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diff --git a/old/64922-0.txt b/old/64922-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 106e1cf..0000000 --- a/old/64922-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8968 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of Pyrotechnics, by A. St. H. Brock - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: Pyrotechnics - The History and Art of Firework Making - -Author: A. St. H. Brock - -Release Date: March 25, 2021 [eBook #64922] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -Produced by: Robert Tonsing and The Online Distributed Proofreading Team - at https://www.pgdp.net - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PYROTECHNICS *** -[Illustration: - FEU D’ARTIFICE À VERSAILLES POUR LE MARIAGE DU DAUPHIN, 1735. - - FROM A WATER-COLOUR DRAWING BY MOREL TORRÉ. - - _Front Endpaper._] - - - - - PYROTECHNICS - -[Illustration: Copyright. Brock. Sutton] [Frontispiece - - Display at the Tercentenary Fetes, Quebec, July 23rd, 1908. The - largest display ever fired in the Western Hemisphere. From a - drawing by C. M. Padday.] - - - - - PYROTECHNICS: - THE HISTORY AND ART - OF FIREWORK MAKING - BY A. St. H. BROCK, A.R.I.B.A. - - WITH NUMEROUS COLOURED - AND OTHER ILLUSTRATIONS - - LONDON: DANIEL O’CONNOR - 90 GREAT RUSSELL STREET, W.C.1 - MCMXXII - - - - - Dedicated - to the memory of - my brother - Wing-Commander - Frank Arthur Brock, R.N.A.S. - Killed at Zeebrugge - April 23rd, 1918 - - - - - . . . . . . . . . . . be bright and busy - While hoaxed astronomers look up and stare - From tall observatories, dumb and dizzy, - To see a Squib in Cassiopeia’s Chair! - A Serpent wriggling into Charles’s Wain! - A Roman Candle lighting the Great Bear! - A Rocket tangled in Diana’s train, - And Crackers stuck in Berenice’s Hair! - - Ode to Madame Hengler, Firework-maker to Vauxhall - By THOMAS HOOD. - - - - - CONTENTS - - - PART I - - CHAPTER PAGE - - Introduction xiii - - I The Origin of Pyrotechny 3 - - II Pyrotechny in the East 6 - - III Pyrotechny in Europe 13 - - IV Pyrotechny in Europe (_continued_) 23 - - V London Pleasure Gardens 32 - - VI Fireworks in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries 39 - - VII Firework Manufacture 57 - - VIII Modern Firework Manufacture 69 - - IX Firework Accidents 77 - - - PART II - - I Simple Fireworks, Rocket Class 91 - - II Simple Fireworks, Shell Class 103 - - III Simple Fireworks, Mine Class 110 - - IV Simple Fireworks, Saxon and Lance Classes 116 - - V Compound Fireworks 121 - - VI Compound Fireworks (_continued_) 131 - - VII Firework Compositions 136 - - VIII Modern Firework Compositions 144 - - IX Military Pyrotechny 152 - - X Military Pyrotechny in the Great War 164 - - XI The Civil Use of Fireworks 175 - - List of the Principal Ingredients used in Pyrotechny at the - present time 181 - - Pyrotechnic Bibliography 182 - - Index 187 - - - - - LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS - - - _To face page_ - - Firework Display at Quebec. From a drawing by C. M. - Padday _Frontispiece_ - - Six Coloured Japanese Prints of Fireworks manufactured - by Messrs. Hirayama of Yokohama 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12 - - Facsimile Title Page of John Bate’s “Second Booke,” 1635 16 - - A Display of the Earliest Type (_c._ 1650) 18 - - Set Piece of the Scenic Type 20 - - Firework Display at Nuremberg, 1650 22 - - Great Firework Display near Stockholm, 1669 24 - - Fireworks on the Thames, 1688 28 - - Firework Display given by the Duke of Richmond, 1749 30 - - Firework Temple at Vauxhall, 1845 36 - - Fireworks at Versailles, 1855, from a drawing by Gustav Doré 44 - - The Grand Whim for Posterity to laugh at, 1749 46 - - A Full-size Picture of the Jumma Musjid in Fireworks at } - the Crystal Palace, 1892 } - Firework Display for the Coronation Durbar at Delhi, } 50 - January 3rd, 1903 } - - A Crystal Palace Set Piece at the time of the South African War 52 - - Panorama of the Aerial Effects in the National Display at - Hyde Park, 1919 56 - - The Explosion at Madame Cotton’s Firework Factory, 1858 66 - - Programme of Experiments with Fireworks at Nunhead, 1872 68 - - Modern Firework Tools 72 - - Types of Modern Fireworks 90 - - Cracker Making 92 - - Rocket Manufacture, from Frézier’s “Feu d’Artifice,” 1747 94 - - Manner of making and representing Flowers, etc., in the Chinese - Fireworks, from the “Universal Magazine” of 1764 100 - - An Old Firework Bill:—Programme of Mr. Brock’s Superior Fireworks - at Ipswich, 1818 114 - - Rocket Charging } 116 - Filling Roman Candles } - - Types of Compound Fireworks:—Lattice Poles, Chromatrope, - Lattice Diamond 128 - - A Display ready for Firing, Dresden, 1899 134 - - Diagram illustrating the evolution of Pyrotechnic Composition, - showing their periods of use 140 - - Roman Candles—illustrating brilliance of aluminium compositions 150 - - The Late Wing-Commander Brock, R.N.A.S. 166 - - Smoke Float in action 168 - - Crystal Palace—By the light of a Magnesium Shell 178 - - End Papers:—Feu d’artifice a Versailles pour le Mariage du Dauphin. - Two displays from the original watercolour drawings by Morel - Torré, 1735 - - - - - INTRODUCTION - - -The word “fireworks” as a metaphor, used either to describe the higher -flights of oratory, of literature, or of human strife, whether it be -in Parliament or the Parish Hall, or merely descriptive of domestic -discord, is familiar, even threadbare. - -Moreover, the metaphor has generally a humorous flavour; why is this? -Is there anything inherently comic about fireworks? It is true that for -a short season the less critical of the comic papers used the cracker -and squib as pegs upon which to hang the type of joke which depends for -its success on the atavistic human trait of laughing at the misfortune -or discomfort of others, but this is the lowest type of humour which -soon palls upon the mind. - -The Stage also has its comedy and clown, yet the mention of the stage -is not a signal for mirth. Can any who have heard the long-drawn Ah-h! -of rapture from many thousand throats, at the bursting of a flight of -shell, or the darting up of the wonderfully tinted rays of the “Magical -Illumination” at the Crystal Palace, maintain that the most dramatic -moment on the stage is more affecting to the spectators? - -Pyrotechny is possibly the only art which can compete with nature; -anyone who has seen a first-class firework display will admit that for -impressive grandeur, colour effects, and contrasts of light and shade, -pyrotechny is unapproached. - -Pyrotechny paints on the canvas of the sky; and the results are at once -the joy and despair of the artist. Many artists have tried to record -their impressions, but the results have been generally disappointing. -Whistler came near success, but even his wonderful work conveys merely -the dying embers of passed glory. One feels that here has been a -magnificent display, but the scene in its full grandeur is not depicted. - -One of the few black-and-white artists who can approach the subject -with some success is Mr. C. M. Padday, an example of whose work is -reproduced in the following pages. His success comes from a careful -study of the subject, both technically and from the point of view of -composition. - -That fireworks are popular there is no doubt; no form of amusement is -capable of giving enjoyment to so many people at one time; there is -no entertainment which so appeals to youth and age of all classes and -tastes. And yet it is doubtful if there is an industry concerning which -the public at large is so profoundly ignorant. - -To the average onlooker any firework which rises in the air is -a rocket, any that revolve are catherine wheels; both of these -assumptions are incorrect. - -What is the average conception of a firework factory? A building, let -us say, in which workmen, with sleeves rolled up, are busily engaged in -shovelling heaps of gunpowder. How many know that a firework factory -consists of dozens of small buildings, the construction of which is -exactly defined by law, separated by spaces also specified by law; that -workmen may not roll up their sleeves in the danger buildings; or that -the amount of gunpowder in each building is strictly limited to a small -quantity? All of these restrictions being enforced with the view, of -course, of limiting the effects of any explosion that may occur. - -So far as I am aware, no history of the art has yet been written. It is -true that during the nineteenth century many text-books on pyrotechny -were written, but the historical side of the subject has been generally -represented by a few disjointed remarks in the prefaces. - -My object has not been to write a text-book on firework-making, but -rather to trace the art from earliest times, and to give a description -of the development and process of manufacture. For those interested -in the subject, and desiring fuller information, the list of MSS. and -books given in the Bibliography at the end of this volume may be found -useful. - -My excuse for adding another volume to the literature of the art is -that I am of the eighth generation of a family of pyrotechnists, whose -work, I venture to claim, has not been without its effect. If I succeed -in interesting, and in some degree enlightening, my readers, I shall -feel I have not written in vain; if I fail, I shall know it is not in -my choice of subject but in my capacity for dealing with it. - - A. St. H. BROCK. - -Sutton, - _August, 1922_. - - - - - ERRATA - - - Page 117 line 13 for “filled” _read_ “fitted” - „ 133 „ 8 „ “and” „ “at” - „ 153 } - „ 154 } for “Hume” _read_ “Hime” - - - - - PART I - -[Illustration] - - - - - CHAPTER I - - THE ORIGIN OF PYROTECHNY - - -Pyrotechny, or the Art of Firework-making, is of great antiquity, and -the date of its origin is quite unknown; indeed, it would be impossible -to define with any degree of exactitude what actually constitutes a -firework. - -It is curious how universal is the belief that fireworks were dependent -upon the invention or discovery of gunpowder. Very little consideration -will prove the fallacy of this view; in fact, will show that the -reverse is probably the case. In India and China saltpetre (or nitrate -of potash) is found in large quantities, and was, no doubt, used by -the primitive inhabitants in far-off times for such purposes as curing -meat, cooking, etc. The dropping of a quantity in the camp fire may -have attracted the attention of some early inventor to the extent of -starting him on a series of what were probably the earliest chemical -experiments. - -He would notice that the presence of saltpetre made the fire burn -brighter, and its use as a tinder maker would suggest itself by mixing -it with some substance which he knew to be combustible. The most common -fuel he knew of was wood, but it must be a powder to mix evenly with -saltpetre. Wood is not easily reduced to powder; saws had not been -invented, so that he could not add sawdust, and the nearest thing -he could get would be charcoal from the fire, which could easily be -reduced to powder. With this mixture he would be well on the way to -success in elementary pyrotechny. - -The next step in his career as the first pyrotechnist is to utilise his -composition as an easy means of making fire. Gradually he gives up his -hitherto necessary tasks of hunting and trapping, as he receives the -fruits of other labours in return for his services as fire-maker to the -tribe. - -The most important item in early social life is fire, the implements -for producing it the most valued property of the tribe; it was the -focus of religion and the centre of daily existence, so that any new -phenomenon connected with fire would be of the greatest interest to -primitive people, and any short cut to the production of fire would be -accorded more perseverance and care in its perfection than almost any -other invention. - -Fire would be struck with a piece of iron pyrites on a flint, small -pieces of reguline particles of iron would be detached and fall on the -fire mixture unlit. Afterwards, when combustion of the mass of fire -mixture took place, these small pieces of metal would scintillate as do -the iron filings in a modern firework composition. This would give rise -to a further series of experiments, and gradually the composition known -as Chinese Fire would be evolved, which is known to have been in use in -the East from remote times. - -Having arrived at a pyrotechnic composition, attempt to use it in -other ways besides fire-making would naturally follow, and sooner or -later the idea of filling the mixture into tubes would suggest itself, -especially as both in India and China (in one of which countries -pyrotechny undoubtedly originated) a serviceable tube—or to use the -modern term “case”—was ready to hand in any size or quantity in the -ubiquitous bamboo. The bamboo is in use for the purpose at the present -day in the East, and until recent times, when displaced by European -weapons, was used in the construction of ordnance of considerable size. -Mortars used for throwing firework shell up to six or more inches in -diameter are still in use in Japan and China, the barrel consisting of -a section of bamboo strengthened on the outside with a binding of -split cane. - -[Illustration] - -Having reached the point of charging composition into a tube, that is -to say confining it, a more or less violent explosion was likely or -rather certain to follow during the course of the experiments, which -might suggest the use of a tube as a means of discharging a projectile. -This would lead to research in the direction of the best composition -for the purpose and the evolution of gunpowder. - -It must be remembered that the constituents of gunpowder must be -present in approximately exact proportion, whereas with primitive -pyrotechnic compositions, if the ingredients saltpetre and charcoal are -present, it is almost impossible to fail in getting some result. - -The above suggestion must not be taken literally as a statement of -fact, but rather as an attempt on the part of the writer to trace the -stages by which pyrotechnic and explosive compositions came to be -evolved. - -If one disabuses one’s mind of the curiously widespread belief that -all fireworks are composed chiefly of gunpowder, and that without the -invention of gunpowder fireworks could not have been constructed, it -seems far more likely that pyrotechny is based on the discovery of the -assistance given to combustion by saltpetre, than on the discovery of -gunpowder. - - - - - CHAPTER II - - PYROTECHNY IN THE EAST - - -Pyrotechny undoubtedly had its genesis in the East, and for that reason -we will deal with its development there first. As he has intended -to convey, the writer is strongly of opinion that the discovery of -pyrotechnic compositions antedated that of gunpowder. In many cases -earlier writers have discovered passages which they consider prove the -use of firearms and gunpowder; in reality these refer to Greek-fire and -similar compositions, which were used as projectiles, being thrown from -machines or catapults, and not as propellants. Gunpowder as a mixture -of ingredients may have been known from remote times, as undoubtedly -were other simple pyrotechnic compositions, but all evidence goes to -show that its use as a propellant was not known until well into the -Christian Era. - -The composition Greek-fire, known in ancient times as “naphtha,” was -a mixture of pitch, resin, and sulphur, with the addition in some -cases of crude saltpetre. It may be considered that in the absence of -the latter ingredient the mixture does not constitute a pyrotechnic -composition, but from the description of the use of “naphtha” in early -writings, it appears at least likely that it was generally present. - -The fire was either enclosed in hollow stones or iron vessels, and -thrown from a catapult, or sometimes filled into the end of arrows and -assisted to propel them forward or sustain their flight. - -Philostratus (170–250 A.D.), writing of the Indian Campaign of -Alexander the Great (B.C. 326), relates that the inhabitants of a -town on the river Hyphasis (Beas) “defended themselves by means -of lightning and thunder, which darted upon their besiegers.” This -has been considered as evidence of the use of firearms, but is more -probably the first reference to Greek-fire. Greek-fire or “naphtha” was -used at the defence of Constantinople between 660 and 667. - -[Illustration] - -At the siege of Pian-King Lo-Yang (1232), as mentioned in the Chinese -Annals, iron pots were thrown containing a burning substance which -could spread fire over half an acre, and described by the historians as -the “thunder which shakes heaven.” - -The Mongolians attacking Bagdad in the year 1258 made use of similar -vessels, also fire arrows. Marco Polo, describing sieges of towns in -China 1268 to 1273, mentions the throwing of fire. - -In most of the early records although noise is remarked upon, it is -apparently while the projectile is in the air or upon impact; this -disposes of the impression which many writers have formed that firearms -are referred to, there being no reference to an initial explosion. - -Sir George Stanton, writing in 1798 of his embassy to the Emperor of -China, says that “nitre (saltpetre) is the daily produce of China and -India, and there accordingly the knowledge of gunpowder seems coeval -with that of the most distant historic events. Among the Chinese it has -been applied at all times to useful purposes ... and to amusement in -making a vast variety of fireworks—but its force had not been directed -through strong metallic tubes, as it was by Europeans soon after they -had discovered that composition.” - -Although the place of origin of the art, pyrotechny has not developed -in the East as rapidly as in Europe, except in Japan. - -Japanese pyrotechnists, with that wonderful capacity for careful -and exact manual work which is so characteristic of the race, have -developed aerial fireworks, that is to say, the shell, to a remarkable -degree of perfection. The compositions used are not to be compared with -European manufactures in point of colour or brilliance, but the effects -obtained are extraordinary. The stars, upon the bursting of the shell, -are thrown out in symmetrical patterns and designs, several examples of -which are given in the accompanying Japanese colour prints. - -Daylight fireworks also originated in Japan. Instead of pyrotechnic -effects, the shell contains a grotesque balloon in the form of an -animal, human figure, or other form, which, being open and weighted -at the lower end, becomes inflated as it falls and remains in the air -for a considerable period. Other daylight effects are coloured clouds -formed by coloured powder, distributed by the bursting of the shell, -showers of streamers, confetti, and toys. - -Chinese firework displays have often been enthusiastically described -by travellers in China. Whether it is that the glamour of the East -distorts the perceptions, or that these travellers have not seen a -European firework display, there is no doubt that such descriptions -are, to say the least, over coloured. - -Chinese fire (a composition of saltpetre, iron filings, sulphur and -charcoal), a few simple colour compositions, and a large number of -Chinese crackers of varying sizes constitute a Chinese display; the -rest of the exhibition being eked out with lanterns, pictures, etc., -which certainly do not come under the heading of pyrotechnics. - -The writer once had an opportunity of witnessing a Chinese display of -some importance, lasting several hours, which produced the effect on -the mind of watching some performance or game of the rules of which one -was in entire ignorance. Pyrotechnically, only the crudest effects were -produced, the remainder of the display, consisting of such items as a -man slowly climbing a ladder carrying a lantern, was to the uninitiated -mystifying. - -[Illustration] - -The following is an account by a traveller in the early nineteenth -century of a Chinese display: “The fireworks, in some particulars,” -says he, “exceeded anything of the kind I had ever seen. In grandeur, -magnificence, and variety they were, I own, inferior to the Chinese -fireworks we had seen at Batavia, but infinitely superior in point of -novelty, neatness and ingenuity of contrivance. One piece of machinery -I greatly admired: a green chest, five feet square, was hoisted up by -a pulley fifty or sixty feet from the ground, the bottom of which was -so contrived as then suddenly to fall out, and make way for twenty -or thirty strings of lanterns, enclosed in a box, to descend from -it, unfolding themselves from one another by degrees, so as at last -to form a collection of full five hundred, each having a light of a -beautifully coloured flame burning brightly within it. This devolution -and development of lanterns was several times repeated, and at every -time exhibiting a difference of colour and figure. On each side was -a correspondence of smaller boxes, which opened in like manner as -the other, and let down an immense network of fire, with divisions -and compartments of various forms and dimensions, round and square, -hexagons, octagons, etc., which shone like the brightest burnished -copper, and flashed like prismatic lightnings, with every impulse of -the wind. The whole concluded with a volcano, or general explosion and -discharge of suns and stars, squibs, crackers, rockets and grenades, -which involved the gardens for an hour in a cloud of intolerable smoke. -The diversity of colour, with which the Chinese have the secret of -clothing their fire, seems one of the chief merits of their pyrotechny.” - -It will be seen that lanterns play an important part in the exhibition, -and that when the fireworks proper are reached, the result is an -“intolerable smoke.” - -Indian pyrotechnists are more advanced than their Chinese neighbours. -Firework displays carried out by them are nowadays more or less crude -attempts to reproduce European work. - -The writer has seen a set piece evidently intended to follow a fire -picture seen in a European display carried out by small wicks burning -in oil instead of the “lances,” as the small fireworks used to outline -the pictures are called in this country. - -In India as in China fireworks play a frequent part in religious and -civil ceremonies. In the former country, at certain festivals, a -primitive device for producing a series of reports is used. These are -called “adirvedis,” and consist of a series of short iron tubes fitted -to a wooden plank, charged with gunpowder and tamped with clay. - -At weddings, crackers are largely used under a variety of names, such -as Vengagvedi, Gola, Pataka or Koroo. To-day these are simple crackers -filled with country-made gunpowder or the imported Chinese crackers. -Formerly almost the only composition used was chlorate of potash and -one of the sulphides of arsenic. A favourite form consisted of a small -quantity of the two ingredients put together unmixed into a piece of -rag with some small stones or grit and tied. The resulting fireworks -were similar to the “throw-down” crackers sold in this country. - -Owing to the very large number of accidents caused by the casual -methods, both in manufacture and use, with this highly sensitive -composition, H.M. Chief Inspector of Explosives for India endeavoured, -in 1902, to secure its prohibition, as was done in this country in -1895, but it was not until 1910, when it had been established that -this composition was being used by anarchists, that it was finally -prohibited. - -The most successful effect produced by Hindoo pyrotechnists is the -“Tubri.” The composition is here known as Chinese fire, a mixture of -charcoal, saltpetre, sulphur and iron dust, charged into either bamboo -tubes or earthen pots. - -[Illustration] - -It is a common practice to fix a pot at either end of a long bamboo, -which is whirled quickly about by a performer; the result produced is -quite good, but seems rather to come under the heading of juggling than -that of pyrotechnics proper. As the pots are theoretically the wrong -shape for such a purpose, that is to say, a large mass of composition -is burning through a narrow orifice, premature explosions are frequent. -This want of theoretical knowledge is noticeable throughout, but such -incidents seem to be appreciated as part of the show. - -Another use of the earth pot is the “burusu,” a kind of red flare; the -composition used being sulphur, saltpetre, and nitrate of strontia. -Flare compositions are also used loose as in England, and are known as -“chandrajota” or “mahteb.” - -Abusavanani or Hawai, that is to say, rockets, are now made similarly -to those manufactured in Europe except a bamboo case is most generally -used, but formerly chlorate of potash and orpiment seem to have been -employed for this purpose. - -The firework shell under the name “out” is also manufactured very much -as in this country, except that the range of effects is very limited, -simple coloured stars being almost the only “garniture” used. - -In Siam it is a custom, and one apparently of considerable antiquity, -to celebrate certain religious festivals with firework displays. These -displays take place in the day-time, and take the form of discharges of -rockets, some of which are of very large size; a writer giving their -length, exclusive of the stick, as from 8 ft. to 10 ft. The case is -composed of a section of bamboo bound with string. The composition -consists of coarse native powder, of which from 20 lbs. to 30 lbs. is -often used in one case. The rocket stick, which is of bamboo, varying -from 20 ft. to 40 ft. in length, is gaily decorated with coloured -paper and tinsel and fitted with bamboo whistles. A rough scaffold is -erected from which to fire the rockets, and according to those who have -witnessed such exhibitions, considerable altitudes are reached by the -rockets in flight. As may be expected with such crude methods, mishaps -are of frequent occurrence. - -[Illustration] - - - - - CHAPTER III - - PYROTECHNY IN EUROPE - - -Pyrotechnic compositions and gunpowder are inextricably mixed together -in early European records; for our inquiries it will serve no useful -purpose to disentangle them, the latter being only a particular case -of the former. We will therefore deal with them together, taking the -evidence of the knowledge of one as that of both, as until gunpowder -is specifically mentioned as being used as a propellant in a gun or -similar weapon, there is nothing to distinguish it from any other -pyrotechnic composition. - -The earliest record of European pyrotechny is in Claudius’ account of -the public festivities during the consulate of Theodosius in the fourth -century A.D., in which he describes fire “which ran about in different -directions over the planks without burning or even charring them, and -which formed by their twisting and turning globes of fire.” - -Leo VI, Emperor of the East, in a work written about A.D. 900, says: -“We have divers ways of destroying the enemies’ ships, as by means of -fire prepared in tubes, from which they issue with a sound of thunder, -and with a fiery smoke that burns the vessels on which they are hurled. -A tube of tin must be put on the front of the ship to hurl this from.” - -The most interesting reference of an early date is supposed to have -been written by Marcus Graecus in his “Liber ignium ad comburendos -hostes” (Book of fires for burning up the enemy), in which he not only -gives the exact proportions of the compositions, but describes what -is virtually the modern cracker, and also a primitive form of rocket. -The case of the former was only partially filled, as with the jumping -cracker of to-day, and although the wording is not very explicit, it -was apparently bent in a similar way. - -The date of this work is a subject of controversy; some writers place -it as early as the eighth century, and it can only be said with -certainty that it is not later than 1280. The latter date is fixed by -the death of Albertus Magnus, who, in his book “De miribilibus mundi,” -from internal evidence, is obviously plagiarising the Liber Ignium. - -Friar Roger Bacon (1214–94), in two of his works, refers at least twice -to compositions containing saltpetre, powdered charcoal, and sulphur. -In one place he refers to fires that “shall burn at what distance we -please”; in another to “thunder and corruscations,” which references -seem to suggest that he is describing something of a pyrotechnic nature -rather than the simple effect of gunpowder. His description in no way -indicates that he claimed to be the inventor, but rather as something -well known before. - -Dr. Jebb, in his preface to Bacon’s “Opus Majus,” refers to what seems -to be an early example of both the rocket and the cracker. - -Dutens, in his “Inquiries into the Origin of the discoveries attributed -to the Moderns” (1790), makes reference to many early writers, which -are mostly so vague and exaggerated that no definite conclusion can be -drawn from them; most refer to the early uses of Greek-fire or similar -composition. - -Don Pedro, Bishop of Leon, says that “in 1343, in a sea combat between -the King of Tunis and the Moorish King of Seville ... those of Tunis -had certain iron tubes or barrels wherewith they threw thunderbolts of -fire.” - -This description, if accurate, may be thought to suggest the use of -cannons, but it is more likely to refer to the use of Greek-fire; -this composition will, in certain proportions, if charged into a -strong tube, give intermittent bursts, projecting blazing masses of -the mixture to a considerable distance. The writer has seen this -effect produced in a steel mortar of 5½ inches diameter, the masses of -composition being thrown a distance of upwards of a hundred yards, a -considerable range in the days of close warfare. Anyone who has seen -this phenomenon will at once realise that here probably is the true -solution of many obscure early references to explain which so much -ingenuity has been expended. - -An interesting fact which seems to have escaped the notice of writers -on this subject is that Theresa, daughter of Alfonso V. King of Leon -and the Asturias (A.D. 999), when married to Abdallah, King of Toledo, -took for device on her coat of arms a mortar in which a powder is being -pounded. This powder is supposed to represent gunpowder, a supposition -which is supported by the motto, “Minima maxima fecit” (A little makes -much). If gunpowder is intended, this must be one of the earliest -references to its quality of exploding, and it is difficult to explain -the meaning otherwise. - -Richard Cœur de Lion used Greek-fire on his galley at the siege of Acre -in 1191, and it is thought by many that it was introduced into Western -Europe by the Crusaders, who had learned its use in the East. - -Alfonso Duke of Ferrara had as his coat of arms a bomb-shell in flight, -and Antoine de Lalaing, Count of Hooghstraeten, had a bomb-shell -exploding in water. The adoption of these two devices at about the same -time (1540) seems to indicate that this projectile was coming into use, -that is to say, for military purposes at least. - -An early reference to shell appears in Stowe’s Chronicles (1565). He -mentions two foreigners, Peter Brand and Peter Van Cullen, a gunsmith, -in the employ of Henry VIII (A.D. 1546), who “caused to be made -certain mortar pieces being at the mouth eleven inches unto nineteen -inches wide, for the use whereof to be made certain hollow shot of -cast-iron, to be stuffed with firework or wild-fire, whereof the bigger -sort for the same had screws of iron to receive a match to carry fire -kindled, that the firework might be set on fire for to break in pieces -the same hollow shot, whereof the smallest piece hitting any man would -kill or spoil him.” The missile is to all intents the firework shell of -the present day, except that the modern shell has a papier-maché case. - -The reference to “firework” without further explanation seems to -indicate that by this time the word was well established in use. -Shakespeare makes three references to fireworks. In “Love’s Labour’s -Lost,” Act V, Scene 1, Don Armado says: “The King would have me present -the Princess with some delightful entertainment, or show, or pageant, -or antic, or firework.” In “Henry VIII,” Act I, Scene 3, we read of -“fights and fireworks”; and again in “King John,” Act II, Scene 1: -“What cracker is this same that deafs our ears?” - -However, nothing in the nature of a firework display appears to have -taken place, at least in this country, before the time of Elizabeth. - -The use of fire for theatrical purposes, as in Mystery Plays to -represent the “gate of Hell,” has been taken by some to refer to -fireworks, but this seems doubtful as flames are mentioned, and it is -more probable that a torch or similar contrivance was used. - -When, however, we read a description of a barge at the coronation of -Anne Boleyn, in 1538, carrying a dragon “casting forth wild fire—and -men casting fire,” the reference to some pyrotechnic effect, however -primitive, seems fairly obvious. - -The men performers may be considered as early types of the “green -man” who made his appearance somewhat later. The office of this -performer was to head processions carrying “fire clubs” and scattering -“fireworks” (probably sparks) to clear the way. - -One account of a procession to the Chester Races on St. George’s Day, -1610, commences as follows: “Two men in green ivy, set with work upon -their other habit, with black hair and black beards, very ugly to -behold, and garlands upon their heads, with great clubs in their hands, -with fireworks to scatter abroad to maintain the way for the rest of -the show.” - -The fire clubs referred to are described in John Bate’s book, published -in 1635; the same writer illustrates a “green man” on the title page of -his work. - -[Illustration: Facsimile Title-page of Bate’s Book, showing a - “Green Man.”] - -Regarding the origin of the Green Man, it has been suggested that the -character was evolved from the wild men, satyrs, monsters, etc., which -appeared in the earlier exhibitions. This may or may not be so, but -another explanation suggested to the writer by an old Danish print of -the sixteenth century is at least plausible. - -This print, which apparently represents a floating firework device of -the old scenic type, shows two figures carrying fire clubs wearing -leaves, and suggesting immediately the green man of a slightly later -date. - -Behind them are two figures holding rockets, leaving no doubt that a -firework display is portrayed. - -On the other hand, apart from the fact that normally they have no fire -issuing from their clubs, the supporters of the Danish royal arms might -be here depicted; a supposition which is borne out by the fact that -the figure surmounting the erection carries the crown and sceptre of -Denmark. - -It seems quite within the bounds of possibility that these two figures -were introduced into Danish displays as a compliment to Royalty, -and that later they appeared in England, and became, as it were, -acclimatised. Colour is lent to this belief by the record of a display -given on a float by the King of Denmark in 1606 upon his departure from -this country, where he had been on a visit to his brother-in-law, James -I. - -This exhibition seems to have given James a taste for fireworks, and -one at least of the Danish artists appears to have remained in this -country, as some months after James had a display carried out by “a -Dane, two Dutchmen, and Sir Thomas Challoner.” - -In 1572 a firework display was given in the Temple Fields, Warwick, by -the Earl of Warwick, then Master-General of the Ordnance. The occasion -was a visit to the castle by Queen Elizabeth, who appears to have been -rather partial to such exhibitions. - -The display consisted of a mimic battle, with two canvas forts for a -setting; noise was provided by the discharge of ordnance of various -sizes; the fireworks proper seem to have taken the form of flights of -rockets. The display was evidently conducted in a somewhat reckless -manner, some houses being set on fire, and some completely destroyed, -the two inhabitants of which are said in a contemporary report to have -been in bed and asleep, although how that could be with continuous -discharge from twenty pieces of ordnance, to say nothing of “qualivers -and harquebuses,” in the immediate neighbourhood, is to say the least -curious. - -Two other displays attended by Elizabeth were those at Kenilworth in -1572 and at Elvetham in 1591. - -[Illustration: A Display of the Earliest Type. From a contemporary - print (_c._ 1650).] - -The first European people to make headway in the art of pyrotechny -proper appear to have been the Italians. Vanochio, an Italian, in -a work on artillery, dated 1572, attributes to the Florentines and -Viennese the honour of being the first who made fireworks on erections -of wood, decorated with statues and pictures raised to a great -height, some in Florence being forty ells, or seventy-two feet high. -He adds that these were illuminated so that they might be seen from a -distance, and that the statues threw out fire from the mouths and eyes. - -He refers to the practice, which survived up to the end of the -eighteenth century, of constructing elaborate temples or palaces richly -decorated, with transparencies illuminated from inside, statuary, -gilding, floral and other decorations. On these erections the fireworks -proper were displayed, and which were then called artificial fireworks. -Nothing very large in the way of firework set-pieces seems to have been -attempted, but effect was gained by repetition of a small device over -the facade of the building. - -Displays were given annually in Florence at the Feast of St. John and -the Assumption. This custom extended to Rome, where the festivals were -given on the Feast of St. Peter and St. Paul, and at the rejoicings on -the election of a Pope. - -The towers and fortifications of the castle of St. Angelo furnished -suitable spots for these, being visible from the greater part of the -city of Rome, and what are described as braziers, firepots, and other -fires would be placed there, so as to give a great display without the -expense of a building. - -Evelyn, the famous diarist, gives an account of one such display which -he witnessed in 1664. - -In other towns that wished to imitate the festival of Rome, it was -arranged to place illuminations on the highest towers and steeples of -the towns, but as it was found that there was considerable danger of -fire from these, it was afterwards preferred to make suitable erections -in the great public squares, which were convenient for the exhibition -itself and also for the sightseers. - -The Italians appear to have held the supremacy until the end of the -seventeenth century. - -In the book of Artillery by Diego Ufano, written in 1610, we read that -only very simple fireworks were made in his time in Spain and Flanders, -consisting of wooden framework supporting pots of fire wrapped round -with cloth dipped in pitch, but that more than fifty years before -magnificent spectacles could be seen in Italy. - -In 1615, on the occasion of the marriage of Louis XIII, a display was -given at Paris in the Place Royale, in which were included combats -between men carrying illuminated arms. - -In 1606 the Duc de Sully gave a spectacle which depicted a battle -between savages and monsters, the former throwing darts and fire. A -similar display had previously been given on the occasion of the entry -of Henry II into Rheims, and it was repeated in 1612. - -These spectacles, which are quoted as firework displays, cannot rightly -be considered as such, fireworks playing a comparatively secondary part -in the exhibitions. - -A display of this nature to celebrate the capture of Rochelle was -conducted by Clariner of Nuremberg, a celebrated pyrotechnist of the -day. - -During the reign of Louis XIV, 1638–1715, great advances were made in -pyrotechny in France; great displays were given on the return of the -King and Queen to Paris in 1660, on five consecutive days at Versailles -in 1676, also on the occasion of the birth of the Dauphin in 1682, in -Paris at the Louvre, Dijon, and Lyons. - -A particularly fine display in celebration of the Peace of Riswick, -1669 (for which event displays took place in several countries), is -mentioned by Frézier, who wrote a treatise on pyrotechny (1747); it -was, he says, witnessing this display that inspired him to study the -art. - -[Illustration: Set Piece of the Scenic Type.] - -One of the chief causes of progress in France was the encouragement -given by Louis XV (1710–1774) to the pyrotechnists Morel Torré and the -Ruggieri brothers, the latter being Italians from Bologna who became -naturalised Frenchmen, and contributed very greatly to the development -of French pyrotechny. They were the first to rely chiefly on fireworks -for the effect, instead of using them merely to embellish a scenic or -architectural structure. - -Louis XV expended large sums of money on displays, one of the finest -being that fired at Versailles in 1739 by Ruggieri, on the occasion -of the marriage of Madame La Première of France with Don Philippe of -Spain. Writing of this display in 1821, Ruggieri’s son says: “There -appeared for the first time the Salamander la Rosace and le Guilloche, -which are still admired to-day.” These are purely pyrotechnic pieces -and devices; similar or identical ones are used at the present day, -which seems to indicate that fireworks proper were making headway -against scenic effect. - -Other displays in France during the eighteenth century were those on -the occasions of the birth of the Duke of Brittany, 1704; birth of the -Dauphin, 1730; the convalescence of the King, 1744; and the return of -the King to Paris, 1745. Also there is in existence a series of prints -which, but for the fact that they are described as fireworks, would be -taken to be scenic tableaux; whether the figures are human beings or -wax-works is not indicated. These were erected in celebration of the -following events:—The taking of Tournay, the taking of Chateau Grand, -Victory over the Allies, all dated 1745; the taking of Ypres, 1747, -all of which took place in Paris before the Hotel de Ville. Similar -displays were given in Lyons in 1765 to celebrate the taking of Fort -San Philippe, and at Soleure in 1777, in honour of the Swiss Guard. - -Displays took place at Versailles (1751) on the occasion of the birth -of the Duke of Burgundy. In 1758–9 came a further series of victory -celebrations in honour of the victory of Lutzelberg, over the English -in America, and over the Allies at Bergheri, all of which appear to -have been of the “tableau” type mentioned above. - -There were also displays for the peace celebrations on the Seine, 1763, -the birth of the Dauphin, 1782, in the Place de Geneve, and peace -rejoicings, 1783, before the Hotel de Ville. - -Ruggieri, however, states in his book that the display fired on the -marriage of Louis XVI (or, as he then was, the Dauphin) was the only -display since the great fetes of 1739 which showed any considerable -advance in the art; he may, however, be in some degree biased as his -father was concerned in each of these displays. - -[Illustration: Firework Display at Nuremberg, 1650. From a - contemporary engraving] - - - - - CHAPTER IV - - PYROTECHNY IN EUROPE (_continued_) - - -During the later part of the seventeenth century, and subsequently, -many prints appeared depicting firework displays; their number seems -quite out of proportion to the total number of prints published in that -period. - -Possibly this may be taken as some indication of the popularity of -firework displays at the time, or may give the measure of the favour in -which they were held by the artists of the day. - -Many of these prints are of little value to the student of pyrotechny, -as they merely depict the more or less elaborate structure for -the display by daylight, and whatever may be their architectural -or artistic merit there is generally no indication of what actual -fireworks were to be used, or how they were to be displayed. - -In some cases a list of the works is given under the engraving, -adding greatly to its value in the eyes of the pyrotechnist, and -some, although they are considerably in the minority, are intended to -represent the display in progress, although on the rather futuristic -method of showing everything going off at one time. - -A series of prints published in Germany during the seventeenth century -are among the earliest in which a serious attempt is made to depict -pyrotechnic effects; the series includes “Swedish Fireworks,” dated -1650; “Fireworks at Nuremburg in celebration of Peace,” of the same -date; “Fireworks given at Pleissenburg by the Prince of Saxony,” 1666; -and the same year, “Fireworks at Vienna”; all three prints show a -good display of rockets, also bonfires, and there are indications -of primitive wheels. The same remarks apply to a very fine plate -published in 1669, depicting a display given at Stockholm in honour of -the investiture of Charles XI of Sweden with the Order of the Garter -by the British Ambassador. This engraving carries with it a feeling -of conviction that it is an actual representation of the scene, and -not—as is the case with earlier and with some later work—that the -artist is drawing on his imagination. In many of the earlier prints it -is difficult to judge if the artist is depicting what he imagined, or -monsters and scenic effects actually constructed for the display. - -It is worthy of note that even in early times, speaking -pyrotechnically, the value of water in enhancing the effect of -fireworks seems to have been realised. The display at Stockholm we -have already mentioned appears to have taken place on the sea front. -Many of the larger French displays of the seventeenth and eighteenth -centuries were fired with a foreground of water; in those at Versailles -full advantage was taken of the wonderful fountains and ornamental -water, the display given in celebration of the entry of Louis XIV in -Paris after his marriage being given on the Seine, and many of the -early English displays took place on the Thames. Probably the earliest -contemporary account of any length of a firework display in England is -one headed “The Manner of Fire-Workes shewed up upon the Thames” in -celebration of the marriage of Prince Frederick (Elector Palatine) with -the daughter of James I in 1613. We read “many artificiall concusions -in Fire-Workes were upon the Thames performed. - -“First, for a welcome to the beholders a peale of Ordnance like unto -a terrible thunder ratled in the ayre.... Secondly, followed a number -more of the same fashion, spredding so strangely with sparkling -blazes, that the skie seemed to be filled with fire.... After this, -in a most curious manner, an artificiall fire-worke with great wonder -was seen flying in the ayre, like unto a fiery Dragon, against which -another fierrie vision appeared flaming like to Saint George on -Horsebacke, brought in by a burning Inchanter, between which was then -fought a most strange battell continuing a quarter of an howre or more; -the dragon being vanquished, seemed to roar like thunder, and withall -burst in pieces, and so vanished; but the champion, with his flaming -horse, for a little time made a shew of a tryumphant conquest, and so -ceased. - -[Illustration: Great Firework Display near Stockholm, July, 1669. - To celebrate the Investiture of Charles XI, King of Sweden, with - the Order of the Garter by King Charles II.] - -“After this was heard another ratling sound of Cannons, almost covering -the ayre with fire and smoke, and forthwith appeared, out of a hill of -earth made upon the water, a very strange fire, flaming upright like -unto a blazing starre. After which flew forth a number of rockets so -high in the ayre, that we could not chose but approve by all reasons -that Arte hath exceeded Nature, so artificially were they performed. -And still as the Chambers and Culverines plaide upon the earth, the -fire-workes danced in the ayre, to the great delight of his Highnes and -the Princes. - -“Out of the same mount or hill of earth flew another strange piece of -artificiall fire-worke, which was in the likenes of a hunted Harte, -running upon the water so swiftly, as it had been chaced by many -huntsmen. - -“After the same, issued out of the mount a number of hunting-hounds -made of fire burning, pursuing the aforesaid Harte up and downe the -waters, making many rebounds and turnes with much strangenes; skipping -in the ayre as it had been a usual hunting upon land. - -“These were the noble delights of Princes, and prompt were the wits of -men to contrive such princely pleasures. Where Kings commands be, Art -is stretcht to the true depth; as the performance of these Engineers -have been approved. - -“But now again to our wished sports: when this fiery hunting was -extinguished, and that the Elements were a little cleared from fire and -smoke, there came sailing up, as it were upon the Seas, certaine ships -and gallies bravely rigged with top and top gallant, with their flagges -and streamers waving like Men of Warr, which represented a Christian -name opposed against the Turkes; where, after they had awhile hovered, -preparing as it were, to make an incursion into the Turkish country, -they were discovered by her Towers or Castles of defence, strongly -furnished to intercept all such invading purposes, so sending forth the -reports of a cannon, they were bravely answered with the like from the -gallies, banding fire and powder one from another, as if the God of -Battle had been there present. - -“Here was the manner of a sea-fight rightly performed: First, by -assailing one another, all striving for victorie, and pursuing each -other with fire and sword: the Culverines merrily plaid betwixt them, -and made the ayre resound with thundering echoes; and at last to -represent the joyes of a victorie, the Castles were sacked, burned, and -ruinated, and the defenders of the same forced to escape with great -danger.” - -The foregoing appears to be the only full account of a display in -England during the early part of the seventeenth century, but in the -first serious work on fireworks, “Pyrotechnia,” by John Babington, -“gunner and student of the mathematicks,” we find a proposed programme -for “a generall piece of fire-worke for land, for the pleasure of a -Prince or some great person.” The spectacle consists of two castles -with mechanical effects, but includes such devices as horizontal and -vertical wheels, flights of rockets, line rockets and “torches of -beautifull fire.” Babington also describes the St. George and Dragon -device, which is merely scenic, the figures being of wickerwork and -canvas with slight firework effects. At this time, according to a -“History of Colleges in and arround London,” there were “many men very -skilful in the art of pyrotechny and fireworks.” - -In a book on fireworks, published in the same year, by John Bate, -the author concludes by saying: “I might have been infinite in the -describing of such like with Ships, Towers, Castles, Pyramides. But, -considering that it would but increase the price of the book and not -better your understanding, since all consist of the former workes, -which are so plainly described as that the most ignorant may easily -conceive thereof, and (if any whit ingenious) thence contrive others, -of what fashion they list.” From this it would appear that firework -displays were by that date a well-established institution. - -Pepys, in his account of the coronation of Charles II, 1661, says: -“We staid upon the leads and below till it was late, expecting to see -the fireworks, but they were not performed to-night.” He seems to -have looked upon fireworks as a matter of course on such an occasion. -However, a display of considerable size did take place, conducted by -Sir Martin Beckman, later Firemaster to James II, who was responsible -for most of the important displays until 1706. One of the earliest -prints of an English firework display is that depicting the fireworks -on the Thames at Whitehall for the coronation of James II, 1685, in -which the artist appears to have drawn somewhat on his imagination. - -Three years later an elaborate display was given on the Thames to -celebrate the birth of an heir to the throne, who was afterwards known -as the Old Pretender. In the same year we again see fireworks on the -Thames, this time to celebrate the reception of the Prince of Orange. - -[Illustration: Fireworks on the Thames, June 17th, 1688. To - celebrate the birth of a son to King James II. known to fame first - as the Prince of Wales, and afterwards as the Old Pretender.] - -In 1690 displays were given, again on the Thames, and in Covent Garden, -on the occasion of the King’s return from Ireland. - -The taking of Namur, 1695, was celebrated by a display in St. James’s -Square, and on the same site two years later, the celebrations for -the Peace of Riswick. This latter is depicted in a fine engraving, -giving the following list of fireworks used on the occasion:—“1,000 Sky -Rockets, from four to six pounds weight; 200 Shell; 2,400 Pumps with -Starrs (Roman Candles); 1,000 Cones; 7,000 Reports; 15,000 Swarms; 400 -Light Balls; 23 Rocket Chests, each containing 60 rockets from one to -four pounders.” - -John Evelyn, in his “Diary,” says: “The evening concluded with -illuminations and fireworks of great expense.” The display cost £12,000. - -There seem to have been no fireworks in London at the coronation of -either Anne or the first two Georges, although on the former occasion -rockets appear to have been fired from the Fleet at Spithead. - -The Peace Rejoicings of 1713 were the occasion of another display -on the Thames off Whitehall, the erection being about 400 feet long -on barges chained together in the stream. A feature of this display -was the water fireworks, described as: “1,500 small and large water -Rockets; 5 large water Pyramids; 4 water fountains; 13 Pumps; 21 -standing Rockets, with lights all swimming on the water; 84 of Coll -Borgards; large and small Bees swarms, half of which were set with -lights to swim on the water.” - -The next event to be celebrated by firework displays on a large scale -was the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle; these were given at Paris, The Hague, -London, and St. Stephen’s Green, Dublin. The Duke of Richmond was -responsible for a display on the Thames off Whitehall, the official -display taking place in Green Park, and was on a scale unequalled in -this country until well into the last century. It was conducted by the -famous pyrotechnist Gaetano Ruggieri, who came over from France for the -purpose, assisted by Gioseppe Sarti, under the direction of the Board -of Ordnance. - -Following the practice of the period, an elaborate structure was -prepared. The following is taken from the official programme: - - “A DESCRIPTION OF THE MACHINE FOR THE FIREWORKS, &c. - - “The Machine is 114 feet high to the Top of His Majesty’s arms, and - is 410 feet long. It was invented and designed by the Chevalier - Servandoni and all the framing was performed by Mr. James Morris, - Master Carpenter to the Office of Ordnance. - - “The Ornaments of this Machine are all in Relief, and it is adorned - with Frets, Gilding, Lustres, Artificial Flowers, Inscriptions, - Statues, Allegorical Pictures, etc.” - -According to a contemporary newspaper report, the construction occupied -from November 7th until April 26th. It was composed of timber covered -with canvas, whitewashed and sized. - -The display commenced about six o’clock, and continued until after -twelve; during the display the left wing caught fire, which prevented -the firing of some of the devices. Indeed, according to Walpole, the -Duke of Richmond’s display on the Thames a few weeks later consisted -largely of fireworks which had not been fired owing to this occurrence, -and which the noble duke had bought up cheap. - -Among the items were included the following:—Regulated Pieces, Fixed -Suns, Stars of six Points, and between each point a Ray, a large -vertical Sun moved by double Fires, Cascades, Pyramids (40 feet high) -of Gerbs, etc., etc. The chief piece seems to be one “from whence Fire -issues out and retires within, twelve times alternately; when without, -it forms a Glory; when within, it composes a Star of eight Points, and -then changes to a Royal brilliant Wheel, whose Fire is thirty feet in -diameter, and is moved by twelve fires.” - -The remainder of this century in England appears to be rather barren of -firework displays on a large scale. - -A writer in the “St. James’s Chronicle,” under the date February 18th, -1764, in a letter advocating certain improvements in St. James’s Park, -evidently recalling the outcry over the 1749 display, observes: “We -had no fireworks at the peace last year, that will surely obviate any -argument preferred against the expense of the undertaking.” - -Until nearly the end of the eighteenth century, according to Strutt, -writing at that time, it was customary “for the Train of Artillery to -display a grand fire-work on Tower Hill, on the King’s Birthday, but -owing to the disturbances that occurred, the inhabitants a few years -since petitioned against it.” There was, however, a great increase in -the number of displays. Fireworks became a feature of the programme of -the majority of the then fashionable tea and pleasure gardens. - -Walpole describes a firework display given in 1763 by the notorious -Duchess of Kingston, who was thirteen years later tried by her peers on -a charge of bigamy. - -The display appears to have taken place in Hyde Park, opposite the -residence of the Duchess, then at the height of her popularity. He -records that “the fireworks were fine and succeeded well.” One item -seems curious to modern ideas; it took the form of a cenotaph for the -Princess Elizabeth, a sister of the king, bearing the inscription: “All -honours the dead can receive.” - -The sequel was even more extraordinary, as “about one in the morning -this Sarcophagus burst into crackers and guns.” - -[Illustration: Firework Display given by the Duke of Richmond on - the Thames off Whitehall, May 15th, 1749, to celebrate the Peace of - Aix-la-Chapelle.] - -Lieutenant Jones, who published a book on fireworks in 1765, in his -preface makes the following remarks: - -“I own I cannot help reflecting with some kind of chagrin that whenever -we have had occasion for these sort of diversions to be exhibited in -England we have almost always had recourse to foreigners to execute -them; if this has been owing to the ignorance of our own people on this -subject I shall be very happy if it is in my power to correct it; if it -is only owing to that prevailing fondness we entertain for everything -foreign I know no remedy for that evil but time and experience.” - -To a certain extent his complaint seems justified; as we have seen, -the Aix-la-Chapelle celebrations were conducted by foreigners—Ruggieri -and Sarti. Later in the century, Morel Torré, who, as previously -mentioned, collaborated with Ruggieri in pyrotechnic displays for Louis -XV, and several other pyrotechnists came to this country and conducted -displays. At the same time, however, there were undoubtedly many -capable pyrotechnists of English nationality, who found scope for their -abilities in the exhibitions given in the pleasure gardens of London -and the provinces in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. - -A history of pyrotechny would not be complete without a survey of these -popular places of amusement, and we propose in the following chapter to -give a brief summary of the better known places of resort. - - - - - CHAPTER V - - THE LONDON PLEASURE GARDENS - - -During the eighteenth and first half of the nineteenth centuries the -Pleasure Gardens filled a position in the lives of a large proportion -of the public comparable with that of the Cinema to-day. - -To the great mass of the public, the most general form of evening -relaxation was a visit to one or other of these places of resort. -Apart from meals of a more or less elaborate nature, and liquid -refreshments of various kinds, a great variety of entertainments were -provided, varying from displays of horsemanship to exhibitions of -paintings. Of these diversions none were more general than fireworks -and illuminations. At many gardens fireworks formed a regular feature -of the programme, at others, generally less ambitious undertakings, -displays were confined to occasions, such as the King’s Birthday. - -Space will hardly permit of more than a glance at those resorts -situated in the provinces, but a description of those in the London -area may be taken as typical. - -Captain Marryat, in “Peter Simple,” gives an account of a visit to -Postdown Fair, near Portsmouth, and an adjournment to the local -Ranelagh Gardens to “see the fireworks.” As the pyrotechnist was -behind time, Peter Simple and his friends took it upon themselves to -fire the display. “In about half a minute off they all went in the -most beautiful confusion; there were silver stars and golden stars, -blue lights and Catherine Wheels, Mines and Bombs, Grecian fires and -Roman Candles, Chinese Trees, rockets and illuminated mottoes, all -firing away, cracking, popping, and fizzing at the same time. It was -unanimously agreed that it was a great improvement on the intended -show.” - -Undoubtedly the gardens best remembered at the present day are Vauxhall -and Ranelagh, neither of which were early in the field in presenting -firework displays to the public. - -The first displays took place at Vauxhall about 1798, more than half a -century after their appearance at some of the less famous gardens, and -did not become a permanent feature of the programme until 1813. They -continued regularly until the final closing of the gardens in 1859, the -final item of the programme being “Farewell for Ever” in letters of -fire. In 1813 an item in the firework programme was the performance of -Madame Saqui, which was to slide down an inclined rope 350 feet long -from the top of a mast 60 feet high, erected on the firework platform, -enveloped in fireworks. So popular did this exhibition become that it -was repeated here by other performers, by Longueman in 1822, and later -by Blackmore. - -The best-known pyrotechnists connected with Vauxhall were Southby, -Mortram, and Hengler, the first display being by an Italian named -Invetto. - -Pyrotechnic displays at Ranelagh became a prominent feature of the -amusements about 1767. The pyrotechnists Angelo, father and son, during -that and the following years, helped to establish these displays in -popularity, followed by Clithero, Caillot, Brock, Rossi, and Tessier, -up to the closing of the gardens in 1805, after which date they appear -to have been opened from time to time on special occasions. “The -Morning Chronicle” of June 1st, 1812, announces that “By the Authority -of the Right Hon. the Lord Chamberlain” these gardens would be open “in -Honour of His Majesty’s Birthday, with a grand naval and military Fete, -and a superb exhibition of Fireworks.” - -An interesting old advertisement, dated 1766: “For the Benefit of the -General Lying-in Hospital. The most superb and Magnificent Fireworks -ever exhibited at that Place, under the conduct and direction of Mr. -Angelo.” It would appear from this that fireworks had been fired at -Ranelagh earlier than 1766, but they could not have been a regular -feature before 1767. - -Cupers Gardens, which stood on the south side of the river, -approximately on the site of the Waterloo Bridge approach, were for -a long period the scene of popular firework displays. Commencing -about 1741, these displays were as elaborate as any of this period. -The earlier displays appear to have been conducted by “the ingenious -Mr. Worman,” who seems to have relied to a considerable extent on -transparencies and scenery; in 1749 and 1750 he reproduced in miniature -the firework “machine” or Temple used in the respective official -displays in Green Park, and at The Hague for the Aix-la-Chapelle peace -celebrations. Other scenic effects were a view of the city of Rhodes -with a model of the Colossus; Neptune, issuing from a grotto below -drawn by sea-horses, set fire to a pyramid or an “Archimedan worm” and -returned. - -Clithero was also associated with these displays, producing similar -scenic effects, including a naval engagement in 1755, which was the -last year of fireworks in these gardens. - -The earlier displays at Marylebone Gardens took place about the middle -of the eighteenth century. In 1751 a display is announced to take place -at eleven o’clock, and “a large collection” of fireworks was advertised -in 1753. Some at least of these earlier displays were fired by Brock, -whose son, later on, worked here in conjunction with Torré. In 1769 the -displays were under the direction of Rossi and Clanfield. From 1772 to -1774 was the most successful period of the fireworks at these gardens; -they were then under the direction of Torré. A popular item, afterwards -copied by Marinari at Ranelagh, was the “Forge of Vulcan,” a scenic -display concluding with the eruption of Mount Etna. - -On the occasion of Torré’s benefit, in 1772, there was a further -exhibition of this kind, representing Hercules delivering Theseus from -Hell. - -During this period attempts were made by neighbouring residents to stop -the displays as a nuisance, but nothing came of it, and the fireworks -continued. - -At the annual festival in 1772, the display included a temple of -“upwards of 10,000 cases of different fires, all lighted at the same -time.” - -Other pyrotechnists firing at the gardens were Clithero and Caillot, -both of whom had conducted displays at Ranelagh, the latter being -responsible for the fireworks up to the closing of the gardens about -1778. - -It is recorded that Dr. Johnson once visited the gardens on a firework -night, but unfortunately a wet one, and notice was given to the -handful of visitors that the fireworks were wet and the display would -be cancelled. The doctor, however, was of opinion that it was a “mere -excuse to save their crackers for a more profitable company,” and -suggested that a threat to break the lamps would result in the show -being forthcoming. Some young men standing by endeavoured, under his -direction, to ignite the pieces, but unsuccessfully. - -The Mulberry Gardens, Clerkenwell, were among the earliest to make -fireworks a feature. Displays took place from the opening in 1742, and -ten years later Clanfield gave a display each evening. - -Two neighbouring taverns, “Lord Cobham’s Head” and the “Sir John -Oldcastle,” had displays from 1744, and in 1751 “New fireworks in the -Chinese manner” were announced at the latter establishment. - -The New Wells, in the same neighbourhood as the foregoing, had had -a display as early as 1740, but it appears to have been of a scenic -nature, representing the Siege of Portobello. - -The “Star and Garter,” Chelsea, advertised displays by Signor Genovini -of Rome, in 1762, and “Jenny’s Whim,” in the same neighbourhood, had -displays somewhat earlier, the place having been established as a -pleasure resort by a pyrotechnist. - -Cromwell Gardens, in the vicinity of the present Cromwell Road, had -what appears to have been a small display in 1784. - -Rossi and Tessier, the pyrotechnists of Ranelagh, gave displays at -the Bermondsey Spa Gardens in 1792. A representation of the Siege of -Gibraltar was given, and on September 28th of that year, “by special -desire the Battle of the Fiery Dragons, and the line comet to come from -the Rock of Gibraltar and cause the Dragons to engage.” Brock also gave -displays here later. - -Finch’s Grotto Gardens, whose site is now occupied by the headquarters -of the Metropolitan Fire Brigade in Southwark, had occasional displays -of fireworks about 1770, as did the Temple of Flora in the Westminster -Bridge Road, about the same date. Clithero advertised a display of -fireworks at Jamaica House, Rotherhithe, in 1762. - -A Peace Celebration display is announced for February 7th, 1749, to “be -play’d off this evening in the Field adjoining to the Tavern called -Bob’s Hall.” - -In 1788 Astley senior advertises, to take place at the Royal Grove -and Astley’s Amphitheatre, Westminster Bridge, a “Double Display of -Fire-Works.... Numerous Devices prepared in the usual way from Powder, -etc., which will be alternatively played off with the new-invented -Philosophical Fire-Works, under the direction of Mons. Henry, the -inventor and Professor of Natural Philosophy from Paris.” - -The same year he announces a display “on the Thames immediately after -Astley’s Exhibition in Honour of His Majesty’s Birth-day,” and -concludes by saying “the Fireworks are made under the Direction of Mr. -Astley, by Messrs. Cobonell & Son, who will let them off on the Thames -this evening at different signals from Mr. Astley, Sen., who will be -mounted on the Gibraltar Charger, placed in a Barge, in the Front of -the line of Fireworks.” - -[Illustration: Firework Temple at Vauxhall, 1845. From a woodcut in - “The Illustrated London News.”] - -The “Philosophical fireworks” above mentioned were evidently an -imitation of those exhibited at the Lyceum by Diller, which he -describes as “Philosophical Fireworks from Inflammable Air without -smell, smoke or Detonation.” These appear to have been nothing more -than gas jets arranged in patterns and designs, some revolving and some -stationary. Air was forced from a bladder through a sponge saturated -with ether. Movement and variation were produced by turning on and off -the gas from separate sets of holes. Two colours only appear to have -been produced—rose and green; these were by the addition of strontia -and baryta or copper. - -A handbill is in existence advertising a similar display at Hull in -1804, by W. Clarke. - -During the early part of the nineteenth century several gardens round -London made a feature of pyrotechnic displays. The Mermaid Gardens, -Hackney, in “The Morning Chronicle” of June 1st, 1812, announces “the -greatest feast for the eye ever exhibited is a superb firework by that -unparalleled artist, Mr. Brock, Engineer.” - -The Yorkshire Stingo and Bayswater Tea Gardens in the west gave -displays up to the early forties. White Conduit House, in the Islington -district, had firework displays from 1824 up to shortly before the -closing of these gardens in 1849. - -Rosherville Gardens, opened in 1837, the North Woolwich Gardens, the -Eagle, 1825–82, the Globe, Mile End, the Cremorne, 1843–77, all had -their firework displays. The best known, however, for this feature -were the Surrey Zoological Gardens, 1831–56, where Southby, of -Vauxhall, conducted displays for several years, producing pyrotechnic -and scenic displays there. In 1841 he gave a reproduction of the -fireworks of St. Angelo, and the Illumination of St. Peter’s, Rome, -which proved a great attraction to the gardens. - -In the provinces the Belvue Gardens, Manchester, and the Clifton -Zoological Gardens, Bristol, have made a feature of firework displays -in their list of attractions, those at the latter being carried out in -1835 by Gyngell. - -The famous Cremorne Gardens made a feature of pyrotechnic displays and -spectacles of the scenic type with more or less regularity from their -opening in 1846 down to the final closing owing to public petition in -1877. The earlier displays were carried out by Mortram and Duffel. - -Firework displays of a somewhat more ambitious nature have been given -from time to time at the Alexandra Palace, no doubt in emulation of the -historic Crystal Palace displays, which are dealt with in the ensuing -chapter. - - - - - CHAPTER VI - - FIREWORKS IN THE NINETEENTH & TWENTIETH CENTURIES - - -As we have seen, the commencement of the eighteenth century was marked -by great activity in the pyrotechnic art. - -Firework displays were looked upon as a necessary item in the programme -of a place of public entertainment. So ambitious did these displays -become, owing to keen rivalry existing between the various resorts, -that any official display in celebration of peace or like event must of -necessity be on a scale of unexampled lavishness. - -No official display of note appears to have been given in London during -the first thirteen years of the nineteenth century, or indeed since -the Aix-la-Chapelle peace display. The reason may have been the public -outcry on the score of waste on that occasion. - -They were totally prohibited at the coronation of George III, and at -his jubilee in 1809 there were apparently no firework displays in -London, although more than forty towns about the country celebrated the -event pyrotechnically, and a fine display was given from the Fleet at -the Nore. - -The largest public firework exhibition on this occasion was that given -at Bombay, where the celebration took place earlier in the year, the -date selected being June 4th, the King’s birthday, instead of October -25th, the actual anniversary of his accession. - -The Peace of 1802, although no official display was given, was the -occasion of much private pyrotechnic enterprise, the fireworks and -illuminations in London lasting nearly a week. - -The Peace of 1814 was signalised in London by several displays: the 1st -of August was chosen for the Peace Celebration, it being the centenary -of the accession of the House of Brunswick, and also the anniversary of -the Battle of the Nile. - -The display in Hyde Park commenced with a naval engagement on the -Serpentine between model warships representing the English and the -combined French and American Fleets. This item, which lasted three -hours, was followed by a display of water fireworks. The display in -Green Park commenced at ten o’clock, one of the chief items being -the “grand metamorphosis of the Castle into the Temple of Concord.” -This change, says a writer in “The Times” of the period, “was made -with somewhat less celerity than those witnessed in our theatrical -pantomimes. It resembled rather the cautious removal of a screen than -the sudden leap into a new shape. When fully developed, however, it -presented a spectacle which excited general approbation.” - -The Temple of Concord was an elaborate structure illuminated with -coloured lamps, and decorated with gilding, festoons, etc., and -transparent paintings. It was designed by Smirke, the paintings being -by Stodard, Howard, Hilton, and others, and represented such subjects -as “The Golden Age,” and “Peace restored to Earth.” - -Charles Lamb, in a letter to William Wordsworth, dated August 9th, -1814, after describing the havoc wrought in the park by the crowds -and booths, remarks that: “After all the fireworks were splendent—the -Rockets in clusters, in trees and all shapes, spreading about like -young stars in the making floundering about in space (like unbroke -horses) till some of Newton’s calculations should fix them, but then -they went out. Anyone who could see ’em and the still finer showers of -gloomy rain fire that fell sulkily and angrily from ’em, and could go -to bed without dreaming of the Last Day, must be as hardened an Atheist -as ****.” - -St. James’s Park was reserved for those who paid for admission. The -trees were illuminated with lamps, and a Chinese bridge, which had been -erected over the lake, was similarly treated. The use of gas on this -structure must be one of the earliest occasions of its being employed -for outdoor illuminations of this nature. Neither can the result be -considered altogether successful, as the building caught fire towards -the end of the firework display, and a lamplighter, who appears to -have been caught by the flames in an attempt to throw himself into the -water, was killed. Other men similarly employed were also severely -burned. These men, evidently through ignorance, had started lighting -the lower lamps first, working upwards on the structure, until they -found themselves in a position of intolerable heat with no means of -descending. - -The pyrotechnic display consisted chiefly of aerial fireworks with -gerbs, roman candles, fountains, and wheels; there do not appear to -have been many devices of any size. “The Times” reporter complains that -“the repetition of these things, with occasional pauses, for more than -two hours became tedious to all.” - -The coronation of George IV, in 1821, was celebrated by a display -in Hyde Park, including land and water fireworks, superintended by -Congreve. The displays on the coronation of William IV, in 1831, were -directed by Congreve’s successor, Sir Augustus Frazer, but appear to -have been of an insignificant character. - -Queen Victoria’s coronation was celebrated by displays in Hyde Park -and Green Park, conducted by Southby and D’Ernst, which exhibitions -included a Temple on similar lines to that of 1814. - -In France, during the first few years of the nineteenth century, there -were many pyrotechnic displays of importance. Napoleon is credited -with being extremely partial to such exhibitions. Displays took place -in Paris in the Champs Elysées, at the barriere Chaillot, before Les -Invalides in 1801 to celebrate the foundation of the Republic, and in -the following year in honour of Napoleon’s arrival in that city. - -Major-General Lord Blayney, who was captured by Napoleon’s troops in -the Peninsula in 1810, travelled on parole across Spain and France on -his way to Verdun. His somewhat leisurely journey of nearly six months -enabled him to witness many celebrations of French victories in the -towns through which he passed. He records having seen fireworks and -illuminations among other places at Malaga and Orleans. - -In 1804 a display was given by Napoleon before the Hotel de Ville, -Paris, on his assumption of the title of Emperor of the French. The -scenery provided for this display took the form of a representation -of Mount St. Bernard, with a figure symbolising Napoleon mounted on a -charger on the summit. - -This display was repeated in 1810 on the occasion of his marriage with -Marie Louise; this time, however, the topmost feature was the Temple of -Hymen, with figures of Napoleon and his bride. - -Other displays were given on the bridge of Louis XVI, which appears -to have been a popular position for such exhibitions, in 1800, 1804, -1806, 1820, and 1821. Another site frequently used for displays was the -garden of the Senate, where Ruggieri fired displays in the years 1801, -1806 (twice), and 1807. - -Fireworks continued to be a national institution in France, -irrespective of the form of government. Louis Napoleon, like his uncle, -being fond of fireworks, or it may be, considering them a good means -of gaining popularity, made any public event an excuse for pyrotechnic -displays. Notable occasions were the Military Fetes, 1852, the Fete of -the Emperor, 1853, the visit of Queen Victoria to the Paris Exhibition -of 1855, in honour of which a most elaborate display was given at -Versailles, the Baptismal Fetes in 1856, the triumphal entry and the -Emperor’s birthday, 1859, and the visit of the King Consort of Spain in -1864. - -The Entente Cordiale movement in 1868 was responsible for displays in -the Fleets on both sides of the Channel, those in France taking place -in Cherbourg, those in England at Spithead. - -A previous event which had been celebrated pyrotechnically on a large -scale in both countries was the Peace Rejoicing at the conclusion of -the Crimean War. - -This occasion was marked in London by four displays of fireworks on a -scale hitherto unprecedented. The sites chosen were Hyde Park, Green -Park, Primrose Hill, and Victoria Park. They were arranged thus with -the very sensible idea of splitting the crowds of sightseers into -sections and thus preventing dangerous crowding to one spot. The -fireworks were prepared for these displays in Woolwich Arsenal, under -the direction of Mr. Southby, the pyrotechnist of the Surrey Gardens, -who went there for this event. - -The programmes of these displays were precisely similar, with the -exception of that at Primrose Hill, which consisted mainly of aerial -fireworks. - -Tyrrell, in his “History of the War with Russia,” gives the following -account of the display in Green Park: “At the appointed signal there -was a continuous discharge of maroons, accompanied by brilliant -illuminations with white, red, green, and yellow fires.... Then for -two hours followed every conceivable design of elegant and dazzling -pyrotechnic art. Flights of rockets a hundred at a time; revolving -wheels, sun star and golden streamers, and fiery serpents chasing each -other through the air. Gerbs, Roman candles, tourbillions, shells, and -fixed pieces of the most fantastic designs and brilliant hues. The -eyes were dazzled by the intensity of the light.... It was strange to -believe that so fierce and ungovernable an element as fire could be -rendered so delicately obedient to the will of man.... The triumph, -however, of the entertainment was reserved for the close of it. This -was a tremendous bombardment, during which the air was constantly -filled with flights of rockets, and was intended as a representation of -the last grand attack upon Sebastopol—the blowing up of the magazines -and works, and general conflagration. - -“As an introduction to this there were five fixed pieces, all of -complicated construction, the centre being an enormous one which, amid -all its fantastic blazing and revolving, exhibited the words ‘God Save -the Queen.’ Language fails to convey a vivid idea of the deafening, -roaring, crashing and grand appearance of the termination, during which -the proud fortifications of Sebastopol were supposed to succumb. Then -rose up into the blackness, rapidly one after another, six flights -of rockets, comprising altogether no less than ten thousand of these -beautiful and brilliant instruments.... It was such a spectacle as man -could not reasonably expect to witness more than once in a lifetime.” - -This account appears to be somewhat highly coloured, as the official -programme makes no reference to the fall of Sebastopol, but it is -evident from it that the writer was greatly impressed with the display, -and contemporary prints indicate that he was voicing popular opinion. - -It is worthy of note that these celebrations were the first occasion of -the kind in which the exhibitions consisted of veritable fireworks -without extraneous matter in the form of scenery and buildings. This -may account for the fact that there was, on this occasion, considerably -less of the usual outcry against the “waste” involved. It is curious -that on occasions of this kind there are always to be found certain -damp spirits who begin a clamour against the expenditure of money on -fireworks which might be applied to other objects. The Aix-la-Chapelle -display excited these gentlemen to a great pitch, probably on account -of the elaborate nature of the preparations, which, as we have already -seen, occupied over five months, thus providing them with plenty -of time to develop their theme, or an object lesson to prove their -statements. - -[Illustration: Queen Victoria’s Visit to France, 1855. The - Fireworks at Versailles. From a drawing by Gustav Doré in “The - Illustrated London News.”] - -Where, however, the display consists—as on the occasion under -consideration—solely of fireworks proper, a few days’ preparation on -the actual site is usually sufficient; the kill-joy has less time -to spread himself. It may be mentioned his season is over with the -display; generally the British public, having enjoyed itself, turns a -deaf ear to those who would convince it that it ought not to have done -so. - -Other displays took place in various parts of the kingdom: in Edinburgh -on Arthur’s Seat, at Portsmouth on the Fleet, to mention two only. - -An interesting event which took place on the 25th August was the -entertainment of 2,000 men of the Guards at the Surrey Gardens. This -resort was at the time the home of British pyrotechny, the displays -being conducted by Southby, who, as we have said, went into Woolwich -Arsenal to assist in the production of the fireworks for the official -displays. The amusements of the day concluded with an exhibition of -fireworks. - -A further event connected with the foregoing celebration was the -festivities in Moscow on the occasion of the coronation of the Emperor -Alexander II, which concluded with a pyrotechnic display. - -From this time until the end of the century the history of pyrotechny -in this country is practically the history of pyrotechny at the Crystal -Palace; it has been the Crystal Palace displays which have set the -pace, as it were, to pyrotechnists in this country, and has provided -the spur which has placed British pyrotechnists not only ahead but -markedly ahead of their competitors in other countries. - -The Crystal Palace displays became a national institution, and any -public event worthy of such recognition was accorded a pyrotechnic -celebration there on a scale hitherto unattempted. - -The credit for the original introduction of fireworks at the Crystal -Palace must belong to the late C. T. Brock, who succeeded in inducing -the Directors to institute a competition among pyrotechnists in 1865. -It may be interesting to give in his own words an account of the -matter, taken from an article written by him some few years later: - - “It occurred to me that of all the places of public resort suitable - for the inauguration of a new era for pyrotechny, none offered - such glorious advantages as the Crystal Palace, then at the height - of its popularity. Its terraces, fountains and foliage offered - unrivalled advantages for the display of grand effects. The - Directors of the Crystal Palace Company, who had more than once - been applied to for permission to hold displays in the grounds, - feared that, inasmuch as fireworks had been recently associated - solely with gardens of the Cremorne class, the Palace itself would - be degraded to the same rank if consent were granted. I urged that - the Exhibition of 1862 had afforded no opportunity for competition - among firework makers—necessarily excluded by the nature of their - trade—although almost every other branch of manufactures were - embraced, that such a contest might with reason and advantage be - held at Sydenham, and that fireworks were really not of an immoral - tendency. I further agreed that in the event of the result being - unfavourable, either financially or from a social point of view, - no second display need take place, but if, as I felt confident, - there should be a large attendance of the better classes, then - other exhibitions might follow. The Directors, after many months of - delay, consented to make the experiment, and the favourable result - of the trial on July 12th, 1865, far exceeded my most sanguine - expectations. - - “The result was an unlooked-for success, 20,000 people being - present on the occasion. Three more displays took place that year - upon a small scale, but always with successful results. - - “The first display was produced jointly by my father and Mr. - Southby, the winner of the first prize, and continued to the end of - that season by my father alone under my management. - - “The success of fireworks at the Crystal Palace having become - an accomplished fact, I built extensive works at Nunhead, and - commenced manufacturing on a scale never previously dreamt of in - the trade—the vast expanse of the locale of my displays obviously - necessitating extraordinary expenditure of material. - - “By degrees the set pieces grew from twelve feet in diameter to 300 - feet. Shells for which the Crystal Palace has been renowned grew to - one hundred times more than the ordinary shells of my early days, - and thousands of pounds weight of material was gradually introduced - to increase the effectiveness of these displays.” - -[Illustration: “The GRAND WHIM for POSTERITY to Laugh at: - Being the Night View of the ROYAL FIREWORKS, as Exhibited in the - Green Park, St. _James’s_, with the Right Wing on Fire.” - - Firework Display in the Green Park to celebrate the Peace of - Aix-la-Chapelle, 1749.] - -The Crystal Palace displays carried out by C. T. Brock and his -brother, Arthur Brock, who succeeded him in the business on March 25th, -1881, have since become proverbial. They continued up to 1910, when -the Crystal Palace was taken over by the promoters of the Pageant of -Empire. They have been revived in 1920, when the War Museum was opened, -and the attendance has proved that the public taste for fireworks is -very far from diminishing. - -During the run of forty-five consecutive years an installation was -built up, method and technique were evolved unknown in any other place -of pyrotechnic exhibition. - -While the firework terrace, with its magnificent background of park -and shrubberies, is unrivalled as a firing ground, it is at the same -time the most exacting. The huge building, its imposing position and -setting, the wonderful fountains, all demand pyrotechnic effects on a -corresponding scale. - -The pictorial set pieces, originally introduced by C. T. Brock in 1875, -increased in size until a plant was arrived at capable of exhibiting a -picture ninety feet high and two hundred feet long on the main girder, -which length could be extended to even six hundred feet of frontage, as -on the occasion of the exhibition of a battle piece or similar subject. - -During this period the subjects dealt with in the main set pieces have -covered a wide range. A favourite subject, and one lending itself -particularly well to pyrotechnic production, is the sea battle. Almost -every historic naval engagement of sufficient size to warrant its -adoption has been proved the subject for a fire picture. - -Among the battle pictures produced are the following:—Bombardment of -Alexandria in 1882, Siege of Gibraltar in 1883, Battle of Trafalgar -in 1884; during 1885, two pictures representing the use of the -ironclads of the period and based on the Naval manœuvres, entitled -the “Attack on Dover,” and the Battle of Bantry Bay; the following -year another imaginary picture depicting an attack by torpedo boats on -the latest battleship, the “Colossus.” The Bombardment of Sebastopol -was reproduced in 1887, followed by the Jubilee Naval Review at -Spithead. In 1888 the defeat of the Spanish Armada was depicted; -in 1890 Trafalgar, followed in 1891 by the engagement between the -“Chesapeake” and the “Shannon,” together with a portrait of Admiral -Sir Provo Wallis, then aged one hundred, and another from an early -painting showing him at the time of the engagement when the command -of the English vessel devolved upon him owing to the casualties among -the senior officers. Later in that year the Battle of the Nile was -reproduced; 1893 saw the Bombardment of Canton; 1894 the Battle of the -First of June, and the Battle of the Yalu. The Battle of Manilla Bay -was produced in 1898, and on the centenary date the Battle of the Nile. -In 1889, H.M.S. “Implacable” was shown in action on the day on which -she was commissioned, followed in 1900 by the Bombardment of the Taku -Forts, and in 1901 by the immortal sea fight between the “Revenge” -and the “Fifty-three.” In 1904 the Russo-Japanese War gave subjects -in the various attacks on Port Arthur and the Battle of Tsu-Shima, -and the Battle of the Sea of Japan in the year following. The Battle -of Trafalgar was renewed that season, and in 1908 another imaginary -picture portraying modern naval warfare was produced, followed in 1909 -by an imaginary encounter between the first Dreadnought and other craft. - -The revival of the Crystal Palace displays in 1920 saw the reproduction -of the Battle of Jutland, of which the following appreciation appeared -in the Press: - - “The chief set piece in the programme is a Fire Picture of the - Battle of Jutland, the most realistic spectacle ever produced - in fire; by ingenious devices the guns fire, shells burst in all - directions, gaping holes appear in the sides and upper works - of the ships engaged, until—when the din of battle has reached - its height—the German cruiser ‘Lutzow’ blows up and sinks. One - realises that here at least is one pictorial subject in which - the Cinematograph is hopelessly outdone; the variety of noises, - varying from the sharp bark of quick-firers to the boom of the - heavy guns, which are here so wonderfully reproduced, are quite - inadequately rendered by the conventional thumps on the big drum in - the orchestra.” - -Before the resources of lance-work were fully understood, the -reproduction of famous buildings was a fruitful source of subjects; -those reproduced vary from the Crystal Palace itself to Worcester and -Salisbury Cathedrals, and from the Arc de Triomphe to the Mosque at -Delhi. - -Natural catastrophes such as the Avalanche, the Eruption of Vesuvius, -and the Destruction of Pompeii have been portrayed. The Wreck of the -Eider in 1892, with the rescue of the passengers by the lifeboats, -formed the subject of a popular set piece; another successful scenic -showed a wreck with line-throwing rockets and transport of passengers -by the breeches buoy. - -In 1879 portraits in fire were reproduced for the first time, and since -that date those executed have included almost all the Royal Personages -of the day, many of which have been fired electrically from the Royal -Box by the originals. Other eminent people reproduced range from King -Cetewayo in 1882, the Maori King in 1884, Li-Hung-Chang in 1896, to -Douglas Fairbanks and Mary Pickford in 1920. - -In 1887 what is known as the transformation set piece was introduced. -Upon lighting, the piece exhibits a floral design in colours, which, -after burning some time, becomes transformed into a portrait, the lines -of which are worked inconspicuously with those of the floral design, -and, to use a modern term, camouflaged by its colours, the colour of -the portrait being white. - -[Illustration: A full-size picture of the Jumma Musjid in Fireworks - at the Crystal Palace, 1892.] - -[Illustration: Firework Display for the Coronation Durbar at Delhi, - January 3rd, 1903. In the background is the Jumma Musjid.] - -The first portrait to be so shown was Lord Beaconsfield, the floral -design being of primroses, and the occasion Primrose Day. This, for -the first example of its kind, was very successful, and later in the -year an enormous transformation picture, 200 feet long and 100 feet -high, was fired at the Jubilee display, changing to portraits of Queen -Victoria and members of the Royal Family. - -A popular picture of this kind is the puzzle picture which transforms -from a jungle scene to animals. - -Another most successful changing picture was entitled “The Seasons,” -first produced in 1889, and revived from time to time. A rural scene -changes from Spring to Summer, from Summer to Autumn, and finally to -Winter. The effect is produced by varying compositions in the lances, -and by employing lances of varying length, and requires very exact -manipulation and supervision. - -Patriotic, congratulatory, and political cartoons and devices have been -exhibited in wonderful variety of design, sentiment, and language: -Chinese, Persian, and Maori, to mention only three of the latter. - -Living Fireworks, invented and patented by C. T. Brock and Co., in -1888, have always been a favourite feature of the Crystal Palace -displays. The performer is clad in overalls of asbestos cloth, and on -the side nearest to the spectators wears a light wood framework, of -which the outline is “lanced” to depict the particular character to be -portrayed. - -The first subject dealt with was the boxing match, which has enjoyed -continuous popularity up to the present day, and is possibly the most -successful. - -Other favourites have been Blondin on the tight rope, inspired by the -appearance of the real Blondin on the firework terrace, surrounded by -firework effects, in 1871; dancers of various kinds, from the Sailor’s -Hornpipe to Salome; Cat fights; Cock fights; the Boxing Kangaroo in -1893, when that performance was attracting crowds to the old Aquarium; -an Indian Snake Charmer; a Fisherman; a Trapeze Artist, have all been -produced by living actors in fire. - -In 1895 “The Village Blacksmith” was enacted, with horse, blacksmith, -assistant, and horse’s owner, with forge, bellows, anvil, and all -necessary “properties.” The following year a piece was exhibited -showing various members of the building trades at work. Then followed -the Fire Scene, in which a house is seen on fire, the motor fire engine -arrives, the men jump down, unroll the hose, and proceed to extinguish -the outbreak with a jet of fire. Another ambitious effort showed a -City policeman regulating the traffic. The most elaborate scene of the -kind yet attempted was to work living figures in connection with the -main set piece. The subject chosen was life in the Arctic Regions, and -opened with the open Polar Sea, with whaling vessels, spouting whale, -and launch of the whaling boat, which follows the whale and fires a -harpoon. The picture then changed to Arctic winter, ice forms, and -the vessel is frozen with the ice, sledging parties travel over the -ice, and the picture concluded with a man and bear fight in living -fireworks. The same year—1890—there was introduced into the Children’s -Fireworks, which form an annual feature of the Crystal Palace displays, -a living Jack and the Beanstalk picture. - -In 1906 the then popular song, “I wouldn’t leave my little Wooden Hut -for You,” was the basis of what was described in the programme as a -Living Firework Drama. The popular songs of the day have provided -the subject for many successful set pieces, and form a class of picture -which derives much of its success from the band accompaniment and the -opportunity for vocal effort on the part of the crowd. - -[Illustration: A Crystal Palace Set Piece at the time of the South - African War. (200 ft. long by 70 ft. high.)] - -The origin of this type of picture is worth recording. In 1889 the Shah -of Persia visited the Crystal Palace, and fired a portrait of himself, -electrically, from the Royal Box. A popular song of the day, “Have you -seen the Shah?” was suggested to some musically inclined members of the -audience, who commenced to sing it, and were soon joined by the whole -of the spectators, numbering about 50,000. - -The effect of this impromptu concert was so striking as to lead to -the production of the popular song whenever there happened to be one -suitable for pictorial rendering in fireworks. - -In 1892 a mechanical Lottie Collins, 60 feet high, dancing to the then -popular strain of “Ta-ra-ra-bom-de-ay,” was enthusiastically received. -A series of patriotic and sentimental songs at the time of the South -African War, as “The Absent-minded Beggar” and “Good-bye, Dolly Grey,” -etc., were very successful. The “Honeysuckle and the Bee” provided the -subject for a transformation picture, a design of honeysuckle changing -to a girl’s head with a mechanical bee twelve feet long. - -In 1908 three songs were included in one piece—“Bill Bailey,” -“Farewell, my Bluebell,” and “The Old Bull and Bush.” - -The smaller mechanical pieces form a history of locomotion during the -half-century covered by the displays. Bicycles, motor cars, looping the -loop, aeroplanes, costers’ barrows, hansom cabs, fire engines, scooters -have all been represented, and in 1895, on the occasion of the visit of -the Railway Conference, two of the best mechanical pieces ever carried -out—full-sized representations of the “Rocket” and the latest type of -express engine with exact details and working parts. - -An effective working device introduced as early as 1870 was a comet -travelling down a wire from one of the famous towers to the ground. -Later the comet was replaced by a dragon, Mother Goose, and in 1872 by -a “Fiery Bicycle,” a subject which seems somewhat out of place in such -a position. The next development of this feature was to introduce a -living man who, clad in shining armour and surrounded and illuminated -by a frame of fireworks, striking an impressive attitude, slid from the -summit of the tower to the terrace. - -The name of this performer, no doubt in imitation of the Italian -artists who on a smaller scale carried out a similar feat at Vauxhall, -was given in the programme as Signor Gregorini. In private life or in -the works, however, he went by the name of Bill Gregory, and it is -recorded that, when on the first night he stuck half-way down and had -to remain in his airy position for the remainder of the display, his -remarks left no doubt as to the country of his origin. - -It is characteristic of Mr. C. T. Brock that he who originated the idea -was the first to try the descent. The weight of the cable was very -considerable and the strain very heavy in order to keep it sufficiently -taut, and doubts were expressed as to the advisability of putting -such a stress on the structure, which led to the abandonment of the -performance. - -It would be tedious to attempt to give anything like a description of -the many and varied moving and stationary devices used in the Crystal -Palace displays. The descriptions in the traditional somewhat flowery -language of the firework programmes would convey little without -illustration. One feature generally to be found in the programme is -that of the wheels. These are generally fired in a group of three in -the centre of the Terrace, the designs varying in form, movement and -colour from time to time, the fire of the centre or largest wheel -forming a circle one hundred feet in diameter. - -The historical displays during this period include the displays given -in India in 1875–6, during the tour of King Edward, then Prince of -Wales, at Bombay, Madura, Colombo, Madras, and Jaipur, and a series of -enormous displays carried out at the Philadelphia Centennial Exposition -in 1876, at one of which 250,000 people paid half-a-dollar admission, -and in 1877, the displays given at Calcutta and Delhi on the occasion -of the assumption by Queen Victoria of the title Empress of India. - -The Jubilee and Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria produced enormous -activity in the manufacture of fireworks. Displays great and small took -place all over the United Kingdom, or rather, the Empire. - -Among the displays fired on the occasion of the Diamond Jubilee, -certainly not the least interesting, although comparatively small -in extent, was that given at Blantyre in the heart of the African -continent. This display, which included a portrait of Her late Majesty, -was carried up three hundred and sixty miles of the Zambesi, thence by -canoe over eighty miles of sandbanks and mud, and finally thirty miles -overland with a rise of 3,500 feet. - -Other displays were the display on the Tagus in 1886 on the occasion -of the marriage of the late King of Portugal; the display fired from -Brooklyn Bridge for the Columbus Tercentenary in 1892; the Imperial -Fete on the Danube in 1903; the display fired from thirteen battleships -moored at a distance of a quarter of a mile from each other on the -occasion of the “Entente Cordiale” visit of the French Fleet in 1905; -the display celebrating the Tercentenary of the founding of Quebec in -1908; and the greatest display of fireworks ever fired—the official -Peace display in Hyde Park in 1919, in which some of the ground works -suffered from the rain which, unfortunately, started about five -o’clock, but the aerial work was on an unprecedented scale, shells -varying from sixteen inches down to 5½ inches in diameter being fired -in salvoes of twenty-five to one hundred. - -Rockets of 1 lb. were fired in flights of one hundred, and a final -flight of three thousand; sets of Roman candles, each containing two -hundred; one hundred fiery jets, etc., etc. The “Fourth of June” -celebration at Eton has always been the occasion of a firework display, -and displays have taken place annually, with the exception of the -years of the Great War, from at least as early as the beginning of the -nineteenth century. Hone, in his “Everyday Book” (1831), speaks of the -fireworks as a well-established feature of the festival. - -It is possible, and even probable, that they date from the reign of -George III, on whose birthday the event takes place. - -[Illustration: PANORAMA OF SOME OF THE AERIAL EFFECTS IN THE - NATIONAL FIREWORK DISPLAY AT HYDE PARK, 19th JULY, 1919.] - - - - - CHAPTER VII - - FIREWORK MANUFACTURE - - -The manufacture of fireworks in this country, as an industry distinct -from mere firework making, dates from the early part of the eighteenth -century. Before that period displays appear to have been generally -carried out by the military, or at any rate under the control of -artillery or engineer officers. At that time the art was considered to -have two distinct branches, civil and military pyrotechny, the latter -class naturally attracting most attention during a period when Europe -was almost continuously at war, and when firearms had made little -progress from the early types. - -As has been previously mentioned, Jones complains that when it was -required to carry out a display of fireworks on a large scale, recourse -was always had to foreigners to conduct it. One reason was that, apart -from the actual making of the firework units, a display depends far -more for its success on the experience and skill of the pyrotechnist in -arranging and composing both the form and sequence of the pieces. The -firework makers capable of carrying out a display on a large scale were -very few; there were fewer, if any, in this country. The whole of the -trade was illegal; under the statute of the 9th and 10th of William III -it was illegal to make, sell, or let off fireworks: - - “By the 9th and 10th of William, Chap. 7, it is enacted: That if - any Person shall make or cause to be made, or sell, give, or utter, - or offer, or expose to sale any Squibs, Rockets, Serpents, or other - Fire-works, he shall forfeit Five Pounds. And that if any Person - shall permit the same to be fired from his House or Premises, or - shall cast or fire, or be aiding and assisting in casting or firing - the same in any public Street, House, Shop, River, or Highway, he - shall forfeit Twenty Shillings, or be committed to the House of - Correction to hard Labour for one Month.” - -This Act continued in force up to the passing of the Gunpowder Act in -1860. There were periods during which it was practically a dead letter, -and again periods of sporadic activity. - -The first restriction of the public use of fireworks appears to -have been an order in council dated November 6th, 1685, which -“For the preventing of Tumultuas Disorders” and with the object -of “Disappointing the Evil Designs of Persons Disaffected to the -Government, who commonly make use of such occasions to turn those -Meetings into Riots and Tumults,” enacted that “No Person or Persons -whatsoever, do presume to make or encourage the making of any Bonfires, -or other Publick Fire Works—without particular permission Leave in -Order—upon Pain of His Majesty’s Displeasure; and being Prosecuted with -the utmost severity of the Law.” - -A notice appeared in the press of November 1st, 1788, dated from the -“Public Office, Bow Street,” warning the public against firing crackers -in the street, and quoting the Act “that no Person may claim Ignorance -thereof.” Again, in 1814, “The Times” has an account of a summons under -the Act of a William Swift, “for exposing for sale, Squibs, Serpents, -Crackers and Fireworks of other descriptions to the great danger and -annoyance of the public and contrary to the Statute.” The report -continues: - - “Mr. Laws in opening the case observed, that this was a prosecution - brought forward at the recommendation of the Magistrates of - Union-Hall, who, however, did not by it seek to punish the - defendant with severity but only to inform him and others acting - like him, that the Act upon which the present indictment was - founded and which so far back as the reign of William III, was - passed for the protection of the public, though it had not - lately been acted upon, was still in force. The defendant, it - appeared, was a man of property and a respectable holder residing - in Falcon-Court, where he had for some time past carried on the - profession of a firework-maker. The officers of Union-Hall having - heard, however, that he was in the habit of supplying boys or - any person who applied indiscriminately with these dangerous - commodities, they determined, if possible, to put a stop to this - traffic, so dangerous to the public safety. For this purpose they - sent a person, properly instructed, to purchase some; Goff, Bruce, - and some other of the officers remaining near the door to detect - him coming out; the purchase was made, and as the purchaser was - quitting the house, the officers stopt him and forced their way in. - They proceeded to search the premises, and concealed in closets - and other parts, they discovered a vast quantity of fireworks of - various sizes and descriptions, amounting to 19,600 and weighing - upwards of 6 cwt., several of these, singly, were large enough to - have spread ruin through the neighbourhood, had they by accident - exploded. These the officers took away and deposited at the Office, - where they still remained to the great annoyance of the Magistrates - waiting the decision of this question.” - -Hone, in his “Everyday Book,” records that at that time, 1825, “A -Corporation notice was annually left at the house of every inhabitant -in the City of London, previous to lord mayor’s day.” The following -(delivered in St. Bride’s) is its form: - - “_October the 11th, 1825._ - - Sir: - - By Virtue of a Precept from my Lord Mayor, in order to prevent any - Tumults and Riots that may happen on the Fifth of November, and the - next ensuing Lord Mayor’s Day, you are required to charge all your - Servants and Lodgers, that they neither make, nor cause to be made, - any Squibs, Serpents, Fire Balloons, or other Fireworks, nor fire, - fling, nor throw them out of your House, Shop or Warehouse, or in - the Streets of this City, on the Penalties contained in an Act of - Parliament made in the Tenth year of the late King William. - - Note. The Act was made perpetual, and is not expired, as some - ignorantly suppose. - - C. Puckeridge, _Beadle_. - - Taylor, Printer, Basinghall Street.” - -During the period of the operation of the Act, that is from the end -of the seventeenth to the middle of the nineteenth centuries, on the -occasion of public rejoicing, the authorities were in the anomalous -position of employing persons to break the law, both by manufacturing -and displaying fireworks. - -Although, as we have seen, this Act had very little effect on the -quantity of fireworks manufactured, it had considerable adverse effect -on the industry. As the whole thing was illegal, no regulations were -framed to control the making, storage, or distribution of fireworks, or -the safety of either workers or public. The manufacture was conducted -on lines which, at the present time, appear inconceivably reckless. -Several people working in one room in a crowded building, with loose -composition and gunpowder, and a fire in an open grate round which -finished or partially finished goods were put to dry, and this in a -thickly populated area of London. - -The result of this state of affairs, as might have been expected, was a -continuous series of explosions of a more or less serious nature. - -An early press account, dated 1722, relates to “Mr. Goodship of -White Alley in Chancery Lane,” and continues, “as he was making some -fireworks, the Gunpowder took fire and blew him up, by which means the -House was fired, and that adjoining somewhat damaged. More Mischief -had been done, but that there was timely help. The Man is so hurt that -his life is despaired of.” Another account gives the man’s name as -Goodsheaf. - -The early part of the nineteenth century provided an extraordinary list -of accidents. - -In 1810 we find the following account of an accident at Bath: - - “On Monday a dreadful accident happened at Bath to Mrs. Invetto, a - firework-maker, and a young man her assistant. They were preparing - sky-rockets, etc., for the Jubilee, when, by some means, an - explosion took place of a considerable quantity of powder, some say - upwards of two hundred barrels, which blew the house, and another - adjoining, to atoms. The unfortunate woman was miserably burnt and - bruised; and no hopes are entertained of her recovery. The poor - fellow also lies in a shocking state at the Casualty Hospital at - Bath.” - -In 1814 two accidents are recorded to Mortram and Clithero. The former -took place in the “Westminster Roade, near the Asylum”; a man and two -boys were very badly burned, two succumbing to their injuries the -same day. Clithero’s establishment was situated in Fleet Street Hill, -Bethnal Green. The accident here was caused by fire from the steam -engine reaching some fireworks. Three people were badly injured, and -much glass was destroyed in the neighbourhood. Clithero appears to have -had his works separate from the dwelling-house, an arrangement which -appears to be the exception rather than the rule. Mortram’s premises -were again destroyed in 1818, fortunately without loss of life. - -A serious accident took place in 1815, in which five people lost their -lives, the premises, and those on either side, being demolished, and -nearly all windows destroyed within two hundred yards. The proprietor -of the premises, which were situated at Wilkes Street, Spitalfields, -was Lushalan. - -In 1821 a third accident occurred at Mortram’s works, the newspaper -account of which gives an illuminating glimpse of the extraordinary -methods of the period: - - “Tuesday morning an accident, which occasioned considerable alarm, - and might have been attended with dangerous consequences, took - place in the house of M. Mortram, firework-maker, in Westminster - Road. It appears that one of the boys employed in making - composition stars for rockets had placed a number of them on the - fender before the fire to dry, and had set fire to one on the - hob, which falling in amongst the others, the whole exploded, by - which a little girl was much hurt in the back, and so frightened - that she ran to the window of the first floor, but was prevented - jumping out. The boy escaped up the area with his jacket on fire. - The neighbours were now much alarmed, fearing that the fire might - spread to more combustible matter in the house, and so on to the - extensive workshops of Madame Hengler, the celebrated pyrotechnic - to his Majesty; but, through the activity of the workmen, who ran - into the adjoining house with buckets of water, further damage was - happily prevented, or the consequences might have been dreadful. - An accident of a shocking nature, it will be recollected, occurred - about three years since in the same person’s repository, when two - men were killed by the explosion.” - -In 1825, in Bell’s “Weekly Messenger” of September 4th, appears the -following account: - - “DREADFUL EXPLOSION IN WHITECHAPEL. - - “Yesterday morning, about half-past eight o’clock, Whitechapel - Road, and the numerous streets that abound there, were thrown into - the greatest state of agitation, by the inhabitants experiencing a - most tremendous shock, as if caused by a volcano or an earthquake. - The houses for a considerable distance were deserted by their - inhabitants, and men, women, and children were seen running about - in all directions, under the impression that the world was at an - end. It was soon ascertained that their alarm was produced by the - explosion of the factory of Mr. Brock, the artist in fireworks, at - No. 11, Baker’s Row, Whitechapel Road, nearly opposite the London - Hospital. - - “The following particulars relative to this direful disaster - have reached us:—Mr. Brock has resided for the last five years - in Baker’s Row, and at the back of his dwelling-house is his - repository for fireworks, where they are manufactured. This - building is about 50 feet by 20 feet, and contains three magazines, - which are lined with lead, and would be perfectly secure from - fire, should it occur, on any of the adjoining premises. In these - receptacles were deposited all the powder, composition, and, in - fact, all the combustible matter, and Mr. B. was remarkable for - the method he had taken to prevent any accident occurring on his - premises. A few weeks since he had taken two boys out of the - poor-house to instruct in the art of firework making and he kept - them chiefly employed in filling and ramming the cases of the - sky-rockets, serpents, squibs, etc. The latter part of this stage - of the work is done by a funnel, or piece of tin made in the shape - of an extinguisher, and a small piece of iron wire, about a foot - long, which is used as a ramrod. The small end, or nipple, as it - is called, of the extinguisher is introduced into one end of the - rocket or squib, and the boys ram the powder and wadding down - with the ramrod. Yesterday morning, at the time above stated, Mr. - Brock and his men left the factory to go to breakfast, leaving - the two boys engaged at the work-board, ramming the sky-rockets. - They had scarcely sat down to their meal when they, as well as - the inhabitants around them for some distance, heard a sort of - rumbling noise as if of some distant thunder, and the next moment - a tremendous and deafening explosion followed, and the air was - illumined with lights of various descriptions, and accompanied by - continued reports. The concussion thus occasioned was so great that - the inmates in the different houses were shaken from their seats, - many of whom were sitting at their breakfast, and the tables and - tea-things were upset and broken to pieces. The window frames were - all forced out, and the brickbats and materials were flying about - in every direction. The roofs of Mr. Brock’s manufactory, and the - factory of Mr. M’Devitt adjoining, were blown to a considerable - height, and the falling materials did considerable mischief. After - the agitation was somewhat subsided, an inquiry into the cause of - the accident took place, when it appeared from the statement of - the two boys (who were blown a considerable height and were much - injured) that they were at work, ramming the rockets, when the - ramrod struck against the funnel, and the friction caused a spark, - which flew into the bowl of gunpowder that stood near them; this - soon exploded, and ran like a train to all the other fireworks in - the factory, and at length communicated to the magazines, which - caused the disaster. Mr. Brock, however, declares that it could not - have arisen in that way, as the nipple of the funnel was copper, - therefore a friction would not cause a spark. One poor woman, - sister to the beadle, who lives next door to Mr. Brock, was so - dreadfully injured by the broken glass that she lies in the London - Hospital without hopes of recovery. Ten houses were seriously - damaged, and over sixty had their windows broken from top to - bottom.” - -It will be seen from the foregoing that Brock was in advance of his -time as regards precautions against explosions, which, however, in this -case proved to some extent ineffective. - -An accident took place in 1838 at the premises of Cockerill, in -Paradise Row, Lower Road, Islington. Three persons were killed, and the -proprietor was so severely hurt in an attempt to rescue his family that -he died later. - -The following year an accident took place at 6 Edward Street, Bethnal -Green, in which three persons were injured. The explosion was caused -by a spark from the fire falling on a quantity of loose powder lying -on the table, the flash from which was communicated to a barrel of -powder near. The report continues: “The most miserable negligence was -displayed by the persons engaged in the fabrication of the fireworks, -as just previous to the accident one of the individuals was making a -squib by the fire with a lighted pipe in his mouth.” The pyrotechnist’s -name is not recorded. - -An explosion took place in 1841 at 6 Hatfield Place, Westminster Road, -Lambeth, at the works of Drewett. Considerable damage was done, but -fortunately no one was injured. - -In 1857 Darby’s factory at 98 Regent Street, Lambeth Walk, was -destroyed. The upper part of the house was used as bedrooms, with the -stock below; the whole of the premises and stock were destroyed, the -occupants of the bedrooms, who were cut off, being rescued by the -aid of ladders. On this occasion the gunpowder appears to have been -stored in a magazine away from the house. The report adds that the -same premises had suffered in a similar manner on one or two previous -occasions, and subsequently, in November, 1873, a disastrous explosion -at the same premises resulted in the loss of no fewer than eight lives. -In 1858 a serious explosion took place at Madame Cotton’s factory in -the Westminster Bridge Road. - -The above-mentioned accidents do not comprise anything like a complete -list, but tend to show the lines on which the manufacture of fireworks -was conducted during the period covered. - -The frequency of such occurrences and the danger entailed to third -parties pointed to the necessity of action of some kind. The old Act -might have been put into force, but by so doing the industry would be -stamped out, an industry which found employment for a large number of -workpeople, and besides giving amusement and entertainment to many, -provided signal lights and rockets, the demand for which was steadily -increasing. - -There were at this time a considerable number of firework makers in -London, particularly in the east and south of the Thames. Much of -the work was given out to the workpeople’s families to make up in -their own homes. Workmen now living can remember, as children, seeing -crackers, squibs, and other small goods being manufactured in bed and -living-rooms of tenement houses in crowded districts, with open fires -in the grates and several pounds of powder in a corner of the room. -The materials were either given out at the factory and a piecework -rate paid for making up, or the workers bought their own materials at -the local shops, which in these districts kept what was required, and -sold them to the factory on completion. It was then a common practice -for a maker who had completed a “frame” of quickmatch to take it round -to the local bakehouse to be dried and called for in the morning. - -[Illustration: THE EXPLOSION AT MADAME COTON’S FIREWORK FACTORY, - WESTMINSTER ROAD. - -From “The Illustrated London News,” 1858.] - -Considered from the point of view of modern practice, the wonder is -that there were not more accidents than actually took place. - -The Gunpowder Act of 1860 was an attempt to place the manufacture and -storage of explosives generally on a more satisfactory footing. It laid -down regulations to be “observed with regard to the manufacture of -loaded percussion caps, and the manufacture and keeping of ammunition, -fireworks, fulminate of mercury, and any other preparation or -composition of an explosive nature”; and makes it lawful for Justices -of the Peace in Quarter Sessions to license places for the manufacture -and storage of such articles, and to grant licenses to persons to sell -fireworks. - -It also provided for the installation of lightning conductors in -explosive magazines. - -This Act, although far from perfect, was a step in the right direction; -it had the effect of bringing some makers out from the back streets of -crowded districts, to construct properly arranged factories, or at any -rate, factories planned with some regard to their use. - -Four years after the passing of the Act, public attention was sharply -drawn to the matter by an explosion on an unprecedented scale at -Erith, where several of the gunpowder manufacturers had magazines. -Enormous damage was done, and many lives lost, over an area ten miles -in radius. Lieutenant-Colonel Boxer, R.A., Superintendent of the Royal -Laboratory, Woolwich, in his report on this explosion, draws attention -to the need for a system of inspection of explosive establishments, -with the result that he was himself authorised to make such inspection. - -Lieutenant-Colonel Boxer was succeeded in 1870 by Captain (afterwards -Colonel) Sir V. D. Majendie, K.C.B., who recommended the appointment of -permanent Explosives Inspectors. - -The late C. T. Brock, who commenced the long run of Crystal Palace -displays in 1866, found his works insufficient for the large supply of -material required for such displays, and commenced the construction of -a factory on new lines at Nunhead. It was here in 1872 that the Royal -Commission witnessed a series of experiments, the programme of which is -here reproduced. - -It was upon the results of these experiments that the provisions of -the Explosives Act of 1875, in so far as they relate to fireworks, are -based. - -This Act is still in force, and is unlikely to be superseded for -many years to come. There can have been few Acts which have, since -their inception, proved so satisfactory to the industry controlled -by them, either in the results achieved, or in the manner of their -administration. - -The Explosives Acts of 1860 and 1875 took the then proscribed art -of pyrotechny from back streets and crowded districts, rehoused it -in properly designed and conducted factories in rural or suburban -districts, making it as healthy and safe an occupation as almost any in -the country. - - - EXPERIMENTS WITH FIREWORKS AT NUNHEAD, - (_In a Field near Messrs. C. T. Brock & Co.’s Firework Manufactory_,) - On Thursday, April 4th, 1872. - - THE OBJECTS OF THE EXPERIMENTS ARE— - - 1. To determine if the distance between Firework Sheds, as at - present laid down by law, viz. 20 yards, is amply sufficient to - prevent an explosion in one shed communicating to other sheds - situated at the statutory distance. - - 2. To determine the liability of Fireworks to ignite by concussion - or friction. - - 3. To determine the liability of Fireworks to explode en masse if - from any cause they should be accidentally ignited. - - 4. In the event of Fireworks exhibiting a liability to explode, to - determine the area of destructive effect of such explosion. - - 5. To determine, with reference to the conclusions which may - be arrived at as to points 3 and 4, the degree of danger which - attends the transport of Fireworks by rail, barge or other public - conveyance. - - 6. To determine at what distance from dwelling houses stores of - Fireworks may be safely established. - - - PROGRAMME OF EXPERIMENTS. - - 1. Explode 30 lbs. of loose Firework Composition in a Shed, another - Shed being 10 yards distant. Screen between. - - 2. Explode 30 lbs. _of Composition in Fireworks_ in a Shed, another - Shed being 10 yards distant. Screen between. - - 3. Ignite a Box of ¼ cwt. of mixed Ordinary Fireworks in open air. - - 4. Ditto ditto ditto in contact - with another Box of ditto. - - 5. Place a Box of ¼ cwt. of ditto in a bonfire. - - 6. No. 3 repeated, with mixed Fireworks bought over the Counter. - - 7. No. 4 ditto ditto. - - 8. No. 5 ditto ditto. - - 9. Hammer various sorts of Fireworks—Wood on Wood. - - 10. Ditto ditto Wood on Iron. - - 11. Ditto ditto Iron on Iron. - - 12. Run a Railway Truck over some of the different sorts. - - 13. Repeat such of above as may seem necessary with “Parlour - Fireworks.” - - V. D. MAJENDIE, Captain R. A., - - _H.M.’s Inspector of Gunpowder Works, &c._ - - - - - CHAPTER VIII - - MODERN FIREWORK MANUFACTURE - - -Fireworks are now manufactured under the Explosives Act of 1875 and -Orders in Council No. 2 and No. 4 under that Act. - -Order in Council No. 4 deals with small Firework Factories, the total -contents of which, either finished or in course of construction, do not -exceed 500 lbs. This class of factory presents little of interest for -consideration; and is governed by practically the same rules as are -the larger establishments of the kind, with such modifications as are -justified by the small quantity of explosive material involved. - -Order in Council No. 2 sets out the general rules to be observed in -factories licensed under the Act, the leading points of which are as -follows: - -The absence of iron or steel in any workshop, carriage, or boat; -cleanliness and absence of grit; care as to material liable to -spontaneous ignition; provision of lightning conductors on magazines; -tools and implements to be of soft metal; working clothes without -pockets; shoes without nails; searching or means to prevent the -introduction of matches or dangerous substances into the works; -materials and finished work to be removed from working buildings and -not allowed to accumulate when any particular process is completed; -no person under sixteen years to be employed or enter any danger -building. Every building to be provided with a set of these rules, and -a statement of the quantities of explosives and ingredients, and the -work to be carried on in it as allowed by the license. - -The modern factory is generally situated in a rural district on -account of the fact that it is more easy to observe the statutary -distances from protected works. Protected works referred to in the -Act include other workshops and magazines in the factory, and also -dwelling-houses, factories, institutions, railways, highways, and -various undertakings and buildings, the distances to be observed -varying with the nature of the protected work from public highways to -palaces or houses of residence of the King, his heirs and successors. -In some cases, as with private dwelling-houses, the distance to be -observed is about half, if the consent of the occupier to the erection -of the factory building or magazine is obtained. - -Firework factories, in fact all explosive factories, are constructed on -the principle of limiting the scope and effect of any explosion that -may take place to the smallest possible quantity of material and to the -smallest possible risk to human life. - -The working buildings are constructed with a door at either end to -facilitate escape in case of danger; the quantity of chemicals and of -partially or wholly finished fireworks is strictly limited, as is the -number of persons employed in the building. This number varies with the -nature of the operation being carried out, from one in the case of the -most hazardous to six in some cases. - -The working buildings are of light construction; the form most in use -is a timber framing lined with matched boarding and covered externally -with corrugated iron. No iron fittings are used, or iron nails left -exposed in the interior. The floor is covered with linoleum, which is -secured by copper tacks. - -The distance separating working buildings is, generally speaking, -twenty-five yards, or if a suitable screen is placed between two such -buildings, this distance may be reduced to twelve yards. - -The workpeople are provided with non-inflammable outer garments, -no pockets are allowed, and suitable overshoes of sewn leather or -indiarubber are provided. - -All tools are of soft metal, such as brass or copper, or of wood. - -The regulations refer, of course, only to those buildings in which -explosive work is carried on, that is to say, buildings in the danger -area as distinct from the non-danger area. - -The buildings in the danger area are working buildings, drying-rooms, -expense and factory magazines. Expense magazines are those which are -licensed for a comparatively small quantity of explosives, and from -which explosive material is drawn as the work of the factory demands, -or into which is put partially or wholly finished work either awaiting -completion or transference to the main or factory magazines. - -The non-danger area includes stores for chemicals, paper, and other -material, also case rolling and drying sheds, sawmill, wood-working and -paper-cutting shops, offices, and similar buildings. - -The manufacture of fireworks begins with the making of the case or -container, which, with the exception of shells and Jacks-in-the-box, -are cylindrical in form. - -What are known as “small goods” are “dry-rolled,” that is, the outer -edge of the paper only is pasted. They are then rolled up on a metal -former on a slate slab. - -The larger cases, such as rockets, gerbs, and Roman candles, have -the paper pasted all over, which is rolled up on the former and -consolidated by repeated rolling between the slate slab and a board -provided with a handle. - -There are two methods of introducing the composition into the -cases—filling and charging. - -Filling is used where the composition does not have to be consolidated, -and is done with a wire and funnel, or as it was formerly called, a -“tun dish.” The funnel has its outlet of such a size as to fit the case -to be filled, the wire or rod is somewhat smaller than this outlet, and -is provided at the upper end with a knob for the hand. The end of the -funnel, which is filled with composition, is inserted in the upright -case. The wire is then drawn up, thus freeing a small quantity of the -composition which runs down into the case, the lowering of the wire -pushing it into position. In order to render the downward movement -more effective, the wire is often notched, but it is doubtful if this -actually increases the efficiency. This action is rapidly repeated -until the case is filled. - -This method, although simple, is very effective, and in the hands of a -practised worker is exceedingly quick. - -Charging is adopted where the contents have to be solidified in the -case. The composition is introduced in small quantities with a scoop of -suitable size and consolidated by repeated blows with a wooden mallet -on a “drift.” The drift is a cylindrical wooden tool of a size to fit -the case, and an enlargement at the upper end to receive the blow of -the mallet. - -The methods of charging the various forms of fireworks will be dealt -with later under their separate headings. - -The method of charging rockets in use in the sixteenth century are -those of to-day, and it is remarkable that no satisfactory alternative -to hand charging has yet been devised. Mechanical hammering and -hydraulic pressure have both been tried, but so far with limited -success. - -Stars which are used in Roman candles and as garniture for rockets and -shells, are of many kinds and combinations, but with the exception -of some which are in effect complete miniature fireworks, they are -constructed on one of three methods—they are either “pumped,” “pinched” -or “charged.” - -The pump used in the first of these operations consists of a short -metal tube, which fits exactly a short metal plunger provided with a -knob for the hand, and a small metal stud at the side. The tube has a -slot cut partially down the side to receive this stud. - -[Illustration: Modern Firework Tools. - - Gerb Tools - A1 Case. - A3 Drift. - A3 Nipple. - A4 Scoop. - B4 Mallet. - - Rocket Tools - D1 Mould. - D2 Spindle. - D3 Mallet. - D4 Choking Tools. - D5 Choked Case. - D6 Scoop. - D7 Setting down Tool. - D8 Graduated Drifts. - - Roman Candle Tools - B1 Bundle of Cases ready for filling. - B2 Drift. - B3 Topping Funnel and Drift. - B5 Powder Bowl and graduated Scoops. - - C1 Shell Mould. - C2 Half Shell Case as taken from mould. - E Star Pump. - F Funnel and Wire. - -The method of using the pump is as follows:—The plunger is drawn up -so that the stud rests on the top of the tube. The pump is pressed -into a heap of prepared composition, which action has the effect of -compressing the composition in the tube. The plunger is then turned -so that the stud engages with the slot, and pushed down, forcing the -star out of the tube. The composition is prepared for pumping by being -damped with methylated spirit or some other suitable solvent, and after -making, the stars are dried in specially constructed buildings. - -Pinched stars are made by pinching the damped composition into a short -paper case, through which a short length of match is first passed. - -Charged stars have generally a clay or cardboard bottom to the case, -and are usually matched. This form is generally used for Government -signal rockets, as the composition being only at one end of the case, -the time of burning is extended. - -The mixing of compositions requires great care and thoroughness. Care -both on account of the necessity of exact adherence to the formula, -and to preclude the presence of any foreign body or chemical which, -apart from any effect it might have on the successful functioning of -the fireworks for which it happens to be used, might render it most -dangerous in manipulation. - -Generally working buildings are licensed for mixing compositions, but -it is usual to set certain sheds apart for this purpose, especially if -the chemicals used are of a dusty nature, that is, very finely divided, -in which case the atmosphere becomes highly charged and dangerous. - -Chlorate of potash, from the introduction of which into pyrotechny -modern effects and colours may be said to date, has at the same time -been responsible for many accidents. As will be seen in the later -chapters on firework compositions, for many years chlorate of potash -and sulphur were used freely in the same mixtures, and many as were the -accidents caused by so doing, yet it is incredible that they were not -far more numerous. - -Most makers were well aware of the dangerous nature of this admixture, -but persisted in using it, as the colours so obtained were at that time -unapproached by other means; naturally no manufacturer wished to be -alone in the discontinuance of some of the most striking effects at the -time available, or to give competition the consequent advantage. - -In August, 1893, a man was fatally burned whilst simply emptying a -small quantity of crimson stars from one tray to another; the slight -friction so caused was sufficient to ignite the stars and thus fire -the whole contents of the building. This unfortunate accident took -place at the works of C. T. Brock and Co., then at South Norwood, and -seems even more unfortunate when one learns that with the exception of -this particular crimson, they had practically eliminated chlorate and -sulphur colours. - -The following year, by Order in Council No. 15, the admixture of -chlorate of potash and sulphur was made illegal. - -Previous to this accident, during the same year and in the same works, -a serious accident involving the death of one workman and the injury of -another, was caused by a barrel of chlorate of potash being delivered -and marked nitrate of potash (saltpetre). Its use in a composition -containing sulphide of arsenic (orpiment) produced a mixture -approximately to that used in some fog signals and designed to fire by -percussion. The natural effect was the serious explosion that followed. - -The late Sir Vivian D. Majendie, K.C.B., the then Chief Inspector of -Explosives, records in his report that “Messrs. Brock are extremely -careful to keep chlorate and non-chlorate mixing departments, and even -ingredients in separate buildings and under separate control,” and -while he considered that “some measure of blame is attributable to -them in respect of the defects of their system which rendered possible -the presence of a cask of chlorate of potash as “saltpetre” in the -saltpetre shed,” he adds: “It is only fair and proper that I should say -that our experience of the manner in which Messrs. Brock conduct their -large business generally is extremely satisfactory. This factory is -in many respects a model; they have always shown themselves ready to -discuss with us and adopt any suggestion tending to increase the safety -of the workpeople.” - -These indications, if such were needed apart from the official -prohibition of the use of these two ingredients together, convinced -Mr. Arthur Brock that even greater care was necessary in dealing -with them. With this object in view, when the works were removed to -Sutton, Surrey, the two factories at South Norwood and Harold Wood, -Essex, being inadequate to deal with the business, the plan of the new -factory was arranged so as entirely to separate that portion of the -factory using chlorate of potash from the portion using sulphur. A road -running up the factory from the entrance gate divides it into what are -virtually two factories, known as the Colour and Bright Sides. - -These works, which are easily the largest of the kind in the world, -cover an area of nearly 200 acres. They include about 60 magazines, -expense magazines, and drying rooms, with a total storage capacity of -1,300,000 lbs. of fireworks and 5 tons of gunpowder; 120 explosive -working buildings (mostly double), besides numerous stores, -non-explosive working buildings, saw-mills, and wood-working shops. -The buildings are connected by over four miles of tram-lines. The -average number of employees is 150 men and 200 women. During the late -war this number was increased to over 2,000 on the manufacture of -munitions. - - - - - CHAPTER IX - - FIREWORK ACCIDENTS - - -The record of firework accidents until the date of the Explosives Act, -1875, is very meagre, not in subject matter, as reference to Chapter -VI will show, for the history of the industry up to that time appears -to have been one catalogue of accidents; the only cause for wonder -when one considers the conditions then prevailing is that there were -not more. But in detail, the only records are more or less sensational -reports of the event, and such explanation of the cause as the reporter -could pick up from some bystander. - -In some cases where the workers were not killed the explanation was -found to be simple; as for instance, the accident at Mortram’s works -in 1821. Here a boy who was making stars in a room with several other -workers and other composition present, put some of his work to dry -before the open fire, and as if this was not a sufficiently reckless -proceeding, lit one on the hob, with the consequences that were to be -expected. - -In most cases, however, the cause seems to have been obscure, and -little or no trouble appears to have been taken to discover the cause -with a view to prevention of a repetition. - -Since the Explosives Act careful record is kept of all accidents; the -scene of the accident is inspected, and a report printed, setting out -the cause, so far as can be ascertained. - -Until the introduction of chlorate of potash about 1830, if even -reasonable care had been used the chances of spontaneous ignition were -very small, and it is reasonable to suppose that such accidents as did -take place were in the majority due to such incidents as the above. - -After that date, however, it is not too much to say that quite as large -a proportion of accidents were due to the admixture of chlorate of -potash and sulphur. - -We are, of course, now speaking of accidents during manufacture, -although to the same cause may be attributed many of the numerous cases -of bursting mortars during displays which were so frequent until the -prohibition of this mixture in 1894 by Order in Council 15. - -Dr. Browne, of Hull, a consulting chemist, published in 1884 a book -entitled, “Firework Accidents, their cause and prevention,” in which he -divides accidents into three classes: mechanical, chemical (spontaneous -combustion), and mechano-chemical. - -Such a classification seems to the writer misleading, as all accidents -must of necessity be chemical; that is to say, for combustion chemical -action must take place; and with the exception of cases where ignition -has taken place quite spontaneously, that is where the composition -has ignited when lying perfectly undisturbed, all must be considered -mechanical. - -Almost any composition used in pyrotechny, however stable, can -be ignited by a violent blow between two hard surfaces, but some -compositions are so unstable as to be ignited by very slight friction. - -It is therefore a question of degree, or whether the mechanical factor -is most to blame or the chemical. A better classification would be: - - I. Ignition caused by violence, friction or heat. - - II. Accidents caused by the state, condition or quality of - the composition or ingredients. - -If the accident be included in the class which gives the fundamental -cause of the accident, it will be found that the greatest number fall -in Class II, even though they may at first glance appear to belong to -the first class. - -Class I includes accidents caused by the accidental presence of fire -and accidents caused by necessarily more or less violent action in -manufacture, that is to say, in charging. - -Ignition during charging may be caused in two ways, either by a blow -on composition between the charging tool or drift and the spindle or -other hard surface, or by heat generated by repeated blows on the -consolidated composition. - -In this class also should be put accidents, of which there are many, -caused by playing or scuffing by the workpeople, the absence of safety -overshoes, the presence of grit or iron or steel implements, in fact -those caused by misconduct or negligence on the part of the workers, -also the rare occasions where lightning has been the cause. - -Accidents caused by slight friction have to a great extent ceased to -exist owing to the elimination of chlorate and sulphur compositions. -Where accidents arise owing to instability of the composition, they -most frequently at the present time fall within Class II, as the -instability of the composition is generally due to the presence of some -impurity in one or more of the ingredients. - -Another source of accident of this class is the use of violence in -emergency with a composition which, although not sufficiently stable -for heavy charging, is quite safe for careful manipulation; as for -instance, where force is exerted to clear a funnel which has become -blocked with composition, or some similar action. - -As regards the part played by heat in accidents of this class, a -study of the records clearly indicates how great is the influence of -weather. By far the greatest number of accidents take place in the -summer months; hot weather and a heavy atmosphere are the most likely -conditions to produce trouble for the pyrotechnist, although whether -the primary cause is heat or owing to an electrical condition of the -atmosphere it is difficult to say, probably it is the two conditions in -conjunction. Sulphur and shellac, two very important ingredients in the -art, are both capable of holding an electric charge, and it seems not -unlikely that they may be so charged in an electric atmosphere during -the process of mixing. - -Accidents in Class II are generally less easily explained than those -in the former class and have occurred in many forms. As has been said, -during the period (about sixty-five years) from the introduction of -chlorate of potash to the Order in Council forbidding its use with -sulphur, numerous accidents occurred; spontaneous ignition, both whilst -drying during manufacture and even during mixing, ignition from very -slight friction, and for a time a frequent occurrence the detonation -of the contents of shell by the lifting charge. During the period -of seventeen years between the date of the Explosives Act and the -prohibition of chlorate sulphur mixture, twenty-eight accidents are -recorded, resulting in eleven deaths attributable to the use of such -mixtures. - -The instability of chlorate sulphur compositions, however, does not -appear to be so much due to the presence of these two chemicals -themselves, but rather to the presence of impurity in conjunction with -them. - -Commercial sulphur often contains free sulphurous acid, which acting -upon the chlorate produces chlorine tetroxide, which rapidly decomposes -and ignites the mass of the composition. - -Other acids which produce decomposition of the chlorate are equally -likely to produce ignition. Of such cases, examples may be mentioned -of acid being present in the paste used for case and box-making, also -in gumwater which has been kept some time before using, and in starch -paste similarly treated. Spontaneous ignition has also been caused by -the contact of oil with finely divided carbon such as lampblack or -finely divided metals, such as magnesium and aluminium, which are so -largely used at the present time. - -Another case of this nature is the heating up of cases after charging -with gerb composition, two of the ingredients of which are sulphur -and iron borings, this heating sometimes being sufficient to cause -combustion. The cause of this phenomenon is the combination of the iron -with sulphur to form sulphide of iron, this action being accompanied by -heat. In fact, it is the same as that producing the experiment known -as Lemery’s volcano. As far as the knowledge of the writer extends, -however, no occurrence of ignition has been definitely traced to this -phenomenon, although it seems highly probable that even if ignition of -the actual composition has not taken place, cases have occurred where -more sensitive compositions have been fired by heat so generated where -fireworks have been stored together. - -The annual reports of H.M. Inspectors of Explosives published since -1876 form an interesting and instructive summary of accidents in -explosive trades, an examination of which throws considerable light on -our subject. - -One is struck by the frequency with which explosions occur as a result -of ignorance, generally on the part of amateur firework makers. In many -cases, as where children are concerned, this ignorance is natural, but -the want of knowledge and even reasonable care displayed by individuals -whose occupation suggests at least some knowledge of the risk is indeed -often extraordinary. - -Such a case occurred in 1884 in Devonshire, when a local chemist who -was illegally manufacturing coloured fire, instructed an assistant to -grind in an iron mortar a mixture containing chlorate of potash and -sulphur. The lad was killed in the resulting explosion. - -Even more remarkable was an explosion which took place in a railway -carriage in 1893. This was due to the spontaneous ignition of a -quantity of chlorate and sulphur coloured fire, which was being carried -in an ordinary handbag by a gentleman whose occupation in life was that -of professor of chemistry. - -An accident presenting considerable interest took place in 1885 at -Mitcham. The cause of this occurrence was quite simple. A man was -fixing the curved stick which forms the pivot upon which a tourbillion -rotates to one of those fireworks. The wire nail used for the purpose -penetrated the composition and fired it. The remaining goods in the -shed were ignited, and communicated to the neighbouring buildings, one -of which was a magazine containing 3,000 lbs. of partially manufactured -fireworks, including a number of rockets. These being without sticks -and becoming ignited flew in all directions, setting fire to other -buildings. The result was that ten buildings and an air drying rack -were totally destroyed, and three buildings and three racks partially -so. - -This would seem a very serious matter as far as monetary damage is -concerned, but as regards the chief consideration in accidents of this -kind, that is to say damage to human life and limb, the result was -almost negligible; two persons were slightly injured. - -This accident, which was the most extensive in any firework factory -since the Explosives Act came into operation, afforded striking proof -of the efficiency of the precautions instituted under that Act. - -It is indeed extraordinary that in an explosive factory of considerable -size, employing many workpeople, during working hours it should be -possible to destroy more or less completely seventeen buildings and -only slightly injure two persons. - -It may be contended that the number of buildings damaged was very high, -but it must be remembered that rockets without sticks take a most -erratic course in their flight, rendering the effective screening of -other buildings most difficult, if not impossible. - -However, there is evidence that many rockets were stopped by the -screens, and that without their interposition the number of buildings -destroyed might have been many times greater. - -The other Explosives Act requirements of which the efficiency was -demonstrated by this accident, are the dividing of sheds into -compartments with a limited number of workpeople in each, easy means of -escape from working buildings, and the value of uninflammable clothing. - -It was also shown that a large quantity of fireworks might be burnt -in mass without causing a veritable explosion; as in the case of the -magazine containing 3,000 lbs. - -Contrasting with this occurrence are the reports of accidents in -firework factories both on the Continent and in America. - -The same year, at Civita Vecchia, ten persons were killed and twice -that number injured in one accident at a firework factory. - -Four years later, in Paris, seven girls were killed out of the eighteen -employed in one compartment. The material being used was red phosphorus -and chlorate. In 1882 fourteen persons were killed and no fewer than -seventy injured at Chester, Pennsylvania. - -From 1891 to 1894 eight accidents in the United States are reported, -resulting in a total of twenty-three deaths and injury to more than -fifty persons. In 1894, at New Haven, Con., damage to the extent of -125,000 dollars was done, and at Dallas a considerable part of the city -was destroyed. - -These are, of course, not a complete list, but only such cases as are -brought to the notice of the English Home Office, but the extent of -these clearly illustrates the value of the restrictions in force in -this country. - -During the same years the total of firework factory accidents in this -country was thirteen, in which three persons lost their lives, and in -no case was more than one person killed in any one accident. Indeed, in -one instance only since 1875 has the number of deaths resulting from -any accident exceeded two—on that occasion four deaths resulted. - -An interesting type of accident, examples of which have taken place on -several occasions, is that in which two compositions, one containing -sulphur and the other chlorate of potash, are placed in contact in the -paper case of a firework, and produce spontaneous combustion. - -In one case a lance containing white and green composition burst into -flame on the work bench. This provided an explanation to an explosion -at the same factory which had taken place ten days before in a magazine -containing between 6,000 and 7,000 lbs. of display fireworks. - -An occurrence of a similar nature was observed at Brighton in 1903, -when some changing coloured lights which had been removed from a -building where a fire had taken place (the fireworks not being involved -in any way) ignited some days afterwards. - -It is thought that the lights may have been wetted during the fire, -and upon drying out some days later the different compositions in -contact in the case or cases set up chemical action, which resulted -in spontaneous ignition. It was found on examination that a blue -containing sulphur was in contact with a green containing chlorate. It -may be noted here that mixtures which are damped during manufacture are -more liable to spontaneous ignition than those manipulated in a dry -state. - -Many accidents and explosions are left unexplained, either because the -evidence is destroyed by the resulting fire or by the death of the -witness or witnesses, or because of the difficulty often experienced -in getting the workpeople to give a full and faithful account of what -occurred, fearing to cause trouble for themselves or others concerned. - -There can be no doubt that the cause is frequently carelessness or -mistakes on the part of workers. In a large number of cases, however, -this explanation gives no help and the cause remains obscure. One such -may be mentioned: - -In 1902 an explosion occurred in a store for non-explosive ingredients, -in which were kept the chemicals used in a firework factory. In the -building at the time was a workman who appears to have been engaged in -sifting chlorate of potash, and the technical manager of the factory -who seems to have been weighing out ingredients. There is no doubt that -he was a man of very considerable experience, and from his responsible -position unlikely either to take risks or be guilty of carelessness. - -An explosion occurred in the building, killing both occupants, and of -so violent a nature as to sever the foot of the manager and to project -one of the sheets of corrugated iron with which the roof was covered a -distance of thirty yards. - -No explanation of this occurrence was arrived at other than that -in some way some of the chemicals must have become mixed to form a -sensitive and violent explosive; so much is obvious, but how the -chemicals became so mixed remains a mystery, as no mixing was actually -done in the building. The ignition of such a mixture is less obscure -as magazine boots were not necessary in the building owing to the -non-hazardous nature of the work carried on there, and sufficient -friction would be produced to fire even a fairly sensitive mixture -between a nailed boot sole and a wood floor. - -An occurrence of considerable interest in this direction took place in -a warehouse at Manchester in 1908. In the building were stored several -tons of chemicals, among which were twelve tons of chlorate of potash -and thirty-two of chlorate of soda. - -A workman stepping down from a barrel struck fire, and saw a flame, -which he tried to extinguish by rubbing with his foot. This, however, -had the opposite effect. He then tried a bucket of water, which failed -to put it out; he left the building and heard an explosion, followed -by a second and a third, all apparently of a violent nature, all three -being heard nearly ten miles away, and glass broken throughout a -considerable area round the warehouse. - -The cause appears to have been as follows: During the conveyance of the -chlorate into the building leakings took place, and a certain quantity -remained on the floor, this mixing with dust and other organic matter -would prove a highly sensitive composition. This was ignited by the -man’s foot and rapidly spread, probably a deposit which had accumulated -under the floor became involved. The woodwork of the building and the -wooden barrels then became ignited. The rapid decomposition of the -chlorate caused by the heat liberated large quantities of free oxygen, -which united with carbon in the smoke to form gas, which exploded upon -reaching the correct proportion for so doing. - -The writer has chiefly confined himself to accidents in firework -factories; those occurring during the illegal manufacture of fireworks -in premises unlicensed for the purpose present no further interest, and -are generally caused by ignorance on the part of the participant of the -often extremely dangerous nature of the material he is handling. To -take an example: - -Two boys were engaged in grinding in a mortar a “small quantity” of -chlorate of potash and sugar. An explosion resulted which blew out -the entire window frames of the room, destroyed the partition between -the room and the passage, considerably damaged the other wall, and -projected the pestle into the ceiling, where it remained embedded. - -Accidents at displays are now happily rare; the most fruitful cause of -such happenings was the detonation of shell in the mortar, that is, -the detonation of the contents or “garniture” by the explosion of the -propellant charge. - -The elimination of chlorate-sulphur composition has reduced the chances -of this to a minimum, and the compulsory burying of mortars up to -the muzzle has practically eliminated the danger to either firers or -spectators. - -Apart from slight injuries caused by falling rocket sticks and mishaps -of a similar nature, accidents to the public at firework displays are -things of the past. - - - - - PART II - -[Illustration: Types of Modern Fireworks.] - - - - - CHAPTER I - - SIMPLE FIREWORKS—ROCKET CLASS - - -In the preceding chapters we have been dealing with displays of -fireworks, that is to say; fireworks in the mass. We will now turn our -attention to the firework units composing those displays, and endeavour -to trace their gradual evolution from the crude originals. - -Fireworks may be divided into two classes, simple and compound. -The first of these include fireworks which are a complete item in -themselves, as the rocket, shell, or Roman candle; also the units -which, fitted on a framework, go to compose the set pieces and devices -of a display, and the small shop goods not used in displays. We will -consider this class first. - -The two oldest forms of fireworks known are undoubtedly the cracker -and the rocket. As we have already noted, both of these—or at least -primitive forms—are mentioned by Marcus Graecus, Albertus, and Roger -Bacon. The description by the former is sufficiently clear to leave -no doubt in our minds that he is describing a rocket; although the -description of a cracker is not so explicit as to enable us to say -that he is actually describing a jumping cracker, yet his mention of -folding and tying would certainly give colour to that belief. In fact, -some writers have endeavoured to find a connection between the words -“Graecus” and “Cracker.” - -Greene, in “Orlando Furioso” (1599), uses the words, “Yes, yes, -with squibs and crackers brauly.” John Bate, in his book previously -mentioned, under the somewhat misleading heading, “How to make -Crackers,” says: “It is well knowne that every boy can make these, -therefore I think it will be but labor lost, to bestow time to -describe their making.” - -He also describes a kind of kite which he designates a “Fire Drake,” -to the tail of which he fastens “divers crackers” which are shown in -the illustration to be exactly like the jumping crackers of the present -day. Babington illustrates a cracker fixed to the top of a rocket. - -Pepys makes the following entry in his diary for November 5th, 1661: -“Seeing the boys in the streets flying their crackers.” - -The only practical difference between the cracker of 1635 and that -of to-day is in the difference of methods of manufacture, the early -practice being to fold the gunpowder in the paper, the modern, to -roll a paper case and fill the powder in through a funnel, afterwards -flattening it through a roller mill. - -[Illustration: Cracker Making] - -Curiously enough, although the cracker has been in use for centuries in -England, there appears to be no early reference to it on the Continent, -the word “petard” meaning a cracker in French, but more often being -applied to a firework with a single report, such as a maroon or cannon. -The _Dictionnaire National_ of 1852, however, describes the true -cracker as one of the meanings of “petard.” - -The rocket is equal to the cracker in its claim to antiquity, and it is -extraordinary that these two fireworks should have changed so little in -form and composition. - -John Babington gives illustrations of rocket-charging tools and -describes the manufacture of rockets, which are approximately those of -the present day. It is only in the proportion of the ingredients that -there is any considerable alteration. - -The word “rocket” appears to be Italian in origin, and to be based on -the similarity in appearance of a rocket on its stick to the round -piece of wood used in the Middle Ages to cover the point of a lance in -mimic combat, and known as a “rockette,” from “rocca,” the Italian -word for a bobbin, a diminutive of distaff. - -As a rocket is the most important unit in the art of pyrotechny, a -description of its manufacture will assist in the consideration of a -large number of other fireworks which are either modifications of or -based upon the underlying principles of the rocket, as well as the -several principles governing all fireworks. - -The ingredients of rocket composition are those of gunpowder in -approximately similar proportions, but the resultant composition is not -gunpowder, the reason being that the ingredients are less intimately -mixed, with the result that the combustion is spread over a longer -interval of time. Instead of the whole mass deflagrating instantly, -only the exposed surface is consumed. It is the recoil produced by -the rush of gases, and partially consumed matter, from the violently -burning composition which projects the rocket forward. The obvious form -for the case containing the composition is cylindrical, both on account -of ease of construction and of charging. In order to get the greatest -possible reaction from the burning composition, the case of the rocket -is constricted or choked, so that the fire may issue as it were in the -form of a jet. This choke has one obvious disadvantage, it reduces the -surface of composition to the area of the opening, thus restricting -the initial burning surface at the time when the maximum of effort is -required to force the rocket into motion. This defect is overcome by -having a tapering hole up almost the entire length of the composition, -thus giving a large burning surface with a consequent discharge of gas -through a small orifice and a resultant powerful jet of fire and gas. - -The rocket case is of stout paper rolled on a former consolidated by -rolling under a board. The choke is formed by inserting into the bore -of the rocket two wooden tools with rounded ends, the shorter tool -having a peg projecting which is equal in diameter to the bore of the -choke. The tools are of such length that when they are inserted the peg -takes up the position where the choke is to be formed. The case is then -constricted at this point by a strong pressure with a stout cord wound -round the case and soaped to allow it to slip round easily. - -The case is then dried and charged by placing on a “spindle,” which -is a strong gun-metal base with a nipple fitting into the vent of -the rocket and having a tapering spindle which fits tightly in the -choke and projects up into the bore of the rocket. The composition -is poured in in small quantities measured in a scoop, each scoopful -being consolidated by blows with a wooden mallet or a wooden “drift” -hollowed to take the spindle. Before the first scoop of composition is -introduced, the rocket is “set down,” that is, several blows are given -on the drift to consolidate the paper at the choke and give it accurate -shape. Next, a scoop of ground dry clay is poured in and charged -firm as a protection to the paper of the choke. The charging is then -proceeded with as detailed above. Varying drifts are used in order that -the hole may approximately correspond with the diameter of the tapering -spindle as the composition rises in the case. - -A short portion of the case above the spindle is charged solid; this is -referred to as the “heading,” and is usually about one and a half times -the bore in depth. - -Large rockets are charged in a mould which fits tightly round the -outside of the case and prevents the case being split under the -pressure of the blows whilst being charged. - -[Illustration: Rocket Manufacture, from Frézier’s “Feu d’Artifice,” - 1747.] - -In early times these moulds were used for all sizes and were of cast -metal, and it is from them that the classification of the sizes is -derived. Rockets are designated by the weight of a ball of lead which -fits the bore of the corresponding mould. Thus we have rockets -varying in size from ½ oz. to 6 lbs. and over, war rockets being made -up to 9 and 24 lbs., but their use is now almost extinct. - -This classification, although it serves its purpose well enough, is -somewhat misleading, as the thickness of the case varies in practice, -at any rate under modern conditions. In the seventeenth and eighteenth -centuries pyrotechnists seem to have had a standard proportion between -the case and bore, _i.e._, the thickness of the case was one-quarter -the internal diameter of the rocket. - -In modern commercial practice a rocket—say for example of 1 lb.—is a -rocket rolled on a former whose diameter is that of the bore of a 1 lb. -rocket of standard thickness, but whose outside diameter is governed by -the strength of the paper employed in the case. - -Several writers on pyrotechny, one Frézier writing in 1747 in -particular, have endeavoured to supersede this classification -of rockets by replacing it with a series of internal diameter -measurements, so far without success. It is hard to supersede the -traditions of centuries on a plea of mere rationalism. - -Rocket compositions, although containing the same ingredients, namely, -saltpetre, sulphur, and charcoal, have them in differing proportions. -Broadly speaking, the larger the rocket the greater the proportion of -charcoal and sulphur, the variations in proportion being considerable, -from the half-ounce rocket mixing of 13 saltpetre, 2 sulphur, and 5 -charcoal to the 9 lb. and 24 lb. war rocket, with 13 saltpetre, 3 -sulphur, and 4 charcoal approximately, and even higher proportions -of the second and third ingredients for special purposes. A larger -proportion of charcoal gives a larger tail—a desirable feature in -display and signal rockets. Some compositions have a proportion of -mealed gunpowder to produce fiercer burning. - -Early makers appear to have used mealed gunpowder and added charcoal -and other ingredients to, as it were, dilute the powder and render -the deflagration less fierce. Babington (1635) adds charcoal in the -following proportion: - - 1 oz.—4 oz. rockets, 1 lb. of mealed powder to 2 oz. charcoal - 4 oz.—10 oz. „ 1 lb. „ „ 2½ oz. „ - 10 oz.—1 lb. „ 1 lb. „ „ 3 oz. „ - -John Bate’s compositions are rather erratically arranged; in some cases -he adds the saltpetre, charcoal, and sulphur, and a further addition is -“yron scales,” presumably to increase the effect of the tail, for which -purpose later pyrotechnists used iron filings. - -The rocket having been charged to the top of the heading, clay is -charged in, forming a diaphragm above it. Earlier practice was to turn -down the top edge of the case on the heading composition to form a -diaphragm. - -The best-known form of rocket is the sky rocket, which is fitted with -a stick held in position by having a dowelled end introduced into a -rolled paper or metal tube secured to the side of the rocket. The -object of the stick is to direct the flight of the rocket, and further -serves to hold it in position for firing, being passed through two -rings at a suitable distance one above the other on a stake, through -which it slides easily. - -Sky rockets are fitted with a “cap” containing the “garniture” of -the rocket, which may take the form of “stars” or other pyrotechnic -effects, or a gun-cotton wad, or similar explosive to make a sound -signal, or small cases charged with picrate of potash, producing the -well-known “whistling rocket” effect. - -The “cap” is either cylindrical or in the form of a truncated cone, -with a conical or other top. The cap is burst open and the contents -ignited by an opening charge of powder lighted through a hole bored in -the clay diaphragm above the heading, so that when the heading is burnt -through the fire may be communicated to the opening charge. - -From earliest times the rocket has been the chief item in recreative -fireworks; either the sky rocket as we know it to-day or its many -modifications and derivatives was the chief constituent of the early -displays. - -During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries a display would contain -the following items—dragons or similar figures issuing from the scenic -castle provided for the display; these would be moved by line rockets. -A line rocket has no cap or garniture, the socket usually provided to -hold the stick being lengthened, and of sufficient diameter to allow it -to slide along a tightly stretched cord passed through it. Pieces of -a similar nature to the modern fountain and gerb would be represented -by “ground rockets.” This is a rocket less fiercely burning, charged -solid, fixed to a support so that it remains stationary whilst burning, -the fire being thrown out in a jet. Rockets would also be used to turn -such primitive wheels as were exhibited, and to actuate mechanical -scenic devices, which are in effect the “turning cases” of the present -day. Serpents of fiz-gigs were much used, both as a garniture for -rockets, and to give animation to wheels and similar pieces. These were -made on the rocket principle, similar to the squib, but slightly more -elaborate. A choke was formed between the composition and the “bounce” -or powder giving the report. - -To-day the ground rocket has developed into the gerb or Chinese tree, -fountains of various kinds, the flower pot—of the larger kinds; and -among the smaller varieties, the squib with its variations, such as -Black Jack and Blue Devil, and the golden rain with its variations. - -The modern, or rather more recent, method of heading the rocket with -a clay diaphragm evidently suggested that the choking of the case -might be dispensed with where the composition was less fierce, the -necessary reduction of the orifice being produced by a clay diaphragm -with a central hole of sufficient size. This method is followed with -the gerb, fountains, and flower pot, and in the firework known to -pyrotechnists as “fixt”; this unit is largely used in display work to -form the fringe frame or lattice effect of a set piece. “Fixt” are made -in 1 oz. and 2 oz. sizes, and contain a composition of approximately -one part of steel filings to four of mealed gunpowder and finish with a -bounce. The origin of the name is uncertain: it may refer to their use -on fixed pieces in contradistinction to one revolving, or—as is most -probable—was first used to distinguish between a fixed and a moving -rocket. - -The time of the introduction of the clay choke is uncertain. Jones, -writing in 1765, although using clay in the heading of rockets, still -choked all cases, but Mortimer (1824) uses it, although Ruggieri -(1821), whilst doing the same, appears to think choking preferable. - -The former gives instructions for charging the clay solid and boring -the central hole; Ruggieri, however, uses a nipple like a much -shortened rocket spindle, in which he agrees with the modern practice. -This method is also utilised at the present time for small-sized -rockets. - -Of the fireworks of the fountain class, probably the first to develop -from the crude rocket form were the gerb and flower pot. The gerb, or -Chinese tree, contains a composition of saltpetre, sulphur, charcoal -and iron borings, with the addition—if more force is required, as -for instance to turn a device—of mealed gunpowder. Early makers used -mealed powder alone and “iron sand,” or cast-iron reduced to powder -by hammering. This composition is known as Chinese fire, and, as its -name implies, was introduced into Europe from the East. An interesting -article appeared in the “Universal Magazine” of 1764, written by -a Jesuit missionary on the subject of Chinese fireworks. In it he -describes the making of iron sand as follows: - - “Old broken or useless pots serve generally for making this sand; - they are broken into pieces of the breadth of the hand, after - which, being made red-hot in the fire of a forge, they are thrown - in that condition into a trough filled with fresh water, where they - are left to cool. Thus calcined, the rust falls off in scales, and - they are easily reduced into sand, being first broken into parcels - of a finger’s breadth. The anvil and hammer used for this purpose - must be also of cast-iron, because steel flats the grains of sand. - It is necessary that the angles of those grains should be sharp, as - it is the angles that form the flowers.” - -The word “gerb” is derived from the French word meaning a sheaf of -corn, and was first applied to water fountains. - -The flower pot is charged with a composition formerly known as -“spur-fire,” from the resemblance in form of its coruscations to the -rowel of a spur. The effect produced is one of the most effective -when successful, but has the disadvantage for display work that the -effect is only appreciated at close quarters. The ingredients used are -lampblack, sulphur, red arsenic, saltpetre, with sometimes the addition -of charcoal and mealed gunpowder. - -Of the smaller works of this division the squib and golden rain are -too well known to need description. The squib and its variations have -a choked case; the golden rain and similar works are left with an open -bore. - -Squibs are generally filled with a composition of sulphur, saltpetre -and charcoal, sometimes steel filings, with a bounce of fine-grain -powder. - -A curious firework, now almost obsolete, for which it is difficult to -find a class, is the five-pointed star. This work consisted of a case -having a diaphragm of plaster of paris or clay above the filling, below -which five holes are bored equidistant and at right angles to the axis. -The case is fired in the unusual position of horizontal with the end -towards the spectator, the fire playing all round the case, forming a -star. The composition used was mealed powder, sulphur, saltpetre, and -sulphuret of antimony. Ruggieri mentions this firework under the name -“Etoile fixé,” and it is mentioned by Jones, writing in 1765, but not -by Frézier. - -It is hard to believe that this unit was successful, so many factors -militating against success, which depends upon the exactly similar -jet from each of the five holes. But it is possible that in large -geometrical pieces it was at least of use to give an additional effect -in what, owing to the lack of variety of the fireworks of the time, -must have been rather a monotonous repetition of a few effects. It -also would enable small blank spaces to be filled in on set pieces. In -a sun or star of the ordinary type, that is of radiating cases, the -commencement of the jets must be as far apart as the length of two of -the cases, which length is governed by the required time of burning. -This leaves a blank centre; the five-pointed star, however, if working -correctly, has the jets radiating from a point. - -Many of the earlier writers classified fireworks under the -heads:—Fireworks for the ground, for the air, and for the water. Those -falling in the latter division are only variations of those for the -ground, that is to say, a gerb, fountain or other firework is fitted -with a float, such as a block of wood, and functions floating on -the surface of the water, the effect being greatly enhanced by the -reflection. - -[Illustration: From “The Universal Magazine,” 1764.] - -It is not proposed to deal separately in this work with aquatic -fireworks unless they have some essential difference from their -parallel type for land display. - -One unit, of the rocket class, which is so distinct is the “skimmer.” -This is in effect a stickless rocket with the cap (which is empty) -fastened at an angle to the line of the main case. When fired the -skimmer, as its name implies, skims over the surface of the water, with -occasional dives under the surface in an erratic course. It requires -for its safe display a considerable area of water. These are known by -French pyrotechnists as “genouillères,” from their shape. - -Ruggieri and Frézier describe what they call “plongeons.” These are -gerbs charged in the ordinary way, except that before each scoop of -composition a small quantity of mealed powder is added. This produces -a jerky burning, the recoil of each puff of powder driving the gerb -beneath the surface of the water; the jet of fire, of course, is -sufficient to prevent water entering the case while so submerged. -These, and other earlier writers, in their section devoted to aquatic -fireworks, give directions for firing ordinary land fireworks on the -water, which would almost appear to have been included with the idea -of filling space. One item which is generally included consists of -directions for firing rockets under water. Jones, under this heading, -gives the following directions: - - “TO FIRE SKY ROCKETS UNDER WATER. - - “You must have stands made as usual, only the rails must be placed - flat, instead of edgeways, and have holes in them for the rocket - sticks to go through; for if they were hung upon hooks, the motion - of the water would throw them off: the stands being made, if the - pond is deep enough, sink them at the sides so deep that when the - rockets are in their heads may just appear above the surface of the - water; to the mouth of each rocket fix a leader which put through - the hole with the stick; then a little above the water must be a - board, supported by the stand, and placed along one side of the - rockets; then the ends of the leaders are turned up through holes - made in this board, exactly opposite the rockets. By this means - you may fire them singly, or all at once. Rockets may be fired - by this method, in the middle of a pond, by a Neptune, a swan, a - water-wheel, or anything else you chuse.” - -It will be seen that the rockets themselves are above the surface, -which seems more reasonable than the instructions of some writers, -who, to get the effect of a rocket rising from actually beneath the -surface, give themselves an infinite amount of trouble to render the -case and connections waterproof. The effect seen from a short distance -is identical. - - - - - CHAPTER II - - SIMPLE FIREWORKS—SHELL CLASS - - -We now come to a distinct class of fireworks, those whose functioning -depends on the propulsion of gunpowder. The first and parent of this -class is the shell or bomb. - -The original name of the shell was “air balloon,” which is now -obsolete. Some writers have been misled by its appearance in old -amusement announcements into thinking a balloon ascent was referred -to, or that a balloon carrying fireworks was to be exhibited, at dates -considerably before the invention of gas or hot-air balloons. - -In this connection it is interesting to note that Ruggieri claims that -his father was the first to release a balloon carrying fireworks in -1786. - -As we have seen, the military use of shell dates from at least as early -as the middle of the sixteenth century. - -Both Babington and Bate, writing in 1635, give instructions for -making shell, and although the book of the former is more advanced in -this particular matter, he is, generally speaking, considerably more -primitive. - -Babington describes a hollow sphere of canvas, a part of which is -filled with a slow-burning composition, the remainder being filled -with stars and grain powder, the canvas is pierced to expose the slow -composition. The shell is fired from a mortar having a touch-hole. The -following are Babington’s instructions in the matter: - - “Load your morter piece with one ounce of corne powder, putting - after a wadd and tampion, and put on your ball with the vent - towards the mouth of your piece: so elevating your piece to the - zenith, you may proceed to the firing of it, which must be after - this manner: provide two matches ready lighted, having one in each - hand, and first fire your ball with one hand and presently give - fire to your piece with the other, alwaies holding your head under - the horizontall line of your piece, for fear the blast annoy you: - this having done you shall see your ball mount very high with a - fair taile of fire, and when at its highest, shall break forth into - a goodly showre of starres.” - -This somewhat unconvincing account gives one to wonder if the worthy -gunner had indeed fired a shell such as he describes, and if so, -whether he was not more than “annoyed” at the result. He gives the -lifting charge as exactly one ounce, but gives no indication of the -size of the shell or mortar. It seems probable that he had never seen a -shell of this nature, and was giving his idea of it without practical -experience; this is the more curious as, generally speaking, his -book is wonderfully advanced for the period, and indicates personal -experience of the matters under discussion. - -John Bate, although less fluent, gives greater indication of practical -knowledge of the matter. His “balloone” is rather oblong in section, -and is made by rolling canvas on a former, using eight or nine turns. -The ends are choked in the same way as a rocket case, one end being -choked on to a “little cane rammed full of a slow composition.” The -shell is placed in the mortar with the fuse downwards, which is ignited -by the flash of the mortar charge. Bate takes the precaution of -having a time fuse at the touch-hole of the mortar, and concludes his -instructions for firing by saying, “and while that burneth, retreat out -of harms way.” Altogether a more practical and convincing description. - -Frézier (1747) makes the following prefatory remarks to his chapter on -shells: - - “The name of ‘balon’ is given to a firework which is thrown into the - air like artillery bombs for war, so that they are often given the - same name as bomb. - - “The difference between this firework and a bomb is not only that - the former is to amuse and that the latter to destroy, and that the - one is made of iron, and the other of wood, linen, or cardboard, but - principally because the latter is made to burst and throw out its - garniture at the point of the highest elevation, while the war bombs - do so at the moment of their fall to the earth, also the war bombs - are thrown towards the horizon, while the firework bombs are thrown - vertically or nearly so. - - “The fireworks differ also from the war bombs in shape, the former - being not always spherical, as the latter are. - - “We must therefore understand by the name of shell a firework of which - the effect and principal beauty is that while going up in the air it - only shews a small stream of fire, which multiplies itself suddenly - into a great number of others at the moment of its highest elevation, - which causes a pleasant surprise. - - “As this firework does not lift itself, but is thrown by impulsion - the same way as a bomb, it can, like the latter, only be fired from a - mortar.” - -He describes two shapes of shell, the spherical and cylindrical, with -a hemispherical end, which shape is more convenient where the contents -are long in form, as rockets, Roman candles, etc. He attributes the -introduction of this shape to Siemienowitz, who, he says, made the -cases of wood. He himself, however, adopts the modern method, as he -does with the fuse, which he calls the port-fire. The lifting charge, -however, is placed in the mortar separately from the shell and ignited -at a touch-hole, in which, as will be seen, he differs from modern -practice. - -He gives a list of garnitures or fillings, which are interesting as -showing the practice of the day: - - “The first is the one which gives the effect of a waterfall or - head of hair. This is made of thin narrow tubes, or if possible, - of thin canes, cut to the length of the shell, and filled with a - slow-burning composition made of three parts of priming powder, two - of charcoal, and one of sulphur, damped with a little petroleum, - and capped with a paste made of powder crushed in distilled water - or spirit and afterwards dried. All these are put in the tube, - around the one which is used for the passage of the port-fire. - - “When it is full the loaded port-fire is introduced, and pushed so - far that it reaches the frame, and when it is touching the lid, - this lid must be glued by the rough ends to that of the tube, and - the shell is finished. - - “As it is rather heavy, it is advisable to adopt means for its - resisting the shock of the lifting charge of powder which drives - it out of the mortar, by strengthening it with a covering of linen - strips, which should be stuck on to the shell by means of a paste, - composed of two-thirds of flour paste, and one-third of glue. - - “Unless this is done it often happens that the shell bursts before - it rises in the air.” - -The second consists of serpents, the third of “saucissons volans,” -similar to the “fiz-gig” of Bate; the choke in the middle between the -composition and the bang being varied in position so as to produce a -succession of bangs. The vacant spaces left over in the shorter may be -filled with stars. - -The fourth is of stars arranged in beds of grain powder; the -interstices being filled with a mixture of mealed powder and charcoal. -The fifth of “light balls,” and for the sixth he describes “the manner -of making figures and various shapes in fire appear in the air.” -These letters are made on a frame covered with composition, and are -consequently limited to a size to the internal diameter of the shell, -that is, less than eight inches. It seems improbable that they could -be distinguished satisfactorily at the height of a shell’s trajectory, -besides which the difficulties involved, as he himself explains, are -very great, which no doubt explains the fact that this idea is now -obsolete. - -Under the heading “Double and Triple Balloons,” this writer describes -the method of placing shell of smaller size inside a larger. The -bursting of the first shell lights the short-time fuse of the contained -shell, which falls some distance and bursts. With the triple shell this -action is repeated. - -Jones (1765) divides shell into four kinds, namely, “illuminated -balloons” filled with stars; “balloons of serpents,” “balloons of -reports, marrons and crackers,” and “compound balloons.” The last -description is misleading, as the balloon is not compound but the -contents are varied, as for example, the contents of one specified ten -crackers of six reports, twenty golden rains, sixteen two-ounce cases -charged half-inch with star composition and bounced, two ounces each -of brilliant, blue, coloured tailed, large string and rolled stars. -It is hard to believe that this writer had ever seen a shell fired -in this manner, the result would have been mere confusion. The star -compositions of that date were very rudimentary, the colours when seen -from the distance of a bursting shell were indistinguishable. - -One interesting detail in Jones’s work is the classification of sizes. -The smallest shell mentioned by him is the “Coehorn Balloon”; he does -not give the size, but it is given in the “Military Encyclopedia” as -4⅔ inches. This corresponds to the 4½-inch of to-day. The name was -apparently derived from a Dutch military engineer of that name. The -next size is the royal 5½-inch, and above that 8-inch and 10-inch. - -Ruggieri (1821) is the first writer on the subject to have the shell -and lifting charge in a unit as is the practice to-day, which indicates -constructionally a great advance over his predecessors, although the -fillings show little progress. - -The modern shell is arranged with a “lighter” of quickmatch, long -enough to reach from the top of the shell when in position in the -mortar to a sufficient distance outside the mouth to enable it to be -ignited without danger. The lighter fires the time-fuse in the top of -the shell, and at the same time two pieces of quickmatch which run -round the shell in grooves worked in the paper shell case, and ignites -the lifting charge, which is contained in a flannel bag, or in the case -of small shell, a paper cone. - -The lifting charge projects the shell into the air and the time fuse, -which is arranged to burn through at the top of the shell’s flight, -ignites the bursting charge which opens the shell and fires the -contents. - -The modern varieties of shell are almost infinite. Colours have been -brought to a wonderful pitch of depth and brilliance, besides various -kinds of fire for stars, producing stars with tails of the same and -contrasting colours. - -Another class of shell, which might be called the compound, consists of -shell filled with fireworks of other kinds—Roman candles, tourbillions, -wheel-turning cases, small shell, and what gives undoubtedly the most -dramatic aerial effect yet devised, with rockets. The “thunderbolt,” a -shell 16 inches in diameter, containing a hundred 4-ounce rockets, has -always been a popular feature of the Crystal Palace displays. - -Another variation of the shell is the comet, which is in effect a small -shell (generally about three inches) with an exaggerated fuse of -brilliant fire, which leaves a heavy tail during the comet’s flight. -These are usually fired from either side of the firing-ground in rapid -succession, producing an aerial arch, and opening just after having -passed each other. - -The aerial maroon consists of a maroon fitted with a lifting charge and -time fuse. - - - - - CHAPTER III - - SIMPLE FIREWORKS—MINE CLASS - - -The next group of fireworks is what may be called the “Mine” class, and -has some of its members amongst the earliest firework units. - -To-day a mine consists of a quantity of small effects such as stars, -crackers, squibs, etc., blown simultaneously from a case, or in display -work—from a mortar. In the latter event they are made up into bags with -the lifting charge below, and are known technically as “bags.” - -The “Mine of Serpents” and “Jack-in-the-Box” as sold in the shops -consist of a rolled paper case which acts as the mortar, at the bottom -of which is a lifting charge. This case has a light strawboard cover -with a central hole, through which passes a case charged with a golden -fountain composition, the lower end of which is not—as is generally -the case—“clayed.” The space round the central case is filled in with -squibs or crackers. When lighted the fountain case functions in the -usual way, but when finished ignites the lifting charge, which lights -and blows up the contained fireworks. - -A very early reference to the “Jack-in-the-Box” is by John Babington -(1635). In Chapter XXXVII he says: “Another which I call Jack in a -Box. The order of making this is after this manner: provide a box of -plate, of what largeness you please—then putting in a quantity of corn -powder or powder dust (in the bottom of the box) you shall fill it with -fisgigs or serpents, leaving a case in the middle for a cane to go -through to the bottom, which cane must be filled with a slow receipt, -in which you shall put a quantity of champhire but no oyles, in regard -of the narrow passage it has to burn without any other vent.” He then -describes fitting the pasteboard top and concludes: “and light your -cane, which will appear like a candle, and after a pretty distance of -time you shall heare a sudden noyse and see all those fisgigs flying -some one way, some another. This toy has given great content to the -spectators.” - -Frézier calls mines “Pots à feu” or “d’aigrettes,” which, he says, were -three, four, or five inches in diameter, and twelve to eighteen inches -in length. When fired in batteries they were called “Pots de brins.” - -The smaller kind were ignited at a vent formed by choking the case, -the vent—when the case was in position—pointing downward. The larger -sorts were lighted from above, and were practically the same as the -Jack-in-the-Box, with the difference that there was a case similar to a -shell fuse instead of the central Roman candle. - -Jones’ description of “Pots d’aigrettes” and “Pots de brins” are -similar, only that he fires the former with a Roman candle in the -centre of the central mortar of a group with a lighter from it to each -of the others, so that at the finish of the Roman candle the mortars -are discharged simultaneously. - -An elaboration of the “Jack” is the “Devil-among-the-Tailors,” which is -the same device surrounded by Roman candles. - -The next fireworks in this class—the Roman candle—is one whose genesis -presents a most interesting study. From the evidence available there -seems no doubt that this firework, in spite of its name, originated in -this country. - -The first mention of anything resembling it is found in Babington’s -book. He describes what he calls “a trunck of fire which shall cast -forth divers fire balls.” It is one of a class, apparently in favour at -this time, intended to be carried on a staff, and known collectively -as “fire lances” or “clubs” (the former name is not to be confused with -the lances used in set-piece work). - -The particular one under consideration, although it is very large, -being four inches bore, and only emits two balls or stars, is -undoubtedly the prototype of the “Roman.” - -Bate describes a somewhat similar lance with the difference that -“petards” or single crackers are substituted for stars. - -This was in 1635. Over one hundred years later, Frézier describes -an almost exactly similar firework under the heading “Artifices -Portatifs,” which name he adopts instead of the old name “Lance à feu,” -in order to avoid confusion with the lance as known to-day, which was -then coming into use. - -This is the only mention he makes of anything that can be considered -to even remotely resemble a Roman candle, and as he refers to several -other writers, a justifiable inference seems to be that neither he or -they had any knowledge of such a firework. Had he known of it, such is -its popularity he would certainly have mentioned it. - -Eighteen years later Jones describes exactly the Roman candle as made -to-day, to which he gives the name “Fire Pump.” - -“Pumps” and “Pumps with Starrs” occur in the description subjoined to -engravings depicting English peace displays in 1697 and 1713; there -can be no doubt that the reference is to Roman candles or the earlier -development of them. - -When, however, the elder Ruggieri came over to this country in 1749 to -conduct the Aix-la-Chapelle peace display in Green Park, in conjunction -with Sarti, no firework of this nature appears in the programme of the -display. - -Here we have two pyrotechnists who can be considered to represent -the best skill of France and Italy; in fact, it was Ruggieri whose -arrival in France from Italy in or about 1735 marked the great advance -in pyrotechny in the former country. Yet the “Pump” does not appear in -this great display planned and executed by them, although for years it -had been a popular item in displays in this country. The obvious reason -for this omission is that they did not know of it. - -In the early part of the nineteenth century the name “Roman candle” -comes into use both here and in France. The “English Encyclopædia” -of 1802 still uses the expression “Fire Pump,” but this is probably -because their article is copied almost verbatim from Jones’ book. The -name Roman candle, however, appears in an advertisement of a display -at Ipswich by William Brock in 1818, and Ruggieri the younger uses the -words “chandelle romaine” in his book of 1805. - -How this firework received the name Roman is obscure; it may have been -affixed by one of the many Italian pyrotechnists working here, or it -may have had political or religious significance. - -A firework functioning in the same way as a Roman candle is the Italian -streamer, which has stars of a composition containing lampblack, which -burn with a gold fire and leave a tail in their flight. - -The Roman candle of the present day is made with an almost endless -variety of stars, but those in use when the name was first introduced -were of very simple character. Coloured stars, as accepted to-day, were -not introduced until about the thirtieth year of the last century. - -The compositions given by Jones and Ruggieri would produce -approximately the same effect as the Italian streamer star of to-day, -but with little or no tail. - -Lampblack compositions appear to have been introduced into Europe from -the East, and there seems to be no reason why Italy should have had -them before this country, or that the introduction of lampblack into -Roman candle star composition should be credited to Italy. - -It seems more probable that the name Italian streamer was attached to -that firework in this country to distinguish it from the Roman candle -with tailless stars, and under the mistaken idea that the “Roman” was -a foreign importation, or that it would be more acceptable if labelled -with a foreign name. - -As we have said, the modern Roman candle is made with stars of very -many varieties, but whatever kind of star may be used, the method of -filling is the same. - -The principle on which the Roman candle is constructed is as follows: -The case is charged with a series of repetitions of the following—Roman -candle fuse, “dark fire,” star, blowing charge. These are repeated as -many times as the case will hold, and function thus—the fuse burns with -a fountain effect, and upon being exhausted lights the “dark fire,” -which lights the star, flashes round it and fires the blowing charge -which propels the star from the case. The blowing charge also ignites -the next layer of fuse, and the effect is repeated. - -In filling the case different sized scoops are used for the blowing -charge, which is of fine-grain powder, the smaller scoops being used -at the lower portion of the case. This is done so that the stars may -rise to approximately the same height; the charge at the bottom acting -through a greater distance, naturally acts more effectively and less is -required. - -Earlier pyrotechnists, in addition, as a means of regulating the height -of the stars’ flight, made the stars of differing sizes; this under -modern manufacturing conditions would be impossible, and has been -abandoned. - -Roman candle fuse is composed of sulphur, charcoal, saltpetre in the -proportion of 4, 8, 15. The “dark fire” is of mealed powder, with a -small admixture of charcoal. - -[Illustration: An old Firework Bill.] - -Another firework which is probably a development of the Roman candle is -the jewel fountain. This consists of a fountain mixture of saltpetre, -sulphur, and charcoal, to which is added granules of star composition, -which are thrown out by the force of the fire, giving a fountain effect -in which appear variously coloured points of fire. - - - - - CHAPTER IV - - SIMPLE FIREWORKS—SAXON & LANCE CLASSES - - -The fireworks which form a class by themselves are the Saxon or Chinese -flyer, and the tourbillion. Both of these consist of a single case made -to revolve in the plane of its axis by jets of fire projected through a -hole at right angles to the axis. - -Saxons revolve about a nail driven through the case into a post or -other support; they are charged with a composition of mealed gunpowder, -saltpetre, and sulphur. - -The case is charged thus: the lower end is firmly “clayed” and the -composition is charged up to a point about ⅝ inch below the centre, -clay is then charged for ¾ inch, and again composition to within a -short distance of the top, which is again firmly clayed. Two holes are -bored near each end on opposite sides of the case, and a third hole is -bored through the centre of the case at right angles to the other two -and of sufficient size to take the nail or spindle on which the case -revolves. - -The two holes at the end may be connected with match to light -simultaneously, or the time of burning may be lengthened by leading the -second half from the lower end of the first lit. In the larger sizes, -and generally in display work, a small case charged with a colour -composition is attached to the side of the case, producing a ring of -colour inside the fire of the saxon. - -A smaller and cheaper form of saxon is what is in effect half of that -described above, the nail being at one end and the propelling hole at -the other. - -[Illustration: Rocket Charging.] - -[Illustration: Filling Roman Candles.] - -Formerly saxons for display work were made with a wooden centre, on -which the two halves, which were charged separately, were fitted, and -to which the colour case was secured by a nail. - -The tourbillion is a development of the saxon; instead of the central -spindle a piece of curved wood is secured to the case, forming a pivot -on which to revolve when lying on a flat surface, and two additional -holes are bored on the under side of the case, so arranged as to light -when the case has sufficiently rapid revolution and project it into the -air. - -Jones describes tourbillions as made to-day, also saxons under the -older name of Chinese flyer. In addition, he describes what he calls -“table rockets,” which resemble four double saxon cases fitted to a -centre, which has a projecting cone upon which the device revolves. - -He says that “table rockets are designed merely to show the truth of -driving and the judgment of a fireworker, they having no other effect -when fired than spinning round in the same place where they begin till -they are burnt out, and showing nothing more than a horizontal circle -of fire,” but afterwards adds that “these rockets may be made to rise -like tourbillions by making the cases shorter and boring holes in the -under side of each case at equal distances; this being done they are -called ‘double tourbillions.’” - -Frézier shows tourbillions as at present manufactured, which he calls -“tourbillion de feu” or “soleil montant,” but the nearest device he -shows to a saxon is similar to Jones’s table rocket, made to revolve on -a spindle, and having several holes bored down the side of each case, -presumably to produce more effect. These he designates “tourniquets” or -“soleils tournants.” - -He also illustrates two ordinary rockets mounted on a centre similar to -that of a double saxon. This he calls “baton à feu,” and describes that -one case lights after the other is burnt out, and one gathers that the -device is intended to revolve but how it can be made to do this by fire -issuing radially is not apparent. - -The word tourbillion is the French for a whirlwind and is applied by -Ruggieri to a compound firework, which will be considered later under -that head. - -What we know as tourbillion he names “fusée de table” (a table rocket), -and adds that they are commonly called “artichauts.” - -The success of all the above, in common with rockets, depends on -careful and experienced construction and strength of the case, and it -is indeed curious that Jones describes the rolling of the cases for -these fireworks without paste except on the edge of the paper. It seems -incredible that an experienced pyrotechnist should make such a mistake, -and one is almost inclined to agree with Kentish (1878), who says of -Jones’s book: “The greater portion of it is absurd and impracticable, -and shows it was written by a person who undertook to teach what he -had not learnt.” Nevertheless Jones’s book, as Kentish says, has been -copied by almost every book published since, just as his own matter -was largely pirated from previous works. In fact, for a century and a -half the plates illustrating pyrotechnic works were in a great degree -fac-similes of one another. - -The catherine wheel, or, as it is sometimes called, the pin wheel, is -a rotating firework of simple, as distinct from compound construction, -and should therefore be included in this class. - -It consists of a long, thin case of small diameter, charged with a -composition of sulphur, saltpetre, and mealed gunpowder. This case is -wound round a circular block of thin wood, with a hole in the centre -through which a pin or nail is passed, forming a pivot upon which the -wheel turns. - -The case of the catherine wheel, unlike any firework we have considered -up to the present, burns down as the composition is consumed, and -for this reason it may be included equally well in another small -class of fireworks. This class includes the lance, the port-fire, the -starlights, feathers, and the colour cases used on wheels and saxons, -etc. - -The lance is used in display work in greater numbers than any other -unit. Some idea of the quantity used may be gathered from the fact that -on one of the battle set pieces shown at the Crystal Palace as many as -thirty thousand lances are consumed in a single display. - -Lances consist of thin paper cases about the diameter of a lead pencil, -filled with colour composition, and primed, to facilitate the lighting, -with mealed powder damped with water. This sets and further serves to -retain the contents of the lance, which are not compressed solid as are -fountains, rockets, etc. - -The port-fire is used as a means of lighting the pieces, etc., of a -display, and in the last century for military purposes; its composition -consists of a mixture of saltpetre, sulphur, and mealed gunpowder. It -was formerly known as a blue candle. - -The starlight and feathers, as are the squib, golden rain, etc., are of -the garden type, and are not used in display work, as although burning -with pretty effect, it is not distinguishable at any distance. - -The feather and starlight compositions are similar to that of the -flower pot, but the cases are smaller, that of the feather being -catherine wheel pipe, but naturally not bent—the ends are closed by -“dubbing.” This is a method usually adopted for closing the ends of -“small goods.” The end of the case is introduced into an opening -formed by opposing V-shaped notches in an upper and lower series of -steel plates, the upper set being then forced down. The result is to -constrict the end of the case, which is then dipped in a mixture of -sealing-wax and glue. - -Under the same head fall the Light group, which are wide and -comparatively thin cases filled with coloured or “bright” (as white -composition is known in the trade) composition. They are used either -for illuminating as Bengal lights, or for signalling purposes; if for -the latter, they are generally provided with a wooden handle and some -means of self-ignition. - -The name Bengal light is probably based on the use of Bengal saltpetre, -and does not indicate their origin in that province. - - - - - CHAPTER V - - COMPOUND FIREWORKS - - -Compound fireworks are those which are composed of a number of simple -fireworks or units fixed to a framework or other device so that they -produce a more elaborate effect than do single fireworks. - -Probably the earliest form of compound firework was the wheel. After -the sky rocket had become an established fact, it was a small step to -tie rockets round a wheel, so that when fired they caused it to revolve. - -Babington gives several devices based on the idea of imparting -movement to a wheel by rockets: he describes horizontal and vertical -wheels, which appear to be the same piece fired either horizontally or -vertically. In neither case is there any further effect than the fire -from the rockets tied to the periphery. His illustration shows no less -than sixteen rockets to fire singly in succession, which would, by -modern standards, make a rather lengthy and monotonous piece. He also -describes ground wheels, which consist of two wheels fitted to an axle -with a smaller wheel placed centrally between them. The centre wheel -has rocket cases fitted to it, causing the whole arrangement to revolve -and run along the ground. As an alternative he suggests substituting -cases secured to the axle without a central wheel, so arranged that one -being burnt out the second burns in the opposite direction and reverses -the direction of the wheels. The device is now quite obsolete. - -One interesting point is the method of communicating fire from one case -to the next; quickmatch, as used to-day, had not then been invented. -His method was to fasten the cases head to tail a short distance apart -by wrapping and tying paper round in the form of a tube, the space so -formed containing some mealed powder. - -He also describes what he calls fixed wheels, which are in effect the -fixed sun of to-day; that is, a framework with cases arranged radially -so that the fire is thrown out from the centre. - -As variations of the above, he suggests various effects such as “a -fixed wheel which shall give divers reports,” “which shall cast forth -divers fisgigs, and likewise as many reports or breakers,” “which shall -cast forth many rockets into the ayre.” The latter is evidently the -prototype of a piece known later as the rocket wheel, popular for some -time, but little used at the present, the objection to it being that -there is no control over the direction in which the rockets fly from -it. The wheel revolves horizontally, and projects a series of rockets -into the air as it revolves. - -During the following century, as compound fireworks developed in this -country, the Italian and French nomenclature was introduced, many of -which survive at the present time. - -The pyrotechnists of the eighteenth century seem to have delighted in -inventing new terms, possibly with the idea of impressing the layman. -Frézier, writing over a hundred years later than Babington, records -very little advance in revolving fireworks, except in the matter of -names. He classifies all revolving pieces as girandoles. This word -appears in pyrotechny very frequently; curiously enough, nearly every -writer has attached a different meaning to it. Frézier explains that -the word is derived from girare—to revolve or gyrate, from the Greek. - -Bate applied this meaning to it. He says, “How to make gironels or fire -wheeles.” He is, however, the only English writer to do so; others use -it to mean a flight of rockets, and occasionally for an elaborate fixed -piece of the fountain type. - -Ruggieri and Sarti, both Italians, used it in the sense of a “flight” -of rockets in the programme of their Green Park display in 1749. -Ruggieri the younger, however, applies it to a specific kind of -revolving firework in his book, and introduces a new word—girande—to -which he applies the same meaning as the one generally accepted in this -country for girandole. The confusion of these two words, which have the -same derivation, may be the explanation of the duplication of meaning, -or it may lie in the fact that the name was also applied to the rocket -wheel previously mentioned, which both revolves and throws up rockets. - -Frézier shows a wheel similar to that given by Babington, and -variations on the double saxon, a fixed sun also, as do most early -writers, double line rockets to run backwards and forwards and -variations. These latter, which appear to have been very popular at -this period, were known in France as “courantins.” Bate calls them -“swevels,” other early writers “runners on the line.” - -The above-mentioned, together with some rather intricate but -impracticable appearing water devices, make up the compound fireworks -in Frézier’s book. - -It seems, however, that he must have been behind his day in this -branch of the art, as the Aix-la-Chapelle peace display appears to -have included several elaborate pieces which, even allowing for the -usual exaggeration of the programme, must have required considerable -skill and knowledge in construction. These were mostly what were -called regulated or regulating pieces, generally described as of a -certain number of mutations. The pieces were, and are, although the -old descriptions are now dispensed with, so constructed that after -being lit they go through a series of alterations in form and movement -without further attention. - -Some of those described in old works would seem to have required more -than a slight element of luck for their successful performance. - -To-day it is often found more advantageous to make a second lighting in -cases where there is a danger of premature ignition, the effect to the -spectators being identical, and the successful functioning of the piece -secured. This does not apply to all pieces of this nature, as with -modern safety fuse the pyrotechnist has considerable advantage over the -earlier practitioners. - -The modern spectator is only concerned with the effect produced, not -by the means adopted to produce it. It is difficult to-day to realise -the position occupied by the pyrotechnist of the eighteenth century. He -carried out his work personally, with of course trained assistants, and -occupied a position similar to the artist or sculptor. Each piece was -looked upon as a work of art, the personal effort of the pyrotechnic -artist. Ruggieri gives some idea of this in the following passage from -his book: - - “It was in the month of July, 1743, that my father and my uncles - Ruggieri exhibited for the first time at the Theatre de la Comédie - Italienne and before the King, the passage of fire from a moving to - a fixed piece. - - “This ingenious contrivance at first astonished the scientists of - the day, who said when it was explained to them that nothing could - be more simple and that any one could have done it at once.” - -He then explains the method of construction, which is to lead from the -back end of one of the turning cases through the hollow centre of the -axle to the lighter of the fixed piece situated behind it. - -The development of fixed and mechanical pieces was made possible by the -introduction of quickmatch. - -When this actually took place is uncertain. Frézier describes its -making similarly to that in use to-day, under the name of “étoupilles.” -Bate uses the word “stouple,” evidently a corruption of the French. -He gives no actual description of the making of this, but it appears -to be of “cotton weeke” dipped in “aqua vitæ wherein camphire hath -been dissolved.” This would produce only a slow-burning match unless -it was his intention to use it wet, in which case the burning of the -spirits of wine might quicken the effect. It would, however, be quite -out of the question to construct a piece of any elaboration with such -materials. - -Quickmatch is manufactured to-day in the following manner. Cotton wick -is run through a pan containing a paste composed of gunpowder and -starch. It is wound on a frame six feet in length, dusted with mealed -powder and dried. When dry it is cut off the frame and threaded into -paper tubes or “pipes” of larger diameter, leaving an air space round -the match. - -Before threading in the tubes it is known in the trade as “raw match,” -and is used for priming and similar uses, and in this state will only -burn quite slowly. - -Quickmatch is used to connect the units of all pieces. Display cases -have a “cap” formed of a few turns of paper pasted on the case at the -lighting end. When a piece is fitted up the cases are tied to the -cleats provided to receive them on the framework; they are then “lead -up.” A length of quickmatch has a small piece cut out of the pipe to -allow the fire to flash through, it is then doubled at that point and -inserted in the cap, which is gathered in and tied round securely. -This is continued round the piece, each case having match entering and -leaving the cap, and in some cases a further length connecting one -series with another. This leading up of set pieces is work requiring -skill and knowledge which is only gained by experience. An amateur at -a first attempt might possibly be successful in lighting all the cases -on a piece, but he would be very unlikely to produce that instant and -symmetrical ignition which denotes the skilled pyrotechnist. - -The smaller wheels have turning cases, that is, small rockets to give -them motion; these burn through very rapidly, and the continuation of -movement is provided for by capping the turning cases at either end and -leading them up vent to head in series; the motive power for the larger -display pieces is provided by gerbs, which, from the nature of their -fire, give more effect than would rocket cases, and have the further -advantage of burning longer. - -It would not be possible in the present work to give a complete -catalogue of the varieties of pieces which have been produced, but the -list given by Ruggieri is typical of the whole, and includes many of -the smaller compound pieces in use to-day for shop and small display -work. - -The larger display pieces are generally designed and redesigned season -by season by pyrotechnists, and are certainly being elaborated and -improved. They, however, fall generally into certain classes in the -same way as do those given by Ruggieri. His classification is as -follows: - - 1. Stationary fireworks. - 2. Fireworks turning vertically. - 3. Mixed fireworks or fixed and turning. - 4. Fireworks turning horizontally or on a pivot. - 5. Built-up pieces turning on a pivot. - 6. Cut-out pieces and transparencies. - -Of these, the last mentioned class are now obsolete: they consisted of -transparent and silhouette pictures or designs illuminated from behind. -He also includes both simple and compound fireworks in each class, but -as the former have already been dealt with they will be ignored here. - -Class 1. (1) Glorys, fans and “pates d’oie” or goose foot, synonymous -with our expression crow’s foot. - -Glory was a term used also in this country to signify fixed suns, as -mentioned above. Fans were cases five or more in number, arranged as -the name indicated, and pates d’oie, three similarly arranged. - -(2) Mosaiques. These are geometrical designs formed by arranging gerbs -or fixt on framework, so that their fire forms a symmetrical pattern. -The effect is heightened by saxons in suitable positions, and in large -devices of this nature, small wheels, also formerly, the now obsolete -fixed or five-pointed star. - -This type includes what are now called “lattice poles,” a series of -poles provided with cleats so that the fire of the cases crosses, -forming a lattice of sparks; also the more elaborate “carpet piece.” - -(3) Feux croisés. These were similar in conception to the above, except -that the design is circular or based on the circle or wheel form; this -type is represented by the “fixt piece” of to-day, which is constructed -up to considerable dimensions, the large fixt piece at the Crystal -Palace often measuring sixty feet across the fire. - -(4) Palm Trees. These consist of a framework intended to suggest the -form of a palm, provided with cleats to take the cases. - -(5) Bouquets. These he describes also as a kind of tree different from -palm trees; his illustration shows that they were similar to the modern -lattice-pole with the difference that the cleats were not symmetrically -arranged. - -To-day the word bouquet is applied to Roman candles arranged in what he -called “pates d’oie.” - -(6) Cascade. This device needs no explanation. He says that Chinese -fire is the best composition for such a piece; this remained true up -to the introduction of the aluminium into pyrotechny, when the “weird -white waterfall” became a feature of the Crystal Palace displays, being -200 feet long and 90 feet high. - -(7) Decorations in coloured fire. This heading introduces the lancework -set piece of to-day. - -The development of this branch since 1865 has been very marked. As will -be seen from the description of the lancework pieces carried out at -the Crystal Palace, the subjects dealt with have been of extraordinary -variety. Up to the beginning of the nineteenth century pyrotechnists -had failed to realise the possibilities of lancework. This was -undoubtedly due in a great measure to the fewness of colours available. -Ruggieri appears to have used lancework to outline architectural -designs, evidently a survival of the temples or theatres of earlier -years. In his time, and even as late as the middle of the nineteenth -century, any subject of a pictorial nature was depicted by the use -of scenery or transparencies. Lancework was, as Ruggieri describes -it, merely “decorations in coloured fire.” The lances of his day were -considerably thicker than those at present in use, which are about the -diameter of a lead pencil. They were also spaced further apart and were -in some cases “bounced,” as are fixed cases of the present day. - -The modern method of constructing a lancework set piece is as follows: -An outline drawing of the subject is made in which all unnecessary -lines are eliminated. This is ruled in square of such size that in the -proportion one square to a foot the completed piece will be of the size -required. - -Frames are then laid out on the drawing-floor: these are of light -battens forming foot squares, and of a convenient size for handling, -generally ten feet by five feet. - -[Illustration: Lattice Poles.] - -[Illustration: Chromatrope - - (The outer fire forms the Guilloché of Ruggieri.)] - -[Illustration: Lattice Diamond - - (The Feux Croisés of Ruggieri.)] - -The drawing is then transferred to the floor with the assistance of the -squared lines, and the design followed by nailing on light wood strips -or thin rattan cane. - -The lines thus indicated are then “pegged,” that is, pegs or small -wire nails pointed at either end, are driven in at intervals of about -four inches. The lances, whose construction has already been described -in Chapter IV, have their ends glued and are pushed on to the pegs so -that they stand vertically from the framework. The frames are then led -up with quickmatch, secured by pins driven into the priming. The match -is then pierced with a small awl above the priming, and secured and -protected by a strip of paper pasted over it and round the case of the -lance. The piece is then ready for hoisting into position and firing. - -Formerly, and sometimes now on the Continent, the match was secured by -a wire passing through the case near the top, which was twisted over -the match. - -Ruggieri, under this head, describes a method of illuminating by -impregnating wick similar to that used for matchmaking, with a mixture -of sulphur, antimony, and saltpetre. This was wired on to a metal -framework. He says it is better than lancework for outlining curves, -volutes, etc., as the line is continuous. This difficulty is disposed -of in modern English lancework by the closer spacing of lances on -curves rendered possible by the smaller lances now used. - -He also remarks that this method was rarely used in his time and it is -now quite discontinued. - -Another device of which he seems proud was a palm tree, the leaves -of which were of thin metal from which project spikes upon which was -hung cotton impregnated with a composition composed of “vert-de-gris, -vitriol blue and sel ammoniac” (copper acetate, copper sulphate and -ammonium chloride). - -Immediately before firing the cotton was soaked with alcohol. Actually -this composition can hardly be considered pyrotechnic; what takes -place is that the alcohol burns, and the flame thus created is -coloured with the copper present in the salts. The whole arrangement -is too cumbersome and involved for modern use, but at the time of its -inception, when colour was practically unknown, no doubt it attracted -great admiration. - - - - - CHAPTER VI - - COMPOUND FIREWORKS (_continued_) - - -Ruggieri’s next class (fireworks turning vertically) includes the -following: - -1. Revolving Suns. These are merely vertical wheels; he appears to use -this term for the more ambitious pieces of this kind. - -2. Vertical Wheels. He illustrates a vertical wheel exactly as made -to-day under that name. It has, however, been elaborated by the -addition of colour cases on the spokes and centre, as rosette and -rainbow wheels; also by the application of saxons to the spokes, as -saxon wheels. - -He also shows the triangle wheel, consisting of three spokes with -grooved ends to receive the cases whose sides form the sides of an -equilateral triangle. This has been further developed into the double -triangle wheel, with two sets of spokes placed one set behind the -other. In all the wheels in this class the cases fire in succession, -not as in the case of the sun—simultaneously. - -Windmills he illustrates as flat bars pivoted in the centre with three -cases at either end fired in succession. There also were three, four, -and up to eight-armed windmills of the same kind. The nearest device to -these of modern times is the chromatrope, the simplest form of which -has two bars with a gerb at either end so set as to revolve them in -opposite directions, the front one carrying two saxons. This piece, -which is of comparatively simple design, gives an extraordinarily fine -effect by the intersections of the various streams of fire. - -The chromatrope has been developed and enlarged until for important -display work quite elaborate pieces are fired under this name. -Lancework of geometric form is used on the bars or spokes, and the -intersection of these, forming ever-changing geometrical designs, adds -greatly to the effect of the intersection of the fire. - -This effect is the basis of the Guilloché, a somewhat elaborate piece -which falls in Ruggieri’s third class. It consisted of six wheels -placed one behind the other in pairs of graduated size; the two -smallest—which fired first—had six cases, the next eight, and the -largest forty-eight, and was twenty feet in diameter. - -The next described is the Salamandre, a piece which, on a large scale, -is still occasionally fired at the Crystal Palace. It shows a snake -in pursuit of a butterfly which it seems to overtake but never quite -catches. The mechanism is an endless chain of wooden links running in -and out between eight sprocket wheels, arranged in octagon formation. -About half the length of the chain is made out and lanced to represent -the snake, and a lancework butterfly is situated in the centre of the -other half. - -Ruggieri claims that his father fired this piece and the guilloché in -1739 at Versailles. - -The other pieces mentioned in this section are too elaborate for -description in the space available, but are interesting as showing -the use of the helix and spiral as applied to wheels and cones, as -secondary elements of larger pieces. - -The modern designer of pyrotechnic pieces has great advantage over the -earlier practitioners in that he has available an infinitely larger -range of colour and other composition. It is often possible to get a -much-enhanced result with less cases giving more or varied effects as -opposed to a larger number of cases of similar effects, which, in an -attempt to produce a lavish show of fire, end in confusion. - -His fourth division begins with the “Caprice simple”; this is the -modern horizontal wheel. This wheel is similar in arrangement to the -vertical above-mentioned, except that its cases are arranged so that -the first plays horizontally in the plane of the wheel, the next at an -angle downwards, and the third upwards. This succession is repeated -with the remaining three cases. In addition, the horizontal wheel has -either a mine which is lit from the last case, or Roman candles and -mine, at the centre playing upwards. The second form is arranged so -that the Romans are fired simultaneously with the fourth case and the -mine from the last. - -The wheel given by Ruggieri has a gerb in the centre. He explains that -Caprice is a generic name applied to all horizontal wheels which vary -the direction of the fire when revolving. However, at the present time -the name Caprice is only applied to a wheel with three tiers of three -cases, each similar in appearance to three single triangle wheels -superimposed at distances about equal to their diameter, the grooves in -the end of the spokes being so arranged as to vary the direction of the -fire. The cases are led up in the following order—one case horizontal, -one up, one down, one horizontal, two cases one up and one down, four -cases in each direction and one vertical. For a compact piece this is -one of the most effective made. - -A similar piece is the Furiloni Wheel, which has, however, two tiers of -three cases each. - -Jones describes a furiloni wheel which is more elaborate, having -twenty-five cases. His method of leading would, however, not be so -effective as the modern wheels of this type. The cases used for these -wheels are charged with a steel mixing formerly known as brilliant fire. - -He mentions two other devices—Caprices petans and Caprices des pâtés. -The first of these was a modification of the piece formerly used in -this country as the balloon wheel. It consisted of a solid wheel round -which are a series of mines which discharged in succession as each -turning case lit. The second was similar but more elaborate, having -rockets as well as mines, and was a variation of the rocket wheel. - -In his description of the Girandole, he explains that it is composed of -two horizontal wheels one above the other. This is the form taken by -the rocket wheel as fired in this country which, as we have seen, was -known as the girandole wheel. Ruggieri, however, appears not to have -used rockets on his girandole. - -The last device he mentions in this class is the Spirali, which -consisted of a framework in the form of a cone, round which was wound a -spiral of cane fitted with lances. - -A very effective piece, not mentioned by Ruggieri, is the revolving -fountain; it consists of a wood centre bored to turn on a vertical -spindle. The centre has two spokes fitted with gerbs for turning, and -has playing vertically a large gerb and Roman candles. The turning -gerbs play tangentially and slightly upwards. - -Jones describes a similar device under the name of “illuminated spiral -wheel”; also two other horizontal pieces—the spirali and the plural -wheels, which approximate to the furiloni and caprice wheels of the -present day. - -The spiral and helix are much used in larger devices, and the use of -modern lancework and colour has greatly added to their effect. - -Ruggieri’s next division deals with built-up lancework pieces such as -the globe, which it was thought worthy of separate mention in his time, -but to-day is included with many devices of this nature too numerous to -mention, forming, as they do, a large proportion of the mechanical and -other pieces used in display work. - -[Illustration: A Display ready for Firing, Dresden, September 1st, - 1899. Firework Portraits of the King and Queen of Saxony on the - right, Bismarck second from the left.] - -He then deals with tourbillions and table wheels. The latter -consisted of a circular table with a central pivot, round which is free -to revolve a bar which forms the axle of a wheel, the hub of which runs -on the edge of the table. When the wheel is turned, the hub running on -the edge of the table moves it forward in a circular path round the -pivot. This principle is applied to similar and more elaborate devices. -The name tourbillions, as before mentioned, is by other writers -differently applied. - -The section dealing with cut-out and transparent devices is of little -interest. These devices were an attempt to give variety from the -monotonous repetition of turning cases and gerbs. To-day the use of -colour cases, lances, a much-enlarged range of fountain and similar -compositions, including aluminium and other brilliant fires, has -obviated the employment of effects which cannot be rightly considered -as pyrotechnic. - -The moving and stationary pieces considered in this and preceding -chapters give a good general idea of the firing methods in compound -fireworks. As we have already noted, the difference of designs and -effects at the present time is infinite, so that it would be impossible -in a work of the present size to give anything approaching a complete -survey of what has been accomplished. But it is hoped that enough has -been said to give the reader some idea of the methods adopted and the -lines upon which the modern pyrotechnist works. - - - - - CHAPTER VII - - FIREWORK COMPOSITIONS - - -It may have been remarked in the foregoing chapters that, although the -ingredients composing the firework mixtures are given, generally the -proportions are not. - -The reason for this is two-fold: primarily, as we have seen in the -chapter on rockets, the proportion of the ingredients of a firework -varies in accordance with its size. So that to give the proportions of -the compositions of any one type of firework would often require as -many formulæ as there are sizes. - -Secondly, and perhaps more importantly, the quality and purity of -chemicals as supplied in bulk vary so enormously that a constant -series of experiments has to be conducted in order to ascertain what -modifications and adjustments are necessary in the formulæ to give the -required standard of performance. - -It is not meant to suggest that the impurities generally to be found in -bulk supplies are necessarily harmful to pyrotechnic results. This is -not so; salts give far better results in their natural or mineral form -than do those prepared synthetically. As an example of this saltpetre -may be cited. For pyrotechnic purposes the best obtainable is that from -Bengal, yet an analysis of this would probably be found to be less pure -than that synthetically prepared in Germany. But experiments have shown -that samples of the latter, taken from the same cask, but in different -parts, produce very distinctly varying results pyrotechnically. - -Pyrotechny is an art, chemistry is a science, and although it is -impossible to deny that the former is greatly indebted to the latter -for the supply and production on a commercial scale of chemical -ingredients, yet it is possible to overestimate the position of -chemistry in the art, or possibly it might be more correct to say that -pyrotechny has its own chemistry. - -Chemistry without pyrotechnic experience is apt to lead to erroneous -conclusions. To take a concrete instance: in an article in a famous -encyclopædia, obviously written by a chemist of standing, a portion -deals with the use of metal salts in the production of colour; the -writer gives copper as producing green, which no doubt it does in -the laboratory; in practice, however, copper is used solely for the -production of blue. - -The question of purity in chemicals used in pyrotechny is a secondary -consideration, that is, of course, as long as the adulterants have no -adverse effect either as regards the pyrotechnic result or the safety -of the worker in manipulation. What is of first importance is its -pyrotechnic suitability, that is, it must produce the required result -and must be consistent. Unequal results are the bugbear of the firework -makers. As we have seen, constant experiments are necessary to keep an -even standard, but with irregularly functioning chemicals these would -be multiplied to an impossible degree. - -The first group of compositions for consideration is that nearest -related to gunpowder, in fact, for the purposes of a work on -pyrotechny, gunpowder may be considered a particular case of this class. - -The governing principle of this group, and one may say of all firework -compositions, is the same. For combustion to take place oxygen must be -present. When an inflammable article such as a piece of paper is set -on fire it takes up oxygen from the air. A pyrotechnic composition, -however, is so arranged that one of the ingredients has a supply of -oxygen which it is ready to give up; another, or others, are of a kind -ready to receive and combine with this oxygen. - -The oxygen-supplying ingredient which is by far the most frequently -used is saltpetre, or, as it was formerly called, nitre, known -chemically as nitrate of potash. - -Saltpetre may be said to be the basis of pyrotechny. There is hardly a -formula by any of the writers on pyrotechny up to at least the middle -of the nineteenth century which does not contain it. - -Gunpowder is composed of saltpetre, sulphur, and charcoal, three -chemicals which it will have been gathered from the previous pages -play a prominent part in very many of the pyrotechnic compositions. In -some compositions their proportion is apparently identical with that -of gunpowder, yet they do not form gunpowder as they are not milled, -and are consequently not so intimately mixed. Compositions containing -these ingredients have frequently an admixture of mealed gunpowder, the -function of which is to give additional fierceness when required, as is -the case in some rocket mixings. - -These chemicals, as we have seen in the previous chapters, are the -components of rockets, turning cases, tourbillions, saxons, Roman -candle fuse, and many others. When variation was required in fireworks -used to give a simple fountain effect the earliest addition was of -metal in finely divided particles, as filings, borings, or the now -almost obsolete iron sand. - -Steel filings were used in what was known as “brilliant fire,” a term -which has fallen into disuse since the introduction of other metals -whose effects eclipsed that of steel. It has also been used where extra -effect is wanted, that is, more tail in rockets and tourbillions. It -is, however, not much used in the former case to-day, as the presence -of steel in a composition which is to be charged on a steel spindle -introduces a decided element of risk into the operation. - -The introduction of steel and iron was the first use of metals in -firework making, probably the next metal to be introduced was -antimony, either black (sulphide) or regulus. Jones (1765) was already -using what he calls crude antimony; this was probably the black -sulphide. - -Before the introduction of genuine colour, and while the chemicals -which had been adopted for pyrotechny were still very limited in -number, attempts were made to obtain either a semblance of colour or -some variety in stars and garnitures by the addition of such substances -as powdered glass, brass, sawdust, beech raspings, which appear to -have functioned as do the iron or steel in the compositions already -discussed, except that there would be no coruscation even with the -brass. These additions would merely show as red-hot particles in the -jet of fire. - -Kentish gives two gerb compositions, one of which contains coke grains, -and the other porcelain grains, which would apparently produce cognate -results; the use, however, of both these ingredients is now almost if -not quite obsolete. - -Antimony, on account of its ready combustion, is more completely -consumed before leaving the case. In this connection it may be -mentioned that care is necessary in a mixture containing steel or iron -to avoid too large a proportion of the oxygen-bearing ingredient, for -fear of consuming it inside the case. - -Another composition producing remarkable coruscations is the -old-fashioned “spur fire,” which consists of saltpetre, sulphur, and -lampblack. This composition requires very careful and experienced -mixing, or no effect will be produced, rendering its preparation a very -lengthy process. - -This difficulty was somewhat overcome during the last century by the -addition of orpiment or sulphide of arsenic. Even with this addition, -however, its manufacture requires care and patience. It is a curious -fact that this composition, unlike most others, has the quality of -markedly improving by keeping. How the lampblack produces this unique -effect, or why its effect should be so different from that produced by -any other form of carbon, has not been satisfactorily explained. - -The compositions we have been considering fall into one of two classes, -namely, those to produce force and those to produce sparks. These -two classes, with one other, namely that of colour, may be said to -include all the modern recreative firework compositions. Up to the -end of the eighteenth century the ingredients used in the production -of the compositions of these three classes were very few in number. A -considerably larger number went to supply the ingredients for a fourth -class now almost extinct, these might be called the flame-producing -class. The principle on which these compositions were designed was, -as it were, to overload a mixture of saltpetre and sulphur with -combustible material; this latter took the form of gums, resins, or -fats, the object being to produce a reddish or golden coloured flame. -The early writers give formulæ for variously coloured stars and fires, -which must have required considerable effort on the part of the -observer for identification. These belonged to the flame class. - -Frézier, with more perception than most of the others, realised the -shortcomings of such compositions, merely designating them greenish -(_verdâtre_), yellowish, reddish, and russet. The only colour which -he professes to produce distinct is blue, which he obtained with pure -sulphur. - -Progress from the earliest times of pyrotechny up to the first -quarter of the nineteenth century was very gradual and very slight. -The chemicals used by Bate and Babington in their actual pyrotechnic -compositions were as follows:—Gunpowder and its constituents, camphor, -pitch, resin, orpiment, linseed oil, both pure and boiled, oil of spike -(_spica lavandula_), oil of petre (rock oil), an oil known either as -benedict or tile, varnish (probably amber), iron scales, and aqua vitæ -(spirits of wine). - -[Illustration: Diagram Illustrating the evolution of Pyrotechnic - Composition.] - -Bate extends this list considerably by the ingredients of a series of -compositions which he has evidently taken from some alchemistic work. -These compositions are all either designed to burn under water or to -ignite spontaneously in water, and fall somewhat outside the bounds -of our subject. Frézier also includes these, evidently from the same -source. - -Bate also refers to a liquid, the recipe for which was probably taken -from the same work. - -“Aqua ardens.” The following are his directions for preparing it: -“Take old red wine, put it into a glassed vessell, and put into it of -orpiment one pound, quicke sulphur halfe a pound, quicke lime a quarter -of a pound; mingle them very well, and afterwards distill them in a -rosewater still; a cloth being wet in this water will burne like a -candle and will not be quenched with water.” - -It is difficult to see what he obtained by this process differing from -spirits of wine. The quicklime would serve to dehydrate the wine, and -probably no part of the orpiment or sulphur would be taken over in the -distillation. - -Rather over a century later we find Frézier and Jones have made -some additions to the ingredients of pyrotechny, the most notable -innovations being the use of iron filings (not to be confused with -the iron scales of Bate, which were probably hammerslag, the magnetic -oxide of iron), steel filings and pulverised cast-iron. Beyond these, -and the spark-producing agent already mentioned, the other additions -are of small importance, the most notable being lapis caliminaris, or -the mineral carbonate of zinc, which however was not used as are metal -salts to-day, that is, for the production of colour. - -Jones’s book, written some years after that of Frézier, shows little -advance from the latter as far as pyrotechnic results are concerned. -What he has done, however, is to eliminate what might be called the -alchemistic, or one might almost say magic element with which it is -pervaded. - -In attempting to classify the compositions in Frézier’s book one -is staggered by the grotesque character of many of them and by the -extraordinary variations in the proportion of their ingredients, even -amongst compositions designed for a similar effect. - -Presumably with the intention of impressing his readers with the -wonders of the science, he added ingredient after ingredient, which, if -they did actually no harm to the composition, certainly in no degree -assisted its functioning. - -In what he calls a simple star there are eleven ingredients, of which, -in fact, four only are essential. - -Further, beyond the multiplication of unnecessary ingredients in -individual compositions, there is often their incompatibility and -innate unsuitability for the purpose. Such components as ink, onion -juice, and the drainings of a dung-heap suggest so strangely the -formulæ of the alchemists that one almost expects to come across “the -hair of a Barbary ape,” or similar absurdity. - -Ruggieri, who may be considered as the last of the old school, is the -first author to deal with the subject in such a way as to convince the -professional reader of the practical knowledge of the subject. - -His additions to the list of ingredients are not many, but they are -genuine. He is the first writer to make use of metals or their salts -in the production of colour; he includes among his chemicals metallic -copper and zinc, also the acetate and sulphate of copper, and chloride -of ammonium. The notable advance in his colour compositions, besides -the use of metal salts for that purpose, is the introduction of a -chloride, which has the effect of improving the colour by assisting in -the volatilisation of the metal. For this purpose he used sal-ammoniac, -the use of which has now been almost discontinued on account of its -hygroscopic nature, notwithstanding that its base of ammonium is very -useful in compositions containing copper. Its place is now generally -taken by calomel; in such compositions chloride of sodium had been used -for many years, but not as a chlorine carried. Ruggieri appears to have -been the first to produce colour on anything approaching modern lines, -and although he did not progress greatly, what he did achieve was -undoubtedly a marked advance in the art. - -His account of the invention of this composition is interesting. He -says that he was told by a returned traveller from Russia of a set -piece representing a palm tree, “the colour of which rivalled nature.” -This piece he set out to imitate, which he did, at any rate to his own -satisfaction. The result he obtained would undoubtedly give a good -colour, if the method of firing was very clumsy. He remarks that he -does not know if his method was as that adopted in Russia, and later of -the “merit if not of discovering a new fire at least to have imitated -or rather to have rediscovered it.” It appears, therefore, that there -may be some doubt as to the originality or priority of Ruggieri’s -achievement in this direction, but he must be credited at least with -independently arriving at the result. Indeed it is more than probable -that the piece seen in Russia was quite different, a transparency -or illumination, either imported or copied from the work of Eastern -pyrotechnists, and that the whole credit of introducing colour into the -art belongs to Ruggieri and to him only. - -He mentions that he puts it on record with the object of “thus -preventing writers from attributing it to the Chinese, the Medes, or -Arabs, as is the custom in Europe, and above all in France, where more -than elsewhere there is a mania for enriching foreigners with our -merits and to rob ourselves of the birthrights of genius.” - - - - - CHAPTER VIII - - MODERN FIREWORK COMPOSITIONS - - -Ruggieri may be regarded as the last of the ancients. It is true that -his book shows a marked advance on anything that had gone before, -also that he appears to have been one of the first, if not actually -the first, to introduce the use of metal salts in the production of -colour. But he makes no reference to the use of chlorate of potash, and -it is the introduction of this salt into pyrotechny which marks the -commencement of the modern epoch of the art. - -This earliest use of chlorate, or as it was then called, oxymuriate -or hyperoxymuriate of potash, appears to have been soon after its -discovery in 1786 by Berthollet. Samuel Parkes, in a work on chemistry -written in 1811, says: “The shocking death of two individuals in -October, 1788, and the burns others have suffered by it, render it -feared by chemists in general,” that is in conjunction with sulphur and -charcoal. - -He later remarks that notwithstanding this accident “the French have -since —— actually employed in one of their campaigns gunpowder made -with oxymuriate of potash instead of saltpetre,” and adds that a Scotch -clergyman had taken out a patent for the use of a powder containing -chlorate of potash to be fired by percussion. - -This patent, granted in 1807, is the first for the percussion system in -firearms. - -The use, however, of chlorate of potash in propellant compositions -presents no very great advance in pyrotechny, however revolutionary -may have been the introduction of the percussion system into the -manufacture of firearms. - -It is its use in the production of colour that marks the modern epoch. - -The exact date of this innovation appears to be about 1830. - -A Belgian lieutenant of artillery, Hippert by name, published in 1836 -a translation of a work by Captain Moritz Meyer, of the Prussian -Artillery, on the application of chemistry to artifices of war. - -In a chapter devoted to coloured fires he gives several formulæ -containing chlorate of potash. Although this appears to be the first -published notice of its use, it seems likely that by the time the book -was published that it was fairly well established. - -Meyer concludes his remarks on coloured composition by saying that the -English at that time made use of coloured rockets for signalling at -sea, and had succeeded in producing ten different shades, “which are -quite sufficient for the purpose of signalling particular pieces of -information.” - -This seems rather to indicate that the elaboration if not the first -introduction of chlorate of potash into pyrotechny may be attributed to -this country. - -His mention of ten distinguishable tints, however, is somewhat -optimistic. During the late war it was found that to avoid any chance -of a mistake in code signals only three colours could be used for -long-distance signalling, namely, red, green, and white. - -It is curious that Meyer makes a mistake over the first composition -he mentions. He describes a light composition of chlorate of potash -and sugar, which he says burns with a red light. In fact, however, the -light so produced is a bluish white, similar to the so-called blue -shipping light. - -The directions he gives for the preparation of other colours are as -follows: - -“A powder which burns with a green flame is obtained by the addition of -nitrate of baryta to chlorate of potash, nitrate of copper, acetate of -copper. - -“A white flame is made by the addition of sulphide of antimony, -sulphide of arsenic, camphor. - -“Red by the mixture of lampblack, coal, bone ash, mineral oxide of -iron, nitrate of strontia, pumice stone, mica, oxide of cobalt. - -“Blue with ivory, bismuth, alum, zinc, copper sulphate purified of its -sea water (_sic_). - -“Yellow by amber, carbonate of soda, sulphate of soda, cinnabar. - -“It is necessary in order to make the colours come out well to animate -the combustion by adding chlorate of potash.” - -These formulæ, if somewhat incoherent, and clearly showing a want of -experimental verification, indicate a real advance in pyrotechnic -chemistry, not only by the addition of chlorate of potash, but by the -multiplication of the number of metal salts used. - -At the same time it is evident that the old alchemistic ideas were not -entirely extinct by the use of such ingredients as ivory, mica, and -pumice stone. - -However, there can be no doubt that from the third decade of the -nineteenth century dates the modern era of the pyrotechnic art. From -this date onward chemical ingredients, metals and their salts as they -were provided by the commercial chemist were eagerly taken and tested -by the pyrotechnist, and adopted or rejected on their merits. And from -this date begins the rapid elimination of useless additions. - -Of those compositions given above the following salts are at present -in use: nitrate of baryta, sulphide of antimony, sulphide of arsenic, -nitrate of strontia, copper sulphate, carbonate of soda, and chlorate -of potash. - -Zinc, alum, lampblack, and oxide of iron are also used, but not for the -purpose indicated. - -Nitrate of copper and sulphate of soda would both be valuable -ingredients, but their unstable nature prevents their use under modern -conditions. - -Meyer also describes the use of salts to tint an alcohol flame, which -is merely an elaboration of Ruggieri’s palm tree and of little interest -at the present time. - -The next name prominent in pyrotechny is that of F. M. Chertier, who -published in 1854 his “Nouvelles recherches sur les feux d’artifice,” -after having published a pamphlet on the subject about twenty-five -years previously. - -In this work Chertier devotes most of his attention to the subject of -colour, and although new ingredients have been introduced which were -either unknown or were not then available on account of expense or -other causes, since the time of his writing, yet there can be no doubt -that Chertier stands alone in the literature of pyrotechny and as a -pioneer of the modern development of the art. - -Tessier, in the introduction to his “Treatise on Coloured Fires,” -published in 1859, whilst paying tribute to Chertier’s work, regrets -that he only possessed “quite superficial notions of chemistry.” Here -speaks the chemist. The writer recently asked a pyrotechnic chemist of -many years’ experience, whose knowledge of pyrotechnic chemistry is -probably second to none, his opinion of Tessier’s book, and received -this answer. “Tessier’s book contains too much chemical theory and too -little pyrotechnic practice.” There speaks the pyrotechnist. - -The writer, as he has before remarked, has no wish to belittle the -value of the chemist’s work in relation to pyrotechny, but a knowledge -of chemistry is not the most important attribute of the successful -pyrotechnist. - -As in other arts so in pyrotechny, experience and natural aptitude are -the first essentials. - -Chertier may have had little knowledge of chemistry, but in spite -of or perhaps because of his lack of chemical knowledge, he was able -to produce a work which, from the point of view of the practical -pyrotechnist, has never been equalled. - -His researches were conducted by practical experiments; he had one -end in view, namely, pyrotechnic effect, and by exhaustive trials of -the materials obtainable, unbiased by theoretical consideration, he -succeeded in advancing the art to a stage undreamed of a few years -previously. It is true that many of his formulæ are not in use to-day, -in this country that is, on account of the danger of using sulphur or -sulphur compounds in conjunction with chlorate of potash; but there can -be no doubt that his writings and research work laid the foundation of -modern pyrotechnic practice. - -Once the theory of colour production was established, that is to say -the volatilisation of a metal salt in a hotly burning composition, it -was a matter of less difficulty to either eliminate the sulphur, which -was present chiefly as a burnable, or to replace it. - -This prohibition, as we have seen, took place in 1894, under Order -in Council 15, and affected the production of coloured fireworks far -less than might have been anticipated. During the period between the -introduction of chlorate of potash and the Order in question, the -development of commercial chemistry had increased greatly the number -of chemicals available in pyrotechny, so that in some few cases it was -found possible to replace the chlorate. - -In addition, moreover, most of the leading makers, anticipating -some form of restriction on this admixture, had been for some time -previously seeking substitute colour formulæ, and although it may be -said by some that colours were obtained by the use of chlorate and -sulphur which have not been equalled by subsequent formulæ, yet most -have not only been equalled but improved upon, and the small minority -remaining are an insignificant price to pay for the security and -safety gained in manufacture. - -Between the publication of Chertier’s book in 1856 (nearly thirty years -later than his first pamphlet) and the close of the century, several -works on pyrotechny made their appearance, several by Frenchmen: -Tessier, 1859, “Traité Pratique des Feux colorés,” two works in the -Roret encyclopædia series, “Pyrotechnie Civile” and “Pyrotechnie -Militaire,” published 1865, and in 1882, “Traité pratique des Feux -d’Artifice,” by Denisse. - -The English works of any value during this period were: “Pyrotechny,” -by Practicus, Brown’s “Practical Firework Making,” and “The -Pyrotechnist’s Treasury,” by Kentish, 1878. Hutstein and Websky’s “Art -of Firework Making,” published at Leipzig in 1878, a book published -under the same title by Oscar Frey about 1885, and “A Theoretical -and Practical Treatise of Civil Pyrotechny,” by Antoni, published -at Trieste in 1893, together with some works on military pyrotechny -published both in Europe and the United States, complete the list. - -Some of the military works are of considerable value, but are chiefly -directed to the study of rockets and signals; some, however, are in -the same category as “The Artillerist’s Manual and British Soldier’s -Compendium,” by Captain F. A. Griffiths, R.A., published in 1852. The -section dealing with fireworks in this work might almost be taken as -an attempt to be humorous on the subject. The author quotes in all -seriousness formulæ dating from the days of Bate and Babington, and -knows so little of his subject that he gives instructions for making -the same firework under different names under the impression that -they are distinct units, the information being obviously pillaged -from earlier writers. Generally a study of the above-mentioned works -indicates that the tendency in pyrotechnic compositions has been -in the direction of simplification. During the eighteenth century -the useless ingredients had been in a great measure eliminated. The -“burnables” had been reduced from a long list of alchemistic survivals -to a mere half-dozen or so. - -Gums had been reduced practically to shellac alone (the use of gum -arabic as an adhesive is quite distinct), carbons to lampblack and -charcoal, and these with sulphur and sulphides of antimony and arsenic -practically completed the list. - -Of the metals the use of pure zinc, copper, and brass has been -discontinued, and the two almost revolutionary additions of magnesium -and aluminium made, the former about 1865 and the latter in 1894. - -The date of the introduction of these metals marks almost as great -advances in the art as did the introduction of chlorate of potash. Not -only are they used as spark-producing metals in the same way as are -steel and iron, but they are also used as “burnables,” that is, they -are consumed inside the case; and many of the present-day firework -compositions owe their brilliance to one or other of these metals. - -It is, however, in colour compositions that the tendency towards -simplification is most strongly exhibited. In Kentish’s book colour -compositions containing as many as seven or eight ingredients are -common, whereas to-day formulæ containing over four are the exception -rather than the rule. - -[Illustration: Roman Candles. This untouched photograph illustrates - the extraordinary brilliance of aluminium compositions. Each - “plume” (200 ft. high) is produced by a single star about ¾ in. - diameter and ¾ in. long. Each line is a microscopic particle of - aluminium.] - -The reason for this complexity is not easy to follow, but it may have -been in some measure due to the difficulty of obtaining sufficiently -finely ground chemicals before the days of machine grinding; in some -cases it was found that by melting two of the ingredients together -and allowing the mass to cool they could be ground with greater ease. -Chertier went so far as to melt shellac and salt together, grind them -and remove the salt by dissolving in water. Also by adding a finely -ground chemical of similar action to one only coarsely ground a better -result was obtained. - -Whatever may have been the reason, there can be no doubt that, except -for secondary shades, the fewer the chemicals used the more brilliant -will be the resulting fire. - - - - - CHAPTER IX - - MILITARY PYROTECHNY - - -The use of pyrotechnic mixtures for military purposes is the basis of -artillery, and one might almost say the foundation of chemistry. Before -the age of the alchemist men were at work endeavouring to produce some -weapon which would give them an advantage over their enemies. Of the -natural phenomena none made so strong an appeal as fire, which from -earliest times had been a mysterious and therefore terrible element. - -The early use of fire or pyrotechnic mixtures gave the users so decided -an advantage over their enemies that their use was chronicled by -historians of the day either on the side of the victors as a pæan of -praise for their invincible weapon, or as an excuse for defeat on the -side of the vanquished. - -Such reports are necessarily vague and exaggerated, vague because -the writer had no technical knowledge of the subject, and the users -naturally wished for secrecy and exaggerated because exaggeration -increased the value of the weapon. - -It is from such reports that we obtain our information about Greek fire -and similar compositions, and when one considers that the translations -were generally biased, in most cases unintentionally but still biased, -in favour of reading into passages referring to fire or projectiles an -early reference to gunpowder, guns or some unknown pyrotechnic effect, -it is obvious that all information so gained must be accepted with a -considerable amount of reserve. - -The translators, too, in many cases were men of no technical knowledge, -which made them even more prone to fall into errors which would be -avoided by the expert. - -Of the mass of writing dealing with the subject, the work of two -writers stands out prominently—the late Mr. Oscar Guttman in his -“History of Explosives,” and Col. H. W. L. Hime in his “Origin of -Artillery,” whose observations cover the field of information on the -subject, although approaching from slightly different angles. - -Neither, however, gives an exact explanation satisfactorily covering -the projection of Greek or sea fire. Col. Hime, rejecting earlier -theories, goes somewhat to the other extreme: he denies the knowledge -of saltpetre before the twelfth century, but attempts to explain the -phenomenon by the use of phosphide of calcium. - -He premises four conditions to be filled by the weapon or apparatus. -These conditions are fulfilled by the explanation already briefly -touched upon on page 15, and the writer is convinced that this simple -although apparently little known phenomenon is the true explanation of -the terrible, mysterious Greek or sea fire. - -If a mixture of saltpetre, pitch, and sulphur is charged into a long -tube sufficiently strong and ignited it will burn, giving off dense -smoke, for a short time, when it appears to choke momentarily. This -choking is followed by a more or less violent outburst, which may -be likened to a “cough,” projecting a burning mass of composition -to a considerable distance; the action is repeated with surprising -regularity during the burning of the whole of the composition -throughout the length of the tube, and will, the writer is confident, -satisfy any unbiased observer that here is the true explanation of the -phenomenon. - -Let us see how the requirements mentioned by Col. Hime are fulfilled. -The first, “It was a wet fire,” _i.e._, its action necessarily -connected in some way with water or the sea, and as a matter of fact it -was used at sea with great success on many occasions. May not a “wet -fire” be a way of saying “a molten, viscous mass of fire”? The masses -would float and although some might become extinguished, some would -probably burn on the surface of the water; also its use at sea would, -with a range up to a hundred yards, be quite as easy as on land. - -Secondly, “Its composition was such as could be kept secret at -Constantinople.” If, as Col. Hime says, saltpetre as such was unknown -at the time, it was only as a separate kind of salt. It was undoubtedly -known, but not distinguished from sea salt or nitrate of soda. Would -not this fact render the concealment of the ingredients used more easy? - -Thirdly, “It burned with much noise and smoke.” Allowing for some -slight exaggeration the first condition is fulfilled, as undoubtedly is -the latter. - -Fourthly, “It was necessarily connected in some way with syphons.” As -Col. Hime points out, there is ambiguity between the word syphon and -tube, and if the latter word meets the facts it seems the more likely -rendering. - -The writer saw this effect produced during experiments with -smoke-producing compositions, and it is probable that the mixture in -question was not in the most effective proportions, but so striking was -the result that there is little doubt that experiments on such lines -would produce a terrible and effective weapon under the conditions of -warfare then in existence. - -The “Dictionnaire Mobilier Français” gives a diagram of a weapon of a -somewhat similar nature stated to have been used by the Arabs in the -fifteenth century. The illustration shows what is virtually a Roman -candle, and appears plausible until one considers the facts. What is -most probable is that the weapon, which was of an incendiary nature, -was similar to that described above, which fulfils the requirements of -the description without assuming a knowledge of compositions which at -the time did not exist. - -From the period of Greek fire onward military and recreative pyrotechny -appear to have marched side by side. - -As we have seen, the progress in the latter branch was extremely slow, -so with the former, and it was not until the introduction of modern or -comparatively modern methods that real progress commenced. - -With the progress came divergence, the introduction of the rifled bore -in artillery, and of nitro compounds and high explosives whose dynamic -force exceeds many times that of gunpowder, which however useful they -might be to the artillerist, were of little value to the recreative -pyrotechnist. It was not until the great war that the resources of -pyrotechny were fully realised and utilised by the military. It is -curious to note that just as the tactics and methods of warfare -eventually adopted—although on an unprecedentedly large scale—were -in a great measure those of centuries before, so military pyrotechny -returned to ideas just as antiquated. With the advantages of modern -science, and by the assistance of knowledge gained in the development -of recreative pyrotechny, the progress made in a month or so in -military pyrotechny during the war may, without exaggerating, be said -to have exceeded that of previous centuries. - -Speaking generally, the use of pyrotechny in warfare, or indeed any -science, has two objectives, the first to destroy or embarrass the -troops of the enemy, and secondly, to assist one’s own. - -Until the late war it was the first of these which received by far the -greater attention, and it is but natural that the introduction of the -modern methods mentioned above should have provided means which left -pyrotechnics far behind. In the second division, however, pyrotechny -triumphed. - -Of the offensive type the earliest use of pyrotechny was the -incendiary. Greek fire, wild fire, and similar compositions have been -used from time immemorial to set fire to enemies’ works or ships or to -injure his personnel. And just as incendiary compositions antedated -the propellant, so the incendiary shell appears to have preceded the -explosive. - -Incendiary projectiles of the past were known as carcasses; the -earliest form appears to have been a canvas bag or container pitched -over on the outside and bound with iron hoops, which, from their -likeness to the ribs of a corpse—according to “Chambers’ Encyclopædia” -(1741)—suggested the name. - -The fireball was similarly constructed and designed for hand -projection, bearing the same relation to the carcass as does the -grenade to the bomb. - -The composition in most incendiary missiles consisted of a mixture of -saltpetre, sulphur, and pitch, with or without the addition of mealed -gunpowder. - -The most recent form of carcass was a spherical shell of iron, having -three vents, and filled with incendiary composition. This projectile -became obsolete in the Service at the end of the last century. - -Another form of pyrotechnic projectile was that designed to give out -smoke, either with the idea of rendering the atmosphere of works or -casemates unbearable to the defenders (a principle revived in the late -war by the use of poison gas), or to hinder them by obscuring their -vision either by firing a smoke cloud in their (the enemy’s) works, or -so placed as to hide one’s own troops. - -It is open to discussion if the use of smoke is not indeed of greater -antiquity than that of incendiary missiles, but it is probable that -its origin was its production by the combustion of grass or similar -material, and not with pyrotechnic composition. - -Read’s “Weekly Journal” of October 25th, 1760, in an account of a -review in Hyde Park, mentions as the concluding item of the manœuvres, -that “pieces of a new construction, of a globular form, were set on -fire, which occasioned such a smoke as to render all persons within a -considerable distance entirely invisible, and thereby the better in -time of action to secure a retreat.” There can be little doubt that -this is one of the first demonstrations, at any rate in this country, -of the use of smoke balls. - -The Chinese made use of both projectiles many centuries ago, and the -smoke—or stink-pot—was in use by them until comparatively recently. - -Smoke balls from 4⅖th inches up to 13 inches calibre were included in -the official list of projectiles for smooth-bore guns until about 1873, -when with ground light balls they became obsolete. The latter, as their -name suggests, were intended to be burnt on the ground and light up -enemy working parties, etc. This also was the object of the parachute -light-ball, which was fitted with a time fuse and an opening charge; -upon opening, a light was ignited suspended from a parachute. This -method appears to have been invented in Denmark in 1820, and they were -used in Austria the following year. - -Another class of war store which naturally suggests itself is that used -to give light for the purpose of signalling. The light is either burnt -on the ground as a hand light or fitted to a rocket. Fireworks for -this purpose have been in use from earliest times, being the logical -development of the signal beacon, but it was not until the introduction -of genuine colour—that is to say, colour distinguishable at a long -distance—that they reached their full standard of utility. - -It is, however, the rocket which has received most attention for -military purposes, and certainly with good reason. Here was a -projectile which, in the days of smooth-bore ordnance had a good -range and required no heavy gun or transport. Moreover, it formed -its own time fuse. Congreve wrote: “Rockets are ammunition without -ordnance, the soul of artillery without the body.” Many methods of -fitting up rockets for warlike purposes have been evolved, invented and -re-invented, most of which for practical purposes were useless. - -It is the military use of the rocket, however, which presents the most -interesting study in military pyrotechny. - -There are several early references to what is supposed to be the use of -rockets in warfare. The Paduans are stated to have burned the town of -Mestre with these projectiles. - -Orleans used rockets in its defence in 1429, and Dunois fired them in -1449, when besieging the town of Pont-Andemer. In 1452 they were used -against Bordeaux, and the following year at Gand. - -Rockets were employed in 1586 for lighting purposes and as projectiles -against cavalry. The description seems to indicate a method of fitting -up to produce a similar effect to a shrapnel shell. - -Hanselet, writing in 1630, refers to rockets with grenades attached. -Casimir Siemienowitz, Lieut.-General of the Ordnance to the King of -Poland, published in 1650 his “Great Art of Artillery,” which contains -a treatise on fireworks both for civil and military purposes. He refers -to a work on the military use of fireworks written ninety years before, -and speaks of rockets up to 100 lbs. and describes their construction. - -A French work published in 1561, entitled “Treatise upon several kinds -of War-Fireworks,” suggests a rocket case of varnished leather. - -It is on record that in 1688 trials were made in Berlin with rockets -of 50 lbs. and 120 lbs., which carried a bomb weighing 16 lbs. The -composition was nine parts saltpetre, four parts sulphur, and three -parts charcoal. The case is stated to have been of wood covered with -linen. - -Hyder Ali is credited with making considerable use of rockets -against our troops in India; he is said to have had a corps of 1,200 -“rocketers” in 1788, whilst later on, his son, Tippoo Sahib, employed -as many as 5,000, and Captain Moritz Myer, writing in 1836, ascribes to -experience of these weapons so gained the efforts made in England to -bring them to perfection. - -He also describes the Indian rocket as “an iron envelope about 8 inches -long and 1½ inches in diameter, with sharp points at the top. The stick -of bamboo 8 or 10 feet long, but sometimes consisting of an iron rod. -They were hand-thrown by the rocketers, and did much damage to the -cavalry.” - -This description, which, to say the least, is unconvincing, would seem -rather to refer to some other pyrotechnic missile. - -Whatever may have been the cause, there was undoubtedly great interest -in the subject of rockets during the first half of the nineteenth -century. Sir William Congreve is perhaps best known in connection with -the work of this period. His efforts, however, were rather directed to -the development of existing ideas than to invention. - -In 1804, after experiments at the Royal Laboratory, Woolwich, a -flotilla of boats was fitted out under his direction for the purpose -of bombarding Boulogne Harbour with incendiary rockets from frames -fixed on the decks. The first attempt ended in a fiasco owing to heavy -weather, but the following year better results were obtained, although -the rockets were deflected by the wind and did more damage in the town -than in the harbour. - -In 1807 Congreve personally superintended their use at Copenhagen -with even better effect, and they were again used in the Walcheren -Expedition and in an attack on the island of Aix. - -These rockets were all of an incendiary nature, with paper cases, and -fired at an elevation of 55 degrees. Myer gives the proportion of -the composition as 62.44 saltpetre, 23.18 charcoal, 14.38 sulphur. -This writer gives Congreve’s rockets little credit for efficiency, -but admits that they “attracted great attention and were regarded as -formidable.” He remarks that at the siege of Flessingen “the rockets -acted so badly that the English themselves said that they did more harm -to the battery than the besieged town.” He also states that as a result -of finding an “unburnt specimen” in the town after the bombardment of -Copenhagen trials were conducted by Captain Schuhmacher, although how -an unburnt rocket could reach the town is not clear; possibly he means -from a reconstruction of the remains collected. - -These trials seem to have been successful, and in 1808 a rocket brigade -was formed. - -In 1809 Admiral Cochrane used rockets upon the town of Callao, in -1810 they were used against Cadiz, and in 1813 in the battle of -Leipsic, where the commanding officer, Captain Bogeu, was killed, and -at the siege of Dantzic. It is interesting to note that during that -year they were used for propaganda purposes. At the siege of Glogau -proclamations, etc., were printed on thin paper and fastened to the -sticks with light thread. Rockets were used with effect at Waterloo, -the rocket detachment being directed by Sergeant Dunnet. - -In 1813 Colonel Augustin, of the Austrian army, saw the English rocket -batteries in action and trials of Congreve rockets in London, and the -following year visited Copenhagen, where by arrangement between the -two Powers he was instructed by Schuhmacher in his method of rocket -construction. - -The Austrian Government as a result established shortly afterwards an -extensive factory at Weinerisch-Neustadt for the manufacture of war -rockets. - -Much work and ingenuity was expended about this time in seeking to -eliminate the necessity of the rocket stick. Congreve is credited with -introducing fins similar in action to the feathers on an arrow; this, -however, had been done nearly one hundred years previously, and Frézier -illustrates the method in his treatise. - -A Mr. Heath, of Boston, is credited with having reached a range of two -and a half-miles with a five-pound rocket of this type. - -Garnier in 1813 proposed to avoid the alteration in position of the -centre of gravity by using a wire or chain with a weight at the end -fastened to the centre of the rocket and hanging vertically. From -Ruggieri’s book it would appear that this idea had often been tried -previously. - -However, the most successful series of inventions were those based on -the principle of the rifle, that to give the rocket a rotary motion in -its passage through the air. - -In 1815 successful trials were made in America with rockets of the -rotary type, rotation being imparted by means of holes bored through -the case into the composition in an oblique direction. - -Congreve established a factory at Bow for the manufacture of rockets -for the East India Company, and Captain Parlby, of the Bengal -Artillery, manufactured similar rockets, both being made to rotate, -probably on similar lines to the American model. The “Calcutta Journal” -of the period contains a discussion of the rival merits of Congreve’s -and Parlby’s rockets. - -Hale patented a rocket constructed on similar lines as late as 1844, -the holes at the side of the case being nearly tangential. He also -gave his name to a service rocket—Hale’s 24 pr. and 9 pr. These were -constructed of iron with a wooden head, fitted metal plug at the base -with three vents, a tail piece or flange continuing from the base so as -to enclose half the periphery of each jet. This arrangement imparts a -rotary motion to the rocket. - -In 1853 Macintosh patented a method of rotating the tube from which the -rocket was fired so as to give an initial rotary movement before the -flight commences. - -The following year Fitzmaurice patented the idea of causing rotation by -a screw-shaped head, and Court a method by which the fire impinged on -surfaces inclined to the axis of the rocket. - -In 1826 Congreve patented a method of fixing two or more rockets -together so that the heading of one ignited the next and so obtained a -longer time of burning; this method is, however, again anticipated in -Frézier’s book. - -About this time all the leading Powers in Europe were manufacturing -rockets for war purposes, factories for their manufacture being -established at Warsaw, Turin, Toulon, and Metz. The Russians used them -at this period in their war with Turkey, firing them in salvoes of nine. - -In 1831 a series of trials were made by the Swiss military authorities -of 6 lb. rockets fired from a 6 ft. tube, when a range of from 18–1900 -yards was obtained, and three hits registered out of five were made at -1,100 yards. - -Although great interest was aroused by the rocket for war purposes, it -quickly subsided, and it is now practically only used for signalling -and line-carrying purposes. - -William Bourne, who describes himself as a “poor gunner,” the first -to produce an original book on artillery in this country, as distinct -from translation of continental works, makes the following observations -on military pyrotechnics: “Divers gunners and other men have devised -sundry sorts of fireworks for the annoyance of their enemies, yet as -far as I have ever seen or heard, I never knew any good service done by -it, either by sea or land, but only by powder, and that has done great -service for that the force of it is so mighty and cometh with such a -terror. But for their other fireworks it is rather meet to be used in -the time of pleasure in the night rather than for any service.” - - - - - CHAPTER X - - MILITARY PYROTECHNY IN THE GREAT WAR - - -The outbreak of the great war, whatever may have been the case -as regards other branches, found the Service badly equipped -pyrotechnically. The great and almost frantic interest taken in -military pyrotechny during the first half of the nineteenth century -had died away. Gradually the pyrotechnic stores included in the -official schedule had been reduced until in 1914 a few rockets—mostly -signal—lights for signalling and illumination, Very pistol cartridges -for signalling purposes, with single stars of various colours, and -incendiary and light stars for shells constituted the entire list. - -The cause of this neglect of the art of pyrotechny for warlike purposes -was not difficult to understand. Rifled barrels, breech-loading, and -quick-firing ordnance had entirely destroyed interest in the rocket -as a projectile. The telephone and telegraph had almost entirely -superseded older methods of signalling, and so with most of the -pyrotechnic contrivances which, less than a century before, had been -thought to be indispensable. - -As events proved, this abandonment of old ideas was premature. Although -every thinking man in the country realised that war was some day -inevitable, no one, or at least very few, realised the nature of the -struggle. The development of land war into what were practically siege -operations on a gigantic scale; the nature of sea warfare with the new -factors, the submarine, seaplane and wireless; the extent and ferocity -of aerial warfare—all were unforeseen. Yet each of these called for new -inventions, new methods of destruction, new methods of protection and -communication, and in many cases the resuscitation of old ideas long -since abandoned. - -And as fire has for all time been associated with the sword, it is -small wonder that pyrotechny played no inconspicuous part in the -struggle. - -As has always been the case, and no doubt always will be, the outbreak -of hostilities was the signal for an epidemic of inventions. Men who -had never before interested themselves either in war, or in that -particular department of science to which their ideas belong, and in -spite of or perhaps because of an entire ignorance of the subject, -inundated the authorities with so-called inventions which were so much -waste of time to all concerned. - -In this connection it is interesting to turn to a volume of -“Abridgements of Specifications relating to Fire-arms and Other -Weapons,” published by the Patent Office in 1859. The preface contains -the following remarks: “It is worthy of notice that a very large -proportion of the so-called inventions of the present day are, in -fact, old contrivances, sometimes modified and adapted to modern -requirements, but very often identical with what has been tried and -abandoned as useless long ago. From the year 1617 down to the end -of the year 1852, not more than about 300 patents were granted for -inventions relating to fire-arms. When the war with Russia broke out -the Patent Office was inundated with applications for Letters Patent -for similar inventions, and about 600 have since been actually granted. -Of these it may be safely said that five-sixths of the applications -related to old contrivances which have been patented over and over -again.” - -Many of these inventions recall a story of the Duke of Wellington, -who was examining a steam rocket invented and patented by a Jacob -Perkins in 1824. This device consisted of an iron case with a stick -like that of a rocket. The case was filled with water and had a -fusible metal plug at the base. The case was heated, and when the plug -melted the generated steam escaped and impinging on the air drove -forward the projectile. The absurdity of the idea is too obvious to -need discussion. The Duke carefully examined it, and after asking many -questions, remarked: “If this had been invented first and gunpowder -afterwards, what a capital improvement gunpowder would have been.” - -The great war saw these “inventions” multiplied a thousand-fold. The -spread of education, the availability of books from which at least a -smattering of any subject could be obtained, and from the increase both -in quality and quantity of newspaper news a consequent closer knowledge -of what was happening—all these factors helped to add to the crop -of ideas. In many cases undoubtedly these ideas were elaborated and -worked out by the inventor, adopted by the authorities, and proved of -the highest value. These cases were, however, greatly in the minority, -and were generally the work of one who had at least some pre-knowledge -of his subject. Such a man was the late Wing-Commander F. A. Brock, -R.N.A.S., of whom it can be said without fear of contradiction no one -man did more for military pyrotechny during the great war, and possibly -in no other single subject during the war was one man so invaluable. - -Born in 1884, educated at Dulwich, he entered the firm of C. T. Brock -and Co. in 1901, where he remained until the outbreak of war. Endowed -with a marked inventive ability and a phenomenal memory, and brought -up as it were in an atmosphere of pyrotechny, he developed a knowledge -of pyrotechnic chemistry which was extraordinary and appeared almost -instinctive. - -A naval correspondent, writing in “The Navy,” speaks of him as follows: -“From H_{2}O to WO_{2} they knew all about it, or thought they did -until the wayward genius of the Commander, who never pretended to be a -chemist, taught them that there were permutations and combinations to -the _n_th degree that they had never dared to think of. - -[Illustration: WING-COMMANDER FRANK ARTHUR BROCK, R.N.A.S. - - Killed at Zeebrugge, April 23rd, 1918.] - -“Wing-Commander Brock’s great secret was originality. To the accepted -formula he would add just a touch of the unexpected. The chemists would -say it can’t be done, or it wouldn’t work. Sometimes it did not, but -often it did, very nearly. And Brock’s pioneer brain touched it a bit -more—and lo! the impossible and the unexpected had arrived.” - -During his connection with the firm he had travelled over a large -portion of the world on its behalf. His experience at a comparatively -early age in organising and carrying out large displays—where the -safety of thousands of spectators is in the hands of the directing -mind—no doubt did much to develop those qualities of self-reliance and -self-confidence which were so marked a characteristic of his Service -career. - -Wing-Commander Brock was responsible for many pyrotechnic inventions, -and for the practical development of many ideas and inventions not his -own, but which required technical knowledge and experience to ensure -success. - -It is perhaps as the “inventor of the smoke screen” that he is -best known, a quite mistaken idea, the fallacy of which a moment’s -consideration will show. There are many references to the use of smoke -as a screen in classic times and even in mythology. The smoke ball, -as we have seen, was a recognised military store up to the middle of -the last century. It is just as absurd to credit Commander Brock, or -for that matter any living man, with the invention of the use of the -smoke screen in warfare as to credit the inventor of a patent fire -extinguisher with the idea of putting out fires. - -What Commander Brock did do was to provide the means when the demand -arose of producing smoke suited to the particular purpose for which it -was to be used, whether for screens, signalling, or other purposes. - -As an example the “E” float may be cited. A demand had arisen for a -smoke-producing device for use on board merchant ships to assist escape -from enemy submarine attack. Commander Brock, with characteristic -energy, in a very short space of time produced the “E” float, which -for ease in manipulation by untrained operators and volume of smoke -produced was probably unsurpassed by any subsequent device, and on the -score of cheapness it undoubtedly held the field. - -This store, which was in reality a triumph of pyrotechnic design, was -in appearance so simple as to mislead some at least to whom greater -insight might have been credited as to the ingenuity of its design. -Counsel at a sitting of the Royal Commission on Awards to Inventors, -described the float as “half-a-dozen or so drain rockets in a box.” A -remark which might be considered as accurate as to describe a clock as -some pieces of metal in a box, were it not for the fact that the box -in question contained no drain rockets, or anything resembling them -more closely than one firework resembles another designed for quite a -different purpose. - -[Illustration: Smoke Float in Action.] - -The requirements to be met were as follows: The apparatus was to be -used by men whom by nature of their employment it was impossible to -train individually, therefore its ignition must be simple and at -the same time certain and quick in action, and carried on the float -itself; a chamber had to be provided in which to as it were accumulate -the smoke generated, which chamber had of necessity to have holes -through which the smoke could issue. As the float had to be dropped -after ignition from the deck of the vessel into the sea, and would -consequently be submerged for a short time, these holes must be in some -way sealed until the float rose to the surface. The pyrotechnic -compositions which produce the greatest volume of smoke were found to -take some considerable time to attain their maximum of production, -and separate units had to be included which would develop almost -instantaneously a big mass of smoke, pending the generation of the main -supply. - -In addition, the float must be so constructed as to remain efficient -when stored on the deck of a merchant vessel in all weathers and -conditions. - -Two hundred thousand of these floats were issued during the war. - -The subject of smoke is one which naturally attracts the attention of -the pyrotechnist, although in what might be called a negative direction. - -For display work the elimination of smoke is obviously of greater -importance than its production, but inquiry into the one of necessity -leads to a knowledge of the other. - -In some few cases the smoke generated is of value in adding to the -effect of the burning composition; the most noticeable case of this is -the use of coloured fire as flares, that is to say, burnt in masses -for the illumination of trees and other natural features. Some years -ago Messrs. C. T. Brock & Co. spent considerable time in eliminating -as far as possible the smoke from coloured fire, when it was found -that without the smoke the result was very poor. It was the reflection -of the colour on the smoke upon which the illumination depended for -its effect. This, however, is hardly germane to our subject, but is -mentioned to indicate how largely the question of smoke enters into the -work of the modern pyrotechnist. - -Commander Brock had, apart from his ordinary work, been engaged for -some months prior to the outbreak of war on the question of the -production of smoke for the Admiralty, and had also interested himself -in the subject for commercial purposes, such as insecticide and other -uses. He was therefore in a position, when the demand arose for smoke -both for naval and military use, to start research in the matter -considerably ahead of other inquirers, and to produce immediately -a smoke that would supply the needs for the time being until more -satisfactory means could be evolved. - -The Royal Naval Experimental Station at Stratford, of which he was -in command and which he organised and brought into being, had many -activities besides smoke. But even the exacting work of controlling -its many activities was not sufficient for the Commander’s untiring -energy; the few moments he could snatch from his duties and the many he -stole from sleep were devoted to the invention and elaboration of war -devices. His greatest achievement was the Brock anti-Zeppelin bullet, -for which he and he alone is responsible, and which beyond any shadow -of doubt delivered this country from the terror of the Zeppelin raids. - -His other inventions include many purely pyrotechnic smoke devices and -inventions connected with the production of smoke, such as igniters -which were used to start the action of smoke production, the Dover -flares of one million candle power each, used by the anti-submarine -patrol in the Straits of Dover, and burned to the extent of several -hundreds every night. - -He was also responsible for several forms of stars for use in Very -pistol cartridges. - -Captain Carpenter, V.C., in his splendid book, “The Blocking of -Zeebrugge,” writes as follows of his work in connection with that -operation: - - “It would be difficult for anybody to speak too highly of - Wing-Commander Frank A. Brock. He was a rare personality. An - inventive genius, than whom the country had no better, it was - his brain that differentiated this blocking enterprise from all - previous attempts in history in one most important particular. The - difficulty of reaching the destination in the face of a strenuous - opposition had hitherto brought failure, but he provided an - antidote in the form of a satisfactory artificial fog designed to - protect the blockships from the enemy’s guns during the critical - period of approach. That in itself was a wonderful achievement, but - his inventive mind was not satisfied therewith. To him we owed the - special flares intended for turning darkness into light. - - “A special buoy was wanted—one that would automatically provide - its own light on being thrown into the water. Brock made so little - of the problem that he produced such a buoy, designed, constructed - and ready for use in less than twenty-four hours. Special signal - lights were required: Brock produced them. Flame projectors, far - exceeding anything hitherto known, were mooted: Brock produced them - also. No matter what our requirements were Brock was undefeated. - With a highly scientific brain he possessed extraordinary knowledge - of almost any subject. He had travelled much and could tell you - all that was worth knowing of any country from Patagonia to - Spitzbergen. He was no mean authority on old prints and books, was - also a keen philatelist, and was blessed with a remarkable memory. - Wherever he went he carried with him a pocket edition of the New - Testament, which was his favourite possession; his knowledge of the - contents was quite unique. And with it all he was a great shot and - an all-round sportsman. His fine physique was well remembered by - many a Rugby footballer from the days when he played in the pack - of one of the leading club fifteens. His geniality and humour were - hard to beat. But of all his qualities, optimism perhaps held first - place. At times we, who were far from being pessimistic, thought - his optimism excessive, but it was justified absolutely with regard - to the success of the enterprise.” - -The “Very” was a pre-war invention, patented in 1878; it was not -adopted into the Service until about ten years later. It consists of -a short-barrelled pistol of 1 inch calibre—or rather that was the -original size, a 1½ inch pattern was introduced during the war, and -subsequently a 1½ inch pattern with a longer barrel and shoulder piece. - -The original cartridge was in effect a single star Roman candle, fired -by percussion. A small propelling charge drove out a single coloured -star, either red, white, green or blue. The star rose to a height of -about 300 feet. These were used purely for signalling purposes. - -The war suggested another use of the “Very” pistol, that is for -illuminating purposes, and various illuminating stars were introduced, -both to light up upon reaching their objective with a range of two to -three hundred yards, and to hang suspended from a parachute, similar -to the old parachute light ball, but with many times the brilliance, -although considerably less in size. - -The difficulty of identifying coloured stars in daylight suggested the -use of coloured smokes. These were successfully evolved by Major Wicks -and Captain Gray, an achievement of far greater difficulty than the -casual observer might think. - -Apart from these synthetically prepared colours, the yellow smoke -natural to orpiment was much used in signal stars. - -Later stars were suggested by Commander Brock, which ascended burning -white and at their height broke into two, and in a subsequent pattern -into three, stars of varying colours. - -The rifle grenade, which was fired by a rod fixed to the base of the -grenade and running down the barrel of a rifle, being blown out by a -cartridge without a bullet, was also fitted up for signalling purposes. -Upon opening, a series of lights, arranged to code, were suspended from -a parachute. - -Recognition and illuminating lights were constructed for use from -aeroplanes, and were ignited by dropping through a launching tube fixed -to the machine, which made contact and fired them electrically as they -passed through. - -Landing lights and wing-tip lights, electrically ignited, were other -stores used in connection with aerial warfare. - -Another was the incendiary bomb. Until the outbreak of war the -incendiary composition for use as stars in incendiary shells was of a -most primitive nature, and even during the war incendiary compositions -were used which were ridiculous in comparison with those produced later. - -The construction also of some of the earlier efforts was quite as -absurd. Projectiles were devised in a thin paper case, intended to -be dropped from heights of many thousand feet, and ignite on impact, -whereas the impact produced by the velocity of a projectile after such -a fall was sufficient to scatter the case and its ingredients in all -directions. - -It was the use of aluminium in pyrotechny which pointed the way to real -incendiary composition, composition which exceeds the temperature of -these primitive pitch and other elementary compositions by many times -more than the flame of a candle exceeds the temperature of ice. - -Bombs containing thermit, and later on thermalloy (a composition which -set hard, and did away with the necessity of a case), were terrible -weapons, giving a temperature which has hardly been exceeded by other -means. - -These compositions were almost identical with some of those containing -aluminium used in pyrotechny for a considerable time before the -war, but of course not for incendiary purposes. The intense heat is -naturally accompanied by brilliant light, which was of great value -to the pyrotechnists, the more so as aluminium compositions do not -deteriorate on being kept as do those containing magnesium, and -although the light is not quite so brilliant, and has less actinic -value, the fact that it is considerably cheaper, combined with its -keeping qualities, renders it a very satisfactory substitute for that -rather expensive metal, in very many cases at least. - - - - - CHAPTER XI - - THE CIVIL USE OF FIREWORKS - - -The utility of fireworks and the number of purposes to which they have -been applied are far greater than most people imagine, both at sea, -where possibly their usefulness is most fully exploited, on land, and -since the war and its consequent developments of aeronautics, in the -air. - -Firework signals at sea are used in almost endless variety for the -purpose of identifying vessels at night. Each shipping line has its own -signal or signals, which are fired on such occasions as when passing -Lloyd’s signal stations. These signals consist of hand lights, Roman -candles, rockets, or Coston lights. The last-mentioned is a small hand -light which is arranged to burn with either one colour or two or more -colours in succession. This signal is used by the majority of foreign -vessels. The signal used may be either lights burnt singly or together, -or a light or lights burnt in combination with Roman candles or -rockets. By making use of the various combinations a great number and -variety of signals have been arrived at: a few typical examples will -illustrate the kind of signals used. - -The Zud-Amerika Lyn of Amsterdam burns a white light at stern, green -at bridge and blue at bow. The White Star have a green light at bow -and green at stern. W. Johnston and Co., a green light followed by a -Roman candle, throwing three red and three blue stars, followed by a -white light. The Aberdeen have a red light followed by a Roman candle, -throwing red, white and blue stars three times successively, shown from -aft. J. L. Burnham and Co., a blue light changing to white, then to -red, followed by a red star. - -The Cunard Line, off the coast of Ireland, fire a blue light followed -by two golden star rockets. The Ulster Steamship Co. fire three -vertical lights, yellow, blue and red, followed by two Roman candles -fired together, each throwing two yellow, two blue and two red stars. - -These examples will give some idea of the variety of signals used; they -are often followed by another signal, or rather have a suffix which -if fired has a particular meaning. For instance, a red light after -the signal may mean “All’s well,” or a green may signify a wish to -communicate. Some lines bring the whistle into the signal and combine -long and short blasts with pyrotechnic signals. - -Besides the house signals there are some generally accepted signals -used by all vessels. A blue light is the signal for a pilot in all -waters, except those of the United States. It is curious, however, that -no universal pyrotechnic signal of distress has yet been arranged, -although in 1889 Mr. F. Crundall endeavoured to get a standard distress -signal recognised by shipping throughout the world. This signal, which -consisted of a Roman candle surrounded at the mouth by four lights -which burnt simultaneously with it, was demonstrated before the Board -of Trade, and was distinguishable across the Channel at Dover, but was, -however, not universally adopted. - -Another extensive field use of pyrotechnic signals at sea is in the -fishing industry. Lights and rockets are used to communicate between -vessels of the fishing fleets and with the carriers. - -The use of such signals by the coastguard and the Lifeboat Institution -and at harbours and ports throughout the world is also very great. - -Another pyrotechnic store of the greatest utility is the line-carrying -rocket, a device which has been responsible for the saving of thousands -of lives. - -The credit for suggesting this use of the rocket appears to belong -to a Mr. Trengouse, of Cornwall. This was in 1807. The proposal did -not, however, make as much headway as it should have done, owing to -the fact that Capt. Manley had that year introduced a device with a -similar purpose, the line being carried by a shot fired from a mortar. -This idea had been previously worked out by a Sergt. Bell of the Royal -Artillery and by La Fère, a Frenchman, the two working independently. - -The Manley apparatus was officially adopted, and stations established -at forty-five positions round the coast. - -The rocket method was, however, revived in 1826 by a Mr. Dennett, of -Newport, Isle of Wight, and four stations were established on the -island for the use of rockets of his pattern. The advantages of the -rocket over the shot apparatus are obvious—the lightness and mobility -of the rocket trough as compared with a mortar, the fact that the -rocket traces its own flight, which can be seen and followed even at -night, not to mention greater simplicity in working. However, it was -not until 1855, when a rocket of greater range was invented by Col. -Boxer, of the Royal Laboratory, that the rocket as a line carrier came -into its own. - -The Boxer rocket consisted actually of two rocket cases joined head to -tail, and so arranged that when the first case had burnt out it was -blown off, and the second gave renewed impetus. This rocket is still in -use at the Board of Trade rocket stations. - -A further development of the line-carrying rocket which is making rapid -headway is a compact apparatus designed for use on the wrecked vessel -to carry a line to the shore. - -This system has two great advantages, namely, the target is so much -greater when firing from the ship, consisting as it does of the whole -coast line, whereas the ship forms in comparison an insignificant mark -from the shore. Again, a vessel is generally wrecked on a lee shore, -so that in firing from the ship the rocket travels with the wind. - -Both the Brock and Schermuley systems are designed for this purpose, -and there is little doubt that in a few years all vessels will carry -their own means of establishing communication with the shore. - -As a further development of the line-carrying rocket, it is interesting -to note that Congreve, in association with Lieut. J. M. Colquhoun, -took out a patent for the use of the rocket as a harpoon in whale -fishing, which, if it proved satisfactory in use, must have been a -marked advance, especially as this was before the advent of the now -universally used harpoon gun. - -Another pyrotechnic invention responsible for the saving of many lives -is the Hale’s Light apparatus. This apparatus is fitted to a lifebuoy, -which is arranged for launching from a vessel’s bridge; the act of -launching ignites a flare, enabling the person in the water to see the -buoy and the rescuing boat to pick them up. - -The practical use to which fireworks have been put on land are many. -Probably that which comes most readily to the mind is the sound signal -or alarm. Many fire brigades whose members are volunteers and therefore -scattered use aerial maroons to warn and call them for duty. These -maroons became familiar to Londoners during the air raid period in the -late war. - -The maroon has also been adopted for firing with a trip line as a -burglar alarm, or for protecting game preserves or similar purposes. - -Another well-known pyrotechnic sound signal is the fog signal used -on the railways, which consists of a tinned iron envelope containing -a mixture of chlorate of potash and red phosphorus. It is secured in -position on the rail by two lead clips provided for the purpose, and -is fired by percussion on the impact of the engine wheel. Bird scarers, -consisting of a series of single crackers connected by a time fuse, and -so arranged as to fire at regular intervals, have been much used for -the protection of seed and crops. - -The miner’s squib and chieza stick or fuse lighter are to all intents -port-fires for lighting the fuse in blasting operations in mines, their -form and composition being adapted to the particular circumstances of -their use. - -[Illustration: Crystal Palace. From a photograph taken by the light - of a magnesium shell. - - The crowd at “Brock’s Benefit” (64,000 persons present).] - -The use of pyrotechnic compositions for photographic purposes is well -known; those in use at the present generally contain magnesium, which -has greater actinic value than any other firework composition. - -Magnesium lights fitted up to fire with a trip line have been -successfully used for obtaining photographs of big game in their native -surroundings at night. - -Smoke pyrotechnically produced has for several years been used for -the testing of drains, and recently successful experiments have been -carried out establishing the value of smoke as a protection for fruit -blossom against frost. - -It has also been used as an insecticide for use against various kinds -of parasites; a poisonous smoke has been found of great use in the -dislodging and exterminating of rats. - -Another agricultural use of pyrotechnic, or in this case perhaps more -correctly explosive composition, is the use of explosive cartridges for -ploughing; that is, cartridges are exploded at a certain depth in the -ground, the effect being to break up the subsoil. The explosive used is -a mild and cheap form of dynamite. - -The use of rockets and other explosive fireworks for producing rain -has been much discussed recently. Many writers deny the possibility of -success by such means. There cannot be the slightest doubt, however, -that given clouds in the right condition and altitude it is quite -possible to cause rain. The writer has seen it done, not once but many -times; generally it must be admitted when the rain was not wanted. -Maroons fired in wide-mouthed mortars have been used on the Continent -for some years to break up hail clouds and bring them down in the form -of rain over the vineyards, where a hail storm is a serious calamity to -the wine grower. - -The use of pyrotechnic signals in connection with aerial travel is -gradually increasing. The stores used are practically those evolved and -adopted during the great war, modified in some cases to suit peace time -requirements, but substantially they are those described in the chapter -on Military Pyrotechny. - - - - - LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL INGREDIENTS USED IN PYROTECHNY AT THE PRESENT - TIME. - - _Force and Sparks Compositions._ - - Saltpetre - Sulphur - Charcoal - Mealed Gunpowder - Iron Borings - Steel Filings - Zinc Filings - Aluminium and Alloys - Magnesium and Alloys - Lampblack - Orpiment (Sulphide of Arsenic) - Black Antimony (Sulphide of Antimony) - - _Chlorate Colour Compositions._ - - Chlorate of Potash or Perchlorate of Potash. - - { Nitrate of Strontia - Red { Carbonate „ „ - { Sulphate „ „ - - { Nitrate of Baryta - Green { Chlorate „ „ - { Carbonate „ „ - - { Carbonate of Copper - Blue { Sulphide „ „ - { Arsenite „ „ - { Calomel „ „ - - Yellow { Oxalate of Soda - { Carbonate „ „ - - For extra brightness Magnesium added. - - Secondary tints obtained by mixtures of the above. - - _Non-Chlorate Colour Compositions._ - - Saltpetre - Sulphur - Charcoal - Black Antimony - White Arsenic - Orpiment - Aluminium - Magnesium - Sulphate of Copper - Borax - - _Burnables._ - - Shellac - Pitch - Sterine - Paraffin - Sugar of Milk - Linseed Oil - - _Agglutinants._ - - Shellac and Spirit - Starch Paste - Gum Water - Linseed Oil - Dextrine - - _Sound Producing._ - - Gunpowder - Gun-cotton - Picrate of Potash - Chlorate of Potash - Aluminium - - - - - PYROTECHNIC BIBLIOGRAPHY - - - _Manuscripts_ - - 1225. Treatise of the Ruses of War, the capturing of Towns and - the Defence of Passes, according to the instructions of - Alexander son of Philip (in the Leyden Library). - - 1432. Feuerwerksbuch (MS. 362 in the University Library of - Freiburg i. B.). - - 1438. (about). Latin Manuscript, with enumeration of materials for - all fires (No. 197 in the Royal Library, Munich). - - - _Printed Books_ - - 1529. Strassburg. Anonymous: Buchsenmeisterei von Geschoss, - Buchsenpulver, Salpeter und Feuerwerk. - - 1540. Venice. Vanuccio Biringuccio: De la pirotechnia. - - 1573. London. Peter Whitehorne: How to make Saltpetre, Gunpowder, - etc. - - 1578. William Bourne: Inventions and Devices. - - 1579. Leonard Diggs: Stratistico. - - 1588. London. Cyprian Lucar: Lucar Appendix, collected to shew the - Properties, Office and Dutie of a Gunner, and to teach him - to make and refine artificial Saltpeeter to sublime for - Gunpowder, etc. (annexed to a translation of Tartagalia’s - book). - - 1591. London. Anonymous: A profitable and Necessary Book of - Observations for all those that are burned with the flame of - Gunpowder, etc. - - 1607. Argentorati (Strassburg) Albertus Magnus: De mirabilibus - mundi. - - 1614. Diego Ufano: Artillery. - - _c._ 1620. W. Eldred: The Gunners Glasse. - - 1628. Robert Norton: The Gunner. - - 1629. F. Malthus (Francois de Malthe): Treatise of Artificial - Fireworks. - - 1630. Pont-à-Mousson. Jean Appier, alias Hanzelet: La Pyrotechnie. - - 1635. London. John Bate: Mysteries of Nature and Art. The Second - Book teaching most plainly and withall most exactly the - composing of all manner of Fireworks for Tryumph and - Recreation. - - 1635. London. John Babington: Pyrotechnia. - - 1643. Robert Norton: The Gunners Dialogue. - - 1648. Worcester, Nathanael Nye: The Art of Gunnery. - - 1650. Casimir Siemienowitz: Great Art of Artillery. (Translated - into English by George Shelvocke in 1729.) - - 1698. Hafniae (Copenhagen). (?) 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Dussauce: A Practical Treatise on the - Fabrication of Matches, Gun-Cotton, Coloured Fires and - Fulminating Powders. - - 1865. London. “Practicus”: Pyrotechny, or The Art of Making - Fireworks. - - 1865. Paris. A. D. & P. Vergnaud: 1^{ère} Partie, Pyrotechnie - militaire. 2^{ième} Partie, Pyrotechnie Civile. - - 1865. London. Richardson & Watts: Chemical Technology. - - _c._ 1870. London. “Practicus”: Manual of Pyrotechny. - - 1876. Paris. E. Désortiaux: La poudre, les corps explosifs et la - pyrotechnie. Traduction des ouvrages des docteurs Upmann et - Meyer. - - 1878. Paris. A. Lamarre: Nouveau manuel de l’artificier, ou traité - pratique pour la fabrication des feux de couleurs, etc. - - 1878. Washington. Major James M. Whittemore and Lieut. F. Heath: - Ammunition, Fuses, Primers, Military Pyrotechny, etc. - - 1878. London. Thomas Kentish: The Pyrotechnists’ Treasury. - - 1880. London. Dr. W. H. Browne: Practical Firework-Making for - Amateurs. - - 1882. Paris. Amédée Denisse: Traité pratique complet des feux - d’artifice. - - 1883. Paris. Paul Tessier: Chimie pyrotechnique, ou traité - pratique des feux colorés. - - 1884. Hull. Dr. W. H. Browne: Firework Accidents. - - 1885. Erfurt. Oscar Frey: Die Feuerwerkskunst. - - 1891. Paris. Marcelin Berthelot: Les compositions incendiares dans - l’antiquité et au moyen age. Le feu grégois et les origines - de la poudre à canon. (_Revue des Deux Mondes._) - - 1893. Trieste. Domenico Antoni: Trattato Teorico—Practico de - Pirotecnia Civile. - - 1895. London. Oscar Guttman: The Manufacture of Explosives. - - 1896. London. Warwick Wroth, F.S.A.: The London Pleasure Gardens - of the Eighteenth Century. - - 1906. Woolwich. Col. J. R. J. Jocelyn: The connection of the - Ordnance Department with National and Royal Fireworks. - - 1909. London. The Rise and Progress of the British Explosives - Industry. - - 1915. London. Lieut.-Col. H. W. L. Hime: The Origin of Artillery. - - - _Encyclopædias, Periodicals, etc._ - - 1753. Chambers’ Cyclopædia. - - 1802. English Encyclopædia. - - 1830. Brewster’s Cyclopædia—MacCullock. - - 1865. Boys’ Own Volume: Papers on Pyrotechny, “Practicus.” - Encyclopædia Britannica. - - 1886. The Techno-Chemical Receipt Book. Brannt & Wahl. - - 1921. Harmsworth Universal Encyclopædia. A. St. H. Brock. - - - - - INDEX - - - Abdulla, 15 - - Aberdeen Line, 174 - - Abridgments, Patent Office, 165 - - Absent-minded Beggar, 53 - - Abusavanani, 11 - - Accidents, 74, 77, 78, 79, 81, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87 - - Acetate of copper, 145 - - Adirvedis, 10 - - Admiralty, 169 - - Aerial maroons, 109 - - Aeroplane signal lights, 172 - - Aix, Island of, 160 - - Aix-la-Chapelle, 28, 45, 123 - - Albertus Magnus, 14, 91 - - Alcohol, 130, 147 - - Alexander the Great, 6 - - Alexander II, 46 - - Alexandra Palace, 38 - - Alexandria, 48 - - Alphonso, Duke, 15 - - Alum, 146 - - Aluminium, 150, 173 - - Amber, 140, 146 - - America, 161 - - Ammonium chloride, 129, 142 - - Angelo, Mr., 33 - - Antimony, 139 - - Antimony sulphide, 146 - - Antoine de Lalaing, 15 - - Antoni, 149 - - Aqua ardens, 141 - - „ vitæ, 125, 140 - - Arabic gum, 150 - - Arc de Triomphe, 50 - - Arctic regions, 52 - - Arsenal, Woolwich, 43 - - Arsenic sulphide, 10, 146 - - Arthur’s Seat, 45 - - Artichauts, 118 - - Artifices portatifs, 112 - - Artillerists’ Manual, 149 - - Artillery bomb, 105 - - Astley, senior, 36, 37 - - Avalanche, 50 - - Augustin, Col., 160 - - Austrian Government, 161 - - „ Army, 161 - - - Babington, John, 26, 92, 96, 103, 110, 111, 121, 140 - - Bacon, Roger, 14, 91 - - Bagdad, 7 - - Bags, 110 - - Bailey, Bill, 53 - - Balloon, Air, 103 - - „ Fire, 60 - - „ Gas, 103 - - „ Coehorne, 107 - - „ double and triple, 107 - - Balloone, 104 - - Balon, 105 - - Bate, John, 17, 27, 91, 96, 103, 104, 112, 122, 123, 140, 141 - - Baton à feu, 117 - - Battle, Bantry Bay, 49 - - „ Jutland, 49 - - „ Nile, 40, 49 - - „ Trafalgar, 48, 49 - - „ Tsu-Shima, 49 - - Beacon, signal, 157 - - Beaconsfield, 51 - - Beckman, Sir Martin, 27 - - Bell, Sergeant, 177 - - Bell’s Weekly Messenger, 63 - - Belvue Gardens, 38 - - Benedict, Oil of, 140 - - Bengal lights, 120 - - „ saltpetre, 120, 136 - - Bergheri, Victory of, 22 - - Berlin, 159 - - Bermondsey Spa, 36 - - Berthollet, 144 - - Bird scarers, 178 - - Bismuth, 146 - - Black antimony, 139 - - Black Jack, 97 - - Blackmore, 33 - - Blaney, Lord, 42 - - Blantyre, Africa, 55 - - Blondin, 52 - - Blowing charge, 114 - - Blue devil, 97 - - Blue vitriol, 129 - - Bobb’s Hall Tavern, 36 - - Boiled oil, 140 - - Boleyn, Anne, 16 - - Bomb, Artillery, 105 - - „ Firework, 105 - - „ Rocket, 159 - - „ Thermit, 172 - - „ War, 105 - - Bombardment, Alexandria, 48 - - „ Canton, 49 - - „ Sebastopol, 49 - - Bombay, 39, 55 - - Bombshell, 15, 103 - - Bone ash, 146 - - Bonfire, 24, 58 - - Bordeaux, 158 - - Borings, Iron, 98 - - Boulogne Harbour, 159 - - Bounced lances, 128 - - Bounces, 97, 99 - - Bouquets, 127 - - Bourne, William, 162 - - Bow, 161 - - Boxer, R.A., Lt.-Col., 67, 177 - - Boxing kangaroo, 52 - - Boxing match, 51 - - Boyers, Captain, 160 - - Brand, Peter, 15 - - Bridge of Louis XVI, 42 - - Bright composition, 120 - - Brilliant fire, 133, 138 - - Brittany, Duke of, 21 - - Brock, 34, 36 - - „ Arthur, 48, 78 - - „ Charles Thomas, 46, 54, 68 - - „ C. T., & Co., 166, 178 - - „ F. A., Wing Comdr., 166 - - „ William, 33, 37, 46, 63, 115 - - Brooklyn Bridge, 55 - - Burglar alarm, 178 - - Burgundy, Duke of, 21 - - Burnham, J. L., & Co., 175 - - Bursting Charge, 108 - - Burusu, 11 - - Burying mortars, 87 - - - Cadiz, 160 - - Caillot, 33, 35 - - Calaminaris, Lapis, 141 - - Calcium phosphide, 153 - - Calcutta, 55 - - Calcutta Journal, 161 - - Callao, 160 - - Calomel, 143 - - Camphor, 140, 146 - - Canton, Bombardment of, 49 - - Cap, Rocket, 96 - - Caprice, 132, 133 - - Caps, Percussion, 67 - - Carbonate of soda, 146 - - Carcasses, 156 - - Carpet piece, 127 - - Cascades, 30, 126 - - Cases, 71; - Wood, 105; - Turning, 126; - Bamboo, 4; - Rocket, 93; - Cap for, 125; - Iron, 159 - - Cast iron, pulverised, 141 - - Cat fight, 52 - - Cathedral, Salisbury, 50 - - „ Worcester, 50 - - Catherine wheel, 118, 119 - - Cenotaph, 30 - - Cetewayo, King, 50 - - Chaillot Barriere, 42 - - Challoner, Sir Thomas, 18 - - Chambers’ Encyclopædia, 156 - - Champs Elysées, 42 - - Chandelle romain, 113 - - Chandrajota, 11 - - Charcoal, 3, 7, 11, 14, 95, 96, 98, 99, 100, 114, 115, 116, 118, 119, 138 - - Charging, 71 - - Charging tools for rocket, 92 - - Charles II, Coronation, 27 - - Charles XI of Sweden, 24 - - Chateau Grand display, 21 - - Cherbourg, 43 - - Chertier, F. M., 146, 149, 150 - - Chesapeake and Shannon, 49 - - Chester accident, Pen., U.S.A., 83 - - „ Races, 17 - - Chiesa stick, 179 - - Chinese crackers, 8, 10 - - „ displays, 89, 99 - - „ fire, 4, 8, 11, 98 - - „ flyer, 116 - - „ tree, 97, 98 - - Chlorate accidents, 74, 85, 86 - - Chlorates and sulphur, 145 - - Chlorate of potash, 10, 74, 77, 84, 85, 86, 87, 144, 146 - - Chloride of ammonium, 142 - - Choke of a case, 94 - - Chromatrope, 131 - - Cinnabar, 146 - - Civil and military pyrotechny, 57 - - Civita Vecchia accident, 83 - - Clanfield, 34, 35 - - Clariner of Nuremberg, 20 - - Clarke, W., 37 - - Classification of pieces, 126 - - Claudius, 13 - - Clayed, 110 - - Clay choke, 94 - - Cleats, 125 - - Clifton Zoological Gardens, 38 - - Clithero, 33, 34, 35, 36, 61 - - Clubs, 112 - - „ Fire, 17 - - Coal (mineral), 146 - - Coastguard, 176 - - Cobalt oxide, 146 - - Cobonell & Sons, 37 - - Cochrane, Admiral, 160 - - Cockerill, 65 - - Coehorn Balloon, 107 - - Collins, Lottie, 53 - - Colombo, 55 - - “Colossus,” torpedo boat attack, 49 - - Coloured military smoke, 172 - - „ stars, 11, 113 - - Colour case, 119 - - „ cloud shells, 8 - - Colquhoun, Lt., 178 - - Columbus Centenary, 55 - - Comet, 108 - - Competition, Firework, 46 - - Composition, Bright, 120; - Flare, 11; - Golden Fountain, 110; - for Rockets, 93, 95 - - „ Incendiary, 156; - magnesium flash, 17 - - „ Slow, 103 - - Compositions, Pyrotechnic, 138 - - Compound fireworks, 121 - - Cone, Paper, 108 - - Cones, 28 - - Congreve, 41 - - Congreve, Sir W., 158, 159, 160, 161, 162 - - Constantinople, Defence of, 7 - - Copenhagen, 160 - - Copper, 142, 143 - - „ acetate, 129, 142 - - „ sulphate, 129, 142, 146 - - Coronation of Alexander II, 46 - - „ George IV, 41 - - „ Victoria, 41 - - „ William IV, 41 - - Coston light, 175 - - Cotton, Madame, 66 - - Cotton wick, 125 - - Courantins, 123 - - Court, 162 - - Covent Garden, 28 - - Crackers, 13, 14, 58, 91, 92, 110, 112 - - Cremorne Gardens, 37, 38 - - Crimean War, Peace Rejoicings, 43 - - Cromwell Gardens, 36 - - Crude antimony, 139 - - Crundall, Mr. F., 174 - - Crusaders, 15 - - Crystal Palace displays, 38, 46, 68, 108, 119, 128 - - Cullen, Peter van, 15 - - Cunard Line, 176 - - Cylindrical shell, 105 - - - Dallas accident, 83 - - Dantzic, 160 - - Danube, 55 - - Darby, 66 - - Dark fire, 114 - - Dauphin 1730, 21 - - „ 1782, 22 - - Delhi, Mosque at, 50 - - “De Miribilibus Mundi,” 14 - - Denisse, 149 - - Denmark, 157 - - „ King of, 18 - - Dennett, Mr., 176 - - D’Ernst, 41 - - Devil, Blue, 97 - - Diamond Jubilee, 55 - - “Dictionnaire Morbilier Français,” 154 - - Dijon, 20 - - Dillar, 37 - - Display, Calcutta, 55 - - „ Chinese, 21, 89, 99 - - „ Crystal Palace, 38, 46, 68, 108, 119, 128 - - Display, Delhi, 55 - - „ fireworks, 84 - - „ Guards, 35 - - „ Portsmouth Fleet, 45 - - Distress signal, 175 - - Don Pedro, 14 - - Double and triple balloons, 107 - - „ line-rockets, 123 - - „ tourbillions, 117 - - „ triangle wheel, 131 - - Dover, Attack on, 46 - - Dragon, 16 - - Drain tester, 178 - - Dreadnought, 49 - - Drewett, 65 - - Drift, 72, 94 - - Dubbing, 119 - - Duffel, 38 - - Dunnet, Sergeant, 160 - - Dunois, 158 - - Dutens, 14 - - - “E” Smoke Float, 168 - - Eagle, The, 37 - - Edinburgh, 45 - - Edward, Prince of Wales, 55 - - Eider, Wreck of the, 50 - - Elizabeth, Princess, 30 - - „ Queen, 18 - - Elvetham, 18 - - Emperor, 1853, Fête of the, 43 - - Emperor’s birthday, 1859, 43 - - Empress of India, 55 - - Encyclopedia, English, 113 - - „ Military, 107 - - Entente Cordiale, 43, 55 - - Erith explosion, 67, 68 - - Eruption of Mt. Etna, 34 - - Eton, 56 - - Etoupille, 125 - - Evelyn, John, 19, 28 - - “Everyday Book,” Hone’s, 56, 59 - - Experiments at Nunhead, 68 - - Explosives Acts, 68, 69 - - „ magazine, 67 - - „ ploughing, 178 - - - Factory rules, 69 - - Fair, Postdown, 32 - - Fairbanks, Douglas, 50 - - Falcon Court firework maker, 59 - - Falling rocket sticks, 87 - - Feather, 119 - - Ferrara, Duke of, 15 - - Festivals, religious, 11 - - Fête, Imperial, 55 - - „ of the Emperor, 1853, 43 - - Fêtes, Baptismal, 1856, 43 - - „ Military, 1852, 43 - - Feux croises, 127 - - Filings, Steel, 141 - - Filling, 71 - - Finch’s Grotto Gardens, 36 - - Fine-grain powder, 99, 114 - - Fire, 4 - - „ balloons, 60 - - „ brilliant, 133, 138 - - „ Chinese, 4, 8, 11, 98 - - „ clubs, 17 - - „ Drake, 92 - - „ Greek, 6, 7, 14, 15, 16, 153, 154, 156 - - „ lances, 112 - - „ pumps, 112, 113; - wheels, 122 - - „ spur, 139 - - „ torches, 26 - - „ wild, 16 - - Fireball, 156 - - Fires, 43 - - Firework, 16, 17 - - „ accidents, 74, 77, 78, 79, 81, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87 - - „ bomb, 105 - - „ competition, 46 - - „ license, 67 - - „ manufacture, 57 - - Fireworks, Aerial, 7 - - „ compound, 121 - - „ daylight, 8 - - „ display, 84 - - „ illegal, 57 - - „ living, 51 - - „ on water, 24, 28, 39 - - „ philosophical, 37 - - „ Swedish, 23 - - „ water, 101 - - Fishing signals, 176 - - Fitzmaurice, 162 - - Five-pointed star, 99 - - Fixed sun, 29, 122, 123 - - Fixt, 98 - - Fizgigs, 97, 106, 110, 111 - - Flannel bag, 108 - - Flash composition, 178 - - Fleet at the Nore, 39 - - Flessingen, 160 - - Flights of rockets, 44 - - Flint, 4 - - Florence, 19 - - Flower pot, 97, 98, 99 - - Fog signal, 177 - - Fountains, 41, 97, 98, 115 - - Four and a half inch shell, 107, 108 - - “Fourth of June,” 56 - - Frame of quickmatch, 67, 125 - - Frames, lancework, 129 - - Frazer, Sir Augustus, 41 - - Frederick (Elector Palatine), Prince, 24 - - Frey, Oscar, 149 - - Frézier, 20, 95, 111, 112, 114, 117, 122, 123, 140, 161 - - Fulminate of mercury, 67 - - Funnel and wire, 71 - - Furiloni, 133 - - Fuse, lighter, 178 - - „ Roman candle, 114 - - „ safety, 124 - - „ time, 104, 105, 108, 109 - - Fusée de table, 118 - - - Gand, 158 - - Garden, Covent, 28 - - Garden of the Senate, 42 - - Gardens, Belvue, 38 - - „ Bermondsey Spa, 36 - - „ Clifton Zoo, 38 - - „ Cremorne, 37, 38 - - „ Cromwell, 36 - - „ Finch’s Grotto, 36 - - „ Marylebone, 34 - - „ Mermaid, 37 - - „ Mulberry, 35 - - „ North Woolwich, 37 - - „ Rosherville, 37 - - „ Surrey Zoo, 38, 43, 45 - - „ Tea and Pleasure, 30, 31, 32 - - „ Yorkshire Stingo, 37 - - Garnier, 161 - - Garniture, 11, 87, 96 - - Gas balloon, 103 - - „ poison, 156 - - Genovini, Signor, 36 - - George III, 39, 56 - - George IV, Coronation of, 41 - - Gerb, 41, 44, 97, 98, 99, 127, 134, 139 - - German Petre, 136 - - Gibraltar, Siege of, 48 - - Girande, 123 - - Girandole, 122, 134 - - Gironels, 122 - - Globe, The, 37 - - Glogau, 160 - - Glorys, 127 - - God Save the Queen, 44 - - Gola, 10 - - Golden fountain composition, 110 - - „ rain, 97, 99 - - „ streamers, 44 - - “Good-bye, Dolly Grey,” 53 - - “Good-bye, my Bluebell,” 53 - - Goodship, Mr., 61 - - Graecus, Marcus, 13, 91 - - Grain powder, 99, 103, 106, 114 - - Granules, 115 - - Greek fire, 6, 7, 14, 15, 16, 153, 154, 156 - - Green man, 17 - - „ Park, The, 28, 40, 41, 43, 112 - - „ Orlando Furioso, 91 - - Gregorini, Signor, 54 - - Gregory, Bill, 54 - - Grenade, 156 - - „ signal, Rifle, 172 - - Grey, Captain, 172 - - Griffiths, F. A., 149 - - Ground light balls, 157 - - „ rockets, 97 - - „ wheels, 121 - - Guards display, 45 - - Guilloché, 21, 132 - - Gun-cotton wad, 96 - - Gunpowder, 3, 5, 6, 13, 14, 15, 75, 96, 98, 103, 140 - - „ Acts, 58, 67 - - „ Mealed, 96, 99, 100, 106, 116, 118, 119 - - Guttman, Oscar, 153 - - Gyngell, 38 - - - Hague, The, 28 - - Hail dispersers, 179 - - Hale, 161 - - Hale’s Light apparatus, 178 - - „ 24-pounder rocket, 161 - - Hammerslag, 141 - - Hand lights signal, 175 - - Hanselet, 158 - - Harold Wood Factory, 75 - - Hawai, 11 - - Heading, 94 - - „ clay, 96 - - Heath, Mr., of Boston, 161 - - Hengler, 33 - - „ Madame, 62 - - Henry II, 20 - - Henry, M., 36 - - Henry VIII, 15 - - Hilton, 40 - - Hime, Col. H. W. L., 153, 154 - - Hindoo pyrotechnists, 10 - - Hippert, Lieutenant, 145 - - History of colleges, 27 - - Home Office, 84 - - Hone, William, 56, 59 - - “Honeysuckle and the Bee,” 53 - - Hoogstraten, Count of, 15 - - Horizontal wheel, 121, 133 - - Hornpipe, 52 - - Hotel de Ville, Paris, 21, 22, 42 - - House on fire, 52 - - Howard, 40 - - Hull, 37 - - Hutstein and Websky, 149 - - Hyde Park, 40, 41, 43, 56 - - Hyder Ali, 159 - - Hyperoxymuriate of potash, 144 - - - Ignium, Liber, 13, 14 - - Illegal Fireworks, 57 - - Illuminations, 28, 32, 39, 41 - - Imperial Fête, Danube, 55 - - “Implacable,” 49 - - Incendiary, composition, 156 - - „ rocket, 159, 160 - - „ shell, 156 - - „ thermalloy, 172 - - India, 55, 159 - - Insecticide fumigators, 178 - - Inspector, H.M., 10 - - Invalides, Les, 42 - - Invetto, Mrs., 61 - - Iron, 138 - - „ borings, 98 - - „ cast, pulverised, 141 - - „ dust, 11 - - „ filings, 8, 98, 141 - - „ magnetic oxide, 141 - - Iron oxide, mineral, 146 - - „ pyrites, 4 - - „ sand, 98 - - „ scales, 140, 141 - - Italian streamer, 113, 114 - - Italians, 18, 21 - - Ivory, 146 - - - Jack and the Beanstalk, 52 - - Jack-in-the-box, 110 - - Jaipur, 55 - - Jamaica House, 36 - - James I, 24 - - James II, 27 - - Jebb, Dr., 14 - - Jenny’s Whim, 36 - - Jesuit missionary, 98 - - Jewel fountain, 115 - - Johnson & Co., 174 - - Johnson, Dr., 35 - - Jones, Lieutenant, 31, 111, 112, 113, 117, 118, 133, 134, 139, 141 - - Jubilee, 55 - - „ 1809, 39 - - „ Naval Review, 49 - - Jumping cracker, 91 - - Jutland, Battle of, 49 - - - Kenilworth, 18 - - Kentish, Thomas, 118, 139, 149 - - King’s birthday, 4th June, 1809, 39 - - Kingston, Duchess of, 30 - - Koroo, 10 - - - La Fere, 175 - - Lamb, Charles, 40 - - Lampblack, 99, 112, 139, 146 - - „ compositions, 113 - - Lance, 112, 119 - - „ à feu, 112 - - „ bounced, 128 - - „ work, 128 - - Lances, Fire, 112 - - Lancework frames, 129 - - Lanterns, 8, 9 - - Lapis calaminaris, 141 - - Lattice poles, 127 - - Leading up, 125 - - Leipsic, 160 - - Leo VI, 13 - - Leo XIII, 20 - - Les Invalides, 42 - - Liber Ignium, 13, 14 - - Licenses for fireworks, 67 - - Lifeboat Institution, 175 - - Lifting charge, 104, 108, 109 - - Light balls, 106 - - „ ground, 157 - - „ parachute, 157 - - Lighter, 108 - - Lights, Bengal, 120 - - „ Coston, 175 - - „ signal, 66 - - „ signal, hand, 175 - - „ Very signal, 164, 171, 172 - - Li Hung Chang, 50 - - Line-carrying rocket, 176 - - Line rockets, 26, 50, 97 - - Linseed oil, 140 - - Living fireworks, 51 - - Lloyd’s signal station, 175 - - London, 28 - - Longueman, 33 - - “Lord Cobham’s Head,” 35 - - Louis XIV, 20, 24 - - Louis XV, 21 - - Louis XVI, 22 - - Louvre, 20 - - Lushalan, Mr., 62 - - Lutzelberg, Victory of, 22 - - Lyceum, 37 - - Lyons, 20, 21 - - - Machine for fireworks, 28, 34 - - Macintosh, 162 - - Madame la Première, 21 - - Madras, 55 - - Madura, 55 - - Magazine fired, 83 - - Magnesium, 150, 173 - - „ flash composition, 178 - - Mahteb, 11 - - Majendie, K.C.B., Sir V. D., 68 - - Making crackers, 92 - - Malaga, 42 - - Mallet, 72 - - Manilla Bay, Battle of, 49 - - Manley, Captain, 176 - - Manufacture of fireworks, 57 - - Maori King, 50 - - Marcus Graecus, 13, 91 - - Marinari, 34 - - Maroon, Aerial, 109 - - Maroons, 43 - - Marryat, Captain, 32 - - Marylebone Gardens, 34 - - Match, 121, 122 - - „ pipes, 125 - - „ quick, 108, 124, 125 - - „ raw, 125 - - Mealed gunpowder, 96, 99, 100, 106, 116, 118, 119, 125, 138 - - Mechanical pieces, 53 - - Mercury fulminate, 67 - - Mestre, 158 - - Metz, 162 - - Meyer, Captain Moritz, 145, 159 - - Mica, 146 - - Military coloured smokes, 172 - - „ Encyclopedia, 107 - - „ fêtes, 1852, 43 - - Mine, 110 - - „ of serpents, 110 - - „ on wheel, 133 - - Miners’ squib, 179 - - Mixing, 73 - - Mortars, 4, 16, 87, 103, 104, 105, 106, 110 - - Mortram, 33, 38, 61, 77 - - Mosaiques, 127 - - Moscow, 45 - - Mould for rocket charging, 94 - - Mulberry Gardens, 35 - - Munitions, 76 - - - Naphtha, 6 - - Napoleon, 42 - - „ Louis, 42 - - „ Marriage of, 42 - - Newhaven accident, Conn., U.S.A., 83 - - New Wells, 35 - - Nile, Battle of the, 40, 49 - - Nipple, 98 - - Nitrate of baryta, 145 - - „ copper, 145 - - „ potash, 138 - - „ strontia, 146 - - Nitre, 7, 138 - - Nomenclature of rockets, 94, 95 - - North Woolwich Gardens, 37 - - Nunhead experiments, 68 - - „ factory, 47, 68 - - Nuremburg, 23 - - - Oil of Benedict, 140 - - „ petre, 140 - - „ spike, 140 - - „ tile, 140 - - “Old Bull and Bush,” 53 - - Opening charge, 97 - - Opus Majus, 14 - - Orange, Prince of, 27 - - Order in Council, 69, 74, 78 - - Orleans, 42, 158 - - Orpiment, 11, 139, 140 - - “Out,” 11 - - Oxide of iron, magnetic, 141 - - „ mineral, 146 - - Oxymuriate of potash, 144 - - - Paduans, 158 - - Palm tree, 127 - - Paper cone, 108 - - Paris, 20, 21, 28, 42 - - „ accident, 83 - - „ Exhibition, Visit of Queen Victoria, 43 - - Park, Green, 28, 40, 41, 43, 112 - - „ Hyde, 40, 41, 43 - - „ St. James’s, 30, 41 - - „ Victoria, 43 - - Parkes, Samuel, 144 - - Parlby’s rockets, 161 - - Paste, 106 - - Pasting in, 129 - - Pataka, 10 - - Patent Office Abridgements, 165 - - Pates d’oie, 127 - - Peace, 1783, 28 - - „ 1802, 39 - - „ 1814, 40 - - „ Crimean War, 43 - - „ display, Hyde Park, 56 - - Pedro, Don, 41 - - Pegging, 129 - - Pepys, 27, 92 - - Percussion caps, 67 - - Perkins, Jacob, 165 - - Persia, Shah of, 53 - - Petard, 92, 112 - - Petre, Bengal, 136 - - „ German, 136 - - „ Oil of, 140 - - Petroleum, 106 - - Philadelphia Centennial Exposition, 55 - - Philippe, Don, of Spain, 21 - - Philosophical fireworks, 37 - - Philostratus, 6 - - Phosphide of calcium, 153 - - Pian-King Lo Yang, 7 - - Pickford, Mary, 50 - - Picrate of potash, 96 - - Piece, Mechanical, 53 - - „ Carpet, 127 - - „ Transformation set, 50 - - Pieces, Classification of, 126 - - „ Set, 47, 112 - - Piercing, 129 - - Pilot signal, 175 - - Pin wheel, 118 - - Pipes, Match, 125 - - Pitch, 140, 156 - - Place Royal, 20 - - Pleasure gardens, 31, 32 - - Pleissenburg, 23 - - Ploughing by explosives, 179 - - Poison gas, 156 - - „ smoke, Rat, 178 - - Pompeii, Destruction of, 50 - - Pont-Andemer, 158 - - Port Arthur, 49 - - Portfire, 105, 106, 119 - - Portsmouth fleet display, 45 - - Portugal, King of, 55 - - Postdown Fair, 32 - - Pot, Flower, 97, 98, 99 - - Potash, Chlorate of, 10, 74, 77, 84, 85, 86, 87 - - Pots à feu, 111 - - „ d’aigrettes, 111 - - „ de brins, 111 - - Powder, 97, 99, 103, 106, 114, 140 - - Practicus, 149 - - Pretender, Old, 27 - - Priming powder, 106 - - „ wet, 119 - - Primrose Hill, 43 - - Projectile, 5 - - Propellant charge, 87 - - Pumice Stone, 146 - - Pump (Star), 72 - - Pumps with stars, 28, 112, 113 - - Puzzle pictures, 51 - - Pyramids, 30 - - Pyrotechnia, 26 - - Pyrotechnic compositions, 138 - - Pyrotechnists, Japanese, 7 - - „ Hindoo, 10 - - - Quebec, Tercentenary of, 55 - - Quickmatch, 108, 124, 125 - - „ frame of, 67, 125 - - - Rain, Golden, 97, 99 - - „ production, 179, 180 - - Ranelagh, 33, 34, 35, 36 - - Raw match, 125 - - “Read’s Weekly Journal,” 157 - - Recreative fireworks, 97 - - Regulated pieces, 29, 123 - - Regulus of antimony, 139 - - Reports, 28 - - “Revenge,” 49 - - Rheims, 20 - - Richard Cœur de Lion, 15 - - Richmond, Duke of, 28, 29 - - Rifle grenade signal, 172 - - Riswick, 20, 28 - - Rochelle, 20 - - “Rocket” and express engine, 54 - - Rocket cap, 96 - - „ cases, 93 - - „ charging, Mould for, 94 - - „ „ tools, 92 - - „ composition, 93, 95 - - „ iron, 159 - - „ line, 26, 50, 97 - - „ spindle, 94 - - „ stick, 11, 87, 96 - - „ sticks, Falling, 87 - - „ wheel, 122 - - Rockets, 11, 12, 13, 14, 17, 24, 26, 28, 57, 61, 66, 91, 92, 96 - - „ Congreve’s, 161 - - „ ground, 97 - - „ incendiary, 159, 160 - - „ line-carrying, 176 - - „ nomenclature of, 94, 95 - - „ Parlby’s, 161 - - „ signalling, 145, 175 - - „ table, 117, 118 - - „ war, 158, 159 - - Rolling cases, 71 - - Roman candle, 28, 41, 44, 111, 113, 114, 127, 133, 134 - - „ „ fuse, 114 - - „ „ signal, 175 - - Rome, 19 - - Rosherville Gardens, 37 - - Rosin, 140 - - Rossi, 33, 34 - - Rotary rockets, 161, 162 - - Royal Commission on Fireworks, 68 - - „ Laboratory, Woolwich, 159 - - Ruggieri, 21, 22, 42, 103, 108, 112, 113, 118, 123, 124, 126, 128, 129, - 131, 132, 134, 142, 143, 161 - - „ Gaetano, 28, 31, 112 - - Rules for factory, 69 - - Russia, 143 - - Russian war rockets 162 - - - Safety Fuse, 124 - - Salamander la Rosace, 21 - - Salamandre, 132 - - Sal ammoniac, 142 - - Salisbury Cathedral, 50 - - Salome, 52 - - Saltpetre, 3, 7, 11, 14, 95, 96, 98, 100, 114, 115, 116, 118, 119, 138, - 139, 156 - - „ Bengal, 120 - - Sand, iron, 98 - - Saqui, Madame, 33 - - Sarcophagus, 30 - - Sarti, Gioseppe, 29, 31, 112, 122 - - Saucissons volans, 106 - - Saxon, 116, 117, 122 - - „ wheels, 131 - - Saxony, Prince of, 23 - - Schumacher, 160 - - Sea battle, 48 - - Seasons, 51 - - Sebastopol, bombardment, 49 - - Second lighting, 124 - - Seine, 22, 24 - - Sel ammoniac, 129 - - Serpent, 44 - - Serpentine, 40 - - Serpents, 57, 60, 97, 106 - - Servandoni, Chevalier, 28 - - Set piece, transformation, 50 - - Set pieces, 47, 112 - - Setting down, 94 - - Seville, King of, 14 - - Shah, 53 - - Shakespeare, 16 - - Shellac, 149 - - Shell, incendiary, 156 - - Shells, 4, 8, 11, 15, 28, 44, 103, 105, 108 - - Siam, 11 - - Siege of Pian-King Lo Yang, 7 - - Siemienowitz, Casimir, 158 - - Signal beacon, 157 - - „ distress, 175 - - „ fishing, 176 - - „ fog, 177 - - „ hand lights, 175 - - „ lights, 66 - - „ „ aeroplane, 173 - - „ „ Very, 164, 172 - - „ pilot, 175 - - „ rifle grenade, 172 - - „ rockets, 145, 175 - - „ Roman candles, 172 - - „ sound, 96, 177 - - „ station, Lloyd’s, 175 - - Sir John Oldcastle, 35 - - Skimmer, 101 - - Sky rockets, 28, 61, 96 - - Slow composition, 103 - - Small factory license, 69 - - Smirk, 40 - - Smoke at Crystal Palace, 169 - - „ balls, 156, 157 - - „ drain testers, 179 - - „ float “E,” 168 - - „ screen, 167 - - Smokes, coloured military, 171 - - Snake and butterfly, 132 - - Sodium carbonate, 146 - - „ sulphate, 146 - - Soleil montant, 117 - - Soleils tournants, 117 - - Soleure, 21 - - Song pieces, 53 - - Sound signal, 96, 178 - - Southby, 33, 38, 41, 43, 45, 57 - - South Norwood Factory, 75 - - Spain, 20 - - „ King Consort, 1864, 43 - - Spherical shell, 105 - - Spike, Oil of, 140 - - Spindle, Rocket, 94 - - Spirali, 134 - - Spithead, 28, 43, 49 - - Spontaneous heating, 81 - - Spur fire, 139 - - Squibs, 57, 60, 97, 99, 110 - - Squibs, miners’, 179 - - St. Angelo, 19 - - St. James’s Park, 30, 41 - - „ Square, 28 - - St. Stephen’s Green, Dublin, 28 - - “Star and Garter,” Chelsea, 36 - - Starlights, 119 - - Stars, 8, 72, 103, 110, 112, 116 - - „ coloured, 11 - - „ two-coloured, 172 - - Statute of William III, 57 - - Steam rocket, 165, 166 - - Steel filings, 138, 141 - - Sticking, 129 - - Sticks, Falling rocket, 87 - - Stink pot, 157 - - Stockholm, 24 - - Stodard, 40 - - Stouple, 125 - - Stratford, R.N. Experimental Station, 170 - - Streamer, Golden, 44 - - „ Italian, 113, 114 - - Strontium nitrate, 146 - - Strutt, 30 - - Sully, Duc de, 20 - - Sulphide of arsenic, 10, 139, 146 - - Sulphur, 6, 14, 95, 98, 99, 100, 105, 114, 115, 118, 119, 138, 139, - 140, 156 - - „ chlorate mixtures, 74 - - Sulphuret of antimony, 100, 139, 146 - - Sun, 29, 121 - - „ star, 44 - - Surrey Zoological Gardens, 38, 43, 45 - - Sutton Factory, 75 - - Swarms, 28 - - Swevels, 123 - - Swiss military rockets, 162 - - Sydenham, 47 - - - Table rockets, 117, 118 - - Tagus display, 55 - - Tailed stars, 113 - - Taku forts, bombardment, 49 - - Tampion, 113 - - Tavern, “Lord Cobham’s Head,” 35 - - „ “Sir John Oldcastle,” 35 - - Temple of Flora, 36 - - Tessier, Paul, 33, 36, 149 - - Thames, 24, 27, 28, 29, 36 - - Theatre de la Comedie Italienne, 124 - - Theodosius, 13 - - Theresa, 15 - - Thermalloy, 173 - - Thermit bombs, 173 - - Throwdowns, 10 - - Time fuse, 104, 108, 109 - - Tinder, 3 - - Tippoo Sahib, 159 - - Toledo, King of, 15 - - Tools, Rocket charging, 92 - - Torches of fire, 26 - - Torré, Morel, 21, 31, 34, 35 - - Touch hole, 104 - - Toulon, 162 - - Tourbillion de feu, 117 - - Tourbillions, 44, 116, 117, 118, 134 - - Tourney display, 21 - - Tourniquets, 117 - - Tower Hill, 30 - - Trafalgar, Battle of, 48, 49 - - Transformation set piece, 50 - - Treatise on war fireworks, 158 - - Trees, 127 - - Trengouse, Mr., 176 - - Triangle wheel, 131 - - Tsu-Shima Battle, 49 - - Tubri, 10 - - Tun dish, 72 - - Tunis, King of, 14 - - Turin, 162 - - Turning cases, 97, 126 - - Tyrrel, 43 - - - Ufano, Diego, 20 - - United States, 175 - - “Universal Magazine, The,” 99 - - - Vanochio, 18 - - Vauxhall, 33 - - Vengagvedi, 10 - - Versailles, 20, 21, 24, 43, 132 - - Vert de gris, 129 - - Vertical wheels, 121, 131 - - Very signal lights, 164, 171, 172 - - Vesuvius, 50 - - Victoria Park, 43 - - „ Queen, Coronation of, 41 - - „ „ Portrait of, 51 - - „ „ Visit to Paris Exhibition, 43 - - Vienna, 23 - - “Village Blacksmith, The,” 52 - - Volcano, 9 - - - Wadd, 103 - - Walcheren Expedition, 160 - - Wallis, Admiral Sir Provo, 49 - - Walpole, 29, 30 - - War inventions, 165 - - „ rockets, 158, 159 - - Warman, 34 - - Warsaw, 162 - - Warwick, Earl of, 18 - - Water fireworks, 24, 28, 39, 101 - - Waterloo, 160 - - “Weekly Journal, Read’s,” 157 - - Weinerisch-Neustadt, 161 - - Wheel, block, 118 - - „ brilliant, 30 - - „ catherine, 118, 119 - - „ double triangle, 131 - - „ hundred-feet, 55 - - „ pin, 118 - - „ rocket, 122 - - „ saxon, 131 - - Wheels, 41, 121, 131 - - „ fire, 122 - - „ horizontal, 26, 121, 133 - - „ revolving, 44 - - „ triangle, 131 - - „ vertical, 26, 121, 131 - - Whistler, 96 - - White Conduit House, 37 - - White Star Line, 174 - - Whitehall, 27, 28 - - Wicks, Major, 172 - - Wild fire, 16 - - William IV, Coronation of, 41 - - Windmills, 131 - - Woolwich Arsenal, 43 - - „ Royal Laboratory, 159 - - Worcester Cathedral, 50 - - Wordsworth, 40 - - - Yalu, Battle of the, 49 - - Yellow orpiment smoke, 172 - - Yorkshire Stingo Gardens, 37 - - Ypres display, 21 - - Yron scales, 96 - - - Zinc, 142, 146 - - Zud-Amerika Lyn, 173 - - - [Decoration] - - THE WESTMINSTER PRESS - HARROW ROAD - LONDON - -[Illustration: FEU D’ARTIFICE À VERSAILLES POUR LE MARIAGE DU - DAUPHIN, 1735. - - FROM A WATER-COLOUR DRAWING BY MOREL TORRÉ. - - _Back Endpaper._] - - - Transcriber’s Notes: - - - Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). - - Blank pages have been removed. - - Obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected. - - All errata have been applied. - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PYROTECHNICS *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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