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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/6493.txt b/6493.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..139b1fa --- /dev/null +++ b/6493.txt @@ -0,0 +1,4687 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Mediaeval Lore from Bartholomew Anglicus +by Robert Steele + +Copyright laws are changing all over the world. Be sure to check the +copyright laws for your country before downloading or redistributing +this or any other Project Gutenberg eBook. + +This header should be the first thing seen when viewing this Project +Gutenberg file. Please do not remove it. Do not change or edit the +header without written permission. + +Please read the "legal small print," and other information about the +eBook and Project Gutenberg at the bottom of this file. Included is +important information about your specific rights and restrictions in +how the file may be used. You can also find out about how to make a +donation to Project Gutenberg, and how to get involved. + + +**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** + +**eBooks Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** + +*****These eBooks Were Prepared By Thousands of Volunteers!***** + + +Title: Mediaeval Lore from Bartholomew Anglicus + +Author: Robert Steele + +Release Date: September, 2004 [EBook #6493] +[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule] +[This file was first posted on December 22, 2002] + +Edition: 10 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII, with a few ISO-8859-1 characters + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MEDIAEVAL LORE *** + + + + +Produced by Delphine Lettau, Charles Franks +and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team + + + + + +[Illustration: Philosophers on Mount Olympus.] + + + +MEDIAEVAL LORE FROM BARTHOLOMEW ANGLICUS + + BY ROBERT STEELE + + WITH PREFACE BY WILLIAM MORRIS + + "WHEN HOLY WERE THE HAUNTED FOREST BOUGHS, + HOLY THE AIR, THE WATER, AND THE FIRE." + KEATS. + + + + +PREFACE + +It is not long since the Middle Ages, of the literature of which this +book gives us such curious examples, were supposed to be an +unaccountable phenomenon accidentally thrust in betwixt the two +periods of civilisation, the classical and the modern, and forming a +period without growth or meaning--a period which began about the time +of the decay of the Roman Empire, and ended suddenly, and more or less +unaccountably, at the time of the Reformation. The society of this +period was supposed to be lawless and chaotic; its ethics a mere +conscious hypocrisy; its art gloomy and barbarous fanaticism only; its +literature the formless jargon of savages; and as to its science, that +side of human intelligence was supposed to be an invention of the time +when the Middle Ages had been dead two hundred years. + + The light which the researches of modern historians, archaeologists, +bibliographers, and others, have let in on our view of the Middle Ages +has dispersed the cloud of ignorance on this subject which was one of +the natural defects of the qualities of the learned men and keen +critics of the eighteenth and early part of the nineteenth centuries. +The Middle-class or Whig theory of life is failing us in all branches +of human intelligence. Ethics, Politics, Art, and Literature are more +than beginning to be regarded from a wider point of view than that +from which our fathers and grandfathers could see them. + +For many years there has been a growing reaction against the dull +"grey" narrowness of the eighteenth century, which looked on Europe +during the last thousand years as but a riotous, hopeless, and stupid +prison. It is true that it was on the side of Art alone that this +enlightenment began, and that even on that side it progressed slowly +enough at first--_e.g._ Sir Walter Scott feels himself obliged, +as in the _Antiquary_, to apologize to pedantry for his +instinctive love of Gothic architecture. And no less true is it that +follies enough were mingled with the really useful and healthful birth +of romanticism in Art and Literature. But at last the study of facts +by men who were neither artistic nor sentimental came to the help of +that first glimmer of instinct, and gradually something like a true +insight into the life of the Middle Ages was gained; and we see that +the world of Europe was no more running round in a circle then than +now, but was developing, sometimes with stupendous speed, into +something as different from itself as the age which succeeds this will +be different from that wherein we live. The men of those times are no +longer puzzles to us; we can understand their aspirations, and +sympathise with their lives, while at the same time we have no wish +(not to say hope) to put back the clock, and start from the position +which they held. For, indeed, it is characteristic of the times in +which we live, that whereas in the beginning of the romantic reaction, +its supporters were for the most part mere _laudatores temporis +acti_, at the present time those who take pleasure in studying the +life of the Middle Ages are more commonly to be found in the ranks of +those who are pledged to the forward movement of modern life; while +those who are vainly striving to stem the progress of the world are as +careless of the past as they are fearful of the future. In short, +history, the new sense of modern times, the great compensation for the +losses of the centuries, is now teaching us worthily, and making us +feel that the past is not dead, but is living in us, and will be alive +in the future which we are now helping to make. + +To my mind, therefore, no excuse is needful for the attempt made in +the following pages to familiarise the reading public with what was +once a famous knowledge-book of the Middle Ages. But the reader, +before he can enjoy it, must cast away the exploded theory of the +invincible and wilful ignorance of the days when it was written; the +people of that time were eagerly desirous for knowledge, and their +teachers were mostly single-hearted and intelligent men, of a +diligence and laboriousness almost past belief. The "Properties of +Things" of Bartholomew the Englishman is but one of the huge +encyclopaedias written in the early Middle Age for the instruction of +those who wished to learn, and the reputation of it and its fellows +shows how much the science of the day was appreciated by the public at +large, how many there were who wished to learn. Even apart from its +interest as showing the tendency of men's minds in days when Science +did actually tell them "fairy tales," the book is a delightful one in +its English garb; for the language is as simple as if the author were +speaking by word of mouth, and at the same time is pleasant, and not +lacking a certain quaint floweriness, which makes it all the easier to +retain the subject-matter of the book. + +Altogether, this introduction to the study of the Mediaeval +Encyclopaedia, and the insight which such works give us into the +thought of the past and its desire for knowledge, make a book at once +agreeable and useful; and I repeat that it is a hopeful sign of the +times when students of science find themselves drawn towards the +historical aspect of the world of men, and show that their minds have +been enlarged, and not narrowed, by their special studies--a defect +which was too apt to mar the qualities of the seekers into natural +facts in what must now, I would hope, be called the just-passed epoch +of intelligence dominated by Whig politics, and the self-sufficiency +of empirical science. + +WILLIAM MORRIS. + + + + +INTRODUCTION + +THE PROLOGUE OF THE TRANSLATOR + +MEDIAEVAL SCIENCE + +MEDIAEVAL MANNERS + +MEDIAEVAL MEDICINE + +MEDIAEVAL GEOGRAPHY + +MEDIAEVAL NATURAL HISTORY--TREES + +MEDIAEVAL NATURAL HISTORY--BIRDS AND FISHES + +MEDIAEVAL NATURAL HISTORY--ANIMALS + +THE SOURCES OF THE BOOK + +BIBLIOGRAPHY + +GLOSSARY + + + + +INTRODUCTION + + +THE BOOK AND ITS OBJECT.--The book which we offer to the public of to- +day is drawn from one of the most widely read books of mediaeval +times. Written by an English Franciscan, Bartholomew, in the middle of +the thirteenth century, probably before 1260, it speedily travelled +over Europe. It was translated into French by order of Charles V. +(1364-81) in 1372, into Spanish, into Dutch, and into English in 1397. +Its popularity, almost unexampled, is explained by the scope of the +work, as stated in the translator's prologue (p. 9). It was written to +explain the allusions to natural objects met with in the Scriptures or +in the Gloss. It was, in fact, an account of the properties of things +in general; an encyclopaedia of similes for the benefit of the village +preaching friar, written for men without deep--sometimes without any-- +learning. Assuming no previous information, and giving a fairly clear +statement of the state of the knowledge of the time, the book was +readily welcomed by the class for which it was designed, and by the +small nucleus of an educated class which was slowly forming. Its +popularity remained in full vigour after the invention of printing, no +less than ten editions being published in the fifteenth century of the +Latin copy alone, with four French translations, a Dutch, a Spanish, +and an English one. + +The first years of the modern commercial system gave its death-blow to +the popularity of this characteristically mediaeval work, and though +an effort was made in 1582 to revive it, the attempt was +unsuccessful--quite naturally so, since the book was written for men +desirous to hear of the wonders of strange lands, and did not give an +accurate account of anything. The man who bought cinnamon at +Stourbridge Fair in 1380 would have felt poorer if any one had told +him that it was not shot from the phoenix' nest with leaden arrows, +while the merchant of 1580 wished to know where it was grown, and how +much he would pay a pound for it if he bought it at first hand. Any +attempt to reconcile these frames of mind was foredoomed to failure. + +THE INTEREST OF BARTHOLOMEW'S WORK.--The interest of Bartholomew's +work to modern readers is twofold: it has its value as literature pure +and simple, and it is one of the most important of the documents by +the help of which we rebuild for ourselves the fabric of mediaeval +life. The charm of its style lies in its simple forcible language, and +its simplicity suits its matter well. On the one hand, we cannot +forget it is a translation, but the translation, on the other hand, is +from the mediaeval Latin of an Englishman into English. + +One of the greatest difficulties in the way of a student is to place +himself in the mental attitude of a man of the Middle Ages towards +nature; yet only by so doing can he appreciate the solutions that the +philosophers of the time offered of the problems of nature. Our author +affords perhaps the simplest way of learning what Chaucer and perhaps +Shakespeare knew and believed of their surroundings--earth, air, and +sea. The plan on which his work was constructed led Bartholomew in +order over the universe from God and the angels--through fire, water, +air, to earth and all that therein is. We thus obtain a succinct +account of the popular mediaeval theories in Astronomy, Physiology, +Physics, Chemistry, Geography, and Natural History, all but +unattainable otherwise. The aim of our chapter on Science has been to +give sufficient extracts to mark the theories on which mediaeval +Science was based, the methods of its reasoning, and the results at +which it arrived. The chapter on Medicine gives some account of the +popular cures and notions of the day, and that on Geography resumes +the traditions current on foreign lands, at a time when Ireland was at +a greater distance than Rome, and less known than Syria. + +In the chapter on Mediaeval Society we have not perhaps the daily life +of the Middle Ages, but at least the ideal set before them by their +pastors and masters--an ideal in direct relationship with the everyday +facts of their life. The lord, the servant, the husband, the wife, and +the child, here find their picture. Some information, too, can be +obtained about the daily life of the time from the chapter on the +Natural History of Plants, which gives incidentally their food-stuffs. + +It is in the History of Animals that the student of literature will +find the richest mine of allusions. The list of similes in Shakespeare +explained by our author would fill a volume like this itself. Other +writers, again, simply "lift" the book wholesale. Chester and Du +Bartas write page after page of rhyme, all but versified direct from +Bartholomew. Jonson and Spenser, Marlowe and Massinger, make ample use +of him. Lyly and Drayton owe him a heavy debt. Considerations of space +forbid their insertion, but for every extract made here, the Editor +has collected several passages from first-class authors with a view to +illustrating the immense importance of this book to Elizabethan +literature. It was not without reason that Ireland chose justified, +when making a selection of passages from the work for modern readers, +in altering his text to this extent--and this only: he has modernised +the spelling, and in the case of entirely obsolete grammatical forms +he has substituted modern ones (_e.g._ "its" for "his"). In the +case of an utterly dead word he has followed the course of +substituting a word from the same root, when one exists; and when none +could be found, he has left it unchanged in the text. Accordingly a +short glossary has been added, which includes, too, many words which +we may hope are not dead, but sleeping. In very few cases has a word +been inserted, and in those it is marked by italics. + +Perhaps we may be allowed to say a word in defence of the principle of +modernising our earliest literature. Early English poetry is, in +general (with some striking exceptions), incapable of being written in +the spelling of our days without losing all of that which makes it +verse; but there can be no reason, when dealing with the masterpieces +of our Early English prose, for maintaining obsolete forms of spelling +and grammar which hamper the passage of thought from mind to mind +across the centuries. Editors of Shakespeare and the Bible for general +use have long assumed the privilege of altering the spelling, and +except on the principle that earlier works are more important, or are +only to be read by people who have had the leisure and inclination to +familiarise their eyes with the peculiarities of Middle English, there +can be no reason for stopping there, or a century earlier. At some +point, of course, the number of obsolete words becomes so great that +the text cannot be read without a dictionary: then the limit has been +reached. But Caxton, Trevisa, and many others are well within it, and +it is good to remove all obstacles which prevent the ordinary reader +from feeling the continuity of his mother tongue. + +THE AUTHOR.--The facts known of our author's life have been summarised +by Miss Toulmin Smith in her article in the _Dictionary of National +Biography_. In the sixteenth century he was generally believed to +date from about 1360, and to have belonged to the Glanvilles--an +honourable Suffolk family in the Middle Ages; but there seems to be no +authority whatever for the statement. We first hear of him in a letter +from the provincial of the Franciscans of Saxony to the provincial of +France, asking that Bartholomew Anglicus and another friar should be +sent to assist him in his newly-created province. Next year (1231) a +MS. chronicle reports that two were sent, and that Bartholomew +Anglicus was appointed teacher of holy theology to the brethren in the +province. We learn from Salimbene, who wrote the Chronicles of Parma +(1283), that he had been a professor of theology in the University of +Paris, where he had lectured on the whole Bible. The subject in +treating of which he is referred to was an elephant belonging to the +Emperor; and Salimbene quotes a passage on the elephant from his _De +Proprietatibus Rerum_. What may be a quotation from the _De +Proprietatibus_ can be found in Roger Bacon's _Opus Tertium_ +(1267). + +THE DATE OF THE WORK.--The date of the work seems fairly easy to fix. +It cannot, as we have above seen, be later than 1267, and Amable +Jourdain fixes it before 1260 by the fact that the particular +translations of Aristotle from which Bartholomew quotes (Latin through +the Arabic), went almost universally out of use by 1260. On the other +hand, quotations are made from Albertus Magnus, who was in Paris in +1248. And that it was written near this year is evident from the fact +that no quotations are made from Vincent of Beauvais, Thomas Aquinas, +Roger Bacon, or Egidius Colonna, all of whom were in Paris during the +second half of the thirteenth century. The earliest known MS. is in +the Ashmole Collection, and was written in 1296. Two French MSS. are +dated 1297 and 1329 respectively. + +As we said in the beginning of this chapter, the work had an immediate +and lasting success. Bartholomew Anglicus became known as "Magister de +Proprietatibus Rerum," and his book was on the list of those which +students could borrow from the University chest. It is probable that +much of this popularity was due to the fact that he was a teacher for +many years of the Grey Friars, and that these, the most popular and +the most human preachers of the day, carried his book and his stories +with them wherever they went. + +SOURCES.--The chief sources of our author's inspiration are notable. +He relies on St. Dionysius the Areopagite for heaven and the angels, +Aristotle for Physics and Natural History, Pliny's Natural History, +Isidore of Seville's Etymology, Albumazar, Al Faragus, and other Arab +writers for Astronomy, Constantinus Afer's Pantegna for Medical +Science, and Physiologus, the Bestiarium, and the Lapidarium for the +properties of gems, animals, etc. Besides these he quotes many other +writers (a list of whom is given in an appendix) little known to +modern readers. + +THE TRANSLATION AND PRINCIPLES OF SELECTION.--The translation from +which we quote was made for Sir Thomas lord of Berkeley in 1397 by +John Trevisa, his chaplain. We owe this good Englishman something for +the works in English prose he called into existence--some not yet +printed; may we not see in him another proof of what we owe to +Chaucer--a language stamped with the seal of a great poet, henceforth +sufficient for the people who speak it, ample for the expression of +their thoughts or needs? + +In selecting from such a book, the principles which have guided the +editor are these: To the general reader he desires to offer a fair +representation of the work of Bartholomew Anglicus, preserving the +language and style. To be fair, the work must be sometimes dull--in +the whole book there are many very dull passages. He has desired to +select passages of interest for their quaint language, and their views +of things, often for their very misrepresentations of matters of +common knowledge to-day, and for their bearing upon the literature of +the country. The student of literature and science will find in it the +materials in which the history of their growth is read. In conclusion, +the editor ventures to hope that the work will not be unwelcome to the +numerous and growing class who love English for its own sake as the +noblest tongue on earth, and who desire not to forget the rock from +which it was hewn, and the pit from which it was digged. + +Our first selection will naturally be the translator's prologue in the +very shortened form of Berthelet. The present editor's work is, to +avoid confusion, printed in small type throughout. + + + + +THE PROLOGUE OF THE TRANSLATOR + +True it is that after the noble and expert doctrine of wise and well- +learned Philosophers, left and remaining with us in writing, we know +that the properties of things follow and ensue their substance. +Herefore it is that after the order and the distinction of substances, +the order and the distinction of the properties of things shall be and +ensue. Of the which things this work of all the books ensuing, by the +grace, help, and assistance of all mighty God is compiled and made. + +Marvel not, ye witty and eloquent readers, that I, thin of wit and +void of cunning, have translated this book from Latin into our vulgar +language, as a thing profitable to me, and peradventure to many other, +which understand not Latin, nor have not the knowledge of the +properties of things, which things be approved by the books of great +and cunning clerks, and by the experience of most witty and noble +Philosophers. All these properties of things be full necessary and of +great value to them that will be desirous to understand the +obscurities, or darkness of holy scriptures: which be given unto us +under figures, under parables and semblance, or likelihoods of things +natural and artificial. Saint Denys, that great Philosopher and solemn +clerk, in his book named the heavenly hierarchies of angels, +testifieth and witnesseth the same, saying in this manner:--What so +ever any man will conject, feign, imagine, suppose, or say: it is a +thing impossible that the light of the heavenly divine clearness, +covered and closed in the deity, or in the godhead, should shine upon +us, if it were not by the diversities of holy covertures. Also it is +not possible, that our wit or intendment might ascend unto the +contemplation of the heavenly hierarchies immaterial, if our wit be +not led by some material thing, as a man is led by the hand: so by +these forms visible, our wit may be led to the consideration of the +greatness or magnitude of the most excellent beauteous clarity, divine +and invisible. Reciteth this also the blessed apostle Paul in his +epistles, saying that by these things visible, which be made and be +visible, man may see and know by his inward sight intellectual, the +divine celestial and godly things, which be invisible to this our +natural sight. Devout doctors of Theology or divinity, for this +consideration prudently and wisely read and use natural philosophy and +moral, and poets in their fictions and feigned informations, unto this +fine and end, so that by the likelihood or similitude of things +visible our wit or our understanding spiritually, by clear and crafty +utterance of words, may be so well ordered and uttered: that these +things corporeal may be coupled with things spiritual, and that these +things visible may be conjoined with things Invisible. Excited by +these causes to the edifying of the people contained in our Christian +faith of almighty Christ Jesus, whose majesty divine is +incomprehensible: and of whom to speak it becometh no man, but with +great excellent worship and honour, and with an inward dreadful fear. +Loth to offend, I purpose to say somewhat under the correction of +excellent learned doctors and wise men: what every creature reasonable +ought to believe in this our blessed Christian faith. + +ENDETH THE PROLOGUE + + + +I + +MEDIAEVAL SCIENCE + + +The following selections will give an idea of the natural science of +the Middle Ages. In introducing them, the Editor will attempt to give +some connected account of them to show that though their study seems +to involve a few difficulties, their explanation is simple, and will +not make too great a demand on the reader's patience. + +From the earliest times men have asked themselves two questions about +nature: "Why?" and "How?" Mediaeval science concerned itself with the +former; modern science thinks it has learnt that no answer to that +question can be given it, and concerns itself with the latter. It thus +happens that the more one becomes in sympathy with the thought of our +time, the less one can interest one's self in the work of the past, +distinguished as it is by its disregard of all we think important, and +by its striving for an unattainable goal. + +It is, however, necessary, if we would enjoy Chaucer, Dante, and +Shakespeare, to obtain some notion of that system of the universe from +which they drew so many of their analogies. The symbolism of Dante +appears to us unnaturally strained until we know that the science of +his day saw everything as symbolic. + +And how could we appreciate the strength of Chaucer's metaphor: + + "O firste moving cruel firmament, + With thy diurnal swegh that croudest ay, + And hurtlest all from Est til Occident, + That naturally wold hold another way," + +without some knowledge of the astronomy of his day? + +Our first extracts explain themselves. They deal with the mystery of +the constitution of substances, as fascinating to us as to the early +Greeks, and begin with definitions of matter and form. + +The principal design of early philosophers in physics was to explain +how everything was generated, and to trace the different states +through which things pass until they become perfect. They observed +that as a thing is not generated out of any other indifferently--for +example, that marble is not capable of making flesh, all bodies cannot +be compounded of principles alone, connected in a simple way, but +imagined they could be made up of a few simple compounds. These +ultimate compounds, if we may so express it, were their elements. The +number of elements was variously estimated, but was generally taken as +four--a number arrived at rather from the consideration of the +sensations bodies awaken in us, than from the study of bodies +themselves. Aristotle gives us the train of thought by which the +number is reached. He considers the qualities observed by the senses, +classifying them as Heat, Cold, Dryness or Hardness, and Moistness or +Capability of becoming liquid. These may partially co-exist, two at a +time, in the same substance. There are thus four possible +combinations, Cold and dry, Cold and moist, Hot and dry, Hot and +moist. He then names these from their prototypes Earth, Water, Fire, +and Air, distinguishing these elements from the actual Earth, etc., of +everyday life. + +The habit of extending analogies beyond their legitimate application +was a source of confusion in the early ages of science. Most of the +superstitions of primitive religion, of astrology, and of alchemy, +arose from this source. A good example is the extension of the +metaphor in the words _generation_ and _corruption_: words +in constant use in scientific works until the nineteenth century +began. Generation is the production of a substance that before was +not, and corruption is the destruction of a substance, by its ceasing +to be what it was before. Thus, fire is generated, and wood is +corrupted, when the latter is burnt. But the implicit metaphor in the +use of the terms likens substances to the human body, their production +and destruction implies liability to disease, and thus prepares the +way for the notion of the elixir, which is first a potion giving long +life, and curing bodily ailments, and only after some time a remedy +for diseased metals--the philosopher's stone. + +It will be seen that the theory of the mediaeval alchemist was that +matter is an entity filling all space, on which in different places +different forms were impressed. The elements were a preliminary +grouping of these, and might be present--two, three, or four at a +time--in any substance. No attempt was ever made to separate these +elements by scientific men, just as no attempt is ever made to isolate +the ether of the physical speculations of to-day. The theory of modern +physicists, with its ether and vortices, answers almost exactly to the +matter and form of the ancients, the nature of the vortices +conditioning matter. + +The extracts from Book XI. bring us to another class of substances. +All compound bodies are classified as imperfect or perfect. Imperfect +compounds, or meteors, to some extent resemble elements. They are +fiery, as the rainbow, or watery, as dew. Our extract on the rainbow +is somewhat typical of the faults of ancient science. A note is taken +of a rare occurrence--a lunar rainbow; but in describing the common +one, an error of the most palpable kind is made. The placing of blue +as the middle and green as the lowest colour is obviously wrong, and +is inexplicable if we did not know how facts were cut square with +theories in old days. + +In the next extract Bartholomew's account of the spirits animating man +is quoted at length. It gives us the mediaeval theory as to the means +by which life, motion, and knowledge were shown in the body. Every +reader of Shakespeare or Chaucer becomes familiar with the vital, +animal, and natural spirits. They were supposed to communicate with +all parts of the body by means of the arteries or wosen, "the nimble +spirits in their arteries," and the sinews or nerves. The word sinew, +by the way, is exactly equal to our word nerve, and ayenward, as our +author would say. Hamlet, when he bursts from his friends, explains +his vigour by the rush of the spirit into the arteries, which makes + + "Each petty artery of this body + As hardy as the Nemean lion's nerve." + +The natural spirit is generated in the liver, the seat of digestion, +"there where our nourishment is administered"; it then passes to the +heart, and manifests itself as the spirit of life; from thence it +passes to the brain, where it is the animal spirit--"spirit animate" +Rossetti calls it--dwelling in the brain. + +In the brain there are three ventricles or chambers, the +_foremost_ being the "cell fantastike" of the "Knight's Tale," +the second the logistic, and the third the chamber of memory, where +"memory, the warder of the brain," keeps watch over the passage of the +spirit into the "sinews" of moving. Into the foremost cell come all +the perceptions of sight, hearing, etc., and thus we have the +opportunity for + + "Fantasy, + That plays upon our eyesight," + +to freak it on us. The pedant, Holofernes, in _Love's Labour's +Lost,_ characteristically puts the origin of his good things in the +ventricle of memory. + +As a specimen of the physical science of the time the Editor gives +extracts from the chapter on light. + +The introduction of extracts enough to give some idea of the mediaeval +astronomy would have made such large demands on the patience of the +reader that the Editor has decided with some regret to omit them +altogether. The universe is considered to be a sphere, whose centre is +the earth and whose circumference revolved about two fixed points. Our +author does not decide the nice point in dispute between the +philosophers and the theologians, the former holding that there is +only one, the latter insisting on seven heavens-the fairy, ethereal, +olympian, fiery, firmament, watery, and empyrean. + +The firmament, that + + "Majestical roof, fretted with golden fire," + +is the part of heaven in which the planets move. It carries them round +with it; it governs the tides; it stood with men for the type of +irresistible regularity. Each of the planets naturally has a motion of +its own, contrary in direction to that of the firmament, which was +from east to west. All the fixed stars move in circles whose centre is +the centre of the universe, but the courses of the planets (among +which the moon is reckoned) depend on other circles, called eccentric, +since their centre is elsewhere. Either the centre or the +circumference of the circle in which the planet really moves is +applied to the circumference of the eccentric circle, and in this way +all the movements of the planets are fully explained. Our author is +sorely puzzled to account for the existence of the watery heavens +above the fiery, they being cold and moist, but is sure from +scriptural reasons that they are there, and ventures the hypothesis +that their presence may account for the sluggish and evil properties +of Saturn, the planet whose circle is nearest them. + +Having considered the simpler substances, those composed of pure +elemental forms, and those resembling them--the meteors--we turn to +the perfect compounds, those which have assumed substantial forms, as +metals, stones, etc. Our author retains the Aristotelian +classification--earthy, and those of other origin, as beasts, roots, +and trees. Earths may be metals or fossils; metals being defined as +hard bodies, generated in the earth or in its veins, which can be +beaten out by a hammer, and softened or liquefied by heat; while +fossils include all other inanimate objects. + +A large number of extracts have been made from this part of the +subject, because the book gives the position of positive, as +distinguished from speculative, Alchemy at the time. It is the +Editor's desire to show that at this period there was a system of +theory based on the practical knowledge of the day. + +Chemistry took its rise as a science about four hundred years before +our era. In the fragments of two of the four books of Democritus we +have probably the earliest treatise on chemical matters we are ever +likely to get hold of. Whether it is the work of Democritus or of a +much later writer is uncertain. But merely taking it as a +representative work of the early stage of chemistry, we remark that +the receipts are practicable, and some of them, little modified, are +in use to-day in goldsmith's shops. The fragments remaining to us are +on the manufacture of gold and silver, and one receipt for dyeing +purple. In this state of the science the collection of facts is the +chief point, and no purely chemical theory seems to have been formed. +Tradition, confirmed by the latest researches, associates this stage +with Egypt. + +The second stage in the history of Chemistry--the birth of Alchemy in +the Western World--occurred when the Egyptian practical receipts, the +neo-Greek philosophies, and the Chinese dreams of an "elixir vitae" +were fused into one by the Arab and Syriac writers. Its period of +activity ranges from the seventh to the tenth centuries. Little is +really known about it, or can be, until the Arabic texts, which are +abundant in Europe, are translated and classified both from the +scholar's and the chemist's standpoint. Many works were translated +into Latin about the end of the tenth century, such as the spurious +fourth book of the _Meteorics of Aristotle_, the treatises of the +_Turta Philosophorum_, _Artis Auriferae_, etc., which formed +the starting-point of European speculation. The theoretical chemistry +of our author is derived from them. + +The third stage of chemistry begins with the fourteenth and ends with +the sixteenth century. It is characterized by an immense growth of +theory, a fertile imagination, and untiring industry. It reached its +height in England about 1440, and is represented by the reputed works +of Lully (vixit circ. 1300), which first appeared about this date. In +this period practical alchemy is on its trial. + +The fourth stage begins with Boyle, and closes with the eighteenth +century. Still under the dominion of theoretical alchemy, practical +alchemy was rejected by it, and its interest was concentrated on the +collection of facts. It led up to modern chemistry, which begins with +Lavoisier, and the introduction of the balance in the study of +chemical change. + +Chemical theory, then, in our author's time stood somewhat thus. +Metals as regarded their elemental composition were considered to +partake of the nature of earth, water, and air, in various +proportions. Fossils, or those things generated in the earth which +were not metals, were again subdivided into two classes--those which +liquefy on being heated, as sulphur, nitre, etc., and those which do +not. The metals were considered to be composed of sulphur and mercury. +These substances are themselves compounds, but they act as elements in +the composition of metals. Sulphur represented their combustible +aspect, and also that which gave them their solid form; while mercury +was that to which their weight and powers of becoming fluid were due. + +This theory was due to two main facts. Most ores of metals, especially +of copper and lead, contain much sulphur, which can be either obtained +pure from them, or be recognised by its smell when burning. This gave +rise to the sulphur theory, while the presence of mercury was inferred +doubtless from the resemblance of the more commonly molten metals, +silver, tin, and lead, to quicksilver. The properties of each metal +were then put down to the presence of these substances. The list of +seven metals is that of the most ancient times--gold, electrum, +silver, copper, tin, lead, iron; but it is clearly recognised that +electrum is an alloy of gold and silver. + +Most of the facts in this book are derived from Pliny through Isidore, +but, that the theory is Arab in origin, one fact alone would convince +us. A consideration of the composition of the metals shows us that tin +is nearest in properties of all metals to the precious ones, but tin +is precisely the metal chosen by Arab alchemists as a starting-point +in the Chrysopoeia. + +Beside their scientific interest these passages have supplied many +analogies. When Troilus is piling up his lover's oaths to Cressida, +his final words are: + + "As iron to adamant, as earth to centre;" + +our chapter on the adamant supplies the origin of this allusion in +part, astronomy gives the other. Diamonds are still, unfortunately, +the precious stones of reconciliation and of love our author bespeaks +them. The editor has not lengthened the chapter by extracts giving the +occult properties of gems, and has contented himself by quoting from +the chapter on glass a new simile and an old story. + +Matter and form are principles of all bodily things; and privation of +matter and form is naught else but destruction of all things. And the +more subtle and high matter is in kind, the more able it is to receive +form and shape. And the more thick and earthly it is, the more feeble +is it to receive impression, printing of forms and of shapes. And +matter is principle and beginning of distinction, and of diversity, +and of multiplying, and of things that are gendered. For the thing +that gendereth and the thing that is gendered are not diverse but +touching matter. And therefore where a thing is gendered without +matter, the thing that gendereth, and the thing that is gendered, are +all one in substance and in kind: as it fareth of the persons in the +Trinity. Of form is diversity, by the which one thing is diverse from +another, and some form is essential, and some accidental. Essential +form is that which cometh into matter, and maketh it perfect; and +accordeth therewith to the perfection of some thing. And when form is +had, then the thing hath its being, and when form is destroyed nothing +of the substance of the thing is found. And form accidental is not the +perfection of things, nor giveth them being. But each form accidental +needeth a form substantial. And each form is more simple and more +actual and noble than matter. And so the form asketh that shall be +printed in the matter, the matter ought to be disposed and also +arrayed. For if fire shall be made of matter of earth, it needeth that +the matter of earth be made subtle and pured and more simple. Form +maketh matter known. Matter is cause that we see things that are made, +and so nothing is more common and general than matter. And natheless +nothing is more unknown than is matter; for matter is never seen +without form, nor form may not be seen in deed, but joined to matter. + +Elements are simple, and the least particles of a body that is +compound. And it is called least touching us, for it is not perceived +by wits of feeling. For it is the least part and last in undoing of +the body, as it is first in composition. And is called simple, not for +an element is simple without any composition, but for it hath no parts +that compound it, that be diverse in kind and in number as some +medlied bodies have: as it fareth in metals of the which some parts be +diverse; for some part is air, and some is earth. But each part of +fire is fire, and so of others. Elements are four, and so there are +four qualities of elements, of the which every body is composed and +made as of matter. The four elements are Earth, Water, Fire, and Air, +of the which each hath his proper qualities. Four be called the first +and principal qualities, that is, hot, cold, dry, and moist: they are +called the first qualities because they slide first from the elements +into the things that be made of elements. Two of these qualities are +called Active--heat and coldness. The others are dry and wetness and +are called Passive. + +The Rainbow is impression gendered in an hollow cloud and dewy, +disposed to rain in endless many gutters, as it were shining in a +mirror, and is shapen as a bow, and sheweth divers colours, and is +gendered by the beams of the sun or of the moon. And is but seldom +gendered by beams of the moon, no more but twice in fifty years, as +Aristotle saith. In the rainbow by cause of its clearness be seen +divers forms, kinds, and shapes that be contrary. Therefore the bow +seemeth coloured, for, as Bede saith, it taketh colour of the four +elements. For therein, as it were in any mirror, shineth figures and +shapes and kinds of elements. For of fire he taketh red colour in the +overmost part, and of earth green in the nethermost, and of the air a +manner of brown colour, and of water somedeal blue in the middle. And +first is red colour, that cometh out of a light beam, that touches the +outer part of the roundness of the cloud: then is a middle colour +somedeal blue, as the quality asketh, that hath mastery in the vapour, +that is in the middle of the cloud. Then the nethermost seemeth a +green colour in the nether part of a cloud; there the vapour is more +earthly. And these colours are more principal than others. + +As Beda saith, and the master of stories, forty years tofore the doom, +the rainbow shall not be seen, and that shall be token of drying, and +of default of elements. + +And though dew be a manner of airy substance, and most subtle outward, +natheless in a wonder manner it is strong in working and virtue. For +it besprinkleth the earth, and maketh it plenteous, and maketh flour, +pith, and marrow increase in corn and grains: and fatteth and bringeth +forth broad oysters and other shell fish in the sea, and namely dew of +spring time. For by night in spring time oysters open themselves +against dew, and receive dew that cometh in between the two shells, +and hold and keep it; and that dew so holden and kept feedeth the +flesh, and maketh it fat; and by its incorporation with the inner +parts of the fish breedeth a full precious gem, a stone that is called +Margarita. Also the birds of ravens, while they are whitish in +feathers, ere they are black, dew feedeth and sustaineth them, as +Gregory saith. + +Fumosities that are drawn out of the waters and off the earth by +strength of heat of heaven are drawn to the nethermost part of the +middle space of the air, and there by coldness of the place they are +made thick, and then by heat dissolving and departing the moisture +thereof and not wasting all, these fumosities are resolved and fall +and turn into rain and showers. + +If rain be temperate in quality and quantity, and agreeable to the +time, it is profitable to infinite things. For rain maketh the land to +bear fruit, and joineth it together, if there be many chines therein, +and assuageth and tempereth strength of heat, and cleareth the air, +and ceaseth and stinteth winds, and fatteth fish, and helpeth and +comforteth dry complexion. And if rain be evil and distemperate in its +qualities, and discording to place and time, it is grievous and noyful +to many things. For it maketh deepness and uncleanness and +slipperiness in ways and in paths, and bringeth forth much +unprofitable herbs and grass, and corrupteth and destroyeth fruit and +seeds, and quencheth in seeds the natural heat, and maketh darkness +and thickness in the air, and taketh from us the sun beams, and +gathereth mist and clouds, and letteth the work of labouring men, and +tarrieth and letteth ripening of corn and of fruits, and exciteth +rheum and running flux, and increaseth and strengtheneth all moist +ills, and is cause of hunger and of famine, and of corruption and +murrain of beasts and sheep; for corrupt showers do corrupt the grass +and herbs of pasture, whereof cometh needful corruption of beasts. + +Of impressions that are gendered in the air of double vapour, the +first is thunder, the which impression is gendered in watery substance +of a cloud. For moving and shaking hither and thither of hot vapour +and dry, that fleeth its contrary, is beset and constrained in every +side, and smit into itself, and is thereby set on fire and on flame, +and quencheth itself at last in the cloud, as Aristotle saith. When a +storm of full strong winds cometh in to the clouds, and the whirling +wind and the storm increaseth, and seeketh out passage: it cleaveth +and breaketh the cloud, and falleth out with a great rese and strong, +and all to breaketh the parts of the cloud, and so it cometh to the +ears of men and of beasts with horrible and dreadful breaking and +noise. And that is no wonder: for though a bladder be light, yet it +maketh great noise and sound, if it be strongly blown, and afterward +violently broken. And with the thunder cometh lightning, but lightning +is sooner seen, for it is clear and bright; and thunder cometh later +to our ears, for the wit of sight is more subtle than the wit of +hearing. As a man seeth sooner the stroke of a man that heweth a tree, +than he heareth the noise of the stroke. + +The lightning which is called Clarum is of a wonderful kind, for it +catcheth and draweth up wine out of the tuns, and toucheth not the +vessel, and melteth gold and silver in purses, and melteth not the +purse. + +As wits and virtues are needed to the ruling of kind, so to the +perfection thereof needeth needly some spirits, by whose benefit and +continual moving, both wits and virtues in beasts are ruled to work +and do their deeds. As we speak here of a spirit, a spirit is called a +certain substance, subtle and airy, that stirreth and exciteth the +virtues of the body to their doings and works. A spirit is a subtle +body, by the strength of heat gendered, and in man's body giving life +by the veins of the body, and by the veins and pulses giveth to +beasts, breath, life, and pulses, and working, wilful moving, and wit +by means of sinews and muscles in bodies that have souls. Physicians +say that this spirit is gendered in this manner wise. Whiles by heat +working in the blood, in the liver is caused strong boiling and +seething, and thereof cometh a smoke, the which is pured, and made +subtle of the veins of the liver. And turneth into a subtle spiritual +substance and airly kind, and that is called the natural spirit. For +kindly by the might thereof it maketh the blood subtle. And by +lightness thereof it moveth the blood and sendeth it about into all +the limbs. And this same spirit turneth to heartward by certain veins. +And there by moving and smiting together of the parts of the heart, +the spirit is more pured, and turned into a more subtle kind. And then +it is called of physicians the vital spirit: because that from the +heart, by the wosen, and veins, and small ways, it spreadeth itself +into all the limbs of the body, and increaseth the virtues spiritual, +and ruleth and keepeth the works thereof. For out of a den of the left +side of the heart cometh an artery vein, and in his moving is departed +into two branches: the one thereof goeth downward, and spreadeth in +many boughs, and sprays, by means of which the vital spirit is brought +to give the life to all the nether limbs of the body. The other bough +goeth upward, and is again departed in three branches. The right bough +thereof goeth to the right arm, and the left bough to the left arm +equally, and spreadeth in divers sprays. And so the vital spirit is +spread into all the body and worketh in the artery veins the pulses of +life. The middle bough extendeth itself to the brain, and other higher +parts and giveth life, and spreadeth the vital spirit in all the parts +about. The same spirit piercing and passing forth to the dens of the +brain, is there more directed and made subtle, and is changed into the +animal spirit, which is more subtle than the other. And so this animal +spirit is gendered in the foremost den of the brain, and is somewhat +spread into the limbs of feeling. But yet nevertheless some part +thereof abideth in the aforesaid dens, that common sense, the common +wit, and the virtue imaginative may be made perfect. Then he passeth +forth into the middle den that is called Logistic, to make the +intellect and understanding perfect. And when he hath enformed the +intellect, then he passeth forth to the den of memory, and bearing +with him the prints of likeness, which are made in those other dens, +he layeth them up in the chamber of memory. From the hindermost parts +of the brain he pierceth and passeth by the marrow of the ridge bone, +and cometh to the sinews of moving, that so wilful moving may be +engendered, in all the parts of the nether body. Then one and the same +spirit is named by divers names. For by working in the liver it is +called the natural spirit, in the heart the vital spirit, and in the +head, the animal spirit. We may not believe that this spirit is man's +reasonable soul, but more soothly, as saith Austin, the car therof and +proper instrument. For by means of such a spirit the soul is joined to +the body: and without the service of such a spirit, no act the soul +may perfectly exercise in the body. And therefore if these spirits be +impaired, or let of their working in any work, the accord of the body +and soul is resolved, the reasonable spirit is let of all its works in +the body. As it is seen in them that be amazed, and mad men and +frantic, and in others that oft lose use of reason. + +The sight is most simple, for it is fiery, and knoweth suddenly things +that be full far. The sight is shapen in this manner. In the middle of +the eye, that is, the black thereof, is a certain humour most pure and +clear. The philosophers call it crystalloid, for it taketh suddenly +divers forms and shapes of colours as crystal doth. The sight is a wit +of perceiving and knowing of colours, figures, and shapes, and outer +properties. Then to make the sight perfect, these things are needful, +that is to wit, the cause efficient, the limb of the eye convenient to +the thing that shall be seen, the air that bringeth the likeness to +the eye, and taking heed, and easy moving. The cause efficient is that +virtue that is called animal. The instrument and limb is the humour +like crystal in either eye clear and round. It is clear that by the +clearness thereof the eye may beshine the spirit, and air; it is round +that it be stronger to withstand griefs. The outer thing helping to +work, is the air, without which being a means, the sight may not be +perfect. It needeth to take heed, for if the soul be occupied about +other things than longeth to the sight, the sight is the less perfect. +For it deemeth not of the thing that is seen. And easy moving is +needful, for if the thing that is seen moveth too swiftly, the sight +is cumbered and disparcled with too swift and continual moving: as it +is in an oar that seemeth broken in the water, through the swift +moving of the water. In three manners the sight is made. One manner by +straight lines, upon the which the likeness of the thing that is seen, +cometh to the sight. Another manner, upon lines rebounded again: when +the likeness of a thing cometh therefrom to a shewer, and is bent, and +re-boundeth from the shewer to the sight. The third manner is by +lines, the which though they be not bent and rebounded, but stretched +between the thing that is seen and the sight: yet they pass not always +forthright, but other whiles they blench some whether, aside from the +straight way. And that is when divers manners spaces of divers +clearness and thickness be put between the sight and the thing that is +seen. + +Aristotle rehearseth these five mean colours [between white and black] +by name, and calleth the first yellow, and the second citrine, and the +third red, the fourth purple, and the fifth green. + +In the book Meteorics, a little before the end, Aristotle saith that +gold, as other metals, hath other matter of subtle brimstone and red, +and of quicksilver subtle and white. In the composition thereof is +more sadness of brimstone than of air and moisture of quicksilver, and +therefore gold is more sad and heavy than silver. In composition of +silver is more commonly quicksilver than white brimstone. Then among +metals nothing is more sad in substance, or more better compact than +gold. And therefore though it be put in fire, it wasteth not by +smoking and vapours, nor lesseth not the weight, and so it is not +wasted in fire, but if it be melted with strong heat, then if any +filth be therein, it is cleansed thereof. And that maketh the gold +more pure and shining. No metal stretcheth more with hammer work than +gold, for it stretcheth so, that between the anvil and the hammer +without breaking and rending in pieces it stretcheth to gold foil. And +among metals there is none fairer in sight than gold, and therefore +among painters gold is chief and fairest in sight, and so it +embellisheth colour and shape, and colour of other metals. Also among +metals is nothing so effectual in virtue as gold. Plato describeth the +virtue thereof and saith that it is more temperate and pure than other +metals. For it hath virtue to comfort and for to cleanse superfluities +gathered in bodies. And therefore it helpeth against leprosy and +meselry. The filings of gold taken in meat or in drink or in medicine, +preserve and let breeding of leperhood, or namely hideth it and maketh +it unknown. + +Orpiment is a vein of the earth, or a manner of free stone that +cleaveth and breaketh, and it is like to gold in colour: and this is +called Arsenic by another name, and is double, red and citron. It hath +kind of brimstone, of burning and drying. And if it be laid to brass, +it maketh the brass white, and burneth and wasteth all bodies of +metal, out take gold. + +Though silver be white yet it maketh black lines and strakes in the +body that is scored therewith. In composition thereof is quicksilver +and white brimstone, and therefore it is not so heavy as gold. There +are two manner of silvers, simple and compound. The simple is +fleeting, and is called quicksilver; the silver compounded is massy +and sad, and is compounded of quicksilver pure and clean, and of white +brimstone, not burning, as Aristotle saith. + +Quicksilver is a watery substance medlied strongly with subtle earthly +things, and may not be dissolved: and that is for great dryness of +earth that melteth not on a plain thing. Therefore it cleaveth not to +thing that it toucheth, as doth the thing that is watery. The +substance thereof is white: and that is for clearness of clear water, +and for whiteness of subtle earth that is well digested. Also it hath +whiteness of medlying of air with the aforesaid things. Also +quicksilver hath the property that it curdeth not by itself kindly +without brimstone: but with brimstone, and with substance of lead, it +is congealed and fastened together. And therefore it is said, that +quicksilver and brimstone is the element, that is to wit matter, of +which all melting metal is made. Quicksilver is matter of all metal, +and therefore in respect of them it is a simple element. Isidore saith +it is fleeting, for it runneth and is specially found in silver forges +as it were drops of silver molten. And it is oft found in old dirt of +sinks, and in slime of pits. And also it is made of minium done in +caverns of iron, and a patent or a shell done thereunder; and the +vessel that is anointed therewith, shall be be-clipped with burning +coals, and then the quicksilver shall drop. Without this silver nor +gold nor latten nor copper may be overgilt. And it is of so great +virtue and strength, that though thou do a stone of an hundred pound +weight upon quicksilver of the weight of two pounds, the quicksilver +anon withstandeth the weight. And if thou doest thereon a scruple of +gold, it ravisheth unto itself the lightness thereof. And so it +appeareth it is not weight, but nature to which it obeyeth. It is best +kept in glass vessels, for it pierceth, boreth, and fretteth other +matters. + +If an adamant be set by iron, it suffereth not the iron to come to the +magnet, but it draweth it by a manner of violence from the magnet, so +that though the magnet draweth iron to itself, the adamant draweth it +away from the magnet. It is called a precious stone of reconciliation +and of love. For if a woman be away from her housebond, or trespasseth +against him: by virtue of this stone, she is the sooner reconciled to +have grace of her husband. + +Crystal is a bright stone and clear, with watery colour. Men trowe +that it is of snow or ice made hard in space of many years. This stone +set in the sun taketh fire, insomuch if dry tow be put thereto, it +setteth the tow on fire. That crystal materially is made of water, +Gregory on Ezekiel i. saith: water, saith he, is of itself fleeting, +but by strength of cold it is turned and made stedfast crystal. And +hereof Aristotle telleth the cause in his Meteorics: there he saith +that stony things of substance of ore are water in matter. Ricardus +Rufus saith: stone ore is of water: but for it hath more of dryness of +earth than things that melt, therefore they were not frozen only with +coldness of water, but also by dryness of earth that is mingled +therewith, when the watery part of the earth and glassy hath mastery +on the water, and the aforesaid cold hath the victory and mastery. And +so Saint Gregory his reason is true, that saith, that crystal may be +gendered of water. + +In old time or the use of iron was known, men eared land with brass, +and fought therewith in war and battle. That time gold and silver were +forsaken, and gold is now in the most worship, so age that passeth and +vadeth changeth times of things. Brass and copper are made in this +manner as other metals be, of brimstone and quicksilver, and that +happeneth when there is more of brimstone than of quicksilver, and the +brimstone is earthy and not pure, with red colour and burning, and +quicksilver is mean and not subtle. Of such medlying brass is +gendered. + +Electrum is a metal and hath that name, for in the sunbeam it shineth +more clear than gold or silver. And this metal is more noble than +other metals. And hereof are three manners of kinds. The third manner +is made of three parts of gold, and of the fourth of silver: and kind +electrum is of that kind, for in twinkling and in light it shineth +more clear than all other metal, and warneth of venom, for if one dip +it therein, it maketh a great chinking noise, and changeth oft into +divers colours as the rainbow, and that suddenly. + +Heliotrope is a precious stone, and is green, and sprinkled with red +drops, and veins of the colour of blood. If it be put in water before +the sunbeams, it maketh the water seethe in the vessel that it is in, +and resolveth it as it were into mist, and soon after it is resolved +into rain-drops. Also it seemeth that this same stone may do wonders, +for if it be put in a basin with clear water, it changeth the sunbeams +by rebounding of the air, and seemeth to shadow them, and breedeth in +the air red and sanguine colour, as though the sun were in eclypse and +darkened. An herb of the same name, with certain enchantments, doth +beguile the sight of men that look thereon, and maketh a man that +beareth it not to be seen. + +Though iron cometh of the earth, yet it is most hard and sad, and +therefore with beating and smiting it suppresseth and dilateth all +other metal, and maketh it stretch on length and on breadth. Iron is +gendered of quicksilver thick and not clean, full of earthy holes, and +of brimstone, great and boisterous and not pure. In composition of +iron is more of the aforesaid brimstone than of quicksilver, and so +for mastery of cold and dry and of earthy matter, iron is dry and cold +and full well hard, and is compact together in its parts. And for iron +hath less of airy and watery moisture than other metals: therefore it +is hard to resolve and make it again to be nesh in fire. Use of iron +is more needful to men in many things than use of gold: though +covetous men love more gold than iron. Without iron the commonalty be +not sure against enemies, without dread of iron the common right is +not governed; with iron innocent men are defended: and fool-hardiness +of wicked men is chastised with dread of iron. And well nigh no +handiwork is wrought without iron: no field is eared without iron, +neither tilling craft used, nor building builded without iron. And +therefore Isidore saith that iron hath its name _ferrum_, for +that thereby _farra_, that is corn and seed, is tilled and sown. +For, without iron, bread is not won of the earth, nor bread is not +departed when it is ready without iron convenably to man's use. + +Of lead are two manner of kinds, white and black, and the white is the +better, and was first found in the islands of the Atlantic Sea in old +time, and is now found in many places. For in France and in Portugal +is a manner of black earth found full of gravel and of small stones, +and is washed and blown, and so of that matter cometh the substance of +lead. Also in gold quarries with matter of gold are small stones +found, and are gathered with the gold, and blown by themselves, and +turn all to lead, and therefore gold is as heavy as lead. But of black +lead is double kind. For black lead cometh alone of a vein, or is +gendered of silver in medlied veins, and is blown, and in blowing +first cometh tin, and then silver, and then what leaveth is blown and +turneth into black lead. Aristotle saith that of brimstone that is +boisterous and not swiftly pured, but troublous and thick, and of +quicksilver, the substance of lead is gendered, and is gendered in +mineral places; so of uncleanness of impure brimstone lead hath a +manner of neshness, and smircheth his hand that toucheth it. And with +wiping and cleansing, this uncleanness of lead may be taken away for a +time, but never for always; a man may wipe off the uncleanness but +alway it is lead although it seemeth silver. But strange qualities +have mastery therein and beguile men, and make them err therein. Some +men take Sal Ammoniac (to cleanse it) as Aristotle saith, and +assigneth the cause of this uncleanness and saith, that in boisterous +lead is evil quicksilver heavy and fenny. Also that brimstone thereof +is evil vapour and stinking. Therefore it freezeth not well at full. +Hermes saith that lead in boiling undoeth the hardness of all sad and +hard bodies, and also of the stone adamant. Aristotle speaketh of lead +in the Meteorics and saith that lead without doubt when it is molten +is as quicksilver, but it melteth not without heat, and then all that +is molten seemeth red. Wonder it is that though lead be pale or brown, +yet by burning or by refudation of vinegar oft it gendereth seemly +colour and fair, as tewly, red, and such other; therewith women paint +themselves for to seem fair of colour. + +The sapphire is a precious stone, and is blue in colour, most like to +heaven in fair weather, and clear, and is best among precious stones, +and most apt and able to fingers of kings. Its virtue is contrary to +venom and quencheth it every deal. And if thou put an addercop in a +box, and hold a very sapphire of Ind at the mouth of the box any +while, by virtue thereof the addercop is overcome and dieth, as it +were suddenly. And this same I have seen proved oft in many and divers +places. + +Tin in fire departeth metals of divers kind, and it departeth lead and +brass from gold and silver, and defendeth other metals in hot fire. +And though brass and iron be most hard in kind, yet if they be in +strong fire without tin, they burn and waste away. If brazen vessels +be tinned, the tin abateth the venom of rust, and amendeth the savour. +Also mirrors be tempered with tin, and white colour that is called +Ceruse is made of tin, as it is made of lead. Aristotle saith that tin +is compounded of good quicksilver and of evil brimstone. And these +twain be not well medlied but in small parts compounded, therefore tin +hath colour of silver but not the sadness thereof. In the book of +Alchemy Hermes saith, that tin breaketh all metals and bodies that it +is medlied with, and that for the great dryness of tin. And destroyeth +in metal the kind that is obedient to hammer work. And if thou +medliest quicksilver therewith, it withstandeth the crassing thereof +and maketh it white, but afterward it maketh it black and defileth it. +Also there it is said that burnt tin gendereth red colour, as lead +doth; and if the fire be strong, the first matter of tin cometh soon +again. Also though tin be more nesh than silver, and more hard than +lead, yet lead may not be soon soldered to lead nor to brass nor to +iron without tin. Neither may these be soldered without grease or +tallow. + +Brimstone is a vein of the earth and hath much air and fire in its +composition. Of brimstone there are four kinds. One is called +_vivum_, the which when it is digged, shineth and flourisheth, +the which only among all the kinds thereof physicians use. Avicenna +means that brimstone is hot and dry in the fourth degree, and is +turned into kind of brimstone in part of water, of earth, and of fire, +and that brimstone is sometimes great and boisterous and full of +drausts, and sometimes pure white, clear and subtle, and sometimes +mean between both. And by this diverse disposition, divers metals are +gendered of brimstone and of quicksilver. + +Glass, as Avicen saith, is among stones as a fool among men, for it +taketh all manner of colour and painting. Glass was first found beside +Ptolomeida in the cliff beside the river that is called Vellus, that +springeth out of the foot of Mount Carmel, at which shipmen arrived. +For upon the gravel of that river shipmen made fire of clods medlied +with bright gravel, and thereof ran streams of new liquor, that was +the beginning of glass. It is so pliant that it taketh anon divers and +contrary shapes by blast of the glazier, and is sometimes beaten, and +sometimes graven as silver. And no matter is more apt to make mirrors +than is glass, or to receive painting; and if it be broken it may not +be amended without melting again. But long time past, there was one +that made glass pliant, which might be amended and wrought with an +hammer, and brought a vial made of such glass tofore Tiberius the +Emperor, and threw it down on the ground, and it was not broken but +bent and folded. And he made it right and amended it with an hammer. +Then the emperor commanded to smite off his head anon, lest that his +craft were known. For then gold should be no better than fen, and all +other metal should be of little worth, for certain if glass vessels +were not brittle, they should be accounted of more value than vessels +of gold. + +All the planets move by double moving; by their own kind moving out of +the west into the east, against the moving of the firmament; and by +other moving out of the east into the west, and that by ravishing of +the firmament. By violence of the firmament they are ravished every +day out of the east into the west. And by their kindly moving, by the +which they labour to move against the firmament, some of them fulfil +their course in shorter time, and some in longer time. And that is for +their courses are some more and some less. For Saturn abideth in every +sign xxx months, and full endeth its course in xxx years. Jupiter +dwelleth in every sign one year, and full endeth its course in xii +years. Mars abideth in every sign xlv days, and full endeth its course +in two years. The sun abideth in every sign xxx days and ten hours and +a half, and full endeth its course in ccclxv days and vi hours. +Mercury abideth in every sign xxviii days and vi hours, and full +endeth its course in cccxxxviii days. Venus abideth in every sign 29 +days, and full endeth its course in 348 days. The moon abideth in +every sign two days and a half, and six hours and one bisse less, and +full endeth its course from point to point in 27 days and 8 hours. And +by entering and out passing of these 7 stars into the 12 signs and out +thereof everything that is bred and corrupt in this nether world is +varied and disposed, and therefore in the philosopher's book Mesalath +it is read in this manner: "The Highest made the world to the likeness +of a sphere, and made the highest circle above it moveable in the +earth, pight and stedfast in the middle thereof; not withdrawing +toward the left side, nor toward the right side, and set the other +elements moveable, and made them move by the moving of 7 planets, and +all other stars help the planets in their working and kind." Every +creature upon Earth hath a manner inclination by the moving of the +planets, and destruction cometh by moving and working of planets. The +working of them varieth and is diverse by diversity of climates and +countries. For they work one manner of thing about the land of blue +men, and another about the land and country of Slavens.... In the +signs the planets move and abate with double moving, and move by +accidental ravishing of the firmament out of the East into the West; +and by kindly moving, the which is double, the first and the second. +The first moving is the round moving that a planet maketh in its own +circle, and passeth never the marks and bounds of the circle. The +second moving is that he maketh under the Zodiac, and passeth alway +like great space in a like space of time. And the first moving of a +planet is made in its own circle that is called Eccentric, and it is +called so for the earth is not the middle thereof, as it is the middle +of the circle that is called Zodiac. Epicycle is a little circle that +a planet describeth, and goeth about therein by the moving of its +body, and the body of the planet goeth about the roundness thereof. +And therefore it sheweth, that the sun and other planets move in their +own circles; and first alike swift, though they move diversely in +divers circles. Also in these circles the manner moving of planets is +full wisely found of astronomers, that are called Direct, Stationary, +and Retrograde Motion. Forthright moving is in the over part of the +circle that is called Epicycle, backward is in the nether part, and +stinting and abiding or hoving is in the middle. + + + + +II + +MEDIAEVAL MANNERS + + +The sixth book of our author deals with the conditions of man, passing +in review youth and age, male and female, serf and lord. Our extracts +from it fall into three groups. The first deals in great measure with +the relations of family life. We have an account of the boy and the +girl (as they appeared to a friar "of orders grey"), the infant and +its nurse. However we may suspect Bartholomew of wishing to provide a +text in his account of the bad boy, it is consoling to find that the +"enfant terrible" had his counterpart in the thirteenth century, as +well as the maiden known to us all, who is "demure and soft of speech, +but well ware of what she says." + +The second group presents mediaeval society to us under the influence +of chivalry. Suitably enough, we have beside each other most lifelike +pictures of the base and superstructure of the system. This, the man-- +free, generous; that, the serf--vile, ungrateful, kept in order by +fear alone, but the necessary counterpart of the splendid figure of +his master. One of our writers today has regretted the absence of a +chapter in praise of the good man to set beside Solomon's picture of +the virtuous woman. Bartholomew has certainly endeavoured in the two +chapters quoted here, "Of a Man," and "Of a Good Lord," to picture the +ideal good man of chivalrous times. It may, however, be permitted +those of us who look at the system from underneath, to sympathise with +our fellows who struggled to free themselves from bondage under Tyler +and John Ball at least as much as with their splendid oppressors, and +to recognise that the feudal system, however necessary in the +thirteenth century, lost its value when its lords had ceased to be +such good lords as our author describes. + +The third group would naturally consist of passages illustrating the +daily life of our ancestors, but the editor has found some difficulty +in getting together passages enough for the purpose without trenching +on the confines of other chapters. He has accordingly left them +scattered over the book, persuaded that the reader will feel their +import better when they are seen in their context. Such a book as this +is not open to the objections urged against pictures of mediaeval life +drawn from romances, that the situations are invented and the manners +suited to the situation. Here all is true, and written with no other +aim than that of utilising knowledge common to all. Everywhere through +these extracts little statements--a few words in most cases--crop up +giving us information of this kind; but it would be impossible to do +more than allude to them. Leaving our reader to notice them as they +are met with, the description of a mediaeval dinner concludes the +chapter. The chapter describing a supper which follows it in the +original is too long for quotation, and is vitiated by a desire to +draw analogies. But one feature is noteworthy: Among the properties of +a good supper, "the ninth is plenty of light of candles, and of +prickets, and of torches. For it is shame to sup in darkness, and +perillous also for flies and other filth. Therefore candles and +prickets are set on candlesticks and chandeliers, lanterns and lamps +are necessary to burn." This little touch gives us the reverse of the +picture, and reminds us of the Knight of the Tower's caution to his +daughters about their behaviour at a feast. + +SUCH children be nesh of flesh, lithe and pliant of body, able and +light to moving, witty to learn. And lead their lives without thought +and care. And set their courages only of mirth and liking, and dread +no perils more than beating with a rod: and they love an apple more +than gold. When they be praised, or shamed, or blamed, they set little +thereby. Through stirring and moving of the heat of the flesh and of +humours, they be lightly and soon wroth, and soon pleased, and lightly +they forgive. And for tenderness of body they be soon hurt and +grieved, and may not well endure hard travail. Since all children be +tatched with evil manners, and think only on things that be, and reck +not of things that shall be, they love plays, game, and vanity, and +forsake winning and profit. And things most worthy they repute least +worthy, and least worthy most worthy. They desire things that be to +them contrary and grievous, and set more of the image of a child, than +of the image of a man, and make more sorrow and woe, and weep more for +the loss of an apple, than for the loss of their heritage. And the +goodness that is done for them, they let it pass out of mind. They +desire all things that they see, and pray and ask with voice and with +hand. They love talking and counsel of such children as they be, and +void company of old men. They keep no counsel, but they tell all that +they hear or see. Suddenly they laugh, and suddenly they weep. Always +they cry, jangle, and jape; that unneth they be still while they +sleep. When they be washed of filth, anon they defile themselves +again. When their mother washeth and combeth them, they kick and +sprawl, and put with feet and with hands, and withstand with all their +might. They desire to drink always, unneth they are out of bed, when +they cry for meat anon. + +Men behove to take heed of maidens: for they be tender of complexion; +small, pliant and fair of disposition of body: shamefast, fearful, and +merry. Touching outward disposition they be well nurtured, demure and +soft of speech, and well ware of what they say: and delicate in their +apparel. And for a woman is more meeker than a man, she weepeth +sooner. And is more envious, and more laughing, and loving, and the +malice of the soul is more in a woman than in a man. And she is of +feeble kind, and she maketh more lesings, and is more shamefast, and +more slow in working and in moving than is a man. + +A nurse hath that name of nourishing, for she is ordained to nourish +and to feed the child, and therefore like as the mother, the nurse is +glad if the child be glad, and heavy, if the child be sorry, and +taketh the child up if it fall, and giveth it suck: if it weep she +kisseth and lulleth it still, and gathereth the limbs, and bindeth +them together, and doth cleanse and wash it when it is defiled. And +for it cannot speak, the nurse lispeth and soundeth the same words to +teach more easily the child that cannot speak. And she useth medicines +to bring the child to convenable estate if it be sick, and lifteth it +up now on her shoulders, now on her hands, now on her knees and lap, +and lifteth it up if it cry or weep. And she cheweth meat in her +mouth, and maketh it ready to the toothless child, that it may the +easilier swallow that meat, and so she feedeth the child when it is an +hungered, and pleaseth the child with whispering and songs when it +shall sleep, and swatheth it in sweet clothes, and righteth and +stretcheth out its other. A man hath so great love to his wife that +for her sake he adventureth himself to all perils; and setteth her +love afore his mother's love; for he dwelleth with his wife, and +forsaketh father and mother. Afore wedding, the spouse thinketh to win +love of her that he wooeth with gifts, and certifieth of his will with +letters and messengers, and with divers presents, and giveth many +gifts, and much good and cattle, and promiseth much more. And to +please her he putteth him to divers plays and games among gatherings +of men, and useth oft deeds of arms, of might, and of mastery. And +maketh him gay and seemly in divers clothing and array. And all that +he is prayed to give and to do for her love, he giveth and doth anon +with all his might. And denieth no petition that is made in her name +and for her love. He speaketh to her pleasantly, and beholdeth her +cheer in the face with pleasing and glad cheer, and with a sharp eye, +and at last assenteth to her, and telleth openly his will in presence +of her friends, and spouseth her with a ring, and giveth her gifts in +token of contract of wedding, and maketh her charters, and deeds of +grants and of gifts. He maketh revels and feasts and spousals, and +giveth many good gifts to friends and guests, and comforteth and +gladdeth his guests with songs and pipes and other minstrelsy of +music. And afterward, when all this is done, he bringeth her to the +privities of his chamber, and maketh her fellow at bed and at board. +And then he maketh her lady of his money, and of his house, and +meinie. And then he is no less diligent and careful for her than he is +for himself: and specially lovingly he adviseth her if she do amiss, +and taketh good heed to keep her well, and taketh heed of her bearing +and going, of her speaking and looking, of her passing and ayencoming, +out and home. No man hath more wealth, than he that hath a good woman +to his wife, and no man hath more woe, than he that hath an evil wife, +crying and jangling, chiding and scolding, drunken, lecherous, and +unsteadfast, and contrary to him, costly, stout and gay, envious, +noyful, leaping over lands, much suspicious, and wrathful. In a good +spouse and wife behoveth these conditions, that she be busy and devout +in God's service, meek and serviceable to her husband, and fair- +speaking and goodly to her meinie, merciful and good to wretches that +be needy, easy and peaceable to her neighbours, ready, wary, and wise +in things that should be avoided, mightiful and patient in suffering, +busy and diligent in her doing, mannerly in clothing, sober in moving, +wary in speaking, chaste in looking, honest in bearing, sad in going, +shamefast among the people, merry and glad with her husband, and +chaste in privity. Such a wife is worthy to be praised, that entendeth +more to please her husband with such womanly dues, than with her +braided hairs, and desireth more to please him with virtues than with +fair and gay clothes, and useth the goodness of matrimony more because +of children than of fleshly liking, and hath more liking to have +children of grace than of kind. + +A man loveth his child and feedeth and nourisheth it, and setteth it +at his own board when it is weaned. And teacheth him in his youth with +speech and words, and chasteneth him with beating, and setteth him and +putteth him to learn under ward and keeping of wardens and tutors. And +the father sheweth him no glad cheer, lest he wax proud, and he loveth +most the son that is like to him, and looketh oft on him. And giveth +to his children clothing, meat and drink as their age requireth, and +purchaseth lands and heritage for his children, and ceaseth not to +make it more and more. And entaileth his purchase, and leaveth it to +his heirs.... The child cometh of the substance of father and mother, +and taketh of them feeding and nourishing, and profiteth not, neither +liveth, without help of them. The more the father loveth his child, +the more busily he teacheth and chastiseth him and holdeth him the +more strait under chastising and lore; and when the child is most +loved of the father it seemeth that he loveth him not; for he beateth +and grieveth him oft lest he draw to evil manners and tatches, and the +more the child is like to the father, the better the father loveth +him. The father is ashamed if he hear any foul thing told by his +children. The father's heart is sore grieved, if his children rebel +against him. In feeding and nourishing of their children stands the +most business and charge of the parents. + +Some servants be bond and born in bondage, and such have many pains by +law. For they may not sell nor give away their own good and cattle, +nother make contracts, nother take office of dignity, nother bear +witness without leave of their lords. Wherefore though they be not in +childhood, they be oft punished with pains of childhood. Other +servants there be, the which being taken with strangers and aliens and +with enemies be bought and sold, and held low under the yoke of +thraldom. The third manner of servants be bound freely by their own +good will, and serve for reward and for hire. And these commonly be +called Famuli. + +The name lord is a name of sovereignty, of power, and of might. For +without a lord might not the common profit stand secure, neither the +company of men might be peaceable and quiet. For if power and might of +rightful lords were withholden and taken away, then were malice free, +and goodness and innocence never secure, as saith Isidore. A rightful +lord, by way of rightful law, heareth and determineth causes, pleas, +and strifes, that be between his subjects, and ordaineth that every +man have his own, and draweth his sword against malice, and putteth +forth his shield of righteousness, to defend innocents against evil +doers, and delivereth small children and such as be fatherless, and +motherless, and widows, of them that overset them. And he pursueth +robbers and rievers, thieves, and other evil doers. And useth his +power not after his own will, but he ordaineth and disposeth it as the +law asketh.... By reason of one good king and one good lord, all a +country is worshipped, and dreaded, and enhanced also. Also this name +lord is a name of peace and surety. For a good lord ceaseth war, +battle, and fighting; and accordeth them that be in strife. And so +under a good, a strong, and a peaceable lord, men of the country be +secure and safe. For there dare no man assail his lordship, ne in no +manner break his peace. + +Meat and drink be ordained and convenient to dinners and to feasts, +for at feasts first meat is prepared and arrayed, guests be called +together, forms and stools be set in the hall, and tables, cloths, and +towels be ordained, disposed, and made ready. Guests be set with the +lord in the chief place of the board, and they sit not down at the +board before the guests wash their hands. Children be set in their +place, and servants at a table by themselves. First knives, spoons, +and salts be set on the board, and then bread and drink, and many +divers messes; household servants busily help each other to do +everything diligently, and talk merrily together. The guests be +gladded with lutes and harps. Now wine and now messes of meat be +brought forth and departed. At the last cometh fruit and spices, and +when they have eaten, board, cloths, and relief are borne away, and +guests wash and wipe their hands again. Then grace is said, and guests +thank the lord. Then for gladness and comfort drink is brought yet +again. When all this is done at meat, men take their leave, and some +go to bed and sleep, and some go home to their own lodgings. + + + + +III + +MEDIAEVAL MEDICINE + + +The seventh book of the "De Proprietatibus" treats of the human body +and its ailments. At first glance it might seem that such a subject +would be repulsive, either in matter or handling, to the general +reader of today, but it will, we think, be found that there are many +points of interest in it for us, some of which we proceed to indicate. +Mankind has always felt a deep interest in certain diseases, to which +we are even now subject, and so parts of the chapters on leprosy and +hydrophobia have been reproduced. The accounts given of frenzy and +madness interest us both as a picture of the change in manners, as an +example of the methods of cure proposed, and as throwing light on many +passages. Thus Chaucer, speaking of Arcite, describes his passion as +compounded of melancholy which deprives him of reason, overflowing +into the foremost cell of his brain, the cell fantastic, and causing +him to act as if mad. + + "Nought oonly lyke the loveres maladye + Of Hereos, but rather lyk manye, + Engendered of humour malencolyk + Byforen in his selle fantastyk." + K. T., 515, etc. + +Physicians recommend music as a cure in mental troubles, but that it +is no new discovery is attested by Shakespeare and our author. Compare +what Bartholomew says of the voice, with Richard's speech: + + "This music mads me, let it sound no more, + For though it have holp madmen to their wits, + In me it seems it will make wise men mad." + +The origin of the brutality towards madmen warred against by Charles +Reade, and described in "Romeo and Juliet"-- + + "Not mad, but bound more than a madman is, + Shut up in prison, kept without my food, + Whipp'd and tormented"-- + +is seen in our extracts, which recall, too, in their insistence on +bleeding the "head vein," Juvenal's remark on his friend about to +marry: "O medici, mediam pertundite venam." + +Some space has already been devoted (p. 28) to the physiology of the +human body, but this chapter would not be complete if we did not +devote some space to the explanations given of the working of the +heart, veins, and arteries, at a time when the circulation of the +blood was unknown. It may not be amiss to remind the reader that +arteries carry blood from the heart, to which it is returned by the +veins, after passing through a fine network of tubes called the +capillaries. + +Turning to what may be called the popular physiology of the time, we +may note the change, since mediaeval times, in the allocation of +properties to the organs of the body. In our days, the heart and brain +set aside, we find no organ mentioned in connection with the various +faculties of the body, while up to Shakespeare's time each organ had +its passion. Some of these emotions have much changed their seats. +True love, which now reigns over the heart, then took its rise in the +liver. The friar in "Much Ado about Nothing" says of Claudio, "If ever +love had interest in his liver"; and the Duke in "Twelfth Night," +speaking of women's love, says: + + "Alas, their love may be call'd appetite, + No motion of the liver, but the palate." + +The heart, on the other hand, was considered as the seat of wisdom. + +The spleen is now almost a synonym for bitterness of spirit, but it +used to be regarded as the source of laughter. Isabella in "Measure +for Measure," after the well-known quotation about man dressed in a +little brief authority who plays such apish tricks as make the angels +weep, says they would laugh instead if they had spleens: + + "Who, with our spleens, + Would all themselves laugh mortal." + +The brain in mediaeval times was regarded only as the home of the +"wits of feeling"--the senses. + +Some other points of interest in mediaeval medicine are the strange +remedies prescribed, and the way in which they were hit upon. The +Editor has not made many selections to illustrate this, nor has he +sought out the most strange. And lastly, in this, as in most of the +other chapters, much may be learnt of the customs of the time from the +indications of the text. + +These be the signs of frenzy, woodness and continual waking, moving +and casting about the eyes, raging, stretching, and casting out of +hands, moving and wagging of the head, grinding and gnashing together +of the teeth; always they will arise out of their bed, now they sing, +now they weep, and they bite gladly and rend their keeper and their +leech: seldom be they still, but cry much. And these be most +perilously sick, and yet they wot not then that they be sick. Then +they must be soon holpen lest they perish, and that both in diet and +in medicine. The diet shall be full scarce, as crumbs of bread, which +must many times be wet in water. The medicine is, that in the +beginning the patient's head be shaven, and washed in lukewarm +vinegar, and that he be well kept or bound in a dark place. Diverse +shapes of faces and semblance of painting shall not be shewed tofore +him, lest he be tarred with woodness. All that be about him shall be +commanded to be still and in silence; men shall not answer to his nice +words. In the beginning of medicine he shall be let blood in a vein of +the forehead, and bled as much as will fill an egg-shell. Afore all +things (if virtue and age suffereth) he shall bleed in the head vein. +Over all things, with ointments and balming men shall labour to bring +him asleep. The head that is shaven shall be plastered with lungs of a +swine, or of a wether, or of a sheep; the temples and forehead shall +be anointed with the juice of lettuce, or of poppy. If after these +medicines are laid thus to, the woodness dureth three days without +sleep, there is no hope of recovery. + +Madness is infection of the foremost cell of the head, with privation +of imagination, like as melancholy is the infection of the middle cell +of the head, with privation of reason. + +Madness cometh sometime of passions of the soul, as of business and of +great thoughts, of sorrow and of too great study, and of dread: +sometime of the biting of a wood hound, or some other venomous beast: +sometime of melancholy meats, and sometime of drink of strong wine. +And as the causes be diverse, the tokens and signs be diverse. For +some cry and leap and hurt and wound themselves and other men, and +darken and hide themselves in privy and secret places. The medicine of +them is, that they be bound, that they hurt not themselves and other +men. And namely, such shall be refreshed, and comforted, and withdrawn +from cause and matter of dread and busy thoughts. And they must be +gladded with instruments of music, and somedeal be occupied. + +Our Lord set a token in Cain, that was quaking of head, as Strabus +saith in the gloss: "Every man (saith Strabus) that findeth me, by +quaking of head and moving of wood heart, shall know that I am guilty +to die." + +Among all the passions and evils of the wits of feeling, blindness is +most wretched. For without any bond, blindness is a prison to the +blind. And blindness beguileth the virtue imaginative in knowing; for +in deeming of white the blind deem it is black, and ayenward. It +letteth the virtue of avisement in deeming. For he deemeth and +aviseth, and casteth to go eastward, and is beguiled in his doom, and +goeth westward. And blindness over-turneth the virtue of affection and +desire. For if men proffer the blind a silver penny and a copper to +choose the better, he desireth to choose the silver penny, but he +chooseth the copper. + +The blind man's wretchedness is so much, that it maketh him not only +subject to a child, or to a servant, for ruling and leading, but also +to an hound. And the blind is oft brought to so great need, that to +pass and scape the peril of a bridge or of a ford, he is compelled to +trust in a hound more than to himself. Also oft in perils where all +men doubt and dread, the blind man, for he seeth no peril, is secure. +And in like wise there as is no peril, the blind dreadeth most. He +spurneth oft in plain way, and stumbleth oft; there he should heave up +his foot, he boweth it downward. And in like wise there as he should +set his foot to the ground, he heaveth it upward. He putteth forth the +hand all about groping and grasping, he seeketh all about his way with +his hand and with his staff. Seldom he doth aught securely, well nigh +always he doubteth and dreadeth. Also the blind man when he lieth or +sitteth thereout, he weeneth that he is under covert; and ofttimes he +thinketh himself hid when everybody seeth him. + +Also sometimes the blind beateth and smiteth and grieveth the child +that leadeth him, and shall soon repent the beating by doing of the +child. For the child hath mind of the beating, and forsaketh him, and +leaveth him alone in the middle of a bridge, or in some other peril, +and teacheth him not the way to void the peril. Therefore the blind is +wretched, for in house he dare nothing trustly do, and in the way he +dreadeth lest his fellow will forsake him. + +Universally this evil [leprosy] hath much tokens and signs. In them +the flesh is notably corrupt, the shape is changed, the eyen become +round, the eyelids are revelled, the sight sparkleth, the nostrils are +straited and revelled and shrunk. The voice is hoarse, swelling +groweth in the body, and many small botches and whelks hard and round, +in the legs and in the utter parts; feeling is somedeal taken away. +The nails are boystous and bunchy, the fingers shrink and crook, the +breath is corrupt, and oft whole men are infected with the stench +thereof. The flesh and skin is fatty, insomuch that they may throw +water thereon, and it is not the more wet, but the water slides off, +as it were off a wet hide. Also in the body be diverse specks, now +red, now black, now wan, now pale. The tokens of leprosy be most seen +in the utter parts, as in the feet, legs, and face; and namely in +wasting and minishing of the brawns of the body. + +To heal or to hide leprosy, best is a red adder with a white womb, if +the venom be away, and the tail and the head smitten off, and the body +sod with leeks, if it be oft taken and eaten. And this medicine +helpeth in many evils; as appeareth by the blind man, to whom his wife +gave an adder with garlick instead of an eel, that it might slay him, +and he ate it, and after that by much sweat, he recovered his sight +again. + +The biting of a wood hound is deadly and venomous. And such venom is +perilous. For it is long hidden and unknown, and increaseth and +multiplieth itself, and is sometimes unknown to the year's end, and +then the same day and hour of the biting, it cometh to the head, and +breedeth frenzy. They that are bitten of a wood hound have in their +sleep dreadful sights, and are fearful, astonied, and wroth without +cause. And they dread to be seen of other men, and bark as hounds, and +they dread water most of all things, and are afeared thereof full +sore, and squeamous also. Against the biting of a wood hound wise men +and ready used to make the wounds bleed with fire or with iron, that +the venom may come out with blood, that cometh out of the wound. + +Then consider thou shortly hereof, that a physician visiteth oft the +houses and countries of sick men. And seeketh and searcheth the causes +and circumstances of the sicknesses, and arrayeth and bringeth with +him divers and contrary medicines. And he refuseth not to grope and +handle, and to wipe and cleanse wounds of sick men. And he behooteth +to all men hope and trust of recovering of health; and saith that he +will softly burn that which shall be burnt, and cut that which shall +be cut. And lest the whole part should corrupt, he spareth not to burn +and to cut off the part that is rotted, and if a part in the right +side acheth, he spareth not to smite in the left side. A good leech +leaveth not cutting or burning for weeping of the patient. And he +hideth and covereth the bitterness of the medicine with some manner of +sweetness. He drinketh and tasteth of the medicine, though it be +bitter: that it be not against the sick man's heart, and refraineth +the sick man of meat and drink; and letteth him have his own will, of +the whose health is neither hope nor trust of recovering. + +The veins have that name for that they be the ways, conduits, and +streams of the fleeting of the blood, and sheddeth it into all the +body. And Constantine saith, that the veins spring out of the liver, +as the arteries and wosen do out of the heart, and the sinews out of +the brain. And veins are needful as vessels of the blood to bear and +to bring blood from the liver, to feed and nourish the members of the +body. Also needly, the veins are more tender and nesh in kind than +sinews. Therefore that they be nigh to the liver may somewhat change +the blood that cometh to them. And all the veins are made of one +curtel, and not of two, as the arteries and wosen. For the arteries +receive spirits, and they keep and save them. And the veins coming out +of the liver, suck thereof, as it were of their own mother, feeding of +blood, and dealeth and departeth that feeding to every member as it +needeth. And so the veins spread into all the parts of the body, and +by a wonder wit of kind, they do service each to other. + +Also among other veins open and privy, there is a vein, and it is +called Artery, which is needful in kind to bear and bring kindly heat +from the heart to all the other members. And these arteries are made +and composed of two small clothings or skins, called curtels, and they +be like in shape, and divers in substance. The inner have wrinkles and +folding overthwart, and their substance is hard, and more boystous +than the utter be. And without they have wrinkles and folding in +length: of whom the substance is hard for needfulness of moving, +opening, and closing. For by opening, itself doth receive from the +heart and that by the wrinklings and folding in length; by closing, +itself doth put out superfluous fumosity, which is done by wrinkling +and folding the curtels overthwart and in breadth, in the which the +spirit is drawn from the heart. Wherefore they be harder without than +all the other veins, and that is needful lest they break lightly and +soon. Also these veins spring out of the left hollowness of the heart. +And twain of that side are called Pulsative, of which one that is the +innermost hath a nesh skin, and this vein is needful to bring great +quantity of blood and spirits to the lungs, and to receive in air, and +to medley it with blood, to temper the ferventness of the blood. This +vein entereth into the lungs and is departed there in many manner +wises. + +The other artery is more than the first, and Aristotle calleth it +Horren; this artery cometh up from the heart, and is departed in +twain, and the one part cometh upward, and carrieth blood, that is +purified and spirit of life to the brain; that so the spirit of +feeling may be bred, nourished, kept, and saved. The other part goeth +downward, and is departed in many manner wise toward the right side +and toward the left. + +Then mark well, that a vein is the bearer and carrier of blood, keeper +and warden of the life of beasts. And containeth in itself the four +bloody humours clean and pure, which are ordained for feeding of all +the parts of the body. Moreover, a vein is hollow to receive blood the +more easily, and as it needeth in kind, that one vein bring and give +blood to another vein. Also a vein is messager of health and of +sickness. For by the pulse of the arteries and disposition of the +veins, physicians deem of the feebleness and strength of the heart. +Also if a vein be corrupt, and containeth corrupt blood, it corrupteth +and infecteth all the body, as it fareth in lepers, whose blood is +most corrupt in the veins, of the which the members are fed by sucking +of blood, and seeketh thereby corruption and sickness incurable. Also +the vein of the arm is oft grieved, constrained and wranged, opened +and slit, and wounded, to relieve the sickness of all the body by +hurting of that vein. + +The spittle of a man fasting hath a manner strength of privy +infection. For it grieveth and hurteth the blood of a beast, if it +come into a bleeding wound, and is medlied with the blood. And that, +peradventure, is, as saith Avicenna, by reason of rawness. For raw +humour medlied with blood that hath perfect digestion, is contrary +thereto in its quality, and disturbeth the temperance thereof, as +authors say. And therefore it is that holy men tell that the spittle +of a fasting man slayeth serpents and adders, and is venom to venomous +beasts, as saith Basil. + +A discording voice and an inordinate troubleth the accord of many +voices. But according voices sweet and ordinate, gladden and move to +love, and show out the passions of the soul, and witness the strength +and virtue of the spiritual members, and show pureness and good +disposition of them, and relieve travail, and put off disease and +sorrow. And make to be known the male and the female, and get and win +praising, and change the affection of the hearers; as it is said in +fables of one Orpheus, that pleased trees, woods, hills, and stones, +with sweet melody of his voice. Also a fair voice is according and +friendly to kind. And pleaseth not only men but also brute beasts, as +it fareth in oxen that are excited to travail more by sweet song of +the herd, than by strokes and pricks. + +Also by sweet songs of harmony and accord or music, sick men and +frantic come oft to their wit again and health of body. Some men tell +that Orpheus said, "Emperors pray me to feasts, to have liking of me; +but I have liking of them which would bend their hearts from wrath to +mildness, from sorrow to gladness, from covetousness to largeness, +from dread to boldness." This is the ordinance of music, that is known +above the sweetness of the soul. + +Now it is known by these foresaid things, how profitable is a merry +voice and sweet. And contrariwise is of an unordinate voice and +horrible, that gladdeth not, nother comforteth; but is noyful and +discomforteth and grieveth the ears and the wit. Therefore Constantine +saith that a philosopher was questioned, why an horrible man is more +heavy than any burden or wit. And men say that he answered in this +manner. An horrible man is burden to the soul and wit. + +The lungs be the bellows of the heart. It beateth in opening of itself +that it may take in breath, and thrusting together may put it out, and +so it is in continual moving, in drawing in and out of breath. The +lungs be the proper instrument of the heart, for it keleth the heart, +and by subtlety of its substance, changeth the air that is drawn in, +and maketh it more subtle. The lungs shapeth the voice, and ceaseth +never of moving. For it closeth itself and spreadeth, and keepeth the +air to help the heat in its dens and holes. And therefore a beast may +not live under the water without stifling, but as long as he may hold +in the air that is gathered within. The lungs by continual moving +putteth off air that is gathered within, cleanseth and purgeth it, and +ministereth continual and convenable feeding to the vital spirit. And +departeth the heart from the instruments of feeling, and breedeth +foamy humours, and beclippeth aside half the substance of the heart. +And when the lungs be grieved by any occasion, it speedeth to death- +ward. + +The liver hath name, for fire hath place therein, that passeth up anon +to the brain, and cometh thence to the eyen, and to the other wits and +limbs. And the liver by its heat, draweth woose and juice and turneth +it into blood, and serveth the body and members therewith, to the use +of feeding. In the liver is the place of voluptuousness and liking of +the flesh. The ends of the liver hight fibra, for they are straight +and passing as tongs, and beclip the stomach, and give heat to +digestion of meat: and they hight fibra, because the necromancers +brought them to the altars of their god Phoebus and offered them +there, and then they had answers. + +The liver is the chief fundament of kindly virtue, and greatest helper +of the first digestion in the stomach, and the liver maketh perfectly +the second digestion in the stomach, in the hollowness of its own +substance, and departeth clean and pured, from unclean and unpured, +and sendeth feeding to all the members, and exciteth love or bodily +lust, and receiveth divers passions. Then the liver is a noble and +precious member, by whose alteration the body is altered, and the +liver sendeth feeding and virtues of feeding to the other members, to +the nether without mean, and to the other, by mean of the heart. + +Some men ween, that the milt is cause of laughing. For by the spleen +we are moved to laugh, by the gall we are wroth, by the heart we are +wise, by the brain we feel, by the liver we love. + + + + +IV + +MEDIAEVAL GEOGRAPHY + + +The fourteenth and fifteenth books of the "De Proprietatibus" are +treatises on the geography of the time. Very few words of the editor's +are needed to introduce them to modern readers. They may be divided +into two classes: one, interesting because of the legends they +preserve for us, the other, as reflecting the social life of the time. +The first class is represented here by the accounts of the Amazons, of +India, of Ireland, and of Finland. Here we have the outlines of the +stories-- + + "Of antres vast, and deserts idle, + Rough quarries, rocks, and hills whose heads touch heaven, + And of the Cannibals that each other eat, + The Anthropophagi, and men whose heads + Do grow beneath their shoulders"-- + +told by Othello to Desdemona. + +In the other we class such accounts as those of France and of Paris, +of the Frisians, Flanders, Scotland, and Iceland. Such countries as +these were well known in the thirteenth century, and the feelings of +our author about them can be gathered easily enough. The tone of the +chapters about England and Scotland would be enough alone to prove +that Bartholomew was an Englishman, it there were no other reason to +think it. + +THERE is a lake that hight lake Asphaltus, and is also called the Dead +Sea for its greatness and deepness: for it breedeth, ne receiveth, no +thing that hath life. Therefore it hath nother fish ne fowls, but +whensoever thou wouldst have drowned therein anything that hath life +with any craft or gin, then anon it plungeth and cometh again up; +though it be strongly thrust downward, it is anon smitten upward. And +it moveth not with the wind, for glue withstandeth wind and storms, by +which glue all [the] water is stint. And therein may no ship row nor +sail, for all thing that hath no life sinketh down to the ground; nor +he sustaineth no kind, but it be glued. And a lantern without its +light sinketh therein, as it telleth, and a lantern with light +floateth above. + +As the Master of Histories saith, this lake casteth up black clots of +glue. In the brim thereof trees grow, the apples whereof are green +till they are ripe: and if ye cut them when they are ripe, ye shall +find ashes within them. And so it is said in the gloss; and there grow +most fair apples, that make men that see them have liking to eat of +them, and if one take them, they fade and fall in ashes and smoke, as +though they were burning. + +Olympus is a mount of Macedon, and is full high, so that it is said, +that the clouds are thereunder, as Virgil saith. This mount departeth +Macedonia and Thracia, and is so high, that it passeth all storms and +other passions of the air. And therefore philosophers went up to see +the course and places of stars, and they might not live there, but if +they had sponges with water to make the air more thick by throwing and +sprinkling of water: as the Master of Histories saith. + +Amazonia, women's land, is a country part in Asia and part in Europe, +and is nigh to Albania, and hath that name of Amazonia, of women that +were the wives of the men that were called Goths, the which men went +out of the nether Scythia, and were cruelly slain, and then their +wives took their husbands' armour and weapons, and resed on the +enemies with manly hearts, and took wreck of the death of their +husbands. For with dint of sword they slew all the young males, and +old men, and children, and saved the females, and departed prey, and +purposed to live ever after without company of males. And by ensample +of their husbands that had alway two kings over them, these women +ordained them two queens, that one hight Marsepia, and that other +Lampeta, that one should travail with a host, and fight against +enemies, and that other should in the mean time, govern and rule the +communities. And they were made so fierce warriors in short time, that +they had a great part of Asia under their lordship nigh a hundred +years: among them they suffered no male to live nor abide, in no +manner of wise. But of nations that were nigh to them, they chose +husbands because of children, and went to them in times that were +ordained, and when the time was done, then they would compel their +lovers to go from them, and get other places to abide in, and would +slay their sons, or send them to their fathers in certain times. And +they saved their daughters, and taught them to shoot and to hunt. And +for the shooting of arrows should not be let with great breasts, in +the 7th year (as it is said), they burnt off their breasts, and +therefore they were called Amazons. And as it is said, Hercules +adaunted first the fierceness of them, and then Achilles. But that was +more by friendship than by strength, as it is contained in deeds and +doings of the Greeks, and the Amazons were destroyed and brought to +death by great Alexander. But the story of Alexander saith not so. But +it is said that Alexander demanded tribute of the Queen of the +Amazons, and she wrote to him again by messengers in this manner. + +"Of thy wit I wonder, that thou purposest to fight with women, for if +fortune be on our side, and if it hap that thou be overcome, then art +thou shamed for evermore, when thou art overcome of women, and if our +gods be wroth with us, and thou overcomest us, it shall turn thee to +little worship, that thou have the mastery of women." + +The noble king wondered on her answer, and said, that it is not seemly +to overcome women with sword and with woodness, but rather with +fairness and with love: and therefore he granted them freedom and made +them subject to his empire, not with violence but with friendship and +with love. + +England is the most island of Ocean, and is beclipped all about by the +sea, and departed from the roundness of the world, and hight sometimes +Albion: and had that name of white rocks, which were seen on the sea +cliffs. And by continuance of time, lords and noble men of Troy, after +that Troy was destroyed, went from thence, and were accompanied with a +great navy, and fortuned to the cliffs of the foresaid island, and +that by revelation of their feigned goddess Pallas, as it is said, and +the Trojans fought with giants long time that dwelled therein, and +overcame the giants, both with craft and with strength, and conquered +the island, and called the land Britain, by the name of Brute that was +prince of that host: and so the island hight Britain, as it were an +island conquered of Brute that time, with arms and with might. Of this +Brute's offspring came most mighty kings. And who that hath liking to +know their deeds, let him read the story of Brute. + +And long time after, the Saxons won the island with many and divers +hard battles and strong, and their offspring had possession after them +of the island, and the Britons were slain or exiled, and the Saxons +departed the island among them, and gave every province a name, by the +property of its own name and nation, and therefore they cleped the +island Anglia, by the name of Engelia the queen, the worthiest duke of +Saxony's daughter, that had the island in possession after many +battles. Isidore saith, that this land hight Anglia, and hath that +name of Angulus, a corner, as it were land set in the end, or a corner +of the world. But saint Gregory, seeing English children to sell at +Rome, when they were not christened, and hearing that they were called +English: according with the name of the country, he answered and said: +Truly they be English, for they shine in face right as angels: it is +need to send them message, with word of salvation. For as Beda saith, +the noble kind of the land shone in their faces. Isidore saith, +Britain, that now hight Anglia, is an island set afore France and +Spain, and containeth about 48 times 75 miles. Also therein be many +rivers and great and hot wells. There is great plenty of metals, there +be enough of the stones Agates, and of pearls, the ground is special +good, most apt to bear corn and other good fruit. There be, namely, +many sheep with good wool, there be many harts and other wild beasts; +there be few wolves or none, therefore there be many sheep, and may be +securely left without ward, in pasture and in fields, as Beda saith. + +England is a strong land and a sturdy, and the plenteousest corner of +the world, so rich a land that unneth it needeth help of any land, and +every other land needeth help of England. England is full of mirth and +of game, and men oft times able to mirth and game, free men of heart +and with tongue, but the hand is more better and more free than the +tongue. + +Cedar is the name of the country in which dwelled the Ishmaelites, +that were the children of Kedar, that was Ishmael's eldest son. And +more truly they be there clept Agareni than Saraceni, though they +mistake the name of Sarah in vain, and be proud thereof, as though +they were gendered of Sarah. These men build no houses, but go about +in large wildernesses, as wild men, and dwell in tents, and live by +prey and by venison. Yet hereafter, as Methodius saith, they shall +once be gathered together, and go out of the desert, and win and hold +the roundness of the earth, eight weeks of years, and their way shall +be called the way of anguish and of woe. For they shall overcome +cities and kingdoms. And they shall slay priests in holy places, and +lie there with women, and drink of holy vessels, and tie beasts to +sepultures of holy saints, for the wickedness of the Christian men +that shall be in that time. These and many other things he doth +rehearse that Ishmaelites, men of Kedar, shall do in the world wide. + +Ethiopia, blue men's land, had first that name of colour of men. For +the sun is nigh, and roasteth and toasteth them. And so the colour of +men showeth the strength of the star, for there is continual heat. For +all that is under the south pole about the west is full of mountains, +and about the middle full of gravel, and in the east side most desert +and wilderness: and stretcheth from the west of Atlas toward the east +unto the ends of Egypt, and is closed in the south with ocean, and in +the north with the river Nile. In this land be many nations with +divers faces wonderly and horribly shapen: Also therein be many wild +beasts and serpents, and also Rhinoceros, and the beast that hight +Cameleon, a beast with many colours. Also there be cockatrices and +great dragons, and precious stones be taken out of their brains, +Jacinth, and Chrysophrase, Topaz, and many other precious stones be +found in those parts, and cinnamon is there gathered. There be two +Ethiopias, one is in the east, and the other is in Mauritania in the +west, and that is more near Spain. And then is Numidia, and the +province of Carthage. Then is Getula, and at last against the course +of the sun in the south is the land that hight Ethiopia adusta, burnt; +and fables tell, that there beyond be the Antipodes, men that have +their feet against our feet. The men of Ethiopia have their name of a +black river, and that river is of the same kind as Nilus, for they +breed reeds and bullrushes, and rise and wax in one time. In the +wilderness there be many men wonderly shapen. Some oft curse the sun +bitterly in his rising and downgoing, and they behold the sun and +curse him always: for his heat grieveth them full sore. And other as +Trogodites dig them dens and caves, and dwell in them instead of +houses; and they eat serpents, and all that may be got; their noise is +more fearful in sounding than the voice of other. Others there be +which like beasts live without wedding, and dwell with women without +law, and such be called Garamantes. Others go naked, and be not +occupied with travail, and they be called Graphasantes. There be other +that be called Bennii, and it is said, they have no heads, but they +have eyes fixed in their breasts. And there be Satyrs, and they have +only shape of men, and have no manners of mankind. Also in Ethiopia be +many other wonders, there be Ethiops, saith Plinius, among whom all +four-footed beasts be brought forth without ears, and also elephants. +Also there be some that have a hound for their king, and divine by his +moving, and do as they will. And other have three or four eyes in +their foreheads, as it is said, not that it is so in kind, but that it +is feigned, for they use principally looking and sight of arrows. Also +some of them hunt lions and panthers, and live by their flesh, and +their king hath only one eye in his forehead. Other men of Ethiopia +live only by honeysuckles dried in smoke, and in the sun, and these +live not past forty years. + +In the over Egypt be many divers deserts, in whom are many monstrous +and wonderful beasts. There be Pards, Tigers, Satyrs, Cockatrices, and +horrible adders and serpents. For in the ends of Egypt and of Ethiopia +fast by the well where men suppose is the head of Nilus that runneth +by Egypt, be bred wild beasts, that hight Cacothephas, the which beast +is little of body, and uncrafty of members and slow, and hath a full +heavy head. And therefore they bear it always downward toward the +earth, and that by ordinance of kind for the salvation of mankind, for +it is so wicked and so venomous, that no man may behold it right in +the face, but he die anon without remedy. + +Fraunce hight Francia and Gallia also, and had first that name Francia +of men of Germany, who were called Franci: and hath the Rhine and +Germayn in the east side, and in the north-east side the mountains +Alpes Pennini: and in the south the province of Narbonne, in the +north-west the British ocean, and in the north the island of +Britain.... This land of France is a rank country, and plentiful of +trees, of vines, of corn, and of fruits, and is noble by the affluence +of rivers and fountains; through the borders of which land run two +most noble rivers, that is to wit, Rhone and Rhine. Therein be noble +quarries and stones both to build and to rear buildings and houses +upon, and therein be special manner stones, and namely in the ground +about Paris, that is most passing, namely in a manner stone that is +hight Gypsum, that men of that country call Plaster in their language, +for the ground is glassy and bright, and by mineral virtue turneth +into stone; this manner stone burnt and tempered with water, turneth +into cement, and so thereof is made edifices and vaults, walls and +diverse pavements. And such cement laid in works waxeth hard anon +again as it were stone; and in France be many noble and famous cities, +but among all Paris beareth the prize; for as sometime the city of +Athens, mother of liberal arts and of letters, nurse of philosophers, +and well of all sciences, made it solemn in science and in conditions +among Greeks, so doth Paris in this time, not only France, but also +all the other deal of Europe. For as mother of wisdom she receiveth +all that cometh out of every country of the world, and helpeth them in +all that they need, and ruleth all peaceably, and as a servant of +soothness, she sheweth herself detty to wise men and unwise. This city +is full good and mighty of riches, it rejoiceth in peace: there is +good air of rivers according to philosophers, there be fair fields, +meads, and mountains to refresh and comfort the eyen of them that be +weary in study, there be convenable streets and houses, namely for +studiers. And nevertheless the city is sufficient to receive and to +feed all others that come thereto, and passeth all other cities in +these things, and in such other like. + +Though this province be little in space, yet it is wealthful of many +special things and good. For this land is plenteous and full of +pasture, of cattle, and of beasts, royal and rich of the best towns, +havens of the sea, and of famous rivers, and well nigh all about is +moisted with Scaldelia. The men thereof be seemly and fair of body and +strong, and they get many children. And they be rich of all manner +merchandises and chaffer, and generally fair and seemly of face, mild +of will, and fair of speech, sad of bearing, honest of clothing, +peaceable to their own neighbours, true and trusty to strangers, +passing witty in wool craft, by their crafty working a great part of +the world is succoured and holpen in woollen clothes. For of the +principal wool which they have out of England, with their subtle craft +be made many noble cloths, and be sent by sea and also by land into +many diverse countries. + +The men of Germany call men of this land Frisons, and between them and +the Germans is great difference in clothing and in manner. For +wellnigh all men be shorn round; and the more noble they be, the more +worship they account to be shorn the more high. And the men be high of +body, strong of virtue, stern and fierce of heart, and swift and +quiver of body. And they use iron spears instead of arrows.... The men +be free, and not subject to lordship of other nations, and put them in +peril of death by cause of freedom. And they had liefer die than be +under the yoke of thraldom. Therefore they forsake dignity of +knighthood, and suffer none to rise and to be greater among them under +the title of knighthood; but they be subject to Judges that they chose +of themselves from year to year, which rule the community among them. +They love well chastity, and punish all the unchaste right grievously: +And they keep their children chaste unto the time that they be of full +age, and so when they be wedded, they get manly children and strong. + +And, as it is said, some of the Indians till the earth, and some use +chivalry, and some use merchandise and lead out chaffer; some rule and +govern the community at best; and some be about the kings, and some be +Justices and doomsmen, some give them principally to religions and to +learning of wit and of wisdom. And as among all countries and lands +India is the greatest and most rich: so among all lands India is most +wonderful. For as Pliny saith, India aboundeth in wonders. In India be +many huge beasts bred, and more greater hounds than in other lands. +Also there be so high trees that men may not shoot to the top with an +arrow, as it is said. And that maketh the plenty and fatness of the +earth and temperateness of weather, of air, and of water. Fig trees +spread there so broad, that many great companies of knights may sit at +meat under the shadow of one tree. Also there be so great reeds and so +long that every piece between two knots beareth sometime three men +over the water. Also there be men of great stature, passing five +cubits in height, and they never spit, nor have never headache nor +toothache, nor sore eyes, nor they be not grieved with passing heat of +the sun, but rather made more hard and sad therewith. Also their +philosophers that they call Gymnosophists stand in most hot gravel +from the morning till evening, and behold the sun without blemishing +of their eyes. Also there, in some mountains be men with soles of the +feet turned backwards, and the foot also with viii toes on one foot. +Also there be some with hounds' heads, and be clothed in skins of wild +beasts, and they bark as hounds, and speak none other wise: and they +live by hunting and fowling: and they be armed with their nails and +teeth, and be full many, about six score thousand as he saith. Also +among some nations of India be women that bear never child but once, +and the children wax whitehaired anon as they be born. There be satyrs +and other men wondrously shapen. Also in the end of East India, about +the rising of Ganges, be men without mouths, and they be clothed in +moss and in rough hairy things, which they gather off trees, and live +commonly by odour and smell at the nostrils. And they nother eat +nother drink, but only smell odour of flowers and of wood apples, and +live so, and they die anon in evil odour and smell. And other there be +that live full long, and age never, but die as it were in middle age. +Also some be hoar in youth, and black in age. Pliny rehearseth these +wonders, and many other mo. + +Yrlonde hight Hibernia, and is an island of the Ocean in Europe, and +is nigh to the land of Britain, and is more narrow and straight than +Britain, but it is more plenteous place.... In this land is much +plenty of corn fields, of wells and of rivers, of fair meads and +woods, of metal and of precious stones. For there is gendered a six +cornered stone, that is to wit, Iris, that maketh a rainbow in the +air, if it be set in the sun. And there is jet found, and white +pearls. And concerning the wholesome air, Ireland is a good temperate +country. There is little or none passing heat or cold; there be +wonderful lakes, ponds, and wells. For there is a lake, in which if a +staff or a pole of tree be pight, and tarrieth long time therein, the +part that is in the earth turneth into iron, and the part that is in +the water turneth into stone, and the part that is above the water, +abideth still in its kind of tree. There is another lake in which in +that thou throwest rods of hazel, it turneth those rods into ash: and +ayenward if ye cast ashen rods therein, they turn into hazel. Therein +be places in which dead carrions never rot: but abide there always +uncorrupt. Also in Ireland is a little island, in which men die not, +but when they be overcome with age, they be borne out of that island +to die without. In Ireland is no serpent, no frogs, nor venomous +addercop; but all the land is so contrary to venemous beasts that if +the earth of that land be brought into another land, and spronge on +the ground, it slayeth serpents and toads. Also venomous beasts flee +Irish wool, skins, and fells. And if serpents or toads be brought into +Ireland by shipping, they die anon. + +Solinus speaketh of Ireland, and saith the inhabitants thereof be +fierce, and lead an unhuman life. The people there use to harbour no +guests, they be warriors, and drink men's blood that they slay, and +wash first their faces therewith: right and unright they take for +one.... Men of Ireland be singularly clothed and unseemly arrayed and +scarcely fed, they be cruel of heart, fierce of cheer, angry of +speech, and sharp. Nathless they be free hearted, and fair of speech +and goodly to their own nation, and namely those men that dwell in +woods, marshes, and mountains. These men be pleased with flesh, +apples, and fruit for meat, and with milk for drink: and give them +more to plays and to hunting, than to work and travail. + +The land Scotia hath the name of Scots that dwell therein, and the +same nation that was sometime first in Ireland, and all according +thereto in tongue, in manners, and in kind. The men are light of +heart, fierce, and courageous on their enemies. They love nigh as well +death as thraldom, and they account it for sloth to die in bed, and a +great worship and virtue to die in a field fighting against enemies. +The men be of scarce living, and many suffer hunger long time, and eat +selde tofore the sun going down, and use flesh, milk, meats, fish, and +fruits more than Britons: and use to eat the less bread, and though +the men be seemly enough of figure and of shape, and fair of face +generally by kind, yet their own Scottish clothing disfigures them +full much. And Scots be said in their own tongue of bodies painted, as +it were cut and slit. For in old time they were marked with divers +figures and shapes on their flesh and skin, made with iron pricks. And +by cause of medlying with Englishmen, many of them have changed the +old manners of Scots into better manners for the more part, but the +wild Scots and Irish account great worship to follow their forefathers +in clothing, in tongue, and in living, and in other manner doing. And +despise somedeal the usages of other men in comparison to their own +usage. And so each laboureth to be above, they detract and blame all +other, and envy all other: they deride all other, and blame all other +men's manners; they be not ashamed to lie, and they repute no man, of +what nation, blood, or puissance so-ever he be, to be hardy and +valiant, but themselves. They delight in their own; they love not +peace. In that land is plenteous ground, merry woods, moist rivers and +wells, many flocks of beasts. There be earth-tillers for quantity of +the place enow. + +Thanet is a little island of ocean, and is departed from Britain with +a little arm of the sea, and hath wheat fields and noble grounds, and +hath its name of death of serpents. For the earth of that land carried +into any country of the world, slayeth serpents forthwith, as Isidore +saith. + +Finland is a country beside the mountains of Norway toward the east, +and stretcheth upon the cliff of ocean: and is not full plenteous, but +in wood, herbs, and grass. The men of that country be strange and +somewhat wild and fierce: and they occupy themselves with witchcraft. +And so to men that sail by their coasts, and also to men that abide +with them for default of wind, they proffer wind to sailing, and so +they sell wind. They use to make a clue of thread, and they make +divers knots to be knit therein. And then they command to draw out of +the clue unto three knots, or mo or less, as they will have the wind +more soft or strong. And for their misbelief fiends move the air, and +arise strong tempests or soft, as he draweth of the clue more or less +knots. And sometimes they move the wind so strongly, that the wretches +that believe in such doings, are drowned by rightful doom of God. + +Iceland is the last region in Europe in the north beyond Norway. In +the uttermost parts thereof it is always ice and frozen, and +stretcheth upon the cliff of ocean toward the north, where the sea is +frozen for great and strong cold. And Iceland hath the over Scythia in +the east side, and Norway in the south, and the Irish ocean in the +west, and the sea that is far in the north, and is called Iceland, as +it were the land of ice and of glass. For it is said that there be +mountains of snow froze as hard as ice or glass; there crystal is +found. Also in that region are white bears most great and right +fierce; that break ice and glass with their claws, and make many holes +therein, and dive there-through into the sea, and take fish under the +ice and glass, and draw them out through the same holes, and bring +them to the cliff and live thereby. The land is barren, out-take a few +places in the valleys, in the which places unneth grow oats. In the +places that men dwell in, only grow herbs, grass, and trees. And in +those places breed beasts, tame and wild. And so for the more part men +of the land live by fish and by hunting of flesh. Sheep may not live +there for cold. And therefore men of the land wear, for cold, fells +and skins of bears and of wild beasts that they take with hunting. +Other clothing may they not have, but it come of other lands. The men +are full gross of body and strong and full white, and give them to +fishing and hunting. + + + + +V + +MEDIAEVAL NATURAL HISTORY--TREES + + +The seventeenth book of the "De Proprietatibus" deals with the +properties of plants. The sources from which Bartholomew derives his +information are Aristotle and Albertus Magnus' Gloss on the "De +Vegetalibus," Albumazar, Pliny, Isaac on Foods, Hugo, and the +Platearius. The text professes to deal with those trees and plants +alone which are mentioned in the Gloss, but many others are +incidentally mentioned, and we are thus enabled to learn the chief +food-stuffs of our ancestors. The cereals of the time are wheat, +barley, oats, and rye, just as at present; but the dinner-table of the +day had neither turnip, cabbage, nor potato, and supplied their place +with the parsnip, cole, and rape. Garlic, radishes, and lettuce were +widely used, the former being valued in proportion to its power of +overcoming any other odour. Flax seems to have been widely grown, and +rushlights were then a luxury. + +The subject of trees and plants does not so readily lend itself to +fables as some other parts of natural history, but we refer the reader +to the accounts of aloes, pepper, and mandragora as a specimen of the +tales told, as our author says, "to make things dear, and of great +price." + +Aloes is a tree with good savour, and breedeth in India, and sometime +a part thereof is set afire upon the altar in the stead of incense. It +is found in the great river of Babylon, that joineth with a river of +Paradise. Therefore many men trow that the aforesaid tree groweth +among the trees of Paradise, and cometh out of Paradise by some hap or +drift into [the] river of Ind. Men that dwell by that river take this +tree out of the water by nets, and keep it to the use of medicine, for +it is a good medicinal tree. + +Of Cannel and of Cassia men told fables in old time, that it is found +in birds' nests, and specially in the Phoenix' nest. And may not be +found, but what falleth by its own weight, or is smitten down with +lead arrows. But these men do feign, to make things dear and of great +price; but as the sooth meaneth, cannel groweth among the Trogodites +in the little Ethiopia, and cometh by long space of the sea in ships +to the haven of Gelenites. No man hath leave to gather thereof tofore +the sun-rising, nor after the sun going down. And when it is gathered, +the priest by measure dealeth the branches and taketh thereof a part; +and so by space of time, merchants buy that other deal. + +Of this tree [Bays] speaketh the Master in History, and saith that +Rebecca (Gen. xvii.) for trembling of nations she had seen in them +that perished, laid a manner laurel tree that she called Tripodem +under her head, and sat her upon boughs of an herb that hight Agnus +Castus, for to use very revelations and sights and not fantasies. + +The Emperor Tiberius Caesar in thundering and lightning used a garland +of Laurel Tree on his head against dread of lightning, as it is said. +Also Plinius telleth a wonder thing, that the emperor sat by Drusilla +the empress in a certain garden, and an eagle threw from a right high +place a wonder white hen into the empress' lap whole and sound, and +the hen held in her bill a bough of laurel tree full of bays, and +Diviners took heed to the hen, and sowed the bays, and kept them +wisely, and of them came a wood, that was called Silva Triumphans, as +it were the wood of worship for victory and mastery. + +The green leaves thereof, that smell full well if they be stamped, +heal stinging of bees and of wasps, and do away all swellings, and +keep books and clothes there it is among from moths and other worms, +and save them fro fretting and gnawing. The fruit of laurel trees are +called bays, and are brown or red without, and white within and +unctuous. + +It is said that a hind taught first the virtue of diptannus, for she +eateth this herb that she may calve easilier and sooner; and if she be +hurt with an arrow, she seeketh this herb and eateth it, which putteth +the iron out of the wound. + +And ash hath so great virtue that serpents come not in shadow thereof +in the morning nor at even. And if a serpent be set within a fire and +ash leaves, he will flee into the fire sooner than into the leaves. + +Beans be damned by Pythagoras' sentence, for it is said, that by oft +use thereof the wits are dulled and cause many dreams. Or else as +other men mean, for dead men's souls be therein. Therefore Varro saith +that the bishop should not eat beans. And many medley beans with bread +corn, to make the bread more heavy. + +The stalk [of wheat] is called Stipula as ustipula, and hath that name +of usta, burnt. For when it is gathered some of the straw is burnt to +help and amend the land. And some is kept to fodder of beasts, and is +called Palea: for it is first meat that is laid tofore beasts, namely +in some countries as in Tuscany. As Pliny saith, if the seed be +touched with tallow or grease it is spoilt and lost. Among the best +wheat sometimes grow ill weeds and venomous, as cockle and other such, +also there it is said, of corrupt dew that cleaveth to the leaves +cometh corruption in corn, and maketh it as it were red or rusty. +Among all manner corn, wheat beareth the prize, and to mankind nothing +is more friendly, nothing more nourishing. + +Flax groweth in even stalks, and bears yellow flowers or blue, and +after cometh hops, and therein is the seed, and when the hop beginneth +to wax, then the flax is drawn up and gathered all whole, and is then +lined, and afterward made to knots and little bundles, and so laid in +water, and lieth there long time. And then it is taken out of the +water, and laid abroad till it be dried, and twined and wend in the +sun, and then bound in pretty niches and bundles. And afterward +knocked, beaten, and brayed, and carfled, rodded and gnodded, ribbed +and heckled, and at the last spun. Then the thread is sod and +bleached, and bucked, and oft laid to drying, wetted and washed, and +sprinkled with water until that it be white, after divers working and +travail. + +Flax is needful to divers uses. For thereof is made clothing to wear, +and sails to sail, and nets to fish and to hunt, and thread to sew, +ropes to bind, and strings to shoot, bonds to bind, lines to mete and +to measure, and sheets to rest in, and sacks, bags, and purses, to put +and to keep things in. And so none herb is so needful, to so many +divers uses to mankind, as is the flax. + +Ryndes thereof [_i.e._ of Mandragora] sodden in wine cause sleep, +and abate all manner of soreness, and so that time a man feeleth +unneth though he be cut, but yet Mandragora must be warily used: for +it slayeth if men take much thereof.... They that dig Mandragora be +busy to beware of contrary winds while they dig, and make three +circles about with a sword, and abide with the digging unto the sun +going down, and trow so to have the herb with the chief virtues. + +Papyrus is a manner rush, that is dried to kindle fire and lanterns, +and hight the feeding of fire. And this herb is put to burn in +prickets and in tapers. The rind is stripped off unto the pith, and is +so dried, and a little is left of the rind on the one side, to sustain +the tender pith; and the less is left of the rind, the more clear the +pith burneth in a lamp, and is the sooner kindled. And about Memphis +and in Ind be such great rushes, that they make boats thereof, as the +Gloss saith. And Alexander's Story saith the same. + +And of rushes are charters made, in the which were epistles written, +and sent by messengers. Also of rushes be made paniers, boxes, and +cases, and baskets to keep letters and other things in. And also they +make thereof paper to write with. + +Pepper is the seed or the fruit of a tree that groweth in the south +side of the hill Caucasus, in the strong heat of the sun. And serpents +keep the woods that pepper groweth in. And when the woods of pepper +are ripe, men of that country set them on fire, and chase away the +serpents by violence of fire. And by such burning the grain of pepper +that was white by kind, is made black and rively. + +Woods be wild places, waste and desolate, that many trees grow in +without fruit, and also few having fruit. In these woods be oft wild +beasts and fowls, therein grow herbs, grass leas, and pasture, and +namely medicinal herbs in woods be found. In summer woods are beautied +with boughs and branches, with herbs and grass. In woods is place of +deceit and hunting. For therein wild beasts are hunted, and watches +and deceits are ordained and set of hounds and of hunters. There is +place of hiding and of lurking, for oft in woods thieves are hid, and +oft in their awaits and deceits passing men come, and are spoiled and +robbed, and oft slain. And so for many and divers ways and uncertain, +strange men oft err and go out of the way, and take uncertain ways, +and the way that is unknown tofore the way that is known, and come oft +to the place there thieves lie in await, and not without peril. +Therefore be oft knots made on trees and in bushes, in boughs and in +branches of trees, in token and mark of the highway, to show the +certain and sure way to wayfaring men; but oft the thieves in turning +and meeting of ways, change such knots and signs, and beguile many +men, and bring them out of the right way by false tokens and signs. + +It hath many hard twigs and branches with knots, and therewith often +children are chastised and beaten on the bare buttocks and loins. And +of the boughs and branches thereof are besoms made to sweep and to +clean houses of dust and of other uncleanness. Wild men of woods and +forests use that seed in stead of bread. And this tree hath much sour +juice, and somewhat biting. And men use therefore in springing time +and in harvest to slit the rinds, and to gather the humour that cometh +out thereof, and drink it in stead of wine. + +Hards is the cleansing of hemp or of flax. For with much breaking, +heckling, and rubbing, hards are departed fro the substance of hemp +and of flax, and is great when it is departed, and more knotty, short, +and rough. And is therefore not full able to be spun for thread +thereof to be made, nathless thereof is thread spun that is full +great, uneven, and full of knobs, and thereof are made bonds and +bindings, and matches or candles; for it is full dry and taketh soon +fire and burneth. + +A board hight table, and is areared and set upon feet, and compassed +with a list about. And, in another manner, table is a playing board, +that men play on at the dice and other games; and this manner of table +is double, and arrayed with divers colours. In the third manner it is +a thin plank and plane, and therein are letters writ with colours, and +sometimes small shingles are planed and made somedeal hollow in either +side, and filled full of wax, black, green, or red, to write therein. + +Boards and tables garnish houses, nathless when they be set in solar +floors, they serve all men and beasts that are therein. Then they be +dressed, hewed, and planed, and made convenable to use of ships, of +bridges, of hulks, and coffers, and many other needful things of +building. Also in shipbreach men flee to a board, and are oft saved in +peril. + +Roofs are trees areared and stretched fro the walls up to the top of +the house, and bear up the covering thereof. And stand wide beneath, +and come together upwards, and so they nigh nearer and nearer, and are +joined either to other in the top of the house. It holdeth up heling, +slates, shingle, and laths. The lath is long and somewhat broad, and +plain and thin, and is nailed thwart over to the rafters, and thereon +hang slates, tiles, and shingles. The rafters are strong and square, +and hewn plain And are made fair within with fair joists and boards. + +A vineyard is busily tilthed and kept, and purged and cleaned of +superfluities, and oft visited and overseen of the earth tilthers and +keepers of vines, that it be not apaired neither destroyed with +beasts, and is closed about with walls and with hedges, and a wait is +there set in a high place to keep the vineyard that the fruit be not +destroyed. And is left in winter without keeper or waiter, but in +harvest time many come and haunt the vineyard. In winter the vineyard +is full pale, and waxeth green and bloometh in springing time and in +summer, and smelleth full sweet, and is pleasant with fruit in harvest +time. The smell of the vineyard that bloometh is contrary to all +venomous things, and therefore when the vineyard bloometh, adders and +serpents flee, and toads also, and may not sustain and suffer the +noble savour thereof. + +Foxes lurk and hide themselves under vine leaves, and gnaw covetously +and fret the grapes of the vineyard, and namely when the keepers and +wards be negligent and reckless, and it profiteth not that some unwise +men do, that close within the vineyard hounds, that are adversaries to +foxes. For few hounds, so closed, waste and destroy more grapes than +many foxes should destroy that come and eat thereof thievishly. +Therefore wise wardens of vineyards be full busy to keep, that no +swine nor tame hounds nor foxes come in to the vineyard. From fretting +and gnawing of flies and of other worms, a vineyard may not be kept +nor saved, but by His succour and help that all thing hath and +pursueth in His power and might, and keepeth and saveth all lordly and +mighty. + +The worthiness and praising of wine might not Bacchus himself describe +at the full, though he were alive. For among all liquors and juice of +trees, wine beareth the prize, for passing all liquors, wine +moderately drunk most comforteth the body, and gladdeth the heart, and +saveth wounds and evils. Wine strengtheneth all the members of the +body, and giveth to each might and strength, and deed and working of +the soul showeth and declareth the goodness of wine. And wine breedeth +in the soul forgetting of anguish, of sorrow, and of woe, and +suffereth not the soul to feel anguish and woe. Wine sharpeth the wit +and maketh it cunning to enquire things that are hard and subtle, and +maketh the soul bold and hardy, and so the passing nobility of wine is +known. And use of wine accordeth to all men's ages and times and +countries, if it be taken in due manner, and as his disposition asketh +that drinketh it. + +Red wine that is temperate in its qualities, and is drunk temperately +and in due manner, helpeth kind and gendreth good blood, and maketh +savour in meat and in drink, and exciteth desire and appetite, and +comforteth the virtue of life and of kind, and helpeth the stomach to +have appetite, and to have and to make good digestion. And quencheth +thirst, and changeth the passions of the soul and thoughts out of evil +into good. For it turneth the soul out of cruelness into mildness, out +of covetousness into largeness, out of pride into meekness, and out of +dread into boldness. And shortly to speak, wine drunk measurably is +health of body and of soul. + +And nothing is worse passing out of measure. And so Andronides, a +clear man of wit and of wisdom, wrote to the great Alexander, to +restrain wine kind in drinking, and said in this manner:--"King, have +mind that thou drinkest blood of the earth, for wine drinking +untemperately is to mankind heavy and venomous." And if Alexander had +done by his counsel, truly he had not slain his own friend in +drunkenness. If wine be often taken, anon by drunkenness it quencheth +the sight of reason, and comforteth beastly madness, and so the body +abideth as it were a ship in the sea without stern and without +lodesman, and as chivalry without prince or duke. + + + + +VI + +MEDIAEVAL NATURAL HISTORY--BIRDS AND FISHES + + +In following out his plan of describing the productions of each +element before considering the next in order, Bartholomew was led to +consider air and its products early in his scheme. Accordingly his +twelfth book is devoted to birds, and his thirteenth to the +inhabitants of the waters. There is hardly any reason in these books +for omitting any part more than another except space, but the editor +hopes that those chosen will put the reader in possession of a key to +the more common allusions in pre-Restoration literature. + +When the editor spoke of the wholesale way in which our author is +conveyed by Elizabethan poets, he had in mind this and the following +chapters. A single example will show this. Let the reader compare the +account of the peacock with the following stanza from Chester's +"Love's Martyr": + + "The proud sun-braving peacocke with his feathers, + Walkes all along, thinking himself a king, + And with his voice prognosticates all weathers, + Although, God knows, but badly he doth sing; + But when he looks downe to his base blacke feete, + He droopes and is asham'd of things unmeet." + +Our author's knowledge of birds is largely derived--the authentic from +Aristotle; the legendary from the Fathers, Ambrose, Austin, Basil, and +Gregory,--the Gloss,--and from Pliny. Some of these legends seem to be +pointed at in the Hebrew Scriptures. Thus Ps. ciii. 5, "Thy youth is +renewed like the eagle's," either gave rise to, or refers to, the +tradition quoted in our account of the eagle: and likewise Job +xxxviii. 41, and Ps. cxlvii. 9, seem to be responsible for the +tradition in the account of the raven. It would be interesting to +learn whether any independent traditions of this nature exist. + +It is worth pointing out that our author has contributed to the "Gesta +Romanorum" several stories. The "wild tale," as Warton calls it, of +the elephant and the maidens, as well as the story of "the storke +wreker of avouterie" mentioned by Chaucer in the "Assemblie of +Foules," and derived from Neckham, and the similar tale of the +lioness, obtained their wide circulation through the popularity of +Bartholomew's book. It would be an interesting task to trace these +tales to their origin, but this is neither the place nor the time to +do so; and the editor similarly leaves to lovers of Shakespeare the +pleasure of proving to themselves his intimate acquaintance with the +book. + +In the part of the chapter quoted from the thirteenth book, the editor +has tried to get together some of those stories which impressed +people's minds most. Such a one is the tale of the remora. We remember +Jonson's use of it in the "Poetaster": + + "Death, I am seized here + By a land remora; I cannot stir + Nor move, but as he pleases." + +Other tales remind us of Olaus Magnus, and some of them are plainly +Eastern. + +Now it pertaineth to speak of birds and fowls, and in particular and +first of the eagle, which hath principality among fowls. Among all +manner kinds of divers fowls, the eagle is the more liberal and free +of heart. For the prey that she taketh, but it be for great hunger, +she eateth not alone, but putteth it forth in common to fowls that +follow her. But first she taketh her own portion and part. And +therefore oft other fowls follow the eagle for hope and trust to have +some part of her prey. But when the prey that is taken is not +sufficient to herself, then as a king that taketh heed to a community, +she taketh the bird that is next to her, and giveth it among the +others, and serveth them therewith. + +Austin saith, and Plinius also, that in age the eagle hath darkness +and dimness in eyen, and heaviness in wings. And against this +disadvantage she is taught by kind to seek a well of springing water, +and then she flieth up into the air as far as she may, till she be +full hot by heat of the air, and by travail of flight, and so then by +heat the pores are opened and the feathers chafed, and she falleth +suddenly in to the well, and there the feathers are changed, and the +dimness of her eyes is wiped away and purged, and she taketh again her +might and strength. + +The eagle's feathers done and set among feathers of wings of other +birds corrupteth and fretteth them. As strings made of wolf-gut done +and put into a lute or in an harp among strings made of sheep-gut do +destroy, and fret, and corrupt the strings made of sheep-gut, if it so +be that they be set among them, as in a lute or in an harp, as Pliny +saith. + +Among all fowls, in the eagle the virtue of sight is most mighty and +strong. For in the eagle the spirit of sight is most temperate and +most sharp in act and deed of seeing and beholding the sun in the +roundness of its circle without blemishing of eyen. And the sharpness +of her sight is not rebounded again with clearness of light of the +sun, nother disperpled. There is one manner eagle that is full sharp +of sight, and she taketh her own birds in her claws, and maketh them +to look even on the sun, and that ere their wings be full grown, and +except they look stiffly and steadfastly against the sun, she beateth +them, and setteth them even tofore the sun. And if any eye of any of +her birds watereth in looking on the sun she slayeth him, as though he +went out of kind, or else driveth him out of the nest and despiseth +him, and setteth not by him. + +The goshawk is a royal fowl, and is armed more with boldness than with +claws, and as much as kind taketh from her in quantity of body, it +rewardeth her with boldness of heart. And two kinds there be of such +fowls, for some are tame and some are wild. And she that is tame +taketh wild fowls and taketh them to her own lord, and she that is +wild taketh tame fowls. And this hawk is of a disdainful kind. For if +she fail by any hap of the prey that she reseth to, that day unneth +she cometh unto her lord's hand. And she must have ordinate diet, +nother too scarce, ne too full. For by too much meat she waxeth +ramaious or slow, and disdaineth to come to reclaim. And if the meat +be too scarce then she faileth, and is feeble and unmighty to take her +prey. Also the eyen of such birds should oft be seled and closed, or +hid, that she bate not too oft from his hand that beareth her, when +she seeth a bird that she desireth to take; and also her legs must be +fastened with gesses, that she shall not fly freely to every bird. And +they be borne on the left hand, that they may somewhat take of the +right hand, and be fed therewith. + +And so such tame hawks be kept in mews, that they may be discharged of +old feathers and hard, and be so renewed in fairness of youth. Also +men give them meat of some manner of flesh, which is some-deal +venomous, that they may the sooner change their feathers. And smoke +grieveth such hawks and doth them harm. And therefore their mews must +be far from smoky places, that their bodies be not grieved with +bitterness of smoke, nor their feathers infect with blackness of +smoke. They should be fed with fresh flesh and bloody, and men should +use to give them to eat the hearts of fowls that they take. All the +while they are alive and are strong and mighty to take their prey, +they are beloved of their lords, and borne on hands, and set on +perches, and stroked on the breast and on the tail, and made plain and +smooth, and are nourished with great business and diligence. But when +they are dead, all men hold them unprofitable and nothing worth, and +be not eaten, but rather thrown out on dunghills. + +The properties of bees are wonderful noble and worthy. For bees have +one common kind as children, and dwell in one habitation, and are +closed within one gate: one travail is common to them all, one meat is +common to them all, one common working, one common use, one fruit and +flight is common to them all, and one generation is common to them +all. + +Also maidenhood of body without wem is common to them all, and so is +birth also. For they are not medlied with service of Venus, nother +resolved with lechery, nother bruised with sorrow of birth of +children. And yet they bring forth most swarms of children. + +Bees make among them a king, and ordain among them common people. And +though they be put and set under a king, yet they are free and love +their king that they make, by kind love, and defend him with full +great defence, and hold [it] honour and worship to perish and be spilt +for their king, and do their king so great worship that none of them +dare go out of their house, nor to get meat, but if the king pass out +and take the principality of flight. And bees chose to their king him +that is most worthy and noble in highness and fairness, and most clear +in mildness, for that is chief virtue in a king. For though their king +have a sting yet he useth it not in wreck. And also bees that are +unobedient to the king, they deem themselves by their own doom for to +die by the wound of their own sting. And of a swarm of bees is none +idle. Some fight, as it were in battle, in the field against other +bees, some are busy about meat, and some watch the coming of showers. +And some behold concourse and meting of dues, and some make wax of +flowers, and some make cells now round, now square with wonder binding +and joining, and evenness. And yet nevertheless, among so diverse +works none of them doth espy nor wait to take out of other's travail, +neither taketh wrongfully, neither stealeth meat, but each seeketh and +gathereth by his own flight and travail among herbs and flowers that +are good and convenable. + +Bees sit not on fruit but on flowers, not withered but fresh and new, +and gather matter of the which they make both honey and wax. And when +the flowers that are nigh unto them be spent, then they send spies for +to espy meat in further places. And if the night falleth upon them in +their journey, then they lie upright to defend their wings from rain, +and from dew, that they may in the morrow tide fly the more swifter to +their work with their wings dry and able to fly. And they ordain +watches after the manner of castles, and rest all night until it be +day, till one bee wake them all with twice buzzing or thrice, or with +some manner trumping; then they fly all, if the day be fair on the +morrow. And the bees that bring and bear what is needful, dread blasts +of wind, and fly therefore low by the ground when they be charged, +lest they be letted with some manner of blasts, and charge themselves +sometimes with gravel or with small stones, that they may be the more +stedfast against blasts of wind by heaviness of the stones. + +The obedience of bees is wonderful about the king, for when he passeth +forth, all the swarm in one cluster passeth with him. And he is +beclipped about with the swarm, as it were with an host of knights. +And is then unneth seen that time for the multitude that followeth and +serveth him, and when the people of bees are in travail, he is within, +and as it were governor, and goeth about to comfort others for to +work. And only he is not bound to travail. And all about him are +certain bees with stings, as it were champions, and continual wardens +of the king's body. And he passeth selde out, but when all the swarm +shall go out. His outgoing is known certain days tofore by voice of +the host, as it were arraying itself to pass out with the king. + +The culvour is messager of peace, ensample of simpleness, clean of +kind, plenteous in children, follower of meekness, friend of company, +forgetter of wrongs. The culvour is forgetful. And therefore when the +birds are borne away, she forgetteth her harm and damage, and leaveth +not therefore to build and breed in the same place. Also she is nicely +curious. For sitting on a tree, she beholdeth and looketh all about +toward what part she will fly, and bendeth her neck all about as it +were taking avisement. But oft while she taketh avisement of flight, +ere she taketh her flight, an arrow flieth through her body, and +therefore she faileth of her purpose, as Gregory saith. + +Also as Ambrose saith, in Egypt and in Syria a culvour is taught to +bear letters, and to be messager out of one province into another. For +it loveth kindly the place and the dwelling where it was first fed and +nourished. And be it never so far borne into far countries, always it +will return home again, if it be restored to freedom. And oft to such +a culvour a letter is craftily bound under the one wing, and then it +is let go. Then it flieth up into the air, and ceaseth never till it +come to the first place in which it was bred. And sometimes in the way +enemies know thereof, and let it with an arrow, and so for the letters +that it beareth, it is wounded and slain, and so it beareth no letter +without peril. For oft the letter that is so borne is cause and +occasion of the death of it. + +The crow is a bird of long life, and diviners tell that she taketh +heed of spyings and awaitings, and teacheth and sheweth ways, and +warneth what shall fall. But it is full unlawful to believe, that God +sheweth His privy counsel to crows. It is said that crows rule and +lead storks, and come about them as it were in routs, and fly about +the storks and defend them, and fight against other birds and fowls +that hate storks. And take upon them the battle of other birds, upon +their own peril. And an open proof thereof is: for in that time, that +the storks pass out of the country, crows are not seen in places there +they were wont to be. And also for they come again with sore wounds, +and with voice of blood, that is well known, and with other signs and +tokens and show that they have been in strong fighting. Also there it +is said, that the mildness of the bird is wonderful. For when father +and mother in age are both naked and bare of covering of feathers, +then the young crows hide and cover them with their feathers, and +gather meat and feed them. + +The raven beholdeth the mouths of her birds when they yawn. But she +giveth them no meat ere she know and see the likeness of her own +blackness, and of her own colour and feathers. And when they begin to +wax black, then afterward she feedeth them with all her might and +strength. It is said that ravens' birds are fed with dew of heaven all +the time that they have no black feathers by benefit of age. Among +fowls, only the raven hath four and sixty changings of voice. + +The swan feigneth sweetness of sweet songs with accord of voice, and +he singeth sweetly for he hath a long neck diversely bent to make +divers notes. And it is said that, in the countries that are called +Hyperborean, the harpers harping before, the swans' birds fly out of +their nests and sing full merrily. Shipmen trow that it tokeneth good +if they meet swans in peril of shipwreck. Always the swan is the most +merriest bird in divinations. Shipmen desire this bird for he dippeth +not down in the waves. When the swan is in love he seeketh the female, +and pleaseth her with beclipping of the neck, and draweth her to him- +ward; and he joineth his neck to the female's neck, as it were binding +the necks together. + +Phoenix is a bird, and there is but one of that kind in all the wide +world. Therefore lewd men wonder thereof, and among the Arabs, there +this bird is bred, he is called singular--alone. The philosopher +speaketh of this bird and saith that phoenix is a bird without make, +and liveth three hundred or five hundred years: when the which years +are past, and he feeleth his own default and feebleness, he maketh a +nest of right sweet-smelling sticks, that are full dry, and in summer +when the western wind blows, the sticks and the nest are set on fire +with burning heat of the sun, and burn strongly. Then this bird +phoenix cometh willfully into the burning nest, and is there burnt to +ashes among these burning sticks, and within three days a little worm +is gendered of the ashes, and waxeth little and little, and taketh +feathers and is shapen and turned to a bird. Ambrose saith the same in +the Hexameron: Of the humours or ashes of phoenix ariseth a new bird +and waxeth, and in space of time he is clothed with feathers and wings +and restored into the kind of a bird, and is the most fairest bird +that is, most like to the peacock in feathers, and loveth the +wilderness, and gathereth his meat of clean grains and fruits. Alan +speaketh of this bird and saith, that when the highest bishop Onyas +builded a temple in the city of Heliopolis in Egypt, to the likeness +of the temple in Jerusalem, on the first day of Easter, when he had +gathered much sweet-smelling wood, and set it on fire upon the altar +to offer sacrifice, to all men's sight such a bird came suddenly, and +fell into the middle of the fire, and was burnt anon to ashes in the +fire of the sacrifice, and the ashes abode there, and were busily kept +and saved by the commandments of the priests, and within three days, +of these ashes was bred a little worm, that took the shape of a bird +at the last, and flew into the wilderness. + +The crane is a bird of great wings and strong flight, and flieth high +into the air to see the countries towards the which he will draw. And +is a bird that loveth birds of his own kind, and they living in +company together have a king among them and fly in order. And the +leader of the company compelleth the company to fly aright, crying as +it were blaming with his voice. And if it hap that he wax hoarse, then +another crane cometh after him, and taketh the same office. And after +they fall to the earth crying, for to rest, and when they sit on the +ground, to keep and save them, they ordain watches that they may rest +the more surely, and the wakers stand upon one foot, and each of them +holdeth a little stone in the other foot, high from the earth, that +they may be waked by falling of the stone, if it hap that they sleep. + +A griffin is accounted among flying things (Deut. xiiii.) and there +the Gloss saith, that the griffin is four-footed, and like to the +eagle in head and in wings, and is like to the lion in the other parts +of the body. And dwelleth in those hills that are called Hyperborean, +and are most enemies to horses and men, and grieveth them most, and +layeth in his nest a stone that hight Smaragdus against venomous +beasts of the mountain. + +A pelican is a bird of Egypt, and dwelleth in deserts beside the river +Nile. All that the pelican eateth, he plungeth in water with his foot, +and when he hath so plunged it in water, he putteth it into his mouth +with his own foot, as it were with an hand. Only the pelican and the +popinjay among fowls use the foot instead of an hand. + +The pelican loveth too much her children. For when the children be +haught, and begin to wax hoar, they smite the father and the mother in +the face, wherefore the mother smiteth them again and slayeth them. +And the third day, the mother smiteth herself in her side, that the +blood runneth out, and sheddeth that hot blood on the bodies of her +children. And by virtue of that blood, the birds that were before dead +quicken again. + +Master Jacobus de Vitriaco in his book of the wonders of the Eastern +parts telleth another cause of the death of pelicans' birds. He saith +that the serpent hateth kindly this bird. Wherefore when the mother +passeth out of the nest to get meat, the serpent climbeth on the tree, +and stingeth and infecteth the birds. And when the mother cometh +again, she maketh sorrow three days for her birds, as it is said. Then +(he saith) she smiteth herself in the breast and springeth blood upon +them, and reareth them from death to life, and then for great bleeding +the mother waxeth feeble, and the birds are compelled to pass out of +the nest to get themselves meat. And some of them for kind love feed +the mother that is feeble, and some are unkind and care not for the +mother, and the mother taketh good heed thereto, and when she cometh +to her strength, she nourisheth and loveth those birds that fed her in +her need, and putteth away her other birds, as unworthy and unkind, +and suffereth them not to dwell nor live with her. + +The peacock hath an unsteadfast and evil shapen head, as it were the +head of a serpent, and with a crest. And he hath a simple pace, and +small neck and areared, and a blue breast, and a tail full of eyes +distinguished and high with wonder fairness, and he hath foulest feet +and rivelled. And he wondereth of the fairness of his feathers, and +areareth them up as it were a circle about his head, and then he +looketh to his feet, and seeth the foulness of his feet, and like as +he were ashamed he letteth his feathers fall suddenly, and all the +tail downward, as though he took no heed of the fairness of his +feathers. And as one saith, he hath the voice of a fiend, head of a +serpent, pace of a thief. For he hath an horrible voice. + +In this bird [the vulture] the wit of smelling is best. And therefore +by smelling he savoureth carrions that be far from him, that is beyond +the sea, and ayenward. Therefore the vulture followeth the host that +he may feed himself with carrions of men and of horses. And therefore +(as a Diviner saith), when many vultures come and fly together, it +tokeneth battle. And they know that such a battle shall be, by some +privy wit of kind. He eateth raw flesh, and therefore he fighteth +against other fowls because of meat, and he hunteth fro midday to +night, and resteth still fro the sunrising to that time. And when he +ageth, his over bill waxeth long and crooked over the nether, and [he] +dieth at the last for hunger. + +And some men say, by error of old time, that the vulture was sometime +a man, and was cruel to some pilgrims, and therefore he hath such pain +of his bill, and dieth for hunger, but that is not lawful to believe. + +Jorath saith, that there is a great fish in the sea, that hight +Bellua, that casteth out water at his jaws with vapour of good smell, +and other fish feel the smell and follow him, and enter and come in at +his jaws following the smell, and he swalloweth them and is so fed +with them. Also he saith that Dolphins know by the smell if a dead +man, that is on the sea, ate ever of Dolphin's kind; and if the dead +man hath eat thereof, he eateth him anon; and if he did not, he +keepeth and defendeth him fro eating and biting of other fish, and +shoveth him, and bringeth him to the cliff with his own working? + +Enchirius is a little fish unneth half a foot long: for though he be +full little of body, nathless he is most of virtue. For he cleaveth to +the ship, and holdeth it still stedfastly in the sea, as though the +ship were on ground therein. Though winds blow, and waves arise +strongly, and wood storms, that ship may not move nother pass. And +that fish holdeth not still the ship by no craft, but only cleaving to +the ship. It is said of the same fish that when he knoweth and feeleth +that tempests of wind and weather be great, he cometh and taketh a +great stone, and holdeth him fast thereby, as it were by an anchor, +lest he be smitten away and thrown about by waves of the sea. And +shipmen see this and beware that they be not overset unwarily with +tempest and with storms. + +The crab is enemy to the oyster. For he liveth by fish thereof with a +wonderful wit. For because that he may not open the hard shell of the +oyster, he spieth and awaiteth when the oyster openeth, and then the +crab, that lieth in await, taketh a little stone, and putteth it +between the shells, that the oyster may not close himself. And when +the closing is so let, the crab eateth and gnaweth the flesh of the +oyster. + +It is said that the whale hath great plenty of sperm, and after that +he gendereth, superfluity thereof fleeteth above the water; and if it +be gathered and dried it turneth to the substance of amber. And in +age, for greatness of body, on his ridge powder and earth is gathered, +and so digged together that herbs and small trees and bushes grow +thereon, so that that great fish seemeth an island. And if shipmen +come unwarily thereby, unneth they scape without peril. For he +throweth as much water out of his mouth upon the ship, that he +overturneth it sometime or drowneth it. + +Also he is so fat that when he is smitten with fishers' darts he +feeleth not the wound, but it passeth throughout the fatness. But when +the inner fish is wounded, then is he most easily taken. For he may +not suffer the bitterness of the salt water, and therefore he draweth +to the shoreward. And also he is so huge in quantity, that when he is +taken, all the country is better for the taking. Also he loveth his +whelps with a wonder love, and leadeth them about in the sea long +time. And if it happeth that his whelps be let with heaps of gravel, +and by default of water, he taketh much water in his mouth, and +throweth upon them, and delivereth them in that wise out of peril, and +bringeth them again into the deep sea. And for to defend them he +putteth himself against all things that he meeteth if it be noyful to +them, and setteth them always between himself and the sun on the more +secure side. And when strong tempest ariseth, while his whelps are +tender and young, he swalloweth them up into his own womb. And when +the tempest is gone and fair weather come, then he casteth them up +whole and sound. + +Also Jorath saith, that against the whale fighteth a fish of serpent's +kind, and is venomous as a crocodile. And then other fish come to the +whale's tail, and if the whale be overcome the other fish die. And if +the venomous fish may not overcome the whale, then he throweth out of +his jaws the whale throweth out of his mouth a sweet smelling smoke, +and putteth off the stinking smell, and defendeth and saveth himself +and his in that manner wise. + + + + +VII + +MEDIAEVAL NATURAL HISTORY--ANIMALS + + +The eighteenth book of the "De Proprietatibus" is devoted to the +properties of animals. It is composed of selections from Pliny and +Aristotle, from the works of the mediaeval physicians and romancers, +from Magister Jacobus de Vitriaco, from the "Historia Alexandri Magni +de Proeliis," from Physiologus and the Bestiarium. + +The editor has been obliged to reduce some of these extracts to make +room for others. Among these the reader will find many examples of +those legends, which made up the popular Natural History of early +days, originally imported from the East through Spain and Italy. The +memory of these survives even now in our popular locutions. "Licked +into shape" refers to the tale we give in our account of the bear. The +royal nature of the lion is a commonplace: Jonson and Spenser speak of +the sweet breath of the panther. Drayton, in his "Heroical Epistles," +quotes the siren and the hyena as examples: + + "To call for aid, and then to lie in wait, + So the hyena murthers by deceit, + By sweet enticement sudden death to bring, + So from the rocks th' alluring mermaids sing." + +Trevisa has invented an adjective for us that expresses the midnight +caterwaul--"ghastful." Bartholomew probably suffered from those two +minor curses of humanity--the amorous cat and the wandering cur. But +he has preserved for us a noble eulogy of the dog, and has a reference +to the tale of the dog of Montargis, the standing example of canine +fidelity among a chivalrous folk. + +It is said, that in India is a beast wonderly shapen, and is like to +the bear in body and in hair, and to a man in face. And hath a right +red head, and a full great mouth, and an horrible, and in either jaw +three rows of teeth distinguished atween. The outer limbs thereof be +as it were the outer limbs of a lion, and his tail is like to a wild +scorpion, with a sting, and smiteth with hard bristle pricks as a wild +swine, and hath an horrible voice, as the voice of a trumpet, and he +runneth full swiftly, and eateth men. And among all beasts of the +earth is none found more cruel, nor more wonderly shape, as Avicenna +saith. And this beast is called Baricos in Greek. + +The boar is so fierce a beast, and also so cruel, that for his +fierceness and his cruelness, he despiseth and setteth nought by +death, and he reseth full piteously against the point of a spear of +the hunter. And though it be so that he be smitten or sticked with a +spear through the body, yet for the greater ire and cruelness in heart +that he hath, he reseth on his enemy, and taketh comfort and heart and +strength for to wreak himself on his adversary with his tusks, and +putteth himself in peril of death with a wonder fierceness against the +weapon of his enemy, and hath in his mouth two crooked tusks right +strong and sharp, and breaketh and rendeth cruelly with them those +which he withstandeth. And useth the tusks instead of a sword. And +hath a hard shield, broad and thick in the right side, and putteth +that always against his weapon that pursueth him, and useth that brawn +instead of a shield to defend himself. And when he spieth peril that +should befall, he whetteth his tusks and frotteth them, and assayeth +in that while fretting against trees, if the points of his tusks be +all blunt. And if he feel that they be blunt, he seeketh a herb which +is called Origanum, and gnaweth it and cheweth it, and cleanseth and +comforteth the roots of his teeth therewith by vertue thereof. + +The ass is fair of shape and of disposition while he is young and +tender, or he pass into age. For the elder the ass is, the fouler he +waxeth from day to day, and hairy and rough, and is a melancholy +beast, that is cold and dry, and is therefore kindly heavy and slow, +and unlusty, dull and witless and forgetful. Nathless he beareth +burdens, and may away with travail and thraldom, and useth vile meat +and little, and gathereth his meat among briars and thorns and +thistles.... And the ass hath another wretched condition known to nigh +all men. For he is put to travail over-night, and is beaten with +staves, and sticked and pricked with pricks, and his mouth is wrung +with a bernacle, and is led hither and thither, and withdrawn from +leas and pasture that is in his way oft by the refraining of the +bernacle, and dieth at last after vain travails, and hath no reward +after his death for the service and travail that he had living, not so +much that his own skin is left with him, but it is taken away, and the +carrion is thrown out without sepulture or burials; but it be so much +of the carrion that by eating and devouring is sometimes buried in the +wombs of hounds and wolves. + +And such [adders] lie in await for them that sleep: and if they find +the mouth open of them or of other beasts, then they creep in: for +they love heat and humour that they find here. But against such adders +a little beast fighteth that hight Saura, as it were a little ewt, and +some men mean that it is a lizard; for when this beast is aware that +this serpent is present, then he leapeth upon his face that sleepeth, +and scratcheth with his feet to wake him, and to warn him of the +serpent. And when this little beast waxeth old, his eyen wax blind, +and then he goeth into an hole of a wall against the east, and openeth +his eyen afterward when the sun is risen, and then his eyen heat and +take light. + +This slaying adder and venomous hath wit to love and affection, and +loveth his mate as it were by love of wedlock, and liveth not well +without company. Therefore if the one is slain, the other pursueth him +that slew that other with so busy wreak and vengeance, that passeth +weening. And knoweth the slayer, and reseth on him, be he in never so +great company of men and of people, and busieth to slay him, and +passeth all difficulties and spaces of ways, and with wreak of the +said death of his mate. And is not let, ne put off, but it be by swift +flight, or by waters or rivers. Marcianus saith that the asp grieveth +not men of Africa or Moors; for they take their children that they +have suspect, and put them to these adders: and if the children be of +their kind, this adder grieveth them not, and if they be of other +kind, anon they die by venom of the adder. + +An oxherd hight Bubulcus, and is ordained by office to keep oxen: He +feedeth and nourisheth oxen, and bringeth them to leas and home again: +and bindeth their feet with a langhaldes and spanells and nigheth and +cloggeth them while they be in pasture and leas, and yoketh and maketh +them draw at the plough: and pricketh the slow with a goad, and maketh +them draw even. And pleaseth them with whistling and with song, to +make them bear the yoke with the better will for liking of melody of +the voice. And this herd driveth and ruleth them to draw even, and +teacheth them to make even furrows: and compelleth them not only to +ear, but also to tread and to thresh. And they lead them about upon +corn to break the straw in threshing and treading the flour. And when +the travail is done, then they unyoke them and bring them to the +stall: and tie them to the stall, and feed them thereat. + +The cockatrice hight Basiliscus in Greek, and Regulus in Latin; and +hath that name Regulus of a little king, for he is king of serpents, +and they be afraid, and flee when they see him. For he slayeth them +with his smell and with his breath: and slayeth also anything that +hath life with breath and with sight. In his sight no fowl nor bird +passeth harmless, and though he be far from the fowl, yet it is burned +and devoured by his mouth. But he is overcome of the weasel; and men +bring the weasel to the cockatrice's den, where he lurketh and is hid. +For the father and maker of everything left nothing without remedy. +Among the Hisperies and Ethiopians is a well, that many men trow is +the head of Nile, and there beside is a wild beast that hight +Catoblefas, and hath a little body, and nice in all members, and a +great head hanging always toward the earth, and else it were great +noying to mankind. For all that see his eyen, should die anon, and the +same kind hath the cockatrice, and the serpent that is bred in the +province of Sirena; and hath a body in length and in breadth as the +cockatrice, and a tail of twelve inches long, and hath a speck in his +head as a precious stone, and feareth away all serpents with hissing. +And he presseth not his body with much bowing, but his course of way +is forthright, and goeth in mean. He drieth and burneth leaves and +herbs, not only with touch but also by hissing and blast he rotteth +and corrupteth all things about him. And he is of so great venom and +perilous, that he slayeth and wasteth him that nigheth him by the +length of a spear, without tarrying; and yet the weasel taketh and +overcometh him, for the biting of the weasel is death to the +cockatrice. And nevertheless the biting of the cockatrice is death to +the weasel. And that is sooth, but if the weasel eat rue before. And +though the cockatrice be venomous without remedy, while he is alive, +yet he loseth all the malice when he is burnt to ashes. His ashes be +accounted good and profitable in working of Alchemy, and namely in +turning and changing of metals. + +Nothing is more busy and wittier than a hound, for he hath more wit +than other beasts. And hounds know their own names, and love their +masters, and defend the houses of their masters, and put themselves +wilfully in peril of death for their masters, and run to take prey for +their masters, and forsake not the dead bodies of their masters. We +have known that hounds fought for their lords against thieves, and +were sore wounded, and that they kept away beasts and fowls from their +masters' bodies dead. And that a hound compelled the slayer of his +master with barking and biting to acknowledge his trespass and guilt. +Also we read that Garamantus the king came out of exile, and brought +with him two hundred hounds, and fought against his enemies with +wondrous hardiness. + +Other hounds flee and avoid the wood hound as pestilence and venom: +and he is always exiled as it were an outlaw, and goeth alone wagging +and rolling as a drunken beast, and runneth yawning, and his tongue +hangeth out, and his mouth drivelleth and foameth, and his eyes be +overturned and reared, and his ears lie backward, and his tail is +wrinkled by the legs and thighs; and though his eyes be open, yet he +stumbleth and spurneth against every thing. And barketh at his own +shadow.... Pliny saith that under the hound's tongue lieth a worm that +maketh the hound wood, and if this worm is taken out of the tongue, +then the evil ceaseth.... Also an hound is wrathful and malicious, so +that for to awreak himself, he biteth oft the stone that is thrown to +him: and biteth the stone with great woodness, that he breaketh his +own teeth, and grieveth not the stone, but his own teeth full sore. +Also he is guileful and deceivable, and so oft he fickleth and fawneth +with his tail on men that pass by the way, as though he were a friend, +and biteth them sore if they take none heed backward. And the hound +hateth stones and rods, and is bold and hardy among them that he +knoweth, and busieth to bite and to fear all other, and is not bold +when he passeth among strangers. Also the hound is envious, and +gathereth herbs privily, and is right sorry if any man know the virtue +of those herbs, as is also evil apaid if any strange hounds and +unknown come into the place where he dwelleth; and dreadeth lest he +should fare the worse for the other hound's presence, and fighteth +with him therefore. Also he is covetous and scarce, and busy to lay up +and to hide the relief that he leaveth. And therefore he commoneth +not, nor giveth flesh and marrow-bones that he may not devour to other +hounds: but layeth them up busily, and hideth them until he hungereth +again.... And at the last the hound is violently drawn out of the +dunghill with a rope or with a whip bound about his neck, and is +drowned in the river, or in some other water, and so he endeth his +wretched life. And his skin is not taken off, nor his flesh is not +eaten or buried, but left finally to flies, and to other divers worms. + +In Pontus is a manner kind of beasts, that dwelleth now in land and +now in water, and maketh houses and dens arrayed with wonder craft in +the brinks of rivers and of waters. For these beasts live together in +flocks, and love beasts of the same kind, and come together and cut +rods and sticks with their teeth, and bring them home to their dens in +a wonder wise, for they lay one of them upright on the ground, instead +of a sled or of a dray, with his legs and feet reared upward, and lay +and load the sticks and wood between his legs and thighs, and draw him +home to their dens, and unlade and discharge him there, and make their +dwelling places right strong by great subtlety of craft. In their +houses be two chambers or three distinguished, as it were three +cellars, and they dwell in the over place when the water ariseth, and +in the nether when the water is away, and each of them hath a certain +hole properly made in the cellar, by the which hole he putteth out his +tail in the water, for the tail is of fishy kind, it may not without +water be long kept without corruption. + +If the crocodile findeth a man by the brim of the water, or by the +cliff, he slayeth him if he may, and then he weepeth upon him, and +swalloweth him at the last. + +The Dragon is most greatest of all serpents, and oft he is drawn out +of his den, and riseth up into the air, and the air is moved by him, +and also the sea swelleth against his venom, and he hath a crest with +a little mouth, and draweth breath at small pipes and straight, and +reareth his tongue, and hath teeth like a saw, and hath strength, and +not only in teeth, but also in his tail, and grieveth both with biting +and with stinging, and hath not so much venom as other serpents: for +to the end to slay anything, to him venom is not needful, for whom he +findeth he slayeth, and the elephant is not secure of him, for all his +greatness of body. Oft four or five of them fasten their tails +together, and rear up their heads, and sail over sea and over rivers +to get good meat. Between elephants and dragons is everlasting +fighting, for the dragon with his tail bindeth and spanneth the +elephant, and the elephant with his foot and with his nose throweth +down the dragon, and the dragon bindeth and spanneth the elephant's +legs, and maketh him fall, but the dragon buyeth it full sore: for +while he slayeth the elephant, the elephant falleth upon him and +slayeth him. Also the elephant seeing the dragon upon a tree, busieth +him to break the tree to smite the dragon, and the dragon leapeth upon +the elephant, and busieth him to bite him between the nostrils, and +assaileth the elephant's eyen, and maketh him blind sometime, and +leapeth upon him sometime behind, and biteth him and sucketh his +blood. And at the last after long fighting the elephant waxeth feeble +for great blindness, in so much that he falleth upon the dragon, and +slayeth in his dying the dragon that him slayeth. The cause why the +dragon desireth his blood, is coldness of the elephant's blood, by the +which the dragon desireth to cool himself. Jerome saith, that the +dragon is a full thirsty beast, insomuch that unneth he may have water +enough to quench his great thirst; and openeth his mouth therefore +against the wind, to quench the burning of his thirst in that wise. +Therefore when he seeth ships sail in the sea in great wind, he flieth +against the sail to take their cold wind, and overthroweth the ship +sometimes for greatness of body, and strong rese against the sail. And +when the shipmen see the dragon come nigh, and know his coming by the +water that swelleth ayenge him, they strike the sail anon, and scape +in that wise. + +Horses be joyful in fields, and smell battles, and be comforted with +noise of trumpets to battle and to fighting; and be excited to run +with noise that they know, and be sorry when they be overcome, and +glad when they have the mastery. And so feeleth and knoweth their +enemies in battle so far forth that they a-rese on their enemies with +biting and smiting, and also some know their own lords, and forget +mildness, if their lords be overcome: and some horses suffer no man to +ride on their backs, but only their own lords. And many horses weep +when their lords be dead. And it is said that horses weep for sorrow, +right as a man doth, and so the kind of horse and of man is medlied. +Also oft men that shall fight take evidence and divine and guess what +shall befall, by sorrow or by the joy that the horse maketh. Old men +mean that in gentle horse, noble men take heed of four things, of +shape, and of fairness, of wilfulness, and of colour. + +In his forehead when he is foaled is found Iconemor, a black skin of +the quantity of a sedge, that hight also Amor's Veneficium; and the +mother licketh it off with her tongue, and taketh it away and hideth +it or eateth it. For women that be witches use that skin in their +sayings, when they will excite a man to love.... The colt is not +littered with straw, nor curried with an horse comb, nor arrayed with +trapping and gay harness, nor smitten with spurs, nor saddled with +saddle, nor tamed with bridle, but he followeth his mother freely, and +eateth grass, and his feet be not pierced with nails, but he is +suffered to run hither and thither freely: but at the last he is set +to work and to travail, and is held and tied and led with halters and +reins, and taken from his mother, and may not suck his dam's teats; +but he is taught in many manner wise to go easily and soft. And he is +set to carts, chariots, and cars, and to travel and bearing of +horsemen in chivalry: and so the silly horse colt is foaled to divers +hap of fortune. Isidore saith, that horses were sometime hallowed in +divers usage of the gods. + +Among beasts the elephant is most of virtue, so that unneth among men +is so great readiness found. For in the new moon they come together in +great companies, and bathe and wash them in a river, and lowte each to +other, and turn so again to their own places, and they make the young +go tofore in the turning again; and keep them busily and teach them to +do in the same wise: and when they be sick, they gather good herbs, +and ere they use the herbs they heave up the head, and look up toward +heaven, and pray for help of God in a certain religion. And they be +good of wit, and learn well: and are easy to teach, insomuch that they +be taught to know the king and to worship him, and busy to do him +reverence and to bend the knees in worship of him. If elephants see a +man coming against them that is out of the way in the wilderness, for +they would not affray him, they will draw themselves somewhat out of +the way, and then they stint, and pass little and little tofore him, +and teach him the way. And if a dragon come against him, they fight +with the dragon and defend the man, and put them forth to defend the +man strongly and mightily: and do so namely when they have young +foals, for they dread that the man seeketh their foals. And therefore +they purpose first to deliver them of the man, that they may more +securely feed their children and keep them the more warily.... +Elephants be best in chivalry when they be tame: for they bear towers +of tree, and throw down sheltrons, and overturn men of arms, and that +is wonderful; for they dread not men of arms ranged in battle, and +dread and flee the voice of the least sound of a swine. When they be +taken, they be made tame and mild with barley: and a cave or a ditch +is made under the earth, as it were a pitfall in the elephant's way, +and unawares he falleth therein. And then one of the hunters cometh to +him and beateth and smiteth him, and pricketh him full sore. And then +another hunter cometh and smiteth the first hunter, and doth him away, +and defendeth the elephant, and giveth him barley to eat, and when he +hath eaten thrice or four times, then he loveth him that defended him, +and is afterward mild and obedient to him. I have read in Physiologus' +book that the elephant is a beast that passeth all other four-footed +beasts in quantity, in wit, and in mind. For among other doings +elephants lie never down in sleeping; but when they be weary they lean +to a tree and so rest somewhat. And men lie in wait to espy their +resting places privily, for to cut the tree in the other side: and the +elephant cometh and is not aware of the fraud, and leaneth to the tree +and breaketh it with the weight of his body, and falleth down with the +breaking, and lieth there. And when he seeth he may not help himself +in falling he crieth and roareth in a wonder manner: and by his noise +and crying come suddenly many young elephants, and rear up the old +little and little with all their strength and might: and while they +arear him with wonder affection and love, they bend themselves with +all their might and strength. ... Also there is another thing said +that is full wonderful: among the Ethiopians in some countries +elephants be hunted in this wise: there go in the desert two maidens +all naked and bare, with open hair of the head: and one of them +beareth a vessel, and the other a sword. And these maidens begin to +sing alone: and the beast hath liking when he heareth their song, and +cometh to them, and licketh their teats, and falleth asleep anon for +liking of the song, and then the one maid sticketh him in the throat +or in the side with a sword, and the other taketh his blood in a +vessel, and with that blood the people of the same country dye cloth, +and done colour it therewith. + +Satyrs be somewhat like men, and have crooked nose and horns in the +forehead, and like to goats in their feet. Saint Anthony saw such a +one in the wilderness, as it is said, and he asked what he was, and he +answered Anthony, and said: "I am deadly, and one of them that +dwelleth in the wilderness." These wonderful beasts be divers: for +some of them be called Cyno[ce]phali, for they have heads as hounds, +and seem by the working, beasts rather than men, and some be called +Cyclops, and have that name, for one of them hath but one eye, and +that in the middle of the forehead, and some be all headless and +noseless, and their eyen be in the shoulders, and some have plain +faces without nostrils, and the nether lips of them stretch so, that +they hele therewith their faces when they be in the heat of the sun: +and some of them have closed mouths, in their breasts only one hole, +and breathe and suck as it were with pipes and veins, and these be +accounted tongueless, and use signs and becks instead of speaking. +Also in Scythia be some with so great and large ears, that they spread +their ears and cover all their bodies with them, and these be called +Panchios.... And other be in Ethiopia, and each of them have only one +foot so great and so large, that they beshadow themselves with the +foot when they lie gaping on the ground in strong heat of the sun; and +yet they be so swift, that they be likened to hounds in swiftness of +running, and therefore among the Greeks they be called Cynopodes. Also +some have the soles of their feet turned backward behind the legs, and +in each foot eight toes, and such go about and stare in the desert of +Lybia. The griffin is a beast with wings, and is four footed: and +breedeth in the mountains Hyperborean, and is like to the lion in all +the parts of the body, and to the eagle only in the head and wings. +And griffins keep the mountains in which be gems and precious stones, +and suffer them not to be taken from thence. + +The hyena is a cruel beast like to the wolf in devouring and gluttony, +and reseth on dead men, and taketh their carcase out of the earth, and +devoureth them. It is his kind to change sex, for he is now found +male, and now female, and is therefore an unclean beast, and cometh to +hoveys by night, and feigneth man's voice as he may, for men should +trow that it is a man. Pliny saith: It is said he is one year male and +another female. And she bringeth forth her brood without male, as the +common people trow. But Aristotle denieth that. And hath the neck of +the adder, and the ridge of an elephant, and may not bend but if he +bear all the body about. And herds tell that among stables, he +feigneth speech of mankind, and calleth some man by his own name, and +rendeth him when he hath him without. And he feigneth oft the name of +some man, for to make hounds run out, that he may take and eat +them.... And his shadow maketh hounds leave barking and be still, if +he come near them. And if this beast hyena goeth thrice about any +beast, that beast shall stint within his steps. Pliny saith that the +hyena hateth the panther. And it is said that if both their skins be +hanged together, the hair of the panther's skin shall fall away. This +beast hyena fleeth the hunter, and draweth toward the right side, to +occupy the trace of the man that goeth before: and if he cometh not +after, he telleth that he goeth out of his wit, or else the man +falleth down off his horse. And if he turn against the hyena, the +beast is soon taken, as magicians tell. And also witches use the heart +of this beast and the liver, in many witchcrafts. + +Some lions be short with crisp hair and mane, and these lions fight +not; and some lions have simple hair of mane, and those lions have +sharp and fierce hearts, and by their foreheads and tails their virtue +is known in the beast, and their stedfastness in the head: and when +they be beset with hunters, then they behold the earth, for to dread +the less the hunters and their gins, that them have beset about: and +he dreadeth noise and rushing of wheels, but he dreadeth fire much +more. And when they sleep their eyes wake: and when they go forth or +about, they hele and hide their fores and steps, for hunters should +not find them.... It is the kind of lions, not to be wroth with man, +but if they be grieved or hurt. Also their mercy is known by many and +oft examples: for they spare them that lie on the ground, and suffer +them to pass homeward that were prisoners and come out of thraldom, +and eat not a man or slay him but in great hunger. Pliny saith that +the lion is in most gentleness and nobility, when his neck and +shoulders be heled with hair and main. And he that is gendered of the +pard, lacketh that nobility. The lion knoweth by smell, if the pard +gendereth with the lioness, and reseth against the lioness that +breaketh spousehood, and punisheth her full sore, but if she wash her +in a river, and then it is not known. The lion liveth most long, and +that is known by working and wasting of his teeth: and when in age he +reseth on a man: for his virtue and might faileth to pursue great +beasts and wild. And then he besiegeth cities to ransom and to take +men: but when the lions be taken, then they be hanged, for other lions +should dread such manner pain. The old lion reseth woodly on men, and +only grunteth on women, and reseth seldom on children, but in great +hunger.... In peril the lion is most gentle and noble, for when he is +pursued with hounds and with hunters, the lion lurketh not nor hideth +himself, but sitteth in fields where he may be seen, and arrayeth +himself to defence. And runneth out of wood and covert with swift +running and course, as though he would account vile shame to lurk and +to hide himself. And he hideth himself not for dread that he hath, but +he dreadeth himself sometime, only for he would not be dreaded. And +when he pursueth man or beast in lands, then he leapeth when he reseth +on him. When he is wounded, he taketh wonderly heed, and knoweth them +that him first smiteth, and reseth on the smiter, though he be never +in so great multitude: and if a man shoot at him, the lion chaseth him +and throweth him down, and woundeth him not, nor hurteth him.... He +hideth himself in high mountains, and espieth from thence his prey. +And when he seeth his prey he roareth full loud, and at the voice of +him other beasts dread and stint suddenly: and he maketh a circle all +about them with his tail, and all the beasts dread to pass out over +the line of the circle, and the beasts stand astonied and afraid, as +it were abiding the hest and commandment of their king.... And he is +ashamed to eat alone the prey that he taketh; therefore of his grace +of free heart, he leaveth some of his prey to other beasts that follow +him afar.... And the lion is hunted in this wise: One double cave is +made one fast by that other, and in the second cave is set a whiche, +that closeth full soon when it is touched: and in the first den and +cave is a lamb set, and the lion leapeth therein, when he is an +hungered, for to take the lamb. And when he seeth that he may not +break out of the den, he is ashamed that he is beguiled, and would +enter in to the second den to lurk there, and falleth smell, if the +pard gendereth with the lioness, and reseth against the lioness that +breaketh spousehood, and punisheth her full sore, but if she wash her +in a river, and then it is not known. The lion liveth most long, and +that is known by working and wasting of his teeth: and when in age he +reseth on a man: for his virtue and might faileth to pursue great +beasts and wild. And then he besiegeth cities to ransom and to take +men: but when the lions be taken, then they be hanged, for other lions +should dread such manner pain. The old lion reseth woodly on men, and +only grunteth on women, and reseth seldom on children, but in great +hunger.... In peril the lion is most gentle and noble, for when he is +pursued with hounds and with hunters, the lion lurketh not nor hideth +himself, but sitteth in fields where he may be seen, and arrayeth +himself to defence. And runneth out of wood and covert with swift +running and course, as though he would account vile shame to lurk and +to hide himself. And he hideth himself not for dread that he hath, but +he dreadeth himself sometime, only for he would not be dreaded. And +when he pursueth man or beast in lands, then he leapeth when he reseth +on him. When he is wounded, he taketh wonderly heed, and knoweth them +that him first smiteth, and reseth on the smiter, though he be never +in so great multitude: and if a man shoot at him, the lion chaseth him +and throweth him down, and woundeth him not, nor hurteth him.... He +hideth himself in high mountains, and espieth from thence his prey. +And when he seeth his prey he roareth full loud, and at the voice of +him other beasts dread and stint suddenly: and he maketh a circle all +about them with his tail, and all the beasts dread to pass out over +the line of the circle, and the beasts stand astonied and afraid, as +it were abiding the hest and commandment of their king.... And he is +ashamed to eat alone the prey that he taketh; therefore of his grace +of free heart, he leaveth some of his prey to other beasts that follow +him afar.... And the lion is hunted in this wise: One double cave is +made one fast by that other, and in the second cave is set a whiche, +that closeth full soon when it is touched: and in the first den and +cave is a lamb set, and the lion leapeth therein, when he is an +hungered, for to take the lamb. And when he seeth that he may not +break out of the den, he is ashamed that he is beguiled, and would +enter in to the second den to lurk there, and falleth into it, and it +closeth anon as he is in, and letteth him not pass out thereof, but +keepeth him fast therein, until he be taken out and bound with chains +till he be tame.... The lion is cruel and wood when he is wroth, and +biteth and grieveth himself for indignation, and gnasheth with his +teeth, and namely when he hungreth, and spieth and lieth in wait, to +take beasts which pass by the way. He hideth himself in privy caves, +and reseth on beasts unawares, and slayeth them with his teeth and +claws, and breaketh all their members, and eateth them piecemeal: and +if he see any come against him to take away his prey, then he +beclippeth the prey, and grunteth and smiteth the earth with his tail, +and if he nigheth him he leapeth on him, and overcometh him, and +turneth to the prey. First he drinketh and licketh the blood of the +beast that he slayeth, and rendeth and haleth the other-deal limb- +meal, and devoureth and swalloweth it. + +The leopard is a beast most cruel, and is gendered in spouse-breach of +a pard and of a lioness, and pursueth his prey startling and leaping +and not running, and if he taketh not his prey in the third leap, or +in the fourth, then he stinteth for indignation, and goeth backward as +though he were overcome. And he is less in body than the lion, and +therefore he dreadeth the lion, and maketh a cave under earth with +double entering, one by which he goeth in, and the other by which he +goeth out. And that cave is full wide and large in either entering, +and more narrow and straight in the middle. And so when the lion +cometh, he fleeth and falleth suddenly into the cave, and the lion +pursueth him with a great rese, and entereth also into the cave, and +weeneth there to have the mastery over the leopard, but for greatness +of his body he may not pass freely by the middle of the den which is +full straight, and when the leopard knoweth that the lion is so let +and holden in the straight place, he goeth out of the den forward, and +cometh again into the den in the other side behind the lion, and +reseth on him behindforth with biting and with claws, and so the +leopard hath often in that wise the mastery of the lion by craft and +not by strength, so the less beast hath oft the mastery of the strong +beast by deceit and guile in the den, and dare not rese on him openly +in the field, as Homer saith in the book of the battles and wiles of +beasts. + +Churls speak of him [the wolf] and say that a man loseth his voice, if +the wolf seeth him first. Therefore to a man that is suddenly still, +and leaveth to speak it is said, "Lupus est in fabula," "The wolf is +in the tale." And certainly if he know that he is seen first, he +loseth his boldness, hardihood, and fierceness. The wolf is an evil +beast, when he eateth, and resteth much when he hath no hunger: he is +full hardy, and loveth well to play with a child, if he may take him; +and slayeth him afterward, and eateth him at the last. It is said, +that if the wolf be stoned, he taketh heed of him that threw the first +stone, and if that stone grieveth him he will slay him: and if it +grieveth him not, and he may take him that throweth that stone, he +doth him not much harm, but some harm he doth him as it were in wrath, +and leaveth him at last.... The wolf may not bend his neck backward in +no month of the year but in May alone, when it thundereth. And when he +goeth by night to a fold for to take his prey, he goeth against the +wind for hounds should not smell him. And if it happeth in any wise +that his foot maketh noise, treading upon anything, then he chasteneth +that foot with hard biting.... I have read in a book that a string +made of a wolf's gut, put among harp strings made of the guts of +sheep, destroyeth and corrupteth them, as the eagle's feathers put +among culvours', pulleth and gnaweth them, if they be there left +together long in one place. + +He [the cat] is a full lecherous beast in youth, swift, pliant, and +merry, and leapeth and reseth on everything that is to fore him: and +is led by a straw, and playeth therewith: and is a right heavy beast +in age and full sleepy, and lieth slyly in wait for mice: and is aware +where they be more by smell than by sight, and hunteth and reseth on +them in privy places: and when he taketh a mouse, he playeth +therewith, and eateth him after the play. In time of love is hard +fighting for wives, and one scratcheth and rendeth the other +grievously with biting and with claws. And he maketh a ruthful noise +and ghastful, when one proffereth to fight with another: and unneth is +hurt when he is thrown down off an high place. And when he hath a fair +skin, he is as it were proud thereof, and goeth fast about: and when +his skin is burnt, then he bideth at home; and is oft for his fair +skin taken of the skinner, and slain and flayed. + +Physiologus speaketh of the Panther and saith that he hateth the +dragon, and the dragon fleeth him: and when he hath eat enough at +full, he hideth him in his den, and sleepeth continually nigh three +days, and riseth after three days and crieth, and out of his mouth +cometh right good air and savour, and is passing measure sweet: and +for the sweetness all beasts follow him. And only the dragon is a- +feared when he heareth his voice, and fleeth into a den, and may not +suffer the smell thereof; and faileth in himself, and looseth his +comfort. For he weeneth that his smell is very venom. + +All four-footed beasts have liking to behold the divers colours of the +panther and tiger, but they are a-feared of the horribleness of their +heads, and therefore they hide their heads, and toll the beasts to +them with fairness of that other-deal of the body, and take them when +they come so tolled, and eat them. + +The mermaid is a sea beast wonderly shapen, and draweth shipmen to +peril by sweetness of song. The Gloss on Is. xiii. saith that sirens +are serpents with crests. And some men say, that they are fishes of +the sea in likeness of women. Some men feign that there are three +Sirens some-deal maidens, and some-deal fowls with claws and wings, +and one of them singeth with voice, and another with a pipe, and the +third with an harp, and they please so shipmen, with likeness of song, +that they draw them to peril and to shipbreach, but the sooth is, that +they were strong hores, that drew men that passed by them to poverty +and to mischief. And Physiologus saith it is a beast of the sea, +wonderly shapen as a maid from the navel upward and a fish from the +navel downward, and this wonderful beast is glad and merry in tempest, +and sad and heavy in fair weather. With sweetness of song this beast +maketh shipmen to sleep, and when she seeth that they are asleep, she +goeth into the ship, and ravisheth which she may take with her, and +bringeth him into a dry place, and maketh him first lie by her, and if +he will not or may not, then she slayeth him and eateth his flesh. Of +such wonderful beasts it is written in the great Alexander's story. + +The tiger is the swiftest beast in flight, as it were an arrow, for +the Persees call an arrow Tigris, and is a beast distinguished with +divers specks, and is wonderly strong and swift. And Pliny saith that +they be beasts of dreadful swiftness, and that is namely known when he +is taken, for the whelp is all glimy and sinewy; and the hunter lieth +in await, and taketh away the whelps, and fleeth soon away on the most +swift horse that he may have. And when the wild beast cometh and +findeth the den void, and the whelps away, then he reseth headlong, +and taketh the fore of him that beareth the whelps away, and followeth +him by smell, and when the hunter heareth the grutching of that beast +that runneth after him, he throweth down one of the whelps; and the +mother taketh the whelp in her mouth, and beareth him into her den and +layeth him therein, and runneth again after the hunter. But in the +meantime the hunter taketh a ship, and hath with him the other whelps, +and scapeth in that wise; and so she is beguiled and her fierceness +standeth in no stead, and the male taketh no wood rese after. For the +male recketh not of the whelps, and he that will bear away the whelps, +leaveth in the way great mirrors, and the mother followeth and findeth +the mirrors in the way, and looketh on them and seeth her own shadow +and image therein, and weeneth that she seeth her children therein, +and is long occupied therefore to deliver her children out of the +glass, and so the hunter hath time and space for to scape, and so she +is beguiled with her own shadow, and she followeth no farther after +the hunter to deliver her children. + +Avicenna saith that the bear bringeth forth a piece of flesh imperfect +and evil shapen, and the mother licketh the lump, and shapeth the +members with licking.... For the whelp is a piece of flesh little more +than a mouse, having neither eyes nor ears, and having claws some-deal +bourgeoning, and so this lump she licketh, and shapeth a whelp with +licking.... And it is wonder to tell a thing, that Theophrastus saith +and telleth that bear's flesh sodden that time (of their sleeping) +vanisheth if it be laid up, and is no token of meat found in the +almery, but a little quantity of humour.... When he is taken he is +made blind with a bright basin, and bound with chains, and compelled +to play, and tamed with beating; and is an unsteadfast beast, and +unstable and uneasy, and goeth therefore all day about the stake, to +the which he is strongly tied. He licketh and sucketh his own feet, +and hath liking in the juice thereof. He can wonderly sty upon trees +unto the highest tops of them, and oft bees gather honey in hollow +trees, and the bear findeth honey by smell, and goeth up to the place +that the honey is in, and maketh a way into the tree with his claws, +and draweth out the honey and eateth it, and cometh oft by custom unto +such a place when he is an-hungered. And the hunter taketh heed +thereof, and pitcheth full sharp hooks and stakes about the foot of +the tree, and hangeth craftily a right heavy hammer or a wedge tofore +the open way to the honey. And then the bear cometh and is an- +hungered, and the log that hangeth there on high letteth him: and he +putteth away the wedge despiteously, but after the removing the wedge +falleth again and hitteth him on the ear. And he hath indignation +thereof, and putteth away the wedge despiteously and right fiercely, +and then the wedge falleth and smiteth him harder than it did before, +and he striveth so long with the wedge, until his feeble head doth +fail by oft smiting of the wedge, and then he falleth down upon the +pricks and stakes, and slayeth himself in that wise. Theophrastus +telleth this manner hunting of bears, and learned it of the hunters in +the country of Germany. + +A fox is called Vulpes, and hath that name as it were wallowing feet +aside, and goeth never forthright, but always aslant and with fraud. +And is a false beast and deceiving, for when him lacketh meat, he +feigneth himself dead, and then fowls come to him, as it were to a +carrion, and anon he catcheth one and devoureth it. The fox halteth +always, for the right legs are shorter than the left legs. His skin is +right hairy rough and hot, his tail is great and rough; and when an +hound weeneth to take him by the tail, he taketh his mouth full of +hair and stoppeth it. The fox doth fight with the brock for dens, and +defileth the brock's den, and hath so the mastery over him with fraud +and deceit, and not by strength.... The fox feigneth himself tame in +time of need, but by night he waiteth his time and doeth shrewd deeds. +And though he be right guileful in himself and malicious, yet he is +good and profitable in use of medicine. + + + + +THE SOURCES OF THE BOOK + +ADAMANTIUS (fl. 258). Origen it quoted under this name. His +commentaries on the Old Testament are the works quoted from. + +AEGIDIUS CORBOLIENSIS, of Corbeil (d. 1220). A doctor at Montpellier, +and Canon of Paris. + +ALANUS DE INSULIS, OR DE RYSSEL (d. 1202). A monk of Canterbury, most +probably an Englishman. His principal work is a poem in 9 books, +called ANTI-CLAUDIANUS, largely quoted by all Middle Age writers. An +account of it is given in the notes on the Secreta Secretorum +(E.E.T.S.). He also wrote DE PLANCTU NATURAE, PARABOLAE, etc. + +ALBERTUS MAGNUS (1193-1280). A famous doctor in the University of +Paris and a Dominican Theologian. The works quoted are commentaries on +the Natural Histories of Aristotle. They have often been printed. He +was teacher of Thomas Aquinas and a contemporary of our author. + +ALBUMAZAR (d. 886). An Arab astronomer. + +ALCUIN (735-804). An English theologian: the work quoted is his "De +Septem Artibus." + +ALEXANDER NECKHAM, OR NEQUAM (1157-1217). His principal work is "De +Naturis Rerum," a book little known on the Continent. Its use by +Bartholomew is thus another proof of his English birth. + +ALFARAGUS (9th cent.). An Arab astronomer, whose work is notable as +being the chief source of the celebrated astronomical treatise, "The +Sphere," of Johannes Sacrobosco (John of Halifax), a contemporary +Englishman. It was the popular text-book for over three centuries, and +was as well known as Euclid. + +ALFREDUS ANGLICUS (fl. 1200). A physician and translator of Aristotle. +See JACOB'S AESOP for a discussion on his works. + +AL GHAZEL (1061-1137). A sceptic opponent of Averroes. + +AMBROSE (d. 397). The Hexameron is the work used. + +ANSELM (1033-1109). Theologian, Archbishop of Canterbury. The inventor +of Scholasticism. + +ARCHELAUS. A Greek geographer. + +ARISTOTLE (384-322 B.C.). I would refer the reader to BRÈCHILLET +JOURDAIN on the EARLY TRANSLATIONS OF ARISTOTLE, where he will find a +mine of information on the works of this writer used in the Middle +Age. + +AUGUSTINE (d. 430). + +AURORA, THE. A metrical version of the Bible by PETRUS DE RIGA, Canon +of Rheims (d. 1209). + +AVERROES (d. 1217). Moorish commentator on Aristotle. + +AVICEBRON (d. 1070), OR IBN GEBIROL. A Spanish Jew. Author of the +FONTIS VITA. A work translated by Gundisalvi, of the greatest +influence on the Metaphysic of the Middle Age. See MUNCK, MÉLANGES. + +AVICENNA (980-1036). An Arab physician, and commentator on Aristotle. + +AYMON, OR HAYMON (d. 1244). An English Franciscan, afterwards General +of the Order, who revised the breviary and rubrics. + +BASIL (329-379). In HEXAMERON. + +BEDE (673-735). The work by which he was best known in the thirteenth +century was not his History but the works on the _Calendar_, etc. + +BELETH, JOHN (before 1165). A French writer on ecclesiastical matters. + +BERNARD (1091-1153). + +BESTIARIUM. A collection of early myths on animals; of Eastern origin. +There are many different forms of this work. All are founded on +Physiologus. + +BOETHIUS (470-526). His treatise on arithmetic is the work quoted +here. His "Consolation" was almost unknown in the early Middle Age, +his popularity resting on his translations of Aristotle and his +treatises on Music and Arithmetic, the latter being a very important +work in the history of the science. + +CALLISTHENES, PSEUDO-. Author of the HISTORIA ALEXANDRI MAGNI DE +PRELIIS. See BUDGE'S Syriac Version of this work. + +CASSIODORUS (480-575). DE SEPTEM DISCIPLINIS. One of the favourite +Middle Age Text-Books. + +CATO (233-151 B.C.). On AGRICULTURE. + +CHALCIDIUS (3rd cent.). A commentator on the TIMAEUS of Plato. Only a +part of this is preserved. + +CICERO (107-44 B.C.). In SOMN. SCIPIONIS. + +CONSTANTINUS AFER (d. 1087). A Benedictine monk of Monte Cassino, and +most probably the introducer of Arab medicine into Italy. He wrote the +VIATICUM and the PANTEGNA (20 books). He introduced Arab medicine into +Europe through the School of Salerno, translating many Arab authors. + +CYPRIAN (d. 285). A Syriac astrologer, afterwards Bishop of Antioch, +and Martyr in the Diocletian persecution. + +DAMASCENE (11th cent.). Quoted by Constantinus Afer. A physician. + +DAMASCENE, JOHN (end of 12th cent.). An Arab physician. + +DAMASCIUS (circ. 533). A Syrian commentator on Aristotle, who took +refuge in Persia. Author of a work on wonders quoted by Photius. + +DIOSCORIDES (d. 47 B.C.). + +DIONYSIUS AREOPAGITUS, PSEUDO- (circ. 400). DE CELESTI HIERARCHIA, DE +DIVINIS NOMINIBUS. + +DONATUS (333). A Grammarian. + +EUFICIUS (circ. 600). A disciple of Gregory. + +FULGENTIUS (circ. 550). A grammarian. + +GALEN (131-210). + +GILBERTUS (circ. 1250). A celebrated English physician in France; +wrote COMPENDIUM MEDICINAE. + +GREGORY (circ. 590). On Job. + +HALY (circ. 1000). A Jewish physician. Wrote a PANTEGNI or +COMPLEMENTUM MEDICINAE. The first medical work translated by +Constantius Afer. + +HERMES. In ALCHEMIA (not now extant). + +HIPPOCRATES (460-351 B.C.). + +HUGUTION PIZANUS (d. 1210). A jurisconsult and writer on Grammar. + +HYGINUS, PSEUDO- (6th cent.). Writer on Astronomy. + +INNOCENT III. (d. 1216). Wrote "De Contemptu Mundi," etc. + +ISAAC (circ. 660). An Arab physician, who translated many Greek +authors into Arabic. + +ISIDORE (d. 636). Bishop of Seville. He wrote a work on Etymology in +20 books, one of the most popular works of the Middle Age. + +JACOBUS DE VITRIACO (d. 1240). A Crusading Bishop, afterwards Cardinal +legate. Wrote an EXEMPLAR, and 3 books of Eastern and Western History. + +JEROME (340-420). + +JOSEPH BEN GORION (900). Abridgment of Jewish History containing many +legends. + +JOSEPHUS (37-95). Jewish historian. + +JORATH. DE ANIMALIBUS. A Syriac writer (?). + +LAPIDARIUM. See MARBODIUS DE GEMMIS. There are many treatises under +this name. + +LEO IX. (1054). See Migne, Patrologia. + +LUCAN (d. 65). One of the most popular Latin poets of the Middle Age. + +MACER FLORIDUS (6th cent.). On THE VIRTUES OF HERBS. + +MACROBIUS (circ. 409). His commentary on the dream of Scipio was a +favourite work in Medieval times. + +MARTIANUS CAPELLA (circ. 400). Wrote a poem, THE MARRIAGE OF MERCURY +AND PHILOLOGIA, treating of THE SEVEN LIBERAL ARTS, which was the +standard text-book from the 5th century for the schools. + +MESSAHALA (circ. 1100). + +METHODIUS, PSEUDO- (8th cent.). DE AGARINI. + +MICHAEL SCOT (circ. 1235). At this time concerned in the translation +of some Arabic works on Astronomy, and Aristotle's DE COELO and DE +MUNDO DE ANIMA, and HISTORIA NATURALIS with commentaries. + +MISALATH ASTROLOGUS (?). + +PAPIAS (circ. 1053). Grammarian. [Milan, 1467, etc.] + +PERSPECTIVA SCIENCIA. I cannot say whether this is Bacon's, Peckham's, +or Albertus Magnus', but I believe it to be Peckham's, who was an +Englishman, and afterwards Archbishop of Canterbury. + +PETRUS COMESTOR (d. 1198). Named MAGISTER HISTORIARUM or Master of +Histories, wrote an account of the world from the Creation, which, +when translated into French, was called the "Mer des Histoires." A +favourite Medieval book. + +PHILARETUS (1100). A writer on Medicine. + +PHYSIOLOGUS. A Syriac compilation of moralities on animal myths. It +first appears in Western Europe as THEOBALDUS DE NATURIS XII. +ANIMALIUM. Of Alexandrian origin, it dates from before the fourth +century, and appears to have been altered at the will of each writer. + +PLATEARIUS SALERNITANUS (circ. 1100) was Johannes, one of a family of +physicians at Salerno. His work is called the PRACTICA. A book on the +virtues of herbs. [Lugd., 1525, etc.] + +PLATO (430-348 B.C.). The TIMAEUS is quoted, probably from Chalcidius. + +PLINY (d. 79). Natural History. This and Isidore's work are the two +chief sources of medieval knowledge of Nature. + +PRISCIAN (circ. 525). Grammarian and physicist. + +PTOLEMY (circ. 130). An Alexandrian astronomer, known through Arabic +translations only at that time. [Ven., 1509, etc.] + +RABANUS MAURUS (776-856) of Fulda, pupil of Alcuin. A Benedictine, +afterwards Archbishop of Mayence, who wrote DE UNIVERSO MUNDO. [1468; +Col., 1627, etc.] + +RASIS (d. 935). An Arab physician, perhaps the greatest of the School. +[Ven., 1548, etc.] + +REMIGIUS (d. 908). A teacher of Grammar in the School of Paris. His +grammar remained in use there four centuries. He wrote a gloss on +Marcianus Capella. + +RICARDUS DE ST. VICTOR (d. 1173). A Scottish theologian, Prior of St. +Victor. A mystic of considerable acuteness. [Ven., 1506, etc.] + +RICARDUS RUFUS (circ. 1225). A Cornishman who was a doctor in great +renown, both at Oxford and Paris. He afterwards joined the +Franciscans. + +ROBERTUS LINCOLN., GROSTÊTE (d. 1253), the celebrated Bishop of +Lincoln and patron of Bacon. Taught at Paris and at Oxford. +Commentaries on Aristotle. + +SALUSTIUS (d. 363?). DE DIIS ET MUNDO. A geographer. + +SCHOLA SALERNITANA (circ. 1100). A treatise on the preservation of +health in leonine verse for popular use, said to be addressed to +Robert of England. It has been translated and commented on hundreds of +times. The Middle Age very sensibly thought preservation from disease +a branch of medicine equally important with the cure of it. + +SECUNDUS. A writer on Medicine. + +SOLINUS (circ. 100). Wrote an account of things in general-- +POLYHISTORIA. + +STEPHANUS (circ. 600). Commentary on Galen. + +STRABUS (d. 847). A Benedictine, Abbot of Reichenau, near Constance. +One of the authors of the Gloss. + +SYMON CORNUBIENSIS (?). + +VARRO, M. T. (116-26 B.C.). Most celebrated grammarian. + +VIRGIL (70-19 B.C.). + +WILLIAM CONCHES (d. 1150). Lectured at Paris, 1139, on Grammar, wrote +DE NATURA. + +ZENO (circ. 400), A writer on Medicine, and teacher at Alexandria. + +_This list of Authorities cited is that given at the end of the +complete work of Bartholomew._ + + + + +BIBLIOGRAPHY + +_Latin Editions_ + + + Date. Place Printer. Remarks. + +HC *2500 Pr 8530 Pell 1867 1480 July 29 Lyon . Philippi & Reinhard. +HC 2501 1048 1868 1481 Köln . Koelhoff +HC 2502 8573 1869 1482 Nov. 21 Lyon . Petrus of Hungary +HC 2503 8531a 1870 1482 Dec. 10 Lyon . Philippi & Reinhard. +HC *2504 1055 1871 1483 Jan. 19 Köln . Koelhoff. +H 2505 2036 1872 1483 May 30 Nürnberg Koberger +H *2506 592 1873 1485 Feb. 14 Strassburg Press xv. +HC *2507 3130 1874 1488 May 23 Heidelberg Press i. +H 2508 .. .. 1488 Strassburg (Panzer I 36, 139) +HC *2509 665 1875 1491 Aug. 11 Strassburg Press xv. +HC *2510 2073 1876 1492 June 20 Nürnberg Koberger +H 2511 .. .. 1495 Strassburg (Panzer I 52, 286) +HC *2498 1105 1865 n.d. Köln Press viii. [circ 1473] + formerly attributed to Zell. +HC *2499 7452 1866 n.d. Basel Ruppel.[circ 1468] + 10003 .. 1505 Aug. 11 Strassburg Husner. + 11131 .. 1519 May 11 Nürnberg Peypus f.J.Koberger + .. 1571 Venezia (Graesse III. 92) + .. 1574 Paris. (Graesse III. 92) + .. 1575 Strassburg (Graesse III. 92) + .. 1601 Frankfurt Richter B.M. + .. 1609 Frankfurt Stein Bib. Nat. + + +_Dutch Version_ + +H 2521 1479 ? ? +HC 2522 9173 1886 1485 Haarlem Bellaert + +Note--Pr. = Proctor. + + + +_French Version by Jehan Corbichon in_ 1372 + + Date Place Printer Remarks +HC 2514 Pr 8556 Pell 1880 . 1482 Nov.12 Lyon Huss. +HC 2518 8561 1882 . 1485 Oct.23 Lyon Huss. +HC 2515 .. 1881 . 1485-[6],Jan.26 Lyon Le Roy +H 2516 .. 1883 . 1487, April 7 Lyon Huss. +HC 2517 8564 1884 . 1491-[2],Mar.15 Lyon Huss. + .. 1885 . 1496-[7] Lyon Huss. (Cop. II 884) +HC 2519 .. .. . 1500 Lyon Le Diamantier +HC 2513 8540 1879 . n.d. Lyon Siber (c.1482) + .. 1877 . ? Lyon? Imperfect +HC 2512 .. 1878 . n.d. Paris for A. Verard + .. 1510 Paris for Petit& Lenoir + (Brunet II 1622) + .. 1512 Rouen n.p. (Brunet II + 1622) + .. 1518 Paris for Petit & Lenoir +Bib.Nat. + .. 1525 Paris P. Lenoir B.M. + .. 1528,May 5 Paris Gandoul Voynich. + .. c. 1530 [Paris] B.M. + .. 1539 Paris Longis B.M. + .. 1556 Paris L'Anglier +(Brunet II 1623), Grasse says 1566 + .. 1556 Paris Groulleau Bib. Nat. + .. 1556 Paris De Banville Bib. +Nat. + .. 1556 Paris M.Boursette B.M. +Bib Nat. + + +_Spanish Version by Fr. Vincent de Burgos_ + +HC 2523 Pr 8722 Pell 1887 1494,Sep.18 Toulouse Mayer + 1556 Toledo De Avila B.M. + +_English Version by John of Trevisa in_ 1397 + +HC 2520 Pr 9725 n.d. Westminster W. de Worde +[c.1495] + 1535 London Berthelet B.M. + 1582 London East B.M. + + + + +BIBLIOGRAPHY + + +The first edition of this selection was published at London in 1893. + +The 1535 edition has 8 unpaged leaves (title, table, prologue, and +Book I.), 338 numbered leaves, and printer's mark of Lucretia. The +following errors in pagination are noted: 181 for 189, 197 for 187, +201 for 200, 203 for 201, 211 for 209. + +The chief point of interest in the Bibliography is the question raised +by Wynkyn de Worde's positive statement in his edition in his +epilogue: + + And also of your charyte call to remembraunce + The soule of William Caxton first prynter of this boke + In latin tonge at Coleyn hymself to avaunce + That every well disposyd man may theron loke + And John Tate the yonger Joy mote he broke + Which late hathe in Englond doo make this paper thynne + That now in our Englyssh this boke is prynted Inne. + +Mr. Gordon Duff is disposed to think that Caxton may have worked on +the undated Cologne edition (H.C. *2498), which must in that case be +put before 1476, finding a link between his Bruges type and the +Cologne presses in a work printed at Louvain in 1475 which contains +type of both descriptions. + +Most of these editions are in the British Museum. The copy of the +Berthelet edition there has an autograph of Shakespeare in it--one of +the Ireland forgeries. + + + + +GLOSSARY + + +Accord, _n._, harmony +According, _part._, punning, or in harmony +Adamant, _n._, a diamond +Addercop, _n._, a spider +Afeard, _part._, affrighted +Afore, _prep._, before +Almery, _n._, a cupboard, a buttery +Anon, _adv._, immediately +Apaid, _v._, served, repaid +Apaired, _adj._, injured, impaired +Areared, _adj._, upright +Assay, _v._, to try +Aught, _n._, anything +Avisement, _n._, forethought, counsel +Away with, _v._, to suffer +Awreak, _v._, revenge +Ayencoming, _n._, returning +Ayenge, _prep._, against +Ayenward, _adv._, vice versa + +Bate, _v._, _hawking_, to flutter the wings as if preparing +for flight +Bays, _n._, the fruit of the laurel +Because, _conj._, in order that +Beclip, _v._, embrace, enfold +Behind forth, _adv._, from back to front +Behooteth, _v._, advises, gives +Behove, _v._, to be necessary +Bernacle, _n._, a bridle +Beshine, _v._, to illuminate +Bisse, _n._, a second +Blemish, _v._, shrink, blench +Blow, _v._, to obtain lead, etc., from ores in a furnace +Boisterous, boystous, _adj._, thick, strong, solid +Bourgeon, _v._, to bud, burst forth +Bray, _v._, to pound +Brock, _n._, a badger +Buck, _v._, to wash +Busily, _adv._, carefully +But, _prep._, except + +Car, _n._, means or instrument +Carfle, _v._, to pound +Carrions, _n._, corpses +Cast, _v._, to intend +Chaffer, _n._, trade +Chine, _n._, chink, cleft +Clarity, _n._, clearness +Clepe, _v._, call +Cliff, _n._, shore +Clue, _n._, a clew or hank (of yarn) +Comfort, _v._, to strengthen +Common, _v._, to share one's food with others and ayenward +Conject, _v._, conjecture +Coverture, _n._, covering +Craftily, _adv._, skilfully +Culvour, _n._, pigeon +Curtel, _n,_, a kirtle, a short coat, a covering + +Deadly, _adv._, mortal +Deeming, _n._, judgment, opinion +Default, _n._, deficiency +Depart, _v._, to separate, share out +Despiteously, _adv._, contemptuously +Detty, _adj._, generous +Disperple, _v._, to scatter, destroy +Do, done, _v._, to put, to don +Doomsman, _n._, judge +Draust, _n._, dross, impurity + +Ear, _v._, to reap +Else, _adv._, otherwise +Enform, _v._, to make +Even tofore, _adv._, opposite to +Expert, _adv._, tried + +Fare, _v._, to happen +Fear, _v. a._, to frighten +Fell, _n._, an undressed skin +Fen, _n._, clay +Fine, _n._, a boundary +Fleet, _v._, to float, to swim; _cf_. "to flit" +Flux, _n._, a flow, a catarrh +Fore, _n._, trail, spoor; _cf_. "foor" +Frot, _v._, to rub +Fumous, _adj._, vaporous, cloudy +Fumosity, _n._, vapour +Fundament, _n._, foundation + +Gentle, _adj._, noble, high-minded +Gesses, _n._, jesses, cords for fastening the legs of a hawk +Gete, _n._, goats +Ghastful, _adj._, frightful +Gin, _a._, machine +Glad, _v. a._, to please +Glimy, _adj._, slimy +Gloss, _n._, the comment on Scripture, compiled in the ninth +century from the fathers +Glue, _n._. any glutinous substance +Gnod, _v._, to rub? +Grieve, _v._, to hurt +Grutching, _n._, growling +Gutter, _n._, drop + +Hale, _v._, to drag +Hap, _n._, chance +Hards, hirds, _n._, tow +Haught, _part._, hatched +Heckle, _v._, to straighten out lint by a coarse comb +Hele, _v._, to cover; _cf._, heling +Hight, _v._, is called +Hoar, _adj._, feathered + +Hop, _n._, the seed case of the flaxplant +Horrible, _adj._, unpleasant to hear +Housebond, _n._, husband +Hovey, _part._, hovel, cottage +Hoving, _part._, staying + +Infect, _adj._, spotted, injured +Intendment, _n._, understanding + +Jape, _v._, to cry out + +Kele, _v._, to cool +Kind, _n._, nature +Kindly, _adj._, natural; _adv._, naturally + +Langhaldes, _n._, ropes connecting the fore and hind legs of a +horse or cow to stay it from jumping +Latten, _n._, a kind of brass +Lea, _n._, pasture land +Lesings, _n._, untruths +Let, _v._, to hinder +Lewd, _adj._, ignorant +Liefer, _adv._, rather +Likelihood, _n._, resemblance +Limb, _n._, an instrument; _cf._, "limb of the law" +Limbmeal, _adv._, limb by limb; _cf._, "piecemeal" +List, _n._, a limit, border +Lodesman, _n._, pilot +Lowte, _v._, to trumpet + +Make, _n._, a mate +Manner, _adj._, manner of, kind of +Mawmet, _n._, an idol or toy +Mean, _n._, intermediary, means +Mean, _v._, to assert, consider +Medley, _v._, to mix +Meinie, _n._, domestics, household +Merry, _adj._, fortunate +Meselry, _n._, leprosy Mess,_n._, portion +Messager, _n._, messenger +Mete, _v._, measure, apportion +Mews, _n._, originally a place in which hawks were kept "mewed +up" +Mildness, _n._, generosity +Minish, _v._, to narrow +Mirror, _n._, seems to have been used only when the surface was +curved, the word "shewer" being used for a plane mirror +Mistake, _v._, to take wrongly + +Namely, _adj._, especially +Nathless, _con._, nevertheless +Ne, _con._, nor +Needly, _adj._, necessarily +Nerve, _n._, sinew +Nesh, _adj._, soft +Nether, _adj._, lower +Nice, _adj._, silly, small, trifling +Nicely, _adv._, sillily +Nother, _con._, neither +Noyful, _adj._, noxious, hurtful +Noying, _n._, harm + +Ordinate, _adj._, ordered, prescribed +Otherdeal, _adv._, otherwise +Overthwart, _adj._, crossed over on itself + +Passing, _adj._, surpassing +Patent, _n._, a plate or paten (patine) +Pight, _adj._, put, pitched +Powder, _n._, dust of any kind +Pricket, _n._, a spike used for candlestick, hence a candle +Principles, _n._, indecomposable elements +Pure, _v.a._, to purify +Pursueth, _v_, suiteth? + +Quicken, _v.i._, to come to life +Quiver, _adj._, nimble, active + +Ramaious, _adj._, (_hawking_), slow +Ravish, _v._, to snatch +Reclaim, _n._, (_hawking_}, the calling back of a hawk +Refudation, _n._, a process in which vinegar is poured on lead, +distilled off, and again suffered to act on it +Relief, _n._, a dessert +Rese, _v._, to rush on anyone +Resolve, _v._, to loosen, weaken, to dissolve +Rheum, _n._, salt humour +Ribbed, _adj._, beaten with a "rib," in dressing flax +Ridge, _n._, the back bone +Riever, _n._, a violent, robber, a raider +Rivelled, _adj._, wrinkled +Rively, _adv._, wrinkled, shrunk +Rodded, _adj._, separated from tow--"redded" +Routs, _n._, crowds +Ruthful, _adj._, sorrowful + +Sad, _adj._, steadfast, solid +Sanguine, _adj._, blood-like +Scarce, _adj._, sparing, avaricious +Seethe, _v._, to boil +Selde, _adv._, seldom +Sele, _v._, to cover +Shamefast, _adj._, shamefaced +Sheltrons, _n._, palisades +Shern, _adj._, shore +Shewer, _n._, a looking-glass +Shingle, _n._, in _roofing_, brushwood, or small boards +Shipbreach, _n._, shipwreck +Shore, _adj._, shorn (of the hair) +Shrewd, _adj._, bitter; _cf._, shrew +Silly, _adj._, blessed, _hence_ innocent, _hence_ +simple +Sinew, _n._, a nerve +Slubber, _v._, to do anything carelessly +Smirch, _v._, to soil +Sod, _adj._, stewed +Solar, _n._, an upper floor +Solemn, _adj._, celebrated, earnest +Somedeal, _adv._, somewhat +Sometime, _adv._, once +Sooth, _n._, truth +Spanells, _n._, ropes connecting the fore or hind feet of an +animal to impede its movements + +Spousehood, _n._, marriage +Spousebreach, _n._, adultery +Spronge, _adj._, sprinkled +Stare, _v._, to stay +Startling, _part._, leaping and jumping +Stint, _v._, to stop +Stint, _adj._, stopped +Straight, _adj._, confined +Straited, _adj._, narrowed +Sty, _v._, to climb +Suspect, _adj._, in suspicion + +Tatch, _n._, spot +Tatched, _adj._, spotted +Tewly, livid +Tilth, _v._, to cultivate +Tilth, _n._, tillage +Tofore, _prep._, before +Toll, _v._, to entice +Trow, _v._, to believe; _cf._, trust + +Unmighty, _adj._, unable +Unneth, _adv._, hardly +Uplandish, _adj._, rustic +Utter, _adj._, outer + +Very, _adj._, true + +Wait, _n._, a guard +Wanhope, _n._, despair +Warily, _adv._, carefully +Ween, _v._, consider, think +Wem, _n._, blemish, fault +Wend, _adj._, wound up +Werish, _adj._, insipid +Whelk, _n._, a swelling +Whet, _v._, to sharpen +Whiche, _n._, a wicket-gate _cf._, "wych gate" +Wilful, _adj._, of set purpose +Wit, _n._, a sense; _cf_ "out of his wits" +Witty, _adj._, sensibly +Wonder, _adj._, wondrous +Wonderly, _adv._, wondrously +Wood, _adj._, crazy, frantic +Woodness, _n._, madness +Woose, _n._, fluid +Worship, _n._, reverence, authority +Wosen, _n._, the arteries +Wot, _v._, knew +Wrang, _adj._, injured, wrung +Wreak, _n._, revenge +Wreck, _v._, to revenge +Wrecker, _n._, avenger + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Mediaeval Lore from Bartholomew +Anglicus, by Robert Steele + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MEDIAEVAL LORE *** + +This file should be named 6493.txt or 6493.zip + +Produced by Delphine Lettau, Charles Franks +and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team + +Project Gutenberg eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the US +unless a copyright notice is included. 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