentathlon was succeeded by horse and chariot races. - -Chariot racing, even as far back as the heroic time, had attained a -high rank in the domain of antagonistics; it was, indeed, the first -contest in the funeral games of Patroklos. (Il. xxiii. 262-650.) -In the minute and vivid description of Homer, the nature of the -contest and the arrangements are very clearly indicated. There was -no artificially constructed hippodrome. A flat, open plain, with its -natural irregularities and without buildings of any sort, served as -the race-course. The point of starting was on the sea-coast, but the -turning point was in the plain of Troy. The goal, which was the stump -of a tree, could be seen in the far distance only by its having two -white stones leaning against it on either side. On account of the great -distance, the spectators were not able to distinguish between the -approaching horses. (Il. 450 ff.) Hence rose an altercation between -Idomeneus and Aias, as to whose chariot was leading in the race. -Achilles advised both to wait quietly until the horses were nearer and -the order of the chariots could be recognized by all. - -With a very few points of difference, this description of Homer gives -a good idea of a chariot race at Olympia. The difference consisted, -first, in running the length of the course several times instead of -once, in order that a body of spectators might witness the entire -race; second, in the greater number of chariots, and third, in the -arrangements, whereby they might start without confusion. In the games -of Achilles, the chariots were five in number, each with two horses and -a single driver, who stood upright in the chariot. As we have already -mentioned, the Homeric hero made use of two horses in the race as -well as in hostile combat, while the Olympic contestant did not limit -himself to two horses. In fact, the four-horse chariot-race, which was -introduced in the twenty-fifth Olympiad, was the first in honor and in -importance, and always remained the most popular. In this contest, only -kings, nobles, and the wealthy could take part, on account of the great -expense involved in rearing fine horses, and in maintaining costly -chariots. Very often, the victor had his triumphs recorded on the state -issues of coins. - -Races on horseback date from the thirty-third Olympiad. Philip of -Macedon won in this contest, and celebrated his victory by having an -enormous horse, ridden by a diminutive jockey, placed on his coinage. -As this victory took place in the same year in which Potidaea fell -into his hands and his son Alexander was born, he regarded that year as -especially auspicious. - -While the race of the quadrigæ of horses was introduced as early as the -twenty-fifth Olympiad, that of the bigæ of horses was not introduced -until the ninety-third Olympiad. A quadriga consisted of four horses -harnessed to a chariot; a biga, of two horses. In the seventieth -Olympiad, bigæ of mules were admitted, but in the eighty-fourth -Olympiad they were excluded; their exclusion may be ascribed to two -reasons: first, they presented an unpleasing appearance; second, among -the Eleians, according to Pausanias, a curse had rested on the animals -from ancient times. - -Prior to the twenty-fifth Olympiad, all athletic contests had taken -place in the Stadion. As chariot-racing, however, demanded more room, -a separate race-course, called the Hippodrome, was established. The -site of the Hippodrome cannot be exactly traced. This is because -the Alpheios has washed away all certain indications of its limits. -But from the account of Pausanias (V, 4; VI, 20, 7 foll.) it may be -approximately located; it lay to the south of the Stadion and extended -roughly parallel with it, though stretching far beyond it to the east. -The German explorers who excavated Olympia inferred from the state -of the ground that the Hippodrome was about 2526 feet in length. The -Stadion and Hippodrome were closely connected, the rear part of the -aphesis, or starting point, of the Hippodrome adjoining the end of the -Stadion. At the farther end of the Hippodrome was the goal outside of -which the chariots had to turn. To round this goal with advantage, that -is, to keep as close to it as it was possible to do without upsetting -his own chariot or colliding with another, required long practice -and great dexterity on the part of the driver; it was indeed a very -dangerous feat; at every race a large number of the chariots involved -were wrecked, and in such accidents the charioteers rarely escaped -without serious injuries. According to legend, Orestes had met his -death at a Pythian festival; his chariot colliding with the goal, he -fell to the ground, became entangled in the reins, and was dragged or -trampled to death. After every turning of the goal, the chariots were -greeted with the sound of trumpets in order that men and horses might -attain new courage and vigor after so dangerous an ordeal. - -The signal for the chariots to come out from the rooms allotted to -them in the aphesis and form in line for the race was given by an eagle -which, by means of mechanism, rose into the air at the same moment that -a dolphin fell to the ground. Such a signal was characteristic of the -Greek; but in the Roman races, the chariots started at the waving of a -white cloth by a person of distinction. - -The equestrian contests at Olympia were succeeded by boxing. Boxing -for men was introduced at the Olympic festival in the twenty-third -Olympiad, and for boys in the thirty-seventh Olympiad. But the sport -was already very old, and its introduction at Olympia was probably a -recognition of its popularity and antiquity. In fact, as the fist is -the simplest and most natural weapon of mankind, it is not surprising -to find that boxing was one of the earliest athletic games among the -Hellenes. Homer’s detailed description of the contest of the invincible -Epeios with Euryalos has already been mentioned, and Homer had probably -heard many similar tales of the prowess of Mycenæan boxers. Polydeukes, -the bravest boxer among the pre-Homeric heroes, is said to have -defeated the strong Amykos. The latter was a teacher of the art, and -allowed no stranger to depart from his country without challenging him -to a pugilistic contest. Apollo himself, the gracious companion and -leader of the Pierides, is described as engaging in a boxing contest at -Olympus with Ares, the powerful god of war; perhaps in this myth there -is a suggestion of the advantage which the nimble and quick-witted -boxer sometimes has over a more bulky one. In the mythical founding of -the Nemean games, Tydeus was victorious in a boxing contest. In the -passage of Virgil’s Æneid (Book V, 401 ff.), which so closely resembles -the twenty-third Book of the Iliad, the aged Entellus vanquishes the -young and boastful Dares. This contest showed a complete system of -striking and parrying. - -It is quite likely that these and many other similar legends augmented -the natural interest in the sport, and hastened its introduction into -the greatest of all athletic festivals. But at Olympia the sport was -marked with variations. Whereas, for instance, the Homeric heroes, when -boxing, had protected their bodies by means of a girdle around the -loins (Il. XXIII, 683), the Olympian athletes, being already accustomed -to nudity in the wrestling and racing contests, dispensed with such -protection. Again, from the first, Olympian boxers oiled the body, -contrary to the practice of Homeric athletes. - -Probably very few of the tactics of modern pugilists were unknown to -the Greek athletes. Some of the accessories of a modern ring-fight, -such as the “preliminary hand-shake,” tossing for corners, etc., were -of course wanting; particularly noticeable was the absence of ropes and -stakes; there was no referee to enforce so strict a code of ethics as -the Marquis of Queensberry rules, fair play being secured by the voice -of the people. Grasping or hugging the opponent was not permitted; it -was in the elimination of such tactics that boxing differed from the -pankration, a combination of boxing and wrestling. Kicking was likewise -forbidden. - -The set-to of Greek boxers probably resembled very closely that of -modern pugilists. The ancient descriptions of the manner of giving and -guarding or blocking blows are rather vague; but on antique vases may -be seen representations of boxers facing one another in well-balanced -attitudes, their heads thrown back, and their arms well advanced, in -the manner of the best modern pugilism. In a famous Greek painting of -boxers, one of the men stands with his left foot and hand advanced, his -left arm slightly bent, and his right arm held across his lower chest, -in fact, just as Fitzsimmons or Corbett would stand when expecting a -blow. In the beginning of the contest, the boxer was sparing of his -strength and preferred to assume the defensive position, and so wear -out his opponent. It was, of course, considered a merit for a boxer to -conquer without receiving wounds. - -The principal differences between the technique of Olympian boxing and -that of modern pugilism must be ascribed to the use at Olympia of that -cruel boxing weapon known as the cæstus. This consisted of a heavy -thong of dry, hardened leather, wound about the palm of the hand so as -to form a formidable ridge of considerable circumference; it was even -rendered more formidable by being loaded with lead, and studded with -little metal projections. This nail-studded covering was called σφαῖρα, -and was unknown to the ancient Greeks. That it was very dangerous is -shown by the fact that when used in the practice gymnasia, it was -itself covered, in order that young athletes might become accustomed to -its use before subjecting themselves to its deadliness. But even more -brutal than these were the μύρμηκες, called the breakers or crushers -of limbs. One cannot conceive of a more formidable covering for the -hand, unless it be the terrible cæstus of the Romans, to which Virgil -alludes in the memorial games of Anchises (Æn. V, 401): “Tantorum -ingentia septem Terga boum plumbo insuto ferroque rigebant.” “So -terrible was the seven-fold bullhide stiffened with patches of lead and -iron.” An examination of the representations of hands armed with this -covering makes it evident that the straight blow or counter would not -only fail to make the weapon effective, but would, if forcible enough, -crush the fingers of the boxer between the leather and the adversary’s -body. The cæstus must, therefore, have been used for round blows, or -for the old English blow called the “chopper”; these were delivered by -the back of the hand in an outward and downward swing, and, to be given -without injury to the one who dealt them, required considerable skill. - -The blows were directed at the upper parts of the body, and the wounds -inflicted on the head, the temples, ears, cheeks and nose, were very -severe and frequently proved fatal. The teeth were often broken or -injured. It is related of Eurydamas, the Cyrenean, that his teeth -were knocked out by his adversary, but that he quietly swallowed them -in order to conceal from him how much he was injured; his adversary, -disheartened by the apparently small effect of his powerful blow, lost -hope and allowed Eurydamas to win the victory. The ears, especially, -were exposed to great danger, and those of regular pugilists were -usually so mutilated and swollen that the phrase “fighter’s ear” -became a stereotyped expression. Little covers for the ear, known as -αὐφώτιρες, were invented for gymnasium work, but they were not used -in public games. Boxers, on account of the bruises and disfigurations -that usually marked their features, were the subjects of numerous -epigrammatic jests. Here is a sample from the pen of a comic poet: - -“After twenty years,” says the author of the epigram, “Ulysses was -recognized from his appearance returning to his home, by his dog, -Argos. But thou, Stratophon, after boxing for four hours, hast been so -altered, that neither dogs nor any person in the town could possibly -recognize thee. And if thou lookest at thy face in a mirror, thou -thyself wilt swear that thou art not Stratophon.” - -Of the boxer Olympikos, a poet says that he once had a nose, a beard, -eyebrows, ears and eyelids, but that when he had inscribed his name -among the pugilists he lost them all. - -The only protection against the wound-dealing cæstus, aside from skill -in blocking blows, was a cap of bronze that was worn by boxers at -Olympia. - -Another noteworthy point of difference between Olympian and modern -boxing is that instead of maintaining silence during the contest, as -do the moderns, the Olympians accompanied their blows with certain -inarticulate sounds, believing that their force was thereby increased. -Modern stone-masons frequently do the same. - -The contest at Olympia did not end until one of the combatants was -rendered unconscious, or was compelled by fatigue, wounds or despair to -declare himself conquered, which he signified by lifting his right hand. - -In this connection it is interesting to trace the evolution of boxing -in Greece. At first, of course, the bare fist was used; but as time -went on, boxers learned to cover their fists and wrists with strips of -undressed oxhide, the ἱμάντας ἐϋτμήτους βοὸς ἀγραύλοιο in the contest -of Epeios and Euryalos (Il. XXIII, 684). Homer mentions these ἱμάντες -as if they were very common. The name μειλίχαι was given them by -later writers, because they dealt a mild blow; they are described by -Pausanias (VIII, 40, 3) as made of raw oxhide, cut into thin strips -and braided according to the custom of the ancients. The strips were -wound round the palm, leaving the fingers uncovered, at least enough so -that they could be bent to form a clenched fist. As the name indicates, -the μειλίχαι were not cruel weapons; they served not only to moderate -the force of the blow, but also to protect the hand from injury. They -were used at the Nemean games as late as the famous contest between -Kreugas and Damoxenos. It is likely that with these soft coverings the -technique of blows conformed more nearly with the modern technique. -It has been already shown that the straight counter was rendered -impracticable by the cæstus. But without the cæstus the Greek was very -skillful with this blow. The Greek also understood the advantage of the -cross-counter, a blow sometimes thought to be a comparatively recent -discovery in pugilism. If the Homeric description of the bare-handed -fight between Odysseus and the impudent ruffian and parasite, Iros, -be analyzed, the blow will be found plainly involved. Iros, who is of -gigantic size, has insulted Odysseus. A ring is formed and they begin -to fight (Od. XVIII, 73-231). - - “On his right shoulder Iros laid his stroke, - Odysseus struck him just beneath the ear, - His jaw-bone broke, and made the blood appear, - When straight he strewed the dust.” - -The blow of Odysseus must have been a cross-counter. Iros leads with -his left at Odysseus’ head, but the blow falls instead on his right -shoulder. Odysseus avoids the blow just as a trained boxer would avoid -a similar one today; that is to say, he moves his head to the left, and -catches the blow on his right shoulder, at the same moment, “rising -to the stroke.” He then crosses Iros’ arm with his right, strikes him -beneath the ear, and breaks his jaw, thereby “knocking him out.” - -The introduction and use of the cæstus, brought about by the -blood-thirstiness of the ancient mob, instead of being in the interest -of further skill was decidedly a backward step. For not only did it -improperly limit the technique of blows, as has been shown, but it was -too sure a menace to the very source of human skill, the senses and -consciousness itself. - -Solon praised boxing from an educational point of view. Cato the elder -must have entertained a high opinion of this art, for, according to -Plutarch, he himself instructed his son, with whose education he took -the greatest pains, in the art of boxing. - -In justification of this praise, it must be remembered that Greek -boxing, aside from its brutal features, had also its æsthetic side. -A graceful carriage, dexterity, and promptness of activity were -cultivated. We find Apollo, the embodiment of youthful grace and -beauty, and the ideal of Hellenic æstheticism, represented as a boxer. -Even from the medical point of view, boxing was highly esteemed. -Aretaios recommends it for vertigo and chronic headache (De Morb. Dint. -Cur. 1, 2). - -This sport engaged young men of the noblest families in all parts of -Hellas. Pythagoras is said to have been victorious when a youth in a -boxing contest at Olympia. Rhodes, Ægina, Arkadia and Elis were noted -for producing skilled pugilists. - -Boxing was followed by wrestling and the pankration which were the -final competitions. As is well known, wrestling was one of the most -popular sports among the Greeks, from the days of Homer. According to -mythology, Palaistra, the daughter of Hermes, established the πάλη, -while her brother, Autolykos, is mentioned as the instructor of the -young Herakles in this art. Plato also assigns the origin of wrestling -to the earliest times and declares Antaios and Kerkyon to be the most -ancient wrestlers. But the mode of wrestling was the result of a mere -desire to fight, and so did not develop wrestling as an art. Theseus is -said to have been the first to reduce it to a system and to practice -it according to definite rules. We have already mentioned how Homer, -in the games of Achilles, causes the powerful Telamonian Aias and -Odysseus to engage in a wrestling bout. Wrestling matches were among -the chief events in the famous games at Olympia and elsewhere. They -were introduced earlier than boxing and were believed to show off the -strength, activity and grace of the body to more advantage than any -other contest. No other exercise required such perfect development -of every muscle in the body, or an equal combination of strength and -agility. - -Plutarch calls wrestling the most artistic and cunning of athletic -sports. It was as full of tricks and feints as that of modern times. -The opponent was often deceived by feigned positions and movements. -Sometimes the wrestler would feint as if to grasp his adversary in a -certain place, but by a quick, cat-like movement would attack him in -another which had been left exposed. Cunning was likewise practiced by -the Homeric heroes. Odysseus overpowered Aias by striking him in the -hollow of the knee. But while wrestling was characterized by tricks, -the observance of certain rules was insisted on at Olympia. Striking, -kicking, and pushing were prohibited, but, strange to say, disjointing -an opponent’s fingers was allowed, probably on the ground that it -involved grasping. - -While the Greeks in their athletic sports sought for grace and symmetry -as well as strength, it is nevertheless true that their wrestlers were -noted for their bulk. Corpulency was considered advantageous for a -wrestler for two reasons: first, the increased weight rendered it less -easy for an opponent to lift him off the ground; second, it was easier -for him, on the other hand, to overpower his adversary at the opportune -moment. Nevertheless, a graceful style of wrestling, while less easy -to attain under this condition, was much sought after. And oftentimes -grace is the concomitant of a skill that possesses a sure advantage -over mere bulk. Very joyous were the Olympic spectators when this fact -was demonstrated. When the boy Kratinos of Aigeira was victorious -in a match in which skill was more apparent than mere strength, the -authorities permitted him to have placed in the Altis not only his own -statue, but that of his teacher. Pausanias says that Kratinos exhibited -a more graceful style than any other wrestler of his time. - -Two modes of wrestling were in vogue at Olympia, standing and ground -wrestling; the former, called the τριαγμός, was most common. The -contestants stood upright, face to face, and after one had been thrown -and had risen, the contest was renewed. This was the style practiced -by the Homeric heroes. After Aias and Odysseus had thrown each other -to the ground, they rose and continued the struggle. Victory was -bought with three throws. Standing wrestling was practiced in later -times at all the great games. Plato, especially, prefers this style, -as it develops the upper parts of the body, the arms, shoulders, chest -and neck. In the latter, or ground wrestling, when the combatants -had fallen they continued the struggle on the ground, until one -acknowledged himself conquered. This kind of wrestling belonged -especially to the pankration, and like that cruel contest was unknown -in heroic times. Solon, according to Lucian, claims that this mode is -of great value as a preparation for war. Plato, however, does not so -regard it. Dion Cassius, in his description of a battle between the -Romans and the Jazyges on the ice of the Danube, claimed that in this -particular instance, familiarity with ground wrestling was especially -advantageous. - -Of the numerous tricks, feints and holds practiced by the Greeks, the -following were the most noteworthy. The antagonist endeavored to throw -his opponent either by tripping him, or by grasping his foot with -his hand. This latter style is differently illustrated on two vases. -On the first vase the antagonist is represented as grasping with his -right hand his opponent’s foot, which he has raised to a line with the -middle of his body, while with the left arm he is further raising the -thigh, thus forcing his opponent to the ground. On the second vase, the -contestant has raised his opponent’s foot and is holding it up with the -left hand, which is placed under the knee; both contestants are moving -the right arm as if preparing to strike. This probably represents -the pankration, as striking was not allowed in the wrestling bout. A -similar illustration is seen on a coin; but here the antagonist, whose -foot is held by his opponent, holds the latter in his arms in order to -drag him down if he should fall. - -Another trick, in which the athlete wound his leg around his opponent’s -thigh, was often practiced. This point is beautifully illustrated by -the famous group of wrestlers in the Uffizi Gallery, Florence, of which -a fine cast may be seen in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts. Winckelmann -considers these wrestlers to be the sons of Niobe, as they were found -in 1583 at the same time and place as the Niobe group. According to the -legend, they were engaged in a wrestling match when slain by Apollo’s -arrows. - -The technical names of the various locks and holds which have come -down to us do not give a clear and definite idea of wrestling. If -one of the Hellenic gymnastes, who must have written accounts of the -different modes of wrestling, had left behind a complete list of -movements, or if the most important parts of the literature bearing -upon gymnastics and agonistics had been preserved, we might form a -more definite conception of the wrestling match. To the student of -athletics it may be interesting to mention a few expressions which -have come down to us from this ancient nomenclature. The word δράσσειν -which literally means to seize or grasp the hand, was probably applied -to the alternate grasping of the arms. This movement is beautifully -illustrated on many antique works of Greek art, especially on vases, -gems and coins. It was one of the chief manœuvres of the wrestlers -and might have occurred at the beginning of the contest. Plutarch -designates the different modes of attack, position and manœuvres of the -wrestlers by the terms ἐμβολαί, παρεμβολαί, συστάσεις, παραθέσεις, from -which general conceptions may be formed, but hardly clear imagery. The -following Greek words, ὠθισμοί, περιπλοκαί, λυγισμοί, which literally -mean pushing, grasping and twisting the limbs, were used by Lucian to -express different styles of wrestling. The terms συναφή and κατοχή -used by Hesychios when speaking of athletics, can apply only to the -wrestling match itself. The movement whereby the antagonist is forced -from his position is described by the term ἀπάγειν, literally to -lead away or carry off. Ἄγχειν and ἀποπνίγειν describe the grasping -of the neck and choking, in order to prevent respiration. This trick -of grasping the opponent’s neck and then throttling him until he -acknowledged himself conquered was considered a very cunning act. -Sometimes the wrestler would obstruct respiration by forcing his elbow -under the chin of his adversary, or he would attempt to bring the neck -of the latter between his thighs and then exert such pressure as -almost to strangle him. This occurred more frequently in the ground -wrestling. On a gem is portrayed a group of boy wrestlers, one of whom, -while resting on his right knee, is firmly holding by the throat his -opponent, who is on both knees; to the right stands a prize vase with a -palm, to the left, an umpire with a rod. - -The ἅμμα involved grasping the opponent in such a manner that he -could be held in a position that would tire him and perhaps exhaust -his energy. Herakles in his wrestling contest with the mighty giant, -Antaios, was believed to have used this trick; but Herakles held his -antagonist in the air. Running toward each other with lowered heads -for the purpose of butting, after the manner of rams, also belonged to -the province of wrestling, and was practiced by Lucian himself in the -Lykeion at Athens. - -Plato protests against right-handedness (Laws, 8-794). He demands that -a trained wrestler, pankratiast and boxer should be able to use both -hands equally, so that if his opponent should succeed in turning him -around he could defend himself from the other side. The wrestler would -sometimes endeavor to place himself behind his adversary by a quick -movement, then wind his leg around his opponent’s body and throw him. -If successful in this attempt he would choke him. - -Besides these tricks there were others with the fingers. For instance, -a wrestler would grasp his opponent’s finger-tips and disjoint or break -them, not letting go until the pain compelled his victim to declare -himself conquered. This finger contest sometimes preceded the actual -contest, and was oftentimes the only feature. Sostratos of Sikyon -was specially famed for this mode of contest; he was twelve times -victorious in the Nemean and Isthmian, twice in the Pythian and three -times in the Olympian games. Leontiskos of Messina, in Sicily, also -practiced wrestling in this manner and gained his victory by breaking -his opponent’s fingers. - -In ground wrestling the athlete even attempted to break his opponent’s -toes. Another special scheme which belonged to the standing wrestling -was as follows: the contestant made a circle around himself and -challenged his opponent to force him from his position. If the latter -failed to do this, the victory belonged to the former. Especially -noted in this style of wrestling was Milo of Crotona, the most famous -wrestler of antiquity. When a mere boy he was victorious in the -Olympic and Pythian games. Six times his head was crowned with the -sacred olive of Olympia. Young men of the noblest families engaged in -these wrestling contests. Plato, when a youth, is said to have been -victorious in the Pythian and Isthmian games, probably in the wrestling -match. - - - - - IV. TOYS AND GAMES FOR CHILDREN AMONG THE ANCIENT HELLENES. - - -We have endeavored to describe at its height the system of professional -athletics in ancient Hellas. Such a system must necessarily have -influenced the more widespread practices whereby the young developed -their bodies, just as today the system of professional athletics is -a model for college training and exerts an influence upon the sports -of even young children. But professional athletics, even in ancient -Hellas, must be regarded as quite distinct from that important phase of -Hellenic education called γυμναστική. - -In Sparta physical culture was a stern business and could by no means -be styled a pastime; it was almost the sole requisite of education. -But it was in Sparta that professional athletics were held in least -favor. Spartan authorities did not delude themselves; being thoroughly -in earnest to produce a race that was hardy and valiant to the last -degree, and regarding physical culture as a serious and all-engrossing -business rather than an exciting amusement, they quickly discerned that -the specialism of professional athletics was detrimental to this end. - -The greatness and welfare of the state was the standard whereby all -Spartan life was regulated. The needs of the state were ever uppermost -in the minds of Spartan authorities. They neither deluded themselves in -their estimate of these needs, nor did they even dream of a compassion -that would deter them from establishing and executing regulations -whereby these needs would be met. In Sparta the unfortunate individual -who did not conform in promise or attainment to the criterion of a -Spartan citizen found no pity. - -And what was the criterion of the Spartan citizen? It was the man, -without defect of body, who had learned not merely to stifle outward -show of fear, but who had early learned to be absolutely fearless, -who had learned to be calm while suffering agonizing pain; it was the -man whose powers of endurance were very great, who could march long -distances over a rough country without fatigue, who could then halt -and await the onset of an enemy with a glad and confident heart, and -who could engage his enemy and be victorious; it was the man who loved -combat. - -The Spartan state possessed absolute authority over its citizens -through all stages of their lives. Even before birth that authority -was exerted; for the state prescribed the age at which citizens should -marry, and approved or vetoed all propositions of marriage. If at the -present day we exercised the same care to bring sound children into the -world there would be little need of being “born again.” Spartan infants -were subjected to the judgment of a body of selected citizens, and if -approved by the latter became thenceforth the objects of the care and -direction of the state, but if condemned as not promising health and -vigor they were killed. According to Plutarch unhealthy infants were -exposed in the apothetæ, a sort of chasm under Taygetos (Ταΰγετος) and -left to die. - -Until the age of seven, Spartan children were left to the care of their -parents, but even during this early period they received a foretaste -of future deprivations and exercises. Their food was very plain and -limited in quantity. Care was taken to eradicate the little fears of -childhood. They were taught not to be afraid in the dark or when left -alone. - -Many interesting little sports were in vogue among Hellenic children, -and it may well be believed that in Sparta they were practised with a -peculiar earnestness. Most of the amusements of modern children were -also the delight of Hellenic children, while some of the sports of the -latter are no longer in use. Even the infant’s rattle (πλαταγή) was -a Greek toy ascribed to the invention of the philosopher, Archytas. -Then there were hoops (τροχοί or κρίκοι). The childish game of rolling -the hoop was called κρικηλασία. The κρίκος corresponded to the Roman -trochus described by Horace (_Ode_ 3; 24, 57) and Ovid, as well as by -Propertius, Martialis, and other writers. The κρίκος was a large hoop -probably of iron or copper. According to Antyllos, its diameter was -less than the height of a man, reaching probably to his chest. The -implement used in rolling it is said to have been a crooked-necked iron -with a wooden handle, called ἐλατήρ (Mart. xiv, 169). Sometimes, as -with us, the hoop was set round with small metal rings or bells which -when in motion caused a jingling sound very pleasing to a child’s ears. -Some regarded these rings as unnecessary, but Antyllos favored them -on the ground that the sound they produced added much to the child’s -happiness and engaged his attention in a pleasant way. Antyllos also -considered this game to be a very healthful form of exercise and -advised that it be practised immediately before bathing and eating. -The familiar top (βέμβηξ, βέμβιξ, ῥόμβος, στρόβιλος), old as the -days of Homer, was a common amusement with Greek boys, as in our own -times--“στρόμβον δ’ ὣς ἔσσευε βαλών, περὶ δ’ ἔδραμε πάντη” (_Il._ xiv, -413). - -The humming top, used by Greek and Roman children and made to revolve -by whipping, is also prettily alluded to by Virgil in the following -lines: - - “Ceu quondam torto volitans sub verbere turbo, - Quem pueri magno in gyro vacua atria circum - Intenti ludo exercent.” - _Æneid_ vii, 378-380. - -Kite-flying also seems to have been known to the Greek children. Stilts -(καλόβαθρα) were much used by children and also by adults in certain -mimic dances. The girls had dolls (κόραι) of wax or clay, and the usual -paraphernalia connected with this ever popular plaything. Many of -these, which still survive, show that they were painted and that the -arms and legs were so fastened with strings as to be easily movable. -The word κόρη literally means a “little girl.” At marriage the Greek -girls dedicated their dolls to Artemis, the Roman girls to Venus. -If they died unwedded, their dolls were buried with them. The terms -δάγυνον, δαγύς and πλαγγών were often applied by the Greeks to the wax -doll. - -The swing αἰώρα occupied the same position in Greece as in our -nurseries. Then there were clappers (πλῆκτρα), toy-carts (ἁμαξίδες), -hobby-horses (ἱππίδια ξύλινα), toy soldiers and animals, made of clay. - -In addition to these toys, many games may be mentioned. From -the standpoint of education, games for children are worthy of -consideration. For, if human nature is most plainly shown in sport, -then from these games one can obtain a clear idea of a child’s -character, inclination and intellect, the recognition of which should -be of utmost importance to the educator. Games also furnish endless -and varied material for the cultivation of the child’s mental powers -and natural talents, which are developed by physical exercise. The -Spartan children were superior to the other Greek children in the -power of expression, although they were not so highly educated. This -is no doubt due to the fact that at a very early age the Spartan -children were forced into a free life in the open air and to systematic -gymnastic exercise. The Romans, also though they did not consider -gymnastics of so much importance as did the Hellenes, did not neglect -them. Being a warlike people, they began to develop and strengthen -the body of the child at an early age. The sports of childhood are as -important to the boy as work is to the man, and demand as much of his -strength and intelligence. The victory in a game gratifies the child as -a real victory in battle delights the conqueror. Besides, most games -are imitations of the various occupations of adult life and cause -the child to show a decided inclination for some particular branch. -Plato, as well as other philosophers, recognized this fact. He claimed -that a boy, in order to be skilled in a special line of work, should -be trained to that work from childhood, and that his first training -should be by means of his games. Such preliminary instruction should -be followed by that based on theory and science. Experience has often -corroborated this theory of Plato, and Hellenic life itself furnishes -the best illustration of it. According to the legend, Achilles, attired -in the garb of a girl among the daughters of the king, betrayed himself -to the keen eye of Odysseus, by handling the weapons, placed by the -latter among the ornaments which he offered for sale. Strepsiades, -hard pressed by his creditors, says that his son’s extreme fondness -for horses and chariots has ruined him, and continuing, he relates -with pride how as a mere child his son had made tiny leather carts, -moulded houses and ships, and carved frogs from pomegranate rind. -(Aristophanes, _Nub._ 877.) Cato the Younger also, says Plutarch, -gave strong indications of his character by the games he played. The -youthful Nero amused himself daily by playing with ivory four-horse -chariots, thus indicating his future passion for chariot-racing in the -circus. The distinguished men of antiquity, when at home, often entered -heartily into the children’s games. The famous general, Agesilaos, is -represented as riding the hobby-horse with his little boys. Alkibiades -was surprised to see Sokrates doing the same thing while at play with -young Lamprokles. The Romans, a more serious people than the Greeks, -often sought recreation in ball-playing. Cato the Elder, and also -Scævola, are mentioned as expert ball players. - -The Hellenes were thus well aware that uninterrupted employment was -detrimental to both physical and mental life. This idea was most -beautifully expressed by Pythagoras in his hygiene of body and soul. -Therefore, in connection with the gymnastic system of the Hellenes, -were developed many gymnastic games which did not require any special -apparatus and which were not intended for tests of superior strength, -but merely to furnish pleasant and suitable physical exercise. - -A game called ὀστράκου περιστροφή was often played. The boys arranged -themselves in two divisions on either side of a line. One of them -then held up a piece of broken crockery, or an oyster shell, one side -of which was blackened with tar. One division chose the black side, -the other the white. A boy then threw the fragment, with the words, -νύξ, ἡμέρα. The advantage belonged to that side whose color appeared -uppermost after the throw; this division then pursued the other; those -who were captured were called donkeys and were debarred from further -participation in the game. - -The ἐποστρακισμός (_Pollux_ ix, 119), a more informal game, was played -by boys on the beach, or on the shore of a pond. The sport consisted -in “skipping” smooth, flat pebbles or shells over the surface of the -water. The boy who “skipped” his pebble to the greatest distance, -or, perhaps, made it cut the water the greatest number of times, was -victor. This pastime, known as “Ducks and Drakes,” is still in favor -with boys. - -There were two games for testing bodily strength, the διελκυστίνδα and -the σκαπέρδα. In the διελκυστίνδα a party of children separated into -two divisions, each of which faced the other in a row, so as to give -every member an opponent. Probably a line of some kind lay between the -two divisions, and the game consisted in each boy’s striving to pull -his opponent across it by means of a rope. The victory was decided when -all members of one side had been forced to the other. - -The σκαπέρδα was a game in which a rope was passed through a hole made -in a tree-trunk or rough pillar, at some distance from the ground. Two -contestants then took their places on opposite sides of the pillar, -with their backs to each other and each holding an end of the rope. -If one of them could succeed in lifting the other from the ground he -was declared victor, but so difficult was the feat that the phrase -σκαπέρδαν ἕλκειν came in time to be a proverbial expression applicable -to very difficult tasks. This sport was one of the amusements at the -Attic Dionysia. - -“Blind man’s buff” was played with slight variations under the name -χαλκῆ μυῖα, or “brazen fly,” very prettily described by _Pollux_ ix, -122. ἡ δὲ χαλκῆ μυῖα, ταινίᾳ τὼ ὀφθαλμὼ περισφίγξαντες ἑνὸς παιδός, ὁ -μὲν περιστρέφεται κηρύττων· χαλκῆν μυῖαν θηράσω· οἱ δὲ ἀποκρινάμενοι, -θηράσεις ἀλλ’ οὐ λήψει, σκύτεσι βιβλίνοις παίουσιν αὐτόν, ἕως τινὸς -αὐτῶν λήψεται. One child was blindfolded and was obliged to capture -one of the rest. With outstretched arms he groped about, repeating -the words χαλκῆν μυῖαν θράσσω, “I will hunt a brazen fly.” The others -responded θράσσεις ἀλλ’ οὐ λήψει, “you will hunt, but you will not -catch,” and at the same time struck him more or less lightly with whips -or threads of papyrus. When one of them was caught, he was blindfolded -in place of the other, and the game repeated. - -A game called χυτρίνδα (_Pollux_ ix, 110-113) demanded great dexterity -on the part of the player. One child sat in the middle and was called -χύτρα. The others ran round him, pinching or striking him until by a -quick movement he managed to catch one of them, who was obliged to take -his place and be the χύτρα in turn. Sometimes the child ran about in a -circle, carrying on his head a jar which he held with his left hand. -His companions would strike him while asking him the question, τίς -τὴν χύτραν; (who has the jar?), to which he answered, ἐγὼ, Μίδας (I, -Midas). If he touched one of the children with his foot, that child had -to take his place. - -The term χυνδαλισμός (_Pollux_ ix, 120) was applied to a juvenile play, -which somewhat resembled our peg-top. The game consisted in flinging -short, pointed poles into the earth, in the following manner. The first -child holds his pole, directed downward, and then throws it so as to -leave it standing upright in the ground. The second child then tries to -throw his pole in such a way as to upset the first one and leave his -own standing in its place. The former player then tries his skill, and -so on. The arm and eye are especially trained in this game, which is -still played in some countries, generally in the spring when the ground -is soft. - -A game especially suited to develop attention was the following. The -players formed a ring: One of them was provided with a cord which he -tried to place beside another child without being detected in the act. -If he succeeded in doing this, the one beside whom the cord was found -had to run round the ring amid the blows of his playfellows; if, on the -other hand, he had noticed the other when putting the cord there, that -one would have been obliged to run round the ring himself. - -A game resembling the modern jack-stones, in which five pebbles were -flung from the back of the hand and caught in the palm in falling, -was played under the name of πεντάλιθος. This game was much in favor -with Hellenic women, as well as with children, and was said to be the -favorite amusement of the famous beauty, Phryne of Athens. - -The game of king (βασιλίνδα) consisted of feats, done by one child at -the bidding of another, as a soldier would obey a king. Who should be -king and who soldier was decided by lot. - -A favorite pastime with children was the game called ἀρτιασμός or “Odd -and Even” (_Pollux_ ix, 101), in which they guessed whether the number -of objects one held concealed in his hand was odd or even. Dice, nuts, -coins, etc., were used for this purpose. The amount won or lost was -either the articles themselves or a sum of money staked upon the guess. -Horace also in the Satires alludes to this game under the name _ludere -par impar_ (_Satires_ 2, 3; 248). Still another game of guessing was -κολλαβισμός, in which a child, with closed eyes, guessed who had given -him a box on the ears, and also which hand he had used in striking him. - -Greek children often played at the game called “hunt the slipper” -(σχοινοφιλίνδα), a piece of rope being used instead of the slipper. The -modern “hide and seek” was the Greek ἀποδιδρασκίνδα. “Kiss in the ring” -(κυνητίνδα) is another ancient game of which, however, we possess no -correct details. “Ride a cock horse” (κάλαμου περιβῆναι) was also an -amusement of great antiquity, and was very popular both in Greece and -in Rome. Horace in the Satires (2, 3: 248) refers to this sport in the -following words: _equitare in arundine longa_. - -The Greek and Roman children played several games of skill with nuts, -which resembled very closely our modern game of marbles. Nuts played -so important a part in childish sports that _nuces relinquere_ became -a proverbial expression for “putting away childish things.” The nuts -were pitched into a circle drawn on the ground called ὤμιλλα (_Pollux_ -ix, 102-3) or into a hole βόθρος dug in the ground. Those that fell -outside the circle were forfeited. The name delta was given to a -certain game with nuts in which a triangle was chalked on the ground, -and marked across with lines or bars running parallel to the base. The -player then flipped nuts into the triangle, winning as many nuts as -he crossed bars, provided, of course, that they did not roll outside -the triangle, in which case they were forfeited. Therefore, the most -skilful play consisted in driving the nut exactly to the apex of the -triangle. - -The ball (σφαῖρα) was not only a favorite toy among children, but it -also played an important part in the physical exercises of youths and -adults. No other gymnastic exercise was so popular among the Greeks -and Romans of different periods as the ball games, though regarded -less as a game than as an exercise for strengthening the muscles and -cultivating grace and symmetry of body. - -They were a favorite pastime in the Heroic age of the Hellenes as well -as in later times when Greece was at the height of its glory. The -Romans of the old Republic, and even in the reign of the emperors, -also sought recreation in ball-playing. The continued favor which -ball-playing enjoyed is sufficient proof of its benefit to the body. -The earliest mention of ball-playing is found in two passages of the -Odyssey (vi, 100; viii, 370; compare _Athen._ i, 15, c. Plutarch, -_Alex._ c. 73). In the second passage, Homer represents ball-tossing as -an adjunct to the dance. The game was accompanied by music and Odysseus -was surprised at the marvelous dexterity of the players. - -“And now Alcinoüs called on Halius and Laodamas to dance alone, for -with them none could vie. So taking in their hands a goodly purple -ball, which skilful Polybius had made them, one, bending backward, -flung it toward the dusky clouds; the other, leaping upward from the -earth, easily caught the ball before his feet touched ground again. -Then after they had tried the ball straight in the air, they danced -upon the bounteous earth with tossings to and fro. Other young men beat -time for them, standing round the ring, and a loud sound of stamping -arose. Then to Alcinoüs said royal Odysseus: ‘Mighty Alcinoüs, renowned -of all, you boasted that your dancers were the best, and now it is -proved true. I am amazed to see.’” (Palmer’s translation.) This choric -ball-playing was very popular at Sparta (_Athenaios_ i, 246), and long -survived. - -The beautiful princess, Nausicaä (_Od._ vi, 100), and her companions -accompanied their game by singing, and the women of Corcyra at a later -period are said to have followed this ancient custom. (_Athen._ i. 24 -_b_.) At Sparta and Sicyonia ball-playing was also accompanied by music. - -The Athenians were so fond of ball-playing that they bestowed the -right of citizenship on Aristonikos of Karystos and erected pillars -in his honor, because he was so skilled and graceful a player. The -Spartans held this game in as high estimation as did the Athenians, and -to them is attributed the invention of ball games. Among the kings of -Greece, Alexander is mentioned as favoring ball-playing. - -In one of his plays, Πλυντρίαι, which was received with great favor, -Sophocles introduced Nausicaä at play with a ball. Only the Milesians, -who were devoted to agonistic contests, disdained ball-playing, as -it did not tend to increase athletic ability and was of no value in -helping them to win prizes in the public games. Balls are found carved -on ancient monuments and tombs, especially on those of physicians, as -ball-playing was a form of gymnastics, and gymnastics as a foundation -for dietetics was a part of medicine. A gymnasium was not considered -complete without having a special room, called the σφαιριστήριον, -devoted to the games of ball. A special instructor (σφαιριστικός) who -had made a scientific study of the games was appointed to superintend -this exercise, for it required much skill and practice for one to -become an expert in this branch of gymnastics. - -The Romans were especially fond of ball-playing and considered it a -pleasant pastime for men rather than for boys. Cato the Elder enjoyed -a game of ball on the Field of Mars on the same day that he received -the refusal of the consulate (_Oratio pro Archia Poeta_ _c._ 6, §6). -Cicero, however, in a public speech, decried ball-playing along with -banquets and games of dice. The emperor, Augustus, enjoyed a game of -ball. Pliny, the younger, relates that the aged Spurinna wrestled with -old age by indulging in ball-playing. At the time of the emperors a -game at ball was the most common exercise practised immediately before -bathing in the σφαιριστήριον (ball-court) connected with the bath. - -The Hellenes practised this exercise entirely naked or in light -undress. The Romans, on the other hand, never disrobed during the game, -except in the σφαιριστήριον and probably not always even there. - -There were many different ways of playing at ball. Definite -descriptions of some have been handed down to us, but of others we know -simply by name. Pollux, Hesychios, Photios and Eustathios consider -the game called οὐρανία to be identical with that practised by the -Phæacians, as in this, according to Homer’s description, the body -was bent backward and the ball was thrown high up into the air. The -players then tried to catch the ball before it touched the ground. - -The game called ἐπίσκυρος (_Pollux_ ix, 104) at first peculiar to -Sparta, was very popular and took its name from the line σκῦρος which -separated the two divisions. On either side of this line and parallel -with it were drawn two base lines (γραμμαὶ κατόπιν) beyond which the -players could not go in catching the ball. The latter was placed -upon the σκῦρος (whence the name ἐπίσκυρος) and the players started -simultaneously from their respective base lines. Whoever seized the -ball first, threw it as far as he could toward the enemies’ base -line. The object, of course, was to force the line of enemies back, -by constantly returning the ball further and further over their heads -until they were driven over their own base lines. In this case a swift -runner must have had a great advantage over the others, by securing the -first throw. - -A favorite game is described by the term (φαινίνδα). The peculiar -feature of this game was that the player who held the ball appeared -to aim it at a certain person, but really threw it in an entirely -different direction, thus disappointing one contestant and surprising -another. This game is said to have demanded the utmost dexterity of a -flexible, elastic body. It also allowed a skilful player to display -a fine carriage and much grace, as may be seen in the description of -Damoxenos by Athenaios (_Athen._ i, 15, 7). - -Νεανίας τις ἐσφαίριζεν εἷς ... ὃς ἐπεί ποτ’ ἐμβλέψειε τοῖς καθημένοις, -ἢ λαμβάνων τὴν σφαῖραν, ἢ διδοὺς, ἅμα πάντες ἐβοῶμεν. - -ἤ τ’ εὐρυθμία, τό τ’ ἦθος, ἡ τάξις θ’ ὅση ἐν τῷ τι πράττειν ἢ λέγειν -ἐφαίνετο, πέρας τι κάλλους ἄνδρες· οὔτ’ ἀκήκοα ἔμπροσθεν οὔθ’ ἑώρακα -τοιαύτην χάριν, ἐσφαίριζε δ’ οὐκ ἀηδῶς, καὶ Κτησίβιος ὁ Χαλκιδεὺς -φιλόσοφος. - -The ἁρπαστόν was the name of a certain game at ball much in favor with -the Greeks and also with the Romans of the time of the emperors. It -required skill in throwing, rapidity of movement, power of estimating -distance, as well as great care in catching the ball. The name of -the game indicates that each player tried to prevent the other from -catching it. This game is very frequently mentioned by Martialis, and -according to him it was also played by women. - -The term ἀπόῤῥαξις was given to a certain ancient game at ball in which -the ball was thrown to the ground with great force and continually -struck back with the hand, as it rebounded. The number of times the -ball was forced to the ground was counted. The victor was called king -and could order the others about. The loser was called donkey (ὄνος). -In another form of the game the point was to keep tossing the ball up -into the air as long as possible with the open hand. - -According to Oribasios, Antyllos at a later period reduced ball-playing -to a system, from a dietetic point of view. He made four divisions -according to the size and kind of ball used, and which he described -in detail. Galen also wrote exhaustively on the ball games, which he -considered of great importance on account of the benefit which they -imparted to the mental and physical powers. - -In connection with these various ball games, they practised a peculiar -gymnastic exercise with the κώρυκος, a leathern sack that must have -resembled the modern punching bag on which pugilists try their fists. -In form it resembled a ball, but in size and weight far surpassed the -largest and heaviest ball. The κώρυκος was filled with fig seeds, meal -or sand, and its size varied according to the age and strength of the -individual. It hung from the ceiling so as to reach to about the middle -of the player’s body. The bag was to be kept in increasingly rapid -motion by swinging it to and fro with the breast and hands. The game is -alluded to by Plautus (_Rud._ iii, 4, 16). This sport cannot properly -be styled a ball game, although it resembled one in some respects. -Athletes also engaged in this game, and the ancient physicians regarded -this exercise as very beneficial, because it not only strengthened the -muscles and nerves, but also tended to prevent corpulency. - -There are no records in classical literature to show that the Greeks -and Romans used the bat or racquet in any of their games. - -At the early age of seven, the Spartan child was initiated into -disciplinary exercises of a severe character. At that age he came -under the charge of the παιδονόμος; this official was, in conformance -with the direction of Lykourgos, one of the best citizens; he was -expected to discipline the youth in all the exercises that were so -nicely adapted to develop the Spartan citizen, and to teach him all the -cunning and courage that would afterwards be required in his service of -the state. - -In Attica a far different pedagogical scheme presents itself. When -children reached a proper age, the training of mothers and nurses -was succeeded by that of the school; hither they were conducted each -day by the παιδαγωγός, a special slave whose duty it was not only to -conduct the children to and from school, but also to supervise their -deportment. - -In the Athenian school, gymnastics (γυμναστική) was not by any means -the sole course of training. The curriculum in fact included three -distinct courses: - (1) γραμματική. - (2) μουσική. - (3) γυμναστική. -Under γραμματική were included reading and writing, to which were added -after the 4th century B. C. elementary geometry, arithmetic and drawing. - -When the child was able to read and write with facility, he entered -on the course called μουσική, which embraced the study of poetry and -music. Passages from Homer, Hesiod, Theognis, Phokylides, and Solon, -and from many lyric poets, were read and committed to memory. Xenophon -mentions in his Symposium (_Symp._ iii, 5) a certain Nikeratos who -had committed to memory the whole of both the Iliad and the Odyssey. -The boys were also taught to chant the poems they had learned to the -accompaniment of the lyre. Much stress was laid on the moral effects of -music. - -But from no system of Greek education was γυμναστική, the careful -and systematic development of the young body excluded. Nor did this -training cease in mature years; when young men left the palæstra, they -found awaiting them the gymnasium,--an institution that was adapted to -social as well as athletic purposes. - -Nor did any Greek philosopher, as might, perhaps, be expected, ever -dream of dropping γυμναστική from his ideal scheme. In the Laws of -Plato there is a detailed discussion of the education of children, and -the plan is therein advocated of restricting the education of boys to -gymnastics until their tenth year; the regular study of letters was -not to begin until after the body had been made sound. Aristotle also -maintained that gymnastic training should precede as well as accompany -that of the mind. - -Enough has been said to show that the Hellenic ideal of manhood was -not the mere scholar and subtle thinker, but the naked athlete with -firm flesh and swelling muscle. It may be asserted that the mass of -their young men reached during the best age of Greek history a stage -of physical perfection which has never been attained in any other age -or country. This is attested by thousands of statues of victorious -athletes, not only in Olympia but throughout Greece. Although the -Greeks had no cricket or football they had on the other hand a far -greater variety of games than we have, and this variety made for the -symmetrical development of the body. The athletic sports of Greece -remained great and respected until excessive training and extreme -specialization brought ruin to them; that is, when a boxer devoted -all his time to boxing, and a wrestler to wrestling at the expense of -a harmonious development of the body. The influence of the old Greek -games upon sculpture, painting and poetry, as well as upon athletics, -will continue to keep alive for centuries to come the ideal of a sound -body for a sound mind. - - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - - -The following inconsistencies and typos were corrected: - - Changed +accidently+ to +accidentally+ in “he accidentally killed by - an unlucky throw”. - - Changed +greeves+ to +greaves+ in “helmet, corselet, girdle, greaves - and shield”. - - Changed +greeves+ to +greaves+ in “The greaves, which were made of - flexible metal plates”. - - Changed +ox hide+ to +oxhide+ in “layers of tough oxhide”. - - Changed +Mycenæn+ to +Mycenæan+ in “pictured on Mycenæan gems”. - - Changed +subtile+ to +subtle+ in “Only by subtle inferences”. - - Changed +Pausanius+ to +Pausanias+ in “old Greek traveller Pausanias”. - - Changed +Pausanius+ to +Pausanias+ in “Pausanias claims to have seen”. - - Changed +Pausanius+ to +Pausanias+ in “according to Pausanias died”. - - Changed +Phæcians+ to +Phæacians+ in “the Phæacians, a light-hearted - people”. - - Changed +Pausanius+ to +Pausanias+ in “Pausanias describes them”. - - Changed +Pausanius+ to +Pausanias+ in “Pausanias especially mentions”. - - Changed +Phayllos+ to +Phaÿllos+ in “Phaÿllos of Rhegium is said”. - - Changed +Hippodrom+ to +Hippodrome+ in “a separate race-course, - called the Hippodrome”. - - Changed +Mycenean+ to +Mycenæan+ in “the prowess of Mycenæan boxers”. - - Changed +ox-hide+ to +oxhide+ in “strips of undressed oxhide”. - - Changed +ἁγραύλοιο+ to +ἀγραύλοιο+ in “ἱμάντας ἐϋτμήτους βοὸς - ἀγραύλοιο”. - - Changed +ox-hide+ to +oxhide+ in “made of raw oxhide”. - - Changed +ὠθιομοί+ to +ὠθισμοί+ in “The following Greek words, - ὠθισμοί, περιπλοκαί, λυγισμοί”. - - Changed +advsied+ to +advised+ in “and advised that it be practised”. - - Changed +ρόμβος+ to +ῥόμβος+ in “βέμβηξ, βέμβιξ, ῥόμβος, στρόβιλος”. - - Changed +Plutrach+ to +Plutarch+ in “Cato the Younger also, says - Plutarch”. - - Changed +ἔλκειν+ to +ἕλκειν+ in “the phrase σκαπέρδαν ἕλκειν”. - - Changed +ταινία+ to +ταινίᾳ+ in “ταινίᾳ τὼ ὀφθαλμὼ περισφίγξαντες - ἑνὸς παιδός”. - - Changed +ἐνὸς+ to +ἑνὸς+ in “ταινίᾳ τὼ ὀφθαλμὼ περισφίγξαντες ἑνὸς - παιδός”. - - Changed +ἔως+ to +ἕως+ in “ἕως τινὸς αὐτῶν λήψεται”. - - Changed +περιβήναι+ to +περιβῆναι+ in “κάλαμου περιβῆναι”. - - Changed +ὥμιλλα+ to +ὤμιλλα+ in “a circle drawn on the ground called - ὤμιλλα”. - - Changed +Nausicaa+ to +Nausicaä+ in “introduced Nausicaä at play with - a ball”. - - Changed +recieved+ to +received+ in “he received the refusal of the - consulate”. - - Changed +ἐσφαίριζειν+ to +ἐσφαίριζεν+ in “Νεανίας τις ἐσφαίριζεν - εἷς”. - - Changed +ἀνδῶς+ to +ἀηδῶς+ in “δ’ οὐκ ἀηδῶς”. - - Changed +κτησίβιος+ to +Κτησίβιος+ in “καὶ Κτησίβιος ὁ Χαλκιδεὺς - φιλόσοφος”. - - Changed +ὄνοξ+ to +ὄνος+ in “was called donkey (ὄνος)”. - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ATHLETICS AND GAMES OF THE ANCIENT -GREEKS *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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