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diff --git a/old/65151-0.txt b/old/65151-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 75a5bfc..0000000 --- a/old/65151-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,886 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of How Old Is It? The Story of Dating in -Archeaology, by James Schoenwetter - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: How Old Is It? The Story of Dating in Archeaology - Museum of New Mexico Press, Popular Series Pamphlet No. 2 - -Author: James Schoenwetter - -Illustrator: Mary Spencer - Phyllis Hughes - -Release Date: April 24, 2021 [eBook #65151] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -Produced by: Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed Proofreading - Team at https://www.pgdp.net - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOW OLD IS IT? THE STORY OF DATING -IN ARCHEAOLOGY *** - - - - - HOW OLD IS IT? - - - THE STORY OF DATING IN ARCHAEOLOGY - - - MUSEUM OF NEW MEXICO PRESS - POPULAR SERIES PAMPHLET NO. 2 - - - - - HOW OLD IS IT? - DATING IN ARCHAEOLOGY - _by James Schoenwetter_ - - -There is a whole field of science devoted to the invention and -development of dating methods—or “clocks” as we may think of them. It is -called _geochronology_, the science of dating events. There are -relatively few geochronologists, scientists trained in the use of all -kinds of dating methods and in the theories upon which these methods are -based. - -Geochronologists tell us that there are two major types of clocks: those -that tick at an absolute rate of speed which can be measured, and those -which tick only once in a while. A clock of the first type yields what -is called an _absolute_ date, revealing the number of hours, days, -years, centuries or millennia since an event occurred. A clock of the -second type yields what is called a _relative_ date, placing an event as -before or after another event, but does not tell us exactly how far they -are apart in time nor how long ago they occurred. - -Depending upon how accurate his date must be to solve the problem he has -set for himself, the archaeologist will select absolute or relative -dating methods. Often, of course, the type of clock he wishes to use is -not available, and he must use the next best type. Probably he will try -to use a number of clocks of different kinds on the problem since each -clock will act as a check on the others. - -The absolute clock utilized most widely in archaeology is the historical -record. Men have used calendars for a long time, and have often left -records with written dates. On tombstones at a site in old Virginia, on -the pedestals of statues and other monuments from classical Greece and -Rome, on the walls of the tombs of Egyptian kings, dates are clearly -inscribed which can be related to the sites dug into by the -archaeologists. These dates must often be recalculated in terms of the -Christian calendar which we use. Most calendars in use in the -Mediterranean, the Near East and China during classical antiquity have -been successfully correlated with the one we use today, and a date -inscribed or noted on such sites can be considered in our own terms. -Other calendars, such as those developed in the ancient cultures of the -Maya on the Yucatan Peninsula, have yet to be accurately correlated with -our own. Such calendars can be used on their own terms of course, and a -site which has an inscription in the Mayan calendar is known to be so -many years older or younger than another one with a different date in -that calendar. We speak of such a situation as a _floating chronology_. -That is, the sequence of events and the number of years which separate -them are known, but the dates of those events in absolute time are -unknown. - - [Illustration: (uncaptioned)] - -Tree rings afford another kind of absolute clock, the _dendrological_ -method. Each year a tree adds a growth ring. Depending on the amount of -water the tree has available to it for cell growth, the ring will be -wider or narrower. Certain trees whose water requirements are high live -near streams or other places where their roots can tap a constant supply -of water. Such trees, referred to as _complacent_, have annual rings -which are all of about the same width. Other _sensitive_ trees live in -places where they must depend almost wholly on rainfall for their water -supply, as on the slopes of hills or in the clefts of rocks. Such trees -have annual rings which vary in width depending upon the amount of rain -they receive. In any given area, especially in arid and semiarid -regions, some years have more rainfall than others. The sensitive trees -will produce wider rings during years when there is more rainfall and -narrower rings in years when there is less. Often there are periods of a -decade or so when all of the sensitive trees will produce the same -pattern of ring growth; for example, three years of narrow rings, one -year of wide, two more of narrow and three more of wide. Such a pattern -is called a _signature_. - -Signatures are the basis of tree ring chronologies. All the trees in a -region did not begin growing at the same time of course, but every time -there is a series of years which will produce a signature, all the -sensitive trees still alive will have that signature. Let us say we cut -down a sensitive tree in 1960 and, by counting back the rings, find -signatures at 1940-45, 1910-14, 1880-89, 1821-27, 1795-1800 and 1750-58. -Next we recover a beam from an abandoned Spanish Mission built in 1810. -It happens to be from a sensitive tree, and we can spot the 1795-1800 -and the 1750-58 signatures near the outer rings. Now we have two records -which can be said to be _crossdated_. Let us assume that the Spanish -Mission log give us signatures as far back as 1350. An abandoned Indian -pueblo produces a log with signatures crossdating those of the Spanish -Mission log and continuing the record back to 1250. Older and older -archeological sites will yield older and older signatures with each log -crossdating some of the signatures of younger logs. - -At present we have a tree ring calendar for certain species of trees -extending back to about 100 B.C. This is called a _master tree ring -chronology_. A log from an archaeological site may contain only one or -two signatures and be, in itself, a floating chronology, but by -comparison with the master chronology one can determine the cutting -date. Having a series of cutting dates for the construction timbers in -an archaeological site yields the probable dates at which the site was -built and occupied. - - [Illustration: _Diagram to Illustrate Tree Ring Dating. Reproduced - by special permission from Stallings, “Dating Prehistoric Ruins by - Tree-Rings.”_] - - C THIS BEAM CAME FROM AN OLD HOUSE - B THIS BEAM CAME FROM A HOUSE - A THIS WAS A LIVING TREE WHEN CUT BY US - THE RING PATTERNS MATCH AND OVERLAP BACK INTO TIME - SPECIMENS TAKEN FROM RUINS, WHEN MATCHED AND OVERLAPPED AS INDICATED, - PROGRESSIVELY EXTEND THE DATING BACK INTO PREHISTORIC TIMES. - -Not all kinds of trees can be used for dendrochronology. Pine, fir and -pinyon are the most useful; juniper can sometimes be used. Oak, -cottonwood, willow and others are very difficult to date and frequently -cannot be used at all. - -Another widely used absolute clock is that based upon the orderly -decomposition of carbon. This is the _radiocarbon_ or C-14 method of -dating. Molecules of various substances are made up of atoms. We know -now that not all atoms of a substance are precisely the same. We speak -of _isotopes_ of an atom. To clarify this let us think of the atoms of -carbon as being made up of a mass of ping-pong balls. Some atoms will -have more ping-pong balls than others, but all will have enough and in -the proper order to be carbon atoms. Each of the atoms with 14 ping-pong -balls we shall refer to as the carbon-14 isotope of carbon. There will -be other isotopes of carbon atoms too. - -The carbon-14 isotope is about average in life span. It has been -determined that in any group of C-14 isotopes half of them will lose two -of their ping-pong balls and become C-12 isotopes in 5,730 years, plus -or minus 40. This is known as the _half-life_ of the C-14 isotope. The -“plus or minus 40” allows for laboratory error in terms of years. - -Now all living things contain carbon atoms, and some of those atoms are -C-14 isotopes. The amount of C-14 isotopes in a living organism quickly -reaches a stable percentage after which there is no increase or decrease -while the organism is alive. After it dies, the C-14 supply is not -replenished, and with the passing of 5,730 plus or minus 40 years, it -has half the number of C-14 isotopes it had when alive. In 11,460 plus -or minus 80 years, it will have one quarter as many as it had when -alive. - -The geochronologist takes a certain weight of carbon-bearing matter from -an organism which once lived. With simple chemistry he can determine the -number of carbon atoms in the material, usually charcoal, wood, bone or -shell. He places the material in a chamber equipped with geiger counters -and records the number of C-14 isotopes converting to C-12 isotopes -within a certain number of hours or days. Since he knows how many carbon -atoms there are in the specimen, he knows how many C-14 isotopes there -would be if the specimen were alive. He also knows that as the number of -C-14 atoms decreases the number of clicks on the geiger counter will -decrease too. For example, if there are 2,000 C-14 isotopes, the -decomposition of half of these over a period of approximately 5,730 -years would register 1,000 clicks on the counter. In the next 5,730 year -period there would be 1,000 isotopes left, and only 500 of them would -decompose to register as geiger counter clicks. - -The geochronologist does the counting and analysis of the results and -sends the information back to the archaeologist in the form of the -number of years that have elapsed since the carbon was part of a living -creature; for example, 1,500 plus or minus 150 years BP (before -present). The archaeologist, converting this to the Christian calendar -in 1964, would come up with A.D. 464 plus or minus 150 years. When was -the sample actually alive? We don’t know exactly, but statistically we -have a ninety-five percent chance of being right if we say sometime -between A.D. 164 and 764. This clock ticks in centuries. But the -radiocarbon clock doesn’t tick very long, even in centuries, before -running down. By the time 30,000 to 40,000 years have gone by, the C-14 -in any sample is almost gone, and there is too little left to give -enough geiger counter clicks unless one is willing to wait a lifetime to -record two or three clicks. - -The C-14 dating technique measures time by radioactive decomposition of -materials. There are other clocks which depend on the chemical -decomposition of materials. The forgery of the Piltdown Man fossil was -detected by a dating method which depends on the decomposition of bone -protein and its replacement by fluorine. Fluorine is an element which -occurs naturally as a gas, but which combines readily with other -elements to form compounds. Some of these elements are common in bones. -Since fluorine is one of nature’s most reactive elements, it tends to -escape from the compound it is in and to form other compounds. As the -protein in a bone decays, it is often replaced by fluorine. The amount -of fluorine in old bones, then, is expected to be more than in young -bones since it has had more time to accumulate. Since fluorine does not -accumulate at a constant rate, it affords only a relative measure of -age. - -In the case of Piltdown, a group of bones was discovered at a site, and -was said to contain those of one individual who lived about 60,000 years -ago. Almost 100 years after they were discovered, these bones were put -to the fluorine test. It was found that (1) some of the bones had less -fluorine than others, so not all were of the same antiquity and could -not have belonged to the same individual, (2) the younger bones had as -much fluorine in them as modern bones, and (3) the older bones had more -fluorine in them than bones known to be 60,000 years old. - - [Illustration: (uncaptioned)] - -Another form of absolute dating of importance to archaeology is that -called the _varve_ method. This can only be utilized as an absolute -clock under very special circumstances however. Varves are like tree -rings in a way. In a lake which is sufficiently deep, or at the edge of -a glacier, particles of sediment are being deposited continuously as a -sort of fallout from the water. During the winter, when the glacier -freezes or the density of the water in the lake increases because of the -cooler temperature, less particles are deposited, and those which are -deposited are usually of a characteristic color or texture. During the -summer, when the glacier melts or the lake warms up, more and different -particles are deposited. The bands of deposited sediment are called -varves; every year two varves are formed. Starting from the top, one can -count back the number of years in a varve series. If the top varve is of -known date such as the present year, one has a calendar with each varve -having a known date. Attempts are made to correlate one varve series -with another in order to recover even longer series. If the -archaeologist is lucky, and it is not rare in Europe, there will be -materials from a site buried in the local varve sequence. Counting back -gives an absolute age for the artifacts embedded in the site and thus an -approximate age for the site. The European varve chronology is believed -to extend back to about 9650 B.C. - -Most of the clocks which the archaeologist uses to produce relative -dates, the before-or-after kind, have as their theoretical basis the -principle of _stratigraphy_. In effect the principle of stratigraphy -assumes two things: that the rocks of the earth are constantly wearing -down by erosion, and that things which appear to be alike actually are -alike and are probably more or less the same age. - -If rocks are constantly wearing down, it follows that the surface of the -ground is constantly building up. Thus the surface we walk on is a -younger, higher surface than that which our ancestors walked on. When we -dig below the surface, those things we find which are at higher levels -are younger than those which we find at lower levels. The deeper we dig, -the older things get. - -There is no reason to believe that the rate of deposition on the surface -is the same everywhere. If we dig two feet in one place we may be at a -level which is now five feet below the surface in another location. If -we find a particular object, say a type of pottery, on the surface at -site A and the same kind of pottery five feet below the surface at site -B, we can use the second of our assumptions and maintain that both -pieces are of the same age. Then any objects found at higher levels than -five feet at site B are younger than the piece of pottery and are -younger than anything found at site A. This is the principle of -stratigraphy. - -Like tree rings, objects in _stratigraphic sequence_ can be crossdated. -These sequences may be of various kinds as any object will do. -Distinctive bands of sediment, distinctive artifacts, types of fossils, -specific details of chemistry or any other phenomenon may be used with -varying amounts of success. Suppose we have the following sequences of -objects at sites A and B: - - [Illustration: (uncaptioned)] - - A B - - _Black earth_ _Brown dust_ - _Caliche_ _Black earth_ - _Eroded layer_ _Caliche_ - _Cobbles_ _Yellow silt_ - _Soil_ _Brown silt_ - _Brown silt_ _Eroded layer_ - _Cobbles_ - -Now there are some things that are similar about these two _profiles_ -and other things that are different. Both profiles contain layers of -black earth, caliche, an eroded layer and cobbles. Both profiles contain -pottery, and both contain arrow points. The type of pottery in profile A -is the same as that in profile B, but in B there is brown dust above the -black earth. In profile B the brown silt is above the eroded layer, -while in A it is below the eroded layer. In profile A the arrow points -have different shapes than the ones in profile B. What we need to -correlate the sequences are _horizon markers_, objects that are enough -alike to be in the same time range. - -The pots in both cases look the same and are embedded in the same kind -of sediment, the black earth. They form one horizon. The caliche may be -a horizon marker, but this is not positive since at profile A it is -above the eroded layer, while at profile B it is above the yellow silt. -The eroded layer sits above cobbles at both profiles, which makes the -eroded layer-cobbles complex a pretty good horizon marker. The brown -silt is not a horizon marker because it is above the eroded layer at one -profile and below it at the other. Furthermore, the arrow points which -it contains are not all of the same kind. The correlated sequence, using -the horizon markers, must be as shown in the accompanying chart. - -The stratigraphy proves that the arrowheads in the upper brown silt must -be younger than those in the lower brown silt. The next time we find -arrowheads of the types recovered in the upper brown silt we will know, -regardless of the stratigraphic sequence in the new locality, that they -must be younger than the types found in the lower brown silt, and they -must also be older than pottery of the type found in the black earth. We -won’t know how many years old they are, but we have dated them in the -sense that we know they are older than some things and younger than -others. - -The principle of stratigraphy is one of the archaeologist’s most useful -theoretical tools as it allows one site to be compared with others. Our -example has shown how artifacts (pots and arrowheads in this case) and -sediment types can be placed in stratigraphic order to provide a clock -for archaeological dating. Other objects which are commonly used as -horizon markers in stratigraphic sequences are fossils. Remains of -extinct animals are often used to prove extreme antiquity. Remains of -plants and animals will often indicate similarity of ecological -conditions at two sites and allow them to be crossdated. - - [Illustration: (uncaptioned)] - - _Brown dust_ - _Black earth_ - _Caliche_ - _Yellow silt_ - _Brown silt_ - _Eroded layer_ - _Cobbles_ - _Soil_ - _Brown silt_ - -The _geologic-climatic_ method of dating combines the principle of -stratigraphy with an interpretation of the meaning of natural -occurrences. When geologists demonstrated that the earth had recently -gone through a period when enormous glaciers advanced and retreated -across the northern and southern hemispheres, they began to speculate on -the effects of such conditions on the landscape. The surface would be -scraped down to bare rock by the advancing ice sheet. When the ice -retreated, its load of rocks and cobbles would tend to be left behind, -while the smaller particles of dirt would be flushed away in the rivers -formed by the melting ice. If the archaeologist found tools among the -boulders and cobbles, those tools should date to the period when the -cobble and boulder stratum was formed, the period when the glacier was -retreating. Here the geology gave clues to the climate, and if the age -of the climatic event was known, artifacts associated with the geology -could be dated. - -It is through the geologic-climatic method of dating that archaeologists -discovered that human beings lived in southern Europe at the margin of -the last great glacier, and therefore the date of their occupation was -on the order of 20,000 years ago. - -It is not necessary to use the geologic aspect of geologic-climatic -dating if one has other clues to the climate. Plant and animal fossils -are clues to ancient climates, since living organisms have a tendency to -live in climates to which they are best adapted. If we find the fossil -bones of a giraffe or an ostrich in the Sahara Desert, we can conclude -that at some time in the past the Sahara was not a desert but a veldt, -since giraffes and ostriches live in the veldt today. If stratigraphy -allows us to relate artifacts to those fossils, we can maintain that the -makers of those artifacts lived at the time the veldt existed in what is -now the Sahara area. Now if we can relate the fossils to a date when -such a climate could have obtained in the area, we have a date for the -artifacts. - -Animal fossils are relatively rare, and fossil remains of plants which -can be seen with the naked eye are even rarer. But microscopic pollen -grains are not particularly rare in the stratigraphic sequences of -sediments, and are directly associated with artifacts in many kinds of -sediment. The pollen of most plants is protected by a tough coat like -that on many seeds. Millions of pollen grains are produced by local -vegetation each year, and a percentage of them are buried in the yearly -accumulation of sediment. Once they are buried, the tough outer covering -is preserved. - - [Illustration: (uncaptioned)] - -When pollen grains are extracted from their sediment matrix, the -different types of plants which grew in the area at the time the -sediment was laid down can be recognized from the distinctive -characteristics of their pollen grains. The _pollen analyst_ has the job -of interpreting this information to discover the nature of the -vegetation patterns in the past and the climates associated with them. -Through dating those climates, the artifacts with which the pollen -sample was associated are dated. - -Some archaeological sites do not allow dating by any of these methods. -The farmer plowing a field may pick up an arrowhead and wonder how old -it is. Can the archaeologist date the arrowhead? The answer is a -qualified yes. What the archaeologist will try to do is give an educated -guess as to the age of the arrowhead. He might, for example, know that -arrowheads of that type are found at a site which is dated about A.D. -1000 by various methods. By correlation, he could apply that date. - -If the arrowhead is not of a type which has been reliably dated, the -archaeologist may rely upon the method of dating known as _seriation_. -This method depends on the second assumption basic to the principle of -stratigraphy, that similar objects tend to be about the same age. The -farmer’s arrowhead may not be exactly like any which has ever been -discovered, but it probably will be more like some known ones than -others. Observing the general style of the arrowhead and the way in -which it is made, the archaeologist can make a pretty good estimate of -when it was made. - -Let us assume that the archaeologist goes into an unexplored area where -no absolute or relative dating techniques are available. There he finds -a number of sites with potsherds of types new to archaeology. Can he -date these sites? Again he uses seriation, but this time he inverts the -logical proposition. If things which look alike tend to be of the same -age, things which do not look alike should tend to be of different ages. - -His first task would be to separate all the different types of -potsherds. Taking a specimen of each type, he lays them out in a row. If -there is any difference in the sites through time, the styles of pottery -will change correspondingly. But there will be some styles which change -slowly and some which will influence others. For example, if we were to -seriate the style of automobile rear fenders for the period 1956 to -1964, we would observe that they began to sprout taller and taller fins; -then the size of the fins became reduced more and more. Some of the -style aspects of pre-1956 rear fenders went along with the development -of fins and others dropped out. Some of the style aspects which were -developed with the fins were retained after the fins decreased in size. - -Seriation of the design styles on the potsherds will result in a series -of developments in style which are probably in chronological order. -Broad straight line designs may give way to mixed broad and narrow -straight lines, then to narrow straight lines, then to narrow wavy -lines. The archaeologist could then maintain that sites which have -potsherds with broad straight lines are separate in time from those with -sherds having narrow wavy lines. He won’t know which is the older, -because the sequence could work either way. Stratigraphy or the cultural -similarity between other artifacts at the sites will probably resolve -this problem. - -The reader will now have realized that many of the clocks used by -archaeologists are interrelated. Relative dating clocks such as -stratigraphy, pollen dating and geologic-climatic dating are utilized -together where possible, and all are dependent upon the principle of -stratigraphy. Crossdating is thus of vital importance and is constantly -undertaken. The archaeologist tries to employ both absolute and relative -clocks to find out the age of a site. Stratigraphy yields a series of -relative dates for artifacts within the site; geologic-climatic and -pollen dating yield a series of dates for types of sediment and samples -collected in association with those artifacts; tree ring dates yield the -absolute age of the site which allows the pollen, stratigraphic and -geologic-climatic dates to be comprehended in terms of absolute age. -Radiocarbon dates act as a check on the tree ring dates and, if they -agree, lend support to the pollen and geologic-climatic dates. The -pollen and geologic-climatic dates from the site are compared with -similar dates from other sites as additional checks. Since the clocks -used by the archaeologist tick at different rates of speed, and since -not all of them are dating the same thing, the archaeologist usually -ends with a series of dates for any given site. - -New geochronological techniques are always being invented and perfected. -Here is a list of some that are expected to become available in the next -few years: - -1. The _obsidian hydration_ method. Obsidian, a naturally formed glass, -is so constituted chemically that it takes chemicals from its -environment at a slow rate. As it does so, the outside layer changes -from transparent to translucent or opaque. The depth of the opaque -layer, it is hoped, can be used as a measure of the amount of time since -the surface was exposed. As many artifacts were made by chipping -obsidian to form a sharp edge, this method may reveal the time since an -obsidian artifact was made. - -2. The _thermoluminescence_ method. The chemical properties of certain -minerals change when the minerals are heated to high temperatures. If -they are heated again they will glow, and the amount of time they glow -upon reheating depends on the amount of time that has elapsed since they -were heated originally. As yet the rate has not been accurately -calculated, nor is it yet understood what effect different kinds of -soils and atmospheres may have on this rate. If the method is proven, it -will be invaluable to archaeology since it will afford a way of dating -pottery directly on an absolute time scale. - -3. The _paleomagnetism_ method. When an object containing particles -which can be magnetized is heated, the magnetic particles line up -according to the earth’s magnetic field. When the object cools, the -particles are trapped in this position. We know that the earth’s -magnetic field is changeable, and that at different times it has been -oriented in different directions. Work is now in progress to determine -how the field has varied through time and how successfully one can date -materials such as pottery or hearths which were exposed to high -temperatures in the past by the difference between the present magnetic -field and that trapped in the object. - - - Museum of New Mexico Press - Santa Fe 1965 - - _Illustrations by Mary Spencer - and Phyllis Hughes_ - - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - - -—Silently corrected a few typos. - -—Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook - is public-domain in the country of publication. - -—In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by - _underscores_. - - - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOW OLD IS IT? 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