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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..21bf70c --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #65337 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/65337) diff --git a/old/65337-0.txt b/old/65337-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 0844264..0000000 --- a/old/65337-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,14545 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Age of Justinian and Theodora, Volume 1 -(of 2), by William Gordon Holmes - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: The Age of Justinian and Theodora, Volume 1 (of 2) - A History of the Sixth Century A.D. - -Author: William Gordon Holmes - -Release Date: May 16, 2021 [eBook #65337] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -Produced by: Turgut Dincer, Les Galloway and the Online Distributed - Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was - produced from images generously made available by The Internet - Archive) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE AGE OF JUSTINIAN AND THEODORA, -VOLUME 1 (OF 2) *** - - Transcriber’s Notes - -Obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected. Variations -in hyphenation and accents have been standardised but all other -spelling and punctuation remains unchanged. - -The Errata and Additional Corrections have been incorporated, apart from -those indicated by {} which could not be unambiguously identified. - -Italics are represented thus _italic_, bold thus =bold= and -superscripts thus y^{en}. - - - - - THE AGE OF JUSTINIAN AND - THEODORA - - - LONDON: GEORGE BELL AND SONS - PORTUGAL ST. LINCOLN’S INN, W.C. - CAMBRIDGE: DEIGHTON, BELL & CO. - NEW YORK: THE MACMILLAN CO. - BOMBAY: A. H. WHEELER & CO. - - - - - THE AGE OF JUSTINIAN - AND THEODORA - - A HISTORY OF THE SIXTH CENTURY A.D. - - - BY - WILLIAM GORDON HOLMES - - - VOL. I - - - _SECOND EDITION_ - - - LONDON - G. BELL AND SONS, LTD. - 1912 - - - - - CHISWICK PRESS: CHARLES WHITTINGHAM AND CO. - TOOKS COURT, CHANCERY LANE, LONDON. - - - - - PREFACE - - -Although the age of Justinian is the most interesting and important in -the whole series of the Byzantine annals, no comprehensive work has -hitherto been devoted to the subject. The valuable and erudite “Vita -Justiniani” of Ludewig is more of a law book than of a biography, and -less of a circumstantial history than of either. The somewhat strange -medley published by Isambert under the title “Vie de Justinien” is -scarcely a complete chronology of the events, and might be called a -manual of the sources rather than a history of the times.[1] Excellent -accounts, however, of Justinian are to be found in some general -histories of the Byzantine Empire as well as in several biographical -dictionaries, whilst monographs of greater or lesser extent exist -under the names of Perrinus, Invernizi, and Padovani, etc., but any -student of the period would decide that it deserves to be treated at -much greater length than has been devoted to it in any of these books. -In the present work the design has been to place before the reader -not only a record of events, but a presentment of the people amongst -whom, and of the stage upon which those events occurred. I have also -attempted to correlate the aspects of the ancient and the modern world -in relation to science and progress. - - W. G. H. - - LONDON, - _February, 1905_. - - - - - PREFATORY NOTE TO SECOND EDITION - - -This work has now been carefully revised and slightly enlarged. I am -indebted to suggestions from various reviewers of the first edition for -several of the improvements introduced. Occasionally, however, they are -in error and at variance among themselves on some of the points noted. -A few of my critics have accused me of being too discursive, especially -in my notes, an impression which is the natural result of my not having -expressed it definitely anywhere that my object was to present not -merely the sociology and events of a particular period, but also to -illustrate, in an abridged sense, the history of all time. - - W. G. H. - - LONDON, - _August, 1912_. - - - - - CONTENTS - - - PAGE - - PROEM ix - - CHAP. I. CONSTANTINOPLE IN THE SIXTH CENTURY 1 - - I. History 2 - - II. Topography 23 - - III. Sociology 83 - - II. THE ROMAN EMPIRE UNDER ANASTASIUS: - THE INHERITANCE OF JUSTINIAN 127 - - I. Political 134 - - II. Educational 204 - - III. Religious 233 - - III. BIRTH AND FORTUNES OF THE ELDER - JUSTIN: THE ORIGINS OF JUSTINIAN 295 - - IV. PRE-IMPERIAL CAREER OF THEODORA: - THE CONSORT OF JUSTINIAN 321 - - INDEX 351 - - CORRECTIONS 360 - - ADDITIONS 361 - - - MAPS - - DIAGRAM OF CONSTANTINOPLE IN SIXTH CENTURY 80 - - ROMAN EMPIRE AND VICINITY, _c._ 500 A.D. 144 - - - - - PROEM - - -The birth and death of worlds are ephemeral events in a cycle of -astronomical time. In the life history of a stellar system, of a -planet, of an animal, parallel periods of origin, exuberance, and of -extinction are exhibited to our experience, or to our understanding. -Man, in his material existence confined to a point, by continuity of -effort and perpetuity of thought, becomes coequal and coextensive -with the infinities of time and space. The intellectual store of ages -has evolved the supremacy of the human race, but the zenith of its -ascendancy may still be far off, and the aspiration after progress -has been entailed on the heirs of all preceding generations. The -advancement of humanity is the sum of the progress of its component -members, and the individual who raises his own life to the highest -attainable eminence becomes a factor in the elevation of the whole -race. Familiarity with history dispels the darkness of the past, -which is so prolific in the myths that feed credulity and foster -superstition, the frequent parents of the most stubborn obstacles which -have lain in the path of progress. The history of the past comprises -the lessons of the future; and the successes and failures of former -times are a pre-vision of the struggles to come and the errors to be -avoided. The stream of human life having once issued from its sources, -may be equal in endurance to a planet, to a stellar system, or even to -the universe itself. The mind of the universe may be man, who may be -the confluence of universal intelligence. The eternity of the past, the -infinity of the present, may be peopled with races like our own, but -whether they die out with the worlds they occupy, or enjoy a perpetual -existence, transcends the present limits of our knowledge. From century -to century the solid ground of science gains on the illimitable ocean -of the unknown, but we are ignorant as to whether we exist in the dawn -or in the noonday of enlightenment. The conceptions of one age become -the achievements of the next; and the philosopher may question whether -this world be not some remote, unaffiliated tract, which remains to be -annexed to the empire of universal civilization. The discoveries of the -future may be as undreamt of as those of the past,[2] and the ultimate -destiny of our race is hidden from existing generations. - -In the period I have chosen to bring before the reader, civilization -was on the decline, and progress imperceptible, but the germs of a -riper growth were still existent, concealed within the spreading -darkness of mediaevalism. When Grecian science and philosophy seemed to -stand on the threshold of modern enlightenment the pall of despotism -and superstition descended on the earth and stifled every impulse of -progress for more than fifteen centuries. The Yggdrasil of Christian -superstition spread its roots throughout the Roman Empire, strangling -alike the nascent ethics of Christendom, and the germinating science -of the ancient world. Had the leading minds of that epoch, instead -of expending their zeal and acumen on theological inanities, applied -themselves to the study of nature, they might have forestalled the -march of the centuries, and advanced us a thousand years beyond the -present time. But the atmosphere of the period was charged with a -metaphysical mysticism whereby all philosophic thought and material -research were arrested. The records of a millennium comprise little -more than the rise, the progress, and the triumph of superstition -and barbarism. The degenerate Greeks became the serfs and slaves -of the land in which they were formerly the masters, and retreated -gradually to a vanishing point in the vast district from the Adriatic -to the Indus, over which the eagle-wing of Alexander had swept in -uninterrupted conquest. Unable to oppose their political solidarity -and martial science to the fanaticism of the half-armed Saracens, -they yielded up to them insensibly their faith and their empire, and -their place was filled by a host of unprogressive Mohammedans, who -brought with them a newer religion more sensuous in its conceptions, -but less gross in its practice, than the Christianity of that day. -But the hardy barbarians of the North, drinking at the fountain of -knowledge, had achieved some political organization, and became the -natural and irresistible barriers against which the waves of Moslem -enthusiasm dashed themselves in vain. The term of Asiatic encroachment -was fixed at the Pyrenees in the west, and at the Danube in the -east by the valorous Franks and Hungarians; and on the brink of the -turning tide stand the heroic figures of Charles Martel and Matthias -Corvinus. Civilization has now included almost the whole globe in -its comprehensive embrace; both the old world and the new have been -overrun by the intellectual heirs of the Greeks; in every land the -extinction of retrograde races proceeds with measured certainty, and we -appear to be safer from a returning flood of barbarism than from some -astronomical catastrophe. The mediaeval order of things is reversed, -the ravages of Attila reappear under a new aspect, and the descendants -of the Han and the Hun alike are raised by the hand, or crushed under -the foot of aggressive civilization. - -In the infancy of human reason intelligence outstrips knowledge, -and the mature, but vacant, mind soon loses itself in the dark and -trackless wilderness of natural phenomena. An imaginative system of -cosmogony, baseless as the fabric of a dream, is the creation of a -moment; to dissipate it the work of ages in study and investigation. -Less than a century ago philosophic scepticism could only vent itself -in a sneer at the credibility of a tradition, or the fidelity of a -manuscript; and the folklore of peasants, encrusted with the hoar -of antiquity, was accepted by erudite mystics as the solution of -cosmogony and the proof of our communion with the supernatural. An -illegible line, a misinterpreted phrase, a suspected interpolation, in -some decaying document, the proof or the refutation, was often hailed -triumphantly by ardent disputants as announcing the establishment -or the overthrow of revelation. But the most signal achievements -of historic research or criticism were powerless to elucidate -the mysteries of the universe; and the inquirer had to fall back -perpetually on the current mythology for the interpretation of his -objective environment. In the hands of science alone were the keys -which could unlock the book of nature, and open the gates of knowledge -as to the enigmas of visible life. A flood of light has been thrown -on the order of natural phenomena, our vision has been prolonged from -the dawn of history to the dawn of terrestrial life, an intelligible -hypothesis of existence has been deduced from observation and -experiment, idealism and dogma have been recognized as the offspring -of phantasy and fallacy, and the mystical elements of Christianity -have been dismissed by philosophy to that limbo of folly which long -ago engulfed the theogonies of Greece and Rome. The sapless trunk of -revelation lies rotting on the ground, but the undiscerning masses, too -credulous to inquire, too careless to think, have allowed it to become -invested with the weeds of superstition and ignorance; and the progeny -of hierophants, who once sheltered beneath the green and flourishing -tree, still find a cover in the rank growth. In the turn of the ages -we are confronted by new Pagans who adhere to an obsolete religion; -and the philosopher can only hope for an era when every one will have -sufficient sense and science to think according to the laws of nature -and civilization. - -The history of the disintegrating and moribund Byzantine Empire has -been explored by modern scholars with untiring assiduity; and the -exposition of that debased political system will always reflect more -credit on their brilliant researches than on the chequered annals of -mankind. - - - - - ADDITIONAL CORRECTIONS - - -P. 127, n. 1, legends and hearsay; p. 133, n. 3, καρξιμάδες; p. 141, -n. 2, i; p. 165, regions,^1 own,^2 other^3 (to n. 1 next page); p. -166, soldiers, arms,^2 etc.; p. 169, n. 6, Marcellinus; p. 188, herd; -{_ib._, n. 1, _c._ 530}; p. 191, n. 1, XII, not xii; p. 220, judgment; -p. 225, n. 1, cadavérique; p. 232, n. 1, add, on its way to resolution -into the formless protyle or ether; p. 283, the outposts; p. 300, n. -6, add, cf. Jn. Malala, xviii, p. 490; p. 309, n. 2, add, cf. Chron. -Paschal., an. 605; {p. 316, mood}; p. 330, n. 2, Strabo, VIII, vi, -20; p. 344, near the district of Hormisdas, not Palace; _ib._, n. 2, -read, which stood on the Propontis to the east of the Theodosian Port; -see Notitia, reg. ix and Ducange _sb. Homonoea_. The suburban St. P. -is said to be indicated by ruins still existing at the foot of the -“Giant’s Grave,” on the Asiatic side of the Bosphorus; see Gyllius, De -Bosp., iii, 6; Procop., etc., p. 346, n. 1, insert, Jn. Malala, xviii, -p. 430; _ib._, an. 6020; {p. 362, read, This question and the _Yeri_, -etc.} - - - - - THE AGE OF JUSTINIAN AND THEODORA - - - - - CHAPTER I - - CONSTANTINOPLE IN THE SIXTH CENTURY[3] - - -The Byzantine peninsula has been regarded from a very early date as an -ideal situation for a capital city. Placed at the junction of two great -seas which wash the shores of three continents, and possessed of a safe -and extensive anchorage for shipping, it might become the centre of -empire and commerce for the whole Eastern hemisphere. Yet, owing to an -adverse fate, the full realization of this splendid conception remains -a problem of the future. Byzantium as an independent city was little -more than an outpost of civilization; as a provincial town of the Roman -Empire its political position allowed it no scope for development; as -the metropolis of the same Empire in its age of decadence its fitful -splendour is an unsubstantial pageant without moral or political -stability. Lastly, in the hands of the Turk its growth has been -fettered by the prejudices of a nation unable to free itself from the -bondage of an effete civilization. - - - I. HISTORY - -The first peopling of the site of Constantinople is a question in -prehistoric research, which has not yet been elucidated by the -palaeontologist. Unlike the Roman area, no relics of an age of stone -or bronze have been discovered here;[4] do not, perhaps, exist, but -doubtless the opportunities, if not the men, have been wanting for -such investigations.[5] That the region seemed to the primitive -Greeks to be a wild and desolate one, we learn from the tradition -of the Argonautic expedition;[6] and the epithet of “Axine,”[7] or -inhospitable, applied in the earliest times to the Euxine or Black -Sea. By the beginning, however, of the seventh century before the -Christian era these seas and maritime channels had been explored, and -several colonies[8] had been planted by the adventurous Greeks who -issued from the Ionian seaport of Miletus. Later than the Milesians, -a band of Dorians from Megara penetrated into these parts and, by a -strange choice, as it was afterwards considered, selected a point at -the mouth of the Bosphorus on the Asiatic shore for a settlement, which -they called Chalcedon.[9] Seventeen years later[10] a second party -from Megara fixed themselves on the European headland, previously -known as Lygos,[11] nearly opposite their first colony. The leader -of this expedition was Byzas,[12] and from him the town they built -was named Byzantium.[13] The actual limits of the original city are -now quite unknown, but doubtless they were small at first and were -gradually extended according as the community increased in wealth and -prosperity.[14] During the classic period of Greek history the town -rose to considerable importance, as its commanding position enabled -it to impose a toll on ships sailing to and from the Euxine sea; a -power of which, however, it made a very sparing use.[15] It was also -enriched by the countless shoals of fish[16] which, when the north -winds blew, descended from the Euxine and thronged the narrow but -elongated gulf called, most probably for that reason, _Chrysoceras_ -or Golden Horn.[17] Ultimately Byzantium became the largest city in -Thrace, having expanded itself over an area which measured four and a -half miles in circumference, including, probably, the suburbs.[18] It -exercised a suzerainty over Chalcedon and Perinthus,[19] and reduced -the aboriginal Bithynians to a state of servitude comparable to that -of the Spartan Helots.[20] Notwithstanding its natural advantages, -the town never won any pre-eminence among the Hellenic communities, -and nothing more unstable than its political position is presented to -us in the restless concourse of Grecian nationalities. In the wars of -Persians with Greeks, and of Greeks with Greeks, it always became the -sport of the contending parties; and during a century and a half (about -506 B.C. to 350 B.C.) it was taken and re-taken at least six times -by Medes, Spartans, Athenians, and Thebans, a change of constitution -following, of course, each change of political connection.[21] In 340 -B.C., however, the Byzantines, with the aid of the Athenians, withstood -a siege successfully, an occurrence the more remarkable as they were -attacked by the greatest general of the age, Philip of Macedon. In -the course of this beleaguerment, it is related, on a certain wet and -moonless night the enemy attempted a surprise, but were foiled by -reason of a bright light which, appearing suddenly in the heavens, -startled all the dogs in the town and thus roused the garrison to a -sense of their danger.[22] To commemorate this timely phenomenon, which -was attributed to Hecate, they erected a public statue to that goddess -and, as it is supposed, assumed the crescent for their chief national -device. For several centuries after this event the city enjoyed a -nominal autonomy, but it appears to have been in perpetual conflict -with its civilized or barbarous neighbours; and in 279 B.C. it was even -laid under tribute[23] by the horde of Gauls who penetrated into Asia -and established themselves permanently in Galatia. After the appearance -of the Roman legionaries in the East the Byzantines were always the -faithful friends of the Republic, while it was engaged in suppressing -the independent potentates of Macedonia and Asia Minor. For its -services Byzantium was permitted to retain the rank of a free city,[24] -and its claim to indulgence was allowed by more than one of the Roman -emperors,[25] even after A.D. 70, when Vespasian limited its rights to -those of a provincial town.[26] - -Of all the ancient historians one only has left us a description -capable of giving some visual impression as to the appearance of old -Byzantium. “This city,” says Dion Cassius,[27] “is most favourably -situated, being built upon an eminence, which juts out into the sea. -The waters, like a torrent, rushing downwards from the Pontus impinge -against the promontory and flow partly to the right, so as to form the -bay and harbours, but the main stream runs swiftly alongside the city -into the Propontis. The town is also extremely well fortified, for -the wall is faced with great square stones joined together by brazen -clamps, and it is further strengthened on the inside through mounds -and houses being built up against it. This wall seems to consist of -a solid mass of stone,[28] and it has a covered gallery above, which -is very easily defended. On the outside there are many large towers, -perforated with frequent loopholes and ranged in an irregular line, so -that an attacking party is surrounded by them and exposed on all sides -at once. Toward the land the fortifications are very lofty, but less so -on the side of the water, as the rocks on which they are founded and -the dangers of the Bosphorus render them almost unassailable. There are -two harbours within the walls,[29] guarded by chains, and at the ends -of the moles inclosing them towers facing each other make the passage -impracticable to an enemy. I have seen the walls standing and have -also heard them speaking; for there are seven vocal towers stretching -from the Thracian gates to the sea. If one shouts or drops a pebble in -the first it not only resounds itself or repeats the syllables, but -it transmits the power for the next in order to do the same; and thus -the voice or echo is carried in regular succession through the whole -series.”[30] - -At the end of the second century the Byzantines were afflicted by the -severest trial which had ever come within their experience. In the -tripartite struggle between the Emperor Severus and his competitors -of Gaul and Asia, the city unfortunately threw in its lot with Niger, -the Proconsul of Syria. Niger soon fell, but Byzantium held out with -inflexible obstinacy for three years and, through the ingenuity of an -engineer named Priscus, defied all the efforts of the victor. During -this time the inhabitants suffered progressively every kind of hardship -and horror which has been put on record in connection with sieges of -the most desperate character. Stones torn from the public buildings -were used as projectiles, statues of men and horses, in brass and -marble, were hurled on the heads of the besiegers, women gave their -hair to be twisted into cords and ropes, leather soaked in water was -eaten, and finally they fell on one another and fed on human flesh. At -last the city yielded, but Severus was exasperated, and his impulse of -hostility only ceased with the destruction of the prize he had won at -such a cost in blood and treasure. The garrison and all who had borne -any public office, with the exception of Priscus, were put to death, -the chief buildings were razed,[31] the municipality was abolished, -property was confiscated, and the town was given over to the previously -subject Perinthians, to be treated as a dependent village. With immense -labour the impregnable fortifications were levelled with the ground, -and the ruins of the first bulwark of the Empire against the barbarians -of Scythia attested the wisdom and temperance of the master of the East -and West.[32] - -But the memory of Byzantium dwelt in the mind of Severus and he was -attracted to revisit the spot. In cooler moments he surveyed the -wreck; the citizens, bearing olive branches in their hands, approached -him in a solemn and suppliant procession; he determined to rebuild, -and at his mandate new edifices were reared to supply the place of -those which had been ruined. He even purchased ground, which had -been previously occupied by private gardens, for the laying out of a -hippodrome,[33] a public luxury with which the town had never before -been adorned. But the hateful name of Byzantium was abolished and the -new city was called Antonina[34] by Severus, in honour of his eldest -son; a change, however, which scarcely survived the life of its author. -Through Caracalla,[35] or some rational statesman acting in the name -of that reprobate, the city regained its political privileges, but the -fortifications were not restored, and for more than half a century -it remained defenceless against the barbarians, and even against -the turbulent soldiery of the Empire. Beginning from about 250 the -Goths ravaged the vicinity of the Bosphorus and plundered most of the -towns, holding their own against Decius and several other short-lived -emperors. Under Gallienus a mutinous legion is said to have massacred -most of the inhabitants, but shortly afterwards the same emperor gave -a commission to two Byzantine engineers to fortify the district, and -henceforward Byzantium again appears as a stronghold, which was made -a centre of operations against the Goths, in the repulse of whom the -natives and their generals even played an important part.[36] In 323 -Licinius, the sole remaining rival of Constantine, after his defeat in -a great battle near Adrianople, took refuge in Byzantium, and the town -again became the scene of a contest memorable in history, not for the -magnitude of the siege, but for the importance of the events which it -inaugurated. Licinius soon yielded, and a new era dawned for Byzantium, -which in a few years became lastingly known to the nations as the City -of Constantine. - -The tongue of land on which Constantinople is built is essentially -a low mountainous ridge, rising on three sides by irregular slopes -from the sea. Trending almost directly eastward from the continent -of Europe, it terminates abruptly in a rounded headland opposite the -Asiatic shore, from which it is separated by the entrance of the -Bosphorus, at this point a little more than a mile in width. This -diminutive peninsula, which is bounded on the north by the inland -extension of the Bosphorus, called the Golden Horn, and on the south -by the Propontis or Sea of Marmora, has a length of between three and -four miles. At its eastern extremity it is about a mile broad and it -gradually expands until, in the region where it may be said to join -the mainland, its measurement has increased to more than four times -that distance. The unlevel nature of the ground and reminiscences of -the seven hills of classical Rome have always caused a parallel to be -drawn between the sites of the two capitals of the Empire, but the -resemblance is remote and the historic import of the Roman hills is -totally wanting in the case of those of Constantinople. The hills of -the elder city were mostly distinct mounts, which had borne suggestive -names in the earliest annals of the district. Every citizen had learned -to associate the Palatine with the Roma Quadrata of Romulus, the -Aventine with the ill-omened auspices of Remus, the Quirinal with -the rape of the Sabine women, the Esquiline with the murder of King -Servius, the Capitol with the repulse of the Gauls by Manlius; and knew -that when the standard was raised on the Janiculum the comitia were -assembled to transact the business of the Republic. But the Byzantine -hills are little more than variations in the face of the slope as -it declines on each side from the central dorsum to the water, and -have always been nameless unless in the numerical descriptions of the -topographer. On the north five depressions constitute as many valleys -and give rise to six hills, which are numbered in succession from the -narrow end of the promontory to the west. Thus the first hill is that -on which stood the acropolis of Byzantium. Two of the valleys, the -third and fifth, can be traced across the dorsum of the peninsular from -sea to sea. A rivulet, called the Lycus, running from the mainland, -joins the peninsula near its centre and then turns in a south-easterly -direction so as to fall into the Propontis. The valley through which -this stream passes, the sixth, bounds the seventh hill, an elevation -known as the Xerolophos or Dry-mount, which, lying in the south-west, -occupies more than a third of the whole area comprised within the -city walls.[37] From every high point of the promontory the eye may -range over seas and mountains often celebrated in classic story—the -Trojan Ida and Olympus, the Hellespont, Athos and Olympus of Zeus, -and the Thracian Bosphorus embraced by wooded hills up to the “blue -Symplegades” and the Euxine, so suggestive of heroic tradition to the -Greek mind. The Golden Horn itself describes a curve to the north-west -of more than six miles in length, and at its extremity, where it turns -upon itself, becomes fused with the estuary of two small rivers named -Cydarus and Barbyses.[38] Throughout the greater part of its course -it is about a quarter of a mile in width, but at one point below its -centre, it is dilated into a bay of nearly double that capacity. This -inlet was not formerly, in the same sense as it is now, the port of -Constantinople; to the ancients it was still the sea, a moat on a -large scale, which added the safety of water to the mural defences of -the city; and the small shipping of the period was accommodated in -artificial harbours formed by excavations within the walls or by moles -thrown out from the shore.[39] The climate of this locality is very -changeable, exposed as it is to north winds chilled by transit over the -Russian steppes, and to warm breezes which originate in the tropical -expanses of Africa and Arabia. The temperature may range through twenty -degrees in a single day, and winters of such arctic severity that -the Golden Horn and even the Bosphorus are seen covered with ice are -not unknown to the inhabitants.[40] Variations of landscape due to -vegetation are found chiefly in the abundance of plane, pine, chestnut, -and other trees, but more especially of the cypress. Earthquakes -are a permanent source of annoyance, and have sometimes been very -destructive. Such in brief are the geographical features of this -region, which the caprice of a prince, in a higher degree, perhaps, -than its natural endowments, appointed to contain the metropolis of the -East. - -When Constantine determined to supplant the ancient capital on the -Tiber by building a new city in a place of his own choice,[41] he -does not appear to have been more acute in discerning the advantages -of Byzantium than were the first colonists from Megara. It is said -that Thessalonica first fixed his attention; it is certain that he -began to build in the Troad, near the site of Homeric Ilios; and it is -even suggested that when he shifted his ground from thence he next -commenced operations at Chalcedon.[42] By 328,[43] however, he had -come to a final decision, and Byzantium was exalted to be the actual -rival of Rome. This event, occurring at so advanced a date and under -the eye of civilization, yet became a source of legend, so as to excel -even in that respect the original foundation by Byzas. The oracles had -long been lapsing into silence,[44] but their place had been gradually -usurped by Christian visions, and every zealot who thought upon the -subject conceived of Constantine as acting under a special inspiration -from the Deity. More than a score of writers in verse and prose -have described the circumstances under which he received the divine -injunctions, and some have presented to us in detail the person and -words of the beatific visitant.[45] On the faith of an ecclesiastical -historian[46] we are asked to believe that an angelic guide even -directed the Emperor as he marked out the boundaries of his future -capital. When Constantine, on foot with a spear in his hand, seemed to -his ministers to move onwards for an inordinate distance, one of them -exclaimed: “How far, O Master?” “Until he who precedes me stands,” was -the reply by which the inspired surveyor indicated that he followed an -unseen conductor. Whether Constantine was a superstitious man is an -indeterminate question, but that he was a shrewd and politic one is -self-evident from his career, and, if we believe that he gave currency -to this and similar marvellous tales, we can perceive that he could not -have acted more judiciously with the view of gaining adherents during -the flush of early Christian enthusiasm.[47] - -The area of the city was more than quadrupled by the wall of -Constantine, which extended right across the peninsula in the form of -a bow, distant at the widest part about a mile and three-quarters from -the old fortifications.[48] This space, by comparison enormous, and -which yet included only four of the hills with part of the Xerolophos, -was hastily filled by the Emperor with buildings and adornments of -every description. Many cities of the Empire, notably Rome, Athens, -Ephesus, and Antioch, were stripped of some of their most precious -objects of art for the embellishment of the new capital.[49] Wherever -statues, sculptured columns, or metal castings were to be found, there -the agents of Constantine were busily engaged in arranging for their -transfer to the Bosphorus. Resolved that no fanatic spirit should mar -the cosmopolitan expectation of his capital the princely architect -subdued his Christian zeal, and three temples[50] to mythological -divinities arose in regular conformity with pagan custom. Thus the -“Fortune of the City” took her place as the goddess Anthusa[51] in a -handsome fane, and adherents of the old religion could not declare that -the ambitious foundation was begun under unfavourable auspices. In -another temple a statue of Rhea, or Cybele, was erected in an abnormal -posture, deprived of her lions and with her hands raised as if in the -act of praying over the city. On this travesty of the mother of the -Olympians, we may conjecture, was founded the belief which prevailed -in a later age that the capital at its birth had been dedicated to -the Virgin.[52] That a city permanently distinguished by the presence -of an Imperial court should remain deficient in population is opposed -to common experience of the laws which govern the evolution of a -metropolis. But Constantine could not wait, and various artificial -methods were adopted in order to provide inhabitants for the vacant -inclosure. Patricians were induced to abandon Rome by grants of lands -and houses, and it is even said that several were persuaded to settle -at Constantinople by means of an ingenious deception. Commanding the -attendance in the East of a number of senators during the Persian war, -the Emperor privately commissioned architects to build counterparts of -their Roman dwellings on the Golden Horn. To these were transferred -the families and households of the absent ministers, who were then -invited by Constantine to meet him in his new capital. There they -were conducted to homes in which to their astonishment they seemed to -revisit Rome in a dream, and henceforth they became permanent residents -in obedience to a prince who urged his wishes with such unanswerable -arguments.[53] As to the common herd we have no precise information, -but it is asserted by credible authority that they were raked together -from diverse parts, the rabble of the Empire who derived their -maintenance from the founder and repaid him with servile adulation in -the streets and in the theatre.[54] - -By the spring of 330[55] the works were sufficiently advanced for the -new capital to begin its political existence, and Constantine decreed -that a grand inaugural festival should take place on the 11th of -May. The “Fortune of the City” was consecrated by a pagan ceremony -in which Praetextatus, a priest, and Sopater, a philosopher, played -the principal parts;[56] largess was distributed to the populace, and -magnificent games were exhibited in the Hippodrome, where the Emperor -presided, conspicuous with a costly diadem decked with pearls and -precious stones, which he wore for the first time.[57] On this occasion -the celebration is said to have lasted forty days,[58] and at the -same time Constantine instituted the permanent “Encaenia,” an annual -commemoration, which he enjoined on succeeding emperors for the same -date. A gilded statue of himself, bearing a figure of Anthusa in one -hand, was to be conducted round the city in a chariot, escorted by a -military guard, dressed in a definite attire,[59] and carrying wax -tapers in their hands. Finally, the procession was to make the circuit -of the Hippodrome and, when it paused before the cathisma, the emperor -was to descend from his throne and adore the effigy.[60] We are further -told that an astrologer named Valens was employed to draw the horoscope -of the city, with the result that he predicted for it an existence of -696 years.[61] - -After the fall of Licinius it appears most probable that Constantine, -as a memorial of his accession to undivided power, gave Byzantium the -name of Constantinople.[62] When, however, he transformed that town -into a metropolis, in order to express clearly the magnitude of his -views as to the future, he renamed it Second, or New Rome. At the -same time he endowed it with special privileges, known in the legal -phraseology of the period as the “right of Italy and prerogative of -Rome”;[63] and to keep these facts in the public eye he had them -inscribed on a stone pillar, which he set up in a forum, or square, -called the Strategium, adjacent to an equestrian statue of himself.[64] -To render it in all respects the image of Rome, Constantinople was -provided with a Senate,[65] a national council known only at that date -in the artificial form which owes its existence to despots. After his -choice of Byzantium for the eastern capital Constantine never dwelt -at Rome, and in all his acts seems to have aimed at extinguishing the -prestige of the old city by the grandeur of the new one, a policy which -he initiated so effectively that in the century after his death the -Roman Empire ceased to be Roman.[66] - -Constantine is credited with the erection of many churches[67] in and -around Constantinople, but, with the exception of St. Irene,[68] the -Holy Cross,[69] and the Twelve Apostles,[70] their identification -rests with late and untrustworthy writers. One, St. Mocius,[71] is -said to have been built with the materials of a temple of Zeus, which -previously stood in the same place, the summit of the Xerolophos, -outside the walls. Another, St. Mena, occupied the site of the temple -of Poseidon founded by Byzas.[72] Paganism was tolerated as a religion -of the Empire until the last decade of the fourth century, when it was -finally overthrown by the preponderance of Christianity. Laws for its -total suppression were enacted by Theodosius I, destruction of temples -was legalized, and at the beginning of the fifth century it is probable -that few traces remained of the sacred edifices which had adorned old -Byzantium.[73] - -After the age of Constantine the progress of New Rome as metropolis -of the east was extremely rapid,[74] the suburbs became densely -populous, and in 413 Theodosius II gave a commission to Anthemius,[75] -the Praetorian Prefect, to build a new wall in advance of the old -one nearly a mile further down the peninsula. The intramural space -was thus increased by an area more than equal to half its former -dimensions; and, with the exception of some small additions on the -Propontis and the Golden Horn, this wall marked the utmost limit -of Constantinople in ancient or modern times. In 447 a series of -earthquakes, which lasted for three months, laid the greater part of -the new wall in ruins, fifty-seven of the towers, according to one -account,[76] having collapsed during the period of commotion. This -was the age of Attila and the Huns, to whom Theodosius, sooner than -offer a military resistance, had already agreed to pay an annual -tribute of seven hundred pounds of gold.[77] With the rumour that -the barbarians were approaching the undefended capital the public -alarm rose to fever-heat, and the Praetorian Prefect of the time, -Cyrus Constantine, by an extraordinary effort, not only restored the -fortifications of Anthemius, but added externally a second wall on a -smaller scale, together with a wide and deep fosse,[78] in the short -space of sixty days. To the modern observer it might appear incredible -that such a prodigious mass of masonry, extending over a distance of -four miles, could be reared within two months, but the fact is attested -by two inscriptions still existing on the gates,[79] by the Byzantine -historians,[80] and by the practice of antiquity in times of impending -hostility.[81] - - - II. TOPOGRAPHY - -Having now traced the growth of the city on the Golden Horn from -its origin in the dawn of Grecian history until its expansion into -the capital of the greatest empire of the past, I have reached the -threshold of my actual task—to place before the reader a picture -of Constantinople at the beginning of the sixth century in its -topographical and sociological aspects. The literary materials, -though abundant, are in great part unreliable and are often devoid of -information which would be found in the most unpretentious guide-book -of modern times.[82] On the other hand the monumental remains are -unusually scanty, insignificant indeed compared with those of Rome, and -few cities, which have been continuously occupied, have suffered so -much during the lapse of a few centuries as Constantinople. Political -revolution has been less destructive than that of religion, and -Moslem fanaticism, much more than time or war, has achieved the ruin -of the Christian capital. On this ground, the same calamities which -Christianity inflicted on paganism in the fourth century, she suffered -herself at the hands of Islam in the fifteenth. - -The modern visitor, who approaches Constantinople, is at once -impressed by the imposing vista of gilded domes and minarets, which -are the chief objective feature of the Ottoman capital. It is scarcely -necessary to say that in the sixth century the minaret, uniquely -characteristic as it is of a Mohammedan city, would be absent, but -the statement must also be extended to the dome, the most distinctive -element in Byzantine architecture, which at the date of my description -scarcely yet existed even in the conception of the builder.[83] If -we draw near from the Sea of Marmora (the Propontis) at the time -of this history, we shall observe, extending by land and sea from -the southernmost point, the same ranges of lofty walls and towers, -now falling into universal ruin, but then in a state of perfect -repair. Within appear numerous great houses and several tall columns -interspersed among a myriad of small red-roofed dwellings, densely -packed; and here and there the eye is caught by a gleam of gilded tiles -from the roof of a church or a palace. In order to inspect the defences -on the land side, the aspect of the city most strongly fortified, -we must disembark near the south-west corner of the Xerolophos, the -locality now known as the Seven Towers. Without the city, towards -the west, the ground consists of flowery meadows diversified by -fruit-gardens and by groves of cypress and plane trees.[84] Almost -at the water’s edge is an imposing bastion, which from its circular -form is called the Cyclobion.[85] Proceeding inland we shall not at -this date find a road winding over hill and dale from sea to sea as -at the present day.[86] Most of the country is occupied by walled -_philopatia_ or pleasaunces in which landscape gardening has been -developed with considerable art, suburban residences of the Byzantine -aristocracy.[87] In a grove about a mile from the shore we come upon a -certain well, which is regarded as sacred and frequented by sufferers -from various diseases on account of the healing virtue attributed to -its waters.[88] Northwards the extramural district abutting on the -Golden Horn is called Blachernae from the chief of a Thracian tribe, -which formerly occupied this quarter.[89] Here, contiguous to the wall, -we may notice a small summer palace on two floors, built of brick with -rows of stone-framed, arched windows, now undergoing restoration and -extension by the Emperor Anastasius.[90] A few paces further on is a -Christian chapel dedicated to the Theotokos or Mother of God, founded -by Pulcheria,[91] the pious but imperious sister of Theodosius II, and -finally the maiden wife of the Emperor Marcian. Hard by is a natural -well,[92] which from its interesting associations is now beginning to -ripen into sanctity. - -The scheme of fortification consists of three main defences: (1) a -foss, (2) an outer wall with frequent towers, and (3) an inner wall, -similar, but of much greater proportions. - -(1) Since the moat necessarily follows the trend of the ground as it -rises on either side from the beach to the dorsum of the peninsula, -this canal, instead of maintaining a uniform level, consists of a -number of sections divided by cross-walls, the distances between which -are determined by the exigences of ascent or descent. In its course -it outlines the contour of the walls, which advance on the peninsula -from each end in the form of a bow. The average width of this foss is -about sixty, and its depth about thirty feet. It is lined on both sides -from the bottom with substantial stone walls, but, whilst that on the -outside only reaches the level of the ground, the wall next the city, -with a crenellated top, rises for several feet,[93] so as to convey -the impression of a triple wall of defence. In peace time the water is -allowed to run low, but if an assault is apprehended the trench can be -quickly flooded by means of earthenware pipes concealed within the -partition walls. From these conduits the city also derives a secret -supply of water not likely to be tampered with by a besieging army.[94] - -(2) At a distance of about twenty yards from the inner edge of the -moat, rising to a height of nearly thirty feet, with dentated parapets, -stands the lesser wall. Towers of various shapes, square, round, and -octagonal, project from its external face at intervals of about fifty -yards. Each tower overtops the wall and possesses small front and -lateral windows, which overlook the level tract[95] stretching from -the foss. High up in each tower is a floorway having an exit on the -intramural space behind, and they have also steps outside which lead -to the roof. The vacant interval between the walls is about fifty feet -wide, usually called the _peribolos_.[96] It has been artificially -raised to within a few feet of the top of the wall by pouring into it -the earth recovered in excavating the moat.[97] This is the special -vantage-ground of the defenders of the city during a siege: from hence -mainly they launch their missiles against the enemy or engage them -in a hand-to-hand fight should they succeed in crossing the moat and -planting their scaling-ladders against the wall.[98] - -(3) Bounding the _peribolos_ posteriorly lies the main land-wall of -Constantinople, the great and indisputable work of Theodosius II. In -architectural configuration it is almost similar to the outer wall, but -its height is much greater, and its towers, placed so as to alternate -with the smaller ones in front, occupy more than four times as much -ground. Built as separate structures, but adherent to the wall behind, -they rise above it and project forwards into the interspace for more -than half its breadth. Most of the towers are square, but those of -circular or octagonal shape are not infrequent. In level places -offering facilities for attack the wall has a general height of seventy -feet, but in less accessible situations, on rising or rugged ground, it -attains to little more than half that elevation.[99] As in the case of -the outer defences, the wall and towers are crested by an uninterrupted -series of crenellated battlements. - -The towers are entered from the city at the back, and within each -one is a winding stone staircase leading to the top. Here, sheltered -by the parapet, there is room for sixty or seventy men to assail an -enemy with darts or engines of war. There is also a lower floor from -which a further body of soldiers can act on the offensive by means -of front and side windows or loopholes. At intervals certain of the -towers have an exit on the _peribolos_ for the use of those militants -who have their station on that rampart. In time of peace these towers -serve as guard-houses, and the sentries are enjoined to maintain their -vigilance by passing the word of each successive hour from post to post -during the night.[100] The usual thickness of this wall is about eight -feet, but no regular rampart has been prepared along the summit, the -defensive value of such an area being superseded by the _peribolos_. -Hence the top, the width of which is limited to less than five feet -by the encroachment of the parapet, has no systematic means of access -from the ground or from the towers. Hewn stone, worked in the vicinity, -has been used for the construction of these fortifications,[101] -and in some places close to the city the ground may be seen to have -been quarried into hills and hollows[102] for the supply of the -builders.[103] - -At about every half mile of their length these walls are pierced -by main gateways for the passing to and fro of the inhabitants. In -these situations the inner wall is increased to more than treble -its ordinary thickness, and the passage is flanked by a pair of the -greater towers, which here approximate at much less than their usual -distance. The thoroughfare consists of a deep and lofty archway, which -on occasion can be closed by ponderous doors revolving on huge iron -hinges. Opposite each gate the moat is crossed by wooden drawbridges -easily removable in case of a siege. The most southerly entrance, being -opposite the holy well, is called the Gate of the Fountain; next comes -the Gate of Rhegium, then that of St. Romanus, fourthly the Charsios or -oblique Gate,[104] and lastly the Xylokerkos Gate—that of the wooden -circus. Between the third and fourth gates the moat is deficient -and the walls are tunnelled for the transit of the streamlet Lycus, -which, though almost dry in summer, swells to a considerable volume -in winter. The second and last portals bear metrical inscriptions, -differing verbally, but each declaring the fact that the Prefect, Cyrus -Constantine, built the wall in two months.[105] On the second gate, -that of Rhegium, the circumstance is recorded in a Latin tristich as -well as in a Greek distich.[106] - -Besides these popular approaches there is another series of five gates, -architecturally similar, but designed only for military or strategic -purposes. About intermediate in position and in line with neither -roads nor bridges, they are closed to the general public and named -merely in numerical succession from south to north.[107] Just above the -third gate, that is, about half way between the Golden Horn and the -Propontis, the walls dip inwards for a distance of nearly one hundred -yards, forming a crescent or, as the Greeks call it, Sigma.[108] - -The first strategic gate, first also of the land-wall, being scarcely -a furlong from the Propontis, offers a notable exception to the -constructive plainness of all the other entries. Intended only as -a state entry to the capital for the display of Imperial pomp, it -has been built and adorned with the object of rendering it the most -splendid object in this part of the city. A pair of massive towers, -each one hundred feet high, advance from a façade of equal altitude, -which is traversed by three arched portals, that in the centre being -elevated to sixty feet. The whole is constructed in white marble, -and this chaste and imposing foundation is made resplendent by the -addition of gilded statues, bas-reliefs, and mouldings. From a central -pedestal above rises a figure of Victory[109] with flowing draperies, -her hand extended offering a laurel crown. At her feet stands an -equestrian statue of Theodosius the Great,[110] and from the extremity -of each tower springs the two-headed Byzantine eagle.[111] Below, the -surfaces of the monument are ensculptured all round with mythological -designs,[112] among which we may recognize Prometheus the Fire-giver, -Pegasus, Endymion, the labours of Hercules and many others. Corinthian -columns of green-veined marble[113] bound the main portal, within which -is erected a great cross.[114] In the fore area are placed a pair of -marble elephants, recalling those used by Theodosius in his triumphal -procession after the defeat of Maximus of Gaul; and behind these his -grandson,[115] the builder of the gate, has raised a column bearing a -statue of himself. Profusely gilded, this elaborate pile is popularly -and officially known as the Golden Gate.[116] - -To proceed with our survey we may re-embark on the Propontis and skirt -the promontory by water from end to end of the land-wall, passing -through the mouth of the Bosphorus between Europe and Asia and -finishing our circuit in the upper reaches of the Golden Horn. The -single south wall, rising from the brink of the sea, is similar to that -of Anthemius, and the towers exhibit the same diversity of form.[117] -Courses of rough stones immersed in the water lie along its base and -form a kind of primitive breakwater, which saves its foundations from -being sapped by the waves in tempestuous weather. These are said to -have been quarried from the tops of the hills during the process of -levelling the ground for the extension of the city, and then, at the -suggestion of Constantine, sent rolling down the slopes until they -became lodged in their present position.[118] - -Several gates in this wall give access to the water, but they possess -no architectural distinction. Westerly is the Porta Psamathia or -Sand-gate, so called because an area of new ground has been formed -here by silting up of sand outside the wall.[119] Near the opposite -extremity is the Porta Ferrea or Iron-gate, thus designated from the -unstable beach having been guarded by rails of iron to enable it to -sustain the ponderous burdens imported by Constantine.[120] Towards the -centre of this shore is situated the Gate of St. Aemilian, named from -its proximity to a church sacred to that martyr.[121] More noticeable -in this range of wall are the entrances to two excavated harbours, -each closed by a chain stretching between a pair of containing towers. -The first, at the foot of the Xerolophos, dates from the time of -Constantine, who called it the Port of Eleutherius[122] after his -master of the works. Remade by Theodosius I, it has since been most -commonly associated with the name of that emperor.[123] Paved at the -bottom and surrounded by a stone quay,[124] it is about a Roman mile -in circuit,[125] and is divided centrally by a dike into an inner and -outer basin.[126] More easterly is another similar but smaller harbour, -having only one basin, designated Port Julian[127] from its Imperial -founder, but it is more often spoken of as the New Port.[128] Owing, -however, to the exceptional suitability for shipping of the north side -of the city, both these harbours have gradually fallen into disuse -and, becoming choked with sand, have been looked on merely as fit -receptacles for the rubble accumulated in clearing building sites.[129] -But the Port of Julian is soon to be reopened, for, at the direction -of Anastasius, rotatory pumps have been fixed to empty it of its water -and dredging operations are in progress.[130] To insure its continued -patency a mole is even in course of construction in the Propontis over -against its mouth.[131] Passing the Porta Ferrea, as we begin to round -the headland, a large mansion or palace comes into view, substituted -apparently for the wall in about fifty feet of its length. Fronted -along its base with slabs of white marble, the edifice presents a -lofty stone balcony overhanging the water,[132] and opening on to it, -a central group of three rectangular windows or doors with jambs and -lintels of sculptured stone. Above, a row of seven nearly semicircular -windows indicates the uppermost floor of the building, which is known -as the palace of the Boukoleon. Contiguous, to the west, we observe a -small but very ornate harbour, formed on quite a different plan from -those previously seen. Curved piers of masonry, enriched with marbles, -extending from the land, inclose about an acre of water, which is -approached from the city by flights of white marble steps.[133] On -the intervening quay rests a handsome group of statuary representing -a lion and a bull in the agonies of a death struggle.[134] This is -the exclusive port of the Imperial Palace,[135] an important segment -of which adjoins the wall at this point. Both palace and harbour have -taken the name of Boukoleon from the piece of sculpture which so -conspicuously marks the site.[136] In this vicinity, behind the wall -on the city level, is the palace of the once famous Persian refugee, -Prince Hormisdas.[137] - -Farther on is a small entry from the water leading to a chapel sacred -to the Theotokos, surnamed the Conductress, another foundation of -the devout Pulcheria.[138] Here are preserved a portrait of the -Virgin painted by St. Luke, the swaddling-clothes of Jesus, and other -recondite memorials of Gospel history[139] grafted by imposture on the -credulity of the age. This Conductress,[140] by virtue of a holy fount, -is credited with being able to point out the way for the blind to -receive their sight;[141] and a retreat for the blind, therefore, has -been established on the spot.[142] - -As soon as we turn the north-east point, which marks the beginning of -the Golden Horn, we exchange the inhospitable aspect of a fortified -coast for a busy scene of maritime life. The wall recedes gradually -to some distance from the waterline and forms an inconspicuous -background to the impressive spectacle, which indicates the port -of entry of a vast city. In the course of over a mile the shore -has been fashioned into wharves from which three sets of stairs of -ample width descend to the water’s edge to facilitate the unloading -of vessels. The first stair, named from its constructor, is that of -Timasius;[143] next comes that of Chalcedon;[144] and lastly the -stairs of Sycae,[145] a region of the city on the opposite side of -the gulf. Alternating with the stairs are placed the entrances of -two excavated harbours: the Prosphorian Port[146] for the landing of -all kinds of imported provisions, and the Neorian Port, used chiefly -as a naval station and for ship-building. The quays of the latter -port, which are distinguished by the brazen statue of an ox, are also -habitually frequented by the merchants of Constantinople, who make it -their principal Exchange.[147] Similarly the vacant spaces about the -Prosphorian Port are set apart for a cattle market.[148] - -The first issue from the city on this side is called the Gate of -Eugenius,[149] and is situated in the retreating portion of the wall. -More remarkable is the Tower of Eugenius, called also the Centenarian -Tower,[150] a massive pile closer to the bank, which corresponds to a -similar erection across the water. These structures are the work of -Constantine, who raised them to serve as the points of attachment of -a ponderous iron chain, which should close the Golden Horn against -the attack of a hostile fleet. So far, however, no enemy has been -encountered so adventurous as to necessitate the practical application -of this means of defence.[151] - -Beyond the stairs of Sycae the locality is called the Zeugma.[152] This -tract is reserved for the storage of wood, which, coal being unknown, -is the only fuel available for cooking, heating of baths, and all other -purposes. Immense quantities have, therefore, to be brought down by sea -from the wild countries bordering on the Euxine[153] and deposited here -for the use of the Constantinopolitans. At this point we have reached -the limits of the wall of Byzantium and henceforth to the end of the -land-wall at Blachernae this side of the city lies open to the water. -Deeming it improbable that the town should ever be assaulted from this -sequestered inlet, Constantine and his successors have omitted to -fortify this bank. Originally this shore was indented by a number of -small creeks,[154] but the teeming population, overflowing into every -available space, has now so crowded the strand with houses that the -outer rank, founded on piles, extends beyond the water’s edge.[155] -In the further part of this district the stream becomes narrower, and -from a projecting point a wooden bridge has been thrown across to the -opposite shore.[156] In its vicinity a brazen dragon commemorates -or suggests a legend of virgins ravished and devoured until the -destruction of the monster by St. Hypatius.[157] A slight expansion of -the Golden Horn at Blachernae is called the Silver Bay.[158] - -Having inspected the outside of Constantinople, it now remains for us -to enter the city and pass in review its principal streets, buildings, -and open spaces, whence we shall be led to make some acquaintance -with the manners and customs of its inhabitants. From the Gate of -Eugenius we can proceed directly to the most aristocratic quarter, -where a majority of the public buildings are clustered round the -Imperial Palace. Inside we shall find that thoroughfares of three -kinds intersect the city for the purposes of general traffic: (1) main -or business streets; (2) squares or market-places; and (3) lanes or -side-streets for private residents. - -(1) A main street consists of an open paved road, not more than -fifteen feet wide, bounded on each side by a colonnade or portico. -More than fifty of such porticoes are in existence at this date, so -that a pedestrian can traverse almost the whole city under shelter -from sun or rain.[159] Many of them have an upper floor, approached by -wooden or stone steps, which is used as an _ambulacrum_ or promenade. -They are plentifully adorned with statuary of all kinds, especially -above,[160] and amongst these presentments of the reigning emperor -are not infrequent. The latter may be seen in busts of brass and -marble, in brazen masks, and even in painted tablets.[161] Such -images are consecrated and are sometimes surreptitiously adored -by the populace with religious rites.[162] They are also endowed -with the legal attribute of sanctuary, and slaves not uncommonly -fly to them for refuge as a protest against ill-treatment by their -masters.[163] Portraits of popular actors, actresses, and charioteers -may also be observed, but they are liable to be torn down if posted -close to the Imperial images or in any position too reputable for -their pretensions.[164] On the inside the porticoes are lined for the -most part by shops and workshops.[165] Opening on to them in certain -positions are public halls or auditoriums, architecturally decorative -and furnished with seats, where meetings can be held and professors -can lecture to classes on various topics.[166] Between the pillars of -the colonnades next the thoroughfare we find stalls and tables for -the sale of all kinds of wares. In the finer parts of the city such -stalls or booths must by law be ornamentally constructed and encrusted -outside with marbles so as not to mar the beauty of the piazza.[167] -At the tables especially are seated the money-changers or bankers, who -lend money at usury, receive it at interest, and act generally as the -pawnbrokers of the capital.[168] Such pleasant arcades have naturally -become the habitual resort of courtezans,[169] and they are recognized -as the legitimate place of shelter for the houseless poor.[170] - -(2) The open spaces, to which the Latin name of _forum_ is applied -more often than the Greek word _agora_, are expansions of the main -streets, and, like them, are surrounded on all sides by porticoes. They -are not, however, very numerous and about a dozen will comprise all -that have been constructed within the capital. They originate in the -necessity of preserving portions of the ground unoccupied for use as -market-places, but the vacant area is always more or less decorative -and contains one or more monuments of ornament or utility. Each one -is named distinctively either from the nature of the traffic carried -on therein or in honour of its founder, and most of them will deserve -special attention during our itinerary of the city. - -(3) The greater part of the ground area of Constantinople is, of -course, occupied by residential streets, and these are usually, -according to modern ideas, of quite preposterous narrowness.[171] -Few of them are more than ten feet wide, and this scanty space is -still more contracted above by projecting floors and balconies. In -many places also the public way is encroached upon by _solaria_ or -sun-stages, that is to say by balconies supported on pillars of wood -or marble, and often furnished with a flight of stairs leading to the -pavement below. In such alleys low windows, affording a view of the -street, or facile to lean out of,[172] are considered unseemly by the -inmates of opposite houses. Hence mere light-giving apertures, placed -six feet above the flooring, are the regular means of illumination. -Transparent glass is sometimes used for the closure of windows, but -more often we find thin plates of marble or alabaster with ornamental -designs figured on the translucent substance.[173] Simple wooden -shutters, however, are seen commonly enough in houses of the poorer -class.[174] - -Impatient to see the immense vacant area which he added to Byzantium -covered with houses Constantine exercised little or no supervision over -private builders; necessary thoroughfares became more or less blocked, -walls of public edifices were appropriated as buttresses for hastily -erected tenements, and the task of evolving order out of the resulting -chaos was imposed on succeeding rulers.[175] On Constantinople becoming -the seat of empire, as a resident of the period remarks, “such a -multitude of people flocked hither from all parts, allured by military -or mercantile pursuits, that the citizens out of doors and even at home -are endangered by the unprecedented crush of men and animals.”[176] In -447 Zeno, taking advantage of an extensive fire, promulgated a very -stringent building act, contravention of which renders the offending -structure liable to demolition, and inflicts a fine of ten pounds of -gold on the owner. The architect also becomes liable in a similar -amount, and is even subjected to banishment if unable to pay.[177] By -this act, which remains permanently in force throughout the Empire, -the not very ample width of twelve feet is fixed for private streets, -_solaria_ and balconies must be at least ten feet distant from -similar projections on the opposite side, and not less than fifteen -feet above the pavement; whilst stairs connecting them directly -with the thoroughfare are entirely abolished. Prospective windows -also are forbidden in streets narrower than the statutory allowance -of twelve feet. These enactments, however, too restricted in their -practical application, have done but little to relieve the congested -thoroughfares. Thus, long afterwards, another resident complains that -every spot of ground is occupied by contiguous dwellings to such an -extent that “scarcely can an open space be discovered, which affords a -clear view of the sky without raising the eyes aloft.”[178] - -These by-streets, of which there are more than four hundred[179] in -the capital, consist chiefly of houses suitable for single families of -the middle or lower classes. There are also, however, a large number -of dwellings for collective habitation, which cover a greater area and -rise by successive stories to an unusual height; but by law they are -not allowed to exceed an altitude of one hundred feet.[180] When one -side of such buildings is situated next a portico the adjacent part of -the ground floor is usually fitted up as a range of shops.[181] - -Besides the ordinary domiciles, which constitute the bulk of the -city, there are the mansions or palaces of the wealthy, situated in -various choice and open positions throughout the town. Such residences -are generally two-storied, and have ornamental façades on which -sculptured pillars both above and below are conspicuous. The windows, -arched or rectangular, are divided by a central pilaster, and the -roof, usually slanting, is covered with wood or thin slabs of stone. -Within, a lofty hall is supported on tall columns surmounted by gilded -capitals, and the walls are inlaid with polished marbles of various -colours and textures. Throughout the house the principal apartments -are similarly decorated, and even bedrooms are not destitute of the -columnar adornments so dear to luxurious Byzantines. Ceilings are -almost invariably fretted and liberally gilt. In houses of this class -a central court, contained by a colonnade, giving air and light to -the whole building, is considered a necessity. Much wealth is often -expended in order to give this space the appearance of a landscape in -miniature. Trees wave, fountains play, and artificial streams roll over -counterfeited cliffs into pools stocked with tame fish.[182] - -Within the gate of Eugenius we are on the northern slopes of the -first hill, whereon was placed the citadel of Byzantium. Rounding -it to the east we soon approach a tall Corinthian column of white -marble, bearing on its summit a statue of Byzas,[183] a memorial of the -victories by land and sea of Venerianus or other Byzantine generals -over the marauding Goths about 266.[184] “Fortune has returned to the -city,” so runs the inscription on the base, “since the Goths have -been overcome.”[185] But these events have now passed into oblivion, -and the vicinity is given up to low taverns, whilst in the popular -mind the monument is associated with the more signal exploits of -Pompey the Great in his Mithridatic wars.[186] To the south of this -pillar, and close to the eastern wall, is situated the Imperial -arsenal or Manganon, founded by Constantine, a repertory of weapons of -all descriptions, and of machines used in the attack and defence of -fortifications.[187] It contains, besides, a military library.[188] - -Passing the Cynegium, a deserted amphitheatre of pre-Constantinian -date,[189] and a small theatre, we may make the circuit of the first -hill on the south side and enter the chief square of the city. This -area, the ancient market-place of Byzantium,[190] is called the -Augusteum,[191] that is the Imperial Forum; and it forms a court to -those edifices which are particularly frequented by the Emperor. -Around it are situated his Palace, his church, his Senate-House, and -a vast Circus or Hippodrome, where the populace and their ruler are -accustomed to meet face to face. Almost all the public buildings at -this date, which aspire to architectural beauty, are constructed more -or less exactly after the model of the classical Greek temple; that -is, they are oblong, and have at each end a pediment corresponding to -the extremities of a slanting roof. The eaves, projecting widely and -supported on pillars, form a portico round the body of the building, -which, in the most decorative examples, is excavated externally by a -series of niches for the reception of statues.[192] The vestibule of -the Palace, which opens on the southern portico of the Augusteum, is a -handsome pillared hall named Chalke, or the Brazen House, from being -roofed with tiles of gilded brass.[193] An image of Christ, devoutly -placed over the brazen gates which close the entrance, dates back -to Constantine,[194] but the remainder of the building has lately -been restored by Anastasius.[195] This vestibule leads to several -spacious chambers or courts which are rather of an official than of a -residential character. Amongst these most room is given to the quarters -of the Imperial guards, which are divided into four companies called -Scholars, Excubitors, Protectors, and Candidates respectively.[196] -The latter are distinguished by wearing white robes when in personal -attendance on the Emperor.[197] Here also we find a state prison, the -Noumera, a great banqueting hall, the Triclinium of Nineteen Couches, -and a Consistorium or Throne-room.[198] Three porphyry steps at one -end of this apartment lead to the throne itself, which consists of -an elaborately carved chair adorned with ivory, jewels, and precious -metals. It is placed beneath a silver _ciborium_, that is, a small -dome raised on four pillars just sufficiently elevated to permit of -the occupant standing upright. The whole is ornamentally moulded, a -pair of silver eagles spread their wings on the top of the dome, and -the interior can be shut in by drawing rich curtains hung between the -columns.[199] - -Beyond Chalke, the term includes its dependencies, we enter a court, -colonnaded as usual, which leads on the right to a small church -dedicated to St. Stephen,[200] the upper galleries of which overlook -the Hippodrome. On the left, that is on the east of this court, is -an octagonal hall, the first chamber in a more secluded section of -the palace called Daphne.[201] It derives its name from a notable -statue of Daphne, so well known in Greek fable as the maiden who -withstood Apollo.[202] On the domed roof of this second vestibule -stands a figure, representing the Fortune of the City, erected by -Constantine.[203] The palace of Daphne contains the private reception -rooms of the Emperor and Empress, whose chief personal attendants are -a band of nobles entitled Silentiaries. The duty of these officers, -amongst whom Anastasius was included before his elevation to the -purple,[204] is to keep order in the Imperial chambers.[205] The -terraces and balconies of Daphne, which face the west, overlook the -Hippodrome. Adjoining the Palace on the south is an area fitted up as -a private circus, which is used by members of the Court for equestrian -exercises.[206] - -Passing through Daphne to the east we enter a further court, and find -ourselves opposite a third vestibule which, being of a semi-elliptical -form, is called the Sigma of the Palace.[207] The division of the -Imperial residence to which this hall introduces us is specially -the Sacred or “God-guarded” Palace, because it contains the “sacred -cubicle” or sleeping apartment of the Emperor.[208] In this quarter -a numerous band of cubicularies or eunuchs of the bed-chamber have -their principal station, controlled by the Praepositus of the sacred -cubicle.[209] Here also are a crowd of vestiaries or dressers who are -occupied with the royal apparel, including females of various grades -with similar titles for the service of the Empress. At the eastern -limit of the Palace stands the Pharos, a beacon tower afterwards, if -not now, the first of a series throughout Asia Minor by which signals -were flashed to and from the capital.[210] The Tzykanisterion,[211] -Imperial Gardens, large enough to be called a park, occupies a -great part of the south-eastern corner of the peninsula.[212] It is -surrounded, or rather fortified, by substantial walls which join the -sea walls of the city on the east and south.[213] The western section, -which terminates on the south near the palace of Hormisdas and Port -Julian, is surmounted by a covered terrace named the Gallery of -Marcian,[214] the emperor who caused it to be constructed. A detached -edifice within this inclosure, close to the Bucoleon Port, possesses -considerable historical interest. It is called the Porphyry Palace, -and Constantine is said to have enjoined on his successors that each -empress at her lying-in should occupy a chamber in this building.[215] -Hence the royal children are distinguished by the epithet of -Porphyrogeniti or “born in the purple.” The edifice is square, and the -roof rises to a point like a pyramid. The walls and floors are covered -with a rare species of speckled purple marble imported from Rome.[216] -Hence its name. All parts of the Imperial palace are profusely adorned -with statues, some mythological, others historical, representing rulers -of the Empire, their families, or prominent statesmen and generals. -Chapels or oratories dedicated to various saints are attached to every -important section of the building.[217] - -The north side of the Augusteum, opposite the vestibule of Chalke, -is occupied by an oblong edifice with an arched wooden roof,[218] the -basilica of St. Sophia,[219] commonly called the Great Church. The -entrance faces the east,[220] and leads from a cloistered forecourt -to a narrow hall, named the _narthex_, which extends across the whole -width of the church. The interior consists of a wide nave separated -from lateral aisles by rows of Corinthian columns, which support a -gallery on each side. At the end of the nave stands the pulpit or -_ambo_,[221] approached by a double flight of steps, one on each side. -Behind the _ambo_ the body of the church is divided from the _Bema_ -or chancel by a lofty carved screen, decorated with figures of sacred -personages, called later the _Iconostasis_ or image-stand. Three doors -in the _Iconostasis_ lead to the _Bema_, which contains the altar,[222] -a table of costly construction enriched with gold and gems, and covered -by a large and handsome _ciborium_. The edifice is terminated by an -apse furnished with an elevated seat, which forms the throne of the -Patriarch or Archbishop of Constantinople.[223] Light enters through -mullioned windows glazed with plates of translucent marble. Every -available space in the church is adorned with statues to the number of -several hundreds, the majority of them representing pagan divinities -and personifications of the celestial signs. Among them is a nearly -complete series of the Roman emperors, whilst Helena, the mother of -Constantine, appears thrice over in different materials, porphyry, -silver, and ivory.[224] Close to St. Sophia on the north is the church -of St. Irene, one of the earliest buildings erected for Christian -worship by Constantine. It is usually called the Old Church.[225] -Between these two sacred piles stands a charitable foundation, -Sampson’s Hospital, practically a refuge for incurables reduced by -disease to a state of destitution.[226] Yet a third place of worship in -this locality to the north-west of the Great Church may be mentioned, -Our Lady (Theotokos) of the Brassworkers, built in a tract previously -devoted to Jewish artisans of that class.[227] - -On the east side of the Augusteum are situated two important public -buildings, viz., the Senate-house, and, to the south of it, a palatial -hall, the grand triclinium of Magnaura.[228] The latter stands -back some distance from the square in an open space planted with -trees,[229] and consists of a pillared façade, from whence we pass into -a vast chamber supported on marble columns. It is the largest of the -State reception rooms, and is the established rendezvous of Imperial -pageantry whenever it is desirable to overawe the mind of foreign -ambassadors.[230] - -Next to Chalke on the west is placed the handsomest public bath in the -city, that of Zeuxippus, the most ambitious work of Severus during his -efforts at restoration.[231] It is compassed by ample colonnades which -are conjoined with those of the Palace,[232] and are especially notable -for their wealth of statuary in bronze and marble, dating from the best -period of Grecian art. Within and without, in the palatial halls and -chambers encrusted with marble and mosaic work, and in the niches of -the porticoes, are to be found almost all the gods and goddesses, the -poets, politicians, and philosophers of Greece and Rome, as celebrated -by the Coptic poet Christodorus in a century of epigrams.[233] Amongst -these a draped full-length figure of Homer is particularly admired: -with his arms crossed upon his breast, his hair and beard unkempt, his -brows bent in deep thought, his eyes fixed and expressionless in token -of blindness, the bard is represented as he lived, absorbed in the -creation of some sublime epic.[234] The bath, or institution,[235] -as it may properly be called, is brilliantly illuminated during the -dark hours of night and morning on an improved system devised by the -Praefect Cyrus Constantine.[236] - -On the west side of the Augusteum the ground is chiefly taken up by -a large covered bazaar, in which dress fabrics of the most expensive -kind, silks, and cloth of gold, are warehoused for sale to the -Byzantine aristocracy. It is known as the House of Lamps, on account -of the multitude of lights which are here ignited for the display of -the goods after nightfall.[237] Close by is the Octagon, an edifice -bordered by eight porticoes. It contains a library and a lecture -theatre, and is the meeting-place of a faculty of erudite monks, who -constitute a species of privy council frequently consulted by the -Emperor.[238] Preferment to the highest ecclesiastical dignities is the -recognized destiny of its members. In the same vicinity is a basilica -named the Royal Porch, wherein is preserved a library founded by the -Emperor Julian.[239] Here principally judicial causes are heard, and -its colonnades have become the habitual resort of advocates, who for -the greater part of each day frequent the place in expectation of, or -consulting with, clients.[240] - -In the open area of the Augusteum we may notice several important -monuments. South of St. Sophia are two silver statues raised on -pedestals, one on the west representing the great Theodosius,[241] -and another on the east opposite the Senate-house, a female figure -in a trailing robe, the Empress Eudoxia, wife of Arcadius. This is -the famous statue round which the populace used to dance and sing so -as to disturb the church service in the time of Chrysostom, whose -invectives against the custom were deemed an insult by the Court, and -made the occasion of his deposition and banishment.[242] Adjoining is -a third statue, that of Leo Macella, elevated by means of a succession -of steps, whereon popular suitors for Imperial justice are wont to -deposit their petitions. These are regularly collected and submitted -to the Emperor for his decision, whence the monument is called the -Pittakia or petition-stone.[243] Near the same spot is a fountain -known as the Geranium.[244] The most important structure, however, -is the Golden Milestone or Milion,[245] situated in the south-west -corner of the square. This is merely a gilded column to mark the -starting-point of the official measurement of distances, which are -registered systematically on mile-stones fixed along all the main -roads of the Empire. But, in order to signalize its position, a grand -triumphal arch, quadrilateral, with equal sides, and four entries, has -been erected above it. The arch is surmounted by figures of Constantine -and his mother holding a great cross between them. This group is -of such magnitude that it is not dwarfed by equestrian statues of -Trajan and Hadrian, which are placed behind it.[246] Beneath the arch -a flying group, representing the chariot of the Sun, drawn by four -flame-coloured horses, is elevated upon two lofty pillars.[247] - -The Hippodrome or Circus commences near the Milion, whence it stretches -southwards towards the sea and terminates in the vicinity of the -Sigma of Julian,[248] a crescentic portico verging on the harbour -of that name. It is an artificially constructed racecourse having -an external length of about a quarter of a mile, and a breadth of -nearly half that distance. This elongated space, straight on the north -and round at the opposite end, is contained within a corniced wall -decorated outside with engaged Corinthian columns, thirty feet in -height.[249] Owing to the declivity of the ground as it sinks towards -the shore, the circular portion of the architectural boundary is -supported on arcades which gradually diminish in altitude on each -side as they approach the centre of the inclosure.[250] Interiorly, -except at the straight end, a sloping series of marble benches[251] -runs continuously round the arena, the level of which is maintained -in the _sphendone_ or rounded part by the vaulted substructions based -on the incline of the hill.[252] The northern extremity is flanked -by a pair of towers, between which, on the ground level, lies the -Manganon,[253] offices for the accommodation of horses, chariots, and -charioteers. Above the Manganon is placed the Kathisma,[254] the name -given to the seat occupied in state by the Emperor, when viewing the -races. It is situated in a covered balcony or lodge fronted by a low -balustrade, and is surrounded by an ample space for the reception of -guards and attendant courtiers. In advance of the Kathisma, but on a -lower level, is a square platform sustained by marble columns called -the Stama, which is the station of a company of Imperial guards with -standard-bearers.[255] Behind the Kathisma is a suite of retiring -rooms, from whence a winding staircase[256] leads, by the gallery of -St. Stephen’s chapel, to the colonnades of Daphne. This is the royal -route to the Circus.[257] The whole of the edifice superimposed on the -Manganon is named the Palace of the Kathisma or of the Hippodrome.[258] -A narrow terrace constructed in masonry, about three feet high, -extends along the centre of the arena equidistant from all parts of -the peripheral boundary. This Spine, as it was called in the old Roman -nomenclature, but now renamed the Euripus,[259] serves to divide the -track of departure from that of return. It is adorned from end to end -with a range of monuments of great diversity. In the middle stands -an Egyptian obelisk, inscribed with the usual hieroglyphs, resting -on four balls sustained in turn by a square pedestal. An inscription -at the bottom of the pedestal, illustrated by diagrams, exhibits the -engineering methods adopted under the great Theodosius for the erection -of the monolith on its present site; higher up elaborate sculptures -show the Emperor in his seat presiding at the games.[260] Farther to -the south is a still loftier column of the same shape, covered with -brass plates, called the Colossus.[261] Intermediately is the brazen -pillar, ravished from the temple of Delphi, composed of the twisted -bodies of three serpents, whose heads formerly supported the golden -tripod dedicated to Apollo by the Grecian states in memory of the -defeat of the Persians at Plateia.[262] The names of the subscribing -communities can still be read engraved on the folds of the snakes. -Adjacent is a lofty pillar bearing the figure of a nymph with flowing -robes, who holds forth a mail-clad knight mounted on horseback with -one hand.[263] Near the south end is a fountain or bath with a central -statue, known as the Phial of the Hippodrome.[264] Contiguous is an -aedicule raised on four pillars, in which is displayed the laurelled -bust of the reigning Emperor.[265] Above the obelisk, on a column, is -a celebrated statue of Hercules Trihesperus by Lysippus; the hero of -colossal size, in a downcast mood seated on his lion’s hide.[266] There -are also several pyramids in various positions along the Spine as well -as numerous figures of famous charioteers interspersed among the other -ornaments.[267] To these are to be added the necessary furniture of -the Spine of a Roman Circus, viz., the narrow stages raised on a pair -of pillars at each end, the one supporting seven ovoid bodies, by the -removal or replacing of which the spectators at both extremities are -enabled to see how many laps of the course have been travelled over by -the chariots; the other, seven dolphins,[268] ornamental waterspouts -through which water is pumped into the Phial beneath.[269] At each -end of the Euripus are the usual triple cones,[270] figured with -various devices, the “goals” designed to make the turning-points of -the arena conspicuous. Over the Manganon, on each side external to the -Kathisma, are a pair of gilded horses removed by Theodosius II from -the Isle of Chios.[271] The Podium, or lower boundary of the marble -benches, is elevated about twelve feet above the floor of the arena -by a columnar wall;[272] at the upper limit of these seats a level -terrace or promenade is carried completely round the Circus. This walk -is crowded with statues in brass and stone, many of them inscribed with -their place of origin, from whence they have been carried off.[273] A -number of them are deserving of special mention: a bronze eagle with -expanded pinions rending a viper with its talons, and engraved with -mystic symbols beneath the wings, said to have been erected by the -arch-charlatan or illusionist, Apollonius Tyaneus, as a charm against -the serpents which infested Byzantium;[274] a group representing the -semi-piscine Scylla devouring the companions of Ulysses, who had -been engulfed by Charybdis;[275] the figure of a eunuch named Plato, -formerly a Grand Chamberlain, removed from a church notwithstanding a -prohibition cut on the breast: “May he who moves me be strangled”;[276] -a man driving an ass, set up by Augustus at Actium in memory of his -having met, the night before that battle, a wayfarer thus engaged, -who, on being questioned, replied, “I am named Victor, my ass is -Victoria, and I am going to Caesar’s camp;”[277] the infants Romulus -and Remus with their foster-mother the wolf;[278] a Helen of the -rarest beauty, her charms enhanced by the most captivating dress and -ornaments; a factitious basilisk crushing an asp between its teeth; -a hippopotamus, a man grappling with a lion, several sphinxes,[279] -a well-known hunchback in a comic attitude,[280] statues of emperors -on foot and on horseback, and various subjects from pagan mythology, -the whole representing the spoliation of more than a score of cities -looted in time of peace at the caprice of a despot.[281] Four handsome -arched gateways, two on each side, with containing towers,[282] give -the public access to the interior of the Hippodrome.[283] That on the -south-east is named the Gate of the Dead,[284] a term which originated -at the time when a special entry was reserved for removing the bodies -of those slain in the fatal, but now obsolete, combats of gladiators. -The Sphendone, however, is now frequently used for the execution of -offenders of rank, not always criminal, and this portal has still, -therefore, some practical right to its name.[285] When necessary, the -Circus can be covered with an awning as a protection against the sun or -bad weather.[286] - -From the western arch of the Milion we enter the Mese, that is, the -Middle, Main, or High Street of the city, which traverses the whole -town from east to west with a southerly inclination between the -Augusteum and the Golden Gate. It is bounded in almost all of its -course by porticoes said to have been constructed by Eubulus, one -of the wealthy Romans who were induced to migrate by Constantine. -The same patrician gifted the city with two other colonnades which -extend for a considerable distance along the eastern portion of the -north and south shores.[287] The Mese proceeds at first between the -north of the Hippodrome and the Judicial or Royal Basilica with -the adjacent buildings already mentioned. Contiguous to the Royal -Porch is a life-size statue of an elephant with his keeper, erected -by Severus to commemorate the fact that the animal had killed a -money-changer, who was afterwards proved dishonest, to avenge the -death of his master.[288] Near the western flank of the Circus is the -Palace of Lausus, said to be one of those reared by Constantine to -allure some of the Roman magnates to reside permanently in his new -capital.[289] Subsequently, however, it was transformed into an inn -for the public entertainment of strangers.[290] In its vestibule and -galleries were collected many gems of Grecian statuary, but most of -these have been destroyed by the great fire which raged in this quarter -under Zeno.[291] Amongst them were the celebrated Venus of Cnidos in -white marble, a nude work of Praxiteles;[292] the Lindian Athene in -smaragdite; the Samian Hera of Lysippus; a chryselephantine, or ivory -and gold statue of Zeus by Phidias, which Pericles placed in the temple -at Olympia;[293] an allegorical figure of Time by Lysippus, having hair -on the frontal part of the head, but with the back bald; and also many -figures of animals, including a cameleopard.[294] - -Proceeding onwards for about a quarter of a mile we pass on our -right the Argyropratia, that is, the abode of the silversmiths,[295] -and arrive at the Forum of Constantine, which presents itself as an -expansion of the Mese. This open space, the most signal ornament of -Constantinople, is called prescriptively the Forum; and sometimes, -from its finished marble floor, “The Pavement.” Two lofty arches of -white Proconnesian marble, opposed to each other from east to west, -are connected by curvilinear porticoes so as to inclose a circular -area.[296] From its centre rises a tall porphyry column bound at -intervals with brazen laurel wreaths. This pillar is surmounted by -a figure of Constantine with the attributes of the Sun-god, his -head resplendent with a halo of gilded rays.[297] The mystic Trojan -Palladium, furtively abstracted from Rome, is buried beneath the -monument, on the base of which an inscription piously invokes Christ -to become the guardian of the city.[298] The sculptural decorations of -this Forum are very numerous: the Fortune of the City, called Anthusa, -was originally set up here, and adored with bloodless sacrifices;[299] -a pair of great crosses inscribed with words of the Creed and Doxology -are erected on opposite sides; Constantine with his mother Helena, and -a pair of winged angels form a group about the one, whilst the sons of -the same emperor surround the other.[300] Here also may be seen Athene, -her neck encircled by snakes emanating from the Gorgon’s head fixed -in her aegis; Amphitrite distinguished by a crown of crab’s claws; a -dozen statues of porphyry ranged in one portico, and an equal number of -gilded sirens or sea-horses in the other; and lastly the bronze gates -bestowed by Trajan on the temple of Diana at Ephesus, embossed with -a series of subjects illustrating the theogonies of Greece and Rome. -These latter adorn the entrance to the original Senate-house which is -situated on the south side of the Forum.[301] - -If we diverge from the Mese slightly to the north-east of the Pavement, -we shall enter a large square named the Strategium, from its forming -a parade-ground to the barracks of the Palatine troops.[302] Amongst -several monuments a Theban obelisk conspicuously occupies the middle -place,[303] but the most striking object is an equestrian figure of -Constantine with the pillar alongside it by which Constantinople -is officially declared to be a second Rome.[304] This locality is -associated in historic tradition with Alexander the Great, of whom it -contains a commemorative statue.[305] From hence he is said to have -started on his expedition against Darius after holding a final review -of his forces. On this account it was chosen by Severus as a permanent -site for military quarters.[306] The public prison is also located in -this square.[307] - -Continuing our way beneath the piazzas of the Mese beyond the Forum -of Constantine we reach the district known as the Artopolia or public -bakeries which lie to the north of the main street. A strange group -of statuary, allegorizing the fecundity of nature, is collocated in -this region, viz., a many-headed figure in which the faces of a dozen -animals are seen in conjunction; amongst them are those of a lion, an -eagle, a peacock, a ram, a bull, a crow, a mouse, a hare, a cat, and -a weasel. This eccentric presentment is flanked by a pair of marble -Gorgons.[308] Adjacent we may also observe a paved area in which a -cross stands conspicuously on a pillar, another record of the hybrid -piety of Constantine.[309] - -Farther on by a couple of furlongs is the great square of Taurus, also -called the Forum of Theodosius, through its being specially devoted to -memorials of that prince. It covers an oblong space, extending from -level ground on the south up the slope of the third hill, the summit -of which it includes in its northern limit.[310] This eminence, in -accordance with the conception of making Constantinople a counterpart -of Rome, is called the Capitol, and is occupied by an equivalent of -the Tabularium, that is, by a building which contains the Imperial -archives.[311] Similarly, this site has been chosen for an edifice -composed of halls and a lecture-theatre assigned to a faculty of thirty -professors appointed by government to direct the liberal studies of -the youth of the capital—in short, for the University, as we may call -it, of Constantinople.[312] The principal monument in Taurus is the -column of Theodosius I, the sculptural shaft of which illustrates in -an ascending spiral the Gothic victories of that Emperor.[313] But the -equestrian statue which originally crowned this pictured record of his -achievements, having been overthrown by an earthquake, has lately been -replaced by a figure of the unwarlike Anastasius.[314] To the north -of this column, on a tetrapyle or duplex arch, Theodosius the Less -presides over the titular Forum of his grandfather.[315] But in the -fading memory of the populace the figure of this Emperor is already -confounded with a horseman said to have been abstracted from Antioch, -whom some imagine to be Jesus Nava,[316] and others Bellerophon.[317] -Facing each other from east to west on opposite sides of the square -are arches supporting figures of those degenerate representatives of -the Theodosian dynasty, Arcadius and Honorius.[318] To the western of -these arches we may observe that an assortment of troublesome insects, -counterfeited in brass, have been carefully affixed—another charm -of Apollonius Tyaneus intended to protect the inhabitants against -such diminutive pests.[319] In this vicinity is also a palace, built -by Constantine, in which strangers from all parts are hospitably -entertained without expense or question.[320] - -From the west side of Taurus we may perceive the great aqueduct -of Valens, which crosses the third valley, and is here conjoined -with the chief _Nymphaeum_, a decorative public hall built around a -fountain.[321] Several of these _Nymphaea_ exist in the city, and they -are often made use of for private entertainments, especially nuptial -festivals, by citizens who have not sufficient space for such purposes -in their own homes.[322] The water supply of the town is under the -care of a special Consul, and very stringent laws are in force to -prevent waste or injury to the structures necessary for its storage -and distribution.[323] With the exception, however, of that of Valens, -aerial aqueducts (so conspicuous at Rome) have not been carried near -to, or within, the walls of Constantinople; and subterranean pipes -of lead or earthenware are the usual means of conveying the precious -liquid from place to place.[324] The public cisterns are in themselves -a striking architectural feature of the city. Some of these are open -basins, but many of them possess vaulted roofs, upborne by hundreds of -columns whose capitals are sculptured in the varied styles of Byzantine -art.[325] Most of these receptacles for water are distinguished by -special names; thus, beneath the Sphendone of the Hippodrome, we have -the Cold cistern,[326] and near to the palace or _hospice_ of Lausus -the Philoxenus, or Travellers’ Friend.[327] By a law of Theodosius II, -the wharf dues, paid for the use of the various stairs on the Golden -Horn, are applied to the repair of the aqueducts, the supply of water -from which is free to the public.[328] In connection with the cisterns -a group of three storks in white marble is pointed out as a further -result of the fruitful visit of Apollonius Tyaneus to Byzantium; owing -to the district becoming infested by serpents, flocks of these birds -were attracted hither, and caused a terrible nuisance through having -contracted a habit of casting the dead bodies of the reptiles into the -water reservoirs; but the erection of this monument speedily achieved -their perpetual banishment from the city.[329] - -If we step aside a short distance from Taurus, both on the north and -south sides, we shall in each case come upon an interesting monument. -1. On the far side of the Capitol, overlooking the Zeugma, on a marble -pillar, is a noted statue of Venus, which marks the site of the only -_lupanar_ permitted by Constantine to exist in his new capital.[330] -Around, each secluded within its curtained lattice, are a series -of bowers consecrated to the illicit, or rather mercenary, amours -of the town. The goddess, however, who presides here is credited -with a remarkable leaning towards chastity; for, it is believed, -that if a wife or maid suspected of incontinence be brought to this -statue, instead of denying her guilt, she will by an irresistible -impulse cast off her garments so as to give an ocular proof of her -shamelessness.[331] 2. To the south, elevated on four pillars, is a -lofty pyramid of bronze, the apex of which sustains a female figure -pivoted so as to turn with every breath of wind. The surfaces of the -pyramid are decorated with a set of much admired bas-reliefs; on one -side a sylvan scene peopled with birds depicted in flight or song; on -another a pastoral idyl representing shepherds piping to their flocks, -whilst the lambs are seen gambolling over the green; again, a marine -view with fishers casting their nets amid shoals of fish startled and -darting in all directions; lastly, a mimic battle in which mirthful -bands of Cupids assault each other with apples and pomegranates. This -elaborate vane, which is visible over a wide area, is known as the -_Anemodulion_, or Slave of the Winds.[332] - -Beyond Taurus the Mese leads us to the _Philadelphium_, a spot -dedicated to brotherly love and embellished by a group representing -the three sons of Constantine in an affectionate attitude. The -monument commemorates the last meeting of these noble youths, who, -on hearing of the death of their father, encountered each other here -prior to assuming the government of their respective divisions of -the Empire.[333] Opposite is another group of the same princes, who -ultimately destroyed each other, erected by Constantine himself with -the usual accompaniment of a large gilt cross.[334] A few paces farther -on, our route is again interrupted by a square, the entrance to which -is marked by a Tetrapyle, or arch of four portals, executed in brass. -Above the first gateway is affixed a significant symbol, namely, a -modius or measure for wheat standing between a pair of severed hands. -It records the punishment by Valentinian I of an unjust dealer who -ignored his law that corn should be sold to the people with the measure -heaped up to overflowing.[335] The Forum on which the Tetrapyle opens -is called the _Amastrianum_, perhaps from a wanderer belonging to -Amastris in Paphlagonia, who was found dead on this spot.[336] It is -the usual place of public execution for the lower classes, whether -capital or by mutilation.[337] This square, which is close to the -streamlet Lycus,[338] is no exception to the rule that such open spaces -should be crowded with statues. Among them we may notice the Sun-god in -a marble chariot, a reclining Hercules, shells with birds resting on -the rim, and nearly a score of dragons.[339] - -Yet two more open spaces on the Mese arrest our progress as we proceed -to the Golden Gate. The first is the Forum of the Ox, which contains a -colossal quadruped of that species brought hither from Pergamus.[340] -This is in reality a brazen furnace for the combustion of malefactors -condemned to perish by fire, and has the credit of having given some -martyrs to the Church, especially under the Emperor Julian.[341] -Farther on is the last square we shall find it necessary to view, the -Forum of Arcadius, founded by that prince.[342] Its distinguishing -monument is a column similar in every way to that in Taurus,[343] -but the silver statue which surmounts it is the figure of Arcadius -himself.[344] We are now on the top of the Xerolophos, and the -colonnades which lead hence to the walls of Theodosius are named the -_Porticus Troadenses_.[345] But about halfway to the present Imperial -portal we pass through the original Golden Gate,[346] a landmark -which has been spared in the course of the old walls of Constantine. -The extensive tract added by Theodosius II to the interior of the -city was formerly the camping ground of the seven bodies of Gothic -auxiliaries, and for that reason was divided into seven districts, -denoted numerically from south to north. The whole of this quarter is -now spoken of as the _Exokionion_, that is, the region outside the -Pillar, in allusion to a well-known statue of Constantine which marks -the border.[347] But, in order to particularize the smaller areas of -this quarter, some of the numbers are still found indispensable, and -we often hear of the Deuteron, Triton, Pempton, and Hebdomon. Adjacent -to the Golden Gate is situated the great monastery of St. John Studii, -which maintains a thousand monks.[348] - -On entering the _Exokionion_ the Mese gives off a branch thoroughfare -which leads to the Gate of the Fountain, skirting on its way the church -of St. Mocius, a place of worship granted to the Arians by Theodosius -I when he established the Nicene faith at Constantinople.[349] By this -route also we arrive at a portico which adorns the interior of the -mural Sigma,[350] and contains a monument to Theodosius II erected by -his Grand Chamberlain, the infamous eunuch Chrysaphius.[351] - -If we now retrace our steps to the Philadelphium and diverge thence -from the Mese in a north-westerly direction, we shall soon reach -the church of the Holy Apostles, the most imposing of the Christian -edifices founded by Constantine. It is contained within an open court -surrounded by cloisters, on which give the numerous offices required -for the guardians of the sacred precincts. This church is one of the -first of those constructed in the form of a cross.[352] Outside it is -covered with variegated marbles, and the roof is composed of tiles of -gilded brass. The interior is elaborately decorated with a panelled -ceiling and walls invested with trellis-work of an intricate pattern, -the whole being profusely gilded. Cenotaphs ranged in order are -consecrated to the honour and glory of the Twelve Apostles, and in the -midst of these is a porphyry sarcophagus wherein repose the remains of -Constantine himself and his mother. The building is in fact a _heroon_ -or mausoleum designed to perpetuate the fulminating flattery of the -period by which Constantine was declared to be the “equal of the -Apostles.”[353] Subsequently, however, this religious pile was adopted -as the customary place of interment of the Imperial families, and many -tombs of royal personages are now to be seen scattered around. Amongst -them lie the sons of Constantine, Theodosius I and II, Arcadius, -Marcian, Pulcheria, Leo I, and Zeno.[354] On leaving this spot, if -we turn to the south for a short distance, we shall be enabled to -examine a tall column with a heavy capital elaborately sculptured in a -Byzantino-Corinthian style. An inscription on the pedestal testifies -to its having been erected by the Praefect Tatian to the memory of the -Emperor Marcian.[355] - -The region of Sycae, built on the steep slope of the hill which rises -almost from the water’s edge to the north of the Golden Horn, is -considered to be an integral part of the city. It is particularly -associated with the brother of Arcadius, the enervated Honorius, who -ruled the Western Empire for more than thirty years, an effigy rather -than the reality of a king. Thus the Forum of Honorius constitutes -its market-place, and its public baths are also distinguished by the -name of the same prince. It possesses, moreover, a dock and a church -with gilded tiles, and is fortified in the usual way by a wall with -towers.[356] - -[Illustration: - _Diagram of =CP.= in 6th century. Latitude 41° N._ (_Nearly level with - Naples and Madrid_)] - -Rome was divided by Augustus into fourteen regions or parishes, to each -of which he appointed a body of public officers whose functions much -resembled those of a modern Vestry.[357] The municipal government of -the new Rome is an almost exact imitation of that instituted by the -founder of the Empire for the old capital. Here are the same number -of regions, named numerically and counted in order from east to west, -beginning at the end of the promontory. The last two of these, however, -are outside the wall of Constantine, that is to say, Blachernae on the -north-west and Sycae over the water. To each division is assigned a -_Curator_ or chief controller, a _Vernaculus_ or beadle, who performs -the duties of a public herald, five _Vicomagistri_, who form a night -patrol for the streets, and a considerable number of _Collegiati_, in -the tenth region as many as ninety, whose duty it is to rush to the -scene of fires with hatchets and water-buckets.[358] At night the main -thoroughfares are well lighted by flaring oil-lamps.[359] - -One remarkable feature of the city, to be encountered by the visitor at -every turn, is an elevated shed which can be approached on all sides -by ranges of steps. These “Steps,” as they are briefly called, are -stations for the gratuitous daily distribution of provisions to the -poorer citizens. Every morning a concourse of the populace repairs to -the Step attached to their district, and each person, on presenting a -wooden _tessera_ or ticket, inscribed with certain amounts, receives -a supply of bread, and also a dole of oil, wine, and flesh.[360] -More than six score of such stations are scattered throughout the -town, and the necessary corn is stored in large granaries which are -for the most part replenished by ships arriving every season from -Alexandria.[361] More than twenty public bakeries furnish daily the -required demand of bread.[362] Besides free grants of food and houses -for the entertainment of strangers, the city contains various other -charities under the direction of state officials, the chief of which -are hospitals for the sick and aged, orphanages, poor-houses, and -institutions for the reception of foundlings.[363] A medical officer, -entitled an arch-physician, with a public stipend, is attached to each -parish to attend gratuitously to the poor.[364] - -The civic authorities are well aware that disease arises from putrid -effluvia, and hence an elaborate system of deep drainage has been -constructed so that all sewage is carried by multiple channels into the -sea.[365] Since the introduction of Christianity, cremation has become -obsolete, and burial in the earth is universally practised.[366] Public -cemeteries, however, are not allowed within the walls, but churches and -monasteries are permitted to devote a portion of their precincts to -the purpose of interment. Such limited space is necessarily reserved -for members of the hierarchy and persons of a certain rank, who have -been beneficiaries of the church or order.[367] - -We may here terminate our exploration of the topography of -Constantinople, content to leave a multitude of objects, both -interesting and important, beyond the limits of our survey. Were I to -attempt the description of everything worthy of notice in the city, -my exposition would soon resemble the catalogue of a museum, and -the reader’s attention would expire under the sense of interminable -enumerations. Our picture has been filled in with sufficient detail to -convey the impression of a vast capital laid out in colonnaded squares -and streets, to the adornment of which all that Grecian art could -evolve in architecture and statuary has been applied with a lavishness -attainable only by the fiat of a wide-ruling despot. - - - III. SOCIOLOGY - -To make this chapter fully consonant to its title it now remains for -us to pass in review the sociological condition of the inhabitants, -whilst we try to learn something of their mode of life, their national -characteristics, and their mental aptitudes. We have already seen that -in the case of the Neo-Byzantines or Lesser Greeks,[368] the path of -evolution lay through a series of historical vicissitudes in which -there was more of artificial forcing than of the insensible growth -essential to the formation of a homogeneous people. Owing to its -geographical position it was perhaps inevitable from the first that -Byzantium should become a cosmopolitan town, whose population should -develop little political stability or patriotic coherence. In addition, -however, it happened that the Megareans, their chief progenitors, had -gained an unenviable notoriety throughout Greece; they were generally -esteemed to be gluttonous, slothful, ineffective, and curiously -prolific in courtesans, who, for some reason which now escapes us, -were peculiarly styled “Megarean sphinxes.”[369] Once established on -the Golden Horn the Byzantines seem to have found life very easy; -their fisheries were inexhaustible and facile beyond belief;[370] -whilst the merchants trading in those seas soon flocked thither so -that port dues furnished an unearned and considerable income. As a -consequence the bulk of the populace spent their time idling in the -market-place or about the wharves, each one assured of meeting some -visitor to whom for a valuable consideration he was willing to let his -house and even his wife, whilst he himself took up his abode in the -more congenial wine-shop. So firmly did this dissolute mode of life -gain a footing, that when the town was besieged the citizens could -not be rallied to defend the walls until the municipal authorities -had set up drinking-booths on the ramparts.[371] Law was usually in -abeyance,[372] finance disorganized,[373] and political independence -forfeit to the leading power of the moment, whether Greek or Persian. - -Such was the community whose possession of a matchless site decided -Constantine to select them as the nucleus of population for his new -Rome, the meditated capital of the East. And, in order to fill with -life and movement the streets newly laid out, he engrafted on this -doubtful stock a multitude of servile and penurious immigrants, whom he -allured from their native haunts by the promise of free residence and -rations.[374] Nevertheless a metropolis constituted from such elements -was scarcely below the level of the times, and was destined to prove a -successful rival of the degenerate Rome which Constantine aspired to -supplant. - -The impressions of life and colour which affect a stranger on entering -a new city arise in great part from the costume of its inhabitants. At -Constantinople there prevails in this age a decency in dress foreign -to Rome during the first centuries of the Empire, and even to Greece in -the most classic period. Ladies invested with garments of such tenuity -as to reveal more than they conceal of their physical beauties, to the -confusion of some contemporary Seneca, are not here to be met with in -the streets;[375] the Athenian maiden, with her tunic divided almost -to the hip, or the Spartan virgin displaying her limbs bare to the -middle of the thigh, have no reflection under the piazzas of renascent -Byzantium. A new modesty, born of Christian influences, has cast a -mantle of uniformity over the licence as well as over the simplicity -of the pagan world. In observing the costume of this time a modern eye -would first, perhaps, note the fact that in civil life the garb of men -differs but little from that of women. Loose clothing, which hides -the shape of the body, and in general the whole of the lower limbs, -is common to both sexes. Men usually shave, but a moustache is often -worn; their hair is cropped, but not very close.[376] Head-gear is an -exception, and so, for the lower classes, are coverings for the feet. -A workman, an artisan, or a slave, the latter a numerous class, wears -a simple tunic of undyed wool, short-sleeved, girt round the waist and -reaching to the knees, with probably a hood which can be drawn over -the head as a protection against the weather.[377] This garment is -in fact the foundation dress of all ranks of men, but the rich wear -fine materials, often of silk and of varied hues, have long sleeves, -and use girdles of some costly stuff. They, in addition, are invested -in handsome cloaks reaching to the ankles, which are open for their -whole length on the right side and are secured by a jewelled clasp -over the corresponding shoulder. Shoes often highly ornamented,[378] -and long hose, coloured according to taste, complete the dress of -an ordinary Byzantine gentleman. On less formal occasions a short -sleeveless cloak, fastened at the neck, but open down the front, is -the customary outer vestment. The tunic or gown of women reaches to -the feet, and, in the case of ladies, is embroidered or woven with -designs of various patterns and tints. The latter usually consist of -some small variegated device which is repeated in oblique lines all -over the garment. Shawls, somewhat similar in colour and texture to -the gown, thrown over the back and shoulders or wound round the bust, -are habitually worn at the same time. Gloves, shoes and stockings of -various hues, and a simple form of cap which partly conceals the hair, -are also essential to the attire of a Byzantine lady. As in all ages, -jewellery is much coveted, and women of any social rank are rarely to -be seen without heavy necklaces, earrings of an elaborate spreading -design,[379] and golden girdles.[380] A less numerous class of the -community are male ascetics, celibates of a puritanical cast, who -love to placard themselves by wearing scarlet clothing and binding -their hair with a fillet;[381] also virgins devoted to the service of -the churches, who are known by their sombre dress, black hoods, gray -mantles, and black shoes.[382] Philosophers adopt gray, rhetoricians -crimson, and physicians blue, for the tint of their cloaks.[383] To -these may be added the courtesans who try to usurp the costume of -every grade of women, even that of the sacred sisterhood.[384] Such -is the population who usually crowd the thoroughfares and lend them a -gaudy aspect which is still further heightened by numbers of private -carriages—literally springless carts—bedizened with paint and gilding, -and most fashionable if drawn by a pair of white mules with golden -trappings. Such vehicles are indispensable to the outdoor movements -of matrons of any rank;[385] and in each case a train of eunuchs in -gorgeous liveries, and decked with ornaments of gold, mark the progress -of a great lady.[386] Occasionally we may see the Praefect of the City, -or some other man of signal rank, passing in a silver wagon drawn by -four horses yoked abreast.[387] Often we meet a noble riding a white -horse, his saddle-cloth embroidered in gold; around him a throng of -attendants bearing rods of office with which they rudely scatter all -meaner citizens to make way for their haughty master.[388] A person -of any consequence perambulating the city is followed by at least one -slave bearing a folding seat for incidental rest.[389] In some retired -nook we may encounter a circle of the populace gazing intently at the -performance of a street mountebank; he juggles with cups and goblets; -pipes, dances, and sings a lewd ballad; the bystanders reward him with -a morsel of bread or an obole; he invokes a thousand blessings on their -heads, and departs to resume his display in some other spot.[390] - -The Byzantine Emperor and Empress are distinguished in dress from all -their subjects by the privilege of wearing the Imperial purple.[391] -The Emperor is further denoted by his jewelled shoes or slippers of -a bright scarlet colour, a feature in his apparel which is even more -exclusive than his cloak or his crown. The latter symbol of majesty is -a broad black hoop expanding towards the top, bordered above and below -with a row of pearls, thickly studded with gems all round, and bearing -four great pendent pearls which fall in pairs on the nape of the neck. -His ample purple robe, which falls to his feet, is fastened by a costly -shoulder-clasp of precious stones. Its uniformity is diversified by -two squares or tables of cloth of gold embroidered in various colours, -which approach from the back and front the division on the right side. -Purple hose and a white tunic, sleeved to the wrists and girt with a -crimson scarf, complete the civil attire of the Emperor. When sitting -in state he usually bears a globe surmounted by a cross[392] in his -left hand. His attendant nobles, a new order of patricians who are -styled the Fathers of the Emperor,[393] are garbed all in white, but -the tables of their gowns are of plain purple, their girdles are -red, and their shoes are black. His Protectors or guards wear green -tunics, with red facings, and are shod in black with white hose; a -thick ring of gold, joined to a secondary oval one in front, encircles -the neck of each one; they are armed with a long spear, and carry an -oval shield bordered with blue and widely starred from the centre in -black on a red ground. Their Count or Captain is distinguished by a -red and purple breasted tunic, and by the Christian monogram of his -shield in yellow on a green ground. The dress of the Empress is very -similar to that of her consort, but her crown is more imposing, being -heightened by sprays of jewels, and laden with strings of pearls which -fall over her neck and shoulders.[394] Her purple mantle is without -tables, but is brocaded with gold figures around the skirt; she wears -besides an under-skirt embroidered in bright hues, golden slippers -with green hose, and all jewels proper to ladies of the most costly -description.[395] Two or three patricians usually wait on the Empress, -but her Court is chiefly composed of a bevy of noble matrons or maids, -female patricians who act as her tire-women; the leader[396] of these -is distinguished by her purple gown.[397] - -Every morning at seven o’clock the Grand Janitor of the Palace,[398] -taking his bunch of keys, proceeds with a company of guards and -Silentiaries to open all the doors which lead from the Augusteum to the -Consistorium. After the lapse of an hour the Primicerius or captain -of the watch knocks at the door of the Emperor’s private apartments. -Surrounded by his eunuchs the prince then sallies forth and first, -standing before an image of Christ in a reverential attitude, recites -a formal prayer. On the completion of this pious office he takes -his seat on the throne and calls for the Logothete[399] or steward -of the royal household. Upon this the Janitor, pushing aside the -variegated curtains which close the door leading to the antechamber, -passes out, and in a short time returns with the desired official. -The Logothete first drops on one knee and adores the majesty of the -Emperor, after which he rises and transaction of business for the day -begins. By this time the antechamber of the Throne room has become -crowded with dignitaries of state, patricians, senators, praefects, -and logothetes of various denominations. The Emperor commands the -presence from time to time of such of these as he wishes to confer -with, and all of them at their first entrance salute him with the -same form of submissive obeisance, except those of patrician rank, -who merely bow profoundly, and are greeted by the Emperor with a -kiss.[400] Codicils or commissions for the appointment of officers -of state or rulers of provinces are presented by the Master of the -Rolls,[401] and the Emperor signs the documents in purple ink, the use -of which is forbidden to subjects.[402] Such codicils are illustrated -in colours with various devices symbolical of the dignity or duties -of the office conferred. Those of praefects and proconsuls of the -highest rank display a draped _abacus_ or table on which rests a framed -image of the Emperor lighted by wax tapers; in addition, busts of the -Emperor with his imperial associates or heirs on a pedestal, and a -silver quadriga—insignia of office, which adorn the local vestibule -or denote the vicegerent of the sovereign in his progress through the -public ways. The provinces or districts are indicated by female figures -or busts labelled with various names; in many instances by rivers, -mountains, indigenous animals, and miniature fortresses representing -the chief towns. In the case of rulers of lesser rank—dukes, vicars, -correctors, counts, presidents—a portly volume inscribed with the -initials of a conventional sentence[403] supplants the painted image. -For Masters of the Forces the codicils are illustrated with weapons -of war or with the numerous designs, geometrical or pictorial, which -distinguish the shields of the cohorts under their command. Dignitaries -of civil rank, financial or secretarial, are suitably denoted on -their diplomas by vessels loaded with coin, purses, writing-cases, -and rolls of manuscript.[404] In addition to those assigning -administrative appointments honorary codicils are also issued, by -which the prerogative or precedence only pertaining to various ranks -is conferred. These documents are also called “nude,” as they are not -illustrated with those figures which indicate that the holder is in -authority over particular districts. They are equivalent to patents of -nobility, and are granted for service to the state, general esteem, -and probably also by mere purchase.[405] Among the throng at the -Emperor’s receptions are always a number of officers of a certain -rank, who, on vacating their posts, have the privilege of waiting on -the Emperor in order to adore or kiss his purple.[406] In the absence -of urgent business the audience closes at ten o’clock; at a sign from -the Emperor the Janitor passes into the antechamber with his keys, -which he agitates noisily as a signal of dismissal. The Palace is then -shut up, but at two o’clock it is reopened with the same formalities -for the further transaction of affairs. At five o’clock it is again -closed and the routine of Imperial reception is at an end for the day. -On the _Dominica_ or Sunday the assembly is most numerous, and the -company repairs in procession to one of the adjoining halls to attend -the performance of a brief divine service.[407] As a concession to the -holiness of this day adoration of the Emperor is less formal. When the -Emperor or Empress drives through the streets the carriage is drawn by -four white horses or mules,[408] the vehicle and the trappings of the -animals being ornate in the highest degree.[409] Public processions -on festal days of the Church are regular and frequent; and on these -occasions, as well as on those of national rejoicing, the Emperor -rides a white horse amidst his train of eunuchs, nobles, and guards. -At such times the Praefect of the City enjoins a special cleansing and -decoration of the streets on the prescribed route. The way is adorned -from end to end with myrtle, rosemary, ivy, box, and flowers of all -kinds which are in bloom at the season. The air is filled with the -odour of incense, and from private windows and balconies particoloured -and embroidered fabrics are suspended by the inhabitants. Wherever -the royal cavalcade passes, cries of “Long live the Emperor” rise -from every throat.[410] At night the thoroughfares are illuminated by -frequent lamps displayed from windows and doorways. But on occasions -of public calamity, such as ruinous earthquakes or prolonged drought, -this scene of splendour is reversed; and the Emperor, on foot and -uncrowned, proceeds amidst the clergy and populace, all clad in sombre -garments, to one of the sacred shrines outside the walls to offer -up supplications for a remission of the scourge.[411] And again the -Emperor may be seen as a humble pedestrian, whilst the Patriarch, who -usually rides upon an ass, is seated in the Imperial carriage, on his -way to the consecration of a new church, or holding on his knees the -relics of some saint prior to their deposition in one of the sacred -edifices.[412] - -At this date conventional titles of distinction or adulation have -attained to the stage of full development. The Emperor, in Greek -_Basileus_ or _Autocrator_, the sole Augustus, is also styled Lord -and Master, and is often addressed as “Your Clemency.”[413] His -appointed heir receives the dignity of Caesar and perhaps the title -of _Nobilissimus_, an epithet confined to the nearest associates of -the throne.[414] Below the Imperial eminence and its attachments -the great officers of state are disposed in three ranks, namely, -the _Illustres_, _Spectabiles_, and _Clarissimi_. The Illustrious -dignitaries are termed by the Prince and others “Most Glorious,” -and are variously addressed as “Your Sublimity,” “Magnificence,” -“Eminence,” “Excellence,” “Highness,” “Serenity,” or “Sincerity,” -etc. The two lower ranks are similarly addressed, but only the less -fulsome of such expressions are applied to them. Consonant to the same -scheme the clergy receive the epithets of “Most Holy,” “Blessed,” -“Reverend,” “Beloved of God”; and are addressed as “Your Beatitude,” -“Eminence,” etc., the emphasis being graduated according as they may -happen to be Patriarchs, Archbishops, Metropolitans, Bishops, or simple -clericals.[415] - -In the assemblies of the Hippodrome popular fervour reaches its -highest pitch, whether in times of festive or political excitement. -From Daphne, by the gallery of St. Stephen’s and the Cochlea, the -Emperor, surrounded by courtiers and guards, gains his throne in the -Kathisma.[416] On his entry the Protectors, already assembled in the -Stama or Pi, elevate the Standards which have previously been lying -on the ground.[417] Before seating himself on his throne the Emperor, -advancing to the balustrade of the Kathisma, greets the assembled -populace by making the sign of the cross in the air. As soon as the -answering cries of adulation subside, a set hymn[418] is intoned from -each side of the Circus in alternate responsions by particular bodies -of the people called _Demes_, whose importance, not merely agonistic, -but above all political, renders a special account of them here -necessary. - -The Demes or factionaries of the Hippodrome occupy the benches at the -end of the arena on each side adjacent to the Kathisma,[419] and are -called the _Veneti_ and _Prasini_, that is, the Blues and Greens.[420] -These bodies, which are legally incorporated as guilds,[421] consist -of the contending parties in the chariot races, and of such others -as elect to enroll themselves as their followers, and to wear the -colours of the respective sides. Each Deme has a subdivision, or -rather, a pendant, to which the colours white and red are attached -respectively.[422] The chief or president of each faction is entitled -the Demarch.[423] These two parties form cabals in the state, who -are animated by a fierce rivalry engendering an intensely factious -disposition. Every consideration is subordinated to a strained sense of -personal or party honour, whence is evolved a generally uncompromising -defiance to the restrictions of law and order. Ties of blood and -friendship are habitually set at naught by the insolent clanship of -these factions; even women, although excluded from the spectacles of -the Circus, are liable to become violent partisans of either colour, -and that in opposition sometimes to the affinities of their own -husbands and families. Nor does the Emperor by an equal distribution -of his favours seek to control the intemperate rivalry of the Demes, -but usually becomes the avowed patron of a particular faction.[424] At -the present time the Greens are in the ascendant, and fill the benches -to the left of the Kathisma, a position of honour assigned to them by -the younger Theodosius.[425] Every town of any magnitude has a Circus -with its Blue and Green factions, and these parties are in sympathetic -correspondence throughout the Empire.[426] - -The throng of spectators within the Hippodrome, who can be accommodated -with seats around the arena, amounts to about 40,000, but this number -falls far short of the whole mass of the populace eager to witness -the exhibition. From early dawn men of all ages, even if maimed or -crippled, assault the gates; and when the interior is filled to -repletion the excluded multitude betake themselves to every post of -vantage in the vicinity which overlooks the Circus. Then windows and -roofs of houses, hill-tops and adjacent eminences of all kinds are -seized on by determined pleasure seekers.[427] - -Public entertainments are given regularly in the Hippodrome and the -theatre during the first week of January, in celebration of the -Consul being newly installed for the year. They are given also on the -11th of May, the foundation day of the city, and on other occasions -to celebrate some great national event, such as the accession of an -emperor, the fifth or tenth anniversary of his reign,[428] the birth -or nomination of a Caesar or successor to the throne, or the happy -termination of an important war.[429] Several Praetors, officers who -were formerly the chief oracles of the law, are nominated annually, -their judicial functions being now abrogated in favour of organizing -and paying for the amusements of the people.[430] - -Twelve chariot races take place in the morning, and, after an interval -of retirement, a similar number in the afternoon;[431] between the -races other exhibitions are introduced, especially fights of men with -lions, tigers, and bears,[432] rope walking,[433] and matches of -boxing and wrestling.[434] In the contests between two- or four-horse -chariots, the competitors make the circuit of the arena seven times, -whence the whole length of the course traversed amounts to about a mile -and a half.[435] The start is made from the top of the Euripus on the -right-hand side, where a rope is stretched across to keep the horses in -line after their exit from the Manganon, until the signal is given by -the dropping of a white cloth or _mappa_.[436] The races are run with -great fury, and the charioteers, standing in their vehicles, make every -effort to win, not merely by speed, but by fouling each other so as to -pass in front or gain the inmost position of the circuit. Hence serious -and fatal accidents are of habitual occurrence, and help to stimulate -the popular frenzy to the highest pitch.[437] The antagonists, however, -pay but little attention to the clamours of the spectators, looking -only to the Emperor’s eye for their meed of approval or censure.[438] -At the conclusion of the games, amid the chanting of various -responsions by the factions and the populace, the victors, supported by -delegates from the four Demes bearing crosses woven from fresh flowers, -wait upon the Emperor in the Kathisma, and receive from his hand the -awards of their prowess.[439] - -Less frequently the Circus may be contemplated under a more serious -aspect, as the focus of national agitation. In the year 491, during -Easter week, Constantinople was thrown into a great commotion by a -report that the Emperor Zeno had died somewhat suddenly,[440] and that -no successor had yet been nominated for the throne. The people, the -Demes, and the Imperial guards at once rushed to the Hippodrome, where -all took up the stations allotted to them for viewing the Circensian -games. On all sides an incessant clamour then arose, and the cry, -addressed to those in authority, was vociferously repeated: “Give -an Emperor to the Romans.” Simultaneously the great officers of the -Court, the Senate, and the Patriarch assembled hastily within the -Palace in order to decide on what course to pursue. In this convention -the counsel of the chief eunuch Urbicius, Grand Chamberlain, had most -weight; and, fearing a riot, it was resolved that the Empress Ariadne, -on whose popularity they relied, should proceed immediately to the -Kathisma, and, by a suitable address, attempt to pacify the populace. -On the appearance of the Empress in the Hippodrome, with the retinue -of her supreme rank, the clamours were redoubled. Exclamations arose -from every throat: “Ariadne Augusta, may you be victorious! Lord have -mercy on us! Long live the Augusta! Give an orthodox Emperor to the -Romans, to all the earth!” The widow of Zeno addressed the multitude -at some length, by the mouth of a crier, who read her speech from a -written document. “Every consideration,” said she, “shall be shown to -the majesty of the people. We have referred the matter to the Lords -of the Court, to the Sacred Senate, and to the Heads of the Army; nor -shall the presence of the Holy Patriarch be wanting to render the -election valid. An orthodox Emperor shall be given to you and one of -blameless life. Restrain yourselves for the present and be careful -not to disturb the tranquillity of our choice.” With such promises -and exhortations, often interrupted, Ariadne left the Circus amid the -renewed shouts of the vast assembly. Within the Palace the council was -reformed, and, after some debate, Urbicius carried his proposition -that the election of an Emperor should be referred to the widowed -Empress. Upon this Ariadne put forward a much respected officer of the -Court, the Silentiary Anastasius, a man of about sixty years of age. -Her nominee was about to be accepted unanimously when the Patriarch -interposed his authority and demanded that Anastasius should give him -an engagement to uphold the orthodox faith. The Silentiary was, in -fact, suspected of a strong leaning towards the monophysite heresy, -which declared that Christ was possessed of only one nature.[441] His -proposition was entertained, and thereupon a guard of honour was sent -to summon Anastasius from his house, and to escort him to the Palace; -but before any formal question was put they all set about performing -the obsequies of the deceased Emperor Zeno. The next day Anastasius -presided in the Consistorium to receive the officers of state, all of -whom waited on him clad in white robes. He subscribed the document as -required by the Patriarch, and took an oath to administer the Empire -with a true conscience. He was then conducted to the Hippodrome, where -he appeared in the undress of an emperor, but wearing the red buskins. -Amid the acclamations of the populace he was exalted on a buckler, and -a military officer crowned him with a golden collar removed from his -own person.[442] Anastasius then retired to the antechamber of the -Kathisma to be invested, by the Patriarch himself, with the Imperial -purple, and to have a jewelled crown placed upon his head. Again he -sought the presence of the assembled multitude, whom he addressed -in a set speech which was read out to them by a crier. Finally the -newly-elected Autocrator departed to the Palace amid repeated cries of -“God bless our Christian Emperor! You have lived virtuously, Reign as -you have lived!”[443] - -But the proceedings in the Hippodrome were not always merely -pleasurable or peacefully political. The Circus was also the place -where sedition was carried to the culminating point; and the same -Anastasius, in his long reign of twenty-seven years, had to experience -on more than one occasion the fickle humour of the Byzantine populace. -About 498, during the progress of the games, a cry arose that certain -rioters, who had been committed to prison for throwing stones inside -the arena, should be liberated. The Emperor refused, a tumult arose, -and the Imperial guards were ordered to arrest the apparent instigators -of the disorder. Stones were immediately flung at Anastasius himself, -who only escaped injury or death by his precipitate flight from -the Kathisma. The mob then set fire to the wooden benches of the -Hippodrome, and a conflagration ensued, which consumed part of the -Imperial Palace in one direction, and ravaged a large tract of the city -as far as the Forum of Constantine on the other.[444] Again in 512, -when the Emperor, yielding to his heretical tendencies to confound the -persons of the Trinity, proclaimed that in future the Trisagion[445] -should be chanted with the addition “Who wast crucified for us,” the -populace rose in a fury, set fire to the houses of many persons who -were obnoxious to them, decapitated a monk suspected of suggesting -the heresy, and, marching through the streets with his head upon a -pole, demanded that “another Emperor should be given to the Romans.” -Anastasius, affrighted, rushed into the Hippodrome without his crown, -and protested his willingness to abdicate the purple. The spectacle, -however, of their Emperor in such an abject state appeased the excited -throng, and, on the withdrawal of the offensive phrase, peace was -restored to the community.[446] - -The Byzantine theatre, in which there are usually diurnal -performances,[447] is by no means a lineal descendant of that of the -Greeks and Romans. The names of Aeschylus, Sophocles, and the rest -of those inimitable playwrights, are either altogether unknown, or -are heard with complete indifference. Pantomime, farce, lewd songs, -and dances in which troops of females[448] virtually dispense with -clothing, monopolize the stage to the exclusion of the classic -drama. Ribaldry and obscenity, set off by spectacular displays,[449] -constitute the essence of the entertainment; and women even go through -the form of bathing in a state of nudity for the delectation of -the audience.[450] A contemporary music-hall, without its enforced -decency, would probably convey to a modern reader the most correct -impression of the stage as maintained in Christian Constantinople. -Actress and prostitute are synonymous terms, and all persons engaged -in the theatrical profession are regarded in the eye of the law as -vile and disreputable.[451] Nevertheless, the pastimes of the public -are jealously protected; and the amorous youth who runs away with -an actress,[452] equally with him who withdraws a favourite horse -from the Circensian games for his private use,[453] is subjected to -a heavy fine. A woman, however, who wishes to reform her life on -the plea of religious conviction, is permitted to quit the stage, -but is not afterwards allowed to relapse into her former life of -turpitude.[454] Should she betray any inclination to do so, it is -enacted that she shall be kept in a place of detention until such time -as the decrepitude of age shall afford an involuntary guarantee of her -chastity.[455] The Byzantine aristocracy, from the rank of Clarissimus -upwards is prohibited from marrying an actress or any woman on a level -with that class.[456] - -A particular form of amusement among the Byzantines is the installation -of a Consul every year on the Calends of January in imitation of -the old republican function at Rome. The person nominated assumes a -gorgeous robe decorated with purple stripes and gold embroidery,[457] -grasps a sceptre surmounted with a figure of Victory,[458] and proceeds -in state to the Hippodrome, where he displays his authority by -manumitting a number of slaves specially provided for the purpose.[459] -He presides at the games from the Kathisma, and for the moment, if not -the Emperor himself, as frequently happens, the pretence is made of -regarding him as the sovereign of the Empire.[460] The year is legally -distinguished by his name and that of his colleague of the West,[461] -a series of public spectacles are exhibited for seven days,[462] -he scatters golden coin as largess among the citizens,[463] and -emissaries are dispatched in all directions throughout the provinces -to announce his elevation,[464] and to deposit in the local archives -his diptychs, a pair of ivory plates inscribed with his likeness or -insignia.[465] Immediately afterwards, the office relapses into a -sinecure, and the Consul resumes his ordinary avocations in life. - -On Sunday there is a cessation of business and pleasure throughout the -city, though not of agricultural labour in the rural districts.[466] -At the boom of the great _semantron_,[467] a sonorous board suspended -in the porch of each church, and beaten with mallets by a deacon, -the various congregations issue forth to attend their respective -places of worship. In the forecourt they are met by a crowd of -mendicants, exemplifying every degree of poverty and every form of -bodily infirmity, who enjoy a prescriptive right to solicit alms at -this time and place. This practice has, in fact, been encouraged -by the early Fathers of the Church, in order that the heart may be -melted to pity and philanthropy at the sight of so much human misery -as the most fitting preparation for the order of divine service.[468] -The centre of the same inclosure is occupied by a fountain of pure -water, in which it is customary to wash the hands before entering the -sacred edifice.[469] In the narthex or vestibule, in a state of abject -contrition, are found the various penitents, who, for some offence, -have been cut off from the communion of the faithful, condemned to -advance no farther than this part for a term of years proportionate to -the heinousness of their sin.[470] The males of the congregation make -use of the central or Beautiful Gate of the church, in order to gain -their station in the nave, whilst the females, passing through the -doors on each side, ascend to the galleries which are set apart for -their special accommodation.[471] The liturgy consists of reading from -the Scriptures, of prayers, and of hymns sung in responses;[472] after -which the Patriarch, coming forward from his throne in the apse to -the ambo,[473] preaches a homily based on some portion of the Bible. -Finally the Eucharist is administered to the whole congregation, a -spoon being used to give a portion of wine to each person.[474] Ladies, -to attend public worship, bedeck themselves with all their jewels and -finery,[475] whence female thieves, mingling amongst them, often take -the opportunity to reap their harvest.[476] Men, in the most obvious -manner, betray their admiration for the women placed within their -range of vision.[477] The general behaviour of the audience is more -suggestive of a place of amusement than of a holy temple; chattering -and laughter go on continually, especially among the females; and, -as a popular preacher makes his points, dealing didactically or -reprehensively with topics of the day, the whole congregation is from -time to time agitated with polemical murmurs, shaken with laughter, -or bursts into uproarious applause.[478] Contiguous to each church -is a small building called the Baptistery, for the performance of -the ceremonial entailed on those who wish to be received among the -Christian elect. The practice of the period is to subject the body -to complete immersion in pure water, but separate chambers or times -are set apart for the convenience of the two sexes. Here on certain -occasions nude females of all ages and ranks descend by steps into -the baptismal font, whilst the ecclesiastics coldly pronounce the -formulas of the mystic rite,[479] a triumph of superstition[480] over -concupiscence pretended more often perhaps than real.[481] - -The luxury of the rich, especially in the use of the precious metals -and ivory, is in this age maintained at the maximum. Practically -all the furniture in the house of a wealthy man, as far at least -as the visible parts are concerned, is constructed of those costly -materials. Gilding or plates of gold or silver are applied to every -available surface—to tables, chairs, footstools, and bedsteads; even -silver night-urns are essential to the comfort of the fastidious -plutocracy.[482] For banqueting the Byzantines make use of a large -semicircular table,[483] on the convex side of which they recline -at meals, still adhering to the custom of the earlier Greeks and -Romans.[484] By this table is set a ponderous gold vase with goblets of -the same metal for mixing and serving out the wine. Rich carpets are -strewn over the mosaic pavement; and troops of servants, either eunuchs -or of barbarian origin, permeate the mansion.[485] These domestics -are costumed and adorned as expensively as are their masters, and in -the largest establishments are retained to the number of one or two -thousand.[486] Like animals they are bought and sold; and, male and -female alike, are as much the property of their owner as his ordinary -goods and chattels; their life is virtually in his hands, but the -growth of humanity under the Empire, and the tenets of Stoicism,[487] -have considerably ameliorated their condition since the time of the -old Republic.[488] In this, as in every other age, the artificial -forms of politeness, which spring up as the inseparable concomitant -of every aspect of civilization, have developed in social circles; and -the various formalities and affectations of manners and speech familiar -to the modern observer as characteristic of the different grades of -society may be noted among the Constantinopolitans.[489] - -The Byzantine wife is in possession of complete liberty of action, -and is entirely the mistress in her own household. She is, as a rule, -devoted to enervating luxury and enjoyments, which she gratifies by -extravagance in dress and jewels, by the use of costly unguents and the -artificial tinting of her countenance,[490] and by daily visits to the -public baths and squares for the purpose of display and gossip.[491] -At home she is often a tyrant to her maidservants, and not infrequently -whips them severely with her own hand.[492] Precisely the reverse of -this picture is the condition of the Byzantine maiden in her father’s -house; before her coverture she is persistently immured in the women’s -apartments, and seldom passes the outer door of the dwelling; never -unless under strict surveillance.[493] In most instances, however, her -state of seclusion is not of long duration; for, at the age of fourteen -or fifteen she is considered to be marriageable.[494] She then becomes -an article of traffic in the hands of the professional match-maker, who -is usually an old woman of low social grade, but remarkable for her -tactful and deceptive aptitudes.[495] By her arts a suitable family -alliance is arranged, but unless by a subterfuge, the proposed husband -is not permitted to behold his future wife.[496] - -Once a marriage has been decided on,[497] it is considered fitting that -all the innocence of the ingenuous damsel should be put to flight on -the threshold of the wedded state. In the dusk of the evening the bride -is fetched from her home by a torchlight procession to the sound of -pipes and flutes and orgiastic songs. Although women are not allowed -to attend the theatre, on this occasion the theatre is brought to the -houses of the contracting parties; and the installation of a wife takes -place amid a scene of riot and debauchery, of lewdness and obscenity, -which tears the veil from all the secrets of sexual co-habitation.[498] - -Mental culture, even in the mansions of wealthy Byzantines, occupies -a very subordinate place. Everywhere may be seen dice and draughts, -but books are usually conspicuous by their absence. Bibliophiles there -are, however, but they merely cherish costly bindings and beautiful -manuscripts, and seldom take the trouble to study their literary -contents. They only value fine parchments dyed in various tints, -especially purple, and handsomely inscribed with letters of gold or -silver; these they delight to have bound in jewelled covers or in -plates of carved ivory, and to preserve them in cabinets, whence they -are drawn out on occasion in order to afford a proof of the taste and -affluence of the owner.[499] - -Popular superstitions are extremely rife at this time in the Orient; -a few examples of such may be here given. In choosing a name for -a child it is the practice to light a number of candles, and to -christen them by various names; the candle which burns longest is -then selected to convey its appellation to the infant as an earnest -of long life.[500] Another custom is to take a baby to one of the -public baths and to sign its forehead with some of the sedimental -mud found there as a charm against the evil eye and all the powers -of enchantment.[501] Amulets are commonly worn, hung about the neck, -and of these, miniature copies of the Gospels are in great favour, -especially for the protection of infants.[502] Should a merchant on his -way to business for the day first meet with a sacred virgin, he curses -his luck and anticipates a bad issue to any pending negotiations; on -the contrary, should the first woman he encounters be a prostitute, he -rejoices in the auspicious omen with which his day has opened.[503] At -funerals the old Roman custom of hiring females to act as mourners, -who keep up a discordant wailing and shed tears copiously at will, is -still maintained.[504] Black clothes are worn as a mark of sorrow for -the dead.[505] Great extravagance is often shown in the erection of -handsome sepulchral monuments.[506] - -That the capital of the East, and by inference the whole Empire, is -a hotbed of vice and immorality will impress itself on the mind of -the most superficial reader. The dissoluteness of youth is in fact so -appalling that the most sane of fathers resort to the extreme measure -of expelling their sons from home in a penniless state, with the view -that after a term of trial and hardship they may return as reformed -and chastened members to the family circle.[507] Yet to complete -the picture one other sin against morality must be mentioned, which -travels beyond the belief and almost eludes the conception of any -ordinary mind. The incredible perversion of sexual instinct named -paederasty is still more than ever rife in the principal cities of -the East. Idealized by the Greek philosophers,[508] tolerated by the -later Republic,[509] and almost deified[510] under many of the pagan -emperors,[511] it has withstood the pronouncements of Trajan and -Alexander,[512] the diatribes of the Christian Fathers,[513] and even -the laws of Constantius and Valentinian, by which such delinquents are -condemned to be burnt alive.[514] Preaching at Antioch a century before -this time, the earnest and fearless Chrysostom cannot refrain from -expressing his amazement that that metropolis, in its open addiction -to this vice, does not meet with the biblical fate of Sodom and -Gomorrah.[515] Nor is there any evidence to refute the assumption that -Constantinople at the beginning of the sixth century is in this respect -less impure than the Syrian capital.[516] - -The Byzantine coinage, which has been recast by Anastasius, consists -of gold, silver, and copper. The standard gold coin, the _aureus_ or -_solidus_, subdivides the pound[517] of gold into seventy-two equal -parts, and is, therefore, to be valued at nearly twelve English -shillings. Halves and thirds of the _aureus_ are regularly minted for -circulation. There is also a silver _solidus_ which weighs nearly -fifteen times as much as that of gold.[518] Twelfths, twenty-fourths, -and forty-eighths of this coin are issued; they are named the -_milliaresion_, the _siliqua_, and the _half-siliqua_ respectively. In -the copper coinage at the head of the list stands the _follis_, two -hundred and ten of which are contained in the _solidus_.[519] Hence -the _milliaresion_ is not much less in value than a shilling, whilst -the _follis_ represents but little more than a halfpenny. Yet the -_follis_ is divided hypothetically into forty _nummia_, but pieces of -five _nummia_ are the smallest coins in actual use,[520] approximately -quarter-farthings, and less even than continental centimes, etc. The -money of old Byzantium was generally figured with a crescent and -a star, or with a dolphin contorted round a trident,[521] but the -Imperial coinage of Constantinople is stamped on the obverse with the -bust of the reigning emperor,[522] and on the reverse, in the case of -gold or silver pieces, with a figure of Victory bearing a cross and -a crown or some similar device. On the reverse of copper coins, with -accompanying crosses and even crescents, we find a large letter—M, -K, I, or E—indicating that they contain 40, 20, 10, or 5 _nummia_ -respectively. As specimens of art the coinage of this epoch appears -degraded to the most uncritical eye.[523] - -The population of Constantinople in the sixth century is unknown, but -it may be estimated with some approach to accuracy at considerably over -a million of inhabitants.[524] The suburbs also are extremely populous, -and for many miles around the capital, both in Europe and Asia, are -covered with opulent country villas, farmhouses, and innumerable -habitations of meaner residents.[525] In this district are situated -immense reservoirs for water, and many of the valleys are spanned by -imposing aqueducts raised by a double series of lofty arches to a great -height.[526] At a distance of thirty-two miles westwards from the city -is situated the Long Wall, a stupendous bulwark against the inroads of -barbarians, built by Anastasius in 512. It stretches between the Euxine -and Propontis, a range of nearly fifty miles, and forms also a safe and -facile road for those travelling from sea to sea.[527] - -The description of manners given in this chapter, although nominally -applied only to Constantinople, may be received as illustrating at this -date the social features of the whole Roman Empire; or, to speak more -accurately, of the Grecian fragment of that empire which once extended -universally over Latins and Greeks. - -Before concluding this sociological exposition of the Graeco-Roman -people during the period I am treating of, a brief reference to their -language may be deemed essential to the integrity of the subject. -Viewed from the philological side the aspect of the Byzantines is -peculiar and, perhaps, unique,[528] since to them may fairly be applied -the epithet of a trilingual nation. By the union of the Roman and -Greek factors of the Empire the Latin tongue, as the official means of -expression, became engrafted on the Eastern provinces;[529] and in the -lapse of centuries a third mode of speech, a popular vernacular,[530] -has been evolved, which often has little affinity with the first two. -Sustained by the solid foundations of laws and literature, Latin -and Greek of a more or less classical cast[531] are the requisite -equipment of every one who aims at civil or military employment in -any governmental department,[532] or who even pretends to recognition -as a person of average culture. In the pride of original supremacy we -may perceive that citizens of Latin lineage despise the feeble Greeks -who forfeited nationality and independence, whilst the latter, pluming -themselves on their inheritance of the harmonious tongue in which are -enshrined all the masterpieces of poetry and philosophy, contemn the -uninspired genius of the Romans, whose efforts to create a literature -never soared above imitation and plagiarism.[533] - - - - - CHAPTER II - - THE ROMAN EMPIRE UNDER ANASTASIUS: THE INHERITANCE OF JUSTINIAN - - -That a spirit of dominion was implanted in the breasts of those early -settlers or refugees who rallied around Romulus, when, about 750 B.C., -he raised his standard on the Palatine hill, is made plain by the -subsequent history of that infant community; and the native daring -which first won wives for a colony of outcasts, foreshadowed the -career of conquest and empire which eventually attached itself to the -Roman name.[534] Contemned, doubtless, and disregarded by their more -reputable neighbours as a band of adventurers with nothing to lose, in -despair of being respected they determined to make themselves feared; -and the original leaven was infused through every further accretion -of population, and was entailed as an inheritance on all succeeding -generations who peopled the expanding city of the Tiber. When their -kings threatened to become despotic they drove them out; when the -patricians attempted to maintain an exclusive control the more numerous -plebs revolted and gradually achieved the establishment of a republic, -in which political honours and aristocracy became synonymous with -the ability to fill, or the energy to gain, a ruling position. They -devoted themselves with enthusiasm to the task of self-government, and -sacrificed their private interests to the welfare of the Republic. -Without history and without science, inflated by ambition within their -narrow sphere, they applied the conception of immortality, which -millenniums would not justify, to being acclaimed in the ephemeral -fervour of the populace or to being remembered for a few decades in the -finite language of poetry and rhetoric. - -While the Roman state was in its cradle a citizen and a soldier were -equivalent terms, and every man gave his military service as a free -contribution to the general welfare of the public. But as wars became -frequent and aggressive, and armies were compelled to keep the field -for indefinite periods, a system of payment[535] was introduced in -order to compensate the soldier for the enforced neglect of his family -duties. By the continued growth of the military system, war became a -profession, veteran legions sprang into existence, and generals, whose -rank was virtually permanent, became a power among the troops and a -menace to the state. Finally the transition was made from a republic -governed by a democracy to an empire ruled by the army. In the meantime -the dominion of Rome had been extended on all sides to the great -natural barriers of its position on the hemisphere; to the Atlantic -ocean on the west, to the Rhine, the Danube, and the Euxine on the -north, to the Euphrates on the east, and on the south to the securest -frontier of all, the impassable deserts of Libya and Arabia. - -The first emperors affected to rule as civil magistrates and accepted -their appointment from the Senate, but their successors assumed the -purple as the nominees of the troops, and often held it by right of -conquest over less able competitors.[536] Concurrently the Imperial -city had been insensibly undergoing a transformation; by the persistent -influx of strangers of diverse nationalities its ethnical homogeneity -was lost;[537] a new and more populous Rome, in which the traditions of -republican freedom were dissipated, was evolved; and the inhabitants -without a murmur saw themselves deprived of the right to elect their -own magistrates.[538] The laws of the Republic were submitted for -ratification to the citizens, but in the ascent to absolutism the -emperor became the sole legislator of the nation.[539] The elevation -of an emperor seemed at first to be an inalienable privilege of the -metropolis, and the original line of Caesars necessarily descended -from a genuine Roman stock; but in little more than a century the -instability of this law was made plain, and many an able general of -provincial blood was raised to the purple at his place of casual -sojourn.[540] In the sequel, when men of an alien race, who neither -knew nor revered Rome, obtained the first rank, they chose their place -of residence according to some native preference or in view of its -utility as a base for military operations. The simultaneous assumption -of the purple by several candidates in different localities, each at -the head of an army, foreboded the division of the Empire; and after -the second century an avowed sharing of the provinces became the -rule rather than the exception. As each partner resided within his -own territory, Rome gradually became neglected and at last preserved -only a semblance of being the capital of the Empire.[541] But after -Constantine founded a capital of his own choice even this semblance was -lost, and the new Rome on the Bosphorus assumed the highest political -rank. From this event we may mark the beginning of mediaevalism, of -the passing of western Europe under the cloud of the dark ages; and -the disintegration of the Roman Empire in the West was achieved by the -barbarians within the following century and a half. In 395 a final -partition of the Empire, naturally halved as it was by the Adriatic -sea, was made; and the incapable sons of Theodosius, Arcadius and -Honorius,[542] were seated as independent sovereigns on thrones in the -East and West. During this period a central administrative energy to -uphold Rome as an Imperial seat was entirely wanting; and a succession -of feeble emperors maintained a mere shadow of authority while their -provinces were being appropriated by the surplus populations of the -north. Italy and south-west Gaul became the prey of East and West -Goths; the valorous Franks under Clovis founded a kingdom which made -itself permanently respected under the name of France; Vandals, with -kindred tribes, gained possession of Spain and even erected a monarchy -in north Africa, which extended beyond the limits of ancient Carthage; -Britain, divested of Roman soldiers in 409, for centuries became the -goal of acquisitive incursions by the maritime hordes who issued from -the adjacent seaboards, Saxons, Angles, and Danes. - -In the change from a nominally popular or constitutional monarchy to a -professed despotism, a reconstitution of all subordinate authority was -regarded as a matter of necessity. At first the Empire was administered -in about forty provinces, but under the later scheme of control it was -parcelled out into nearly three times that number. In earlier times -a Roman proconsul in his spacious province was almost an independent -potentate during his term of office,[543] the head alike of the civil -and military power. But in the new dispensation no man was intrusted -with such plenary authority, and each contracted province was ruled by -a purely civil administrator, whilst the local army obeyed a different -master. For further security, each of these in turn was dependent on a -higher civil or military officer, to whom was delegated the collective -control of a number of his subordinates. Again a shift of authority -was made, and the reins of government were delivered into fewer hands, -until, at the head of the system, the source of all power, stood the -Emperor himself. In order to perfect this policy the army itself was -treated in detail on a similar plan; and for the future no homogeneous -body of troops of considerable number was collocated in the hands of a -single leader. A typical Roman legion had previously consisted of about -six thousand foot, seven hundred horse, and of a band of auxiliaries -drawn from foreign or barbarian sources, in all, perhaps, ten thousand -men. Each legion was thus in itself an effective force; and as it -yielded implicit obedience to a single praefect, the loyalty or -venality of a few such officers in respect of their common general had -often sufficed to seat him firmly on the throne. To obviate the risk, -therefore, of revolt, usurpation, or even of covert resistance to the -will of the Emperor, existing legions were broken up into detachments -which were relegated to different stations so as to be dispersed -over a wide area. As a consequence the praefect of the legion could -only exist in name, and that office was soon regarded as obsolete. -Consistently, when new legions had to be enrolled for the exigences of -defence or warfare, their number was limited to about one fifth of the -original amount.[544] To complete the fabric of autocracy all the pomp -and pretensions of Oriental exclusiveness were adopted by Diocletian, -so that henceforward the monarch was only accessible to the subject -under forms of such complexity and abasement as seemed to betoken a -being of more than mortal mould.[545] - -Another signal divergence from the simple manners of the first emperors -was the permanent establishment of eunuchs in high offices about the -royal person.[546] The Grand Chamberlain, as the constant attendant -on the privacy of the monarch, generally became his confidant, and -sometimes his master.[547] Ultimately, by habitude, or perhaps with -a feeling for the vicious propensities of the times, the Emperor -developed an almost feminine reserve in relation to the “bearded” -or masculine sex; and in his movements he was guarded by his staff -of eunuchs with as much jealousy as if his virtue were something as -delicate as that of a woman.[548] - -Having dismissed these general considerations, I will now attempt to -depict briefly the state of the remaining moiety of the Empire, of the -Eastern provinces, at the beginning of the sixth century. In order to -render my descriptions more compact and intelligible, I shall treat the -subject under three distinct headings, viz., Political, Educational, -and Religious. - - - I. POLITICAL - -The dominions of Anastasius the elder,[549] for there was a later -emperor of that name, corresponded generally to those ruled during the -first quarter of the past century by the Ottoman sultans, who were -the last to conquer them, and who became possessed of the whole in -1461.[550] Proceeding from east to west, the northern boundary of the -Empire followed the coast of the Euxine in its sweep from the mouth of -the Phasis (adjacent to the modern town of Batoum) to the estuaries of -the Danube, as it delimits Asia on the north and Europe on the east, -by the bold curve of its unequal arms. From the latter point, taking -the Danube for its guide, the northern frontier stretched westwards -to its termination on the banks of that river in the neighbourhood -of Sirmium.[551] The western border, descending from thence almost -due south, was directed in part of its course by the river Drina, and -halved nearly vertically the modern principality of Montenegro as it -struck towards the shores of the Adriatic. The coast of Greece, with -its associated islands on this aspect, traced the western outline of -the Empire for the rest of its course, excepting a small portion to -be reached by crossing the Mediterranean to the Syrtis Major, where -at this date the confines of Roman Africa were to be found. In this -vicinity the Egyptian territory began, and the southern frontier -coincided for the most part with the edge of the Libyan desert as it -skirts the fertile lands of the north and east, that is, the Cyrenaica -and the valley of the Nile. An artificial line, cutting that valley -on a level with the first cataract and the Isle of Philae, marked -the southern extension of Egypt as far as claimed by the Byzantine -emperors.[552] From a corresponding point on the opposite shore of -the Red Sea the Asiatic border of their dominions began. Passing -northwards to regain that part of the Euxine from whence we started, -the eastern frontier pursued a long and irregular track, at first -along the margin of the Arabian desert as it verges on the Sinaitic -peninsula, Palestine, and Syria; then crossing the Euphrates it gained -the Tigris, so as to include the northern portion of Mesopotamia. -Finally, returning to the former river, it joined it in its course -along the western limits of Armenia,[553] whence it reached the Phasis -on the return journey, the point from which we set out.[554] Considered -in their greatest length, from the Danube above Sirmium, to Syene on -the Nile, and in their extreme width, from the Tigris in the longitude -of Daras or Nisibis, to the Acroceraunian rocks on the coast of Epirus, -these ample dominions stretch from north to south for nearly eighteen -hundred miles, and from east to west for more than twelve hundred. In -superficial area this tract may be estimated to contain about half -a million of square miles, that is, an amount of surface fully four -times greater than that covered by Great Britain and Ireland.[555] At -the present day it is calculated that these vast regions are peopled by -only about twenty-eight millions of inhabitants,[556] but their modern -state of decay is practically the reverse of their condition in the -sixth century, when they were the flourishing, though already failing, -seat of the highest civilization at that time existing on the earth; -and there is good reason to believe that they were then considerably -more, perhaps even double as, populous.[557] - -For the purposes of civil government the Empire was divided into -sixty-four provinces, each of which was placed under an administrator, -who was usually drawn from the profession of the law.[558] These -officers were, as a rule, of nearly equal rank, but in three instances -the exceptional extent and importance of the provinces necessitated the -bestowal of a title more lofty than usual on the governors. - -1. The whole of Greece, including Hellas proper and the Peloponnesus, -though now no longer classical, was ruled under the name of Achaia by -a vicegerent, to whom was conceded the almost obsolete dignity of a -proconsul. 2. Similarly, the central maritime division of Asia Minor, -containing the important cities of Smyrna and Ephesus with many others -and grandiosely named “Asia,”[559] was also allowed to confer on its -ruler the title of proconsul. This magistrate had the privilege of -reporting directly to the Emperor without an intermediary, and had -also jurisdiction over the governors of two adjacent provinces, viz.: -the Hellespont, which abutted on the strait of that name, and The -Islands, a term applied collectively to about a score of the Cyclades -and Sporades. 3. The main district of Lower Egypt, adorned by the -magnificent and populous city of Alexandria, the second capital of the -Empire, was placed under an administrator bearing the unique title of -the Augustal Praefect. The sixty-one remaining provinces were intrusted -to governors of practically the same standing; of these, twenty-seven -were called consulars, thirty-one presidents, two correctors, and one -duke, the latter officer being on the southern frontier of Egypt, -apparently in both civil and military charge.[560] - -To enumerate severally in this place all the petty provinces of the -Empire would be mere prolixity, but there are a few whose designations -present peculiarities which may save them from being passed over -without notice. The comprehensive names of Europe and Scythia, which -in general suggest such vast expansions of country, were given to -two small portions of Thrace, the first to that which extended up to -the walls of Constantinople, and the second to the north-east corner -which lay between the Danube and the Euxine.[561] With parallel -magniloquence, a limited area adjoining the south-east border of -Palestine was denominated Arabia. The maritime province of Honorias -on the north of Asia Minor, perpetuated the memory of the despicable -Emperor of the West, Honorius. The name of Arcadia awakens us to -reminiscences of Mount Cyllene with Hermes and “universal” Pan,[562] of -Artemis with her train of nymphs heading the chase through the woods of -Erymanthus, or of the historic career of Epaminondas and the foundation -of Megalopolis. But the Arcadia officially recognized in the Eastern -Empire had no higher associations than the feeble son of Theodosius, -brother of the above-named, and we may be surprised to find it in -central Egypt with Oxyrhyncus and Memphis for its chief towns. - -By a second disposition of the Empire of an inclusive kind the -provinces were grouped in seven Dioceses, namely: three European, -Dacia,[563] Thrace, and Macedonia; three Asiatic, the Asian, the -Pontic, and the Orient; and one African, Egypt. The first of these -obeys the Praetorian Praefect of Illyricum, the sixth the Count of the -Orient or East, and the last the Augustal Praefect, whilst the rulers -of the remaining four are entitled Vicars.[564] When I add that the -Orient, the most extensive of these divisions, comprised in fifteen -provinces the whole of Palestine and Syria as well as the southern -tract of Asia Minor, from the Tigris to the Mediterranean, and the -island of Cyprus, the limits of the other dioceses may be conjectured -from their names with sufficient accuracy for our present purpose.[565] -By a final partition the dominions of the Byzantine Emperor were -assigned, but very unequally, to two officers of the highest or -Illustrious rank, viz.: the Praetorian Praefects of the East and of -Illyricum. Dacia and Macedonia fell to the rule of the latter, whilst -the remaining five dioceses were consolidated under the control of the -former minister.[566] The Praefect of the East is in general to be -regarded as the subject in closest proximity to the throne, in fact, -the first minister of the crown.[567] The Imperial capital, as being -outside all these subordinate arrangements, was treated as a microcosm -in itself; and with its Court in permanent residence, its bureaus of -central administration, and its special Praefect of Illustrious rank, -may almost be considered as a third of the prime divisions of the -Empire. Here, as a rule, through the long series of Byzantine annals, -by the voice of the populace and the army, or by the intrigues of the -Court, emperors were made or unmade. - -The whole Empire was traversed by those narrow, but solidly constructed -roads, the abundant remains of which still attest how thoroughly his -work was done by the Roman engineer.[568] The repair and maintenance of -these public ways was enjoined on the possessors of the lands through -which they passed; and similarly in the case of waterways, the care -of bridges and banks was an onus on the shoulders of the riparian -owners.[569] On all the main roads an elaborate system of public posts -was studiously maintained; and at certain intervals, about the length -of an average day’s journey, _mansions_ or inns were located for the -accommodation of those travelling on the public service.[570] Each -of such stations was equipped with a sufficient number of light and -heavy vehicles, of draught horses and oxen, of pack-horses, sumpter -mules, and asses for the exigences of local transit.[571] Stringent -rules were laid down for the equitable loading of both animals and -carriages, and also for the humane treatment of the former. Thus a span -of four oxen was allowed to draw a load of fifteen hundred pounds, -but the burden of an ordinary pack-horse was limited to thirty.[572] -It was forbidden to beat the animals with heavy or knotted sticks; -they were to be urged onwards by the use only of a sharp whip or rod -fit to “admonish their lagging limbs with a harmless sting.”[573] In -addition to the mansions there were usually four or five intermediate -stations called _mutations_, where a few relays were kept for the -benefit of those speeding on an urgent mission.[574] The abuse of the -public posts was jealously guarded against, and only those bearing -an order from the Emperor or one of the Praetorian Praefects could -command their facilities, and then only to an extent restricted to -their purely official requirements. A Vicar could dispose of a train -of ten horses and thirteen asses on a dozen occasions in the year, in -order to make tours of inspection throughout his diocese; legates from -foreign countries and delegates from provincial centres, journeying to -Constantinople to negotiate a treaty or to lay their grievances before -the Emperor, were provided for according to circumstances.[575] The -highways were constantly permeated by the Imperial couriers bearing -dispatches to or from the capital.[576] These emissaries were also -deputed to act as spies, and to report at head-quarters any suspicious -occurrences they might observe on their route,[577] whence they were -popularly spoken of as “the eyes of the Emperor.”[578] They were known -by their military cloak and belt, their tight trousers,[579] and by -a spray of feathers[580] in their hair to symbolize the swiftness of -their course. One or two were appointed permanently to each province -with the task of scouring the district continually as inspectors of -the public posts.[581] There was also a regular police patrol on the -roads, called Irenarchs, whose duty it was to act as guardians of the -peace.[582] - -A Roman emperor of this age, as an admitted despot subjected to no -constitutional restraints, could formulate and promulgate whatever -measures commended themselves to his arbitrary will. But such -authority, however absolute in theory, must always be restricted in -practice by the operation of sociological laws. Although a prince with -a masterful personality might dominate his subordinates to become the -father or the scourge of his country, a feeble monarch would always -be the slave of his great officers of state. Yet even the former -had to stoop to conciliate the people or the army, and a sovereign -usually stood on treacherous ground when attempting to maintain a -balance between the two.[583] The army, as the immediate and effectual -instrument of repression, was generally chosen as the first stay of the -autocracy, and there are few instances of a Byzantine emperor whose -throne was not on more than one occasion cemented with the blood of his -subjects. But many a virtuous prince in his efforts to curb the licence -of the troops lost both his sceptre and his life.[584] - -[Illustration: ROMAN EMPIRE _and Vicinity_, c. 500 A.D.] - -The Council of the Emperor, besides the three Praefects already -mentioned, consisted of five civil and of an equal number of military -members, all of Illustrious dignity.[585] Their designations were -severally: 1. Praepositus of the Sacred Cubicle, or Grand -Chamberlain, Master of the Offices, Quaestor, Count of the Sacred -Largesses, and Count of the Privy Purse. 2. Five Masters of Horse and -Foot,[586] two at head-quarters,[587] and one each for the Orient, -Thrace, and Illyricum. To these may be added the Archbishop or -Patriarch of Constantinople, always a great power in the State. In -the presence of a variable number of these ministers it was usual for -the Emperor to declare his will, to appeal to their judgment, or to -act on their representations, but the time, place, and circumstances -of meeting were entirely in the discretion of the prince.[588] The -formal sittings of the Council were not held in secret, but before -an audience of such of the Spectabiles as might wish to attend.[589] -The legislation of the Emperor, comprised under the general name of -Constitutions, fell naturally into two classes, viz., laws promulgated -on his own initiative and those issued in response to some petition. -Edicts, Acts, Mandates, Pragmatic Sanctions, and Epistles usually -ranked in the first division; Rescripts in the second.[590] A Rescript -was granted, as a rule, in compliance with an _ex parte_ application, -and might be disregarded by the authority to whom it was addressed -should it appear to have been obtained by false pretences, but the -Court which set it aside did so at its own peril.[591] - -The Senate of Constantinople, created in imitation of that of Rome, -was designed by Constantine rather to grace his new capital than to -exercise any of the functions of government.[592] Like the new order of -patricians, the position of Senator was mainly an honorary and not an -executive rank. All the members enjoyed the title of Clarissimus, that -of the third grade of nobility, and assembled under the presidency of -the Praefect of the city.[593] As a body the Senate was treated with -great ostensible consideration by the Emperor, and was never referred -to in the public acts without expressions of the highest esteem, such -as “the Venerable,” “the Most Noble Order,” “amongst whom we reckon -ourselves.”[594] This public parade of their importance, however, -endowed them with a considerable moral power in the popular idea; and -the subscription of the impotent Senate was not seldom demanded by a -prudent monarch to give a wider sanction to his acts of oppression or -cruelty.[595] During an interregnum their voice was usually heard -with attention;[596] and a prince with a weak or failing title to -the throne would naturally cling to them for support.[597] They were -sometimes constituted as a High Court for the trial of criminal cases -of national importance, such as conspiring against the rule or life of -the Emperor.[598] They could pass resolutions to be submitted for the -approval of the crown;[599] they had a share in the nomination of some -of the higher and lower officials; and they performed generally the -duties of a municipal council.[600] - -In addition to the Imperial provinces there was also, to facilitate -the work of local government, a subsidiary division of the Empire into -Municipia. Every large town or city, with a tract of the surrounding -country, was formed into a municipal district and placed under the -charge of a local Senate or Curia. The members of a Curia were called -Decurions,[601] and were selected officially to the number of about one -hundred from the more reputable inhabitants of the vicinity. They not -only held office for life, but transmitted it compulsorily to their -heirs, so that the State obtained a perpetual lien on the services of -their descendants. In each Municipium the official of highest rank was -the “Defender of the City,”[602] who was elected to his post for five -years by the independent suffrage of the community. His chief duty was -to defend the interests of his native district against the Imperial -officers who, as aliens to the locality, were assumed to have little -knowledge or concern as to its actual welfare. He became _ex officio_ -president of the Curia; and in conjunction with them acted as a judge -of first instance or magistrate in causes of lesser importance.[603] - -A provincial governor, generally called the Rector or Ordinary Judge, -held open court at his Praetorium and sat within his chancel every -morning to hear all causes brought before him.[604] His chancellors -guarded the trellis, which fenced off the outer court against the -onrush of eager suitors;[605] within, the advocates delivered their -pleadings, whilst a body of scribes and actuaries took a record in -writing of the whole proceedings.[606] The precincts were crowded with -his apparitors,[607] officers upon whom devolved the duty of executing -the judgements of the court. With the aid of his assessor,[608] a -legal expert well versed in the text of the law, the Rector elaborated -his judgment, a written copy of which he was bound to deliver to each -litigant.[609] But if his decision were asked in cases which seemed -too trivial for his personal attention, he was empowered to hand them -over to a class of petty judges called _pedanei judices_.[610] From the -provincial court an appeal lay to the Vicar of the Diocese, or even -to the Emperor himself,[611] but appellants were severely mulcted if -convicted of merely contentious litigation.[612] At certain seasons the -Rector went on circuit throughout his province to judge causes and to -inspect abuses.[613] - -I. The permanent existence of any community in a state of political -cohesion depends on its possession of the means to defray the expenses -of government; and, therefore, the first duty of every primary ruler -or administrative body in chief is to collect a revenue for the -maintenance of a national treasury. The Roman or Byzantine system -of raising money or its equivalent, by means of imposts laid on the -subjects of the Empire, included every conceivable device of taxing -the individual for the benefit of the state. The public were called -on not only to fill the treasury, but were constrained to devote -their resources in kind, their time, and their labour to the needs of -the government. To obtain every requisite without purchase for the -administration was the economical policy of the ruling class. Food -and clothing, arms and horses, commuted to a money payment if the -thing were unattainable, were levied systematically for the use of the -civil and military establishment. The degree of personal liability was -determined by the assessment of property, and those who were possessed -of nothing were made liable for their heads. Social distinctions and -commercial transactions were also taxed under well-defined categories. -A considerable section of the community was, however, legally freed -from the regular imposts. This indulgence was granted especially to the -inhabitants of cities, whose facilities for combination and sedition -were always contemplated with apprehension by the jealous despot. But -immunity from taxation was also extended with some liberality to all -who devoted themselves to art or learning. - -1. The financial year began with the first of September, and was -spoken of numerically as an _indiction_, according to its place in a -perpetually recurring series of fifteen. Properly an indiction was -the period of fifteen years[614] which separated each new survey and -revaluation of the private estates throughout the Empire. At the -beginning of such a term the Imperial Censitors or surveyors pervaded -the country districts, registering in their books and on their plans -all the details of the new census.[615] Their record showed the -amount of the possessions of each landowner; the quality of the land; -to what extent it was cultivated or lay waste; in what proportions -it was laid out in vineyards and olive-grounds; in woods, pastures, -and arable land. The number and magnitude of the farm and residential -buildings were carefully noted, and even the geniality of the climate, -and the apparent fecundity of the fruit-bearing trees, which were -separately counted and disposed in classes, exercised the judgement -of the Censitor in furnishing materials for a just estimate as to the -value of an estate. Essential also to the _cataster_, or assessment, -was a list of the flocks and herds possessed by the owner.[616] The -particulars supplied by the Censitor passed into the hands of another -official named a _Peraequator_. He divided the district into “heads” of -property, each computed to be of the value of 1,000 solidi,[617] and -assigned to each landowner his census, that is, the number of heads -for which in future he would be taxed. This assessment was not based -on a mere valuation of the property of each person; it was complicated -by the principle of Byzantine finance that all land should pay to the -Imperial exchequer. It was the duty, therefore, of a Peraequator, to -assign a nominal possession in barren or deserted land to each owner in -fair proportion to his apparent means. Thus the possessor of a valuable -farm was often encumbered with a large increment of worthless ground, -whilst the owner of a poor one might escape such a burthen.[618] Yet a -third official, called an _Inspector_,[619] came upon the scene, but -his services were not always constant or comprehensive. He visited the -province in response to petitions or appeals from dissatisfied owners, -or was sent to solve matters of perplexity.[620] His acquirements were -the same as those of a Peraequator, but, whereas the latter was obliged -to impose a rate on some one for every hide of land, the Inspector -was allowed considerable discretion. After a strict scrutiny he was -empowered to give relief in clear cases of over-assessment, and even to -exclude altogether any tracts of land which could not fairly be imposed -on any of the inhabitants of the district. Before final ratification, -the cataster had to pass under the eyes of the local Curia, the -provincial Rector, and of the Imperial financiers at the capital. The -_polyptica_ or censual books were then closed, and remained immutable -until the next indiction.[621] - -2. Appended to the land survey was a register of the labourers, slaves, -and animals employed by the possessors of estates; and upon every -ordinary adult of this caste a poll-tax was imposed.[622] Similarly -with respect to every animal which performed a task, horses, oxen, -mules, and asses for draught purposes, and even dogs.[623] For this -demand the landowner alone was dealt with by the authorities, but he -was entitled to recover from his labourers whatever he paid on account -of themselves or their families. As this capitation was very moderate, -the individual was freed from it by the possession of the smallest -holding, and subjected to the land-tax instead;[624] but the farmer -still paid vicariously for his work-people, even when assessed on -property of their own. Slaves were always, of course, a mere personal -asset of their masters, and incapable of ownership. A sweeping immunity -from poll-tax was conferred on all urban communities,[625] whence -nobles and plutocrats escaped the impost for the hosts of servants they -sometimes maintained at their city mansions; but even in the rural -districts, virgins,[626] widows, certain professional men, and skilled -artizans generally, were exempt.[627] - -3. Port or transit dues, called _vectigalia_,[628] were levied on all -merchandise transported from one province to another for the sake of -gain, that is, for resale at a profit; but for purely personal use -residents were permitted to pass a limited quantity of goods free of -tax. In this category may be included licenses for gold-mining, which -cost the venturer about a guinea a year.[629] Taxes of this class were -let out by public auction for a term of three years to those who bid -highest for the concession of collecting them.[630] Export of gold -from the Empire was forbidden, and those who had the opportunity, -were exhorted to use every subterfuge in order to obtain it from the -barbarians.[631] - -4. A tax, peculiar in some respects to the Byzantine Empire, was the -_lustral collation_ or _chrysargyron_, a duty of the most comprehensive -character on the profits of all commercial transactions.[632] Trade in -every shape and form was subjected to it, not excepting the earnings -of public prostitutes, beggars, and probably even of catamites.[633] -The _chrysargyron_ was collected every fourth year only, and for this -reason, as it appears, was felt to be a most oppressive tax.[634] -Doubtless the demand was large in proportion to the lapse of time since -the last exaction, and weighed upon those taxed, like a sudden claim -for accumulated arrears. When the time for payment arrived, a wail -went up from all the small traders whose traffic barely sufficed to -keep them in the necessaries of life. To procure the money, parents -frequently, it is said, had to sell their sons into servitude and -their daughters for prostitution.[635] There were limited exemptions -in favour of ministers of the orthodox faith and retired veterans, -who might engage in petty trade; of artists selling their own works; -and of farmers who sold only their own produce.[636] The most popular -and, perhaps, the boldest measure of Anastasius, was the abrogation -of this tax.[637] Fortifying himself with the acquiescence of the -Senate, he proclaimed its abolition, caused all the books and papers -relating to this branch of the revenue to be heaped up in the sphendone -of the Hippodrome, and publicly committed them to the flames.[638] The -chrysargyron was never afterwards reimposed. - -5. With some special taxes reaped from dignitaries of state, the -income derived from crown lands and state mines, and with fines, -forfeitures, and heirless patrimonies, the flow of revenue into the -Imperial coffers ceased. From a fiscal point of view there were four -classes of Senators, or to consider more accurately, perhaps, only two: -those who were held to contribute something to the treasury in respect -of their rank, and those who were absolved from paying anything. -Wealthy Senators, possessed of great estates, paid an extraordinary -capitation proportioned to the amount of their property, but lands -merely adjected to fill up the census were exempt under this heading; -those of only moderate means were uniformly indicted for two _folles_, -or purses of silver, about £12 of our money; whilst the poorest class -of all were obliged to a payment of seven _solidi_ only, about £4, -with a recommendation to resign if they felt unequal to this small -demand.[639] Members who enjoyed complete immunity were such as -received the title of Senator in recognition of long, but comparatively -humble, service to the state; amongst these we find certain officers -of the Guards, physicians, professors of the liberal arts, and -others.[640] Not even, however, with their set contributions were the -Senators released from the pecuniary onus of their dignity, for they -were expected to subscribe handsome sums collectively to be presented -to the sovereign on every signal occasion, such as New Year’s day, -lustral anniversaries of his reign, birth of an heir, etc.[641] When -any of the great functionaries of state, during or on vacating office, -were ennobled with the supreme title of patrician, an offering of 100 -lb. of gold (£4,000) was considered to be the smallest sum by which he -could fittingly express his gratitude to the Emperor; this accession of -revenue was particularly devoted to the expenses of the aqueducts.[642] -An oblation of two or three horses was also exacted every five years -for the public service from those who acquired honorary codicils of -ex-president or ex-count.[643] Finally a tax, also under the semblance -of a present, was laid on the Decurions of each municipality, who, -in acknowledgement of their public services, were freed from all the -lesser imposts. To this contribution was applied the name of _coronary -gold_, the conception of which arose in earlier times when gold, in -the form of crowns or figures of Victory, was presented to the Senate, -or to the generals of the Republic who had succeeded in subjecting -them, by conquered nations in token of their subservience.[644] These -presentations were enjoined on every plausible occasion of public -rejoicing and the Imperial officials did not forget to remind the local -Curiae of their duty to overlook no opportunity of conveying their -congratulations in a substantial manner to the Emperor. The Imperial -demesnes lay chiefly in Cappadocia, which contained some breadths of -pasture land unequalled in any other part of the Empire.[645] The -province was from the earliest times famous for its horses, which were -considered as equal, though not quite, to the highly-prized Spanish -breeds in the West.[646] Mines for gold, silver, and other valuable -minerals, including marble quarries, were regularly worked by the -Byzantine government in several localities both in Europe and Asia; -but history has furnished us with no precise indications as to the -gains drawn from them.[647] Under the penal code, to send criminals -to work in the mines was classed as one of the severest forms of -punishment.[648] - -The _exaction_ of the _annones_ and _tributes_, expressions which -virtually included all the imposts, was the incessant business of the -official class. At the beginning of each financial year the measure -of the precept to be paid by each district was determined in the -office of the Praetorian Praefect, subscribed by the Emperor, and -disseminated through the provinces by means of notices affixed in -the most public places.[649] A grace of four months was conceded and -then the gathering in of the _annones_ or canon of provisions, which -included corn, wine, oil, flesh, and every other necessary for the -support of the army and the free distributions to the urban populace, -began. Delivery was enjoined in three instalments at intervals of -four months,[650] but payments in gold were not enforced until the -end of the year.[651] The _Exactors_, who waited on the tributaries -to urge them to performance, were usually decurions or apparitors of -the Rector.[652] The Imperial constitutions directed with studied -benignity that no ungracious demeanour should be adopted towards the -tax-payers,[653] that no application should be made on Sundays,[654] -that they should not be approached by _opinators_, that is, by soldiers -in charge of the military commissariat,[655] that they should, when -possible, be allowed the privilege of _autopragias_ or voluntary -delivery,[656] and that, if recalcitrant, they should not be sent to -prison or tortured, but allowed their liberty under formal arrest.[657] -Only in the last resource was anything of their substance seized as a -pledge, to be sold “under the spear” if unredeemed,[658] but in general -any valid excuse was accepted and the tributaries were allowed to run -into arrears.[659] Consonantly, however, to the prevailing principle -every effort was made by the Exactors to amass the full precept from -the locality, and those who could pay were convened to make up for -the defaulters.[660] The actual receivers of the canon were named -_Susceptors_, and their usual place of custom was at the mansions or -mutations of the public posts.[661] Scales and measures were regularly -kept at these stations,[662] and on stated occasions a Susceptor was in -attendance accompanied by a _tabularius_, a clerk who was in charge of -the censual register which showed the liability of each person in the -municipality.[663] The _tabularius_ gave a receipt couched in precise -terms to each tributary for the amount of his payment or consignment, -particulars of which he also entered in a book kept permanently for -the purpose.[664] The system of _adaeratio_, or commutation of species -for money, was extensively adopted to obviate difficulties of delivery -in kind; and this was especially the case with respect to clothing or -horses for the army, or when transit was arduous by reason of distance -or rough country.[665] The transport of the annones and tributes to -their destination was a work of some magnitude, and was under the -special supervision of the Vicar of the diocese.[666] Inland the -_bastagarii_, the appointed branch of the public service, effected the -transmission by means of the beasts of burden kept at the mansions of -the Posts;[667] by sea the _navicularii_ performed the same task. The -latter formed a corporation of considerable importance to which they -were addicted as the decurions were to the Curia. Selected from the -seafaring population who possessed ships of sufficient tonnage, their -vessels were chartered for the conveyance of the canon of provisions -as a permanent and compulsory duty.[668] Money payments, in coin or -ingots, went to the capital;[669] provisions to the public granaries -of Constantinople or Alexandria, the two cities endowed with a free -victualling market,[670] or were widely dispersed to various centres -to supply rations for the troops.[671] Besides the ordinary officials -engaged in exaction there were several of higher rank to supervise -their proceedings: _Discussors_, the Greek _logothetes_, who made -expeditions into the provinces from time to time to scrutinize and -audit the accounts;[672] surveyors of taxes, Senators preferably, -whose duties were defined by the term _protostasia_,[673] to whom the -_Susceptors_ were immediately responsible; and lastly _Compulsors_, -officers of the central bureaucracy, _Agentes-in-rebus_, palatines -attached to the treasury, even Protectors, who were sent on special -missions to stimulate the Rectors when the taxes of a province were -coming in badly.[674] - -As to the revenue of the Roman Empire at this or at any previous -period, the historian can pronounce no definitive word, but it concerns -us to note here one important fact, viz., that Anastasius during the -twenty-seven years of his reign saved about half a million sterling -per annum, so that at his death he left a surplus in the treasury of -nearly £13,000,000.[675] - -II. The political position of the Roman Empire in respect of its -foreign relations presents a remarkable contrast to anything we are -accustomed to conceive of in the case of a modern state. Having -absorbed into its own system everything of civilization which lay -within reach of its arms, there was henceforth no field in which -statesmanship could exert itself by methods of negotiation or -diplomacy in relation to the dwellers beyond its borders. Encompassed -by barbarians, to live by definite treaty on peaceful terms with its -neighbours became outside the range of policy or foresight; and its -position is only comparable to that of some great bulwark founded to -resist the convulsions of nature, which may leave it unassailed for -an indefinite period, or attack it without a moment’s warning with -irresistible violence. The vast territories stretching from the Rhine -and the Danube to the frontiers of China, nearly a quarter of the -circumference of the globe, engendered a teeming population, nomads -for the most part, without fixed abodes, who threatened continually to -overflow their boundaries and bring destruction on every settled state -lying in their path. Among such races the army and the nation were -equivalent terms; the whole people moved together, and inhabited for -the time being whatever lands they had gained by right of conquest. -But their career was brought to a close when they subdued nations much -more numerous than themselves, with fixed habitations and engaged in -the arts of peace; and they then possessed the country as a dominant -minority, which, whilst giving a peculiar tincture to the greater mass, -was gradually assimilated by it. In classical and modern times conquest -usually signifies merely annexation, but in the Middle Ages it implied -actual occupation by the victors. Such was the fate of the Western -Empire, when Italy, Africa, Spain, Gaul, and Britain were dissevered -from each other by various inroads; and those countries at the time -I am writing of are found to be in such a transitional state.[676] -Nor can Thrace and Illyricum, though forming a main portion of the -Eastern Empire, be properly omitted from this list; for, exposed to -barbarian incursions[677] during more than two centuries, they enjoyed -a merely nominal settlement under the Imperial government; and if we -contemplate the Long Wall[678] of Anastasius, at a distance of only -forty miles from the capital, we shall need no further evidence that -the Byzantines exercised no more than a shadow of political supremacy -in these regions.[679] But an exception to the foregoing conditions was -generally experienced by the Romans on their eastern frontier, where -the Parthian or Persian power was often able to meet them with a civil -and military organization equal to their own.[680] - -The elaborate scheme for the defence of the Empire against its -restless and reckless foes was brought to perfection under Diocletian -and Constantine. Armies and fleets judiciously posted were always -ready to repel an attack or to carry offensive operations into an -enemy’s country. A chain of muniments guarded the frontiers in every -locality where an assault could be feared. Forts and fortified camps -sufficiently garrisoned lined every barrier, natural or artificial, -at measured distances. Suitable war vessels floated on the great -circumscribing waterways; and where these were deficient their place -was supplied by walls of masonry, by trenches, embankments, and -palisades, or even by heterogeneous obstructions formed of felled trees -with their branches entangled one with the other.[681] Border lands -were granted only to military occupants, who held them by a kind of -feudal tenure in return for their service on the frontier.[682] Every -important station was guarded by from 2,000 to 3,000 soldiers; and -in the Eastern Empire the division of the army to which such duties -were assigned may have amounted to over 200,000 men of all soldiers, -arms,[683] etc. These forces were called the _Limitanei Milites_, -or Border Soldiers, and in each province of the exterior range were -under the command collectively of a Count or Duke.[684] Such were the -stationary forces of the Empire, of whose services the frontiers could -not be depleted should a mobile army be required to meet the exigences -of strategic warfare. Large bodies of troops were, therefore, quartered -in the interior of the country, which could be concentrated in any -particular locality under the immediate disposition of the Masters of -the Forces. This portion of the army was organized in two divisions -to which were given the names of _Palatines_ and _Comitatenses_. The -former, which held the first rank, were stationed in or near the -capital under the two Masters[685] at head-quarters; and, in accordance -with their designation, were identified most nearly with the conception -of defending the Imperial Palace or heart of the state. The latter -were distributed throughout the provinces under the three Masters -whose military rule extended over the East, Thrace, and Illyricum -respectively. The _Palatine_ troops comprised about 50,000 men, the -_Comitatenses_ about 70,000.[686] Cavalry formed a large proportion -of all the forces, and may be estimated at about one third of the -_Limitanei_ and nearly one fourth of the other branches. In addition to -these troops a fourth military class, the highest of all, was formed, -the Imperial Guards already mentioned,[687] viz., the Excubitors, -Protectors, Candidates, and Scholars. The latter body consisted of -seven troops of cavalry, each 500 strong, 3,500 in all.[688] Owing -their position solely to birth or veteran service, the three former -groups were probably much less numerous, but their actual number is -unknown.[689] The usual division of the infantry was the legion of -1,000 men, that of the horse the _vexillatio_ containing 500.[690] The -various bodies of foot soldiers were distinguished by the particular -emblems which were depicted on their brightly painted shields,[691] -but amongst horse and foot alike each separate body was recognizable -by an ensign of special design, for the former a _vexillum_, for -the latter a dragon. The Imperial standard, or that of the general -in chief command, was a purple banner embroidered with gold and of -exceptional size. The _vexilla_ were dependent horizontally from a -cross-bar fixed to the pole or spear by which they were elevated. -Mounted lancers displayed small pennons or streamers near the points -of their weapons,[692] but these were removed as an encumbrance on -the eve of battle.[693] Full armour was worn, in some troops even by -the horses.[694] Besides the weapons adapted for close conflict, much -reliance was placed on missiles, javelins and slings, but especially -bows and arrows in the hands of mounted archers.[695] In replenishing -the ranks great discrimination was exercised; and not only the physical -fitness of the recruit,[696] but the social atmosphere in which he had -sprung up was made the subject of strict inquiry. No slave was accepted -as a soldier,[697] nor any youth whose mind had been debased by menial -employment or by traffic for petty gains in the slums of a city.[698] -The sons of veterans were impressed into the service,[699] and the -landowners had periodically either to provide from their own family or -to pay a computed sum for the purchase of a substitute among such as -were not liable to conscription.[700] Many of the turbulent barbarian -tribes on being subdued were obliged by the articles of a treaty to -pay an annual tribute of their choicest youths to the armies of the -Empire.[701] In addition to the regular forces, barbarian contingents, -called _foederati_,[702] obeying their own leaders, were often bound by -a league to serve under the Imperial government. In Europe the Goths, -in Asia the Saracens, were usually the most important of such allies. -Of the former nation Constantine at one time attached to himself as -many as 40,000, an effort in which he was afterwards emulated by the -great Theodosius.[703] The warships of the period were mostly long, low -galleys impelled by one bank of oars from twenty to thirty in number, -built entirely with a view to swiftness and hence called _dromons_ or -“runners.” The smaller ones were employed on the rivers, the larger for -operations at sea.[704] After a period of service varying from fifteen -to twenty-four years the soldier could retire as a veteran with a -gratuity, a grant of land, and exemption from taxation on a graduated -scale for himself and his family.[705] - -Such was the carefully digested scheme of military defence bequeathed -to his successors by Constantine, who doubtless anticipated that he -had granted a lease of endurance to the regenerated Empire for many -centuries to come. But in the course of a hundred and fifty years -this fine system fell gradually to pieces; and by the beginning of -the sixth century no more than a _cento_ of the original fabric can -be discerned in the chronicles of the times. The whole forces were -diminished almost to a moiety of their full complement;[706] the -great peripheral bulwark of the _Limitanei_, scarcely discoverable -on the Illyrian frontier, in other regions was represented by meagre -bodies of one or two hundred men;[707] whilst the _Palatines_ and -_Comitatenses_ betrayed such an altered character that they could -claim merely a nominal existence.[708] The very name of legion, -so identified with Roman conquest, but no longer available in the -deteriorated military organization, became obsolete. In a Byzantine -army at this period three constituents exist officially, but with -little practical distinction. They appear as the _Numeri_,[709] the -_Foederati_, and the _Buccellarii_. 1. The _Numeri_ are the regular -troops of the Empire, horse and foot, enrolled under the direct -command of the Masters of the Forces, but the principle of strict -selection has been virtually abandoned, applicants are accepted -indiscriminately,[710] and even slaves are enlisted and retained under -any plausible pretext.[711] 2. The _Foederati_ now consist of bodies -of mercenaries raised as a private speculation by soldiers of fortune, -with the expectation of obtaining lucrative terms for their services -from the Imperial government.[712] Such regiments were formed without -regard to nationality, and might be composed mainly, or in part, -of subjects of the Empire, or be wholly derived from some tribe of -outer barbarians who offered themselves in a body for hire. On being -engaged, each band received an _optio_ or adjutant, who formed the -connecting link between them and the central authorities, and arranged -all matters relating to their _annones_ and stipend.[713] But the tie -was so loose that even on a foreign expedition they might arbitrarily -dissolve the contract for some trivial reason, and possibly join the -enemy’s forces.[714] 3. The _Buccellarii_[715] are the armed retainers -or satellites of the Byzantine magnates, whether civil or military, -but especially of the latter. Officially they are reckoned among the -_Foederati_,[716] and are obliged to take an oath of allegiance, not -only to their actual chief, but also to the Emperor.[717] Their number -varied according to the rank and wealth of their employers, and in the -case of the Praetorian Praefects, or the Masters of the Forces, might -amount to several thousands.[718] In each company they were divided -into two classes, named respectively the lancers and the shieldmen. -The former were selected men who formed the personal guard of their -leader, the latter the rank and file who were officered by them.[719] -The lancers were invariably cavalry, the shieldmen not necessarily so. -These satellites were recruited preferably amongst the Isaurians,[720] -a hardy race of highlanders, who, though within the Empire, always -maintained a quasi-independence in their mountain fastnesses, -and devoted themselves openly to brigandage.[721] To check their -depredations a military Count was always set over that region, which -thus resembled a frontier rather than an interior province. A fleet of -warships was not kept up systematically at this epoch, but in view of -an expedition, owing to the small size of the vessels, a navy could be -created in a few weeks.[722] - -From the foregoing specification it will be perceived that the method -of enrollment constituted the only practical difference between the -three classes of soldiers who marched in the ranks of a Byzantine army. -The maintenance of the Empire rested, therefore, on a heterogeneous -multitude, trained to the profession of arms no doubt, but without the -cohesion of nationality or uniform military discipline.[723] In the -multifarious host the word of command was given in Latin, which Greek -and barbarian alike were taught to understand.[724] - -Every student of ancient history is familiar with the methods of -warfare among the Greeks and Romans; with the impenetrable, but -inactive, phalanx which subdued the eastern world; and with the less -solid, but mobile, legion which ultimately succeeded in mastering -it.[725] Such armies consisted mainly of infantry; and the small bodies -of cavalry attached to them, amounting to one tenth, or, perhaps, to -as little as one twentieth part of the whole, were intended merely to -protect the flanks of each division, or to render more effective the -pursuit of a flying enemy. In those times, therefore, the horsemen -were only an auxiliary force, which never engaged in battle as an -independent army. But in the multiple operations against elusive -barbarians in the wide circuit of the Roman Empire, experience made it -evident that the mobility of cavalry was indispensable in order to -deal effectively with such wary and reckless foes.[726] Early in the -fourth century the number and importance of the cavalry had increased -to such an extent that they were relegated to a separate command: -and the Master of the Horse was regarded as of superior rank to his -colleague of the infantry.[727] In the East, however, both branches of -the service were soon combined under a single commander-in-chief; and -henceforward the first military officers are entitled Masters of the -Horse and Foot, or, collectively, of the Forces.[728] - -At the period I am writing about, the usual routine of a pitched -battle is to range the infantry in the centre with large squadrons of -cavalry on either flank.[729] Both armies first exhaust their supply of -missiles, after which a general engagement at close quarters ensues. -By the aid of various evolutions, concealed reserves, and unexpected -manœuvres, the opposing generals strive to take each other at a -disadvantage, and victory rests with the most skilful or fortunate -tactician. Single combats in the interspace between the two armies are -not unfrequently initiatory to a battle;[730] and sometimes a campaign -is decided by conflicts of cavalry alone.[731] - -The various classes of Imperial guards still exist as a fourth division -of the army, but, owing to the introduction of a system of purchase, -these corps have degenerated into the condition of being mere figures -to be mechanically paraded in the course of state pageantry; soldiers -apparently, and in resplendent uniforms, but unversed in war, who would -sooner buy their release for a large sum than enter on a campaign.[732] - -The wars of Anastasius may be reviewed briefly in this section. They -were four in number. 1. At the outset of his reign he found himself -opposed within the capital by a strong faction of turbulent Isaurians, -the relations and adherents of the late Emperor Zeno. Some of these -held high office, and had even aspired to the throne.[733] On their -dismissal and banishment from Constantinople the leaders fled to -Isauria, where they levied large forces, and raised a rebellion by -the aid of arms and treasure which Zeno had seen fit to amass in his -native province.[734] The insurgents kept up hostilities for a long -period with declining success against the Imperial generals, and the -revolt was not fully suppressed till the seventh year (498).[735] In -the fourth year of the war, however, the ringleaders were captured -and decapitated, and their heads were sent to Constantinople, where -they were exhibited to the populace fixed on poles in the suburb of -Sycae.[736] The pacification of the province was achieved by this war -more effectually than on any previous occasion, and the Isaurians do -not again appear in history as refractory subjects of the Empire.[737] - -2. In 502 the Persian king, Cavades,[738] applied to Anastasius -for the loan of a large sum of money which he required in order to -cement an alliance with the barbarian nation of the Nephthalites or -White Huns.[739] For politic reasons this loan was refused, and the -exasperated potentate immediately turned his arms against the Empire. -He invaded the western portion of Armenia, which was under Roman -suzerainty,[740] and took one or two towns of minor importance before -an army could be sent against him. The principal feature of this war, -which lasted about four years, was the capture and recovery of Amida, -a strongly fortified city of considerable size, situated in northern -Mesopotamia, on the banks of the Tigris. Although ill-garrisoned, -and neither armed nor provisioned to stand a siege, the inhabitants -received the Persians with the most insulting defiance and made a very -determined resistance for some months. The massive walls withstood the -attacking engines, and all the devices of the besiegers were baffled -by the ingenuity of those within the city. In despair Cavades had -already given orders to raise the siege when the downfall of Amida -was brought about by a very singular circumstance, as related by the -chief historian of the period.[741] In the excess of popular frenzy at -the news of the proposed retreat, the harlots of the town hastened to -the battlements in order to jeer at the Persian monarch as he passed -on his rounds, by making an indecent exposure of their persons. This -obscene conduct so impressed the Magi in attendance that they gave it -a mystical signification, and imparted their opinion to the King that -“everything hidden and secret in Amida would shortly be laid bare.” The -departure was countermanded, and ultimately, through the supineness or -treachery of some monks, to whom the guard of one of the main towers -had been confided, an entry was made. A vengeful massacre of the -vanquished then took place,[742] which was only stayed by the wit of -a suppliant priest, who, in answer to the irate question of Cavades, -“How did you dare to resist me so violently?” replied, “That the city -might be won by your valour and not by our cowardice.” Two years -later, as a result of a protracted but ineffective siege, the Persians -agreed to evacuate the town for a payment of one thousand pounds of -gold (£40,000). On entering, the Romans discovered to their chagrin -that such a state of destitution prevailed as would have compelled the -surrender of the stronghold within a few days. The conclusion of this -war was brought about by an invasion of the Huns,[743] who threatened -Persia from the north; and hence Cavades was glad to make peace for -seven years, on terms which left both parties in the same position as -before the commencement of hostilities. The issue of this conflict was, -on the whole, favourable to Anastasius, who, in the sense of being -the superior power, soon proceeded to infringe the articles of the -treaty by erecting commanding fortresses against his late foes along -his eastern border. Especially as a counterpoise to the impregnable -Nisibis, which had been ceded to the Persians a century and a half -previously by the inept Jovian,[744] he raised the insignificant -village of Daras to the rank of an important town, and surrounded it -with bastions of imposing strength.[745] The impotent protests of the -Persians were disregarded, and the two empires did not again come into -martial collision for more than twenty years. - -3. In 505 Anastasius and Theodoric, the Gothic king in Italy, by mutual -inadvertence, as it may be judged, became involved in a conflict. -Simultaneously the Master of the Forces in Illyricum and the Gothic -general Petza were engaged in suppressing their several enemies in -that region.[746] The antagonist of the Byzantine general was Mundo, -a bandit chief of the blood of Attila, who, with a body of Hunnish -marauders, was preying on the country. He, on the point of being -worsted, craved the assistance of Petza, who, seeing in him a natural -ally of kindred race, joined him with his forces. The Goth had, in -fact, just achieved the object of his expedition and probably made -this move in the heat of success. Together they routed the Imperial -army, which was shattered beyond all chance of reparation.[747] To -avenge this defeat, Anastasius in 508 fitted out a naval expedition, -which conveyed a landing force of 8,000 soldiers to the Italian coast. -Making an unforeseen descent on Tarentum, they ravaged the vicinity -with piratical ferocity, and returned as hastily as they came.[748] -Theodoric, however, did not feel equal to pitting himself against the -forces and resources of the East, and decided not to resent these -reprisals. He deprecated the wrath of the Emperor in deferential -language, and these encounters were soon forgotten as merely fortuitous -disturbances of the peace.[749] - -4. In 514 the studied economy of Anastasius provoked an upheaval of -the incongruous elements of the state, which threatened the immediate -collapse of his administration. From the hordes of barbarians massed -on the banks of the Danube, troops were continually detached to -take service under the Empire as _Foederati_; and their numbers had -increased to such an extent that the annones due to them became an -intolerable drain on the revenue. A sweeping reduction of these -supplies was, therefore, decreed;[750] a measure judicious in itself, -which would probably have been supported in sullen silence by the -barbarians had not Count Vitalian, a Goth, and their principal leader, -perceived that a specious means of retaliation was to hand. Taking -advantage of the religious intractability of Anastasius, which was -the bane of his rule and had alienated from him most of his pious -subjects, he announced himself as the champion of orthodoxy, and -proclaimed a holy war against the heretical Emperor.[751] The cry was -taken up universally, and, especially within the capital, all the -factious fanatics clamoured for Vitalian as the legitimate occupant -of the throne. An immense host of _Foederati_ followed the standard -of the rebel; a great battle was fought in Thrace, with the result -that the Imperial army was cut to pieces, suffering a loss, it is -said, of more than sixty thousand.[752] A fleet was placed at the -disposal of the pretender, whereupon Vitalian moved on the capital -and blockaded Constantinople by land and sea. Against this attack -the Emperor concerted measures within the city with some Athenian -philosophers, their chemical knowledge was utilized effectively, -galleys which ejected bituminous combustibles were launched against -the hostile ships, and the investing fleet retreated precipitately -amid volumes of fire and smoke.[753] The diplomacy of the almost -nonagenarian monarch during this revolt was marked by much temporizing -and duplicity; he disarmed the _Foederati_ by a liberal donative,[754] -and by raising their captain to the rank of Master of the Forces in -Thrace;[755] he mollified the orthodox ecclesiastics by promises and -prepared instruments for the recall of exiled bishops; and he appealed -to Pope Hormisdas praying that a synod should meet at Heraclea in order -to appease the dissensions of the Church.[756] The synod met after -protracted negotiations, but the combination was already dissolved, -and the head of rebellion was broken; the concessions offered by -the Emperor were presented and found to be illusory, and the futile -assembly separated without any tangible result.[757] Anastasius had -carried his point; active, yet impotent discontent reigned everywhere, -but he had yielded nothing; and soon afterwards, in extreme old age, he -sank into the grave[758] amid the familiar waves of sedition which for -twenty-seven years had raged ineffectually round his throne.[759] - -III. The commercial activities of the ancient world, as far as they -come within the vision of history, were almost confined to these -countries which encircle the basin of the Mediterranean; and in the -early centuries of our era the varied regions to be measured between -the Ganges and Gades were conceived to represent approximately the -whole extent of the habitable earth.[760] Although the theory of a -globe was held by advanced geographers and astronomers, the fact had -not been established by circumnavigation and survey; and the idea was -so far from being realized by the masses, that the notion of antipodes -seemed to them to be little less than preposterous.[761] In the -obscurity of prehistoric times the arts and sciences appear to have -originated in the East; and from thence, by the aid of Greece and Rome, -civilization extended until it included almost all the known parts of -Western Africa and Europe. Before the beginning of the sixth century, -however, owing to the incursions and settlements of Goths and Vandals, -those western countries had retrograded nearly to the same level of -barbarism from which they had been rescued formerly by the civilizing -arms of Rome. - -In the earliest ages the trade of the Mediterranean was entirely in -the hands of the Semitic race; and from their great ports of Tyre and -Sidon the Phoenicians penetrated with their well-laden ships even as -far as Spain and Britain,[762] disposing of their native manufactures -and imported wares on every coast within their reach.[763] But with -the rise and spread of Hellenic civilization, commerce became more -cosmopolitan; and by the conquests of Alexander the Greeks were made -practically cognizant of a Far East teeming with productions which -could minister to the needs of increasing wealth and luxury. At the -same period, about 330 B.C., the foundation of Alexandria by that -monarch gave them the command of Egypt, and they began to explore the -borders of the Arabian Gulf or Red Sea as far as the Gulf of Aden and -the confines of equatorial Africa. Concomitantly the laborious voyage -of Nearchus,[764] undertaken at the instigation of the Macedonian -conqueror, along inhospitable shores from the mouth of the Indus to -the head of the Persian Gulf, revealed to the Greeks the existence of -a chain of navigable seas by which the treasures of the Indies might -be brought by water to the wharves of the new capital. Through the -establishment of this commerce Alexandria became the greatest trading -centre of the Mediterranean, and distributed its exports to every -civilized community who peopled the extended littoral of that sea.[765] - -The first merchants who crossed the Indian ocean, embarking in small -ships of light draught, timidly hugged the shore during their whole -voyage, dipping into every bight for fear of losing sight of land. -But in the reign of Claudius a navigator named Hippalus discovered -the monsoons, and noted their stability as to force and direction -at certain seasons of the year.[766] Thenceforward the merchants, -furnishing themselves with larger vessels,[767] boldly spread their -sails to the wind, ventured into mid-ocean, and made a swift and -continuous passage from the southern coast of Arabia to some chosen -port in the vicinity of Bombay.[768] Such was the southern, and, within -the Christian era, most frequented trade route between the Roman -Empire and the Indies. There were, however, two other avenues, more -ancient, but less safe and less constant, by which merchandise from -the far East, mainly by inland transit, could enter the Empire. By the -first of these, which traversed many barbarous nations, the eastern -shores of the Euxine were brought into communication with northern -India through the Oxus, the Caspian Sea, and the Cyrus. From a bend -in the latter river, the emporium of the trade, the town of Phasis, -was easily attainable.[769] The second, intermediately situated, was -the most direct and facile of the three, but, as it lay through the -Persian dominions, the activity of commerce by this route depended on -the maintenance of peace between the two empires.[770] The Byzantine -government, jealous of the intercourse of its subjects with their -hereditary enemies, fixed Artaxata, Nisibis, and Callinicus[771] as -marts beyond which it was illegal for Roman merchants to advance for -the purposes of trade on this frontier.[772] - -In the sixth century the Ethiopian kingdom of Axume,[773] nearly -corresponding with Abyssinia, became the southern centre of -international trade; and its great port of Adule was frequented -by ships and traders from all parts of the East.[774] Ethiopian, -Persian, and Indian merchants scoured the Gangetic Gulf, and, having -loaded their vessels with aloes, cloves, and sandalwood, obtained -at Tranquebar and other ports, returned to Siedeliba or Ceylon[775] -to dispose of their goods. There transhipments were effected, and -sapphires, pearls, and tortoise-shell, the chief exports of that -island, were added to the cargoes of ships westward bound. In the -same market a limited supply of silk was obtained from such Chinese -merchants as were venturesome enough to sail so far.[776] From Ceylon -such vessels voyaged along the Malabar coast between Cape Comorin and -Sindu, near the mouth of the Indus, receiving on board at various -places supplies of cotton and linen fabrics for clothing, copper and -rare woods, together with spices and aromatics, musk, castor, and -especially pepper. In the harbours of that seaboard they also met with -the merchants from Adule, most of whom sailed no farther, and provided -them with the freight for their homeward voyage.[777] - -The traders of Axume were not, however, wholly dependent for supplies -on their intercourse with the Indies. Adjacent to their own borders lay -wide tracts of country which were to them a fruitful source of the most -valuable commodities; and with such their ships were laden when outward -bound for the further East. Journeying to the south-east they entered -an extensive but wild region called Barbaria,[778] part of which was -known as the Land of Frankincense, from its peculiar fecundity in that -odoriferous balsam. In this region cinnamon and tortoise-shell were -also obtained; black slaves were purchased from various savage tribes; -elephants were hunted by the natives for food; and ivory was supplied -in greatest quantity to the markets of the world.[779] Every other year -a caravan of several hundred merchants set out from Axume, well armed -and equipped for a distant expedition. For six months continuously they -travelled southward until they had penetrated far into the interior -of the African continent. Gold was the object of their journey, and -they took with them a herd of oxen as well as a quantity of salt and -iron to barter for the precious metal. On arriving at the auriferous -region they slaughtered the oxen and cut up the flesh into joints which -they arranged along with the other objects of trade on the top of a -specially erected barrier formed of thorn bushes. They then retreated -to some distance, upon which the inhabitants, who had been watching -their proceedings, came forward and placed pellets of gold on such lots -as they wished to purchase. On the savages retreating the traders again -advanced and removed or left the gold, according as they accepted or -refused the amount offered. In this way, after various advances and -retreats, bargains were satisfactorily concluded.[780] In the southern -parts of Arabia bordering on the ocean, myrrh and frankincense were -gathered in considerable quantity, whence the country acquired the -epithet of Felix or Happy.[781] The richest source of emeralds lay -in the uncivilized territory between Egypt and Axume, where the mines -were worked by a ferocious tribe of nomads called Blemmyes. From them -the Axumite merchants obtained the gems, which they exported chiefly -to northern India. Amongst the White Huns, the dominant race in that -region, they were esteemed so highly that the traders were enabled -to load their ships with the proceeds of a few of these precious -stones.[782] - -Down the Red Sea to Adule resorted the Byzantine merchants, engaged -in the home trade, in great numbers.[783] After loading their vessels -they again sailed northward, a proportion of them to the small island -of Jotabe,[784] situated near the apex of the peninsula of Mount Sinai, -which separated the Elanitic from the Heroopolitan gulf. At a station -there they were awaited by the officials of the excise, who collected -from them a tenth part of the value of their merchandise.[785] Some -of these ships proceeded up the eastern arm of the sea to Elath; the -rest of them chose the western inlet and cast anchor at Clysma.[786] -The wares landed at these ports were intended chiefly for the markets -of Palestine and Syria.[787] By far the greater portion of the fleet, -however, terminated their northward voyage at Berenice,[788] the last -port of Egypt, on the same parallel with Syene. Here they discharged -their cargoes and transferred the goods to the backs of camels, who -bore them swiftly to the emporium of Coptos on the Nile.[789] A crowd -of small boats then received the merchandise and made a rapid transit -down stream to the Canopic arm of the river, from which by canal they -emerged on lake Mareotis,[790] the inland and busiest harbour of -Alexandria. The maritime traffic between the Egyptian capital and all -other parts of the Empire, Constantinople especially, was constant and -extensive, so that commodities could be dispersed from thence in every -direction with the greatest facility. - -Within the Eastern Empire itself there were manufactories for the -fabrication of everything essential to the requirements of civilized -life, but production was much restricted by the establishment -universally of a system of monopolies. Several of these were held by -the government, who employed both men and women in the manufacture of -whatever was necessary to the Court and the army.[791] At Adrianople, -Thessalonica, Antioch, Damascus, and other towns, arms and armour were -forged, inlaid with gold when for the use of officers of rank; the -costly purple robes of the Imperial household emanated from Tyre,[792] -where dye-works and a fleet of fishing-boats for collecting the murex -were maintained; these industries were strictly forbidden to the -subject. There were, besides, at Cyzicus[793] and Scythopolis,[794] -official factories for the weaving of cloth and linen. The military -workshops were under the direction of the Master of the Offices, the -arts of peace under that of the Count of the Sacred Largesses. Public -manufacturers or traders were incorporated in a college or guild -controlled by the latter Count, the privileges of which were limited -to some five or six hundred members.[795] Among the staple productions -of the Empire we find that Miletus[796] and Laodicea[797] were famous -for woollen fabrics, Sardes[798] especially for carpets, Cos[799] for -cotton materials, Tyre[800] and Berytus[801] for silks, Attica[802] -and Samos[803] for pottery, Sidon[804] for glass, Cibyra[805] for -chased iron, Thessaly[806] for cabinet furniture, Pergamus[807] for -parchment, and Alexandria[808] for paper. The fields of Elis were -given over to the cultivation of flax, and all the women at Patrae -were engaged in spinning and weaving it.[809] Hierapolis[810] in -Phrygia was noted for its vegetable dyes; and Hierapolis[811] in Syria -was the great rendezvous for the hunters of the desert, who captured -wild animals for the man and beast fights of the public shows. Slave -dealers, held to be an infamous class, infested the verge of the Empire -along the Danube, but at this date Romans and barbarians mutually -enslaved each other.[812] On this frontier, also, consignments of -amber and furs were received from the shores of the Baltic and the Far -North.[813] With respect to articles of diet, almost every district -produced wine, but Lesbian and Pramnian were most esteemed.[814] A wide -tract at Cyrene was reserved for the growth of a savoury pot-herb, -hence called the Land of Silphium.[815] Egypt was the granary of the -whole Orient.[816] Dardania and Dalmatia were rich in cheese,[817] -Rhodes[818] exported raisins and figs, Phoenicia[819] dates, and the -capital itself had a large trade in preserved tunnies.[820] - -China was always topographically unknown to the ancients, and about -the sixth century only did they begin to discern clearly that an ocean -existed beyond it.[821] The country was regarded as unapproachable by -the Greek and Roman merchants,[822] but nevertheless became recognized -at a very early period as the source of silk. Fully four hundred years -before the Christian era the cocoons were carried westward, and the art -of unwinding them was discovered by Pamphile of Cos, one of the women -engaged in weaving the diaphanous textiles for which that island was -celebrated.[823] Owing to the comparative vicinity of the Persian and -Chinese frontiers, the silk exported by the Celestial Empire always -tended to accumulate in Persia, so that the merchants of that nation -enjoyed almost a monopoly of the trade.[824] Hence Byzantine commerce -suffered severely during a Persian war, and strenuous efforts would be -made to supply the deficiency of silk by stimulating its importation -along the circuitous routes. Such attempts, however, invariably proved -ineffective[825] until the invention of the compass and the discovery -of the south-east passage opened the navigation of the globe between -the nations of the East and West. - -IV. In general condition the Byzantine people exhibit, almost uniformly -in every age, a picture of oppressed humanity, devoid of either -spirit or cohesion to nerve them for a struggle to be free. With -the experience of a thousand years, the wisdom of Roman statesmen -and jurists failed to evolve a political system which could insure -stability to the throne or prosperity to the nation. Seditious in the -cities, abject in the country, ill-disciplined in the camp, unfaithful -in office, the subjects of the Empire never rose in the social scale, -but languished through many centuries to extinction, the common grave -of Grecian culture and Roman prowess. - -In the rural districts almost all the inhabitants, except the actual -landowners, were in a state of virtual slavery. The labourers who -tilled the soil were usually attached, with their offspring, to each -particular estate in the condition of slaves or serfs. They could -neither quit the land of their own free will, nor could they be -alienated from it by the owner, but, if the demesne were sold, they -were forced to pass with it to the new master.[826] The position of a -serf was nominally superior to that of a slave, but the distinction -was so little practical that the lawyers of the period were unable -to discriminate the difference.[827] Any freeman who settled in a -neighbourhood to work for hire on an estate lost his liberty and -became a serf bound to the soil, unless he migrated again before the -expiration of thirty years.[828] The use and possession of arms was -interdicted to private persons throughout the Empire, and only such -small knives as were useless for weapons of war were allowed to be -exposed for sale.[829] - -In every department of the State the same principle of hereditary -bondage was applied to the lower grades of the service, and even in -some cases to officials of considerable rank. Here, however, a release -was conceded to those who could provide an acceptable substitute, a -condition but rarely possible to fulfil.[830] Armourers, mintmen, -weavers, dyers, purple-gatherers, miners, and muleteers, in government -employ[831] could neither resign their posts nor even intermarry[832] -with associates on a different staff, or the general public, unless -under restrictions which were almost prohibitive. Within the same -category were ruled the masters or owners of freight-ships,[833] -chartered to convey the annones and tributes, of which the Alexandrian -corn-fleet[834] constituted the main section. Those addicted to this -vocation in the public interest were necessarily men of some private -means, as they were obliged to build and maintain the vessels at their -own expense; but they were rewarded by liberal allowances, and were -almost exempt in respect of the laws affecting the persons and property -of ordinary citizens. The lot of this class of the community appears to -have been tolerable, and was even, perhaps, desirable,[835] but that -of the Decurions, the members of the local senates, was absolutely -unbearable.[836] In relation to their fellow townsmen their duties -do not seem to have been onerous, but as collectors of the revenue -they were made responsible for the full precept levied four-monthly -on each district, and had to make good any deficiency from their own -resources.[837] As natives of the locality to which their activities -were constrained, their intimate knowledge of the inhabitants was -invaluable to the government in its inquisitorial and compulsive -efforts to gather in the imposts; and, subordinated to the Imperial -officials resident in, or on special missions to, the provinces, they -became consequently the prime object of their assaults when dealing -with the defaulting tributaries. In view of such hardships, municipal -dignities and immunities were illusory; and, as the local senates were -very numerous, there were few families among the middle classes, from -whom those bodies were regularly replenished, whose members did not -live in dread of a hereditary obligation to become a Decurion. In every -ordinary sphere of exertion, not excepting the Court, the Church, or -the army, men, long embarked on their career, were liable to receive -a mandate enjoining them to return to their native town or village -in order to spend the rest of their lives in the management of local -affairs.[838] Occupation of the highest offices of State, or many -years’ service in some official post, could alone free them from the -municipal bond.[839] - -Life under accustomed conditions, though with restricted liberty, -may be supportable or even pleasant, but the Byzantine subject could -seldom realize the extent of his obligations or foresee to what -exactions he might have to submit. He might review with satisfaction -a series of admirable laws which seemed to promise him tranquillity -and freedom from oppression, but experience soon taught him that -it was against the interest of the authorities to administer them -with equity. By an ineradicable tradition, dating from the first -centuries of the expansion of the Empire, it was presumed that the -control of a province offered a fair field to a placeman for enriching -himself.[840] Hence the prevalence of a universal corruption and a -guilty collusion between the Rector and all the lesser officials, -who afforded him essential aid in his devices for despoiling the -provincials.[841] While the fisc never scrupled to aggravate the -prescribed imposts by superindictions,[842] its agents were insatiate -in their efforts at harvesting for themselves. The tyranny of the -first emperors was local and transient, but under the rule of the -Byzantine princes the vitals of the whole Empire were persistently -sapped. In the _adaeratio_ of the annones a value was set upon the -produce far above the market price;[843] taxes paid were redemanded, -and receipts in proper form repudiated because the _tabellio_ who -had signed them, purposely removed, was not present to acknowledge -his signature;[844] unexpected local rates were levied, to which -the assent of the Decurions was forced, with the avowed object of -executing public works which were never undertaken;[845] sales of -property at a vile estimate were pressed on owners who dared not -provoke the officials by a refusal;[846] decisions in the law courts -were ruled by bribery, and suitors were overawed into not appealing -against unjust judgements;[847] forfeitures of estates to the crown -were proclaimed under pretence of lapse of ownership or questionable -right of inheritance, and their release had to be negotiated for -the payment of a sufficient ransom;[848] even special grants from -the Imperial treasury for reinstatement of fortifications or other -purposes were sometimes embezzled without apprehension of more serious -trouble, if detected, than disgorgement.[849] In all these cases the -excess extorted was appropriated by the rapacious officials. Such -were the hardships inflicted systematically on the small proprietors -who, if unable to pay or considered to be recalcitrant, were not -seldom subjected to bodily tortures. For hours together they were -suspended by the thumbs,[850] or had to undergo the application of -finger-crushers or foot-racks,[851] or were beaten on the nape of -the neck with cords loaded with lead.[852] Nevertheless, remainders -accumulated constantly, and a remission of hopeless arrears for a -decade or more was often made the instance of Imperial indulgence. -But the old vouchers were habitually secreted and preserved by the -collectors so that the ignorant rustics might be harassed persistently -for debts which they no longer owed.[853] The existence of such -frauds was patent even to the exalted perceptions of the Court; and -hence Anastasius, in order to render his abolition of the chrysargyron -effective, resorted to an artifice which appealed to the avarice of -his financial delegates throughout the country.[854] But an emperor, -however well-intentioned, could rarely attempt to lighten the burdens -of even the humblest of his subjects. His immediate ministers had sold -the chief posts in the provinces[855] and were under a tacit convention -to shield their nominees unless in the case of some rash and flagrant -delinquent who abandoned all discretion. The public good was ignored -in practice; to keep the treasury full was the simple and narrow -policy of the Byzantine financier, who never fostered any enlightened -measure for making the Empire rich.[856] Zeno essayed to remedy the -widespread evil of venality, but his effort was futile; although his -constitution was re-enacted more than once and permanently adorned -the statute-book.[857] According to this legislator every governor -was bound to abide within his province in some public and accessible -place for fifty days after the expiration of his term of office. Thus -detained within the reach of his late constituents when divested of his -authority, it was hoped that they would be emboldened to come forward -and call him to account for his misdeeds. The reiteration of the law at -no great intervals of time sufficiently proves that it was promulgated -only to be disregarded.[858] - -Without legitimate protectors from whom they might seek redress, the -wretched tributaries either tried to match their oppressors in craft, -or yielded abjectly to all their demands. Some parted with whatever -they possessed, and finally sold their sons and daughters into slavery -or prostitution;[859] others posted their holdings against the visits -of the surveyors with notices designating them as the property of -some influential neighbour.[860] Such local magnates, who maintained, -perhaps, a guard of Isaurian bandits, were wont to bid defiance -to the law as well as to the lawlessness of the Rector and his -satellites.[861] To their protection, in many instances, the lesser -owners were impelled to consign themselves unconditionally, hoping to -find with them a haven of refuge against merciless exaction. The patron -implored readily accepted the trust, but the suppliant soon discovered -that his condition was assimilated to that of a serf.[862] The web of -social order was strained or ruptured in every grade of life; traders -joined the ranks of the clergy in order to abuse the facilities for -commerce conceded to ministers of religion;[863] the proceedings of -the Irenarchs among the rustic population were so vexatious, that they -were accounted disturbers, instead of guardians of the peace,[864] and -the simple pastor had to be denied the use of a horse, lest it should -enable him to rob with too much security on the public highways.[865] - - - II. EDUCATIONAL - -Superstition flourishes because knowledge is still the luxury of the -few. By education alone can we hope to attain to the extinction of that -phase of mind termed belief, or faith, which has always been inculcated -as a virtue or a duty by the priest, and condemned as a vice of the -intellect by the philosopher. In every age, the ability to discern -the lines of demarcation which separate the known from the unknown is -the initial stage of advancement; and in the training of youth, the -prime object of the educator should be to confer this power on every -individual; for in the uninformed minds of a great majority of mankind, -fact and fancy are for the most part inextricably entangled. The -efforts of authority to dispel or perpetuate error are most potent when -acting on the impressionable faculties of early life. In a sane and -progressive world the first conception to be engrafted in the expanding -mind should be that knowledge has no foothold beyond the causeways -pushed by science into the ocean of the unknown.[866] - -I do not design to produce under this heading a lengthy disquisition -on paedagogics among the Byzantines, but merely to indicate, by some -broad lines, upon what stock of common knowledge the foundations of -civilization rested in this age. The student of early Roman history -will scarcely need to be reminded that the virtues of the Republic -were not derived from the schools of art or philosophy; or that the -aesthetic tastes of those blunt citizens only developed in proportion -as they found themselves lords over the culture as well as over the -country of the Greeks.[867] Towards the middle of the second century -B.C., Greek professors of literature and eloquence began to establish -themselves at Rome, where they held their ground for some decades on -a very precarious footing, owing to the strong disfavour with which -they were regarded by those who considered the preservation of ancient -manners as the salvation of the state.[868] Gradually, however, the -new discipline prevailed; eminent teachers were accorded recognition -by the government, and before the end of the first century A.D., the -privilege of maintaining at the public expense a faculty of professors -to impart higher instruction to the rising generation, was granted to -every town of any magnitude throughout the Empire.[869] To facilitate, -therefore, the prosecution of _liberal studies_, for such they were -officially named, suitable buildings were erected in every populous -centre. Architecturally, a state school comprised a handsome hall or -lecture theatre, with class-rooms attached, the whole being surrounded -essentially by a portico.[870] The extent and decorative elaboration -of these edifices depended doubtless on their local or general -importance. The greater institutions, as denoted by their being the -resort of a large concourse of students, were liberally provided with -the adornments of painting and statuary.[871] Objective instruction -was given by means of tabular expositions of the subjects taught -affixed to the walls of the colonnades, among which maps conveying not -only geographical, but also historical information, were particularly -conspicuous.[872] Until the barbarian invasion of Greece by Alaric at -the close of the fourth century, Athens maintained an easy pre-eminence -as a centre of polite learning, and bestowed the greatest prestige -on those who passed through her schools.[873] The most pronounced -effort for the advancement of higher education in the East at this -epoch was the definite constitution of the schools of Constantinople -in an Auditorum on the Capitol, almost as the counterpart of a -modern University, by Theodosius II, in 425. The teaching staff of -this college consisted, under their official titles, of three Orators -and ten Grammarians for the Latin language; of five Sophists and ten -Grammarians for the Greek tongue; of one Philosopher; and of two -Jurists, thirty-one members in all.[874] To insure the success of -this foundation, the decree for its establishment was accompanied -by an injunction against the public lecturing of professors other -than those appointed to hold forth within its walls.[875] A body of -scriveners, technically named antiquarians, was also maintained for the -multiplication of copies of manuscripts in the public libraries of the -capital, which were rich in literature.[876] - -In addition to these teachers, who were settled in various localities, -the itinerant professor, who travelled from place to place delivering -public harangues and taking pupils for a short course of instruction, -was a feature in the life of the period. With considerable vanity -they distinguished themselves by wearing a long beard, carrying a -staff, and enfolding themselves in a cloak of an unusual tint.[877] -Rhetoricians affected a garb of scarlet or white, philosophers of gray, -and physicians of blue.[878] When addressing an audience, they usually -presented themselves crowned with flowers, reeking with perfumes, and -displaying a gold ring of remarkable size.[879] The advent of these -self-ordained instructors of the public into a provincial town was -often the occasion of much local enthusiasm, and a throng of citizens -advanced to meet them for some distance, in order to conduct them to -their lodgings.[880] All professors, whether in the pay of the state -or otherwise, enjoyed a complete immunity from the civil duties and -imposts enforced on ordinary individuals, thus presenting the singular -contrast of being licensed to live in a condition of ideal freedom -under a political system which restricted personal liberty at every -turn.[881] Such material advantages inevitably became liable to abuse -through imposture, and the country was permeated by charlatans in -the guise of philosophers, who coveted distinction and emolument at -the easy price of a merely personal assertion of competence.[882] -In the fourth century this evil was scarcely checked by Imperial -enactments which required that professors of every grade should -procure credentials as to character and attainments from the Curia of -their native place.[883] The cost of education is a somewhat obscure -subject, but we are justified in assuming that all the state seminaries -were open gratuitously to the youth of the district; and we know that -even private teachers of eminence were accustomed to remit the fees to -students who were unable to pay.[884] - -The ancients, like the moderns, assigned certain courses of instruction -to pupils according to their age and the estimated development of their -intelligence. As with us, the recipient of a full liberal education -passed through three stages, adapted respectively to the capacity -of the child, the boy, and the youth, which may be discussed under -the headings of Elementary, Intermediate, and Final. To these must -necessarily be added, in the case of those destined for a special -vocation, a fourth stage, viz., the Professional. Their conception, -however, of the periods of early life was more defined, and differed -somewhat from our own, the first terminating at twelve, the second at -fourteen, the third at twenty, and the fourth at twenty-five years of -age.[885] Primary education began at from five to seven, and the pupils -were usually sent to a day-school in the charge of a slave, named a -paedagogue. There they were taught to read, write, and to count; and -suitable pieces were given to them to learn by rote. A wooden tablet -faced with wax, upon which they scratched with a style, took the -place of the modern slate or copy-book. Calculation was restricted to -some simple operations of mental arithmetic, owing to the cumbersome -method of figuring employed by the ancients, which did not lend itself -easily to the manipulation of written numbers.[886] The schoolmasters -who presided over such preparatory establishments did not rank as -professors, and were not accorded any privileges beyond those of -ordinary citizens.[887] - -II. At twelve the work of mental cultivation commenced seriously, and -the pupil entered on the study of the _seven liberal arts_, viz., -grammar, dialectic, rhetoric, geometry, arithmetic, astronomy, and -music.[888] These subjects were taken in two stages, which in the -West were beginning to be called the _Trivium_ and _Quadrivium_.[889] -Two years were devoted to the _Trivium_, the scope of which may -be apprehended from a brief summary. 1. The grammar of the period -dealt with the eight parts of speech in a sufficiently exhaustive -manner; conveyed some notions, often crude and erroneous, as to the -derivation of words; and, in the absence of precise anatomical or -acoustic science, attempted in a primitive fashion a classification -of the letters and a physiology of vocalization. The construction of -sentences was analyzed with considerable minuteness; and passages -selected from eminent writers were set for the student to parse with -an exactitude seldom called for at the present day.[890] The laws of -poetical metre were taught as a leading branch of the subject; and a -familiarity with literature was promoted by reading the best authors, -especially Homer.[891] The copious Latin grammarian Priscian flourished -at Constantinople under Anastasius, and his monumental work in eighteen -books is still extant.[892] - -2. In the province of dialectics it was sought to instill the art of -reasoning correctly into the mind of the pupil. Thus he was introduced -to the elementary principles of logic; the categories, or the modes -of regarding and classifying phenomena, were explained to him; and he -was exercised in the practice of accurate deduction according to the -various forms of the syllogism. - -3. Without a practical acquaintance with the art of rhetoric it was -considered that no one could pretend to occupy any desirable position -in the civil service of the Empire.[893] This course was the extension -and application of the two previous ones of grammar and logic, upon -which it was based. The rules of composition and the arts of argument, -which the ingenuity of the Greeks had unravelled and defined under a -hundred apposite names, were exemplified to the student,[894] who -wrote extracts to dictation chosen from various illustrative authors. -The sophist or rhetorician addressed his class on some stated theme, -and spoke alternately on both sides of the question. The management -of the voice and the use of appropriate gesture were systematically -taught.[895] Finally the pupils were set to compose speeches of their -own and to debate among themselves on suitable subjects.[896] - -III. The four divisions of the _Quadrivium_ were grouped together as -the mathematical arts; and six years were allotted to their study. 1. -In geometry the discipline did not include the learning of theorems -and problems as set forth in the Elements of Euclid, but merely an -acquaintance with the definitions and with the ordinary plane and solid -figures.[897] The teaching in this section, however, was mainly of -geography.[898] It was asserted doubtfully that the earth was a globe -and that there was an inferior hemisphere of which nothing certain -could be predicated.[899] - -2. Arithmetic was not practised methodically by the setting of sums to -be worked out by the pupils, but consisted chiefly in demonstrating -the more obvious properties of numbers, such as odd, even, prime, -perfect, etc., together with many fanciful absurdities.[900] Operations -with figures were indicated verbally in a disconnected manner; -multiplication tables to be learnt by heart had not been invented; the -higher rules and decimal fractions were unknown. - -3. Systematic astronomy at this period and for long after, as is well -known, was conceived of on false principles which, whilst admitting -of the correct solution of some problems, such as the prediction -of eclipses, left the vastness of the universe and its physical -constitution totally unapprehended. All the heavenly bodies were -regarded as mathematically, if not teleologically disposed about the -earth, to which as a centre even the fixed stars, at varying and -immeasurable distances as they are, were constrained fantastically -by a revolving sphere of crystal.[901] The reasoning, however, by -which these views were upheld was not sufficiently convincing to gain -universal acceptance; and the outlines of the science communicated -to students generally received some modifications from the minds -of individual teachers.[902] Much of the course was taken up with -treating of the constellations and the zodiac, not without a tincture -of astrology, and some primitive observations on meteorology were -included.[903] - -4. Music as known to us is virtually a modern creation; and that of the -Greeks would doubtless impress us as a wild and disorderly performance, -adapted only to the ears of some semi-barbaric people of the East. -Their most extended scale did not range beyond eighteen notes;[904] -in order to obtain variety their only resource was a shift of key, -that is, a change of pitch, or the adoption of a different mode, -that is, of a gamut in which the semitones assumed novel positions; -and their harmony was restricted to the consonance of octaves. Time -was not measured according to the modern method, but there was a -rhythm fixed in relation to the various metres of poetic verse. Their -usual instruments were the pipe or flute, the lyre, a simple form of -organ,[905] and, of course, the human voice. Practically, therefore, -their music consisted of melody of a declamatory or recitatival type, -to which a peculiar character was sometimes given by the use of quarter -tones; and choral singing was purely symphonic. But the vibrational -numbers of the scale had been discovered by Pythagoras when making -experiments with strings; and each of the eighteen notes and fifteen -modes had received a descriptive name. Hence the limited scope of -the art did not prevent the theory of music from ultimately becoming -elaborated with a complexity not unworthy of the native subtlety of the -Greeks.[906] In practice the musical training of pupils consisted in -their learning to sing to the lyre.[907] - -Such in brief were the component parts of a liberal education, with -which, however, under the name of philosophy, it was considered -essential that a complement of ethical teaching should be conjoined. -This complement was digested into three branches, under which were -discussed the duty of the individual to himself, to the household, and -to the community at large or to the state.[908] - -IV. It now remains for us to glance at the more protracted training of -those who had resolved to devote their lives to some particular sphere -of activity. Aspirants for the position of professor of the liberal -arts, or who wished to utilize their acquirements in a political -career, would continue and extend their studies on the lines above -indicated; but those who intended to follow the professions of law -or physic, or engage in practice of art proper, had to direct their -energies into new channels. - -1. As the administration of the Empire was almost monopolized by the -members of the legal profession, it may be inferred that the throng of -youths intent on becoming lawyers fully equalled in number the students -of every other calling. Hence we find that not only were schools of -law established in every city of importance, notably Constantinople, -Alexandria, and Caesarea, but that a provincial town of minor rank -obtained a unique celebrity through the teaching of jurisprudence. -Berytus, on the Syrian coast, in the province of Phoenicia, with an -academic history of several centuries[909] at this date, had attained -to that position; and was habitually spoken of as the “mother” -and “nurse of the laws.”[910] Four jurists of eminence, double the -number allotted to any other school, under the title of Antecessors, -lectured in the auditorium;[911] and a progressive course of study -was arranged to extend over five years. In each successive year the -candidate assumed a distinctive designation which marked his seniority -or denoted the branch of law on which he was engaged.[912] Before -the sixth century the legal archives of the Empire had been swollen -to such proportions that it had become an almost impossible task to -thread the maze of their innumerable enactments. During the lapse of a -thousand years the constitutions of the emperors had been engrafted on -the legislation of the Republic, and the complexity of the resultant -growth was capable of bewildering the most acute of legal minds. On -three occasions, beginning from the time of Constantine, attempts had -been made to separate and classify the effective laws;[913] and the -Code of Theodosius II, published in 438, the only official one, was -at present in force. But this work, executed in a narrow spirit of -piety which decreed that only the enactments of Christian emperors -should be included, was universally recognized as both redundant and -insufficient. A still wider entanglement existed in the literature -which had accumulated around the interpretation and application of the -statutes; during the administration of justice a myriad of perplexing -points had arisen to exercise the keenest forensic judgement in order -to arrive at equitable decisions; and it was estimated that two -thousand treatises, emanating from nearly forty authors, contained in -scattered passages matter essential to a correct apprehension of the -principles and practice of the law.[914] Such was the arduous prospect -before a legal student who desired to win a position of repute in his -profession.[915] - -2. As Berytus had become famous for its law school, so Alexandria, -and even some centuries earlier, had gained a noted pre-eminence as a -centre of medical education;[916] but with respect to the course of -study and the methods of instruction no details have come down to -us. We have seen that the regulations for the establishment of the -auditorium at Constantinople did not provide for a chair of physic, -whence it may be inferred that it was left entirely to those who had -attained to the position of senior or arch-physician to organize -the teaching and training of pupils. The public medical officers, -who attended the poor at their own homes or in the _nosocomia_ or -hospitals existing at this date,[917] would doubtless have excellent -opportunities for forming classes and rendering students familiar -with the aspect and treatment of disease. The medical and surgical -science of antiquity had come to a standstill by the end of the second -century, when the indefatigable Galen composed his great repertory -of the knowledge of his own times. That knowledge comprised almost -all the details of macroscopic anatomy, but had advanced but a little -way towards solving the physiological problems as to the working of -the vital machine. The gross absurdities of the preceding centuries -had, however, been finally disposed of, such as that fluids passed -down the windpipe into the lungs,[918] or that the arteries contained -air.[919] Ordinary operations were performed freely; and the surgeon -was conscious that it was more creditable to save a limb than to -amputate it.[920] Three centuries before the Christian era Theophrastus -had laid the foundations of systematic botany, as had his master -Aristotle those of zoology and comparative anatomy.[921] The resources -of therapeutics were extensive and varied, but the action of drugs -was not well understood. Remedies were compounded not only from the -vegetable kingdom, but also with animal substances[922] to an extent -which seems likely to be equalled by the more precise medication with -the principles of living tissues gaining ground at the present day. -Knowledge of minerals, however, was too deficient for such bodies to -take a prominent place in pharmacology.[923] - -3. The arts of Greece, after having flourished in perfection from the -time of Pericles to that of Alexander in the various departments of -architecture, sculpture, painting, and literature, remained dormant for -some centuries until the establishment of universal peace under the -dominion of Rome provided a new theatre for their exercise. Fostered -in the Augustan age by the indolence and luxury of the Imperial city, -which offered the prospect of fortune to every artist of ambition and -talent, they were communicated to the Latins, who strove earnestly -to imitate and equal their masters. The exotic art bloomed on the -foreign soil to which it had been transplanted; and the Italians, if -they never displayed creative genius or originality of conception, -at least learned to reproduce with consummate skill and novelty of -investment the emanations of Hellenic inspiration. But the elements -of permanency were wanting to such factitious aptitudes, as they were -in fact to the fabric of the Empire itself; and the wave of political -stability was closely followed in its rise and fall by the advance or -decline of the arts. After the reign of Augustus the tide of prosperity -ebbed for about half a century until it reached its lowest level -during the Civil Wars which heralded the settlement of Vespasian on -the throne. It rose again, and for more than fifty years maintained -an active flow during the reigns of Trajan and Hadrian, subsequent -to which its course is marked by a gently descending line, under the -benign rule of the Antonines, until it sinks somewhat abruptly in the -temporary dissolution of the Empire, which preceded the triumph of -Severus. Thenceforward, but two centuries from its foundation,[924] -the sovereignty of Rome entered on shoals and quicksands, calamity -succeeded calamity, and a position of stable equilibrium was never -afterwards regained; but in the vicissitudes of fortune before the -final catastrophe, an illusive glow appeared to signalize more than -once a return of the supremacy of the Caesars.[925] - -By the time of Constantine the neglect and degradation of art had -become so pronounced that artists could scarcely be found competent to -execute, even in an inferior style, any monumental record of the events -of the age; or for the construction of the public buildings so lavishly -planned by that monarch in his attempted renovation of the Empire.[926] -To meet the difficulty he promulgated decrees, which were kept in -force and multiplied by his successors, with the view of stimulating -his subjects to devote themselves to arts and the allied handicrafts. -Immunity from all civil burdens was guaranteed; and salaries, with the -free occupation of suitable premises in public places, were offered to -those who would undertake to teach.[927] These measures undoubtedly -tended to the elevation of taste and the maintenance of civilization, -although they could not infuse a new genius into the people of a -decadent age. - -At the opening of the sixth century Constantinople was the focus of -civilization not only in the East, but also with respect to those -western countries which had until lately been united as members of -the same political system. The suzerainty of the eastern Emperor was -still tacitly allowed, or, at least, upheld; and the prestige of his -capital was felt actively throughout the ruder West as a refining -influence which only waned after the period of the Renaissance. The -main characteristic of art at this epoch is an unskilled imitation -of ancient models; and the conventional style regarded as typically -Byzantine, which at one time prevailed so widely in Europe, was not -to become apparent for many centuries to come.[928] But by the fifth -century certain modifications of design, betraying the infiltration of -Oriental tastes, also began to be observable.[929] - -_a._ Architecture at Constantinople remained essentially Greek, or, -at least, Graeco-Roman; and the constant demand for new buildings, -especially churches, ordained that it should still be zealously -studied. In the provinces, however, particularly on the Asiatic side, -some transitional examples would have enabled an observer to forecast -already an era of cupolar construction.[930] - -_b._ On the other hand, statuary almost threatened to become a lost -art. The devotion to athletic contests, which prevailed among the -Greeks, caused them to lay great stress on physical culture; and at -the public games, as well as in the preparatory gymnasia, they were -constantly familiarized with the aspect of the human figure undraped -in every phase of action and repose.[931] The eye of the artist thus -acquired a precision which enabled him to execute works in marble with -a perfection unapproached in any later age. To the anthropomorphic -spirit of polytheism it was necessary that the images of the gods -should be multiplied in temples and even in public places; and the -Greeks essayed to express the ideal beauty of their divinities -under those corporeal forms which appeared most exquisite to the -human senses. Received as being of both sexes and as fulfilling -the conception of faultless excellence in a variety of spheres, a -boundless field lay open before the artist in which to represent them -according to their diverse attributes of sovereignty, of intellect, -or of grace.[932] But the traditions of Hebrew monotheism sternly -forbid any material presentation of the Deity, and sculpture in the -round was almost abolished at the advent of Christianity. In one minor -department, however, that of ivory carving, a school of artists was -constantly exercised in order to provide the annual batch of consular -diptychs, which it was customary to distribute throughout the provinces -every new year.[933] On each set of these plates, figured in low -relief, appeared generally duplicate likenesses of the consul of the -day, clad in his state robes and surrounded by subsidiary designs. The -style of these productions, perfunctorily executed it may be, suggests -that the average artist of the period was incapable of portraiture or -of tracing correctly the lines of any living form.[934] - -_c._ Less unfortunate with reference to religion were the pictorial -arts at this date. The decoration of churches, in brilliant colour -and appropriate iconography, was gradually carried to a degree of -elaboration which has never since been surpassed. The intrinsic -nature of popular devotion insensibly established the convention that -images in the flat did not contravene the divine prohibitions; and -ecclesiastical prejudice yielded to expediency. On the iconostasis -and around the walls of the sacred edifice, in proximity to the -worshippers, Christ, the Virgin, the Apostles, and the Saints, with -many a scene of Gospel history, were depicted in glowing tints on -a blue or a golden ground. On every available space of the ceiling -similar subjects, but of larger dimensions, were executed in a -brilliant glass mosaic, and the mass of colour overhead completed the -gorgeous effect of the interior.[935] Accordantly it was considered -that reverence for the holy scriptures was fittingly shown by the -reproduction of copies in the most costly form; and hence the painting -of manuscripts in miniature revived and endured as one of the staple -industries of the age. But in all these cases defective drawing and -perspective are often painfully conspicuous, and a meretricious display -of colour seems to be regarded by the artist as the highest expression -of his skill.[936] - -_d._ By the end of the fifth century we are on the verge of that -new era in literature, introduced by the Byzantines, when to make a -transcript of some previous writer was to become an author.[937] In -other branches of art from time to time some obvious merit becomes -visible on the surface, but in the domain of poetry, during nearly -fourteen centuries previous to the fall of the Empire, a single name -only, that of Claudian, survives to remind us that both Greeks and -Latins once possessed the faculty of expressing themselves in verse -with nobility of thought and felicity of diction. Poetasters existed -in abundance, but without exception their compositions exemplify the -futility of striving after an object which in that age had resolved -itself into the unattainable. The usefulness of prose as a medium of -information, however low may be its literary level, often compensates -us for lack of talent in an author; and the bald chronicler, who -plagiarized his predecessors in the same field and presented their work -as his own, is sometimes as welcome to the investigator as a writer of -more ambitious aims. In these barren centuries, however, history and -theology are occasionally illustrated by some work of original power. - -In the foregoing paragraphs I have dealt with education in relation -only to the male sex, and it remains for me to say a few words -respecting the mental training of the female. In keeping with the rule -as to their social seclusion, the instruction of girls was conducted -in the privacy of the family circle. There they received, in addition -to the usual rudiments, a certain tincture of polite learning, which -implied the methodical reading of Homer and a limited acquaintance -with some of the other Greek poets and the dramatists.[938] Music, as -being an elegant accomplishment, was also taught to them.[939] They -were not, however, debarred from extending the scope of their studies, -and instances of learned ladies are not altogether wanting to this age, -for example, the Empress Athenais or Eudocia[940] and the celebrated -Hypatia.[941] - -A glance at the slight structure of knowledge, the leading lines of -which I have just lightly traced, may enable the modern reader to -appreciate the conditions of intellectual life among the ancients, -and to perceive within how narrow an area was confined the exercise -of their reasoning faculties. Viewed in comparison with the vast body -of contemporary science, all the information acquired by the Greeks -must appear as an inconsiderable residue scarcely capable of conveying -a perceptible tinge to the whole mass. For fully eighteen hundred -years, from the age of Aristotle to that of Columbus and Copernicus, -no advance was made in the elucidation of natural phenomena or even -towards exploring the surface of the globe. The same globe has been -surveyed and delineated in its widest extent by the industry of our -cartographers, has been seamed with a labyrinth of railways for the -conveyance of substance, and invested in a network of wire for the -transmission of thought. In the universe of suns our solar system -appears to us as a minute and isolated disc, the earth a speck within -that disc; to the ancients the revelations of telescopic astronomy -were undreamt of, and the world they inhabited (all but a tithe of -which was concealed from them, and whose form they only mistily -realized) seemed to them to be the heart of the universe, of which the -rest of the celestial bodies were assumed to be merely subordinate -appendages. Geological investigation has penetrated the past history -of the earth through a million of centuries to those primeval times -when meteorological conditions first favoured the existence of organic -life; the people of antiquity were blinded by unfounded legends which -antedated the origin of things to a few thousand years before their -own age. Spectroscopic observation has assimilated the composition of -the most distant stars to that of our own planet. Chemical analysis -has achieved the dissolution of the numberless varieties of matter -presented to our notice, and proved them to arise merely from diverse -combinations of a few simple elements; and electrical research has -almost visually approached that primordial substance in which is -conceived to exist the ultimate unity of all things.[942] Synthetical -chemistry has acquired the skill to control the inherent affinities -of nature, and to compel her energies to the production of myriads of -hitherto unknown compounds.[943] By the aid of the microscope we can -survey the activities of those otherwise invisible protoplasmic cells -which lie at the foundation of every vital process; and the possibility -is foreshadowed that, in the alliance of biology and chemistry, we -may one day succeed in crossing the bridge which links the organic -to the inorganic world and command the beginnings of life.[944] In -all these departments of objective knowledge the speculations and -researches of the Greek philosophers had not even broken the ground. -For these primitive observers, without history and without science, the -world was a thing of yesterday, a novel appearance of which almost -anything might be affirmed or denied. Magnetism was known merely as -an interesting property of the lodestone; electricity, as yet unnamed, -had barely arrested attention as a peculiarity of amber, when excited -by friction, to attract light substances. Nor had the mechanical -arts been developed so as to admit of any practical application -and stimulate the industries of civilization. Although automatic -toys were sometimes constructed with considerable ingenuity,[945] -the simplest labour-saving machine was as yet uninvented.[946] -In the early centuries of our era knowledge had become stagnant, -and further progress was not conceived of. One half of the world -lived on frivolity; the individuality of the other half was sunk in -metaphysical illusion. The people of this age contemplated nature -without comprehending her operations; her forces were displayed before -their eyes, but it never entered into their heads to master them and -make them subservient to the needs of human life; they moved within a -narrow cage unconscious of the barriers which confined them, without -a thought of emerging to the freedom of the beyond; and an ordinary -citizen of the present day is in the possession of information which -would surprise and instruct the greatest sage of ancient Greece. - - - III. RELIGIOUS. - -The increase of knowledge in the nineteenth century has stripped every -shred of supernaturalism from our conception of popular religions. -The studies and inventions of modern science have illuminated every -corner of the universe; and our discovery of the origins has cleared -the greatest stumbling-block from the path of philosophy and removed -the last prop which sustained the fabric of organized superstition. -The world will one day have to face the truth about religion; and it -may then become necessary to restrain by legal enactment those who -would draw away the masses to some old historical, or to some new-born -superstition.[947] - -In primitive times the curiosity and impatience of mankind demanded -an immediate explanation of the activities of nature; and by a simple -analogy they soon conceived the existence of a demiurge or maker of -worlds who, in his loftier sphere, disposed of the materials of the -universe by methods comparable to those of their own constructive -operations.[948] Or, perchance, by even less speculative reasoning -they were led to accept the phenomenal world as the result of a -perpetual generation and growth which accorded closely with their -everyday experience of nature; whilst a divinity of some kind seemed to -lurk in every obscurity and all visible objects to be instinct with a -life and intelligence of their own.[949] In either case they believed -themselves to be in the presence of beings of superior attributes whom -it was desirable or necessary to conciliate by some form of address -adapted to gain their favour or to avert their enmity. Hence worship, -the parent of some system of ritual likely to become more elaborate -in the lapse of time; and the ultimate establishment of a priestly -caste who would soon profess to an intercourse with the unseen not -vouchsafed to ordinary mortals. Gradually the first vague notions of -a celestial hierarchy grew more realistic by imaginative or expedient -accretions; and in a later age the sense of a less ignorant community -would not be revolted by incredible details as to the personal -intervention of divinities in the history of their progenitors when -such events were relegated to a dimly realized past. But, although -a belief in revelation as seen through the mists of antiquity -prevails readily at all times among the unthinking masses, a spirit -of scepticism and inquiry arises with the advent of civilization and -increases concurrently with the vigour of its growth. Then the national -mythology is submitted to the test of a dispassionate logic, and its -crude constituents become more and more rejected by the sagacity of -a cultured class. They, however, always hitherto an inconsiderable -minority, feel constrained to an indulgence more or less qualified of -the superstitions of the vulgar for fear of disturbing the political -harmony of the state. - -The early Greek philosophers awoke into life to find themselves endowed -with vast intelligence in a world of which they knew nothing. No -record of the past, no forecast of the future disturbed the serenity -of their intellectual horizon. In a more aesthetic environment they -renewed the impulse to interpret nature with a finer sense of congruity -than was possessed by their rude ancestors, but their methods were -identical, and they believed they could advance beyond the bounds of -experience by the exercise of a vivid imagination. The coarse myths of -polytheism were thrust aside, and the void was filled with fantastic -cosmogonies, some of which included, whilst others dispensed with, the -agency of a Deity.[950] The truth and finality of such speculations -was shortly assumed, and schools of philosophy, representing every -variety of doctrine, were formed, except that in which it was foreseen -that knowledge would be attained only by the long and laborious path -of experimental investigation. But whilst disciples were attracted to -different sects by the personal influence of a teacher, by the novelty -of his tenets, or by their own mental bias, the general sense of the -community remained unconvinced; and the independent thinkers of the -next generation perceived the futility of inquiries which evolved -nothing coherent and revealed no new facts. Scientific research, for -the deliberate striving after deeper insight ranked as such in the -unpractised mind of the period, was discredited, and an impression -that the limits of human knowledge had already been reached began -to prevail universally. A reign of scepticism was inaugurated, the -evidence of the senses in respect even of the most patent facts was -doubted, and the study of nature was virtually abandoned.[951] Then -philosophy became synonymous with ethics, but by ethics was understood -merely the rule of expediency in public life, a subject which was -debated with much sophistry. The inspiration of Socrates impelled -him to combat this tendency, to search earnestly after truth, and -to inculcate an elevated sense of duty. His mind was pervaded by an -intense philanthropy which affected his associates so profoundly -that his teaching did not lose its influence for centuries after his -death. From the time of Socrates the fruits of experience began to be -gathered, and new schools of philosophy were organized on the sounder -basis of divulging to their votaries how to make the best use of their -lives. The views entertained on this question were as various as the -divergences of human temperament, and adapted to countenance the -serious or the frivolous proclivities of mankind.[952] A theological or -cosmical theory was a usual part of the equipment of these schools, -but in outward demeanour they conformed, more or less strictly, with -the religion of the state. The intellectual movement among the Greeks -culminated after about two centuries of activity in the career of -Aristotle, who undertook to sift, to harmonize, and to codify all the -knowledge of his age.[953] A great work had been accomplished; all -that wild outgrowth with which savage intellection is wont to encumber -the domain of reason had been swept away, and the ground had been -subjected to an orderly, though unproductive planting. The conception -that nature would yield a harvest as the reward of rational study had -been awakened, but the efforts lapsed because the method had yet to be -discovered of fertilizing the vacant soil.[954] - -The conception of social ethics or of mutual obligation among the -members of a community appears to have been one of those influences -which presided at the birth of civilization, and to have attained -theoretical perfection far back in the prehistoric past; whilst the -perpetual conflict between duty and individual advantage has always -inhibited altruism from being accepted as an invariable guide to -conduct without the artificial support of penal law. In Homer and -Hesiod we find almost every rule for living uprightly adequately -expressed. A man should honour his parents, love and be generous to his -friends, be a good neighbour, and succour strangers and suppliants. -He should be truthful, honest, continent, and industrious; and should -consider sloth to be a disgrace.[955] In the next age Hellenic -refinement could add little more than fuller expression to these simple -precepts. But from Pythagoras to Socrates, from Aristotle to Cicero, -from Seneca to Marcus Aurelius, a constant emission of ethical doctrine -was maintained. Amid the wealth of disquisition, innumerable striking -aphorisms might be selected, but only a few such can be recorded here: -We should scan the actions of each day before resigning ourselves to -sleep;[956] We have contracted with the government under which we live -to submit ourselves to its laws, even should they condemn us to death -unjustly;[957] We should pity the man who inflicts an injury more than -him who suffers it, for the one is harmed only in his body, the other -in his more precious soul;[958] Do not unto others what it angers you -to suffer yourself;[959] Even should we be able to conceal our conduct -from gods and men, we are not the less bound to act uprightly;[960] The -judge, as well as the criminal, is on his trial that he may deliver -just decisions;[961] Do not revile the malefactor, but commiserate him -as one who knows not right from wrong;[962] Blame none, for men only do -evil involuntarily.[963] By the first century slaves had begun to be -considered in a more humane light; and masters were enjoined to look -on them as humble friends, as brothers with whom it was no disgrace to -sit at meat.[964] The iniquity of the gladiatorial shows was beginning -to be felt in the time of Cicero,[965] and they were denounced in no -measured terms by Seneca.[966] Such exhibitions had never been proper -to the Greek communities and, when an attempt was made to introduce -them at Athens in the second century, the cynic philosopher Demonax -restrained his fellow citizens by declaring that before doing so they -should first demolish the altar of Pity.[967] The exposure of new-born -infants was one of the besetting sins of antiquity, and the practice -was universal among the Latins and Greeks.[968] The inhumanity of it -was, however, perceived early in our era; yet not until the reign of -Severus do we find a legal pronouncement against it.[969] Constantine -discountenanced it, but no comprehensive enactment for its suppression -was promulgated till the end of the fourth century.[970] Charity -towards the needy was a recognized duty from the earliest times, and -Homer voices the general sentiment when he writes that strangers and -the poor are to be treated as emissaries from the gods.[971] At Athens, -in its palmy days, an allowance was made to indigent citizens;[972] and -the lavish system of outdoor relief denoted by the trite phrase, _Panem -et circenses_, as introduced by the Caesars, threatened to pauperize -the urban population of the Empire.[973] The origin of charitable -asylums is not well ascertained, but there is evidence that in the -first century at least the foundation of such institutions was already -being promoted by the rulers of the state.[974] The Roman Empire -entered the Christian era equipped with a civilization scarcely at all -inferior to that of the present day in relation to art, literature, -and social ethics, but a sustaining principle, which could endow -the splendid fabric with quality of permanency, was wanting. It was -vulnerable within and without; and two powerful enemies, superstition -and the barbarian, were awaiting the opportune moment to prey upon it. -The dissolution commenced within; ignorance of natural science allowed -the first to work havoc in its vital parts; the barbarian assaulted the -infected mass from without, and the ruin became complete. - -The political unification of the most civilized portion of the globe -was begun by the conquests of Alexander and completed by those of -Rome. Sociological homogeneity was attendant on centralization of -government. From Britain to North Africa and from Spain to Asia Minor -thought flowed through the same channels. Rome and Greece dominated -the world between them; while the former assumed the physical control -of the nations, the latter held their mental faculties in subjection. -Progressively, however, influences began to permeate the Empire which -were foreign to both Latins and Hellenes. East and west confronted each -other on the Asiatic frontier; Egyptians and Jews were commingled with -the Latin and Greek races in the great mart of Alexandria. Oriental -mysticism became rife, and gods of every nationality were received -into the bosom of Rome.[975] In the first century of the Christian -era the times were ripe for new religious beliefs. By the expansion of -the Roman dominions the classes had become cosmopolitan, and a wide -experience of men and manners had dissipated the rustic simplicity -of the Republic. The society of the Empire was enlightened by the -speculations of Greek philosophy; it became versed in metaphysical -discussion, and soon conceived an irreverence for the divinities of a -ruder age.[976] Everywhere the same level of mental apprehension was -ultimately reached. Then the inanity of earthly existence began to be -acutely felt. The thoughtful looked through the void and saw nowhere -for the mind to rest. Zeal for public distinction had been suppressed -by military despotism, and the pride which animates the strenuous -virtues of a rising commonwealth was extinct. Levity pervaded the -aimless crowd who lived only for the diversion of the hour. Nature had -been interrogated repeatedly with an invariably negative result; her -secret, if she possessed one, seemed to be impenetrable and destined -to remain for ever unknown. No discovery in science had opened up the -vista of a path which led through inexhaustible fields of knowledge. -The psychical unrest longed for new ideals and was willing to be -appeased by the slightest semblance of a revelation. Religion-making -became a craft which was followed by more than one practitioner in -all the chief cities of the Empire. A host of charlatans arose and -made many victims by pretending to theurgic powers.[977] Agitated by -vague impulses the social units drifted with indeterminable currents, -for more than a century before the heterogeneous elements which were -in commotion showed a tendency to group themselves under any concrete -forms. At length the appearances of a settlement became visible, and -three distinct forms emerged successively from the previously existing -chaos, each of which claimed to have sounded the abysmal depths and to -have brought to the surface the inestimable balm which was to salve the -bruised souls of humanity. But they beheld each other with horror and -contempt, and a contest was initiated between them on the theatre of -the Empire for the spiritual dominion of mankind. - -I. In the year 28 A.D., the fifteenth of the reign of Tiberius, Pontius -Pilate was governor of Judaea, the subordinate officer of Aelius -Lamia, the Imperial legate of Syria.[978] At that point of time a man, -previously unknown among the Jews, assumed the rôle of a public teacher -of religion and ethics and devoted himself to an itinerant mission -throughout the cities and districts of Palestine. He seemed to be about -thirty years old and it was soon realized that he was a certain Jesus -who had hitherto worked as a carpenter, his father’s trade, in his -native village of Nazareth. He preached a reformation of manners among -the people generally, and rebuked with a penetrating bitterness the -pride and hypocrisy of the chief men of his own race. At the outset -of his career he summoned to his assistance twelve men of the same -humble rank as himself and enjoined them to follow his example. He did -not confine himself to hortatory discourses, but proved on numerous -occasions that he had the gift of working miracles. At his command -the sick were healed and even the dead returned to life. Those who -were possessed with devils he immediately released from their baleful -thraldom.[979] The laws of nature appeared to be subject to his will -and were reversed whenever he thought fit to exert his power over them. -Finally he declared himself to be the Messiah or Christ, a more than -mortal being whom the Jews expected to rescue them from their political -abasement and raise them to a position of national supremacy. Israel -as a body rejected his claims with scorn and derision; his ministry -of peace afforded no prospect of the rehabilitation they aspired -to.[980] He met them in the temple at Jerusalem and they demanded -of him a sign that he was an emissary sent from heaven. In reply he -assailed them with vituperation and hurried from the precincts. Amongst -his own following he explained himself; his design had been entirely -misconceived; he was the son of Jehovah and his kingdom was not of this -world. He had been sent to reconcile his own nation to his father, the -ruler of the universe, whom they had offended by their moral laxity -and corruption. He would shortly depart from the earth, but he would -soon return with all the powers of heaven to judge the inhabitants of -this lower sphere. Then the just would be received into a state of -bliss without end, whilst the wicked should be consigned to everlasting -torment. He persisted in his didactic work, which tended to make the -chief priests and elders odious in the eyes of the people, until they -determined to compass his destruction. Ultimately he was seized and -brought before the Roman governor as a mover of sedition, but Pilate -was unconcerned and wished to release him. His accusers insisted, he -yielded and, after suffering every indignity, Jesus was crucified -between two thieves on mount Calvary during the Paschal festival of -A.D. 29, under the consulship of the two Gemini.[981] But his disciples -had been forewarned by their master that his death in the guise of a -malefactor was preordained as an atonement to effect the redemption -of the world from sin. Had it been otherwise legions of angels would -descend to discomfort his impious antagonists. At the same time he -predicted that he would rise from the dead on the third day after the -burial of his body. This promise was fulfilled, his sepulchre was found -empty, and Jesus appeared again to his disciples. He discoursed with -them for forty days, constituted them apostles to preach his Gospel -not only to the Jews, but also to the Gentiles, and in their presence -ascended into the heavens until the clouds received him out of their -sight. - -Such was the astounding relation elicited with some difficulty from -a sect of new religionists called Christians, who, as early as the -reign of Nero, were sufficiently numerous at Rome to have incurred -the hatred of the populace through their austere disposition and -their stern abjuration of the national gods.[982] In the year 64 -the city was devastated by an appalling conflagration of which the -insensate emperor was himself accused, but he shifted the odium -to the already discredited recusants, and condemned many of them -to perish in the flames by a peculiarly atrocious method.[983] -Nevertheless the Christians maintained their ground and thirty years -later were regarded with hostility by the tyrant Domitian as a body -of proselytizing Jews in the capital.[984] At the dawn of the second -century the younger Pliny found them so numerous in his province of -Bithynia as almost to have subverted the established religion. In -great concern he wrote to the Emperor Trajan questioning whether he -should proceed to extremities in his efforts to suppress them. This -epistle is extant, and through it some details were first made public -as to their tenets and mode of worship. Before daybreak on a certain -day they met and recited an address to Christ as to a god; bound -themselves by oath to commit no crime against society, and partook -together of a common meal. The cultured Roman, imbued with literature -and philosophy, estimated the Christian belief as a depraved and -extravagant superstition, the eradication of which was dictated by -state policy, but his master counselled him to disregard it unless -popular animosity should in particular instances compel him to drag -its devotees from their obscurity.[985] The Christian missionaries -pursued their labours unremittingly and were especially active among -the proletariat, from whom during the first centuries their converts -were almost exclusively drawn.[986] Throughout the length and breadth -of the Empire they persistently undermined the existing order of -things by teaching doctrines which were at variance with the received -conception of Roman citizenship. Not only did they revile the pagan -deities, whom they classed as demons instead of gods, and shun their -festivals,[987] but they evinced an utter aversion for military -service.[988] The polytheists were incensed at the pretensions of a -deity who would not share the theocracy, but claimed to oust all other -divinities from their seats and occupy the celestial throne alone,[989] -whilst statesmen became alarmed at the prospect of political defection, -and began to second the vulgar prejudice by systematic efforts at -exterminating the spreading sect. The benignant Marcus Aurelius was -induced to believe that the Christians were a danger to the state and -he issued a decree (_c._ 177) that they should be sought out and put -to death unless willing to abandon their faith.[990] This was the -first decided persecution, but, although many perished, it proved -ineffective, as no means available were strong enough to extinguish the -flames of fanaticism. On the contrary, those who stood firm before the -tribunals and were allowed to escape with their lives ranked afterwards -as “Confessors,” a title more glorious in the eyes of their fellows -than any temporal dignity; whilst constancy to the death became the -essential qualification of Martyrs or witnesses to the truth, Saints -who were admitted forthwith among the heavenly host as mediators -between God and man.[991] As soon as the repressive measures were -relaxed all the weaker brethren, who had abjured in the face of danger, -prayed for readmission to the conventicles, and were usually received -after the infliction of a term of penance. Once and again during the -next century and a half widespread persecution was had recourse to by -Decius and by Diocletian, but the Christians throve and prospered in -the intervals despite of fitful and local hostility.[992] The memorable -battle of the Milvian bridge in 312 proved to be a turning-point in -the history of Rome and of Christianity; and the state religion of the -ancient world was involved in the fall of the dissolute Maxentius. -The victorious Constantine, as sole Emperor of the West, immediately -concerted a measure with his colleague of the East, Licinius, for the -establishment of religious toleration throughout their dominions.[993] -Thenceforward Christianity was free to expand in obedience to the -charge she had received at her origin and to apply herself to the task -of supplanting every other belief. - -The acceptance of all religions is pressed by an appeal to the -supernatural sub-structure on which they profess to be based; and -this claim is substantiated by the presentment of some miraculous -circumstances from which they are asserted to have derived their birth. -Evidential obscurity has always been the soul of such pretensions; -and the truth of the most improbable occurrences has been resolutely -maintained because assured witnesses could not be produced in order to -prove a negative. But the time for historical discussion or sifting -of evidence in relation to such matters has long gone by; and in the -twentieth century the philosopher is enabled without examination -to dismiss with a smile the mere suggestion that such events have -occurred.[994] That any narrative, which in its essential statements -consists largely of the marvellous, should be rejected as false in -its entirety has almost risen to the dignity of a canon of historical -criticism. The principle, however, has often been unduly strained in -its application; and no judicious investigator would refuse to allow -that a slender thread of fact may sometimes be extricated from a mass -of incredible legend. The awe-inspiring life of Jesus emanates from -authors of unascertainable date and repute. No neutral scribe, no -adverse critic, has furnished us with any personal impressions of his -career bearing the intrinsic marks of truth and simplicity. Nor can -it be affirmed that any character fairly discernible on the stage of -history ever knew an apostle. The Twelve who are credited with having -disseminated the faith of the Gospel from east to west lie buried -in a more than prehistoric obscurity, the writings ascribed to them -doubted, denied, or clearly disproved.[995] It can scarcely be a matter -of surprise, therefore, if some serious scholars of modern times have -committed themselves to an absolute denial that the nominal founder -of Christianity has had any real existence.[996] Yet the cause of -mysticism was well served by the impenetrable cloud which hung over -the mundane activity of Jesus. No common inquiry enabled the diligent -adversaries of Christianity to strip the veil from the idealized -figure, and expose its features to the gaze of vulgar observation. The -philosophic critic was reduced to mere expressions of incredulity; and -the despair of historians became the firmest pillar of belief in the -church.[997] - - -II. In an idle hour Plato applied himself to shadowing forth a -theological doctrine which should account for the origin and -guidance of the objective universe.[998] A supreme god, the One or -the Good,[999] at a certain moment conceived a creative design and -fashioned the material world out of pre-existing elements.[1000] This -task completed, he created intellect and soul; and by combining the two -together produced living intelligence.[1001] He was now provided with -all the requisite ingredients for peopling the world he had made; and -his next step was to form a primal race of spiritual beings or daemons -whom he endowed with immortality. From these by generation issued -the whole progeny of gods worshipped by the Greeks, for whom their -pedigrees and actions were recorded by Orpheus, Homer, and Hesiod. -Among the divine existences were also to be reckoned the stars. At -this stage the creative work of the One came to an end. He addressed -the daemons and said: “You have observed my method of procedure when -engaged in moulding yourselves. Follow my example and set about the -production of mortal natures to inhabit the air, the water, and the -earth.” They obeyed his behests, and the whole animal kingdom was the -result of their labours. But the grosser matter with which mortal -souls are weighed down is the essence of evil, and the just man will, -therefore, desire to escape from the body in order to be free from -its impure passions.[1002] For the Creator had appointed that each -soul should be associated with a particular star, to whose blissful -abode it might return as the reward of a life well spent on earth. The -unrighteous soul, however, must first be chastened by an ordeal of -transmigration through descending grades of lower animal natures, the -least abased being that of a woman. - -This cosmological phantasy of Plato was destined, after lying dormant -for more than five centuries, to breathe a new spirit into the almost -inanimate body of polytheism. The higher social caste, still adhering -languidly to the old belief, counted among them many elevated minds -devoted to the traditions of the past, who apprehended with dismay -the dissolution of all they prized in the ebbing tide of Paganism. -The effete superstition could only be sustained by some process of -depuration capable of reconciling it with the more refined perceptions -of the age. The required influence was at hand. From Alexandria, where -an international fusion of philosophies and religions had been in -progress almost since the foundation of the city, a new dispensation -proceeded before the middle of the third century. In that capital, -the Greek was penetrated by the spirit of Oriental mysticism, and the -Jew was fascinated by the intellectual ascendancy of the schools of -Athens. The ancient rivalry of sects had almost died out, and a later -generation of inquirers adopted freely whatever they could assimilate -from various systems of philosophy.[1003] After passing tentatively -through several stages from the first years of our era, a theological -doctrine under the name of Platonism was elaborated by the Egyptian, -Plotinus,[1004] with sufficient completeness to be presented to the -devout polytheist as a rule of life. In general conception, the new -faith did not differ essentially from the scheme advanced by the -founder of the Academy, but, with its deficiencies supplied from exotic -sources, it was propounded solemnly as a theosophy which revealed -the whole purport of human existence. As a practical religion, this -revival, Neoplatonism by name, enjoined a purity of life which should -free the soul from defilement by contact with the world, and allow it -to coalesce with the divine potential whence it had emanated.[1005] The -crowning allurement of the system was that this blissful conjunction -might be attained by the fervid votary even during life. Those who -had subjugated all their natural, and, therefore, evil passions, -might rise by contemplation to an ecstatic union with the Deity, the -transcendant One; or, to express it irreverently in modern language, -might acquire the faculty of passing into a hypnotic trance.[1006] As -soon as Plotinus had perfected his invention, he proceeded to Rome -(_c._ 244), with the view of professing his doctrine to the mystically -inclined on the most extended theatre in the Empire. Here his success -was very considerable, and he gained numerous adherents, especially as -he conceded that all forms of Pagan worship availed as a real approach -to the Deity and enshrined germs of truth derived from some primitive -revelation. He became influential at Court and was about to organize -a Utopian community on the lines of Plato’s ideal republic under the -auspices of Gallienus when the fall of that Emperor frustrated his -design. - -Plotinus died in 270, leaving many disciples to continue the work -of his school, the foremost of whom was Porphyry, known as a keen -assailant of Christianity.[1007] To him succeeded the Syrian, -Iamblichus, a contemporary of Constantine, who gave the final form -to Neoplatonism and adapted it for widest acceptance. The religion -of Plotinus was an ineffable creed which avowedly excluded vulgar -participation, and was addressed only to cultured aspirants;[1008] but -a descent was made by his successors who, with the object of amplifying -their influence, embraced gradually all the crass superstitions of -the multitude. A mystical signification was read into the sacred -books of the Greeks, as the poems of Orpheus, Homer, and Hesiod -may appropriately be termed, by an allegorical interpretation of -every phrase or incident in the text. All trivial circumstances or -immoral pictures were thus disclosed to be fraught with spiritual or -ethical meaning for the pious reader.[1009] The endless procession of -invisible beings with which Eastern fancy had peopled space, angels, -demons, archons, and demigods, were accepted by the latter school -and associated to the theocracy as mediators who could be summoned -and suborned to human purposes by magic rites, incantations, and -sacrifices.[1010] By the time this stage had been reached, Neoplatonism -appeared to be fully equipped for satisfying the occult proclivities of -all classes, and asserting its right to become the prevailing religion -of the state. - -III. The most distinctive and irrepressible theological principle -which entered Western civilization from the East, was the dualistic -conception of nature inherent in the old Babylonian religions. The -seers of that ancient people could not resolve the problem as to the -providential government of the world, without postulating a perpetual -strife between two opposed powers, who were engaged in determining the -course of events. The spectacle of suffering humanity enforced the -belief that a potent spirit of evil shared the control of the existing -order of things to an equal extent with the benign Deity from whom all -blessings flowed. The eastern provinces of the Empire became saturated -with these views, and the prime mover in diffusing them was said to be -that Simon Magus who, although he makes but a brief and insignificant -appearance in Gospel history, occupies a very considerable space -in extra-biblical literature.[1011] Under the name of Gnostics, -recipients of a special enlightenment or _gnosis_, his reputed progeny -swarmed about the early Christian Church, whose presence seemed to -rouse them into vitality; for, in the doctrine of redemption by Jesus, -they found, as they imagined, the key to much that was unexplained -in their own system.[1012] Diversity in the apprehension of detail -was an innate characteristic of the Gnostic brood; whence it followed -that they became apparent in small sects only, computed at some -scores, and, though numerous, never attained the weight of union as a -religious body. Gradually they were dissolved by the preponderance of -the Catholic Church, which absorbed their members and proscribed their -peculiar tenets.[1013] - -There was, however, one form of dualism which arose beyond the borders -of the Empire, and, from its centre in Persia, spread with great -rapidity eastwards to the frontiers of China, and westwards as far as -the Atlantic ocean. This international faith, for such it became in -less than a century, was called Manichaeism from its founder Mani, of -whom little certain is known; but he was probably a native of Ecbatana, -the Median capital.[1014] As the prophet of a new dispensation, Mani -belongs to the second class of makers of religion, that is, he did -not claim to be himself a god, but only an apostle commissioned by -the Deity. His life extended to upwards of sixty years, and he was -countenanced by more than one of the Sassanian kings. At length, -however, he fell a victim to the jealousy of the Magi, the exponents -of the established belief of Zarathushtra, at whose instigation he was -crucified and flayed by Bahram I. In the system of Mani the fundamental -conception is the antithesis of light and darkness, by which the -opposition between good and evil is vividly denoted; and the present -world originates in the accident of a war breaking out between the -respective powers. Satan, the Prince of Darkness, discovers by chance -the kingdom of light, the existence of which was previously unknown -to him, and, with his army of demons, makes an incursion into it. The -God of Light, sustained by his pure spirits, engages and defeats him, -but during the campaign a commingling has occurred of elements of the -two realms. The contest now resolves into the efforts of the Deity to -regain, and of Satan to retain, the portions of light which were lost -in the darkness. The first step is the formation by the former of this -world, but the latter creates man as a secure receptacle for the light -he had acquired. Hence this creature is animated by two souls, an evil -one as well as a soul of light; and Satan enslaves him by exciting -his bad passions.[1015] The process of restoring the light goes on -continually, and the sun and moon are great reservoirs into which it -is poured by the active agents of the superior Deity. The human race -is placed in possession of the clue to paradise by having this gnosis -imparted to it. A rigid asceticism must be practised according to -prescribed rules. There were, however, two ranks of Manichaeans, the -Elect and the Auditors. The earnest votaries joined the first, and on -them celibacy and a vegetarian diet were imposed. Membership of the -second was adapted to the masses, from whom only moderate abstinence -was required. They ministered religiously to the Elect, whom they thus -enlisted as redeemers on their behalf, so that with the addition of a -term of purgatory after death, they also became fitted for paradise. -Mani utilized some of the ideas of Christianity in order to connect -his religion practically with mankind, but his transferences are -rather imitations than acceptances of anything really Christian. Thus -he acknowledged a Jesus Christ, who abides in the son, as the “primal -man” or first-born of the Deity.[1016] He had visited the earth as a -prophet, and from him Mani had received his apostolic mission, whence -he usurped the title of the Paraclete, whose advent was promised -in the Gospels. He also instructed twelve disciples to preach his -doctrine. The success and prevalence of Manichaeism was at one time -very great, for it arose as the revivifying force of more than one -aspect of dualism in the East and West. It fostered the time-honoured -traditions of the inhabitants of the Euphrates valley, and drew to -itself the disintegrating coteries of Gnostics within the Roman -Empire. A Manichaean popedom was established, which had its seat for -several centuries in Babylon. As early as 287 Diocletian denounced the -propagation of the religion as a capital offence, on the grounds that -the “execrable customs and cruel laws” of the Persians might thereby -gain a footing among his “mild and peaceful” subjects.[1017] - -From the foregoing summary it will be seen that in the first years -of the fourth century polytheism, as resuscitated by Neoplatonism, -held the field against its rivals with the support and approval of -the government. We cannot attempt here to fathom the motives, so -prolific as a literary theme, which induced Constantine first to -favour Christianity, then to embrace it for himself and his family, -and finally to raise it into the safe position of being the only -religion recognized by the state. In the blank outlook of the times -some definite belief was a necessity, and, whether from policy or -conviction, he steered his course in the direction where the tide -seemed to set most strongly. Pure Neoplatonism was congenial only -to persons of a meditative temperament; to the sober-minded it was -artificial and unconvincing. Its loftier heights were inaccessible to -the masses, and in its later development it threatened to make common -cause with the jugglers and charlatans who risked a conflict with the -law.[1018] Manichaeism had only begun to rear its head, and at the best -contained much that was fantastic and incomprehensible to a non-Semitic -people.[1019] Christianity was simple, positive, socialistic, a -leveller of class distinctions, for the slave as well as for the free -man, and absolutely intolerant of every other religion. Its emissaries -believed implicitly in their mission, and worked incessantly among the -lower stratum of the population, to whom they delivered the message of -their Gospel in clear and precise terms. By their vehement assertion -there was no escape from, and no alternative to the acceptance of their -creed. The Day of Judgment was at hand; at any moment Jesus might -return to inaugurate a golden age of one thousand years upon the earth; -and all those who had been regenerated by baptism would participate in -His glory.[1020] The primitive church was communistic in principle, and -exceptional solicitude was shown in the administration of charity to -its indigent members. Liberality in this sense was doubtless the means -of winning over many converts, for its bounty was not withheld from the -poor on account of any difference in religion.[1021] - -The Christian Church from its inception gradually unfolded itself as -an anarchical association, consisting of affiliated branches scattered -throughout the Empire. At first all members possessed equal rank, and -the status of each one as a presbyter or propagandist was limited only -by his natural capacity for the work. Enthusiasm prevailed in the -secret assemblies, and the excitable, whether male or female, relieved -themselves by impassioned utterances which were accepted by the -listeners as prophetic inspiration.[1022] Subsequent history relates -the development of a hierarchy with the consequent formation of two -parties in the Church, clergy and laity, and the ultimate suppression -of all spiritual assumption by the latter.[1023] Rites and ceremonies -of increasing complexity were instituted, rules of discipline were -elaborated, and proselytes were no longer admitted hastily to -the congregations, but were previously relegated for a course of -instruction to the class of _catechumens_ or probationers. About the -end of the second century Christianity assumed some importance in the -eyes of the educated and wealthy,[1024] so that its doctrines began to -be scrutinized in the spirit of Greek philosophy. A catechetical school -was founded at Alexandria (_c._ 170) for the training of converts -of higher mental capacity; and learned teachers, notably Clement and -Origen, essayed to prove that the new religion could be substantiated -theologically by reference to Plato and Aristotle.[1025] At the same -time the Church began to discard the policy of stealthiness under which -it had grown up, and to indulge the expansive vigour which pervaded -its constitution. Soon the conventicles ceased to meet under the cloak -of secrecy; and by a few decades public edifices were erected with an -architectural ostentation and a treasure of ornaments rubric which -roused the indignation of those who frequented the Pagan temples in the -vicinity.[1026] From that moment the encroaching temper of Christianity -and its uncompromising antagonism to polytheism became manifest to the -government, and zealous officials prepared themselves for a determined -effort to overthrow the upstart power which was undermining the old -order of society.[1027] The futile struggle of Paganism against -Christianity was terminated by Theodosius the Great, who promulgated -edicts both in the East and in the West for the abolition of the -pristine religion of the Empire.[1028] During more than half a century -previously the battle between the two faiths had been open and violent; -and the mild Christians of earlier times often appeared in the light of -ruthless fanatics more conspicuously than had their heathen adversaries -in the heat of a legalized persecution.[1029] The Church triumphant -now entered on its career of quasi-political predominance; wealth and -honours were showered on those who attained to its highest offices; and -the precepts of the poor carpenter, whose constant theme was humility, -were inculcated by a succession of haughty prelates who equalled the -magnificence and exceeded the arrogance of kings.[1030] - -From the day of its birth almost to the present hour the Church has -been agitated by internal dissensions generated by the efforts of -reason to understand and to define those inscrutable mysteries, to a -belief in which every supernatural religion must owe its existence. -The primitive religion of the ancients was a natural growth, accepted -insensibly during a state of savagery and maintained politically -long after it had been repudiated by philosophy, but Christianity -was offered to a world already advanced in civilization, and had to -pass through a process of intellectual digestion before it could take -its place as an unassailable national belief. The Church, before it -stands clearly revealed in the light of history, had been inspired -with the conception of a Trinity by a contemplation of the Platonic -philosophy; and the problem as to how this doctrine could be expounded -as not inconsistent with monotheism occasioned the first of those great -councils called Oecumenical. It met in 325 at Nicaea of Bithynia, -and there formulated the Nicene creed, which branded as heretics the -presbyter Arius and his supporters for asserting that the Word, the -Son, the man Jesus, had not eternally existed as of one substance -with the Father, but had been created out of nothing at some date -of an inconceivably remote past. Under the emperors who succeeded -Constantine, however, the Arians returned to power in the East, and -for long oppressed their opponents, the Catholics, until they were -finally reduced to impotence by the orthodox Theodosius I.[1031] But -centuries were yet to elapse before the Church could desist from -weaving those subtleties of dogma as to the inexpressible nature of the -Godhead, in the study of which later theologians discover an exercise -for their memory rather than for their understanding.[1032] Numerous -other councils were convened before the opening of the sixth century, -but of these only three were allowed to rank as Oecumenical, that of -Constantinople in 381, that of Ephesus in 431, and that of Chalcedon in -451. The first of these did little more than to confirm the decisions -of Nicaea, but it won from Theodosius a tacit permission to proceed -to extremities against Paganism.[1033] The second anathematized the -heresy of Nestorius, Patriarch of the Eastern capital, who wished to -deprive the Virgin Mary of the title of Theotokos, or Mother of God. -The bishops who assembled at the Asiatic suburb of Chalcedon, under the -supervision of the Emperor Marcian, were less successful in producing -concord in the Church than those who composed any of the previous -councils; and their resolutions were debated for long afterwards by -dissentient ecclesiastics throughout the East. On this occasion the -orthodox party delivered their last word as the mystic junction of -the divine and human in the Incarnate Christ, and repudiated for ever -the error of the Monophysites that the Saviour was animated only by a -celestial essence.[1034] This was the first instance in which the new -Rome triumphed over her great rival in the East, Alexandria, which -had previously trampled on her Patriarchs, Chrysostom, Nestorius, -Flavian; as the doctrine of the one nature was peculiarly dear to the -Egyptian Church. But the spiritual peace of the Asiatic and African -provinces had been too rudely disturbed for an immediate settlement to -ensue; and more than thirty years later the Emperor Zeno was forced -to issue a _Henoticon_, or Act of Union, in which he sought to induce -unanimity among the prelates of his dominions by effacing the harsher -expressions of the Chalcedonian canons.[1035] The measure, however, -was ineffectual; the conflict of doctrine could not be quelled; and -even Anastasius was branded as a heretic by the Byzantines for not -adopting a hostile attitude towards the Monophysites.[1036] The state -of religious parties under that Emperor may be summarized briefly -as follows: Europe was firmly attached to the Council of Chalcedon, -Egypt was bitterly opposed to it, whilst in Asia its adversaries and -adherents were almost equally divided. Of Arians there were not a -few, but they were everywhere severely repressed. Nevertheless, in -the capital itself a handsome church was reserved for those addicted -to that heresy, St. Mocius in the Exokionion. But this was an -indulgence conceded exclusively to the Gothic soldiery, all bigoted -Arians, with whose faith no emperor ever dared to tamper.[1037] At the -same time polytheism appeared to be extinct; the Pagan temples were -everywhere evacuated, and for the most part purposely ruined.[1038] -After the murder of Hypatia the Neoplatonists deserted Alexandria -and betook themselves to Athens, where they were disregarded as a -merely philosophical association without the privilege of public -worship.[1039] Manichaeans were numerous within the Empire, but could -only exist in secret as a proscribed sect subject to severe penalties, -confiscation, loss of civil rights, and relegation to the mines, if -convicted.[1040] Relics of minor denominations, more or less obscure -and impotent, need not be more particularly alluded to in this place. - -Nothing in this age accelerated the social descent towards barbarism so -much as the illusion that bliss in a future state was most positively -assured to those Christians who denied themselves every natural -gratification whilst on earth. By the end of the fourth century -the passion for the mortification of the flesh had risen to such a -height that almost one half of the population of the Empire, male -and female, had abandoned civilized life and devoted themselves to -celibacy and ascetic practices.[1041] By choice, and even by legal -prescription,[1042] they sought desert places and vast solitudes to -pass their lives in sordid discomfort, at one time grazing like wild -beasts, at another immured in noisome cells too narrow to admit of any -restful position of the body or limbs.[1043] Some joined the class of -stylites, or pillar saints, who lived in the air at a considerable -altitude from the ground on the bare top of a slender column.[1044] -Such were the anchorites or hermits, who arose first in order of time -and claimed for their founder an illiterate though well-born youth of -Alexandria,[1045] Anthony, the subject of familiar legends. A little -later, however, Pachomius,[1046] also an Egyptian, instituted the -coenobites, or gregarious fraternity of ascetics, whose assemblage of -cells, called a _laura_, was generally disposed in a circle around -their common chapel and refectory. The extensive waste lands of Egypt -greatly favoured the development of monachism; and within half a -century the isle of Tabenna in the Nile, the Nitrian mountain, and -the wilderness of Sketis, became densely populated with these fanatic -recluses.[1047] From Egypt the mania for leading a monastic life spread -in all directions, and religious houses, on the initiative of Basil, -began to invade the towns and suburban districts.[1048] One of the most -remarkable of these foundations was the monastery of Studius, erected -at Constantinople (in 460) for the _Acoemeti_, or sleepless monks, -whose devotional vigils were ceaseless both night and day.[1049] After -the promotion of Christianity to be the state religion, one emperor -only, the ordinarily ineffective Valens, assumed a hostile attitude -towards the monks.[1050] He denounced them as slothful renegades from -their social duties and dispatched companies of soldiers to expel them -from their retreats and reclaim them for civil and military life. A -considerable number were massacred for attempting resistance to the -decree; but under the successors of Valens monachism flourished as -before with the Imperial countenance and the popular regard.[1051] - -The supersession of dogmatic religions founded on prehistoric -mythologies by the success of modern research, confers the right of -free speculation on contemporary philosophers, and urges them to -construct, from the ample materials at their command, an intellectual -theory of the universe. In proportion as experimental physics teaches -us to apprehend more profoundly the constitution of matter, reason -advances impulsively from the outposts of knowledge to suspend itself -over the abyss in those dimly-lighted regions where science and -mysticism seem to hold each other by the hand. The atomic conception -of nature, first broached as a phantasy by the Greeks, derives an -actuality from the growth of chemical and electrical discoveries at -the present day, which goes far to establish it as an immediate, if -not the ultimate, explanation of phenomena. Our mind has thus been -prepared to realize the vision of swarms of atoms in the possession -of limitless space, each one of which is instinct in the prime -degree with all the attributes of life: with consciousness, will, -motion, the bias of habit, and an unquenchable desire for association -and aggregation.[1052] They become conjoined, numerically and -morphologically, in progressive grades of complexity, originating by -one kind of alliance the chemical elements which constitute the organic -world, and by another the vital elements, which form the protoplasmic -basis of animal and plant life.[1053] The organic kingdom rests -upon the inorganic, and preys upon it, evolving itself throughout -endless time into more highly differentiated forms by its incessant -appetite for material acquisition and sensuous stimulation in its -environment.[1054] - -Whilst the records of ages assiduously collated from every quarter -of the globe exhibit the irrepressible folly of undisciplined human -thought and the immeasurable credulity of ignorance, the boundless -expansion of our intellectual horizon compels us to reject as -irrational, the belief in an almighty and intelligent Father, who -regards with equanimity the disruption of worlds, but is capable of -being delighted by a choir of fulsome praise emanating from their -ephemeral inhabitants.[1055] From the earliest times the infertile -efforts to approach and win the favour of such a being have -constituted the heaviest drag on civilization and progress; and, as man -rises in the sphere of rationality, the highest lesson he can learn -is to discard definitively all such dreams. He must convince himself -that there is nothing divine, nothing supernatural, no providence -but his own, that prayer is futile, piety impossible; and the sage -may postulate that humanity is God until some higher divinity be -discovered. The mythological terrors of antiquity are effete in the -world of to-day, and any citizen who has learned to live uprightly -should be above all religion, and free from the bondage of every -superstition. By self-reliance and his own exertions alone can man be -led upwards; his advancement depends on the extent to which he can -penetrate the mystery of, and subdue the forces which surround him; and -to preach the dominion of man over nature is the work of the modern -prophet or apostle.[1056] By a retrospect of the past he is justified -in cherishing the hope of a brighter future for his descendants; no -obstacle appears in view to bar their journey along the upward path; -the illimitable capacity of protoplasm for physiological elevation may -triumph over the universal cycle of birth, maturity, and decay; and -in humanity as it exists we may see the progenitors of an infinitely -superior, perhaps of an immortal race, the ultimate expression and end -of evolution and generation.[1057] - -The student of European civilization cannot fail to wonder what -sociological manifestation would have taken the place of Christianity -had that religion never seen the light, or failed to win a predominant -position in the Graeco-Roman world. Was the disintegration of the -Empire, he must ask, and the retreat of its inhabitants almost to -the threshold of barbarism a result of the prevalence of the Gospel -creed? or was the new faith merely a fortuitous phenomenon which became -conspicuous on the surface of an uncontrollable social cataclysm? No -decision could be accepted as incontestable when dealing with such -far-reaching questions, but with the wisdom which follows the event we -may recognize that contingencies not very remote might have altered -materially the course of history. The dissolution of powerful political -organizations was no new feature in the ancient world; in Egypt, in -Asia, dynasties with their dominions had periodically collapsed, -but in Europe the Roman supremacy was the first to consolidate the -principal countries into a compact and homogeneous state. Civil wars, -however, had been waged on several occasions; princes unfit to reign -had been the cause of serious administrative perturbation. Did these -vicissitudes, we may inquire, herald the break-up of the Empire, -unassailable as it was by any civilized adversary? Had the national -genius and vigour so declined that armies could not be recruited to -repeat the successes of Marius, of Trajan, of Diocletian, against -hordes of barbarians ill-disciplined and ill-armed? The proposition -cannot be entertained; the individuals were as capable as ever, but -the purview of life had changed. Religious dissension had engendered -personal rancour, neighbour distrusted neighbour, and the name of Roman -no longer denoted a community with kindred feelings and aspirations. -The Persian and the Teuton beyond the border were not more hostile -to the subjects of the Empire than were they among themselves when -viewed as separate groups of Pagans, of Manichaeans, of Arians, and -of Catholics. This disseverance was not, however, quite permanent; -after a couple of generations had passed away a partial reunion was -effected by the submission of all classes to Christianity; and strife -was limited to controversies between differing sects of the same -church. But in the process mankind were led to break with all past -traditions; the world became effete in their eyes; and to be released -from it in order to gain admission to the celestial sphere was preached -as the sole object of human existence. Civilization succumbed to the -despotic influence of religion, a new field of effort was opened to -the race of mortals, and all the genius of the age was exhausted in -the attempt to advance the pseudo-science of theology. That genius -was as brilliant as any which has hitherto been seen upon the earth. -The administrative and literary powers of a Tertullian, an Origen, -a Cyprian, a Eusebius, an Athanasius, of the Gregories, of Basil, -Ambrose, Augustine, Chrysostom, and many others might have raised the -Empire above the level of the most glorious period of the past. It is -scarcely an exaggeration to say that these ecclesiastics founded a -dominion which surpassed that of Rome in its widest extent; but it was -a dominion over men’s minds which precipitated material progress into -a gulf out of which it was not to rise again for more than a thousand -years. Their success was facilitated by the confirmation of despotism -and the abolition of free institutions under the first Caesars; but -without Christianity there would probably have been no exacerbation of -religious fervour more intense than was involved in Neoplatonism. That -new departure in polytheism was not likely to have caused a serious -drain upon the energies of the state. Julian, its most impassioned -votary, was not less imbued with the spirit of a conqueror than were -Alexander and Trajan.[1058] Neoplatonism, and especially Manichaeism, -borrowed Christian elements and might not have aspired to more than -a passive influence but for their rivalry with that religion. From -these considerations we may draw the inference that only for the -Palestinian capture of the psychical yearnings of the age history might -never have had to record the lapse of social Europe into the slough -of mediaevalism; and the experience of a terrestrial hierarch who -should give laws to kings and incite the masses to rebel against their -political rulers would have been lost to Western civilization. That -the Empire would have subsisted until modern times is inconceivable; -the tendency to disruption of the vast fabric soon became apparent, -and its unity was only restored by reconquest on several occasions; -notably by Severus, by Constantine, by Theodosius. Under Diocletian it -was virtually transformed into a number of federated states; and by -the sixth or seventh century a somewhat similar partition might have -become definite and permanent. With the maintenance of sociological -institutions at the original level, barbarism would have been repelled -and civilization would have penetrated more rapidly the forests of -Scythia and Germany. The spirit of scientific inquiry which was -manifest in Strabo, in Pliny, in Ptolemy, in Galen, might have been -fostered and extended; and many a leading mind, whose vigour was -absorbed by the arid waste of theology, might have taken up the work -of Aristotle and carried his researches into the heart of contemporary -science.[1059] The condition of the proletariat was not elevated by -the diffusion of the Gospel after their wholesale acceptance of it had -been assured by coercion. Whatever ethical purity may have adorned the -lives of the first converts, Christianity as an established religion -was not less of a grovelling superstition than Paganism in its worst -forms. The worship of martyrs, of saints, the factitious miracles -wrought at their graves, the veneration of their relics and images, -were but a travesty of polytheism under another name without the saving -graces of the old belief.[1060] A large section of the community were -encouraged to fritter away their lives in the sloth of the cloister; -and the ecclesiastical murder, disguised under the charge of heresy, -of opponents who dared to think and speak became a social terror in -grim contrast with the easy tolerance of Pagan times.[1061] At length -the night of superstition began to wane and the unexpected advent of -a brighter era was announced by a great social upheaval. Again the -tide of cosmopolitanism began to flow between the Atlantic and the -Euphrates, and a new unification of the detached fragments of the -Roman Empire was brought about. Amid the turmoil of two centuries of -barren Crusades[1062] the active intercourse of numerous peoples taught -Europe to think and judge; and she began to appraise the harvest which -had been reaped during so long a period of blind devotion to a creed. -The result of the scrutiny was disheartening; the store of gold was -found to have turned to dross; and, while one type of man struggled to -break the chains which bound them in spiritual subjection, another -bent their minds to discover whether through nature and art they could -not reach some goal worthy of human ambition. The Renaissance and -the Reformation were almost contemporary movements.[1063] From that -period to the present, more than five centuries, the history of the -world has been one of continued advancement. Since Dante composed his -great poem and Copernicus elaborated his theory of the heavens, the -well of literature has not run dry nor has the lamp of science been -extinguished. Yet in all these years while the rising light has been -breaking continuously over the mountain tops the spacious valleys -beneath have lain buried in the gloom of unenlightened ages. The peace -of society has never ceased to be disturbed by the discord of religious -factions; and the task of a modern statesman is still to reconcile -conflicting prejudices in a world of ignorance and folly.[1064] - - - - - CHAPTER III - - BIRTH AND FORTUNES OF THE ELDER JUSTIN: THE ORIGINS OF JUSTINIAN - - -The function of a government is to administer the affairs of mankind in -accordance with the spirit of the age. Not from the political arena, -but from the laboratory emanates that expansion of knowledge which -surely, though fitfully, changes the aspect and methods of civilization -both in peace and war. An impulse which controls the passions of -millions may originate with some obscure investigator who reveals a -more immediate means to individual or national advantage; and the -executive of government is called on to create legislative facilities -for the utilization of the new discovery. During the modern period -such influences have been continuous and paramount. In the course -of a single century a transformation of the world has been achieved -by fruitful research, greater than in all previously recorded time. -The Georgian era contrasts less strongly with the times of Aristotle -and Cicero than with the present day; and the rapid progress of the -nineteenth century almost throws the age of Johnson and Gibbon into the -shadow of mediaevalism. - -Far back in the prehistoric past a bridge was thrown across the chasm -which separates savage from civilized life by the discovery of a -process for the smelting of metallic ore; and the birth of all the arts -may be dated from the time when some primitive race passed from the age -of stone into that of bronze or iron. To the ancient world that first -step in science must have appeared also to be the last; and ages rolled -away during which man learned no more than to employ effectively the -materials thus acquired. If the expectation that diligent research may -be rewarded by some signal increase of knowledge be excluded from the -sphere of human activity, individual aspirations must be restricted -to whatever is social and national; and those desirous of distinction -have no choice but to devote themselves to art or politics. Within -these channels were confined the energies of the people of antiquity; -in some states the leading characteristic was civic adornment; in -others the cultivation of martial efficiency; to rise to despotic -power was the usual ambition of a democratic statesman; to attain to -an imperial position that of a flourishing state. Wars of aggression -were constantly undertaken, and defensive wars uniformly became so -whenever superiority was manifested. Such conflicts in the past have -had no permanent influence on the advancement of mankind; and from time -to time have been equally conducive to the spread of civilization or -barbarism. During the classical period the arts and learning of Athens -were attendant on the success of the Grecian or the Roman arms; in the -Middle Ages the Goth, the Hun, the Saracen, and the Tartar closed in on -the Roman Empire and nullified the work of those enlightened nations. -At the present day the advance of civilization, though independent of -conquest, is often hastened by aggression;[1065] and there seems no -likelihood that it will ever again recede from a territory where it -has once been established. At all times scarcity of the necessaries -of life, real or conventional, tends to initiate a contest; nor is -it possible to foresee an age when, in the absence of a struggle for -existence, the world will subside into a condition of perpetual peace. - -In the sixth century, among the Byzantines, the public mind was still -oppressed with a sense of the supreme importance of religion. That -orthodox Christianity must prevail remained the passion of the day; and -in the view of each dissentient sect their creed alone was orthodox. -Hence government became an instrument of hierarchy, politics synonymous -with sectarianism, and the chief business of the state was to eradicate -heresy. Mediaevalism was created by this spirit; in the East the -Emperor became a pope;[1066] in the West the Pope was to become a -sovereign. The conception of being ruled from the steps of an altar was -foreign to the genius of classical antiquity, and Christianity almost -effected a reversal of the political spirit of the ancient world. - -In the midsummer of 518 occurred the death of Anastasius,[1067] one -of the few capable and moderate Emperors whom the Byzantines produced. -Although imbued with a heresy by his mother,[1068] and zealous for -its acceptance,[1069] he refrained from persecution, and declared -that he would not shed a drop of blood to effect the removal of his -ecclesiastical opponents.[1070] All his efforts were conciliatory, -and he would have obliterated disunion in the Church if his influence -could have induced fanaticism to accord in the Henoticon of Zeno.[1071] -He dealt impartially with the Demes, but inclined slightly to one -faction, the Green, in formal compliance with traditional usage in -the Circus.[1072] He relieved oppressive taxation,[1073] restrained -extravagance, and, though practising thrift,[1074] responded liberally -to every genuine application.[1075] His administration was much admired -by those who were free from sectarian prejudice;[1076] and even -the bigoted adherents of the Chalcedonian synod cannot avoid being -eulogistic when recounting some of his measures.[1077] - -Within the Byzantine province of Dardania, to the south of modern -Servia, was situated the municipal town of Scupi,[1078] in a plain -almost contained by a mountainous amphitheatre, consisting of the -Scardus chain, and its connections with the greater ranges of Pindus -and Haemus.[1079] Among its dependent villages, lying along the banks -of the Axius or Vardar, the river of the plain, were the hamlets of -Bederiana and Tauresium.[1080] Under Roman rule the language and -manners of Latium became indigenous to this region; and, although -the barbarians in their periodical inroads poured through the passes -of Scardus on the north-west to spread themselves over Thrace and -Macedonia,[1081] the Latinized stock still maintained its ground in the -fifth century.[1082] Throughout the Empire it was a usual practice for -sons of the free peasantry to abandon agricultural penury, and, without -a change of clothing, provided only with a wallet containing a few days -provisions, to betake themselves on foot to the capital, in the hope -of chancing on better fortune.[1083] About the year 470, when Leo the -Thracian occupied the throne, a young herdsman of Bederiana, bearing -the classical name of Justin, resolved on this enterprise, and arrived -at Constantinople with two companions whose lot had been similar to his -own.[1084] There they presented themselves for enlistment in the army, -and, as the three youths were distinguished by a fine physique, they -were gladly accepted, and enrolled among the palace guards.[1085] Two -of them are lost to our view for ever afterwards in the obscurity of -a private soldier’s life,[1086] but Justin, though wholly illiterate, -entered on a successful military career. At the end of a score of -years he reappears under Anastasius, with the rank of a general, and -intrusted with a subordinate command in the Isaurian war.[1087] A -decade later he is again heard of among those who prosecuted the siege -of Amida, which led to its recovery from the Persians;[1088] and before -the death of the Emperor he becomes conspicuous at head-quarters, -with the dignities of a Patrician, a Senator, and of Commander of the -household troops.[1089] While holding this office he was also deputed -to a command at sea, and took an active part in repelling the naval -attack of Vitalian.[1090] - -During the vicissitudes of his life in the camp, Justin remained -unmarried and childless, but he became the purchaser of a barbarian -captive, named Lupicina, whom he retained as a concubine, and never -afterwards repudiated.[1091] While, however, he was rising to a -position of importance and affluence, he was not unmindful of those -relatives from whom he had separated at his native place. At Tauresium -dwelt a sister,[1092] the wife of one Sabbatius,[1093] and the -mother of two children, a son and a daughter.[1094] As soon as young -Sabbatius,[1095] for the nephew of Justin bore his father’s name, had -arrived at a suitable age, he was invited to the capital by his uncle, -who became his guardian, and had him educated in a manner befitting -a youth of high rank.[1096] On the completion of his studies, it was -natural that Sabbatius should be claimed for military service, wherein -his guardian’s influence was centred, and he was drafted forthwith into -the ranks of the Candidati or bodyguards of the Emperor.[1097] Finally -Justin legally adopted Sabbatius;[1098] and in token of the fact the -latter assumed the derivative name of Justinian.[1099] - -On the death of Anastasius, as at his accession, the Grand Chamberlain -appeared to be master of the situation.[1100] But the chief eunuch of -the day, Amantius, was less influential than his predecessor, Urbicius, -who, with the Empress Ariadne as an ally, had invested the popular -silentiary with the purple; and the means he devised to ensure the -acceptance of his candidate were the actual cause of his rejection. -He decided to bribe the palace guards to proclaim his favourite, -Count Theocritus, and placed a large sum of money in the hands of -Justin for that purpose; but the procedure only served to render -those soldiers conscious of their power to elect an emperor, and they -immediately acclaimed their own commandant as the fittest occupant -of the throne.[1101] The venerable Justin, for he was now long past -three score, did not decline; the Senate bowed to the nomination of -the guards, and the former herdsman took his place in line with the -successors of Augustus.[1102] - -The Emperor Justin was a rude soldier, devoid of administrative -capacity except in relation to military affairs, and so illiterate -that he could only append his sign-manual to a document by passing his -pen through the openings in a plate perforated so as to indicate the -first four letters of his name.[1103] After his coronation he married -Lupicina; and the populace, while accepting her as his consort, renamed -her Euphemia.[1104] On his accession Justin promoted his nephew to the -rank of Patrician[1105] and Nobilissimus;[1106] and Justinian became -so closely associated with his uncle that he was generally regarded -as the predominant partner in ruling the state.[1107] But the Emperor -was jealous of his authority, and when the Senate petitioned that the -younger man should be formally recognized as his colleague, he grasped -his robe and answered, “Be on your guard against any young man having -the right to wear this garment.”[1108] Owing to the suddenness of their -elevation both princes were ignorant of the routine of government, -a circumstance which rendered the position of Proclus, the Quaestor -or private adviser of the crown, peculiarly influential during this -reign.[1109] - -The first act of Justin, who adhered to the orthodox creed, was to -reverse the temporizing religious policy of Anastasius; and he at -once prepared an edict to render the Council of Chalcedon compulsory -in all the churches. Amantius, Theocritus, and their party saw in -this measure an opportunity of disputing the unforeseen succession, -the overthrow of which they were eager to accomplish. A conspiracy -was hastily organized, and the malcontents assembled in one of the -principal churches, where they entered on a public denunciation of -the new dynasty. The movement, however, was ill supported, and Justin -with military promptness seized the chiefs of the opposition, executed -several, including the eunuch and his satellite, and banished the -others to some distant part.[1110] The edict was then issued and a -ruthless persecution instituted against all recalcitrants throughout -the Asiatic provinces, where ecclesiastics of every grade professing -the monophysite heresy were put to death in great numbers.[1111] At -the same time the Emperor recalled those extremists whom Anastasius -had been unable to mollify and restored them to their former or to -similar appointments.[1112] One danger still remained which might at -any moment subvert the newly erected throne; the powerful Vitalian -was at large, apparently, if not in reality, master of the forces in -Thrace and Illyria. Emissaries were therefore dispatched to him with an -invitation to reside at Constantinople as the chief military supporter -of the government.[1113] He accepted the proposals, stipulating that -an assurance of good faith should previously be given with religious -formalities. The parties met in the church of St. Euphemia, at -Chalcedon,[1114] and there Justin, Justinian, and Vitalian pledged -themselves to each other with solemn oaths while they partook of the -Christian sacraments.[1115] The rebel general was, however, too weighty -a personage to subside into the position of a tame subordinate, and -his masterful presence threatened to nullify the authority of the -Emperor and his nephew.[1116] His ascendancy was endured for more than -a twelvemonth, and the consulship of 520 was conceded to him. But while -he celebrated the games in the Hippodrome popular enthusiasm in his -favour rose to a dangerous height.[1117] The Court became alarmed, and -a hasty resolution was arrived at to do away with him. In the interval -of the display he repaired to the palace with two of his lieutenants -to be entertained at a collation, and on entering the banqueting hall -they were attacked by a company of Justinian’s satellites,[1118] -and Vitalian fell pierced with a multitude of wounds.[1119] Shortly -afterwards Justinian succeeded to his place and was created a Master of -Soldiers, with the virtual rank of commander-in-chief of the Imperial -forces.[1120] The next year he was raised to the consulship[1121] and, -in order to consolidate his popularity, he determined to signalize the -occasion by those lavish festivities which were recorded from time to -time among the wonders of the age. But times had changed since the -Roman public might be edified or disgraced by those spectacles in which -human and animal combatants fought to the death, in mimic land and sea -warfare or hunting encounters, to the number of many thousands; and -the chronicler, in referring to a half-hundred of lions and pards, -evolutions of mail-clad horses, and an increased largess of scattered -coin, in addition to the usual races, bear-baiting, and theatrical -shows, thinks he indicates sufficiently how far the Consul of the day -surpassed the ordinary expectations of the Byzantine populace.[1122] -Having finally won over the capital by these gratifications, Justinian -in his military capacity departed on a tour for the inspection of -garrisons and fortresses throughout the East.[1123] During this period -he made the palace of Hormisdas his official residence.[1124] - -The reign of Justin was uneventful politically, the age of the -Autocrator and his incapacity for state affairs precluding the -initiation of any reforms of importance; whilst, although the -foreign relations of the Empire were often in a state of tension, -no considerable hostilities were undertaken.[1125] At home official -activity was chiefly engrossed with the planning of police precautions -for the repression of sedition. During three or four years all the -chief cities were agitated by the turbulence of the Blue faction, -which sought to suppress their rivals of the Green by stoning, -assassination, and wrecking of their dwellings. At length, in 523, the -rioters were subdued by the appointment of special Praefects, whose -severity of character did not shrink from making the culprits pay the -extreme penalty of the law.[1126] With its neighbours of the East -and West the Empire might have existed at this period on terms of -perfect amity but for the disturbing influence of religion. Incensed -at Justin’s oppressive treatment of the Arians, Theodoric, the Gothic -king, declared that he would exterminate the Catholics in Italy[1127] -if freedom of belief were not granted to his co-religionists; and -he compelled Pope John I to lead an embassy to Constantinople with -the object of pleading the cause of those heretics at the Byzantine -court. John, the first of his line to visit New Rome, was received -with enthusiasm by the orthodox Emperor;[1128] but, if the head of -the Western Church urged his appeal with sincerity, Justin at least -proved obdurate, and no concession to the Arians could be extorted -from his bigotry. The Pope returned to Ravenna, the regal seat of the -barbarian king, to expiate his abortive mission by being incarcerated -for the last few months of his life; and the death of Theodoric shortly -afterwards, before he had time to execute his threats, saved Italy from -becoming the scene of brutal reprisals.[1129] - -The interspace between the Caspian Sea and the Euxine, the modern -Transcaucasia, was inhabited by semi-savage races, over whom Rome -and Persia preferred almost equal claims to suzerainty. A perpetual -source of friction between the two powers in this region arose from -the necessity of guarding the Caspian Gates,[1130] now the Pass of -Darial,[1131] a practicable gorge through the Caucasus, often traversed -by the Scythian hordes when carrying their devastations to the south. -Alexander is said to have blocked the entry with an iron barrier,[1132] -and subsequently the pass was kept by the Romans until the Sassanian -dynasty became predominant in those parts. The utility to both nations, -however, of maintaining the defence, caused the Persians, after the -collapse of Julian’s expedition, to demand that the Romans should share -the expense.[1133] Theodosius I bought off the claims, but by the time -of Anastasius a Hunnish king, in friendly league with that emperor, had -obtained possession of the forts.[1134] On his death they passed to -the Persians, with the consent of Anastasius, who engaged vaguely to -contribute annually.[1135] Justin tried to evade this payment, but the -Persian monarch declined to be put off, and, as often as the Emperor -fell into arrears, proceeded to recover the amount by distraint.[1136] -His chosen bailiff, whenever he put in an execution, was a ferocious -sheik of the Saracens, named Alamundar,[1137] who raided Syria up -to the walls of Antioch, massacring the population indiscriminately, -and holding captives of substance against their being replevied by -the Romans.[1138] On one occasion he burst into the city of Emesa, -and finding there four hundred virgins congregated in a church, he -sacrificed them all on the same day to Al Uzzâ, the Arabian Venus.[1139] - -In two states of the Caucasian region, both under kingly rule, -Christianity had gained a footing about the time of Constantine.[1140] -Lazica, previously Colchis, the subject of heroic legends, and now -Mingrelia, occupied the coast of the Black Sea north and south of -the river Phasis. On its eastern border, watered by the Cyrus, lay -Iberia, at present known as Georgia.[1141] In 522 the young king of -the Lazi, alarmed lest the Persian religion should be forced on him, -fled to Constantinople, and prayed for Christian baptism under the -immediate countenance of the Emperor. Justin assented, and not only -sustained him at the sacred font, but afterwards united him to a Roman -wife, the daughter of one of the patricians of his court. Before his -departure Tzathus was formally invested with ornaments and robes of -state, expressly designed to denote the closeness of his relationship -to Justin and to Rome.[1142] A letter of remonstrance against -surreptitiously tampering with the allegiance of Persian subjects soon -resulted from these proceedings; but Justin denied their political -significance, and dwelt with fanatical insistence on the exigences of -the faith, and the urgency of resisting heathen error.[1143] The throne -of Persia was still occupied by Cavades,[1144] and that monarch now -began to think seriously of going to war with Rome. On reviewing his -resources he decided to enlist the Hunnish tribes, who dwelt beyond -the Caucasus, as allies against the Empire. One of the most powerful -chiefs agreed to his proposals, and met him by prearrangement with a -large following of his nation, but during the conference messengers -arrived who protested that a short time previously the Hun had been -induced by a large subsidy to pledge his support to the Byzantines. “We -are at peace,” said Justin, “and should not allow ourselves to be duped -by these dogs.” In reply to an amicable inquiry the barbarian boasted -shamelessly of the circumstance, whereupon Cavades, convinced of his -treachery, at once ordered him to be cut down by his guards. Forthwith -a night attack was secretly planned against his forces, who, without -becoming aware of the author of the calamity, were dispersed and -slain to the number of many thousands.[1145] More friendly counsels -now began to prevail with the Persian, as it occurred to him that he -might compose his differences with the Emperor to his own advantage. -He was extremely anxious to secure the succession to his favourite son -Chosroes,[1146] to the exclusion of his two elder brothers. There was -reason to fear, however, that on his decease, by the intervention of -the Court or the populace, one of the senior princes might be raised -to the throne. Cavades, therefore, proposed to Justin that he should -adopt Chosroes, considering that no party would have the temerity to -dispute the tiara with a ward of the Empire. Justin and Justinian were -elated at the prospect of exercising a controlling influence in Persian -affairs, but the Quaestor Proclus quickly intervened, and by specious -arguments, led them to see the matter in a totally different light. -The adoption of the Sassanian prince, he urged with heat, would convey -to him a title to inherit the crown of the Empire, Justinian might be -ousted from the succession, and Justin would live in dread of being the -last of the Roman emperors.[1147] An evasive course was resolved on, -and a commission was dispatched to meet the Persian delegates in the -vicinity of Nisibis. Chosroes himself advanced to the Tigris in the -expectation of being escorted to Constantinople by the Roman envoys. -The representatives of the two nations met without cordiality, and -the Persians, contrary to their instructions, began by taunting the -Byzantines with having usurped their rights in Lazica. The Romans -then announced that the Emperor could not adopt a foreigner with legal -formalities, but only by an act of arms, such as was customary among -barbarians. The suggestion was taken as a deliberate insult by the -Persians; the colloquy came to an end abruptly, and Chosroes returned -to his father, vowing vengeance against the Romans.[1148] - -It was now evident that war at no distant date could scarcely be -averted, but a further embroilment with respect to religion provoked -overt hostilities, which rendered a positive conflict inevitable. -Having experienced that defection to Rome was a natural sequence of -Christianity being promulgated in his dependencies, Cavades determined -to enforce Magism among the Iberians. But, at the first intimation, -the king of that people made an earnest appeal to Justin, and prepared -to take up arms in defence of his faith. The Emperor responded by -sending two of his generals,[1149] provided with a large sum of money, -to levy auxiliaries for the Iberians, among the Huns who inhabited the -northern shores of the Euxine.[1150] Such was the practical overture -to a war with Persia, which was to last for several years, without any -appreciable gain to either side. During the reign of Justin, however, -hostilities were carried on in a desultory manner, and no battle of -any magnitude was fought. Military detachments were told off to ravage -Persian territory to the north, in the vicinity of the frontier. They -were opposed by similar bands of the enemy, and from time to time -indecisive skirmishes took place. As to Iberia, that country was -abandoned for the time being, the forces raised being insufficient -to withstand the Persian host, and the king with all the native -magnates retreated into Lazica by a narrow pass, called the Iberian -Gates, which was then fortified by a Byzantine garrison.[1151] During -these operations the first mention occurs of some names which became -associated later on with the most notable events in the annals of the -age. An advance into Persarmenia was conducted by two young officers, -specially deputed by Justinian, named Sittas and Belisarius. After -the lapse of a few months (in 527) the latter was transferred to a -more important command at Daras. There, among the civil members of his -staff, he received the future historian Procopius as his legal adviser -or assessor.[1152] About the same time occurred the death of Justin, -whose reign lasted for nine years and a few weeks. - -If the sea of politics remained comparatively unruffled in Justin’s -time, nature made amends for the lack of excitement by showing -herself physically in her most active mode. His reign opened with the -appearance of a remarkable comet, the most dreaded portent of impending -disaster.[1153] Nor were the forebodings belied, as the provinces on -both continents were afflicted progressively with violent earthquakes, -intensified by volcanic phenomena.[1154] In Europe, Dyrrachium, the -birthplace of Anastasius, recently adorned by him at great cost, was -overthrown; and Corinth shortly after experienced a similar fate. In -Asia, Anazarbus, the capital of Cilicia, suffered; the central half -of Pompeiopolis sunk into the earth;[1155] and Edessa was ruined by a -flood of the river Scirtus.[1156] The withdrawal of large sums from -the Imperial treasury was entailed by the restoration of these cities. -This series of calamities culminated in the almost total destruction -of Antioch, where the seismological disturbances persisted for more -than a year, the eighth of Justin’s reign, and upwards of a quarter -of a million of the inhabitants perished.[1157] The ground was rifted -in all directions with great gaps which ejected flames; the houses -caught fire or collapsed with their occupants into the yawning chasms; -and a hill of considerable size, overhanging the city, was shattered -with such violence that the streets and buildings in that quarter lay -buried beneath a uniform surface formed by the debris.[1158] The -preliminary shocks were generally disregarded, and the climax, which -occurred during the dinner hour,[1159] was so sudden and widespread, -that the bulk of the population was overwhelmed before they had a -chance to escape. Then only the residue of the citizens made a rush -for the open country, carrying with them whatever valuables they could -seize on in their hasty flight. As soon, however, as they had arrived -at a safe distance, they found themselves beset by bands of rustics, -who had gathered together from every side in order to plunder the -fugitives. Conspicuous among the despoilers was a certain Thomas, a man -with the rank of a silentiary, and wealthy enough to keep a private -guard. Posting himself daily in a convenient position, he directed his -retainers in the operation of stripping systematically all who came in -their way. It is satisfactory to learn from the contemporary historian -that all these wretches were soon overtaken by a miserable death, as -the penalty of their inhumanity; but as we are assured that, without -legal intervention, their retribution emanated from an indignant -providence, which had impelled, or, at least, lain dormant during the -catastrophe, we must conclude that the Nemesis was desiderated rather -than real. The assertion, however, need not be questioned that the -said Thomas died suddenly, to the great joy of the survivors, on the -fourth day of his nefarious enterprise. Great consolation was also -derived from the preternatural appearance of a cross in the clouds; -and all burst into tears and supplications at this signal proof of -the compassion felt for them by a beneficent Deity. In two or three -weeks after the crisis, nature assumed her wonted quiescence, and the -deserted city began to be re-peopled by the returning inhabitants. The -work of restoration at once commenced; and it is recorded that many -persons were then rescued by being dug out of the ruins, under which -they had been buried; among them numbers of women, who in the meantime -had passed safely through the pangs of childbirth.[1160] As soon as -the news of the downfall of Antioch was carried to Constantinople, -the capital was thrown into a state of consternation, and all public -festivities for the season of Whitsuntide, which was at hand, were -renounced. The Emperor, discarding all regal pomp, debased himself -in sackcloth and ashes,[1161] and led a suppliant procession of the -Senate, wearing mourning garments, to the church of St. John at the -Hebdomon. Commissioners were immediately dispatched with ample funds -for reparation, and the ruined city again became visible on the face -of the earth with a rapidity which, in the words of a writer of the -period, gave the impression that it had reappeared suddenly out of the -infernal regions.[1162] But the earthquakes continued and ultimately, -as a safeguard against further visitations of the kind, Antioch was -demised to the special care of the Deity by being renamed Theopolis, or -the City of God.[1163] - -The desultory war with Persia was maintained all the time under the -chief command of Licelarius, a Thracian. But that general, while -pushing hostilities over the border into the vicinity of Nisibis, -managed so unskilfully that his whole forces were seized with a panic -and fled back to Roman territory without ever having sighted an enemy. -As an immediate result Licelarius was disgraced and Belisarius promoted -to fill his place. The youth, as he must be called, fulfilled the -expectations he inspired and thenceforward entered on that career of -achievement which was to render him the military hero of his age. - -On the 1st of April, 527, Justin formally associated his nephew to -the throne, with the rank of Augustus. He lived exactly four months -afterwards,[1164] and on the 1st of August in the same year the sole -reign of Justinian began.[1165] - - - - - CHAPTER IV - - PRE-IMPERIAL CAREER OF THEODORA: THE CONSORT OF JUSTINIAN - - -The influence of women in antiquity varied extremely according to -circumstances of time and place. During the mythical age they are -celebrated as the heroines of many a legend; and in the epics of -Homer the free woman seems to live on terms of equality with her male -relations.[1166] Down to the historical period the same consideration -was continued to them at Sparta, where the mental and physical -integrity of the females was cultivated as essential to the designed -superiority of the race;[1167] but among the Athenians we find the -women of the community ignored as factors in the state to such an -extent, that they rank little higher than domesticated animals.[1168] -In neither of these states, however, were they ever invested with any -political office; and their power could only be felt indirectly by the -executive as the result of their activity as wives and mothers in the -family circle.[1169] But outside Greece, in those wider territories -more or less permeated by Hellenes, women sometimes attained to a full -share of government, inherited or assumed a sovereignty on the death -of their husbands, commanded armies, and even appeared in martial -attire at the head of their troops. Two Ionian princesses, both of whom -bore the name of Artemisia, reigned in Caria: the elder distinguished -herself at sea as an ally of Xerxes in the naval battle of Salamis -(480 B.C.);[1170] her successor erected the magnificent monument -at Halicarnassus in memory of her husband Mausolus, hence called -the Mausoleum, which was admired as one of the seven wonders of the -world.[1171] Cynane, a daughter of Philip of Macedon, led an expedition -into Illyria, and is said to have killed the queen of that country, -in an engagement which ensued, with her own hand.[1172] This lady -had applied herself vigorously to military exercises, and similarly -trained up her daughter Eurydice in the school of arms. As the wife of -the imbecile Arrhidaeus, one of the successors of Alexander, Eurydice -advanced into Asia to meet Olympias, the mother of that monarch, in -a contest which was to decide the fate of Macedonia. While the young -queen, as we are told, displayed herself with all the attributes of -a female warrior, the dowager chose to accompany her forces with a -train of attendants, who seemed rather to be acting their part in a -Bacchanalian procession.[1173] This war, however, proved ultimately -fatal to all three women, who were merely moved as puppets by the -firmer hands of Alexander’s generals in their rivalry for shares -at the dissolution of his empire.[1174] After the partition of the -extensive dominions of Alexander among his numerous heirs, the number -of Grecian women who enjoyed, or were allied to, sovereign power, was -proportionately increased; and the names of many princesses of varied -distinction in that age have been recorded historically, and even -perpetuated popularly to the present day by towns designated in their -honour, and spread over the three continents.[1175] While some of these -ladies won an unusual share of marital respect and affection, not only -by the graces of their person, but by their capacity for taking part -in the councils of state,[1176] there were not a few who signalized -themselves by a cruelty or criminality hardly exceeded by the male -tyrants of that semi-lawless and contentious epoch. Two Egyptian -princesses, sisters named Cleopatra, were ambitious of occupying the -thrones of Egypt and Syria, respectively, to the exclusion of their own -sons. The Syrian queen, having murdered one of her sons, was obliged -to accept his brother as a colleague, but being unable to nullify -his authority, resolved to make away with him also. On his return -from military drill one day, she presented him with a poisoned cup, -which, however, he declined to empty, having had an intimation of her -design, and bade her swallow the draught herself. She refused, while -denying her guilt, but he insisted that in no other way could she clear -herself, and she thus fell a victim to her intended treachery.[1177] -Her sister, who reigned in Egypt, under almost similar circumstances -was not more fortunate; for, having expelled one of her sons and -committed various cruelties, she raised another to a partnership in the -kingdom. Finding still that her ascendancy could not be maintained, she -planned to assassinate him, but, being forestalled, perished herself in -the attempt.[1178] Precocious in guilt, but, perhaps, more excusable, -was the Cyrenean princess Berenice, who caused her intended husband -to be murdered in the arms of her own mother, as the penalty of his -having slighted her for this adulterous intercourse.[1179] Her name -has been preserved to us in the nomenclature of science, and through -an astronomical compliment a cluster of stars is still distinguished -as the Coma Berenices.[1180] From these few examples the reader may -derive some notion of the social relations of the ruling families in -that extended Greek realm which came into being as the result of the -conquests of Alexander. One by one the separate autonomies succumbed to -the force of the Latin arms, and before the beginning of the Christian -era all of them which lay to the west of the Euphrates had become -merged in the provincial system of the Roman Empire. - -When we turn our attention to the Roman Republic, we find that the -females, although in law subjected absolutely to the will of their male -relatives,[1181] were virtually as influential in the state as were the -women at Sparta. From Cloelia[1182] to Portia[1183] the maidens and -matrons of that community displayed the spirit and resolution which -we should assume to be characteristic of the wives and sisters of the -men who made themselves gradually the masters of the earth. Nor were -they backward in applying themselves to intellectual pursuits when the -rusticity of the Republic began to be dissipated by the infiltration -of Hellenic culture; and by their assiduous studies in philosophy, -geometry, literature, and music, they kept pace determinedly with the -mental development of the sterner sex.[1184] With the establishment -of the Empire, a greatly enhanced authority became the permanent -endowment of a limited class. It followed naturally that the female -connections of the emperors and their chief ministers could aspire to -participate in the despotic government, but the throne itself always -remained debarred to women, and to the last days of the Empire the -Romans never acquiesced in a female reign. When Agrippina, presuming -on her power over a son whom her intrigues had raised to the throne, -pressed forward amid general amazement to preside as of equal authority -with him at a reception of ambassadors, the philosopher Seneca hastily -impelled the young Emperor to arrest his mother with a respectful -greeting, and thus, in the words of Tacitus, “under the semblance -of filial devotion the impending disgrace was obviated.”[1185] Yet, -in several instances, as the guardian of an immature heir to the -crown, or as the associate of an incapable husband or brother, a -woman was able to retain for a considerable time all the attributes -of monarchy. The Syrian Soaemias, the equal in profligacy of her son -Elagabalus, assumed the reigns of government, and took her seat in -the Senate, which then beheld for the first time a female assisting -at its deliberations.[1186] Her career speedily terminated in -disaster,[1187] but during the break-up of the Western Empire, two -centuries later, no opposition was offered to the predominance of her -sex by a dejected people. The Empress Placidia Galla, after enduring -many misfortunes, exercised a regency scarcely distinguishable from -absolutism for more than a decade, in the name of her son Valentinian -III.[1188] In the East the rule of Pulcheria, as the adviser of her -brother Theodosius II, and afterwards of her nominal husband Marcian, -extended almost to half a century.[1189] The importance of an Augusta -in disposing of the crown on the decease of her husband has been -indicated in the description of the elevation of Anastasius;[1190] -and the official who records the election of Justin, ascribes the -turbulence of the populace on that occasion to the absence of control -by a princess of that rank.[1191] But the power of a dowager empress -was most signally exemplified in the case of Verina, widow of Leo I, -who, in her dissatisfaction with the policy of her son-in-law Zeno, -succeeded in provoking a revolution, placed the chief of her party on -the throne for more than a twelvemonth, and continued to involve the -Empire in bloodshed for a series of years.[1192] Below the Imperial -dignity the feminine element was perpetually active and widely -exerted, especially throughout the provinces. The wives of legates, of -proconsuls or governors, accompanied their husbands on their missions -to distant parts, and were often responsible, both in peace and war, -for the complexion assumed by the local administration.[1193] They -displayed themselves ostentatiously in public, addressed themselves -authoritatively to the army, and instigated measures of finance, to -such an extent that they were sometimes regarded as the moving spirit -in whatever was transacted.[1194] Agrippina shared the hardships -of Germanicus in his campaign against the Germans, opposed herself -to the disorder of the troops when retreating through fear of the -enemy, preserved the bridge over the Rhine, which in their panic -they were about to demolish, and, combining the duties of a general -with those of the intendant of an ambulance, restored confidence to -the legions.[1195] Yet Germanicus, in his Asiatic command, fell a -victim to the machinations of Plancina, the wife of a colleague; and -Agrippina strove ineffectively to withstand the malignant arts of -another woman.[1196] In some instances oppression of the provincials -was clearly traceable to female arrogance and intrigue; and at length -it was seriously proposed in the Senate that no official should be -accompanied by his consort, when deputed to the government of a -province. The motion was hotly debated, but was ultimately lost through -the vehemency of opposition.[1197] - -Nothing in antiquity is more remarkable than the diversity of sentiment -as to prostitution among the Greeks. Considering the deification of -amorous passion and fecundity expressed by polytheism in the cult of -Aphrodite, and the ethics of social order which instilled a reverence -for chastity, the popular mind continually wavered as to whether the -_hetaira_ or courtesan should be contemned as an outcast, or adored -as the priestess of a goddess. Among the Semites who dwelt along the -Oriental borders of the Grecian dominions an act of prostitution at -the temple of the goddess of concupiscence was enjoined on every -woman at least once in her life as a religious rite;[1198] but the -nicer ethical discrimination of the Greeks debarred this custom from -ever establishing itself in Hellenic religion. At Corinth, however, -one of the most distinguished art centres of Greece, it obtained a -footing in a modified form; and in that city a thousand female slaves -sacred to Aphrodite were maintained as public courtesans attached to -her temple.[1199] At Athens, Solon regarded the state regulation of -prostitution as an essential safeguard to public morality, whence he -constituted a number of brothels under definite rules throughout the -town, thus providing, in his opinion, an outlet for irrepressible -passions which might otherwise be manifested in a more unseemly -manner.[1200] As in all ages there were two grades of females who led -a life of incontinence for the sake of gain; and of these the higher -class, the hetairas, filled a place not devoid of a certain distinction -in most of the Grecian cities. This class relied not on their personal -attractions only, but also on their mental accomplishments, aspiring -to become the intellectual companions of their lovers by applying -themselves to the study of literature and philosophy.[1201] Hence they -ranked as the best educated women of the community, and exerted more -influence in the state than the usually dull and secluded housewives. -The majority and the most noted of such courtesans flourished, of -course, in Athenian society, the ascendancy of the women which obtained -at Sparta being altogether adverse to their pretensions. Thus it -happened that the hetairas of Athens were generally regarded as persons -of some consequence; and several writers of the period thought it no -unworthy task to compose their biographies, as might be done at the -present day in the case of eminent women.[1202] To the connection of -Aspasia with Pericles and her position as the leader of Athenian -society during his tenure of power, an important page is devoted in all -histories of Greece; and it appears that even matrons were permitted to -frequent her salon in order to improve themselves mentally by listening -to the elevated discourses held there.[1203] Socrates visited Theodote -for the purpose of augmenting his sociological insight, and Xenophon -has included an account of his debate with her in his memoirs of that -father of philosophers.[1204] Leontium was a conspicuous figure in the -garden of Epicurus, where he convened his disciples; and she penned a -treatise against the Peripatetics, which deserved the commendation of -Cicero.[1205] Scarcely, indeed, can a man of note in this age, whether -potentate, orator, philosopher, or poet, be found whose name does not -occur in anecdote or more serious record as the associate of some -hetaira. It follows that courtesans should appear not rarely as the -mothers of persons of distinction. Themistocles, the younger Pericles, -Timotheus, and Nicomachus, the son of Aristotle, are mentioned in -this connection;[1206] and more than one sovereign prince is allowed -to have been the offspring of some hetaira, namely, Arrhidaeus, king -of Macedonia, alluded to above, and Philetaerus, the founder of the -kingdom of Pergamus.[1207] Many of these hetairas realized wealth, and -some had the faculty of keeping it; nor were they disinclined to spend -it patriotically if an opportunity offered. Lamia erected a splendid -portico at Sicyon;[1208] and Phryne proposed to rebuild the walls -of Thebes, which had been levelled by Alexander, provided that the -fact should be commemorated by a suitable inscription. The Thebans, -however, were too proud to owe the restoration of their town to such a -source.[1209] As the result of their notoriety and the consideration -accorded to them, some courtesans won the distinction of living in -metal or marble; and it was remarked that, whilst no wife had been -honoured by a public monument, the memory of hetairas had often been -perpetuated by the statuary.[1210] The reasons, however, why courtesans -happened to be thus distinguished were in many instances totally -dissimilar: some for actual merit, others merely through the caprice of -passionate lovers, challenged the popular eye from a pedestal. Leaena -was represented at Athens under the form of a tongueless lioness, -because she preferred to die by the torture rather than disclose -the conspiracy of Harmodius and Aristogeiton against the tyrants of -the day.[1211] Even at Sparta the image of Cottina was a familiar -object, standing beside a brazen cow which she had consecrated to -Athena.[1212] A sculptured tomb to Lais was set up at Corinth,[1213] -and a golden statue of Phryne was dedicated at Delphi,[1214] to express -the admiration of their townsmen for their pre-eminence as venal -beauties. A magnificent cenotaph on the Sacred Way from Athens to -Eleusis surprised a wayfarer into the belief that he was approaching -the tomb of some great general or statesman; it was no more than the -fantasy of Harpalus, an extravagant viceroy of Alexander’s, constructed -in glorification of his deceased mistress, Pythionice.[1215] At Abydos, -a temple to Aphrodite, styled the Prostitute, recorded the patriotic -treachery of a band of loose women, which conduced to the slaughter of -an alien garrison;[1216] but when the degradation of Greece was already -far advanced, both Athens and Thebes descended to flatter Demetrius -Poliorcetes by rearing fanes in honour of his favourite concubine, -Lamia.[1217] - -In the earlier centuries of the Republic the strict censorship upheld -at Rome kept the city purged of dissoluteness; and prostitution, -regularly supervised and licensed,[1218] was reduced to the inevitable -minimum; but in proportion as Hellenic manners permeated the community, -the courtesan established herself on the same footing as in Greece. We -are told that a fortune gained by her harlotry was willed to Sulla by -Nicopolis;[1219] and the relations of Flora with the great Pompey are -given in detail by Plutarch. Captivated by the beauty of the latter, -Caecilius Metellus included her portrait among the adornments of the -temple of Castor and Pollux.[1220] Precia, a notorious strumpet, -won the devotion of Cethegus, one of the abettors of Sulla, and -the heritor of a large share of his power. At Rome he carried all -before him for some years, whilst he surrendered himself absolutely -to the caprices of his mistress. The provinces were distributed to -her nominees; and the command against Mithridates, in which Lucullus -acquired such extensive territories for the Republic, was obtained -by courting her favour by costly presents and blandishments.[1221] -It is needless to inquire how far illicit sexual connections were -politically operative during the rule of insensate emperors, for in -these times every excess had its parallel;[1222] but it may be noted -that the stern and sordid Vespasian abandoned the patronage of the -Empire to a mistress, into whose lap riches were poured by governors, -generals, and pontiffs, in the form of bribes for securing coveted -appointments.[1223] Concurrently with the decline of the Empire, -municipal institutions decayed, especially in the West, and the sense -of public decency became blunted. When Theodosius visited Rome in -389, he found prostitution in league with crime and administrative -measures more offensive than the moral laxity they were intended to -correct.[1224] Nor was the balance of public morality redressed until -Europe had passed through mediaevalism, and advanced for two or three -centuries into the modern period.[1225] - -During the greater part of the reign of Justinian the fortunes of -the Empire were influenced to an unusual extent by two women, the -Empress Theodora and Antonina, the wife of Belisarius, whom chance -had raised from a base origin to the highest rank in the state. In -the early years of the reign of Anastasius, a man named Acacius -filled the post of bear-keeper to the Green faction. Dying somewhat -unexpectedly, he left his wife and three daughters, Comito, Theodora, -and Anastasia, totally unprovided for. The eldest child was but seven -years old, and the widow immediately attempted to provide for the -future by uniting herself with the man who was expected to become -her late husband’s successor. Another candidate, however, presented -himself, and by bribing the master of the shows, whose decision was -final, despoiled them of the situation. The family was now destitute, -but the mother resolved on a last effort to enlist the sympathy of the -faction. Binding the heads and hands of her little girls with wreaths -of flowers, according to ancient custom, she displayed herself with -them in the crowded Hippodrome in the posture of suppliants. These -tactics proved successful, for, although the Greens rejected her -prayer, it happened that the Blue faction were at the moment in want of -a bear-keeper, and they at once preferred the stepfather to the vacant -place. In course of time the daughters developed into handsome young -women, and one by one were consigned to the theatre, as the sphere -most congenial to the associations in which they had been reared. The -eldest, Comito, was the first to make her appearance, and she soon -became a person of some consequence, if not as an actress, at least as -a hetaira, a career indissolubly linked with that of a female performer -on the stage. At the same time her younger sister Theodora became a -familiar object to the public. Dressed in a short tunic, such as was -worn by young slaves, she was always to be seen in the wake of Comito, -bearing on her shoulder the folding seat[1226] without which no one of -any pretensions could stir abroad. Thrown into the haunts of vice thus -prematurely, she became initiated objectively, before she attained the -age of womanhood, in all the excesses of lasciviousness.[1227] In her -turn, as soon as she was old enough, she was pushed to the front to -play a part upon the scene, where she soon captivated the audience by -her special gifts. Theodora was short of stature, of slight physique -and pale,[1228] whence she became possessed with the procacity and -insistence peculiar to those who fear to be slighted on account of -some physical defect. Her accomplishments included neither singing -nor dancing, but she proved herself to be a burlesque comédienne of -singular aptitudes. She was quick-witted and full of repartee, and -her air in coming on the stage was at once provocative of mirth. She -excelled particularly in the comic piteousness with which she resented -a mock chastisement delivered, according to a trick of the day, on her -puffed-out cheeks, which seemed to resound with the severity of the -infliction.[1229] But she was far from trusting to merely histrionic -art to gain the notoriety she craved for, and she applied herself -sedulously to charm that considerable section of humanity for whom the -salt of life is indecency. On the scene, or at private reunions, she -distinguished herself by her impudicity above any of her companions. -Her ingenuity was inexhaustible in inventing occasions for the -exposition of her nudities, and in sexual vice she became a mistress -of everything fantastic and unnatural. She dispensed with drapery as -far as was permissible by law, and one of her favourite devices was to -prostrate herself on the stage, with grains of corn distributed about -her person, so that a number of geese, in searching for their food, -might throw her scanty clothing into obscene disorder.[1230] At orgies -of the dissolute she was the life and soul of the festivities; and she -assumed the rôle of instructress in depravity among her compeers of -the theatre.[1231] Yet with respect to the latter, she also achieved -a reputation for being quarrelsome and spiteful beyond the usual -measure of her tribe. By her habitual and flagrant excesses, she became -universally known in the capital, and she was shunned by all worthy -citizens to such an extent, that they shrunk from being sullied by -her touch, should they chance to meet her in the street.[1232] If a -merchant encountered her in the morning he was as much scared at the -sight as at that of a bird of ill-omen.[1233] Animated by a genius -so restless and aspiring, it is evident that such a woman needed only -transference to a field of higher potential, to become one of the most -notable characters of the age. Such a place had been prepared for her -by fate, and she was destined to renew on the throne of the Empire the -triumphs she had won on the boards of the theatre.[1234] - -By a mischance, which she had always practised every expedient -to avert,[1235] Theodora became the mother of a son while at -Constantinople. His father christened him John and, fearing that the -repugnance evinced towards the boy by his mother might endanger his -life, he carried him off into Arabia, the province of his permanent -residence.[1236] Soon afterwards Theodora was induced to quit the -capital by a Tyrian named Hecebolus, who was proceeding to North -Africa to occupy the seat of government in the Pentapolis. In a short -time, however, she alienated this lover by her petulant temper until, -provoked by her insolence, he expelled her from his establishment -without making any provision for her future. This consummation was -assuredly a valuable lesson by which she did not fail to profit at a -later date. Devoid of resources, she betook herself from Cyrene to -Alexandria, where she attempted to live by prostitution; but in a -strange city, without the entry of a congenial circle, she discovered -that her talents or her attractions were unavailing to procure a -livelihood. From city to city of the East she proceeded, repeating -always the same experience in a state of incurable distress.[1237] She -directed her steps constantly northwards in her wanderings, keeping -her mind fixed on the capital, to which she longed to return, and at -length she found herself on the southern shores of the Euxine, within -the limits of Paphlagonia.[1238] In that austere province, where the -circus and the theatre were eschewed, and fornication and adultery were -looked on as the most abominable crimes,[1239] it is possible that she -may have been affected by the puritanism of the inhabitants, certain -that she must have felt chastened by the trials she had undergone. -It is probable also that she remained there for some time in the -receipt of hospitality, whilst being exhorted and encouraged to live -a life of continence. Ultimately, however, she found means to regain -Constantinople, where she arrived in a sober frame of mind and with -the resolution not to relapse into her former habits. She sought out -a humble tenement in a portico near the district of Hormisdas,[1240] -where she resigned herself to earn a modest living by feminine -industry.[1241] A veil of obscurity hangs over the circumstances which -preceded the social elevation of Theodora, which can only be partly -dissipated by surmise. It appears that after the accession of Justin -she was discovered by Justinian sitting demurely at her spinning-wheel, -and that he was fascinated by her at once with a force which he was -unable to resist.[1242] It is allowed that she was not devoid of -beauty,[1243] but if she captivated him by that quality, it was one -which she possessed in common with a thousand others of her class. -Rather must we conclude that she won her dominion over him by her -distinction of mind and character, by her wit, vivacity, insight, and -social address.[1244] He was now verging on his fortieth year, and, -as we shall recognize more fully hereafter, must always have been of -a staid disposition, as free as possible from the wildness of youth. -How far he was acquainted with her past is altogether unknown; if her -travels had extended to a few years her former intimates might now -for the most part be scattered, her person might be half forgotten, -and her meretricious enormities but faintly remembered. Her scenic -extravagances may never have been witnessed by Justinian, but it is -certain that before long her former mode of life was at least partially -revealed to him. Their intercourse soon ripened into familiarity; he -made her his mistress, but without concealment, and with the fixed -intention of marrying her; and as the first step towards that end he -raised her to the rank of a patrician.[1245] Theodora was now removed -from her sordid surroundings and housed in a style suitable to her -enhanced fortunes.[1246] At the same time her sisters, Comito and -Anastasia, were rescued from their degrading vocation and maintained -in a manner befitting their semi-royal relationship.[1247] Her -influence with Justinian became unbounded, and, as the favourite of -the virtual master of the Empire, she was courted by all aspirants to -the emoluments of state.[1248] Her age was now more mature; she had -been taught discretion and self-restraint in the school of adversity, -and she was wise enough for the future not to hazard her ascendancy -by yielding intemperately to her passions. Her physical mould was -not that of a sensual woman, her amazing immorality resulted merely -from an inordinate desire to outrun all competition in the career on -which she had been launched, and we may believe that, after every -incentive to sexual excess had been removed from her path, she found no -difficulty in leading a life of the strictest chastity. Her energies -were now directed into other channels; she did not deny herself the -indulgence of using the exceptional power with which she was invested -to gratify her ambition to the full; she accumulated wealth by every -means possible to an official of the highest authority, and she seldom -allowed the machinery of government to escape altogether from her -control. - -Two obstacles stood in the way of Justinian when he proposed to make -Theodora his wife. In the first place he was confronted by the old law -of Constantine which aimed at preserving the aristocratic families of -the Empire free from any taint in their blood. It was enacted thereby -that no woman of vicious life, actress or courtesan, or even of lowly -birth, could become the legal spouse of a man who had attained to the -rank of Clarissimus or Senator, the third grade of nobility.[1249] To -abrogate this statute was therefore a necessity before he could carry -out his design, but he easily prevailed on Justin to give the Imperial -sanction to a Constitution which recites at length the expediency of -granting to such women, who have repented and abjured their errors, an -equality of civil privileges with their unblemished sisters.[1250] A -further impediment arose from the opposition of the Empress Euphemia, -who withstood the marriage with an obstinacy which neither argument -nor entreaty could overcome.[1251] Although her relationship to Justin -had until recently been abased, the quondam slave had never deviated -from the path of virtue and had imbibed all the prejudices of the -strictest matron against women who made a traffic of their persons. A -critical delay thus became inevitable, but Theodora passed through it -triumphantly, and in 524, by the death of Euphemia, Justinian was freed -from all restraint. Their nuptials were then celebrated with official -acquiescence and without even popular protest. The Church, the Senate, -and the Army at once accepted the former actress as their mistress, and -the populace, who had contemplated her extravagances on the theatre, -now implored her protection with outstretched hands.[1252] The crown -with the title of Augusta was bestowed on her by Justinian at the -time of his own coronation;[1253] and she acquired an authority in the -Empire almost superior to that of her husband. After her elevation -Theodora became a zealous churchwoman, and extended her protection far -and wide to ecclesiastics and monks who had fallen into distress or -disrepute through being worsted in the theological feuds which were -characteristic of the age. But she was always bitterly hostile to those -who opposed her particular religious views or political plans, and -proceeded to the last extremity to subject them to her will.[1254] - -Antonina sprang from the same coterie as Theodora, but her birth -was more disreputable. Her father was a charioteer of the Circus at -Thessalonica, and her mother a stage-strumpet.[1255] The two women were -not, however, companions, perhaps not even acquainted, as the wife -of Belisarius was almost a score of years senior to the Empress, and -she also exceeded the age of her husband by an even greater amount. -It appears, therefore, that whilst Justinian was probably twenty -years older than Theodora, Belisarius was at least as much junior to -Antonina. The latter was, in fact, the mother of several illegitimate -children before being married, and a son of hers named Photius, not -more than eight or ten years junior to his stepfather, is an observable -figure in the historic panorama.[1256] We have no details as to the -career of Antonina previous to her becoming involved in the current -of political affairs, nor can we regret the loss of another story of -moral obliquity, but there is evidence to prove that she was a woman -of a totally different stamp from the Empress, one disposed by natural -propensity to debauchery, and at no time inclined to deny herself the -pleasures of incontinency. At the outset of Justinian’s reign Theodora -regarded her with the greatest aversion, but whether because the -character of Antonina was at variance with her own or that she loathed -the presence of one too well informed as to her own antecedents cannot -now be determined. In the political vortex they were unavoidably thrown -much together, and it will often be necessary to inquire as to how -far the course of history may have been modified by their respective -activities and temperaments.[1257] - - - END OF VOL. I. - - - - - INDEX - - - Acoemeti, sleepless monks, 282. - - Acrobats, 101. - - Actresses, at Constantinople, 107; - marriage with, forbidden to senators, etc., 107, 346. - - Adule, port of Axume or Abyssinia, 186, 187. - - Adultery, punishment of, at Rome, 336. - - Agathias, on military decline, 167; - epigram by, 341. - - Agentes-in-rebus, Imperial messengers, 143. - - Agrippina, mother of Nero, her arrogance, 326. - - Agrippina, wife of Germanicus, her courage, etc., 329. - - Aimoin on marriages of Justinian and Belisarius, 348. - - Alamundar, Arab sheik, his enormities, 312. - - Alemannus, his notes on secret history of Procopius, 320. - - Allegories of Neoplatonists, 264. - - Amantius, chief eunuch, his plots and execution by Justin, 302, 305. - - Amida, siege of, 177. - - Ammianus, on Papal luxury, 275. - - Ambrose, St., opposes Theodosius I, 55. - - Anastasia, sister of Theodora, 338, 345. - - Anastasius, Emperor, his coronation, 104; - wars, 175; - character, 298. - - Anemodulion or Wind-slave, 76. - - Animals, draught, humane treatment of, 142. - - Anthology, Greek, obscenity of, 341. - - Antioch, earthquake at, 317. - - Antipodes, Church against, 182, 214. - - Antonina, wife of Belisarius, her origin, etc., 348. - - Apostles, Twelve, Church of, 79; - credibility of statements as to, 254; - authenticity of epistles by, _ib._ - - Apollonius Tyaneus, at Constantinople, 66, 73; - character of, 245, 274. - - Apparitors, officers of provincial judges, 149. - - Arches, triumphal, at Constantinople, 33, 69, 72, 73, 77, 78. - - Arians, at Nice, 276; - Gothic, 79, 279. - - Aristippus, his Cyrenean philosophy, 239. - - Aristotle, his scientific work, 239; - on slavery, 115; - on women, 322; - on abortion, 343. - - Army, Byzantine, 165, _sqq._ - - Artemisia I and II, queens of Caria, 322. - - Art-schools, 224. - - Aspirate, abuse of, at Rome, 126. - - Athenais or Eudocia, Empress, 108, 230. - - Atomic theory of Epicurus, etc., 284. - - Augustine, St., his early life, 207; - on prostitution, 331. - - Aurelius, Marcus, his ethics, 241; - persecutes Christians, 251. - - - Bakeries, public, 82; - at Rome, kidnapping for, 337. - - Banduri, anon. Patria of, 23. - - Baptism, early form of, 112. - - Basil the Great, founder of monasteries, etc., 209, 282. - - Baths, public, 57; - mixing of sexes in, 116, 340. - - Beazley, on early trade, 185. - - Beylié on Byzantine houses, 24. - - Belisarius, first appearance as a general, 316; - marriage of, 348. - - Bema or chancel in Greek church, 55. - - Berenice, queen, her crime, 324; - her fate, 325. - - Berytus, seat of law-school, 218. - - Bigg on Platonists at Alexandria, 262. - - Blachernae, region and palace of, at Constantinople, 26, 81. - - Blemmyes or Nubians, emerald mines worked by, 189. - - Blues and Greens, factions of Circus, 22, 98, 298. - - Books at Constantinople, public, 58, 208; - private, 118. - - Bosphorus, Thracian, 7, 9, 12. - - Bryce on life of Justinian by Theophilus or Bogomil, 320. - - Buckler, elevation of emperor on, 105. - - Bury on Byzantine economics, 198, 201. - - Byzantium, foundation of, 3; - vocal walls of, 7; - character of inhabitants of, 84. - - _Byzantinische Zeitschrift_, 361. - - Byzas, founder of Byzantium, 3, 48. - - - Caecina, his motion against wives of provincial governors, 329. - - Caenis, concubine of Vespasian, 336, 346. - - Candidates, Imperial guards, 50, 167. - - Cassius, Dion, on old Byzantium, 6; - on Vespasian’s parsimony, 336. - - Cavades or Kavádh, king of Persia, 176, 313. - - Cethegus and Precia, 335. - - Ceylon, ancient trade at, 186. - - Chain of Golden Horn, 40. - - Chalcedon, foundation of, 3; - council of, 277, _sqq._ - - Chalke, palace at Constantinople, 49. - - Charity, public, at Constantinople, 81. - - China and silk trade, 193. - - Chosroes or Nushirvan, prince of Persia, 314. - - Chrysargyron, tax on petty trade, 154; - abolition of, 155, 201. - - Chrysoceras or Golden Horn, 4, 12, 38. - - Chrysopolis or Scutari, 80 (map). - - Chrysostom on luxury of Byzantines, 87, 113, _sqq._; - on immorality of, 112, 121. - - Churches, Greek, 55; - conduct in, 112. - - Circus or Hippodrome, 60, 97, _sqq._ - - Cisterns at Constantinople, 173, _sqq._ - - Cleopatra, sister queens so named, their crimes, 324. - - Clergy, trade duty free to, 155, 293. - - Codicils or Imperial commissions, 93. - - Codinus on antiquities of Constantinople, 23, etc. - - Coinage of Byzantium and Constantinople, 122. - - Colchis or Lazica, relations of Empire with, 312, 316. - - Columns at Constantinople, 48, 69, 72, 78, 80. - - Coma Berenices, 325. - - Comito, sister of Theodora, 338, 345. - - Consistorium, Imperial council, 144. - - Constantine the Great founds Constantinople, 10, 13, 85; - establishes Christianity, 15, 270. - - Consul, installation of, 109. - - Cornelia, wife of Pompey, her learning, etc., 326. - - Cosmas Indicopleustes, his travels, etc., 182, 187, etc. - - Cost of commodities, etc., 123; - of slaves, 115. - - Costume at Constantinople, 85, _sqq._ - - Councils, Oecumenical, 276, _sqq._ - - Creeds, Christian, elaboration of, 275. - - Crescent, chosen emblem of Byzantines, 6. - - Cresollius on sophists and voice culture, 208, 214. - - Crowns, Byzantine, 91. - - Crusades, effects of, 293. - - Cyclobion, a fort at Constantinople, 25. - - Cynane, daughter of Philip of Macedon, her warlike exploits, 322. - - Cynic philosophers, 238, 241. - - - Daphne, palace at Constantinople, 51. - - Dardania, site of Taor and Bader, 299. - - Débidour, his defence of Theodora, 342. - - Decurions in local government, 148; - captains of silentiaries, 52. - - Demes, factions of Circus, 22, 98, 298. - - Diehl, his work on Justinian, v, 345. - - Dion Cassius. _See_ Cassius. - - Diptychs, consular, 110, 227. - - Dome or cupola, introduction of, 25, 225. - - Ducange on Christian Constantinople 24, etc. - - - Earthquakes in Eastern Empire, 13, 317. - - Emperor, Byzantine, dress of, 89; - portraits of, 42. - - Epicurus, his philosophy, 239, 284; - and Leontium, 332. - - Eucharist, early method of administering, 112. - - Eugenius, tower and gate of, 39, 40. - - Eunuchs, origin of, 133; - in Byzantine Empire, _ib._ - - Euphemia, Empress, her change of name, 301, 304; - opposes Justinian’s marriage, 347. - - Euripus of Circus, 62, 64. - - Eurydice, daughter of Cynane, her war against Olympias, 323. - - Eusebius, his “Church History,” 290. - - Evagrius on abolition of chrysargyron, 154; - on monks, 281. - - Evans on Illyrian antiquities, 299, 300. - - Evolution, nature and prospects of, 285, _sqq._ - - Exokionion, region of Constantinople, 78, 79. - - Exposure of infants, 242; - prohibited at Thebes, _ib._ - - - Filelfo of Ancona, his letters on later Byzantine manners, 116; - on preservation of classical Greek, 126. - - Financial officials, bureaucrats, 152, 161; - surveyors and assessors, 150, _sqq._; - collectors, 158, _sqq._ - - Fish, plenty of, at Constantinople, 4, 84; - miraculous creation of, 253. - - Foederati, foreign mercenaries, 169, 170. - - Follis, coin and sum, uncertainty about, 100, _sqq._ - - Forum, of Constantine, 69; - Imperial or Augusteum, 49; - Strategium, 70; - of Theodosius I or Taurus, 71, _sqq._; - Amastrianum, 77; - of Arcadius, 77; - of Honorius, 80. - - Fountains, sacred, at Constantinople, 26, 27, 38. - - - Galen, his works, 221. - - Gallienus, his connection with Byzantium, 9, 48. - - Galton on Inquisition, 293. - - Gates of Constantinople, 31; - Caspian or Caucasian, Golden, 33. - - Gieseler, Church History of, 249, 251, etc. - - Gladiators, abolition of, 67, 241. - - Godefroy (or Godfrey), Theodosian code by, 42, 160, _et passim_. - - Golden Gate of Constantinople, 33. - - Golden Horn or Chrysoceras, 4, 12, 38. - - Gospels, credibility of, 253. - - Governors of provinces, Rectors or judges, 148. - - Greek churches, decoration of, 55, 227. - - Greek learning, introduction of, at Rome, 205, _sqq._ - - Greens and Blues, factions of Circus, 22, 98, 298. - - Gregory of Nazianzus on military dragons, 168; - on furore at Circus, 108; - on theatre, 339. - - Gregory of Nyssa on female education, 229; - on popular theology, 280. - - Grosvenor on antiquities of Constantinople, 4, 24, 41, 48, etc. - - Guards, Imperial, 50, 167; - private, 171. - - Gyllius on antiquities of Constantinople, 4, 5, 24, 33, etc. - - - Halicarnassus, mausoleum at, 322. - - Harbours of Byzantium, 7; - of Constantinople, _ib._; - of Theodosius, or Eleutherium, 36; - of Julian, _ib._; - of Bucoleon, 37; - of Neorion or Golden Horn, 39. - - Hardouin, Cardinal, on forgery of ecclesiastical works, 256, 282. - - Harpalus, his monuments to a hetaira, 335. - - Hebdomon, a suburb seven miles from Milion, 319. - - Hefner-Alteneck on costume, 91; - on family of Theodora, 342. - - Hetairas or courtesans, their manners, etc., 115, 329, _sqq._ - - Hierocles against Christians, 274. - - Hills, seven, of Constantinople, 10, 11; - of Rome, _ib._ - - Hippalus, a navigator, discovers the monsoons, 184. - - Hippodrome or Circus, description of, 60, 97; - exhibitions in, 100; - records kept under, 67, 72. - - Hodgkin on silentiaries, 52. - - Hormisdas, palace of, 37; - occupied by Justinian, 309. - - Huns, Attila and, 21; - Persia and, 176, 178; - Romans and, 313. - - Hymn-singing in church, 111; - in open air, 97. - - Hypatia, her murder, etc., 207, 230. - - - Iamblichus, his philosophy, 264. - - Iberia or Georgia, relations of Empire with, 315. - - Iconostasis, image-screen in Greek church, 55. - - Infant exposure, 242. - - Ink, Imperial purple, 93. - - Inquisition, effects of, in Spain, 293. - - Inscriptions on gates of Constantinople, 32, 34; - on codicils, 93; - solution of, 94. - - Irenarchs or rural police, 144, 203. - - Irene, church of, at Constantinople, 56. - - Isambert, his work on Justinian, v, 308. - - Isaurians, character of, 172; - war with, 175. - - Isidore of Seville, his “Etymologies,” 212; - on eunuchs, 133; - on astronomy, 216. - - Isocrates, his ethics, 241. - - - Jerome on female education, 230. - - Jesus, life of, 245, _sqq._; - its credibility, 253. - - John of Antioch on military decline, 167; - on Justin, 301. - - John of Ephesus on Theodora, 345. - - John Lydus on Circus, 63, 99, 101, 102; - on Anastasius, 299. - - Julian, Emperor, his character, etc., 271, 280. - - Justin, Emperor, his birth and success, 300, _sqq._; - his accession to the throne, 302. - - Justinian, Emperor, birth, education, and adoption by - Justin, 301, _sqq._; - his consulship and diptychs, 308; - his marriage, 344, _sqq._ - - Juvenal on unbelief at Rome, 244; - on Messalina, 342. - - - Kathisma, Imperial seat in Circus, 61, 97. - - Khosr, Chosroes, or Nushirvan, prince of Persia, 314. - - Kobad, Cavades, or Kavádh, king of Persia, 176, _sqq._, 313. - - Kondakoff on Byzantine art, 225, 228. - - - Lais, a courtesan, her tomb, 334. - - Lamia, a courtesan, a temple to, 335. - - Latin language, use of in East, 125. - - Law, intricacies of, etc., 219, _sqq._ - - Law schools at Berytus, etc., 218, _sqq._ - - Law students, grades of, 219; - ill conduct of, 207. - - Lazica or Colchis, relations of Empire with, 312, 316. - - Leaena, a courtesan, her monument, 334. - - Leontium, a courtesan, and Epicurus, 332; - her writings, _ib._ - - Lethaby and Swainson on St. Sophia, 55. - - Libanius, sophist, method of training scholars, 211, 214; - on decurions, 197. - - Libraries, public, at Constantinople, 58, 208. - - Long wall of Anastasius, 124, 164. - - Lucian on sham philosophers, 209; - on manners of hetairas, 115. - - Ludewig, his work on Justinian, v; - on Theodora, 342. - - Luitprand on gymnastics, 101; - on reclining at meals, 114. - - Lupanars or brothels, 75. - - Lupicina, later Empress Euphemia, 301, 304, 347. - - - Magnaura, Imperial reception hall, 56. - - Man and beast fights in Circus, 101. - - Manganon of Circus, 61; - an arsenal, 48. - - Mani and Manichaeans, 267, _sqq._; - laws against, 269. - - Mansions for relays of post horses, etc., 141. - - Marble tower at Constantinople, 35. - - Marinus, a painter, illustrates life of Justin, 304. - - Marinus, Praetorian Praefect, his extortions, 299. - - Marrast on Byzantine gardens, etc., 53; - on popular theology, 280. - - Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, 322. - - Megara, a colony of Byzantium, 3, 84; - character of inhabitants of, _ib._ - - Menken, A. I., actress, her career, etc., 340. - - Messalina, Empress, wife of Claudius, her debauchery, 342. - - Milion, official milestone at Constantinople, 59. - - Moat at Constantinople, 27. - - Monasteries, origin of, 280, _sqq._ - - Money of Byzantium, 123; - of Constantinople, 122. - - Monks, origin of, 280, _sqq._; - acoemeti or sleepless, 78, 282. - - Monophysites at Chalcedon, 278; - persecution of, 306. - - Monsoons, discovery of, 184. - - Montez, Lola, actress, her career, 333, 340. - - Mordtmann on antiquities of Constantinople, 15, 24, _et passim_. - - Mosheim, Church history of, 276. - - Mythology, comparative, 235. - - - Narthex, vestibule of Greek church, 55, 111. - - Neander, Church history of, 252, 282. - - Neoplatonists, philosophy of, 261, _sqq._ - - Nicopolis, a courtesan, leaves her fortune to Sulla, 335. - - Nöldeke, history of Persians and Arabians by, 176. - - Notitia, official guide to civil and military service of - Empire, 23, 93, _et passim_. - - Nude model, facilities for studying in Greece, 226. - - Nushirvan or Chosroes, prince of Persia, 314. - - - Obelisk in Hippodrome, 63. - - Olympias, mother of Alexander, her war, etc., 323. - - Oman on art of war, 168, 174. - - - Pachomius, founder of monasteries, 282. - - Paederasty, prevalence of, 120. - - Palace, Imperial, of Constantinople, 49, _sqq._ - - Panaetius, a Stoic philosopher, his ethics, 241. - - Paspates on antiquities of Constantinople, 2, 24, 28, etc. - - Pavement, the, at Constantinople, 69. - - Pearl, Cora, a courtesan, her career, etc., 332, 334. - - Pericles and Aspasia, 331. - - Peripatetic philosophers, 238. - - Phila, wife of Demetrius Poliorcetes, her character and temple, 324. - - Photius, son of Antonina, 348. - - Physicians, public, at Constantinople, 82, 88. - - Placidia Galla, Empress, her sovereignty, 51, 327. - - Plagiarism, habitual, of Byzantine writers, 228. - - Plancina and Germanicus, 329. - - Plato on education, 217; - on cosmogony, 258, _sqq._ - - Pliny on early Christians, 249. - - Plotinus, founder of Neoplatonism, 261, _sqq._ - - Poll tax, 152. - - Polybius on unbelief at Rome, 244. - - Pompeius, nephew of Anastasius, 305. - - Pompey the Great, his wife, 326; - his pillar at Constantinople, 48. - - Popes, ostentation of, 275. - - Population of Constantinople, 123. - - Porch, Royal, at Constantinople, 58. - - Porphyry, a Neoplatonist, his philosophy, 263. - - Portia, wife of Brutus, wounds herself, 326. - - Posts, public, of Empire, 141. - - Praetorium, government house in provinces, 148. - - Precia, a courtesan, rules Cethegus and Rome, 335. - - Primitive races, extinction of, by civilization, 296. - - Priscian on grammar, etc., 213; - a centenarian, _ib._ - - Processions, Imperial, 95, 319. - - Procopius first appears in history, 316; - his “Secret History,” 339. - - Professors officially appointed, 205, _sqq._; - salaries of, 210. - - Prostitution, 329, _sqq._, 337. - - Prostration before emperor, 52, 92, 133. - - Public shows, expenses of, 100. - - Purple, imperial, laws as to, 191. - - Puteoli, hydraulic cement of, 41. - - Pythagoras, philosopher, on numbers, 215; - on music, 216. - - Pythionice, a courtesan, her monuments, 335. - - - Quintilian on education, 211. - - - Rabutaux on mediaeval prostitution, 337. - - Rectors or provincial governors, 148; - extortions of, 198. - - Reformation, the, 294. - - Renaissance, the, 294. - - Rhetoricians or sophists, their teaching, 211, 212, _sqq._; - affectation of, 208. - - Roads, Roman, 141. - - _Roi des Ribauds_, intendant of palace courtesans, 337. - - Rome, fall of, 20. - - - Salaries of professors, 210. - - Salonina, wife of Caecina, her arrogant display, 328. - - Sampson, hospital of, 56. - - Scamander river, anecdote of, 330. - - Schools of art, 224. - - Semantron, call to church, 110. - - Senate-houses, 56, 70. - - Senate of Constantinople, 146; - Constantine and, 19; - Julian and, 146. - - Serpent column in Hippodrome, origin of, 63; - destruction of, 64. - - Seven hills at Constantinople, 10, 11; - at Rome, _ib._ - - Seven towers at Constantinople, 34. - - Severus, Emperor, at Byzantium, 8. - - Ships, capacity of ancient, 161, 184. - - Siedeliba or Ceylon, trade at, 186, 187. - - Sigma or crescent at Constantinople, 33, 60. - - Silk, mercantile routes from China for, 185, 193. - - Silphium, a pot-herb, land of, 192. - - Slave of Winds or Anemodulion, 76. - - Soaemias, mother of Elagabalus, her character and conduct, 327. - - Socrates, Church historian, 290, etc. - - Socrates, philosopher, his ethics, 238, 240; - visits Theodote, 332. - - Sophists or rhetoricians, their teaching, 212, _sqq._; - affectation, 208. - - Spiritualism, ancient and modern, 257, _sqq._, 263. - - St. Sophia, old church of, 55. - - Statues, public, multitude of, 61. - - Steps, public rations served from, 80. - - Stoics, their ethics, 238, 264, 286. - - Streets at Constantinople, 42, 46. - - Strzygowski, his researches on the Golden Gate, 34, 362; - on cisterns, 362. - - Studius, monastery of, 78, 280. - - Stylites or pillar-saints, 281. - - Suburbs of Constantinople, 124. - - Sycae, now Galata, 39, 80. - - - Tabari, translation of, by Nöldeke, 176; - by Zotenberg, _ib._ - - Taurus, square of, 71. - - Taxes, ways of levying, 149, _sqq._ - - Theocritus aspires to purple, 302; - executed by Justin, 306. - - Theodora, origin and career of, 337; - her reformation, 344; - marriage, etc., 347. - - Theodoric the Goth, 178, 310. - - Theodosius I, his laws against Pagans, 274, 277. - - Theodote, a courtesan, Socrates visits, 332. - - Theodotus, P. U., opposes Justinian, 309. - - Thomas, a silentiary, plunders fugitives at Antioch, 318. - - Throne, Byzantine, 50. - - Titles of honour, 96. - - Torture, taxes enforced by, 200. - - Towers at Constantinople, 28, 29, 40. - - Trade routes, 184, _sqq._ - - Trajan, Emperor, and Christians, 250. - - Treasury, Imperial, etc., 161. - - Tzykanisterion or palace garden, 53. - - - University or Auditorium of Constantinople, 72, 207, _sqq._ - - Urbicius, chief eunuch, nominates Anastasius for throne, 104. - - - Vandals in Spain and Africa, 131. - - Van Millingen on Golden Gate, 34; - on Bucoleon harbour, 38. - - Verina, Empress, wife of Leo I, provokes a revolution against - Zeno, 328. - - Vespasian and Caenis, 336, 346. - - Vigilantia, mother of Justinian, 347; - sister of, 301. - - Vigilantius against relic worship, etc., 292. - - Vistilia, a noble lady, applies for _licentia stupri_, 336. - - Vitalian, a general, his revolt, 180; - consulship and murder of, 306, _sqq._ - - - Wall, Long, of Anastasius, 124, 164. - - Walls of Byzantium, vocal, 7; - of Constantinople, 27, _sqq._ - - Water, public supply of, at Constantinople, 73, 74. - - Women at Athens, 321; - at Sparta, _ib._; - towns named in honour of, 323. - - Wood for fuel, brought from Euxine, 40. - - - Xenophanes, the Eleatic, his philosophy, 238, 251. - - Xerolophos, or dry-hill, at Constantinople, 11, 78. - - Xylocercus Gate, 31. - - - Youth, dissoluteness of, 119; - education of, 204, _sqq._; - legal, 219; - for art, 224. - - - Zachariah of Mytilene, translated by Hamilton and - Brooks, 278, 312, etc. - - Zeno, Eleatic philosopher, 238. - - Zeno, Emperor, his Henoticon, 278; - death of, 103. - - Zeno, Stoic philosopher, 238. - - Zeugma, a quarter of Constantinople, 40. - - Zeuxippus, baths of, at Constantinople, 57. - - Zoroaster or Zarathushtra, 268. - - Zotenberg, translation of Tabari by, 176. - - - - -ERRATA - - -P. 11, peninsula; p. 17, n. 1, Frising.; p. 24, note, Beylié; p. 55, n. -3, Lethaby; p. 118, n. 4, Lactant., i, 20; p. 158, n. 3, Berg-; p. 188, -herd; p. 225, n. 1, cadavérique; p. 256, note, und. - - - - -ADDITIONS - - -P. 20, n. 1. The date of the dialogue Philopatris has been the subject -of much argument, notably in _Byzant. Zeitschrift_, vols. v and vi, -1896-7. It has been placed under Carus, Julian, Heraclius, and John -Zimisces. The matter is unintelligible unless at an early period of -Christianity, and I should be inclined to maintain that interpolations -in one or two places by late copyists (see p. 256) have given it a -false semblance of recency. - -P. 24, note. John Malala was unknown to Ducange (not having been -published till 1691), and hence has been neglected to a great extent by -later writers on Byzantine antiquities. He is the earliest authority -for much of what is to be found in the later chronographers. According -to Conybeare the Paschal Chronicle did not copy Malala, but an original -common to both; _Byzant. Zeitsch._, 1902. - -P. 33. There is no record of the building of the Golden Gate, but John -Malala (p. 360), says that Theodosius II gilded it, whence the name. -Most probably this statement includes the erection of the monument. I -am now satisfied that the Golden Gate had no direct connection with -Theodosius the Great, but was raised by his grandson to commemorate the -overthrow of the usurper John by his generals Aspar and Ardaburius at -Ravenna in 425. This is the “tyrant” alluded to (“post fata tyranni”), -who had supplanted the infant Valentinian III in the West, afterwards -the husband of Eudoxia, daughter of Theodosius II. The victory caused -the greatest excitement at CP., of which Socrates (vii, 23) gives -a striking account. They were all sitting in the Hippodrome when -the news arrived, whereupon the Emperor, with the whole audience, -rose up, abandoned the games, marched through the streets singing -enthusiastically, and the rest of the day was spent in the churches -giving utterance to fervid prayers. It is inconceivable that so tame -a couplet could have been composed to celebrate the martial deeds -of Theodosius I. The clash of arms would have been heard in any -inscription designed to record the achievements of an Emperor who -won battles in the field by his own tactics and strategy. But in a -generally quiet reign, with the palace under the rule of the women, -any decided success would be magnified and the weakling Theodosius II -would naturally be associated with the prestige of his grandfather, -whose name he bore. The case is one on all fours with that of the great -statue in Taurus (erected after a minor Persian war), so skilfully -allocated by Déthier (see p. 72) and the boastful inscription on it -(Gk. Anthol. Plan., iv, 65). The inscription on the Golden Gate was not -sculptured, but was composed of metal letters fastened to the stone -by rivets. Many of these holes can still be located on the decayed -surface. These were first observed by Strzygowski in 1893, and by -joining them judiciously the form of the letters originally attached -could be made out. The lines ran across the top of the gate, the first -verse of the couplet being on the left side, the second on the right. -See the monograph by S. on the Golden Gate, Jahrb. d. Kaiser. Deutsche -Archæol. Instit., 1893, viii, 1. But the origin of the old Golden -Gate in the Constantinian wall remains unsolved; for surmises see Van -Millingen. - -P. 31. It is highly improbable that the wall of Theodosius ever ran -through to the Golden Horn, as, in order to do so, it would have had -to cut the parish or region of Blachernae in two. It must have pulled -up therefore at the previously existing wall which surrounded that -part; see the Notitia, reg. xiv. Hence there must always have been a -projecting portion of the fortifications at this end. - -P. 37. Van Millingen decides to identify the palace of Bucoleon with -that of Hormisdas, as hitherto the building on the wall has been -popularly named. This identification now seems to me quite tenable. -Both the Anon. and Codinus (pp. 45, 87) mention, in somewhat different -terms, the locality of H., and connect it with Port Julian, evidently -to the west of the existing ruin. I am satisfied that the latter is -really the Bucoleon built by Theodosius II, and that the Hormisdas, -which must have been altogether reconstructed by Justinian (Procop., -Aedific., i, 10), has quite disappeared. Theodosius could not by any -sort of implication be said to have built a house of Hormisdas, who -was dead long before he was born. Later this palace (Hormisdas) was -diverted to ecclesiastical purposes, became, in fact, a sort of Church -House, where meetings were held, and also a hostelry for members of the -priesthood when visiting the capital; see pp. 669, _sqq._ In the latter -connection it is often mentioned by John of Ephesus in the work already -referred to (p. 345, n. 2). - -P. 74. The identification of the _Bin bir derek_ with the cistern of -Philoxenus is a mere surmise—a monogram on the columns is said to stand -for Εὖγε φιλόξενε! The researches of Forscheimer (and Strzygowski) give -a more likely elucidation which, with the _Yeri Baian Seraï_, a much -larger cistern still full of water, will be considered later on. See p. -539 and cf. Lethaby and S., p. 248. - -Pp. 78, 319. There were three localities at CP. which might -conceivably have been called Hebdomon by the inhabitants: 1. The -seventh of the fourteen parishes of the city as described in the -Notitia; 2. The camping ground near Blachernae of the seventh regiment -of Gothic mercenaries; 3. A kind of Field of Mars for reviewing the -troops situated seven miles from the Milion on the shore of the -Propontis. When processions to the Hebdomon are mentioned, it is always -the last place which is meant, and there the church of St. John was -founded. I do not know whether there is any literary reference to -either of the first two localities under that name, but much confusion -has been occasioned by the contradictory views of various writers, -especially Gyllius and Ducange; see Mordtmann, _op. cit._, p. 29. - -P. 100. The actual sums which it appears that scholars accept as -obligatory on three praetors to spend annually for the public shows are -respectively £150,000, £120,000, and £90,000, in all £360,000! Under -these circumstances it was scarcely worth while for Olympiodorus to -mention such a trifle as the 1,200 lb. of gold (£48,000), expended by -Probus in his praetorship, unless it was to show how beggarly he was -in comparison with his predecessors in office, the least of whom had -to disburse under legal compulsion nearly double that amount. It is -strange that none of Gibbon’s editors has noticed that his “ridiculous -four or five pounds” is in reality £57 5_s._, at his own estimate -of the value of the _follis_ (.548_d._), viz., 1∕2025 of the silver -_follis_ or purse, which he makes equal to £6; iii, p. 293 (Bury). I -have read somewhere that Sir Isaac Newton could not work the simple -rules of arithmetic. - -Pp. 252, 274. The evidence for Galerius’s edict of toleration and -Constantine’s Edict of Milan (313) is the same, viz., Lactantius and -Eusebius. There is no good reason to doubt the latter. The attitude -of Galerius towards Christianity was mere toleration after failure to -suppress; Constantine’s that of favour and adoption. Every one knew -that Galerius would spring again if he got the chance. If C. took up -Christianity as one of his religions _c._ 312, he would naturally, -after his victory, issue a manifesto to define his personal policy and -inclinations. Too much stress is often laid on the light doubts of -recent investigators. - -P. 294, n. 2. Since this section on religion was written, two movements -on the lines indicated have come to the surface, one a petition by -university teachers for more freedom in dealing with the mythological -texts in relation to students, the other a similar petition by -ministers of the establishment, for the same freedom, with respect to -the public. Both failed, but doubtless the tide of rationalism will -rise again and again until the desired emancipation be achieved. These -are symptoms of a readjustment of popular religious beliefs at no -distant date, perhaps within a generation or two, a consummation I had -not anticipated as likely to occur for centuries to come. But, as the -chick emerges suddenly from the egg which immediately before was to all -appearances physically unaltered, so sociological revolutions, long -brooding beneath the surface, are sometimes fully achieved in a moment -of time. - -Pp. 345, 348. Were we without the Anecdotes of Procopius we should -still know practically all that he has revealed about Theodora. 1. -That she was a prostitute, John of Ephesus, Aimoin. 2. That she was in -a very lowly condition before her marriage, Codinus. 3. That she was -vindictive and cruel when on the throne, Liber Pontificalis, Vigilius. -All this evidence is adverted to circumstantially in its proper setting -throughout the work. - - * * * * * - -⁂ For CORRIGENDA ET ADDENDA to the whole work see end of Vol. II. - - - CHISWICK PRESS: PRINTED BY CHARLES WHITTINGHAM AND CO. TOOKS COURT, - CHANCERY LANE, LONDON. - - - - - FOOTNOTES: - - -[1] To these must now be added Diehl’s beautifully illustrated work, -_Justinien et la civilization Byzantine au VI^e siècle_, Paris, 1901. -The leading motive is that of art, and it is replete with interesting -details, but the conception is too narrow to allow of its fully -representing the age to a modern reader. - -[2] Radium was unknown in 1901 when the above was written. - -[3] In presenting this history to the modern reader I shall not -imitate the example of those mediaeval stage-managers, who, in order -to indicate the scenery of the play, were content to exhibit a placard -such as “This is a street,” “This is a wood,” etc. On the contrary, on -each occasion that the scene shifts in this drama of real life, I shall -describe the locality of the events at a length proportionate to their -importance. - -[4] Schliemann found neolithic remains at Hissarlik, not far off -(Ilios, p. 236, 1880). - -[5] In the sixteenth century, as we are told by Gyllius (Top. CP., -iv, 11), the Greeks of Stamboul were utterly oblivious of the history -of their country and of the suggestiveness of the remains which lay -around them. But an awakening has now taken place and the modern Greeks -are among the most ardent in the pursuit of archaeological knowledge. -They have even revived the language of Attica for literary purposes, -and it may be said that an Athenian of the age of Pericles could read -with facility the works now issued from the Greek press of Athens or -of Constantinople—a unique example, I should think, in the history -of philology. Through Paspates (Βυζαντινὰ Ανάκτορα, pp. 95, 140), we -are made aware of the difficulties the topographical student has to -encounter in the Ottoman capital, where an intruding Giaour is sure to -be assailed in the more sequestered Turkish quarters with abuse and -missiles on the part of men, women, and children. - -[6] Alluded to by both Homer and Hesiod (Odyss., xii, 69; Theog., -992). It was one of those unknown countries which, as Plutarch remarks -(Theseus, 1), were looked on as a fitting scene for mythical events. - -[7] Pindar, Pythia, iv, 362; P. Mela, i, 19, etc. - -[8] Of these Sinope claimed to be the eldest, and honoured the -Argonauts as its founders (Strabo, xii, 3). - -[9] _Ibid._, vii, 6. - -[10] Herodotus, iv, 144. - -[11] Pliny, Hist. Nat., iv, 18 [11]. Ausonius compares Lygos to the -Byrsa of Carthage (De Clar. Urb., 2). - -[12] Not a Greek name; most likely that of a local chief. - -[13] According to the Chronicon of Eusebius, Chalcedon was founded -in Olymp. 26, 4, and Byzantium in Olymp. 30, 2, or 673, 659 B.C. In -modern works of reference the dates 684, 667 seem to be most generally -accepted. I pass over the legends associated with this foundation—the -divine birth of Byzas; the oracle telling the emigrants to build -opposite the city of the blind; another, which led the Argives (who -were also concerned in the early history of Byzantium) to choose the -confluence of the Cydarus and Barbyses, at the extremity of the Golden -Horn, whence they were directed to the right spot by birds, who flew -away with parts of their sacrifice—inventions or hearsay of later -times, when the real circumstances were forgotten (see Strabo, vii, 6; -Hesychius Miles, De Orig. CP., and others), all authors of comparatively -late date. Herodotus (iv, 144), the nearest to the events (_c._ 450 -B.C.), makes the plain statement that the Persian general Megabyzus -said the Chalcedonians must have been blind when they overlooked the -site of Byzantium. - -[14] The remains of a “cyclopean” wall (Paspates, Βυζαντινὰ Ανάκτορα, -p. 24), built with blocks of stone (some ten feet long?) probably -belonged to old Byzantium, respecting which it is only certainly known -that it stood at the north-east extremity of the promontory (Zosimus, -ii, 30; Codinus, p. 24; with Mordtmann’s Map, etc.). It can scarcely -be doubted that the site of the Hippodrome was outside the original -walls, and thus we have a limit on the land side. It may be assumed -that the so-called first hill formed an acropolis, round which there -was an external wall inclosing the main part of the town (Xenophon, -Anabasis, vii, 1, etc.). Doubtless the citadel covered no great area, -and the city walls were kept close to the water for as long a distance -as possible to limit the extent of investment in a siege. - -[15] Polybius, iv, 38, 45, etc. It was abolished after a war with -Rhodes, 219 B.C. - -[16] Tacitus, Annal., xii, 63, and commentators. Strabo, ii, 6; Pliny, -Hist. Nat., ix, 20 [15]. They are mostly tunny fish, a large kind of -mackerel. In the time of Gyllius, women and children caught them simply -by letting down baskets into the water (De Top. CP. pref.; so also -Busbecq). Grosvenor, a resident, mentions that seventy sorts of fish -are found in the sea about the city (Constantinople, 1895, ii, p. 576.) - -[17] Strabo proves that the gulf was called the Horn, Pliny that -the Horn was Golden (the promontory in his view), Dionysius Byzant. -(Gyllius, De Bosp. Thrac., i, 5), that in the second century the inlet -was named Golden Horn. Hesychius (_loc. cit._) and Procopius (De -Aedific., i, 5) say that Ceras was from Ceroessa, mother of Byzas. - -[18] Dionys. Byz. in Gyllius, De Top. CP., i, 2. The statement is -vague and can only be accepted with some modification in view of other -descriptions. - -[19] Livy, xxxii, 33. - -[20] Phylarchus in Athenaeus, vi, 101. - -[21] See Müller’s Dorians, ii, 177. - -[22] Hesychius, _loc. cit._; Diodorus Sic., xvi, 77, etc. - -[23] Polybius, iv, 46, etc. - -[24] Cicero, Orat. de Prov. Consular., 3. - -[25] Tacitus, _loc. cit._; Pliny, Epist. to Trajan, 52. - -[26] Suetonius, Vespasian, 8. - -[27] Dion Cassius, 10, 14. I have combined and condensed the separate -passages dealing with the subject. - -[28] Herodian, iii, 1; Pausanias, iv, 31. Walls of this kind were built -without cement, so that the joinings were hardly perceptible. - -[29] At an earlier period it seems that there was only one harbour -(Xenophon, Anabasis, vii, 1; Plutarch, Alcibiades, 31). - -[30] A not uncommon acoustic phenomenon, such as occurs in the -so-called “Ear [prison] of Dionysius” at Syracuse, etc. It can be -credited without seeking for a mythical explanation. - -[31] Suidas, _sb._ Severus; Herodian, iii, 7. - -[32] The general details are from Dion Cassius, lxxiv, 12-14. - -[33] Suidas, _loc. cit._; Jn. Malala, xii, p. 291; Chron. Paschale, i, -p. 495. - -[34] Eustathius _ad_ Dionys., Perieg. 804; Codinus, p. 13. - -[35] Hist. August. Caracalla, 1. He is represented as a boy interceding -with his father. - -[36] Hist. August. Gallienus, 6, 13, etc.; Claudius, 9; Zosimus, i, -34, etc.; Aurelius Victor, De Caesar., xxxiii, etc. There is much to -support the views in the text, which reconcile the somewhat discrepant -statements of Dion and Herodian with those of later writers. The -Goths seem to have been in possession of Byzantium—therefore it was -unfortified (Zosimus, i, 34; Syncellus, i, p. 717). More than a century -later, Fritigern was “at peace with stone walls” (Ammianus, xxxi, 6). -I apply the description of Zosimus (ii, 30) to this wall of Gallienus -(so to call it), which probably included a larger area, taking in the -Hippodrome and other buildings of Severus. - -[37] The tops of the various hills can now be distinguished by the -presence of the following well-known buildings: 1. St. Sophia; 2. Burnt -Pillar; 3. Seraskier’s Tower; 4. Mosque of Mohammed II; 5. Mosque of -Selim; 6. Mosque of Mihrimah (Gate of Adrianople); 7. Seven Towers -(south-west extremity). The highest point in the city is the summit of -the sixth hill, 291 ft. (Grosvenor). - -[38] The last reach of the Barbyses runs through a Turkish pleasure -ground and is well known locally as the “Sweet Waters of Europe.” - -[39] Procopius, De Aedific., i, 11. - -[40] Notwithstanding the southerliness of these regions, natives of -the Levant have always been well acquainted with frost and snow. Thus -wintry weather is a favourite theme with Homer: - - ἤματι χειμερίῳ... - κοιμήσας δ’ ἁνέμους χέει ἔμπεδον, ὄφρα καλύψῃ - ὑψηλῶν ὀρέων κορυφὰς καὶ πρώονας ἄκρους, - καὶ πεδία λωτεῦντα καὶ ἀνδρῶν πίονα ἔργα, - καί τ’ ἐφ’ ἁλὸς πολιῆς κέχυται λιμέσιν τε καὶ ακταῖς, - κῦμα δέ μιν προσπλάζον ἐρύκεται· ἄλλα τε πάντα - εἰλύαται καθύπερθ’ ὅτ ἐπιβρίση Διὸς ὔμβρας. - _Iliad_, xii, 279, κ.τ.λ. - - -[41] His reasons for this step can only be surmised. A political motive -is scarcely suggested. A second capital cannot have been required to -maintain what Rome had conquered, and was soon made an excuse for -dissolving the unity of the Empire. His nascent zeal for Christianity, -by which he incurred unpopularity at pagan Rome, has been supposed to -have prejudiced him against the old capital, and moved him to build -another in which the new religion should reign supreme, but these -opinions emanate only from writers actuated more or less by bigotry. -Although he virtually presided at the Council of Nice and accepted -baptism on his death-bed, that he was ever a Christian by conviction -is altogether doubtful. For a _résumé_ see Boissier, Revue des Deux -Mondes, July, 1886; also Burchardt’s Constantine. - -[42] For the founding of Constantinople see Gyllius (De Topogr. CP., i, -3), but especially Ducange (CP. Christiana, i, p. 23 _et seq._), who -has brought together a large number of passages from early and late -writers. According to a nameless author (Muller, Frag. Hist., iv, p. -199), Constantine was at one time in the habit of exclaiming: “My Rome -is Sardica.” He was born and bred in the East, and hence all his tastes -would naturally lead him to settle on that side of the Empire. - -[43] It may have been earlier. Petavius (in Ducange) fixes this date, -Baronius makes it 325 (_c._ 95). - -[44] Plutarch, De Defect. Orac. He explains it by the death of the -daemons who managed them. These semi-divinities, though long-lived, -were not immortal. - -[45] See Ducange, _loc. cit._, p. 24. - -[46] Philostorgius, ii, 9. Copied or repeated with embellishment, but -not corroborated, by later writers, as Nicephorus Cal., viii, 4; Anon. -(Banduri), p. 15; Codinus, p. 75. Eusebius is silent where we should -expect him to be explicit. The allusion in Cod. Theod., XIII, v, 7, -seems to be merely a pious expression. - -[47] The result of Diocletian’s persecution must have shown every -penetrating spirit that Christianity had “come to stay”: the numerous -converts of the better classes were nearly all fanatics compared with -Pagans of the same class, who were languid and indifferent about -religion. He indulged both parties from time to time. - -[48] Zosimus, ii, 30, Anon. Patria (Banduri, p. 4), and indications in -Notitia Utriusque Imperii, etc., in which the length of Constantine’s -city is put down at 14,705 Roman feet. From Un Kapani on the Golden -Horn (near old bridge) it swept round the mosque of Mohammed II, passed -that of Exi Mermer, and turned south-east so as to strike the sea near -Et Jemes, north-east of Sand-gate. I am describing the imaginary line -drawn by Mordtmann (Esquisses topogr. de CP., 1891), who has given us a -critical map without a scale to measure it by. It was not finished till -after Constantine’s death, Julian, Orat., i, p. 41, 1696. - -[49] Anon. (Banduri) and Codinus _passim_; Eusebius, Vit. Constant., -iii, 54, etc.; Jerome, Chron., viii, p. 678 (Migne). - -[50] Zosimus, ii, 31. - -[51] Or Florentia (blooming). Jn. Malala, xiii, p. 320, etc. Everything -was done in imitation of Rome, which, as John Lydus tells us (De Mens., -iv, 50), had three names, mystic, sacerdotal, and political—Amor, -Flora, Rome. - -[52] Cedrenus, i, p. 495; Zonaras, xiii, 3. Eusebius knows nothing of -it. See Ducange’s collection of authorities (CP. Christ., i, p. 24), -all late, _e.g._, Phrantzes, iii, 6. - -[53] Anon. (Banduri), p. 5; Codinus, p. 20. The stories of these -writers do not deserve much credit. Glycas, however, accepts the tale -and is a sounder authority, iv, p. 463. “It is well known that the -flower of your nobility was translated to the royal city of the East,” -said Frederic Barbarossa, addressing the Roman Senate in 1155 (Otto -Frising. Muratori, Rer. Ital. Script., vi, 721). - -[54] Eunapius in Aedesius. Burchardt jeers at C. and his new citizens. - -[55] Idatius, Descript. Consul. (Migne, S. L., li, 908). The accepted -date. - -[56] Jn. Lydus, De Mensibus, iv, 2. “A bloodless sacrifice” (Jn. -Malala, p. 320). According to later writers (Anon., Banduri, etc.) the -“Kyrie Eleison” was sung, a statement we can easily disbelieve. - -[57] Jn. Malala, xiii, p. 321; Chron. Paschal., i, p. 529. - -[58] Anon. (Banduri), p. 4. _Ibid._ (Papias), p. 84. - -[59] In cloaks and Byzantine buskins, “chlaenis et campagis” (Κάμπαγος -or κομβαῶν). For the latter see Daremberg and Saglio, Dict. Antiq., -_sb. voc._ They covered the toe and heel, leaving the instep bare to -the ground. - -[60] Jn. Malala and Chron. Paschal., _loc. cit._, etc. - -[61] M. Glycas, iv, p. 463. Eusebius does not describe the founding -of CP., doubtless because he saw nothing in it pertinent to Christian -piety, of which only he professes to treat (τὰ πρὸς τὸν θεοφιλῆ), Vit. -Const., i, 11. - -[62] The name occurs in Cod. Theod. from 323 onwards, but also as a -palpable error at an earlier date. See Haenel’s Chronological Index. It -is thought coins stamped CP. were issued as early as 325 (Smith, Dict. -Christ. Biog., i, p. 631). Had Constantine fixed on any other place it -is probable that “New Rome” would have passed into currency as easily -as “New York.” But the Greeks did not call their city Constantinople -till later centuries. Thus with Procopius, the chief writer of the -sixth century, it is always still Byzantium. - -[63] Socrates, i, 16; Sozomen, ii, 3; Cod. Theod., XIV, xiii, etc. - -[64] Socrates, _loc. cit._ - -[65] Anon. Valesii, 30. - -[66] The last Roman emperor, in name only, Romulus Augustulus, -abdicated in 476, but long before that date the Empire had been -gradually falling to pieces. In 410 Alaric sacked Rome; by 419 -the Goths had settled in the south of France and the Vandals had -appropriated Spain; in 439 Genseric took possession of Africa; in 446 -Britain was abandoned; in 455 Rome was again sacked (by Genseric), etc. - -[67] Ciampini (De Sacr. Aedific., a C. Mag., etc., Rome, 1693), -enumerates twenty-seven. Eusebius says many (Vit. C., iii, 48). It is -curious, however, that the dialogue Philopatris (in Lucian) gives an -impression that in or after 363 (Gesner’s date, formerly accepted) -churches were so few and inconspicuous that the bulk of the population -knew nothing about them. The Notitia, again, half a century later, -reckons only fourteen within the city proper, including Sycae (Galata). -Probably, therefore, these twenty-seven churches attributed to -Constantine are mostly suppositious, for even in the reign of Arcadius -it would seem that there were not many more than half that number. - -[68] Socrates, i, 16. Two only, as if Constantine had built no more. - -[69] Chron. Paschal., i, p. 531. - -[70] Eusebius, iv, 58. _Op. cit._ - -[71] Anon. (Banduri), p. 45; Codinus, p. 72. - -[72] Hesychius, _op. cit._, 15 (Codinus, p. 6). - -[73] Cicero (Orat. De Prov. Consul., 4) says that Byzantium was -“refertissimam atque ornatissimam signis,” a statement which doubtless -applies chiefly to works of art preserved in temples. The buildings -would remain and be restored, notwithstanding the many vicissitudes -through which the town passed. The Anon. (Banduri, p. 2) says that -ruins of a temple of Zeus, columns and arches, were still seen on the -Acropolis (first hill) in the twelfth century. - -[74] Eunapius, _loc. cit._, Themistius, Orats., Paris, 1684, pp. 182, -223, “equal to Rome”; Sozomen, “more populous than Rome”; Novel lxxx -forbids the crowding of provincials to CP. - -[75] Cod. Theod., XV, i. 51; Socrates, vii, 1, etc. - -[76] Marcellinus, Chron. (Migne, li, 927). See also Evagrius, i, 17, -and Ducange, _op. cit._, i, p. 38. - -[77] Priscus, Hist. Goth., p. 168. In 433. - -[78] The work of Cyrus is not precisely defined by the Byzantine -historians, but Déthier (Der Bosph. u. CP., 1873, pp. 12, 50) and -Mordtmann (_op. cit._, p. 11) take this view. The words of one -inscription, “he built a wall to a wall” (ἐδείματο τείχεϊ τεῖχος), -support the theory. The walls of Theodosius were afterwards called the -“new walls” (Cod. Just., I, ii, 18; Novel lix, 5, etc.). - -[79] On the Porta Rhegii or Melandesia, about halfway across. See -Paspates (Βυζαντιναὶ Μελέται, pp. 47, 50). They are preserved in the -Anthol. Graec. (Planudes), iv. 28. The gate called Xylocercus, with its -inscription, has disappeared. - -[80] Marcellinus, _loc. cit._; Zonaras, xiii, 22; Nicephorus Cal., -xiv, 1, confuses the work of the two men. The Anon. Patria (Banduri), -p. 20, says that the two factions of the circus, each containing eight -thousand men, were employed on the work. Beginning at either end, -they met centrally at a gate hence called “of many men” (Polyandra). -Mordtmann (_op. cit._, p. 28) wholly rejects this tale, as it does not -fit in with some of his identifications. It would, however, be well -suited to the P. Rhegii, where the existing inscriptions are found. -Some local knowledge must be conceded to an author of the twelfth -century, who probably lived on the spot. Wall-building was a _duty_ of -the factions. - -[81] Dionysius caused the Syracusans to build the wall of Epipolae, -of about the same length, in twenty days (Diod. Sic., xiv, 18). The -Peloponnesians built a wall across the isthmus against Xerxes in a -short time (Herodotus, viii, 71, etc.). There was much extemporary -wall-building at Syracuse during the siege by Nicias (Thucydides, vi, -97, etc.). The wall of Crassus against Spartacus was nearly forty miles -long (Plutarch, Crassus). Except the first, however, these were more -or less temporary structures. Very substantial extempore walls are -frequently mentioned by both Greek and Latin historians as having been -erected during sieges, etc. See especially Caesar (i, 8) and Thucydides -(iii, 21, Siege of Plataea). - -[82] The earliest and most reliable source is the Notitia Dignitatis -utriusque Imperii, etc., which dates from the time of Arcadius. To this -work is prefixed a short description of Rome and CP., which enumerates -the chief buildings, the number of streets, etc., in each division -of those cities. Next we have the Aedificia of Procopius, the matter -of which, however, does not come within the scope of the present -chapter. A gap of six centuries now occurs, which can only be filled -by allusions to be found in general and church historians, patristic -literature, etc. We then come to a considerable work, the Anonymous, -edited by A. Banduri (Venice, 1729), a medley of semi-historical and -topographical information, often erroneous, ascribed to the twelfth -century. A second edition of this work, introduced by the Byzantine -fragment of Hesychius of Miletus, passes under the name of Geo. -Codinus, who wrote about 1460. Here we draw the line between mediaeval -and modern authors, and we have next the Topography of CP., by P. -Gyllius, a Frenchman, who wrote on the spot about a century after the -Turkish conquest. His Thracian Bosphorus, which preserves much of -the lost Dionysius of Byzantium, is also valuable. Later still comes -the monumental CP. Christiana of Ducange (Paris, 1680), a mine of -research, by one of those almost mediaeval scholars, who spent their -lives in a library. Of contemporary treatises, which are numerous and -bulky, I will only mention the following, from which I have derived -most assistance: J. Labarte, Le Palais Impériale de CP., Paris, -1871; A. G. Paspates, Βυζαντιναὶ Μελέται, CP., 1877, and Βυζαντινα -Ανάκτορα, Athens, 1885; W. Mordtmann, Esquisses topographiques de -CP., Lille, 1891. Among books intended less for the archaeologist -than for popular perusal, the only one worthy of special mention is -Constantinople, Lond., 1895, by E. A. Grosvenor, a fine work, admirably -illustrated, but the author relies too implicitly on Paspates, and he -has emasculated his book for literary purposes by omitting references -to authorities. The book also contains several absurd mistakes, _e.g._, -“The careful historian who ... wrote under the name of Anonymos,” -etc., p. 313. To the above must now be added the important, Byzantine -CP., the Walls, by Van Millingen, Lond., 1899, a sound and critical -work. Another beautiful work has also been recently issued, viz., -Beylié, L’Habitation byzantine, Grenoble, 1902. A wealth of authentic -illustrations renders it extremely valuable for the study of the -subject. This chapter was begun in 1896, and in the meantime scholars -have not been idle. As the Bonn Codinus gives inter-textually all the -passages of the anonymous Patria which differ, as well as an appendix -of anonymous archaeological tracts, I shall in future, for the sake of -brevity, refer to the whole as Codinus simply in that edition. - -[83] That is the pierced dome elevated to a great height on -pendentives. The splendid dome of the Pantheon dates, of course, from -Hadrian, but the invention of the modern cupola may fairly be assigned -to the Byzantines. The conception, however, had to be completed by -raising it still higher on a _tour de dome_, the first example of which -is St. Augustine’s, Rome (1483); see Agincourt, Hist. of Art, i, 67. - -[84] Procopius, De Aedific., i, 3; Nicephorus Cal., xv, 25. - -[85] Κυκλόβιον or στρογγύλον; Procopius, _ibid._, iv, 8. Theophanes, -an. 6165, p. 541, etc. Possibly it looked like the tomb of Caecilia -Metella or a Martello Tower and was the prototype of the castle shown -on the old maps as the “Grand Turk’s Treasure-house,” built in 1458 by -Mohammed II within his fortress of the Seven Towers; Map by Caedicius, -CP., 1889; Ducas, p. 317; Laonicus, x, p. 529. Most likely, however, it -was a wall uniting five towers in a round. The Cyclobion is attributed -to Zeno, about 480; Byzantios, Κωνσταντινούπολις, i, 312; -Grosvenor, _op. cit._, p. 596. - -[86] Grosvenor calls the existing road the remains of Justinian’s -“once well-paved triumphal way,” I have found no corroboration of -this assertion. From Constant. Porph. (De Cer. Aul. Byz., i, 18, 96, -etc.), I conclude there was no continuous road here for many centuries -afterwards. Paspates (_op. cit._, p. 13) thinks the last passage -alludes to it as πλακωτῆ, but this is evidently the highway to Rhegium, -etc. (Procop., De Aedific., iv, 8). - -[87] Cod. VIII, x, 10; Procopius, De Bel. Pers., i, 25; Cinnamus, ii, -14; Anthol. (Planudes), iv, 15, etc. - -[88] This fount is still extant and accessible beneath the Greek church -of Baloukli (Grosvenor, _op. cit._, p. 485, etc.). - -[89] Gyllius (Dionys. Byz.), De Bosp. Thrac., ii, 2; De Topog. CP., iv, -5. - -[90] Suidas, _sub_ Anast. Mordtmann (_op. cit._, p. 33), thinks the -ruins existing at Tekfur Serai may represent the original Palace of -Blachernae, the basement, at least. It is commonly called the palace of -Constantine, etc., but Van Millingen proves it to be a late erection. - -[91] Zonaras, xiii, 24; Codin., p. 95, etc. - -[92] Const. Porph., De Cer. Aul. Byz., ii, 12. Still frequented -(Paspates, _op. cit._, p. 390, etc.). - -[93] To “a man’s height” (Paspates). - -[94] Paspates has all the credit of solving the problem of this moat -(_op. cit._, p. 7, etc.). It has been maintained that it was a dry -moat, owing to the physical impossibility of the sea flowing into it. -The words of Chrysoloras (Migne, Ser. Grk., vol. 156, etc.) are alone -sufficient to dispose of this error. - -[95] This space seems to have been called the παρατείχιον; Const. -Porph., _loc. cit._; or rather, perhaps, the πρωτείχισμα; see -the Anon., Στρατηγική (Koechly, etc.), 12 (_c._ 550). Paspates calls it -the προτείχιον, “because,” says he, “I have found no name for it in the -Byzantine historians.” - -[96] Ducas, 39, etc.; Paspates, _op. cit._, p. 6. It is, however, the -usual word for the walls of a city. Μεσοτείχιον and σταύρωμα -are more definite; Critobulos, i, 60. Paspates states that the ground -here has been raised six feet above its ancient level. - -[97] Déthier, Nouv. recherch. à CP., 1867, p. 20; cf. Vegetius, iv, 1, -2, 3, etc. These walls have much similarity to the _agger_ of Servius -Tullius, but in the latter case the great wall forms the inner boundary -of the trench and the lesser wall, retaining the excavated earth, was -about fifty feet behind in the city. See Middleton’s Ancient Rome, etc. - -[98] Paspates, _op. cit._, p. 17. - -[99] _Ibid._, Grosvenor, _op. cit._, p. 584. - -[100] Paspates, _op. cit._, p. 10. See also Texier and Pullan, -Architect. Byzant., Lond., 1864, pp. 24, 56, for diagrams illustrating -walls of the period. Some, unlike the wall of CP., had continuous -galleries in the interior. The towers were also used for quartering -soldiers when troops were massed in the vicinity of the city (Cod. -Theod., VII, viii, 13). There were about one hundred and two of the -great, and ninety of the small ones. Owners of land through which the -new wall passed had also reversionary rights to make use of the towers -(_Ibid._, XV, i, 51). - -[101] The Roman plan of filling an outer shell with rubble and concrete -was adopted (Grosvenor, _loc. cit._). At present the walls appear as -a heterogeneous mass of stone and brick, showing that they have been -repaired hurriedly numbers of times. But little is left of the fifth -century structure. Some parts, better preserved, exhibit alternate -courses of stone and brick, a favourite style of building with the -Byzantines, but not dating further back than the seventh century -(Texier and Pullan, _op. cit._, p. 165). - -[102] Paspates (_op. cit._, p. 14), to whom much more than to -historical indications we are indebted for our knowledge of these walls. - -[103] Those who have a topographical acquaintance with Stamboul are -aware that at about three-quarters of a mile from the Golden Horn -the wall turns abruptly to the west and makes a circuit as if to -include a supplementary area of ground. It is well understood that -this part, which is single for the most part and without a moat, but -by compensation on a still more colossal scale, is the work of later -emperors—Heraclius, Leo Armenius, Manuel Comnenus, and Isaac Angelus -(600 to 1200). All traces of the wall of Theodosius, which ran inside, -have disappeared, according to Paspates, but Mordtmann thinks he can -recognize certain ruined portions (_op. cit._, p. 11 and Map). - -[104] Or from Charisius, one of the masters of the works (Codin., p. -110). - -[105] It appears that Anthemius in 413 (Cod. Theod., XV, i, 51) only -raised the great wall, and that in 447, when fifty-seven towers -collapsed (Marcellin. Com., A.D. 447; Chron. Pasch., 447, 450 A.D.), -Cyrus repaired the damage and added the lesser wall (Theophanes, an. -5937; Cedrenus, i, p. 598, and the words ἐδείματο τείχεϊ τεῖχος of the -inscription). Cedrenus states virtually that he demolished the wall and -replaced it by three others, alluding perhaps to the moat, but Cedrenus -is often wrong. All seven (or nine) chronographists relate more or less -exactly that Cyrus gained such popularity by his works that the public -acclamations offended the Emperor, who forced the tonsure on him and -sent him to Smyrna as bishop in the hope that the turbulent populace, -who had already killed four of their bishops, would speedily add him to -the number. By his ready wit, however, he diverted their evil designs -and won their respect. Zonaras, xiii, 22, and Nicephorus Cal., xiv, 1, -have an incorrect idea of the wall-building. According to the latter, -Anthemius was the man of speed. Malala mentions Cyrus, but not the wall. - -[106] The Greek verses are given in the Anthology (Planudes, iv, 28). -The Latin I may reproduce here: - - Theudosii jussis gemino nec mense peracto - Constantinus ovans haec moenia firma locavit. - Tam cito tam stabilem Pallas vix conderet arcem. - -This epigram and its companion in Greek are still legible on the stone -of the Rhegium Gate (now of Melandesia). See Paspates, _op. cit._, pp. -47, 50. The Porta Xylocerci has practically disappeared. - -[107] Mordtmann’s exposition of these gates is the most convincing -(_op. cit._, p. 16, etc.). I have omitted the Gate of the Seven Towers -as it has always been claimed as a Turkish innovation, a view, however, -which he rejects. In any case it was but a postern—there may have been -others such in the extinct section of the wall. - -[108] That is an S, which at this period was formed roughly like our C. - -[109] Cedrenus, ii, p. 173; or a personification of the city; Codin., -p. 47. - -[110] Zonaras, xv, 4. - -[111] A fragment still exists on the northern tower. See Grosvenor, -_op. cit._, p. 591. - -[112] Chrysoloras, _loc. cit._, Gyllius, De Top. CP., iv, 9. - -[113] _Ibid._ Gyllius would seem to have been inside when making -these observations, but that would be within the fortress of Yedi -Koulé, rigorously guarded at that time. Doubtless the city side was -adorned, but no description of the gate as a whole is left to us. The -ornaments are only mentioned incidentally when recording damage done by -earthquakes (in their frequency often the best friends of the modern -archaeologist) and their arrangement can only be guessed at. Most -likely they were of gilded bronze, a common kind of statue among the -Byzantines. See Codinus, _passim_. The idea that the Golden Gate opened -into a fortress should be abandoned. The conception of the Seven Towers -seems to have originated with the Palaeologi in 1390, but Bajazet -ordered the demolition of the unfinished works (Ducas, 13), and it was -left to the Turkish conqueror to carry out the idea in 1458. See p. 26. -I may remark here that Mordtmann’s map has not been brought up to date -as regards his own text. - -[114] Cedrenus, i, p. 675. - -[115] _Ibid._, i, p. 567; Codin., pp. 26, 47; said to have been brought -from the temple of Mars at Athens. - -[116] The first Golden Gate was erected, or rather transformed, by -Theodosius I, as the following epigram, inscribed on the gate, shows -(Corp. Inscript. Lat., Berlin, 1873, No. 735): - - Haec loca Theudosius decorat post fata tyranni, - Aurea secla gerit, qui portam construit auro. - -It was, of course, in the wall of Constantine (Codin., p. 122) and -seems to have remained to a late date—Map of Buondelmonte, Ducange, CP. -Christ., etc. For a probable representation see Banduri, Imp. Orient., -ii, pl. xi. But Van Millingen (_op. cit._), having found traces of the -inscription on the remaining structure, considers there never was any -other. In that case it was at first a triumphal arch outside the walls. - -[117] The remarkable structure known as the Marble Tower, rising from -the waters of the Marmora to the height of a hundred feet, near the -junction of the sea- and land-wall is of later date, but its founder is -unknown and it has no clear history in Byzantine times. See Mordtmann, -_op. cit._, p. 13. - -[118] Glycas, iv; Codin., p. 128. A legend, perhaps, owing to _débris_ -of walls ruined by earthquakes collecting there in the course of -centuries. - -[119] See Mordtmann, _op. cit._, p. 60; Codin., p. 109. - -[120] Codin., p. 101. Great hulks of timber were built to float -obelisks and marble columns over the Mediterranean; Ammianus, xvii, 4. - -[121] _Ibid._, p. 102. - -[122] Codin., pp. 49, 104. - -[123] Notitia, Reg. 12. - -[124] Codin., _loc. cit._ - -[125] Gyllius, De Top. CP., iv, 8. - -[126] Mordtmann, _op. cit._, p. 59. - -[127] Zosimus, iii, 11; Codin., p. 87. - -[128] Notitia, Reg. 3. We hear of a trumpet-tower (βύκινον, Codin., -p. 86; βύκανον, Nicetas Chon., p. 733) by this harbour fitted with -a “siren” formed of brass pipes, whose mouths protruding outside -resounded when they caught the wind blowing off the sea. Ducange, -i, p. 13, thinks a later fable has risen out of the vocal towers of -Byzantium. “Sic nugas nugantur Graeculi nugigeruli,” says Banduri (ii, -p. 487). There was certainly a watch-tower here, but of origin and date -unknown. Mordtmann, _op. cit._, p. 55. - -[129] Codin., _loc. cit._ - -[130] Marcel. Com., an. 409. - -[131] Suidas, _sb._, Anast. In a later age this port was enlarged and -defended by an iron grill. Anton. Novog. in Mordtmann, _op. cit._, p. -55. - -[132] About fifty feet above it; for a photograph of the existing ruins -see Grosvenor, _op. cit._, p. 388. Also Van Millingen’s work and others. - -[133] William of Tyre, xx, 25. - -[134] Anna Comn., iii, 1. - -[135] Zonaras, xv, 25, etc.; Const. Porph., i, 19, etc. - -[136] Codin., p. 100, says the palace was founded by Theodosius II. The -group was probably ravished from some classic site at an early period -when the mania for decorating CP. was still rife. The existence of the -harbour at this date may be darkly inferred from Socrates, ii, 16; -Sozomen, iii, 9; Procopius, De Bel. Pers., i, 24; Theophanes, an. 6003. -Τὰς πύλας τοῦ βασιλείου πανταχόθεν ἀπέκλεισεν, καἱ πλοῖα εἰς τὸ φυγεῖν, -τῷ παλατίῳ παρέστησεν; Theodore Lect., ii, 26. All these passages prove -the existence of a harbour approachable only from the palace, which -probably was then, or afterwards became, the Boukoleon. Van Millingen -(_op. cit._) gives good reasons for placing the Boukoleon on this site, -the only likely one (see Appendix). The name Boukoleon is not found in -literature before 800; Theoph., Cont., i, 11. From _ibid._, vi, 15, -it may be inferred that the main group of statuary had long been in -position. - -[137] For his story see Zosimus, ii, 27; Ammianus, xvi, 10. He was a -Christian who escaped from prison to the court of Constantine; see -Appendix. - -[138] Nicephorus Cal., xiv, 2, etc. - -[139] _Ibid._, Niceph. Greg., iv, 2, etc.; Codin., De Offic. CP., 12. - -[140] Ἡ Ὁδηγός. The place was called Ὁδηγήτρια; Codin., p. 80. - -[141] _Ibid._ - -[142] Or a monastery for blind monks, perhaps; Niceph. Greg., xi, 9, -etc. - -[143] Probably the Master of the Infantry under Theodosius I; Zosimus, -iv, 45, etc. - -[144] It is said that those going from Byzantium to Chalcedon, at the -mouth of the Bosphorus on the Asiatic side, were obliged to start -from here and make a peculiar circuit to avoid adverse currents. See -Gyllius, _op. cit._, iii, 1. - -[145] That is, the fig-region, Codin. (Hesych.), p. 6. Now Galata and -Pera. - -[146] The Constantinopolitans generally confounded this name with the -legendary Phosphoros (see p. 5), and the geographical Bosporos. The -Notitia (Reg. 5) proves its real form and significance; also Evagrius, -ii, 13. - -[147] Codin., pp. 52, 60, 188. This ox was believed to bellow once a -year to warn the city of the advent of some calamity (_ibid._, p. 60). - -[148] _Ibid._, p. 113. The wall here formed another Sigma to surround -the inner sweep of the port. These two harbours we may suppose to be -those of Byzantium as known to Dion Cassius (see p. 7). - -[149] A patrician, who came from Rome with Constantine and took a share -in adorning the city (Glycas, iv, p. 463), or another, who lived under -Theodosius I (Codin., p. 77). - -[150] Codin., p. 114; Cedrenus, ii, p. 80; Leo Diac., p. 78. This tower -was standing up to 1817; see Κωνσταντινιαδε, Venice, 1824, p. 14, by -Constantius, Archbishop of CP. This appears to be the first attempt by -a modern Greek to investigate the antiquities of CP. He had to disguise -himself as a dervish to explore Stamboul, for which he was banished to -the Prince’s Islands, and his book was publicly burnt. - -[151] Leo Diac. (_loc. cit._) explains how the chain was supported at -intervals on piles. It seems to have been first used in 717 by Leo -Isaurus; Theophanes, i, p. 609; Manuel Comn. even drew a chain across -the Bosphorus from CP. to the tower called Arcula (Maiden’s T., etc.), -which he constructed for the purpose (Nicetas Chon., vii, 3). - -[152] Theophanes, an. 6024; Codin., p. 93. The “junction,” that of the -mules to the vehicle containing the relics of St. Stephen newly arrived -from Alexandria! - -[153] Xenophon notices the plenty of timber on these coasts (Anab., vi, -2). - -[154] Strabo, vii, 6; Gyllius, _op. cit._, iii, 9. - -[155] Zosimus, ii, 35. This circumstance, and the fact that almost -all the towers along here bear the name of Theophilus (Paspates, -_op. cit._, p. 4), suggest that this side was not walled till the -ninth century. Chron. Paschal. (an. 439) doubtless refers only to the -completion of the wall on the Propontis. Grosvenor (p. 570) adopts this -view, but as usual without giving reasons or references. He is wrong in -saying that the chain was first broken in 1203 by the Crusaders; it was -broken in 823 (Cedrenus, p. 80; Zonaras, xv, 23). I do not credit the -statement of Sidonius Ap. (Laus Anthemii) that houses were raised in -the Propontis on foundations formed of hydraulic cement from Puteoli. -In any case, such could have been obtained much nearer, viz., across -the water at Cyzicus (Pliny, Hist. Nat., xxxv, 47). The Bp. of Clermont -never visited CP. - -[156] Notitia, Reg. 14. There was a populous suburb at Blachernae, -which had walls of its own before Theodosius included it within the -city proper. - -[157] Codin., pp. 30, 120; Suidas, _sb._ Mamante (St. Mamas, however, -appears to have been outside the walls; Theophanes, an. 6304, etc.); -Glycas, iv. Versions of the same story, probably. Gyllius’ memory fails -him on this occasion. - -[158] Ἀργυρολίμνη; see Paspates, _op. cit._, p. 68. - -[159] Chrysoloras, _loc. cit._ The Notitia enumerates fifty-two, which -we may understand to be pairs, before the enlargement by Theodosius. - -[160] Codin., p. 22. In this account the patricians, who accompanied -Constantine, are represented as undertaking many of the public -buildings at their own expense. See also Nonius Marc. (in Pancirolo ad -Notit.). In this case a testator wills that a portico with silver and -marble statues be erected in his native town. - -[161] Cod. Theod., XV, i, 44; iv; vii, 12, etc., with Godfrey’s -commentary. The imperial portraits were painted in white on a blue -ground; Chrysostom, 1 Cor., x, 1 (in Migne, iii, 247). “The countenance -of the Emperor must be set up in courts, market-places, assemblies, -theatres, and wherever business is transacted, that he may safeguard -the proceedings”; Severianus, De Mund. Creat., vi, 5 (apud. Chrysost., -Migne, vi, 489). - -[162] Cod. Theod., _loc. cit._; Philostorgius, ii, 17. - -[163] _Ibid._, IX, xliv; Institut., i, 8. On proof the master could -be compelled to sell the slave on the chance of his acquiring more -congenial service, but the privilege was often abused. - -[164] _Ibid._, XV, vii, 12. - -[165] _Ibid._, XV, i, 52. - -[166] _Ibid._, 53; Vitruvius, v, 11, etc. - -[167] Cod., VIII, x, 12. A Greek Constitution of Zeno of considerable -length, and uniquely instructive on some points. These οἰκήματα were -limited to six feet of length and seven of height. - -[168] Novel cxxxvi; Plato, Apol., 17, etc. - -[169] Whence called _emboliariae_ (ἰμβολος being Byzantine for portico). -So say Alemannus _ad_ Procop. (Hist. Arcan., p. 381) and his copyist -Byzantios (_op. cit._, i, p. 113), but Pliny seems to use the word for -an actress in interludes (H. N., vii, 49), an occupation not, however, -very different. - -[170] Theophanes, Cont., p. 417. In the severe winter of 933, Romanus -Lecapenus blocked the interspaces and fitted them with windows and -doors. - -[171] They are, in fact, called the “narrows” in the Greek στενωποί. - -[172] Παρακύπτικος, Cod., _loc. cit._ - -[173] Texier and Pullan, _op. cit._, p. 4; Agincourt, Hist. of Art, i, -pl. 25. Mica or talc (_lapis specularis_) was commonly used at Rome -for windows (Pliny, H. N., xxxvi, 45). Gibbon rather carelessly says -that Firmus (_c._ 272) had glass windows; they were vitreous squares -for wall decoration (Hist. August., _sb._ Firmo). Half a century later -Lactantius is clear enough—“fenestras lucente vitro aut speculari -lapide obductas” (De Opif. Dei, 8). Pliny tells us that clear glass was -most expensive, and, six centuries later, Isidore of Seville makes the -same remark (Hist. Nat., xxxvi, 67; Etymologies, xvi, 16). - -[174] The climate of the East requires that windows shall generally be -kept open; even shutters are often dispensed with. - -[175] See Cod. Theod., XV, i, De Op. Pub., _passim_. This legislation -was initiated by Leo Thrax, probably after the great fire of 469 (Jn. -Malala; Chron. Pasch., etc.). - -[176] Zosimus, ii, 35. - -[177] Cod., _loc. cit._ - -[178] Agathias, v, 3. - -[179] A century earlier there were 322 according to the Notitia. - -[180] Zeno, Cod., _loc. cit._ - -[181] We know little of the _insulae_ or συνοικίαι of CP., but we can -conceive of no other kind of private house requiring such an elevation. -Besides, _insulae_ are the subject of an argument in Cod., VIII, -xxxviii, 15 (enacted at CP. about this time). - -[182] Chrysostom, In Psal. xlviii, 8 (Migne, v, 510); Agathias, _loc. -cit._; Texier and Pullan, _loc. cit._ - -[183] Niceph. Greg., viii, 5. Merely a tradition in his time; it is -commonly called the column of Theodosius. Grosvenor absurdly places on -it an equestrian statue of Theodosius I, with an epigram which belongs -to another place; _op. cit._, p. 386; see _infra._ Founded on a rock, -it has withstood the commotions of seventeen centuries. - -[184] Hist. August., _sb._ Gallieno. Much more likely than Claudius II; -everything points to its being a local civic memorial. “Pugnatum est -circa Pontum, et a Byzantiis ducibus victi sunt barbari. Veneriano item -duce, navali bello Gothi superati sunt, tum ipse militari periit morte” -(_c._ 266). - -[185] “Fortunae reduci ob devictos Gothos.” The Goths had been in -possession of Byzantium and the adjacent country on both sides of the -water; G. Syncell., i, p. 717, etc.; Zosimus, i, 34, etc. There was a -temple to Gallienus at Byzantium; Codinus, p. 179. He was evidently -popular here. - -[186] Jn. Lydus, De Mens., iii, 48. - -[187] Codin., p. 74; Glycas, iv, p. 468. - -[188] _Ibid._ - -[189] Codin., p. 31; Notitia, Reg. 2. - -[190] Zosimus, ii, 31. - -[191] Jn. Lydus, De Mens., iv, 86; Codinus, pp. 15, 28. - -[192] See the plates in Banduri, _op. cit._, ii; repeated in Agincourt -on a small scale, _op. cit._, ii, 11; i, 27. Déthier (_op. cit._) -throws some doubt on the accuracy of these delineations, the foundation -of which the reader can see for himself in Agincourt without resorting -to the athleticism imposed on himself by Déthier. The Erechtheum shows -that the design could be varied, the Pantheon that the dome was in use -long before this date; see Texier and Pullan, etc. - -[193] Leo Gram., p. 126, etc. - -[194] Codin., p. 60; Theophanes, i, p. 439. - -[195] His architect was named Aetherius; Cedrenus, i, p. 563. Probably -a short but wide colonnade flanked by double ranges of pillars; Anthol. -(Plan.), iv. 23. - -[196] Several names are given to these palatines or palace guards, -but it is not always certain which are collective and which special. -Procopius mentions the above; the Scholars were originally Armenians -(Anecdot. 24, 26, etc.). Four distinct bodies can be collected from -Const. Porph. De Cer. Aul. Codinus (p. 18) attributes the founding of -their quarters to Constantine; see Cod. Theod., VI, and Cod., XII. All -the household troops were termed Domestics, horse and foot; Notit. Dig. - -[197] See Const. Porph., De Cer. Aul., _passim_, with Reiske’s note on -the Candidati. - -[198] Codin., p. 18; Chron. Pasch. (an. 532) calls them porticoes. - -[199] See an illustration in Gori, Thesaur. Vet. Diptych.; reduced in -Agincourt, _op. cit._, ii, 12, also another in Montfaucon containing -a female figure supposed to be the Empress Placidia Galla; III, i, p. -46 (but Gori makes it a male figure!). The _kiborion_ (a cup), also -called _kamelaukion_ (literally a sort of head covering), was sometimes -fixed, in which case the columns might be of marble. Silver pillars are -mentioned in Const. Porph., _op. cit._, i, 1; cf. Texier and Pullan, -_op. cit._, p. 135, a cut of an elaborate silver _kiborion_. From Gori -it may be seen that the design of these state chairs is almost always -that of a seat supported at each of the front corners by a lion’s head -and claw, etc. - -[200] Built by Constantine; Codin., p. 18. - -[201] Another foundation of Constantine, clearly enough from Chron. -Pasch. (an. 328, p. 528), as Labarte remarks (_op. cit._, p. 137). - -[202] Codin., p. 100; it had been brought from Rome. I prefer this -indigenous explanation to the surmise of Reiske (Const. Porph., _op. -cit._, ii, p. 49), that it was here that the victors in the games -received their crowns of laurel (Δάφνη): - - Nay, lady, sit; if I but wave this wand, - Your nerves are all bound up in alabaster, - And you a statue, or, as Daphne was, - Root-bound that fled Apollo. - MILTON’S Comus. - - -[203] Codin., p. 101; the most likely position, as a surmise. - -[204] Jn. Malala, xvi; Zonaras, xiv, 3, etc. - -[205] Procopius, De Bel. Pers., ii, 21, etc. “Three decurions -marshalled the thirty brilliantly armed Silentiaries who paced -backwards and forwards before the purple veil guarding the slumber of -the sovereign”; Hodgkin, Cassiodorus, p. 88. - -[206] Codin., p. 101; see the plans of Labarte and Paspates. - -[207] Built by Constantine according to Codinus (p. 19) as emended by -Lambecius. The original palace extended eastward to the district called -Τόποι (_ibid._, p. 79), on the shore near the Bucoleon. - -[208] The conception of the sanctity of the Emperor’s person, which -originated in the adulation of the proconsuls of the eastern provinces -by the Orientals and in the subservience of the Senate to Augustus, -attained its height under Diocletian (_c._ 300), who first introduced -at Court the Oriental forms of adoration and prostration (Eutropius, -ix, etc.). It was probably even increased under the Christian emperors, -and Theodosius I was enabled to promulgate a law that merely to doubt -the correctness of the Emperor’s opinion or judgement constituted a -sacrilege (Cod., IX, xxix, 3, etc.). - -[209] Cod. Theod., VI, viii; Cod., XII, v. - -[210] Theophanes, Cont., iv, 35; cf. Symeon, Mag., p. 681, where the -invention is ascribed to Bp. Leo of Thessalonica under Theophilus. The -stations by which an inroad of the Saracens was reported _c. 800_ are -here given. Its use for signalling at this date cannot be asserted -definitely, but it was a relic of old Byzantium erected as a nautical -light-house; Ammianus, xxii, 8. - -[211] Codin., p. 81; the particular area to which this name was applied -seems to have been a polo ground; Theoph., Cont., v, 86, and Reiske’s -note to Const. Porph., ii, p. 362. It was encompassed by flower gardens. - -[212] Marrast has given us his notion of these gardens at some length: -“Entre des haies de phyllyrea taillées de façon de figurer des lettres -grecques et orientales, des sentiers dallés de marbre aboutissaient à -un phialée entourée de douze dragons de bronze.... Une eau parfumée -en jaillissait et ruisselait par dessus les branches des palmiers -et des cedres dorés jusqu’à hauteur d’homme. Des paons de la Chine, -des faisans et des ibis, volaient en liberté dans les arbres ou -s’abattaient sur le sol, semé d’un sable d’or apporté d’Asie à grands -frais.” La vie byzantine au VI^e siècle, Paris, 1881, p. 67. - -[213] Labarte gives these walls, towers, etc. Doubtless the palace was -well protected from the first, but did not assume the appearance of an -actual fortress till the tenth century under Nicephorus Phocas; Leo -Diac., iv, 6. - -[214] Codin., p. 95 (?); Const. Porph., i, 21, etc. Probably a -structure like the elevated portico at Antioch mentioned by Theodoret, -iv, 26. - -[215] Luitprand, Antapodosis, i, 6. A legend of a later age, no -doubt, which may be quietly interred with Constantine’s gift to -Pope Sylvester. We hear nothing of it in connection with Arcadius, -Theodosius II, etc., and it is only foreshadowed in 797 by a late -writer (Cedrenus, ii, p. 27), who would assume anything. The epithet -became fashionable in the tenth century. One writer thinks the name -arose from a ceremonial gift of purple robes to the wives of the court -dignitaries at the beginning of each winter by the empress; Theoph., -Cont., iii, 44. - -[216] Anna Comn., vii, 2. - -[217] The archaeological student may refer to the elaborate -reconstructions by Labarte and Paspates of the palace as it existed in -the tenth century. Their conceptions differ considerably, the former -writer being generally in close accord with the literary indications. -Paspates is too Procrustean in his methods, and unduly desirous of -identifying every recoverable fragment of masonry. Their works are -based almost entirely on the Book of Ceremonies of Constantine VII, -but even if such a manual existed for the date under consideration the -historical reader would soon tire of an exposition setting forth the -order and decoration of a hundred chambers. - -[218] Codin., pp. 16, 130. - -[219] This name is understood to refer, not to a female saint, but to -the Holy Wisdom ( Ἅγια Σοφία), the Λόγος, the Word, _i.e._, Christ; -Procopius, De Bel. Vand., i, 6, etc. - -[220] Lethaby and Swainson give good reasons for supposing that this -early church opened to the east; St. Sophia, etc., Lond., 1894, p. 17. -It was burnt in the time of Chrysostom, but apparently repaired without -alteration of design. - -[221] Ambo, plainly from ἀναβαίνω, to ascend, not, as some imagine, -from the double approach; Reiske, Const. Porph., ii, p. 112; Letheby -and S., _op. cit._, p. 53. - -[222] The gift of Pulcheria, presented as a token of the perpetual -virginity to which she devoted herself and her sisters; Sozomen, ix, -1; Glycas, iv, p. 495. The Emperor used to sit in the _Bema_, but St. -Ambrose vindicated its sanctity to the priestly caste by expelling -Theodosius I; Sozomen, vii, 25, etc. - -[223] Socrates, vi, 5; Sozomen, viii, 5. - -[224] Codin., pp. 16, 64. There is no systematic description of -this church, but the numerous references to it and an examination -of ecclesiastical remains of the period show clearly enough what it -was; see Texier and Fullan, _op. cit._, p. 134, etc.; Agincourt, _op. -cit._, i, pl. iv, xvi; Eusebius, Vit. Const., iv, 46, etc. It may have -been founded by Constantine, but was certainly dedicated by his son -Constantius in 360; Socrates, ii, 16. - -[225] _Ibid._ - -[226] Procopius, De Aedific., i, 2, etc. - -[227] Codin., p. 83; cf. Mordtmann, _op. cit._, p. 4. - -[228] We know little of the Magnaura or Great Hall (_magna aula_) at -this date, but its existence is certain; Chron. Paschal., an. 532. -Codinus says it was built by Constantine (p. 19). - -[229] Theophanes, Cont., v, 92, etc. - -[230] Const. Porph., ii, 15. The author professes to draw his precepts -from the ancients, but his “antiquity” sometimes does not extend -backwards for more than half a century. - -[231] Codin., pp. 14, 36; Zonaras, xiv, 6, etc. Zeuxippus is either a -cognomen of Zeus or of the sun, or the name of a king of Megara; Chron. -Paschal., an. 197, etc.; Jn. Lydus, De Magist., iii, 70. - -[232] Sozomen, iii, 9. - -[233] Anthology (Planudes), v. - -[234] Cedrenus, i, p. 648; cf. Anthol. (Plan.), v, 61. - -[235] The vast baths of the Empire, as is well known, were evolved into -a kind of polytechnic institutes for study and recreation. - -[236] Chron. Pasch., an. 450. Artificial lighting was first introduced -by Alex. Severus; Hist. August.; Cod. Theod., XV, i, 52; Cod., XI, i, -1, etc. - -[237] Cedrenus, i, p. 648. - -[238] Codin., p. 83; cf. Mordtmann, _op. cit._, p. 66. - -[239] Zosimus, iii, 11. It contained 120,000 volumes, the pride of the -library being a copy of Homer inscribed on the intestine of a serpent -120 feet long. The building, however, was gutted by fire in the reign -of Zeno; Zonaras, xiv, 2, etc. - -[240] Suidas, _sb._ Menandro; Agathias, iii, 1; Procop., De Aedific., -i, 11. - -[241] Zonaras, xiv, 6; Marcellinus, Com., an. 390, etc. - -[242] Socrates, vi, 18; Theophanes, an. 398; Sozomen (viii, 20) -says merely an inaugural festival. The pedestal, with a bilingual -inscription, was uncovered of late years, precisely where we should -expect it to have stood, and yet Paspates (Βυζαντινὰ Ανάκτορα, p. -95) in his map removes it a quarter of a mile southwards to meet his -reconstructive views, cf. Mordtmann, _op. cit._, p. 64. - -[243] Codin., p. 35. - -[244] _Ibid._, p. 19. There is now an Ottoman fountain on the same -site. In the case of doubtful identifications, I usually adopt the -conclusions of Mordtmann (_op. cit._, p. 64). - -[245] _Milliarium Aureum_ (Notitia, Reg. 4). In imitation of that set -up by Augustus in the Roman Forum; Tacitus, Hist., i, 27, etc. - -[246] Cedrenus, i, p. 564; Codin., pp. 28, 35, 168, etc. Byzantios and -Paspates speak of an upper storey supported by seven pillars, on the -strength of some remains unearthed in 1848, but the situation does -not seem to apply to this monument as at present located; see also -Grosvenor (_op. cit._, p. 298) for an illustration of the figures. - -[247] Codin., p. 40. Removed to Hippodrome, perhaps, at this date. -In any case the scrappy and contradictory records only allow of a -tentative restoration of the Milion. Close by was the death-place -of Arius, in respect of whom, with Sabellius and other heretics, -Theodosius I set up a sculptured tablet devoting the spot to public -defilement with excrement, etc. (_ibid._). Such were the manners and -fanaticism of the age. - -[248] Zosimus, iii, 11. - -[249] Gyllius, De Topog. CP., ii, 13. - -[250] The method of construction can be seen in the sketch of the -ruins (_c. 1350_) brought to light by Panvinius (De Ludis Circens., -Verona, 1600) and reproduced by Banduri and Montfaucon. As to whether -the intercolumnar spaces were adorned with statues we have no -information. The wealth of such works of art at Constantinople would -render it extremely likely. Cassiodorus says the statues at Rome were -as numerous as the living inhabitants (Var. Ep., xv, 7). We know from -existing coins that the Coliseum was so ornamented (see Maffei, Degl’ -Amfitheatri, Verona, 1728; Panvinius, _op. cit._, etc.). High up there -appears to have been a range of balconies all round (Cod. Theod., XV, -i, 45). - -[251] They were of wood till 498, when they were burnt, but what time -restored in marble is unknown; Chron. Pasch., an. 498; Buondelmonte, -Descript. Urb. CP., 1423. - -[252] Codin., p. 14, etc. These substructions still exist; Grosvenor, -_op. cit._, p. 303. - -[253] Const. Porph., _op. cit._, ii, 20; Nicetas Chon., De Man. Com., -iii, 5. Eight, or perhaps twelve, open-barred gates separated the -Manganon (more often in the plural, Mangana) from the arena; see the -remains in the engraving of Panvinius. - -[254] Const. Porph., i, 68, 92, etc.; Agincourt, _op. cit._, ii, pl. -10. The latter gives copies of bas-reliefs in which the Emperor is -shown sitting in his place in the Circus (see below). Procopius calls -it simply the throne; De Bel. Pers., i, 24; cf. Jn. Malala, p. 320; -Chron. Pasch., an. 498. Originally, it appears, merely the seat or -throne, but afterwards the whole tribunal or edifice. - -[255] Const. Porph., i, 9, 92. It was also called the Pi (Π) from its -shape; _ibid._, i, 69. - -[256] Named the Cochlea or snail-shell; it seems to have been a -favourite gangway for assassinating obnoxious courtiers; Jn. Malala, p. -344; Chron. Pasch., an. 380; Theophanes, an. 5969; Codin., p. 112, etc. - -[257] Const. Porph., i, 68; cf. Procop., De Bel. Pers., i, 24. - -[258] Const. Porph., i, 63; Codin., p. 100. The Circus, begun by -Severus, was finished by Constantine; Codin., pp. 14, 19; see Ducange, -_sb. nom._ - -[259] Euripus (Εὔριπος). I. The narrow strait at Chalcis, said to ebb -and flow seven times a day; Strabo, x, 2; Suidas, _sb. v._ II. Tr. Any -artificial ornamental pool or channel, partic. if oblong; see refs. -in Latin Dicts., esp. Lewis and S. III. A canal round the area of the -Roman Circus, to shield the spectators from the attack of infuriated -beasts; devised apparently by Tarquinius Priscus; Dionysius Hal., iii, -68; rather by Julius Caesar, and abolished by Nero; Pliny, H. N., -viii, 7, etc. IV. Restored by, or in existence under, Elagabalus as a -pool in the centre; Hist. Aug., 23; so Cassiodorus, Var. Ep., iii, 51; -Jn. Malala, vii, p. 175 (whence Chron. Pasch., Olymp., vii, p. 208; -Cedrenus, i, p. 258); Lyons and Barcelona mosaics (see Daremberg and S. -Dict. Antiq.). V. The name tr. to whole Spine by Byzantines; Jn. Lydus, -De Mens., i, 12, Εὔριπος ὠνομάσθη ἡ μέσον τοῦ ἱπποδρόμου κρηπίς; Const. -Porph., _op. cit._, pp. 338, 345; Cedrenus, ii, p. 343, etc. Labarte -seems strangely to have missed all but one of the numerous allusions to -the Euripus; _op. cit._, p. 53. This note is necessary, as no one seems -to have caught the later application of the name. - -[260] This monument still exists; see Agincourt, _loc. cit._, for -reproduction of the sculptures, etc. - -[261] Notitia, Col. Civ. This name was not bestowed on it by Gyllius, -as Labarte thinks (p. 50). It remains in position in a dilapidated -condition; see Grosvenor, _op. cit._, p. 320, etc. - -[262] Also in evidence at the present day; see Grosvenor’s photographs -of the three, pp. 320, 380. It is mentioned by Herodotus (ix, 80); and -by Pausanias (x, 13), who says the golden tripod was made away with -before his time. Some of the Byzantines, however, seem to aver that -Constantine had regained possession of that memorial; Eusebius, Vit. -Const., iii, 54; Codin., p. 55; Zosimus, ii, 31, etc. It appears that -the defacement of this monument was carried out methodically during -a nocturnal incantation under Michael III, _c. 835_. At the dead of -night “three strong men,” each armed with a sledge-hammer, stood over -it (Ἐν τοῖς εἰς τὸν εὔριπον (see p. 62) τοῦ ἱπποδρομίου χαλκοῖς -ἀνδριᾶσιν ἐλέγετό τις εἶναι ἀνδριὰς τρισὶ διαμορφούμενος κεφαλαῖς) -prepared to knock off the respective heads on the signal being given -by an unfrocked abbot. The hammers fell, two of the heads rolled to -the ground, but the third was only partly severed, the lower jaw, of -course, remaining; Theoph., Cont., p. 650; Cedrenus, ii, p. 145. On the -capture of the city in 1453 the fragment left was demolished by Mahomet -II with a stroke of his battle-axe to prove the strength of his arm on -what was reputed to be a talisman of the Greeks; Thévenot, Voyage au -Levant, etc., 1664, i, 17, “la maschoire d’embas.” So history, as it -seems, has given itself the trouble to account for the mutilation of -this antique. I must note, however, that neither Buondelmonte, Gyllius, -Busbecq, Thévenot, nor Spon, has described the damages it had sustained -at the time they are supposed to have contemplated the relic. See also -Grosvenor, _op. cit._, p. 381, whose account is scarcely intelligible -and is not based on references to any authorities. - -[263] Nicetas Chon., De Signis CP. This figure appears to be delineated -in the plate of Panvinius, which, however, is not very reliable, as -both the Colossus and the Serpent-pillar are absent from it. - -[264] Codin., p. 124. Probably, and supplanted at a later date by one -of Irene Attica. This is the literal Euripus. - -[265] Theophanes, an. 699. That the Empress sat in this lodge to -view the races (Buondelmonte) is beyond all credence, nor is there -any authority for placing it to one side among the public seats -(Grosvenor’s diagram), where her presence would be equally absurd. Her -bust may have appeared in it beside that of her husband. It is clearly -indicated in its true place on the engineering sculptures of the -Theodosian column (see above). - -[266] Nicetas Chon., De Alexio, iii, 4; De Signis; Codin., p. 39. First -at Tarentum; Plutarch, in Fabius Max., etc. To the knee it measured the -height of an ordinary man. - -[267] Nicetas Chon., De Signis; also celebrated by Christodorus, -Anthology, _loc. cit._ - -[268] The eggs in honour of Castor and Pollux; Tertullian, De -Spectaculis, 8: - - Κάστορά θ’ ἱππόδαμον καὶ πὺξ ἀγαθὸν Πολυδεύκεα. - Iliad, iii. - -The dolphins probably referred to Neptune, to whom the horse was sacred. - -[269] See Lyons and Barcelona mosaics as referred to above. - -[270] See the coins, etc., in Panvinius, which show that these cones -with their stands were about fifteen to twenty feet high. Sometimes -they rested on the ends of the Spina, at others on separate foundations -three or four feet off it. - -[271] Nicetas Chon., De Man. Comn., iii, 5; Codin., pp. 53, 192. They -were brought to Venice by the Crusaders in 1204, and now stand before -the cathedral of St. Mark; Buondelmonte, _loc. cit._ A much longer -pedigree is given by some accounts (Byzantios, _op. cit._, i, p. 234), -from Corinth to Rome by Mummius, and thence to CP. by Constantine. They -even had a journey to Paris under Napoleon. - -[272] Grosvenor, _op. cit._, p. 351. Some remains of it are still -visible. - -[273] Codin., p. 54. - -[274] Nicetas Chon., _loc. cit._ - -[275] _Ibid._, Codin., p. 54. - -[276] _Ibid._, p. 31. - -[277] Nicetas Chon., De Signis: Καλοῦμαι Νίκων καὶ ὁ ὅνος Νίκανδρος, -κ.τ.λ. Cf. Plutarch, Antony. - -[278] _Ibid._ - -[279] _Ibid._ - -[280] Codin., p. 53. - -[281] Jerome, Chronicon, an. 325. CP. “dedicatur pene omnium urbium -nuditate.” This Saint, however, is somewhat given to hyperbole. - -[282] See the various illustrations in Panvinius. - -[283] We hear nothing of _vomitoria_, approaches beneath the seats -to the various positions, nor do we know how the large space under -the incline of benches was occupied. At Rome, in the Circus Maximus, -there were “dark archways” in this situation, which were let out to -brothel-keepers; Hist. August. _sb._ Heliogabalo, 26, etc. In the time -of Valens, however, a record office was established here; Jn. Lydus, De -Magistr., iii, 19. - -[284] Procopius, De Bel. Pers., i, 24. - -[285] Ducange, _op. cit._, i, p. 104; a collection of instances. - -[286] Const. Porph., _loc. cit._ At Rome such awnings were decorated to -resemble the sky with stars, etc. - -[287] Codin., pp. 20, 22; part previously by Severus; Zosimus, ii, 30. - -[288] Codin., p. 39. - -[289] _Ibid._, p. 37. - -[290] Cedrenus, p. 564. - -[291] _Ibid._, p. 616; Zonaras, xiv, 2. - -[292] Resembling, if not the prototype of, the Venus dei Medici; see -Lucian, Amores. - -[293] See Pausanias, v, 12. - -[294] Cedrenus, _loc. cit._ - -[295] Theophanes, an. 6024. - -[296] Zosimus, ii, 30; Codin., p. 41. Said to have been designed to the -size and shape of Constantine’s tent, which was pitched here when he -took Byzantium from Licinius. - -[297] _Ibid._; Jn. Malala, p. 320; Zonaras, xiii, 3, etc. Really a -statue of Apollo taken from Heliopolis in Phrygia and refurbished. - -[298] _Ibid._; Cedrenus, i, p. 565. The blending of Paganism and -Christianity is an interesting phase in the evolution of Constantine’s -theology. The crosses of the two thieves were also reputed to have been -stowed here till removed to a safer place by Theodosius I; also a part -of the true cross; Socrates, i, 17; Codin., p. 30. Curiously enough, -this Forum has been confounded with the Augusteum both by Labarte -and Paspates, a mistake almost incredible in the latter, a resident, -considering that the pillar of Constantine still exists in a scarred -and mutilated condition; hence known as the “Burnt Pillar,” and called -by the Turks “Djemberli Tash,” or Hooped Stone; see Grosvenor, _op. -cit._, p. 374, etc. - -[299] Jn. Malala, _loc. cit._; Codin., pp. 44, 180. - -[300] _Ibid._, pp. 28, 68; Cedrenus, ii, p. 564. - -[301] Notitia, Reg. 6; Cedrenus, i, p. 565. It had been burnt down -previous to this date, but seems to have been restored. - -[302] Codin., p. 48. - -[303] Notitia, Reg. 5; Gyllius, De Top. CP., iii, 1. - -[304] Socrates, i, 16. - -[305] Codin., p. 48. - -[306] Jn. Malala, p. 292. - -[307] Codin., p. 76. - -[308] Codin., pp. 41, 170. It fell into decay and was, perhaps, removed -before this date; cf. Mordtmann, p. 69; one of the Gorgons was dug up -in 1870. - -[309] Codin., p. 40. - -[310] See Mordtmann, _op. cit._, p. 69, and Map. - -[311] Evidenced by the discovery of a swarm of leaden _bullae_, or -seals for official documents, about 1877; _ibid._, p. 70. But in the -sixth century the legal records from the time of Valens were kept in -the basement of the Hippodrome; Jn. Lydus, De Magistr., iii, 19. - -[312] Cod. Theod., XIV, ix, 3, with Godfrey’s commentary. The Turkish -Seraskierat has taken the place of Taurus. - -[313] Cedrenus, i, p. 566; Codin., p. 42, etc. The chronographists -think it particularly necessary to mention that this pillar was -pervious by means of a winding stair. In a later age, when the -inscriptions on the base became illegible, they were supposed to be -prophecies of the future conquest of Constantinople by the Russians. - -[314] Marcell., Com., an. 480, 506; Zonaras, xiv, 4. - -[315] Déthier, _op. cit._, p. 14; he discovered a few letters of -the epigram (Anthology, Plan., iv, 4) on a fragment of an arch; cf. -Cedrenus, i, p. 566. - -[316] The favourite Byzantine appellation for Joshua the son of Nun. - -[317] _Ibid._; Nicetas Chon., De Signis, 4. - -[318] Codin., p. 42. - -[319] _Ibid._, p. 124. - -[320] _Ibid._, pp. 42, 74; see Anthology (Plan.), iv, 22, for two -epigrams which give some idea of the scope of these _Xenodochia_. - -[321] Notitia, Reg. 10. - -[322] Cedrenus, i, p. 610; Zonaras, xiv, 1; sufficiently corroborated -by Cod., VIII, xii, 21, and not a mere assumption arising out of -the similarity of νυμφαῖον to νύμφη, a bride, as argued by some -commentators. Fountains were sacred to the Nymphs; see Ducange, CP. -Christ, _sb. voc._ - -[323] See the title _De Aqueductu_ in both Codes and Godfrey’s -commentary. - -[324] This aqueduct seems to have been built originally by Hadrian, -restored by Valens, who used for the purpose the walls of Chalcedon -as a punishment for that town having taken the part of the usurper -Procopius, and again restored by Theodosius I. Hence it is denoted by -the names of each of these emperors at different times; Socrates, iv, -8; Zonaras, xiii, 16; and the Codes, _loc. cit._ - -[325] Chrysoloras, _loc. cit._, etc. - -[326] Codin., p. 14. - -[327] _Ibid._, p. 21; Byzantios, _op. cit._, i, p. 262. Still existing -in a dry state, and occupied by silk weavers. Most probably the name -arises from its having been founded by a patrician Philoxenus; the -Turks call it _Bin ber derek_, meaning 1,001 columns; see Grosvenor, -_op. cit._, p. 366. - -[328] Cod., XI, xlii, 7: “It would be execrable,” remarks Theodosius -II, “if the houses of this benign city had to pay for their water.” By -a constitution of Zeno every new patrician was to pay 100 lb. of gold -towards the maintenance of the aqueducts; Cod., XLI, iii, 3. - -[329] Codin., p. 9. - -[330] Forty of these at Rome; Notitia (Romae), Col. Civ. - -[331] Codin., p. 50; cf. Cedrenus, ii, p. 107. “Hypnotic suggestion” -might account for some displays of this kind, and create a popular -belief in the test, which in most instances, however, would be more -likely to prove a convenient method of varnishing a sullied reputation. -Near the Neorium was a shelter called the Cornuted Porch, in which -St. Andrew, the apostle assigned by tradition to these regions, was -supposed to have taught. It took its name from a four-horned statue in -the vicinity, which had the credit of evincing its disapproval of an -incontinent wife by turning three times round on its pedestal if such a -one were brought into its presence; Codin., p. 119. - -[332] Cedrenus (i, p. 565) attributes it to Theodosius I, Codinus (p. -108) to Leo Isaurus; Nicetas Chon. (De Signis) laments its destruction -without mentioning the founder. - -[333] Legendary apparently. They really met in Pannonia; Julian, Orat. - -[334] Codin., pp. 43, 44, 182, 188. The Philadelphium was considered to -be the μεσόμφαλος or middle of the city. The numerous crosses set up by -Constantine are supposed to refer to the cross which he is said to have -seen in the sky near Rome before his victory over Maxentius—a fiction, -or an afterthought, but whose? - -[335] Codin., pp. 45, 65. - -[336] Cedrenus, i, p. 566. - -[337] _Ibid._; Anna Comn., xii, 6. - -[338] Codin., p. 45. Unless the course of the brook has altered, -the Amastrianum should be more to the south or west than shown on -Mordtmann’s map. - -[339] Codin., pp. 45, 172; forming some kind of boundary or inclosure -perhaps. - -[340] Cedrenus, i, p. 566. - -[341] _Ibid._; Codin., pp. 44, 173. - -[342] Theophanes, an. 5895, etc.; cf. Chron. Paschal., an. 421. - -[343] Cedrenus, i, p. 567. - -[344] Zonaras, xiii, 20; the base still remains in _Avret Bazaar_; the -pillar was still intact in the time of Gyllius, who ascended it; _op. -cit._, iv, 7. The sketches supposed to have been taken of the figures -on the spiral and published by Banduri and Agincourt have already been -alluded to; see p. 49. - -[345] Notitia, Reg. 12, etc. - -[346] Buondelmonte’s map; a “very handsome gate”; Codin., p. 122. I -have noted Van Millingen’s opinion that this was not the original -“Golden Gate”; see p. 34. But its mention in Notitia, Reg. 12, seems -fatal to his view. - -[347] Codin., p. 46. - -[348] _Ibid._, pp. 102, 121; see Paspates for an illustration of the -structure still on this site; Βυζαντιναὶ Μελεταί, p. 343. - -[349] Codin., p. 72; the Arians, chiefly Goths, were hence called -Exokionites; Jn. Malala, p. 325; Chron. Pasch., an. 485. - -[350] Codinus, p. 47. - -[351] _Ibid._ - -[352] Gregory Nazianz., De Somn. Anast., ix. - -[353] Eusebius, Vit. Constant., iv, 58, _et seq._; a later hand has -evidently embellished this description. - -[354] Const. Porph., De Cer. Aul. Byz., ii, 43; Codin., p. 203. - -[355] Corp. Inscript. Lat., Berlin, 1873, no. 738; still existing and -called by the Turks the “Girls’ Pillar,” from two angels bearing up -a shield figured on the pedestal; see Grosvenor, _op. cit._, p. 385; -there is an engraving of it in Miss Pardoe’s “Bosphorus,” etc. The -“girls” are utilized by Texier and P. in their frontispiece. - -[356] Notitia, Reg. 13; Procopius, De Bel. Pers., ii, 23, etc. Perhaps -not walled till later; Jn. Malala, xiii, p. 430. - -[357] Suetonius, in Augusto, 30. - -[358] Notitia, Reg. 1, with Pancirolus’s notes; Pand., I, xv; cf. -Gallus by Becker-Göll, Sc. i, note 1. - -[359] Ammianus, xiv, 1, with note by Valesius. - -[360] Cod. Theod., XIV, xvii; Suidas _sb._ Παλατῖνοι; we do not know -the exact form of these _Gradus_, but only that they were high, -the design being doubtless such as would prevent a crush. This -state-feeding of the people was begun at Rome by Julius Caesar, and -of course imitated by Constantine; Socrates, ii, 13, etc. The tickets -were checked by a brass plate for each person fixed at the Step; Cod. -Theod., XIV, xvii, 5. - -[361] Cod. Theod., IV, v, 7; always with Godfrey’s commentary; -Eunapius, Vit. Aedesii. - -[362] Notitia, Urb. CP., _passim_. - -[363] See Cod., I, iii, 32, 35, 42, 46, etc. Cf. Schlumberger’s work on -the Byzantine _bullae_. - -[364] Cod. Theod., XIII, iii, 8; Cod., X, lii, 9. - -[365] Codin., p. 22; cf. Pandect., XLIII, xxiii, 1. It appears probable -that neither middens nor cesspools existed within the walls. - -[366] See Minucius, Octavius, 10. - -[367] Paspates, Βυζαντιναὶ Μελεταί, p. 381, etc. There were, perhaps, -over one hundred churches and monasteries in Constantinople at this -time, but the Notitia, a century earlier, reckons only fourteen -churches; see Ducange’s list. - -[368] Western scholars since the Renaissance have fallen into the -habit of applying the diminutive _Graeculi_ to the Byzantines, thereby -distinguishing them from the _Graeci_, their pre-eminent ancestors, -who established the fame of the Dorians and Ionians. The Romans, after -their conquest of the country, began to apply it to all Greeks. Cicero, -De Orat., i, 22, etc. - -[369] Suidas, _sb. nom._; Tertullian, Apologia, 39; Athenaeus, xiii, -25. There was, however, a minor school of philosophy at Megara. - -[370] Aristotle, Politica, iv, 4. As late as the sixteenth century the -housewives residing next the water habitually took the fish by simple -devices, which are described by Gyllius; De Top. CP. Praef. - -[371] See the statements by Theopompus, Phylarchus, etc., in Müller, -Fragm. Hist. Graec., i, pp. 287, 336; ii, p. 154; iv, p. 377. Having -obtained an ascendancy over the frugal and industrious Chalcedonians -they are said to have corrupted them by their vices; cf. Müller’s -Dorians, ii, pp. 177, 418, etc. - -[372] Sextus Empir., Adversus Rhetor., 39. A demagogue, being asked -what laws were in force, replied, “Anything I like”—a frivolous or a -pregnant answer? - -[373] Aristotle in the doubtful Economica (ii, 4) describes some of -their makeshifts to maintain the exchequer. According to Cicero (De -Prov. Consular.) the city was full of art treasures, an evidence, -perhaps, of wasteful extravagance. - -[374] See p. 17. His daily grant of 80,000 measures of wheat, together -with the other allowances, to those who were served at the Steps, -would seem to indicate as many families, but there is no doubt that -the distribution was at first indiscriminate, and many were supplied -who could afford to keep up considerable establishments. Constantius -reduced the amount by one half; Socrates, ii, 13; Sozomen, iii, 7. -Heraclius abolished the free doles altogether; Chron. Paschal., an. 618. - -[375] “Matronae nostrae, ne adulteris quidem plus sui in cubiculo, quam -in publico ostendant”; see Seneca, De Beneficiis, vii, 9; cf. Horace, -Sat., I, ii, 102: - - Cois tibi paene videre est - Ut nudam, etc. - - -[376] By a law of Honorius the Romans were forbidden to wear long hair -(in 416), or garments of fur (in 397), such being characteristic of the -Goths who were then devastating Italy; Cod. Theod., XIV, x, 4, 3, 2. - -[377] See the lowest bas-reliefs on the Theodosian obelisk (Banduri, -ii, p. 499; Agincourt, ii, pi. x); Cod. Theod., XIV, x, 1; -Hefner-Altenek, Trachten des Mittelalters, pl. 91, 92. - -[378] Chrysostom, the pulpit declaimer against the abuses of his time, -was so enraged at seeing the young men delicately picking their steps -for fear of spoiling their fine shoes that he exclaims: “If you cannot -bear to use them for their proper purpose, why not hang them about your -neck or stick them on your head!”; In Matt. Hom. xlix, 4 (in Migne, -vii, 501). - -[379] “You bore the lobes of your ears,” says Chrysostom, “and fasten -in them enough gold to feed ten thousand poor persons”; In Matt. Hom. -lxxxix, 4 (in Migne, vii, 786); cf. Sozomen, viii, 23. - -[380] Chrysostom, In Ps. xlviii, 3 (in Migne, v, 515); Sozomen, _loc. -cit._, etc. Women’s girdles were worn under the breasts. - -[381] See Bingham’s Christian Antiquities, vii, 1, and Racinet, Costume -historique, iii, pl. 21. Read Lucian’s Cynicus for a defence of a -somewhat similar life on a different plane. - -[382] Chrysostom, In Epist. Tim. II, viii, 2 (in Migne, xi, 541). Even -these he rates for coquetry; cf. Bingham, _op. cit._, vii, 4, etc. See -also Viollet-le-Duc (Dict. du mobil. fr., i, pl. 1) for a coloured -figure which, though of the thirteenth century, corresponds very -closely with Chrysostom’s description. Formal costume, however, of the -present day, political, legal, ecclesiastical, is for the most part -merely a survival of the ordinary dress of past ages. - -[383] Basil Presbyt. ad Gregor. Naz., Steliteut. Const. Porph., _op. -cit._, ii, 52, p. 753, with Reiske’s notes, p. 460. - -[384] Cod. Theod., XV, vii, 11, 12; Cod., I, iv, 4(5); actresses -(_mimae_ = _meretrices_, no doubt) are forbidden to use this and other -styles of dress which might bring women of repute into ridicule. - -[385] Cod. Theod., XIV, xii; Chrysostom, De Perf. Carit., 6 (in Migne, -vi, 286). - -[386] Chrysostom, _loc. cit._ (in Migne, v, 515). - -[387] A _quadriga_. - -[388] Chrysostom, In Epist. ad Cor. Hom. xi, 5 (in Migne, x, 353). “Do -not be afraid,” says the Saint, “you are not among wild beasts; no one -will bite you. You do not mind the contact of your horse, but a man -must be driven a thousand miles away from you.” - -[389] Cod. Theod., XV, xiii, and Godefroy _ad loc._ - -[390] Chrysostom, In Epist. I ad Thess., v, Hom. xi, 2 (in Migne, xi, -465). - -[391] The laws and restrictions relating to the use of purple and the -collection of the _murex_, which was allowed only to certain families -or guilds, are contained in Cod. Theod., X, xx, xxi; Cod., XI, viii, -ix. Julius Caesar first assumed a full purple toga (Cicero, Philip, -ii, 34, probably from); Nero first made a sweeping enactment against -the use of the colour (Suetonius, in Nero, 32; cf. Julius, 43). Women, -however, were generally permitted some latitude and not obliged to -banish it altogether from their dress. - -[392] The globe as a symbol of the universal sway of Rome came into use -at or about the end of the Republic. It was not merely ideographic, but -was sometimes exhibited in bulk, and hollow globes have been found with -three chambers in which are contained samples of earth from the three -continents; see Sabatier, Mon. Byzant., Paris, 1862, p. 33. The cross -came in under the Christian emperors, and is said to be first seen on a -small coin of Jovian (363); _ibid._ - -[393] Cod., XII, iii, 5; Inst. i, 12. “Imperatoris autem celsitudinem -non valere eum quem sibi patrem elegerit,” etc. This new order of -patricians seems to have been instituted by Constantine, their title -being coined directly from _pater_; Zosimus, ii, 40; cf. Cedrenus, i, -p. 573. They were not lineally connected with the patrician caste of -ancient Rome (see Reiske, _ad_ Const. Porph., _sb. voc._), but were -turned out of the Imperial workshop as peers are created by an English -premier; see Leo Gram., p. 301. - -[394] These crowns have given rise to much discussion, for a clue to -which see Ludewig, _op. cit._, p. 658. Probably most emperors designed -a new crown. - -[395] Some of the large coloured stones worn by the ancients were not -very valuable according to modern ideas, _i.e._, cairngorms, topazes, -agates, etc.; see Pliny, H. N., xxxvii. - -[396] Ἡ πατρικία ζωστὴ: Codin., pp. 108, 125; cf. Reiske, _op. cit._, -_sb. voc._ - -[397] It would be tedious, if not impossible, to put into words the -details of these costumes. They are represented in the great mosaics -of S. Vitale at Ravenna, dating from the sixth century. They have been -beautifully restored in colour by Heffner-Altenek, _op. cit._—too well -perhaps. There are also full-sized paper casts at South Kensington. -There are many engravings of the same, but in all of them the details -have been partly omitted, partly misrepresented. The device on the -tables of the Emperor’s robe consists of green ducks (!) in red -circles; that on the Empress’s skirt of _magi_ in short tunics and -Phrygian caps, bearing presents. The men’s shoes, or rather slippers, -are fitted with toe and heel pieces only, and are held on by latchets. -The ladies’ shoes are red, and have nearly the modern shape, but are -not laced at the division. Their gowns and shawls are of all colours, -and much resemble diagonal printed calico, but in such cases it is the -richness of the fabric which tells. The materials for illustrating the -costume of this period are very scanty; we have neither the countless -sculptures, wall-paintings, fictile vases, etc., of earlier times, -nor the wealth of illuminated MSS., which teach so much objectively -respecting the later Middle Ages. - -[398] The _Curopalates_ at this date probably, a place not beneath the -first prince of the blood. - -[399] The Byzantine logothetes are first mentioned by Procopius, -De Bel. Goth., iii, 1, etc. At this date they were the Imperial -accountants. - -[400] Procopius, Anecd. 30. Hence it appears that the abject -prostration introduced by Diocletian was abandoned by his successors; -see p. 52. - -[401] Magister Scriniorum; Notitia, Or., xvii. - -[402] Cod., I, xxiii, 6; a law of Leo Macella in 470. - -[403] Cryptograms to modern readers if we are to follow the -perplexities of Pancirolus and Böcking, who, misled by the nonsense -of Cedrenus as to CONOB (i, p. 563), cannot realize the obvious as it -lies before their eyes. Godefroy expanded the legends to their full -complement with no difficulty; that of the Spectabiles is FeLiciter -INTer ALLectos COMites ORDinis PRimi; Cod. Theod., VI, xiii; cf. -Böcking’s Notitia, F. ii, pp. 283, 515, 528. - -[404] As the illustrations of the Notitia are not accompanied by any -explanation, considerable uncertainty prevails in respect of their -point and intention; it appears almost incontestable, however, that the -coloured figures were depicted in the codicils as they are seen in the -MSS. of the work; otherwise only verbal descriptions of the insignia -would be given; cf. Novel xxv, _et seq._; Const. Porph., ii, 52. - -[405] Cod. Theod., VI, xxii; a title omitted from the Code. - -[406] _Principes Officii_ and _Cornicularii_; Notitia, _passim_; Cod., -XII, liii, etc. - -[407] Const. Porph., ii, 1, 2; cf. Valesius ad Ammianum, xxii, 7. -These early visitations were habitual in the Roman republic, as when -the whole Senate waited on the newly-elected consuls on the Calends -of January; Dion Cass., lviii, 5, etc.; and especially in the regular -matutinal calls of clients on their patrons _re_ the _sportula_; cf. -Sidonius Ap. Epist., i, 2. His description of the routine of a court -_c. 450_ corresponds closely with the above. It must have been copied -from Rome. - -[408] Chrysostom, De Perf. Carit., 6 (in Migne, vi, 286); Theophanes, -an. 6094, 6291, etc.; cf. Suetonius, in Nero, 25, etc.; Ducange, _sb. -eq. alb._ - -[409] These state carriages, open and closed, painted in gaudy colours, -with gilded pilasters, mouldings, and various figures in relief, -resembled certain vehicles used in the last century and some circus -cars of the present day; see Banduri, ii, pl. 4, _sup. cit._; the work -of Panvinius on Triumphs, etc. - -[410] Const. Porph., i, 1, and Append., p. 498, with Reiske’s Notes; -Dion Cass., lxiii, 4; lxxiv, 1, etc. - -[411] Theophanes, an. 6019, 6050, etc.; Menologium Graec., i, p. 67; -Cedrenus, i, p. 599; ii, p. 536. - -[412] Theophanes, an. 6030, 6042, etc. - -[413] See Reiske _ad_ Const. Porph., p. 434, _et seq._ - -[414] See Zosimus, ii, 39; Alemannus ad Procop., iii, p. 390; Ducange, -_sb. voc._ - -[415] See Godfrey’s Notitia Dignitatum, _ad calc._ Cod. Theod.; -Selden’s Titles of Honour, p. 886; the epilogues to the Novels, -etc. Minor dignities, entitled _Perfectissimi_, _Egregii_, are also -mentioned, but are obsolete at this date; _Superillustres_ were not -unknown; see Ducange, _sb. voc._ - -[416] Const. Porph., i, 68; see Labarte, _op. cit._, pp. 16, 140, etc. - -[417] Const. Porph., i, 92, with Reiske’s Notes. - -[418] Const. Porph., i, 68, _et seq._ This open-air hymn-singing was -an early feature in Byzantine life; Socrates, vii, 23; Jn. Lydus, De -Magistr., iii, 76. Later, at least, each Deme used an organ as well; -Const. Porph., _loc. cit._ - -[419] Procopius, De Bel. Pers., i, 25. - -[420] _Ibid._, 24. - -[421] Doubtless according to Cod. Theod., XIV, ii; Cod., XI, xiv-xvii. -These Corporations had certain privileges and immunities, such as -exemption from military conscription, but they were bound to defend the -walls on occasion; Novel, Theod. (Valent. I), xl. Naturally, therefore, -after the earthquake of 447 they were sent by Theod. II to rebuild the -walls (see p. 22), and also in other emergencies they were sent to -guard the Long Walls; Theophanes, an. 6051, 6076. Of course, in view of -such appointed work, they had some military training. Building of forts -was a regular part of a soldier’s duties; Cod. Theod., XV, i, 13, and -Godfrey, _ad loc._ The Demes were probably a later expression of the -parties in the old Greek democracies, who associated themselves with -the colours of the Roman Circus, when imported into the East, as the -most effective outlet for their political feelings. - -[422] These four colours, which date from the first century of the -Empire, are supposed to represent the seasons of the year (Tertullian, -De Spectaculis, 9); or the different hues of the sea and land (blue -and green); see Chron. Pasch., Olymp., vii, p. 205; Alemannus, _ad_ -Procop., p. 372; Banduri, _op. cit._, ii, p. 376, etc. Originally there -were but two divisions. The leading and subsidiary colours are said to -distinguish urban from suburban members of the factions; cf. Jn. Lydus, -De Mens., iv, 25. - -[423] Const. Porph., i, 6, with Reiske’s Notes. - -[424] Procopius, _loc. cit._, ii, 11. - -[425] Jn. Malala, xiv, p. 351. - -[426] _Ibid._, xvii, p. 416; cf. Procopius, De Bel. Pers., ii, 11. - -[427] Chrysostom, De Anna, iv, 1 (in Migne, iv, 660); an almost -identical passage; Gregory Naz., Laus Basil., 15. - -[428] The Decennalia represented the ten years for which Augustus -originally “accepted” the supreme power; the Quinquennalia are said -to have been instituted by Nero, but may have become obsolete at this -date; see the Classical Dicts. There were also Tricennalia. - -[429] Novel cv; Const. Porph., _loc. cit._, Codin., p. 17; Procop., De -Bel. Vand., ii, 9, etc. - -[430] Cod. Theod., VI, iv, 5, 26, etc. By a law of 384, eight praetors -were appointed to spend between them 3,150 lb. of silver, equal to -about £10,000 at that date, a credible sum; but the common belief -that three annual praetors used to be enjoined to disburse more than -a quarter of a million sterling in games is, I make no doubt, rank -nonsense. Large amounts were, no doubt, expended by some praetors -(Maximus, _c. 400-420_, _for his sons’_ 4,000 lb. of gold, over -£150,000, yet, only half the sum; Olympiodorus, p. 470), but these -were intended to be great historic occasions, and are recorded as -such, bearing doubtless the same relation to routine celebrations as -the late Queen’s Jubilees did to the Lord Mayor’s shows, on which a -few thousands are annually squandered. Maximus was then bidding for -the purple, in which he was afterwards buried. The question turns on -the enigma of the word _follis_, which in some positions has never -been solved. But Cod. Theod., XII, i, 159, makes it as clear as -daylight that 25,000 _folles_ in _ibid._, VI, iv, 5, means just about -fifty guineas of our money (he had also to scatter £125 in silver as -largess), a sum exactly suited to _ibid._, VII, xx, 3, by which the -same amount is granted to a superannuated soldier to stock a little -farm. The first law publishes the munificence of the Emperor in -presenting the sum of 600 _solidi_ (£335) to the people of Antioch that -they may not run short of cash for, and so be depressed at the time of, -the public games. And so the colossal sum doubted by Gibbon, accepted -by Milman, advocated by Smith, and asserted by Bury may be dissipated -like a puff of smoke in the wind. The office of _praetor ludorum_ seems -to have been falling into abeyance at this time. - -[431] Jn. Lydus, De Mens., i, 12. Twenty-four races were the full -number, but they were gradually reduced to eight; Const. Porph., i, 68, -p. 307. - -[432] Anastasius put a stop to this part of the performance—for the -time; Procop. Gaz. Panegyr., 15, etc. - -[433] H. A. Charisius, 19, etc. A favourite exhibition was that of -a man balancing on his forehead a pole up which two urchins ran and -postured at the top; Chrysostom, Ad Pop. Ant., xix, 4 (De Stat.; in -Migne, ii, 195). Luitprand (Legatio, etc.) six centuries later was -entertained with the same spectacle, an instance of the changeless -nature of these times over long periods. - -[434] Novel cv; Socrates, vii, 22; Cod. Theod., XV, xi, etc. - -[435] Aulus Gell., iii, 10, etc. - -[436] Sueton., Nero, 22; Novel cv, 1, etc. - -[437] Chrysostom, In Illud, Vidi Dominum, etc. (in Migne, vi, 113); Ad -Pop. Ant., xv, 4 (in Migne, ii, 158); In Illud, Pater Meus, etc., Hom. -ix, 1 (in Migne, xii, 512); a particular instance of a youth killed in -the chariot race the day before his intended wedding. - -[438] Chrysostom, In Illud, Vidi Dominum, etc., Hom. iii, 2 (in Migne, -vi, 113); In Genes. Hom. v, 6 (in Migne, iv, 54). - -[439] Const. Porph., _op. cit._, i, 69; Theophanes, an. 5969, etc. The -winners usually received about two or three pounds in money, also a -laurel crown and a cloak of a peculiar pattern (Pellenian, perhaps; -Strabo, VIII, vii, 5); Chrysostom, In Matth. Hom. liv, 6 (in Migne, -vii, 539); but under some of the insensate emperors immense prizes, -small fortunes in fact, were often given; see Reiske’s Notes, _ad op. -cit._, p. 325. I have not met in Byzantine history with any allusion to -the seven circuits of the races (except Jn. Lydus, De Mens., i, 12), -the eggs or the dolphins; these are assumed from the Latin writers of -old Rome and from the sculptured marbles. It appears from Cod. Theod. -(XV, ix, etc.), that the successful horses, when past their prime, were -carefully nurtured through their old age by the state. The choicest -breeds of these animals came from Spain and Cappadocia; Claudian, De -Equis Hon., etc. All the technical details of the Roman Circus will -be found in the Dicts. of Clas. Antiqs., especially Daremberg and -Saglio’s; see also Rambaud, De Byzant. Hip., Paris, 1870. - -[440] Of epilepsy (Evagrius, etc.). This is not a fatal disease, and -hence a fiction arose that he had been buried alive in a fit. A sentry -on guard at the sepulchre heard moanings for two days, and at length -a voice, “Have pity, and let me out!” “But there is another emperor.” -“Never mind; take me to a monastery.” His wife, however, would not -disturb the _status quo_; but ultimately an inspection was made, when -he was found to have eaten his arms and boots; Cedrenus, Zonaras, -Glycas, etc. - -[441] Theoph., an. 5983; Cedrenus, i, p. 626, etc. He was a Manichaean -according to Evagrius, iii, 32; cf. Theoph., an. 5999. - -[442] Julian seems to have been the first Roman emperor who was hoisted -on a buckler and crowned with a necklet; Ammianus, xx, 4. By Jn. Lydus, -however, the use of the collar instead of a diadem would appear to be a -vestige of some archaic custom traceable back to Augustus or, perhaps, -even to the times of Manlius Torquatus; De Magistr., ii, 3. The Germans -originated the custom of elevating a new ruler on a shield; Tacitus, -Hist., iv, 15. - -[443] See the full details of this election and coronation in Const. -Porph., _op. cit._, i, 92. It is to be noted that twelve chapters of -this work (i, 84-95) are extracted bodily from Petrus Magister, a -writer of the sixth century. - -[444] Jn. Malala, xvi, p. 394; Chron. Pasch., an. 498. - -[445] Sc., “Holy God, Holy Mighty, Holy Immortal, pity us!” said to -have been the song of the angels as heard by a boy who was drawn up -to heaven and let down again in the reign of the younger Theodosius; -Menologion Graec., i, p. 67, etc. - -[446] Evagrius, iii, 32; Jn. Malala, xvi, p. 407; Theoph., an. 6005, -etc. The date is uncertain; as recounted by some of the chronographists -only 518 would suit the incident. As soon as the government felt again -on a stable footing numerous executions were decreed. - -[447] In 425 theatres and other amusements were forbidden on Sundays; -Cod. Theod., XV, v, 5. In the time of Chrysostom people coming out of -church were liable to encounter bands of roisterers leaving the theatre. - -[448] Procopius, Anecdot., ix; Chrysostom, In Coloss., iii, Hom. ix -(in Migne, xi, 362), “Satanical Songs” is his favourite expression; -also “diabolical display”; In Act. Apost. Hom. xlii, 4 (in Migne, ix, -301); “naked limbs” of actresses; In Epist. I Thess., iv, Hom. v, 4 (in -Migne, xi, 428); cf. Ammianus, xiv, 6; Lucian, De Saltatione. - -[449] By a sumptuary law, however, the most precious gems and the -richest fabrics were forbidden to the stage (Cod. Theod., XV, vii, -11); but the restriction seems to have been relaxed, as this law has -been omitted from the Code. The intention was to prevent mummers from -bringing into disrepute the adornments of the higher social sphere. - -[450] Chrysostom, In Matth. Hom. vii, 5 (in Migne, vii, 79); cf. -Cod., V, xxii, 9. A trick, doubtless, to evade the law, which forbade -absolute nakedness on the stage; Procop., Anecdot., ix. - -[451] Cod. Theod., XV, vii, 12, etc. - -[452] _Ibid._, 5. - -[453] _Ibid._, 6; Cod., XI, xl, 3. - -[454] Cod. Theod., XV, vi, 8, etc. - -[455] The immorality of the stage is the constant theme of Chrysostom. -The fact that he draws no ethical illustrations from the drama seems -to prove that no plays were exhibited in which virtue and vice were -represented as receiving their due award. Fornication and adultery -were the staple allurements of the stage; Act. Apost. Hom. xlii, 3 -(in Migne, ix, 301). From the culminating scene of “The Ass” in the -versions both of Apuleius and of Lucian it would seem that practical -acts of fornication were possible incidents in public performances. -It must be remembered, however, that women did not frequent the Greek -or, at least, the Byzantine theatre. Sathas labours vainly to prove -the existence of a legitimate Byzantine drama; Ἱστορ. δοκ. περὶ τ. -θεάτρ. καὶ τ. μουσικ. τ. Βυζαντίων, Ven., 1878; cf. Krumbacher, Byzant. -Literaturgesch., Munich, 1897, p. 644, _et seq._ - -[456] Haenel, Cod. Theod., IV, vi, 3; Cod., V, xxvii, 1. By the first -draft, due to Constantine, the prohibition might apply to any poor -but virtuous girl. This defect was remedied by Pulcheria; Nov. Mart. -iv. Here we may discern a result of Athenais, the dowerless but well -educated Athenian girl being chosen (by Pulcheria) for her brother’s -consort; or, perhaps, of her own union with Martian, at first a private -soldier. - -[457] Called _trabea_ or _toga palmata_; Claudian, Cons. Olyb. et -Prob., 178; Cassiodorus, Var. Ep., vi, 1. - -[458] _Ibid._ - -[459] Ammianus, xxii, 7. Julian, when at CP., in his enthusiasm for -democratic institutions, followed the consul on foot, but, forgetting -himself, he performed the act of emancipation, an inadvertence for -which he at once fined himself 10 lb. of gold (£400). - -[460] Procopius, De Bel. Pers., i, 25; Jn. Lydus, De Magistr., ii, 8, -etc. - -[461] Even under the barbarian kings in Italy, Odovacar the Herule -and Theodoric the Goth, a consul was appointed annually at Rome in -accordance with the arrangement made when Constantine decreed that the -metropolitan honours should be divided between the old and the new -capital. - -[462] Nov. cv, 1, where they are enumerated. The regular cost of the -display was 2,000 lb. of gold (£80,000), which, with the exception of -a small amount by the consul himself, came from the Imperial treasury; -Procopius, Anecdot., 26; cf. Jn. Lydus, _loc. cit._ Hence it appears -that even the consulship need not be held by a millionaire; see p. 100. - -[463] Cod. Theod., XV, v, 2. No lower dignitary was allowed to -distribute anything more precious than silver. - -[464] Cod. Theod., VIII, xi; Cod., XII, lxiv. - -[465] Cod. Theod., XV, ix. Numbers of these diptychs are still -preserved. There is a specimen at South Kensington of those of -Anastasius Sabinianus, Com. Domest., who was consul in 518. Each -plate was usually about twelve by six inches, and they were hinged so -as to close up together. The designs on each face were practically -duplicates. Generally as to the position of consuls at this time see -Godefroy ad Cod. Theod., VI, vi, and the numerous cross references he -has supplied. - -[466] Constantine instituted a regular observance of Sunday as the -Dominica or Lord’s Day in 321; Cod. Theod., III, viii, with Godfrey’s -Com.; Cod., III, xii, 3. Towards the end of the ninth century, however, -Leo Sapiens prohibited even farmers from working on Sundays; Novel. -Leo. VI, liv. Daily service was only instituted about 1050 by Constant. -Monom.; Cedrenus, ii, p. 609. - -[467] See Ducange, _sb._ Σήμαντρον; Reiske’s Notes, _op. cit._, p. -235. The instrument is still in use in the Greek Church, but literary -notices of it seem to be unknown before the seventh century. - -[468] Chrysostom, Habentes eundem, etc., 11 (in Migne, iii, 299). - -[469] _Ibid._ The well-known palindrome, ΝΙΨΟΝΑΝΟΜΗΜΑΤΑΜΗΜΟΝΑΝΟΨΙΝ -(Wash away your sins not only your face), was at one time inscribed on -the basin in front of St. Sophia; Texier and Pullan, _op. cit._, p. 10. -This composition is, however, attributed to Leo Sap. - -[470] Sozomen, vii, 16; Gieseler, Eccles. Hist., i, 71, etc. - -[471] Procopius, De Aedific., i, 1, p. 178; Paul Silent., 389, 541. At -this time, however, men and women seem to have been in view of each -other in the nave as well, though separated by a wooden partition; -Chrysostom, In Matth. Hom. lxxiii, 3 (in Migne, vii, 677), but in -earlier times they were allowed to mix indiscriminately; _ibid._ - -[472] Socrates, vi, 8, etc. - -[473] Sozomen, viii, 5; not invariably perhaps. Part of the present -description applies, of course, to St. Sophia. - -[474] Cantacuzenus, i, 41; this could easily be done, as the clerical -staff of each church was very numerous—over five hundred in St. Sophia; -Novel iii, 1. - -[475] Chrysostom, In Epist. I Tim., ii, Hom. viii, 1 (in Migne, xi, -541); In Psal. xlviii, 5 (in Migne, vi, 507). - -[476] Chrysostom, De Virgin., 61 (in Migne, i, 581). - -[477] Chrysostom, In Matth. Hom. lxxiii, 3 (in Migne, vii, 677). “In -the temple of God,” says he, “you commit fornication and adultery at -the very time you are admonished against such sins.” - -[478] Chrysostom, In Epist. I Tim., ii, Hom. viii, 9 (in Migne, xi, -543). - -[479] Chrysostom, Epist. ad Innocent., Bishop of Rome, 3 (in Migne, -iii, 533). He here describes how the women had to fly naked from the -Baptistery during the riots connected with his deposition from the see -of Constantinople. It must be noted, however, that the severe modesty -of modern times had scarcely been developed amid the simplicity of the -ancient world, as it has not among some fairly civilized peoples even -at the present day. - -[480] I had almost said _piety_, one of the words destined, with the -extinction of the thing, to become obsolete in the future, or to be -applied to some other mental conception. - -[481] Chrysostom, In Matth. Hom. xvii, 2 (in Migne, vii, 256). He -inveighs against the farce of ascetics taking virgins to live with -them, who are supposed to remain intact; cf. De Virginitate (in Migne, -i, 533); also Cod. Theod., XVI, ii, 20, to which Godefroy supplies -practical illustrations. - -[482] Chrysostom, In Epist. ad Coloss., iii, Hom. vii, 5 (in Migne, -xi, 350); in Matth. Hom. lxxxiii, 4 (in Migne, vii, 750). Or even -of more costly materials, gold, crystal; Plutarch, Adv. Stoic., 22; -Clement Alex. Paedag., ii, 3. The notion of unparalleled luxury has -been associated with the Theodosian age, but without sufficient reason. -It was rather the age of a man of genius who denounced it persistently -and strenuously, and whose diatribes have come down to us in great -bulk, viz., Chrysostom. The period of greatest extravagance was, in -fact, during the last century of the Republic and the first of the -Empire, and the names of Crassus, Lucullus, Nero, Vitellius, etc., are -specially connected with it. - -[483] Chrysostom, In Epist. ad Coloss., i, Hom. 4 (in Migne, xi, 304). - -[484] As late as the tenth century, according to Luitprand, -Antapodosis, vi, 8. In the Vienna Genesis (_c. 400_) a miniature shows -banqueters reclining at a table of this sort. I will not attempt to -enlarge on the courses at table and the multifarious viands that were -consumed, as there are but few hints on this subject. We may opine, -however, that gastronomics indulged themselves very similarly to what -is represented in the pages of Petronius and Athenaeus, etc., cf. -Ammianus, xvi, 5; xxviii, 4. - -[485] Chrysostom, In Psalm xlviii, 8 (in Migne, v, 510). Most of the -eunuchs were of the nation of the Abasgi, who dwelt between the Caspian -and Euxine; Procopius, De Bel. Goth., iv, 3. - -[486] Chrysostom, In Epist. ad Corinth. Hom. xl, 5 (in Migne, x, 353); -In Matth. Hom. lxiii, 4 (in Migne, vii, 608). - -[487] See below. - -[488] Constantine enacted that families—husbands and wives, parents -and children, brothers and sisters—should not be separated; Cod. -Theod., II, xxv, 1; cf. XVI, v, 40, etc. But there was little practical -philanthropy in the world until the Middle Ages had long been left -behind. Thus by the Assize of Jerusalem, promulgated by Crusaders in -the twelfth century, a war-horse was valued at three slaves! Tolerance, -the toning-down of fanaticism, doubt as to whether religious beliefs -are really of any validity, appears to be the foster-mother of humane -sentiment. A slave could be trained to any trade, art, or profession, -and their price varied accordingly. Thus common slaves were worth about -£12, eunuchs £30; before ten years of age, half-price. Physicians sold -for £35, and skilled artificers for £40; Cod., VII, vii. The modern -reader will smile at the naïveté of Aristotle when he states that some -nations are intended by Nature for slavery, but, as they do not see it, -war must be made to reduce them to their proper level; Politics, i, 8. - -[489] The following directions of a mother to her daughter how to shine -as a society _hetaira_ emanate from a Greek of the second century: -“Dress yourself with taste, carry yourself stylishly, and be courteous -to every one. Never break into a guffaw, as you often do, but smile -sweetly and seductively. Do not throw yourself at a man’s head, but -behave with tact, cultivate sincerity, and maintain an amiable reserve. -If you are asked to dinner be careful not to drink too much; do not -grab the viands that are offered to you, but help yourself gracefully -with the tips of your fingers. Masticate your food noiselessly, -and avoid grinding your jaws loudly whilst eating. Sip your wine -delicately, and do not gulp down anything you drink. Above all things -do not talk too much, addressing the whole company, but pay attention -chiefly to your own friends. By acting in this way you will be most -likely to excite love and admiration”; adapted from Lucian, Dial. -Meretr., vi. - -[490] Chrysostom, In Matth. Hom. xxx, 5 (in Migne, vii, 368); In I: -Tim., i, 3 (in Migne, xi, 524); In Epist. ad Hebr., xxix, 3 (in Migne, -xii, 206). “A country wench,” says he, “is stronger than our city men.” - -[491] Chrysostom, De non Iterat. Conj., 4 (in Migne, i, 618). At all -times there were ladies of such lubricity as to court the opportunity -of bathing before men in the public baths; prohibited by Marcus (Hist. -Aug., 23), this commerce of the sexes was encouraged by Elagabalus, and -again forbidden by Alexander (Hist. Aug., 24, 34). Hadrian, however, -seems to have been the first to declare against this promiscuous -bathing (Hist. Aug., 18): “Olim viri foeminaeque mixtim lavabant, nullo -pudore nuditatis,” says Casaubon, commenting on the passage; cf. Aulus -Gell., x, 3; Cod. Theod., IX, iii, 3; Cod., V, xvii, 11; Novel, xxii, -16, etc. Clement Alex. (_c. 200_) complains that ladies were to be seen -in the baths at Alexandria like slaves exposed for sale; Paedag., iii, -5. Far different was the conduct of the Byzantine matrons a thousand -years later; they then fell into the ways of Oriental exclusiveness as -seen amongst the dominant Turks; see Filelfo, Epistolae, ix, Sphortiae -Sec., 1451. A native of Ancona, who lived at CP. for several years in -the half century preceding the capture of the city. - -[492] Chrysostom, In Epist. ad Ephes., iv, Hom. xv, 3 (in Migne, xi, -109). The cries of the girl, often tied to a bedpost, might even be -heard in the street, and if she stripped herself in a public bath the -weals on her back were sometimes the subject of public remark. Whilst -counselling mercy he considers that the whipping is generally deserved. - -[493] Chrysostom, Quales duc. sint Uxores, 7 (in Migne, iii, 236); In -Epist. I ad Corinth., Hom. xii, 5 (in Migne, x, 103). - -[494] Fifteen for males and thirteen for females were the marriageable -ages as legally recognized; Leo, Novel., lxxiv. - -[495] Chrysostom, Quales duc. sint Uxores, 5 (in Migne, iii, 233); -γραΐδια μυθεύοντα, κ. τ. λ. - -[496] Even Arcadius had to be content with a portrait and a verbal -description of the charms of Eudoxia, the daughter of a subject and a -townsman; Zosimus, v, 3. - -[497] The early Christians gradually inclined to the custom of asking -a formal benediction from the clergy as an essential part of the -marriage ceremony, but about the time of Chrysostom the practice began -to be disregarded. With the disuse also of pagan rites it began to be -doubted whether nuptials could be legal unless accompanied at least by -an orgiastic festival. To dispel this misgiving Theodosius II in 428 -decreed that no sort of formal contract was required, but merely fair -evidence that the parties had agreed to enter the connubial state; Cod. -Theod., III, vii, 3. The Christian rite was not made compulsory till -the end of the ninth century; Leo Sap. Novel., lxxxix. - -[498] Chrysostom, In Matth. Hom. xxxvii, 5 (in Migne, vii, 425); In -Act. Apost., xlii, 3 (in Migne, ix, 300); In Epist. I ad Corinth, Hom. -xii, 5 (in Migne, x, 102), etc. His favourite theme for objurgation. -He complains especially: “And worse, virgins are present at these -orgies, having laid aside all shame; to do honour to the bride? -rather disgrace,” etc. These must be _ancillae_, or girls of a lower -class, as it is evident from the above account that young ladies of -any family could not be seen even at church by intending suitors; -possibly they were kept closely veiled. On this point see further -Puech’s Chrysostom, Paris, 1891, p. 133. An introduction of this kind -had always been considered necessary, as is shown by the equitation of -the phallus (Mutinus) imposed on Roman brides the first night. These -old customs were a constant mark for gibe among the early Christian -Fathers; Lactantius, Div. Inst., l, 20; Augustine, De Civ. Dei, iv, 11; -Arnobius, iv, _et passim_, etc. - -[499] Chrysostom, In Joann. Hom. xxxii, 3 (in Migne, vii, 186). - -[500] _Ibid._, In Epist. ad Corinth. Hom. xii, 7 (in Migne, x, 105). - -[501] Chrysostom, In Epist. ad Corinth. Hom. xii, 7 (in Migne, x, 105). - -[502] _Ibid._, In Matth. Hom. lxxii, 2 (in Migne, vii, 669); Ad Pop. -Antioch., xix, 4 (in Migne, ii, 196). - -[503] _Ibid._, Ad Illum. Catech., ii, 5 (in Migne, ii, 240). - -[504] _Ibid._, In Epist. I ad Corinth., xii, 7 (in Migne, x, 105). - -[505] _Ibid._, De Consol. Mort. 6 (in Migne, vi, 303). - -[506] _Ibid._, Expos. in Psalm cxi, 4 (in Migne, v, 297), etc. He often -protests against this form of luxury. At Rome especially, when the -ownership of these costly piles had passed into oblivion, it was the -habit of builders to pillage them in order to use their architectural -adornments and materials for new erections; Cod. Theod., IX, xvii. -Apparently the sepulchres were sometimes violated for the supply of -false relics. - -[507] Chrysostom. Habentes autem eumdem, etc. Hom. ii, 9 (in Migne, -iii, 284). - -[508] See Plato’s Phaedrus, Symposium, etc.; Plutarch, Pelopidas, 19. A -modern Democritus might smile at the conclusion of Lucian that, whilst -the commerce of the sexes is necessary for the propagation of the race, -paederasty is the ideal sphere for the love of philosophers; Amores. -According to Aristotle, Minos introduced the practice into Crete as -an antidote against over-population; Politics, ii, 10; vii, 16. In -this respect the Greeks, perhaps, corrupted on the one hand and on the -other Romans and Persians alike; Herodotus, i, 135. It was indigenous, -however, among the Etruscans; Athenaeus, xii, 14, etc. - -[509] The shadowy Scantinian law was enacted against it, but remained -a dead letter; Cicero, Ad Famil., viii, 12, 14, etc.; cf. Plutarch, -Marcellus, 2. - -[510] I have not, however, fallen in with any account of the dedication -of a temple to _Amor Virilis_. Such a shrine would have been quite -worthy of Nero or Elagabalus, indeed of Hadrian. - -[511] Suetonius, Nero, 28; Hist. Aug. Hadrian, 14; Heliogabalus, 6, 15, -etc.; Statius, Silvae, iii, 4, etc. The adulation of this vice pervaded -even the golden age of Latin poetry: - - But Virgil’s songs are pure except that horrid one - Beginning with “Formosum pastor Corydon.” - - Byron, Don Juan, i, 42. - -For the estimation in which paederasty was held in Crete see Strabo, -X, iv, 21; Athenaeus, xi, 20. Old men even wore a robe of “honour” -to indicate that in youth they had been chosen to act the part of a -pathic. The epigram on Julius Caesar is well known—“omnium mulierum -vir, omnium virorum mulier”; Suetonius, in Vit. 52. Anastasius, who -seems to have been somewhat of a purist for his time, abolished a -theatrical spectacle addressed particularly to the paederasts, against -which Chrysostom had vainly launched his declamations; In Psalm xli, -2 (in Migne, v, 157). “Boys, assuming the dress and manners of women, -with a mincing gait and erotic gestures, ravished the senses of the -observers so that men raged against each other in their impassioned -fury. This stain on our manners you obliterated,” etc.; Procopius, -Gaz. Panegyr., 16. The saint is much warmer and more analytical in his -invective. - -[512] Hist. Aug. Alexander, 24. - -[513] Tertullian, De Monogam., 12; Lactantius, Divin. Instit., v, 9; -Salvian, De Gubern. Dei, vii, 17, etc. - -[514] Cod. Theod., IX, vii, with Godefroy’s duplex commentary. The -peculiar wording of the law of Constantius almost suggests that it was -enacted in a spirit of mocking complacency; _ibid._, Cod., IX, ix, 31. - -[515] Chrysostom, Adv. Op. Vit. Mon., 8 (in Migne, i, 361). There was -probably a stronger tincture of Greek manners at Antioch, of Roman at -Constantinople, but the difference does not seem to have been material. -We here take leave of Chrysostom. The saint fumes so much that we must -generally suspect him of exaggeration, but doubtless this was the style -which drew large crowds of auditors and won him popularity. - -[516] Procopius, Anecdot., 9, 11; Novel., lxxvii, etc. The first -glimpse of Byzantine sociology is due to Montfaucon, who, at the end -of his edition of Chrysostom brought together a selection of the most -striking passages he had met with. These excerpts were the germ and -foundation of a larger and more systematized work by P. Mueller, Bishop -of Zealand; De Luxu, Moribus, etc., Aevi Theod., 1794. An article -in the Quarterly Review, vol. lxxviii, deals briefly with the same -materials. I have derived assistance from all three, but, as a rule, my -instances are taken directly from the text of Chrysostom. - -[517] Twelve ounces, rather less than the English ounce. The difficulty -in obtaining a just equivalent for ancient money in modern values is -almost insuperable. After various researches I have decided, as the -safest approximation, to reckon the _solidus_ at 11_s._ 2_d._ and the -lb. Byz. of gold at £40. - -[518] This appears to have been merely a “coin of account,” but -there were at one time large silver coins, value, perhaps, about six -shillings, also pieces of alloyed silver. For some reason all these -were called in and made obsolete at the beginning of the fifth century; -Cod. Theod., IX, xxi, xxii, xxiii. No silver coins larger than a -shilling seem to have been preserved to our time. - -[519] As the price of copper was fixed at 25 lb. for a _solidus_, -these coins might have been very bulky; “dumps,” as such are called by -English sailors abroad, above an ounce in weight, but nothing near so -heavy has come down to us; Cod. Theod., XI, xxi. - -[520] Other emperors, however, struck single _nummia_, and these may -have remained in use. They are known to collectors and weigh 5 grs. and -upwards. - -[521] See the specimens figured by Ducange, CP. Christ., or in other -works on numismatics. - -[522] The Macedonian kings in the fifth century B.C. were the first -princes to put their names and portraits on their coinage, but the -practice did not become common till after Alexander the Great; cf. -Procopius, De Bel. Goth., iii, 33. Very large gold medals were minted -by most of the Roman emperors, weighing even one or two lb. Hist. Aug., -Alexander, 39. This imposing coinage appears to have been used for -paying subsidies or tribute to barbarian nations. They were carried -slung over the backs of horses in those leathern bags, which we see in -the Notitia among the insignia of the Counts of the Treasury; Cod., -XII, li, 12; Paulus Diac., De Gest. Langob., iii, 13. - -[523] The value of money in relation to the necessaries of life, always -a shifting quantity, was not very different in these ages to what it -is at present. To give a few examples: bread was about the same price, -common shoes cost 1_s._ 6_d._ to 5_s._ a pair; a workman, according -to skill, earned 1_s._ 6_d._ to 4_s._ a day; see Dureau de la Malle, -Econ. polit. des Romains, Paris, 1840; also Waddington’s Edict of -Diocletian; an ordinary horse fetched £10 or £12; Cod. Theod., XI, -i, 29, etc. On the Byzantine coinage see Sabatier, Monnaies Byzant., -etc., Paris, 1862, i, p. 25, _et seq._ An imperfect, but so far the -only comprehensive work; cf. Finlay, Hist. Greece, i, p. 432, _et seq._ -Mommsen’s work also gives some space to the subject. False coining and -money-clipping were of course prevalent in this age and punishable -capitally, but there was also a class of magnates who arrogated to -themselves the right of coining, a privilege conceded in earlier -times, and who maintained private mints for the purpose. In spite of -legal enactments some of them persisted in the practice, and their -penalty was to be aggregated with all their apparatus and operatives -to the Imperial mints, there to exert their skill indefinitely for the -government; Cod. Theod., IX, xxi, xxii. Their lot suggests the Miltonic -fate of Mulciber: - - Nor aught availed him now - To have built in heaven high towers; nor did he ’scape - By all his engines, but was headlong sent - With his industrious crew to build in hell. - Paradise Lost, I. - - -[524] In 1885, a “guess” census taken by the Turkish authorities put -it at 873,565, but the modern city is much shrunk within the ancient -walls; Grosvenor, _op. cit._, p. 8. - -[525] The Avars, during an incursion made in 616, carried off 270,000 -captives of both sexes from the vicinity of the city; Nicephorus CP., -p. 16. - -[526] The largest reservoir, now called the “Bendt of Belgrade,” about -ten miles N.W. of CP. is more than a mile long. The water is conveyed, -as a rule, through subterranean pipes, and there is no visible aqueduct -within six miles of the city. The so-called “Long Aqueduct” is about -three-quarters of a mile in length. - -[527] Evagrius, iii, 38; Procopius, De Aedific., iv, 9; Chron. -Paschal., an. 512, etc. - -[528] In modern Hindostan somewhat of a parallel might be traced, but -very imperfectly. After the third century Gothic must also have become -a familiar language at CP. - -[529] The partial survival of the Latin language in the East during -these centuries is proved, not merely by the body of law, inscriptions, -numismatics, etc., but by the fact that some authors who must have -expected to be read generally at Constantinople, chose to write in -that tongue, especially Ammianus (“Graecus et miles,” his own words), -Marcellinus Comes, and Corippus. - -[530] This vulgar dialect has probably never been committed to writing. -Specimens crop up occasionally, particularly in Jn. Malala, also in -Theophanes, i, p. 283 (De Boor). See Krumbacher, _op. cit._, p. 770, -_et seq._ The cultured Greeks, however, even to the end of the Empire, -always held fast to the language of literary Hellas in her prime; see -Filelfo, _loc. cit._ - -[531] It is worthy of remark that assumption of the aspirate was in the -period of best Latinity a vulgar fault decried by Romans of refined -speech: - - Chommoda dicebat, si quando commoda vellet - Dicere, et hinsidias Arrius insidias.... - Ionios fluctus, post quam illuc Arrius isset, - Jam non Ionios esse, sed Hionios. - Catullus, lxxxii. - - -[532] Jn. Lydus, De Magistr., iii, 27, 68. - -[533] In the absence of full contemporary evidence for a complete -picture of Byzantine life at the point of time dealt with, it has -often been necessary to have recourse to writers both of earlier and -later date; an exigency, however, almost confined to Chrysostom and -Constantine Porphyrogennetos. In taking this liberty I have exercised -great caution so as to avoid anachronisms; and if such exist I may -fairly hope them to be of a kind which will not easily be detected. -I have always tried to obtain some presumptive proof in previous -or subsequent periods that the scene as represented may be shifted -backwards and forwards through the centuries without marring its truth -as a picture of the times. In these unprogressive ages, wherever -civilization was maintained, it often had practically the same aspect -even for thousands of years. - -[534] It is generally conceded that iconoclastic zeal in respect of -primitive Roman history, under the impulse given by Lewis and Niebuhr, -has been carried too far. Even now archaeological researches with the -spade on the site of the Forum, etc., are producing confirmation of -some traditional beliefs already proclaimed as mythical by too astute -critics; see Lanciani, _The Athenaeum_, 1899. In any case the legends -and hearsay as to their origin, current among various races, have a -psychological interest, and may afford valuable indications as to -national proclivities, which must rescue them from the neglect of every -judicious historian. - -[535] Livy, iv, 52, etc. - -[536] The favourite title of Augustus was _Princeps_ or “First -citizen,” but the more martial emperors, such as Galba and Trajan, -preferred the military _Imperator_, which after their time became -distinctive of the monarch. By the end of the third century, under -the administration of Aurelian and Diocletian, the emperor became an -undisguised despot, and henceforward was regarded as the _Dominus_, -a term which originally expressed the relation between a master and -his slaves; see Jn. Lydus, De Magistr., i, 5; the series of coins in -Cohen’s Numismatics of the Empire, etc. - -[537] Strabo says it was full of Tarsians and Alexandrians; xiv, 5. -Athenaeus calls it “an epitome of the world”; i, 17; cf. Tacitus, Ann., -xv, 44; “The city which attracts and applauds all things villainous and -shameful.” - -[538] Tiberius made an end of the _comitia_ or popular elections, and -after his time the offices of state were conferred in the Senate, a -body which in its elements was constituted at the fiat of the emperor; -Tacitus, Ann., i, 15, etc. - -[539] Under Diocletian (_c._ 300) the legislative individualism of the -emperor attained maturity; see Muirhead, Private Law of Rome, Edin., -1899, P. 353. - -[540] The choice of Galba by the soldiers in Spain (68 A.D.) first -“revealed the political secret that emperors could be created elsewhere -than at Rome”; Tacitus, Hist., i, 4. Trajan, if actually a Spaniard, -was the first emperor of foreign extraction. - -[541] In the quadripartite allotment by Diocletian, he himself fixed -his residence at Nicomedia, his associate Augustus chose Milan, -whilst the scarcely subordinated Caesars, Galerius and Constantius, -made Sirmium and Treves their respective stations; Aurelius Vict., -Diocletian. - -[542] Arcadius, as the elder, reigned in the East, a proof that it -was esteemed to be the most brilliant position. The Notitia also, a -contemporary work, places the East first as the superior dominion. No -doubt the new tyrants found themselves in an uncongenial atmosphere at -Rome, and the sterner stuff of the Western nations would not tolerate -their sublime affectations. They could stand the follies of Nero, -but not the vain-glory of Constantine, who soon fled from the covert -sneers of the capital and merely paid it a couple of perfunctory visits -afterwards. It is significant that the forms of adoration are omitted -from the Notitia of the West; cf., however, Cassiodorus, Var. Ep., xii, -18, 20. - -[543] About a year, but sometimes prolonged; he could be indicted -afterwards for misconduct, unless like Sulla, Caesar, etc., and the -aspirants to the purple later, he found himself strong enough to seize -on the supremacy. - -[544] See Mommsen, Das röm. Militärwesen, etc. Hermes, xxiv, 1889. - -[545] Aurelius Vict., Diocletian, etc. After Elagabalus Aurelian was -the pioneer in this departure, but in their case it seems to have been -not a policy so much as a love of pompous display. It is worth noting -that these emperors were men of low origin; Aurelian was a peasant, -Diocletian the son of a slave. Yet Aurelian would not let his wife wear -silk; Hist. Aug. Aurelian, 45. - -[546] The brood of eunuchs (bed-keepers) flows to us from prehistoric -times. Ammianus (xiv, 6) attributes the invention to Semiramis, whose -date, if any, is about 2000 B.C. They appear to be engendered naturally -by polygamy. Isidore of Seville characterizes them as follows: “Horum -quidam coeunt, sed tamen virtus in semine nulla est. Liquorem enim -habent, et emittunt, sed ad gignendum inanem et invalidum”; Etymolog., -x, _sb. voc._ Hence the demand for such an enactment as that of Leo, -Novel., xcviii, against their marrying, which, however, would be -unnecessary in the case of the καρξιμάδες. - -[547] The names of Eusebius, Eutropius, Chrysaphius, etc., are well -known as despots of the Court and Empire. “Apud quem [si vere dici -debeat] Constantius multum potuit,” is the sarcasm of Ammianus on the -masterful favourite Eutropius; xviii, 4. Ultimately members of the -royal family were castrated to allow of their being intrusted with the -office of Chamberlain, practically the premiership, whilst unfitting -them to usurp the throne; see Schlumberger, L’épopée byzant. au dix. -siècle, 1896, p. 6. - -[548] See Const. Porph., _passim._ The emperor cannot even uncover his -head without the castrates closing round him to intercept the gaze of -rude mankind; Reiske, ii, p. 259. - -[549] The use of numerical affixes to the names of monarchs did not -exist among the ancients, and hence many cruxes arise for antiquarians -to distinguish those of the same name. Popularly they were often -differentiated by nicknames. Thus we read of Artaxerxes the Longhanded, -Ptolemy the Bloated, the Flute-player; Charles the Bald, the Fat; -Philip the Fair, Frederic Barbarossa, etc. The grandson of the last, -Frederic II, seems to have been the first who assumed a number as part -of his regal title; see Ludewig, Vita Justin., VIII, viii, 53. - -[550] CP. fell to Mahomet II in 1453, and the kingdom of Trebizond, -a fragment which still existed under a Comnenian dynasty, in 1461. -Bosnia, Herzegovina, Roumania, Armenia proper, Georgia, and the lower -part of Mesopotamia did not, however, belong to the Eastern Empire, but -there was suzerainty over most of the adjacent territory except Persia. - -[551] The town itself was in the hands of the Bulgarians till 504, when -it was won by Theodoric for Italy; Cassiodorus, Chron. - -[552] This frontier was delimited by Diocletian, _c. 295_; Eutropius, -ix; Procopius, De Bel. Pers., i, 19. - -[553] At this time Western Armenia, about one-third of the whole, was -called Roman, the rest Persian. It was divided at the end of the fourth -century, but no taxes were collected there by the Byzantines; see below. - -[554] Neither the north-eastern nor the north-western boundaries can -now be precisely defined. According to Theodoret, the north-eastern -verge of the Empire was Pityus, about seventy miles farther north; -Hist. Eccles., v, 34. After the reign of Trajan the Euxine was -virtually a Roman lake, and a garrisoned fort was kept at Sebastopol, -considerably north of the Phasis, Bosphorus (Crimea) under its Greek -kings being still allowed a nominal autonomy; Arrian, Periplus Pont. -Euxin. After 250, however, under Gallienus, etc., these regions were -overrun by the Goths. In 275 Trajan’s great province of Dacia was -abandoned by Aurelian, but he preserved the remembrance of it by -forming a small province with the same name south of the Danube; Hist. -Aug., Aurelian, 39, etc. - -[555] This geographical sketch is based chiefly on the Notitia, the -Synecdemus of Hierocles, and Spruner’s maps. - -[556] Less than the present population of England, which has barely a -tenth of the area of the Empire. - -[557] To take a few instances: Thessalonica and Hadrianople, former -population not less than 300,000 each, now about 70,000 each; Antioch, -formerly 500,000 (Chrysostom mentions 200,000, doubtless only freemen), -now 7,500; Alexandria, formerly 750,000, now again growing into -prosperity, 230,000; on the other hand, Ephesus, Palmyra, Baalbec, -etc., once great cities, have entirely disappeared. Nor have any -modern towns sprung up to replace those mentioned; Cairo alone, with -its 371,000, is an apparent exception, but it is almost on the site -of Memphis, still a busy town in the sixth century. For these and -many similar examples the modern gazetteers, etc., are a sufficient -reference. Taking all things into consideration, to give a hundred -millions to the countries forming the Eastern Empire, in their palmy -days, might not be an overestimate; and even then the density of -population would be only about one-third of what it is in England at -the present day. - -[558] Institut. Just., Prooem., etc. - -[559] Here, however, seems to have been the tract first known to the -Greeks as Asia, but the name was extended to the whole continent fully -ten centuries before this time. - -[560] Hierocles, _op. cit._ By the Notitia the civil and military -government of Isauria and Arabia are in each case vested in the same -person. - -[561] Now the Dobrudscha. - -[562] - - The birds their choir apply; airs, vernal airs, - Breathing the smell of field and grove, attune - The trembling leaves, while universal Pan, - Knit with the Graces and the Hours in dance, - Led on the eternal Spring. - Paradise Lost, IV. - - -[563] Including the small province of that name. - -[564] On the roll of precedence the Vicars and Proconsuls were -Spectabiles, the ordinary governors Clarissimi. The intendant of the -Long Walls was also called a Vicar; Novel., viii. - -[565] See the Notitia. - -[566] The independence of proconsular Asia has already been mentioned. - -[567] “Yielding only to the sceptre”; Jn. Lydus, De Magistr., ii, 5. On -the roll of precedence, however, he came after consuls and patricians, -but he was usually an ex-consul and patrician as well; see Godefroy -_ad_ Cod. Theod., VI, vi. - -[568] The most noted of these roads, the Via Appia, ran from Rome -to Brindisi. It was about fifteen feet wide, with raised footpaths -proportionately narrow. The only road in the Eastern Empire with -a special name was the Via Egnatia, leading from the coast of the -Adriatic through Thessalonica to Cypsela (Ipsala, about forty miles -north of Gallipoli). The Antonine Itinerary shows the distance -between most of the towns and ports in the Empire (_c. 300_). The -Tabula Peutingeriana is a sort of panoramic chart on which towns, -roads, mountains, forests, etc., are marked without any approach to -delineating the outline of the countries, except in the vicinity of -the Bosphorus and CP. (third century, but brought up to a later date; -about 15 feet × 1). There is a photographic reproduction, Vienna, 1888. -Strabo (IV, iii, 8) notes how careless the Greeks were, as compared -with the Romans, in the matter of public works of ordinary utility. - -[569] Cod. Theod., XV, iii. By the absence of this title from the Code -and from Procopius (De Bel. Goth., i, 14; De Aedific., iv, 8; v, 5) we -can discern that the roads in the East were generally in bad condition. -No rubbish or filth or obstructive matter of any kind was allowed to -be discharged into the roads or rivers. All roads or canals, that is, -by-paths, were to be maintained in their primary condition, whether -paved or unpaved; Pand., XLIII, x-xv. Soldiers were enjoined not to -shock the public decency by bathing shamelessly in the rivers; Cod. -Theod., VII, i; 13. - -[570] The modern caravanserai, a great square building with open -central court and chambers on two floors (see Texier and Pullan, -_op. cit._, p. 142, for a description and plans of one attributed to -the times of the Empire), is supposed to represent not only these -mansions, but even the pattern of the original Persian _angari_ of the -classic period. Travellers could stop at them gratuitously and obtain -provender, etc. Cicero, Atticus, v, 16, etc. - -[571] About forty animals were kept at each station; Procopius, Anecd., -30. - -[572] Cod. Theod., VIII, v, 28, etc. 22½ lb. avd. seems absurdly -little for a horse to carry; a parhippus, an extra-strong horse, was -kept, and might take 100 lb. (75 avd.), but even that is only half the -weight of an average man; Cassiodorous, Var. Epist., iv, 47; v, 5. C. -remarks, however, that it is absurd to load an animal who has to travel -at a high speed. I think, therefore, that the load is in addition to a -rider (_hippocomus_). - -[573] Cod. Theod., VIII, v, 2. - -[574] The Jerusalem Itinerary (_c._ 350) shows the mansions and -mutations from Bordeaux to J., etc. The former seem to have been in or -near large towns, the latter by the wayside. - -[575] Cod. Theod., VIII, v, with Godefroy’s paratitlon. - -[576] Cod. Theod., VI, xxvii; called _Agentes in rebus_. - -[577] They appear to have originated in the _Frumentarii_ -(corn-collectors), who were sent into the provinces to purvey for the -wants of the capital. Encouraged on their return to tattle about what -they had seen, signs of disaffection, etc., their secondary vocation -became paramount; and under Diocletian they were reconstituted with a -more consonant title, whilst their license was restrained; Aurelius -Vict., Diocletian; Hist. Aug. Commodus, 4, etc. - -[578] Libanius, Epitaph. Juliani (R., I, p. 568); cf. Xenophon, -Cyropaedia, viii, 2. The Persian king was the original begetter of -“eyes and ears” of this description; Herodotus, i, 114. - -[579] Liban., Adv. eos qui suam Docendi Rat., etc. At this time they -were generally called _Veredarii_, _veredus_ being the name of the -post-horses they always rode; Procopius, De Bel. Vand., i, 16; De Bel. -Pers., ii, 20. - -[580] Vetus Glossarium, _sb. Vered. eq._ (Godefroy _ad_ Cod. Theod., -VI, xxix, 1). - -[581] _Curiosi_; Cod. Theod., VI, xxix. - -[582] _Irenarchi_; _ibid._, XII, xiv; Cod., X, lxxv. - -[583] In no instance better exemplified than in that of Anastasius. - -[584] Galba, Pertinax, Alexander, Probus, Maurice, etc. - -[585] See their insignia and appointments in the Notitia; there was a -separate set for the East and West even after the extinction of the -Roman dynasty of the latter division. - -[586] Or more briefly, Masters of Soldiers, of Troops, or of the -Forces; in the Notitia the five military magnates are placed before the -Counts of the Treasury. - -[587] _In praesenti_, in the Presence; to be with the Emperor -travelling was to be _in sacro Comitatu_; to send anything to Court was -to send it _ad Comitatum_, etc. - -[588] For the probable daily order of the Consistorium see p. 92; Cod. -Theod., XI, xxxix, 5, 8; the materials at this date are too scanty to -fill an objective picture; cf. Schiller, Gesch. d. röm. Kaiserzeit, -Gotha, 1887, ii, p. 66. - -[589] Cod. Theod., VI, xii, and Godefroy _ad loc._ - -[590] _Ibid._, I, i, ii, with Godefroy’s paratitla. - -[591] They had much the force of a decree nisi, to be made absolute -only in the quarter where all the circumstances were known. The Codes -are full of warnings against acting too hastily on the Emperor’s -rescript; thus Constantine says, “Contra jus Rescripta non valeant,” -but his son on the same page, “Multabuntur Judices qui Rescripta -contempserint.” They had to steer between Scylla and Charybdis; in most -cases, however, an easy task enough in Byzantine administration; Cod. -Theod., I, i, 1, 5. - -[592] Julian, in his zeal for constitutional government, tried to make -it a real power in the state, but his effort was quietly ignored after -his short career by his successors; Zosimus, iii, 11. - -[593] In theory the Consul (Cod. Theod., VI, vi), but practically the -P.U.; _ibid._, ii, and Godefroy’s paratitlon; cf. Cassiodorus, Var. -Epist., i, 42, 43, etc. - -[594] Cod. Theod., VI, xxiii, 1; XII, i, 122; IX, ii, 1, etc. - -[595] Ammianus, xxviii, 1; Cod., I, xiv. Thus even Theodosius based -himself on a decree of the Senate before embarking on the war with -Maximus; Zosimus, v, 43, 44. - -[596] When there was no emperor in the East, after the death of Valens, -Julius, the Master of the Forces, applied for sanction to the Senate -before ordering the massacre of all the Gothic youth detained as -hostages throughout Asia; Zosimus, iv, 26. - -[597] As in the case of Anastasius himself; Marcellinus Com., an. 515, -etc. - -[598] Ammianus, xxviii, 1; Procopius, De Bel. Goth., iii, 32. - -[599] Cod. Theod., VI, ii, 4; XV, ix; Cod., I, xiv. Leo Sap. at last -abolished the Senatusconsulta; Nov. Leo., lxxviii. - -[600] References to, and a _résumé_ of, modern authorities who have -tried to work out the political significance of the Senate at this -epoch will be found in Schiller, _op. cit._ p. 31. I may add that -fifty members formed a quorum (Cod. Theod., VI, iv, 9), but a couple -of thousand may have borne the title of Senator; Themistius, xxxiv, -p. 456 (Dind.). Many of these, however, had merely the “naked” honour -by purchase (Cod. Theod., XII, i, 48, _et passim_), or received it on -being superannuated from the public service, but the potential Senators -inherited the office or assimilated it naturally on account of their -rank. Many of the titular Senators lived on their estates in the -provinces; Cod. Theod., VI, ii, 2; cf. Cassiodorus, Var. Epist., iii, -6, etc. - -[601] Cod. Theod., XII, i; Godefroy reckons seventy-nine Curiae in -the Eastern Empire, but there must have been many more not definitely -indicated; paratitlon _ad loc._ - -[602] Cod. Theod., I, xxix. - -[603] _Ibid._, XII, i, 151; Novel., xv; see Savigny, Hist. Roman Law, -I, ii. They seem to have been created by Valentinian I; Cod., I, lv, 1, -etc. - -[604] Cod. Theod., I, vii, 3; the first book contains most of Haenel’s -additions, and his numbers often differ from Godefroy’s, to which I -always refer on account of the commentary. - -[605] Jn. Lydus, De Magistr., iii, 37; cf. Cassiodorus, Var. Ep., xi, -6. _Cancellarius_, from the _cancelli_ or grille, within which they sat -or stood. - -[606] Plutarch, Cato Min., 23, etc.; cf. Savigny, _loc. cit._ - -[607] Generally about 400 in number; the Count of the East was allowed -600; Cod., XII, lvi, lvii, etc. A sort of constabulary lower in rank -than ordinary soldiers; Cod., XII, lviii, 12, etc. - -[608] _Ibid._, I, xii. - -[609] _Ibid._, IV, xvii. - -[610] Cod. Theod., I, vii, 2; Cod., III, iii. Notwithstanding a long -article by Bethmann-Hollweg (Civilprozessen, Bonn, 1864, iii, p. 116), -nothing is known as to how they held their court, etc. - -[611] Cod. Theod., XI, xxx. - -[612] _Ibid._, I, v. - -[613] _Ibid._, I, vii, 5, 6. - -[614] Thus the first, the fifteenth, indiction were the first and -last years of the round of fifteen. This method of reckoning mostly -superseded all other dates, both in speaking and writing. The first -Indiction is usually calculated from 1st September, 312. Fundamentally, -indiction means rating or assessment. - -[615] Hyginus, de Limitibus, etc., is our chief source of knowledge as -to Roman land-surveying. Permanent maps were engraved on brass plates -and copies were made on linen, etc. See Godefroy _ad_ Cod. Theod., XI, -xxvii. - -[616] Pand., L, xv, 4; Cod. Theod., IX, xlii, 7; Cod., IX, xlix, 7. - -[617] From a Syriac MS. in the British Museum, it appears that to every -_caput_ or _jugum_ of 1,000 solidi (£560) were reckoned 5 _jugera_ -(about ⅝ acre) of vineyard, 20, 40, or 60 of arable land, according -to quality, 250 olive trees, 1st cl., and 450 2nd cl.; see Mommsen on -this document, Hermes, iii, 1868, p. 429; cf. Nov. Majorian, i. The -amount exacted for each head varied with time and place. When Julian -was in Gaul (_c. 356_), the inhabitants were paying 25 solidi (£14) -_per caput_ or _jugum_, which he managed to reduce to 7 solidi (£4); -Ammianus, xvi, 5. - -[618] Cod. Theod., XI, i, 10; XIII, xi, 12; Cod., XI, lviii, etc. -Deserted lands were mostly near the borders, from which the occupiers -had been driven by hostile incursions. Barren lands presumably were put -in the worst class. - -[619] The duties of these officials are nowhere precisely defined, and -a consistent account must be presumed from the scattered indications -contained in the Codes, Cassiodorus, etc.; see Cod. Theod., XIII, xi; -Cod., XI, lvii, etc. - -[620] Cod. Theod., XIII, x, 5; xi, 4, etc. - -[621] _Ibid._, XIII, x, 8. - -[622] For this assessment the adult age was in general 18, but in -Syria, males 14, females 12; Pand., L, xv, 3. - -[623] “Capitatio humana atque animalium”; Cod. Theod., XI, xx, 6; cf. -Cedrenus, i, p. 627; Zonaras, xiv, 3; Glykas, iv, p. 493, etc. Owing -to the use in the Codes of the words _caput_ and _capitatio_ with -respect to both land-tax and poll-tax, these were generally confounded -together, till Savigny made the distinction clear in his monograph, -Ueber d. röm. Steuerverfassung, pub. 1823 in the Transact. of the -Berlin Acad. of Science. The poll-tax is usually distinguished as -_plebeia capitatio_. The epigram of Sidonius Ap. is always quoted, and -has often misled the expositors of the Codes, in this connection. To -the Emperor Majorian he says: - - Geryones nos esse puta, monstrumque tributum, - Hic capita, ut vivam, tu mihi tolle tria. - -The taxes must have been again very high for him to anticipate so much -relief from the remission of only three heads (_c._ 460). - -[624] Cod. Theod., XI, i, 14; “quantulacumque terrarum possessio.” - -[625] _Ibid._, XIII, x, 2. - -[626] _Ibid._, XIII, x, 4, 6. - -[627] _Ibid._, XIII, iii, iv. A list of thirty-five handicrafts -exempted is given, including professionals, such as physicians, -painters, architects, and geometers. I find no relief, however, in the -case of lawyers. - -[628] Cod. Theod., IV, xii; Godefroy could only recover one -Constitution of this title, but Haenel has been able to collect nine; -thirteen are contained in the corresponding title of the Code, IV, lxi. -On imported eunuchs ⅛ was paid; Cod., IV, xlii, 2. - -[629] _Ibid._, X, xix, 3, 12. - -[630] _Ibid._, IV, xii. - -[631] Cod., IV, lxiii, 2; “subtili auferatur ingenio.” - -[632] Cod. Theod., XIII, i; Cod., XI, i. Evagrius (iii, 39), one of the -nearest in time, is most copious on the subject of this tax. Cedrenus, -Glykas, Zonaras (“an annual tribute!”) evidently confused it with the -poll-tax, but their remarks show that every animal useful to the farmer -returned something to the revenue; a horse or an ox one shilling, an -ass or a dog fourpence, etc. - -[633] Evagrius alone mentions these; cf. Hist. August. Alexander, 34. - -[634] According to an old Biblical commentator, it was called the -_penalizing gold_, “the price of sorrow,” as we might say (aurum -poenosum or pannosum, the _gold of rags_, levied even on beggars); -see Valesius ad Evagr. _loc. cit._; Quaest. Vet. et Nov. Test. 75, -_ad calc._ St. August, (in Migne, iii, 2269). He also is thinking -of a poll-tax, _didrachma_, less than two shillings a head. The -Theodosian Code in twenty-one Constitutions is clear and precise as -to the incidence of the chrysargyron, and nothing can be interjected -extraneous to the definitions there constituted. The quadriennial -contribution of Edessa was 140 lb. of gold (£5,600); Joshua Stylites -(Wright), Camb. 1882, 31. - -[635] Zosimus, ii, 38. He is severe on Constantine for inflicting it, -but there must have been something like it before; see Godefroy _ad_ -Cod. Theod., XIII, i, 1. - -[636] Cod. Theod., XVI, ii, 8, 14, 15; XIII, i, 11, etc.; VII, xx, 3, -9, etc. (also some Court officers; XI, xii, 3); XIII, iv; i, 10. - -[637] It is the signal action of Anastasius respecting it which has -caused so much notice to be taken of the impost; see esp. Procopius, -Gaz. Panegyric., 13. One Timotheus of Gaza is said to have aimed a -tragedy at the harshness of it; Cedrenus; Suidas, _sb._ Timoth. By -Code, XI, i, 1, it seems that traces of it remained permanently. -Evagrius alludes vaguely to some compensating financial measures of -Anastasius; iii, 42; cf. Jn. Malala, p. 394. - -[638] This was the regular procedure when state debtors were officially -forgiven—a ceremonial burning of the accounts; Cod. Theod., XI, xxviii, -2, 3, etc. - -[639] Cod. Theod., VI, ii, 1, 4, 13, etc. The idea of abolishing -these senatorial taxes was entertained in the time of Arcadius, but -the scheme fell through; Cod., XII, ii. Senatorial estates were kept -distinct from all others during peraequation at the quindecennial -survey; Cod. Theod., VI, iii, 2, 3. - -[640] Cod. Theod., VI, xxiv, 8, 9; XIII, iii, 15, 17, etc., see -Godefroy’s paratitlon to VI, ii. - -[641] _Ibid._, VI, ii, 5, 9; VII, xxiv, etc. - -[642] Cod., XII, iii, 3. - -[643] Cod. Theod., VII, xxiii. - -[644] _Ibid._, XII, xiii, and Godefroy’s commentaries. Cod., X, lxxiv. - -[645] Cod. Theod., VI, xxx, 2; Nov., xxx, etc. - -[646] Cod. Theod., X, vi; XV, x, and Godefroy _ad loc._ - -[647] _Ibid._, X, xix; Cod., XI, vi; see Dureau de la Malle (_op. -cit._, iv, 17), who summarizes with refs. our scanty information on the -subject. It seems that the ancient methods of working the ore were very -defective, and the _scoriae_ of the famous silver mines at Laurium have -been treated for the third time in recent years with good results; see -Cordella, Berg u. hüttenmän. Zeitung, xlii, 1883, p. 21; Strabo, IX, 1. - -[648] Cod. Theod., I, v, 1, etc. Chrysostom alludes to the severity -of the miner’s existence; Stagirium, 13; Mart. Aegypt., 2 (in Migne, -i, 490; ii, 697). During the Gothic revolt of 376 the Thracian miners -joined the insurgents; Ammianus, xxxi, 6. - -[649] Cod. Theod., XI, i, 1, 34; v, 3, 4; xvi, 8, etc. - -[650] Cod. Theod., XI, i, 15, 16; xxv; XII, vi, 15, etc. - -[651] _Ibid._, XII, vi, 2, etc. - -[652] _Ibid._, XI, vii, 14, 16, etc. - -[653] _Ibid._, XI, vii, 1, etc. - -[654] _Ibid._, XI, vii, 10, 13; VIII, viii, 1, 3; this privilege was -extended to the Jews’ Sabbath; II, viii, 3. - -[655] _Ibid._, XI, vii, 16, etc. - -[656] _Ibid._, XI, i, 34, 35; xxii, 4, etc. - -[657] _Ibid._, XI, vii, 3, etc. - -[658] _Ibid._, X, xvii; XI, ix; that is by auction. - -[659] _Ibid._, [?] xxviii; cf. Cassiodorus, Var. Epist., xi, 7. - -[660] _Ibid._, XI, vii, 2, 6, etc., cf. Cassiodorus, _op. cit._, iv, 14. - -[661] Cod. Theod., XI, i, 9, 21; XII, vi, 19, and Godefroy _ad loc._; -_ibid._, XII, vii, 2, etc. - -[662] _Ibid._, XII, vi, 19, 21, etc. - -[663] _Ibid._, XI, vii, 1; XIII, x, 1, etc. The demand notes had to be -signed by the Rector; XI, i, 3. - -[664] _Ibid._, XI, i, 19; xxvi, 2; XII, vi, 18, 23, 27. The Defender of -the City was generally present to act as referee on these occasions. -A single annone was valued at 4 _sol._ (£2 5_s._) per annum; Novel., -Theod., xxiii. It appears that the precious metals were accepted by -weight only to guard against adulteration, clipping, etc. Thus, in -321, Constantine enacted that 7 _sol._ should be paid for an ounce by -tale instead of six, indicating ⅐ alloy in his own gold coin at that -period; see Dureau de la Malle, _op. cit._, i, 10; Cod. Theod., XII, -vii, 1; cf. vi, 13. - -[665] _Ibid._, VII, vi; xxiii; XI, i, 9; cf. Cassiodorus, _op. cit._, -xi, 39. When it was found that sheep and oxen fell into poor condition -after being driven a long way the estimated price was exacted instead. - -[666] Cod. Theod., I, xv; one law only in Godefroy, 17 in Haenel. - -[667] Cod. Theod., VIII, v, 13, 18; X, xx, 4, 11, etc. - -[668] _Ibid._, XIII, v, 28; ix; Cod., XI, iii, 2, etc. In an emergency -any one possessing a ship of sufficient size was liable to be -impressed. The prescribed least capacity seems to have been about ten -measured tons according to the modern system (100 cub. ft. per ton -register), that is, cargo space for 2,000 _modii_, about 650 cub. ft. - -[669] There were three grand treasuries at CP., viz., that of the -Praefect of the East, of the Count Sacrarum Largitionum, and of the -Count Rerum Privatarum (his local agents were called _Rationales_, but -seem from the Notitia to have become extinct in the East), but the -Praefect was the chief minister of finance and ruled both the returns -and the disbursements; see Godefroy’s Notitia, _ad calc._; Cod. Theod.; -Jn. Lydus, De Magistr., ii, 27; Cassiodorus, Var. Epist., vi, 3, etc. -The Rectors and the Curiae could levy local rates for public works, to -which purpose a third of the revenue from the customs in each district -and from national estates (mostly property of abolished temples) was -regularly devoted; see Cod. Theod., XV, i, with Godefroy’s paratitlon -and commentaries. The Emperor indulged his fancy in building out of the -public funds or granted sums in the form of largess, as when Anastasius -bestowed a considerable amount on the island of Rhodes to repair the -damage done by an earthquake; Jn. Malala, xvi. There were some small -taxes I have not noticed, such as the _siliquaticum_, pay for the army, -by which each party to a sale gave a ½ _siliqua_ (3_d._). This was -devised by Valentinian III (Novel., Theodos., xlviii; Do. Valent., -xviii) and existed in the time of Cassiodorus (_op. cit._, iv, 19, -etc.), but does not seem to have been adopted in the East. - -[670] Antioch also had an allowance of free provisions, but there is no -precise evidence in this case. - -[671] Cod. Theod., VIII, iv, 6; XI, i, 11, etc. - -[672] _Ibid._, XI, xxvi. - -[673] Considerable obscurity envelops the office of _protostasia_. -I conjecture it to have been a supervision imposed on local nobles, -chiefly residential Senators, who had to serve for two years; Cod. -Theod., XI, xxiii. In theory all the superior offices had to be vacated -on the expiration of a year, but they were often prolonged. Thus a -trustworthy and efficient _Susceptor_ retained his post for five years; -_ibid._, XII, vi, 24. The latter were mostly elected by the Curiae, who -were liable for their defalcations; _ibid._, 1, etc. - -[674] Cod. Theod., VIII, viii; x; XI, vii, 17, etc. These palatine -emissaries, coming as _Compulsors_ or otherwise, were detested by the -Rectors, etc., who could scarcely show them the deference due to their -brevet-rank, which was high: doubtless they gave themselves airs; -_ibid._, VI, xxiv, 4; xxvi, 5, etc. They were entitled to be greeted -with a kiss and to sit with the Judge on his bench. - -[675] 320,000 lb. of gold; Procopius, Anecdot., 19. In the time of -Pompey it was thought a considerable achievement when that general -raised the income of the Republic to the trifling sum, according to -modern ideas, of £3,500,000; Plutarch, Pompey, 45. On the other hand we -have the statement of Vespasian, a century later, that he needed close -on £400,000,000 to keep the Empire on its legs, a sum almost equal to -the requirements of modern Europe, but the scope of his remark is not -plain; Suetonius, Vespas., 16. Antoninus Pius, again, with the finances -of the whole Empire under his hand during his reign of twenty-three -years saved £22,000,000, nearly the same amount per annum as Anastasius -for a similar extent of territory; Dion Cass., lxxiii, 8. Such small -savings by the most thrifty emperors do not argue a large income. In -our own best years a surplus may reach about five per cent. of the -receipts. This gives us grounds for a guess that the revenue of Rome -after Augustus was something like £20,000,000. - -[676] See p. 131 for the names of those hordes who shared the Western -Empire between them. Overflow of population and pressure by the most -powerful nomads, the Huns and Alani, were the general causes which -precipitated the barbarian hosts on the Empire. - -[677] About this time the Bulgarians made their first appearance on the -Danube as the foes of civilization. They were lured into a treaty by -Zeno; Müller, Fr. Hist. Graec., iv, p. 619 (Jn. Antioch.); cf. Zonaras, -xiv, 3, etc. - -[678] See p. 124. - -[679] The capitation tax was remitted in Thrace; Cod., XI, li. In fact, -hardly any taxes were drawn from that Diocese, for, as Anastasius -himself remarks, the inhabitants were ruined by barbarian irruptions; -_ibid._, X, xxvii, 2. How irrepressible were the wild tribes across the -Danube can best be appreciated by a perusal of Ammianus, xxxi, etc., -and Jordanes _passim_. - -[680] The new Persian Empire which dissolved the Parthian sovereignty -was founded, _c. 218_, by Ardashir (Artaxerxes); see Agathias, ii, 26, -etc. - -[681] See Godefroy _ad_ Cod. Theod., VII, xiv, xv, xvii; Hist. Aug. -Hadrian, 11, 12; Probus, 13, 14; Ammianus, xxviii, 2, etc. The walls -of Hadrian and Antonine in North Britain are well known, and have been -exhaustively described. The camps are represented as military cities. -See Bruce’s Handbook to the Roman Wall, 1885, etc. - -[682] Cod. Theod., VII, xv, etc. - -[683] Arrian, Peripl. Pont. Eux. This force was reduced by Constantine; -Zosimus, ii, 34. - -[684] In the Notitia Or., there are two Counts and thirteen Dukes. All -of the latter, however, were Counts of the First Order, as evidenced by -their insignia. In rank they were _Spectabiles_, that is, a step higher -than the Rectors and ordinary Senators. - -[685] Evidently from the Notitia. - -[686] See Godefroy _ad_ Cod. Theod., VII, i, 18; Mommsen, _op. cit._, -Hermes, 1889. In Agathias (v, 13) we have the vague statement that the -whole forces of the Empire amounted to 645,000 men at the period of -highest military efficiency. More than half of these would be assigned -to the East. But John of Antioch, in making a similar statement, seems -to have the Eastern Empire only in his mind; Müller, Fr. Hist. Graec., -iv, p. 622. - -[687] See p. 50. - -[688] Procopius, Anecdot., 24, 26; Agathias, v, 15. - -[689] See Godefroy _ad_ Cod. Theod., VI, xxiv; XIV, xvii, 8, 9, 10. On -the Candidati see Reiske _ad_ Const. Porph., p. 77. In the field they -seem to have been the closest bodyguard of the Emperor, as were the -eunuchs on civil occasions; Ammianus, xxxi, 13. - -[690] See the Notitia and Mommsen, _op. cit._ - -[691] These are all given in the Notitia, some copies of which are -coloured. - -[692] The general appearance was probably: “The tuft of the helmet, -the lance pennon, and the surcoat were all of a fixed colour for each -band;” Oman, Art of War, p. 186. - -[693] For the ensign see Ammianus, xvi, 10; Vegetius, ii, 7, 13, 14, -etc.; Cod., I, xxvii, 1 (8); Jn. Lydus, De Magistr., i, 46; Maurice, -Strategikon, ii, 9, 13, 14, 19; Cedrenus, i, p. 298. The dragons were -hollow so as to become inflated with the wind; Gregory Naz., Adv. -Julian, i, 66. - -[694] The cavalry with mail-clad horses were called _cataphractarii_ or -_clibanarii_; Ammianus, xvi, 10; Cod. Theod., XIV, xxvii, 9. - -[695] Ammianus, xx, 11; xxix, 5; Procopius, De Bel. Pers., i, 1; -Maurice, _op. cit._, XII, viii, 2, 4, 11, etc. There were fifteen -factories for the forging of arms; Notitia; see below. - -[696] Vegetius, i, 4, 5, 6; Cod. Theod., VII, xiii, 3; xx, 12, etc. - -[697] Cod. Theod., VII, xiii, 8; Pand., XLIX, xvi, 11, etc. - -[698] Vegetius, i, 7; Cod. Theod., VII, xiii, etc.; eighteen was the -usual age for the recruit, 5 ft. 8 in. the height. They were branded in -a conspicuous part of the body; Cod. Theod., X, xxi, 4, and Godefroy -_ad loc._ - -[699] Provided they were physically fit; Cod. Theod., VII, xxii. - -[700] Ammianus, xxi, 6; Cod. Theod., VII, xiii. An officer called a -_temonarius_ collected the quittance money for the recruits, which -varied from £14 to £20 apiece. - -[701] Ammianus, xvii, 13; xix, 11; xxviii, 5, etc.; Zosimus, iv, 12, -etc. Barbarians of this class were called _Dedititii_. - -[702] Cod. Theod., VII, xiii, 16, and Godefroy _ad loc._ - -[703] Jordanes, De Reb. Get., 21, 28. The enlistment of barbarians -seems to have reached its height under Justin II, when Tiberius led -150,000 mercenaries against the Persians (_c._ 576); Evagrius, v, 14; -cf. Theophanes, an. 6072, etc. - -[704] Godefroy _ad_ Cod. Theod., VII, xvii; Vegetius, v (the Liburnian -galleys); Marcellinus Com., an. 508 (“centum armatis navibus totidemque -dromonibus.” By “armed ships” I presume he means bulky transports laden -with soldiers and munitions of war); Procopius, De Bel. Vand., i, 11, -etc. - -[705] Cod. Theod., VII, xx. - -[706] Evidently from Agathias, v, 15, and the following. - -[707] Rescript of Anastasius, Mommsen, _op. cit._, pp. 199, 256. - -[708] The _Limitanei_ and _Comitatenses_ are mentioned in the Code (I, -xxvii, 2 (8), etc.), but the Palatine troops do not occur by name in -the literature of the sixth century (?). - -[709] The term was used long before the word legion dropped out; Cod. -Theod., VII, i, 18, etc. By the Greeks the _Numeri_ were called the -_Catalogues_; Procopius, _passim_ (also in previous use). - -[710] Cod. Theod., [?] vii, 16, 17, etc.; Procopius, De Bel. Goth., -iii, 39; iv, 26. Applicants of all soils were on occasion attracted by -the offer of a bounty called _pulveraticum_. - -[711] Cod., XII, xxxiv, 6, 7. - -[712] Olympiodorus, p. 450; Novel., Theod., xx; Procopius, De Bel. -Vand., i, 11; De Bel. Goth., iv, 5, etc. - -[713] Cod., IV, lxv, 35; Novel., cxvii, 11; cf. Benjamin, Berlin -Dissert., 1892. - -[714] Procopius, De Bel. Vand., i, 2, 3; Agathias, ii, 7, 9, etc. There -were no true allies of the Empire at this time, although all those who -fought for her may not have been technically _Foederati_; cf. Mommsen, -_op. cit._, pp. 217, 272. - -[715] The name defines them as “biscuit-eaters,” in allusion to their -being maintained at the table of their lord. - -[716] Benjamin’s essay is written to oppose this view which is favoured -by Mommsen; _op. cit._, in both cases. - -[717] Procopius, De Bel. Vand., ii, 18. - -[718] _Ibid._, De Bel. Pers., i, 25; De Bel. Goth., iii, 1, etc. - -[719] _Ibid._, De Bel. Vand., i, 17; ii, 19, etc. - -[720] Cod., IX, xii, 10. - -[721] Ammianus, xiv, 2; xxvii, 9, etc. - -[722] Cassiodorus, Var. Epist., v, 16, 17. An order for 1,000 _dromons_ -was executed for Theodoric in an incredibly short time. “Renuntias -completum quod vix credi potest inchoatum.” - -[723] The general character given to Byzantine soldiers is -exceptionally bad: “The vile and contemptible military class”; Isidore -Pelus., Epist., i, 390: “as free from crime as you might say the sea -is free from waves”; Chrysostom, In Matth. Hom. LXI, 2 (in Migne, -vii, 590). These, of course, are priests, but cf. Ammianus, xxii, 4; -Zosimus, ii, 34, etc. Thus a century earlier the army had already -fallen into a wretched condition; see also Synesius, De Regno. - -[724] Maurice, _op. cit._, XII, viii, 16. - -[725] From the anonymous Strategike it would seem that the phalanx was -restored on occasion during the sixth century (Köchly and Rüslow). - -[726] See Arrian’s Tactica _v._ Alanos. For an interesting exposition -of the vicissitudes of warfare by means of cavalry, infantry, and -missiles pure, see Oman’s Art of War, but the author’s selection of the -battle of Adrianople (378) as marking a sharp turn in the evolution -of Roman cavalry is quite arbitrary and could not be historically -maintained. That disaster made no demonstrable difference in the -constitution of the armies of the Empire. The forces of Rome were -consumed to a greater extent at the battle of Mursa less than thirty -years previously (351), when the army of the victor contained, perhaps, -40,000 cavalry, half of the whole amount; Julian, Orat. I, ii (p. 98, -etc., Hertlein); Zonaras, xiii, 8, etc. - -[727] Constantine, according to Zosimus (ii, 33), first appointed a -Magister Equitum in the new sense; cf. Cod. Theod., XI, i, 1 (315). - -[728] Notitia Or. - -[729] Procopius, De Bel. Pers., i, 13, etc. - -[730] Procop., De Bel. Pers., i, 13, etc. - -[731] _Ibid._, De Bel. Vand., i, 19. - -[732] _Ibid._, Anecdot., 24; Agathias, v, 15. Under Leo Macella the -Scholars consisted of selected Armenians, but Zeno introduced a rabble -of Isaurians, his own countrymen; these, of course, were chased by -Anastasius; Theodore Lect., ii, 9, etc. Leo also levied the Excubitors -to be a genuine fighting corps of the Domestics; Jn. Lydus, De Magist., -i, 16. - -[733] Longinus, brother of Zeno, expected to succeed him, but he was -seized promptly, shaved, and banished as a presbyter to Alexandria; -Theophanes, an. 5984, etc. - -[734] _Ibid._, an. 5985. To his power among the Isaurians Zeno owed -his elevation, being taken up by Leo as a counterpoise to Aspar and -his Goths, the authors of his own fortune, of whom he was in danger of -becoming the tool; Candidus, Excerpt., p. 473, etc. - -[735] Marcellinus Com., an. 498. - -[736] This was the end of the war according to Theophanes (an. 5988), -who gives it only three years; cf. Jn. Malala, xvi. - -[737] These brigands had been subsidized to the amount of 5,000 lb. of -gold annually (Jn. Antioch., Müller, v, p. 30, says only 1,500 lb.), -which was henceforth saved to the treasury; Evagrius, iii, 35. All the -most troublesome characters were captured and settled permanently in -Thrace; Procopius, Gaz. Paneg., 10. For a monograph on this war see -Brooks, Eng. Hist. Rev., 1893. - -[738] Kavádh in recent transliteration. Persian history has been -greatly advanced by modern Orientalists; see especially Nöldeke, -Geschichte der Perser, Leyden, 1887. But the history of Tabari is -absurdly wrong in nearly all statements respecting the Romans and the -translations of Nöldeke and Zotenberg vary so much that we often seem -to be reading different works. - -[739] Theodore Lect., ii; Procopius, De Bel. Pers., i, 7, _et seq._; De -Aedific., iii, 2, _et seq._ - -[740] _Ibid._; De Bel. Pers., ii, 3. - -[741] Procopius, De Bel. Pers., i, 7; cf. his parallel story of Attila -and the storks at Aquileia; De Bel. Vand., i, 4 (copied, perhaps, by -Jordanes). While such anecdotes may enliven the page of history, their -effectivity must always be accepted with suspicion. - -[742] If the statements of Zacharias Myt. and Michael Melit. can be -accepted, the town must have been very populous, as the number of -citizens slain is put by them at eighty thousand. - -[743] The Nephthalites or White Huns who occupied Bactria, previously -the seat of a powerful Greek kingdom under a dynasty of Alexander’s -successors. - -[744] Ammianus, xxv, 7. - -[745] Procopius, De Aedific., ii, 1; cf. Jn. Malala, xvi, etc. - -[746] Jordanes, 58. I am putting it, perhaps, too mildly in the text -if Theodoric, who was a vassal of the Empire, knew beforehand of the -course taken by his general. Sabinianus was chiefly supported by -Bulgarians in consequence of Zeno’s treaty with them; cf. Ennodius, -Panegyr. Theodor. Petza had only 2,000 foot and 500 horse. - -[747] Marcellinus Com., an. 505; Ennodius, _loc. cit._ - -[748] Marcellinus Com., an. 508. Doubtless this was the event which -caused Theodoric to build a large fleet; Cassiodorus, Var. Epist., v, -15, 16. - -[749] Cassiodorus, Var. Epist., i, 1, might apply here; in any case the -sentiments of Theodoric are clearly expressed by Jordanes, 59; cf. 57. - -[750] Jn. Antioch. and Jn. Malala, Hermes, vi (Mommsen), pp. 344, 389. - -[751] Marcellinus Com., an. 514; Jn. Malala, xvi; Theophanes, an. 6005, -etc. - -[752] Marcellinus Com., an. 514; Theophanes, an. 6005. The texts merely -imply, perhaps, that they deserted to Vitalian. Hypatius, the Byzantine -general, and nephew to Anastasius, was taken prisoner, deliberately -given up in fact. A second engagement, however, under Cyril, was -undoubtedly bloody; Jn. Malala, xvi. - -[753] Jn. Malala, xvi; Zonaras (xiv, 3) says the fleet was inflamed by -burning (concave) mirrors. - -[754] As a ransom for their captives; Marcellinus Com., an. 515; -Theophanes, an. 6006. The Senate negotiated for Anastasius. - -[755] Marcellinus Com., an. 515. - -[756] See, besides the above authorities, the correspondence between -Emperor and Pope (in Migne, S.L., lxiii, also Concil. and Baronius). - -[757] Theophanes, an. 6006; Cedrenus, i, p. 632. - -[758] All the chronographists relate the vision of Anastasius, to whom, -just before his death, a figure with a book appeared, saying: “For your -insatiable avarice I erase fourteen years.” Every one must regret the -inherent defect of character which deprived us of a centenarian emperor. - -[759] That of Anastasius is the last life written by Tillemont, which, -as usual, he has illustrated by his wide erudition in ecclesiastical -literature. But the infantile credulity of the man in theological -matters abates much of the critical value of his work. Thus he gravely -questions if the action of the Deity was correct when, for the benefit -of the Persian king, he allowed a Christian bishop to release a -treasure guarded by demons whom the Magi had failed to exorcise. He -believes implicitly that an orthodox bishop emerged from the flames -intact so as to convince an Arian congener of his error, etc. Rose’s -thesis (Halle, 1886) on these wars is of some value. - -[760] Strabo, II, i, 30, etc.; Pliny, Hist. Nat., ii, 112. The earth -was thought to be about 9,000 miles long and half that width, north to -south. - -[761] Cosmas Indicopleustes, a merchant who eventually turned monk, -in his Christian Topography is our chief authority for popular -cosmogony and trade in the sixth century (in Migne, S.G.). The -theories of philosophers jar with his Biblical convictions and excite -his antagonism. He writes to prove that the world is flat, that the -sun rounds a great mountain in the north to cause night, etc. Being -something of a draughtsman he explains his views by cosmographical -diagrams, and figures many objects seen in his travels. There is an -annotated translation by McCrindle, Lond., 1899 (Hakluyt Soc.). - -[762] Diodorus, Sic., v, 19, 22, etc. For tin to the Scilly Is., etc. - -[763] Phoenician trade is summarized with considerable detail by -Ezekiel, xxvii; cf. Genesis, xxxvii, 25. But a couple of centuries -earlier the race was well known to Homer, who often adverts to their -skill in manufactures, as also to their knavery and chicanery: - - Αὐτὴ δ’ ἐς θάλαμον κατεβήσατο κηώεντα, - Ἔνθ’ ἔσαν οἱ πέπλοι παμποίκιλοι, ἔργα γυναικῶν - Σιδονίων. κ.τ.λ. - Iliad, vi, 288. - - Ἔνθα δὲ Φοίνικες ναυσίκλυτοι ἤλυθον ἄνδρες - Τρῶκται, μυρί’ ἄγοντες ἀθύρματα νηῒ μελαίνῃ ... - Τὴν δ’ ἄρα Φοίνικες πολυπαίπαλοι ἠπερόπευον. κ.τ.λ. - Odyssey, xv, 415. - -The recently discovered ruins in Mashonaland (Rhodesia) prove, perhaps, -that their unrecorded expeditions reached to S. Africa; see works by -Bent, Neal and Hall, Keane, etc. - -[764] 326 B.C. In Arrian’s Indica, 18, _et seq._ - -[765] Strabo, XVII, i, 13. - -[766] Pliny, Hist. Nat., vi, 26; Pseud-Arrian, Peripl. Mar. Erythr., -57. For a discussion as to the date of Hippalus see Vincent, Commerce -of the Ancients, ii, p. 47, etc. The S.W. monsoon blows from April to -October, the N.E. in the interval. - -[767] Very small, however, according to modern ideas; Pliny (_op. -cit._, vi, 24) gives them 3,000 _amphorae_, not more than 40 or 50 tons -register. Arrian (_op. cit._, 19) marks the distinction between “long, -narrow war-galleys and round, capacious trading ships.” A few great -ships—floating palaces rather—were built by the Ptolemies and Hiero -of Syracuse, but they were never seriously employed in navigation; -Athenaeus, v, 36, _et seq._ Yet ships of at least 250 tons register -were in common use by 170; Pand., L, v, 3. - -[768] Pliny, _op. cit._, vi, 26, _et seq._; Pseud-Arrian, _op. cit._, -57. The vessels had to be armed lest they should fall in with pirates. -“The merchant floating down the stream; the caravan crossing the -desert, mounting the defile, looking out upon the sea and its harbours; -the ferry passing the river; the mariners in their little ship—they -are real figures, yet they are nameless, all but a few; they suffer -and they succumb without ever finding a voice for their story. On the -desert, perhaps, a cloud of robber horse burst upon them; on the river -the boat sinks, overladen; in the mountain passes they drop with cold; -in the dirty lanes of the mart they die of disease. Commerce is not -organized, safeguarded, universalized, as at present, but, such as it -is, it reaches wide, and its life is never quite extinct.” Beazley, -Dawn of Modern Geography, i, p. 177. - -[769] Pliny, _op. cit._, vi, 19. He remarks that Pompey, during the -Mithridatic war, first made the existence of this trade known to the -Romans; cf. Strabo, XI, ii, 16; the geographer notes that Dioscurias, -about 50 miles north of Phasis, was a great barbarian mart frequented -by 70, or even, as some said, by 300 different nations; see also -Ammianus, xxiii, 6. - -[770] Cosmas, _op. cit._, ii; cf. Procopius, De Bel. Pers., i, 20. - -[771] So called from a sophist who was murdered there; Libanius, -Epist., 20. Previously Nicephorium. - -[772] Cod. Theod., VII, xvi, 2, 3, and Godfrey _ad loc._; Cod., IV, -lxiii, 4. - -[773] The inhabitants were a mixed race, containing Semitic and -Hellenic elements, etc. Greek inscriptions were common there; Cosmas, -_op. cit._, ii; cf. Philostorgius, iii, 6, etc. - -[774] For the transport of an army to the opposite coast the king was -able to collect 120 Roman, Persian, and native vessels; Act. Sanct. -(Boll.), lviii, p. 747 (not 1,300 as Finlay, i, p. 264, which comes -from adding a cipher to the figures in Surius). - -[775] Called Taprobane by the Greek and Roman writers. It was -distinguished by the possession of an immense lustrous jewel (ruby -perhaps) which scintillated from the top of a temple; Cosmas, _op. -cit._, xi. - -[776] The junks from Annam, as it appears, ploughed round the Malay -peninsula to Galle; Hirth, China and the Roman Orient, 1885, p. 178. -The Cingalese took no active part in the trade!; Tennant, Ceylon, i, p. -568 (_ibid._). - -[777] Cosmas, _op. cit._, xi. His own trade seems to have lain chiefly -between Adule and Malabar. In this age all the southern regions -eastward of the Nile were commonly referred to as India; and that river -was often named as the boundary between Africa and Asia. Hence the Nile -was said to rise in India; Procopius, De Aedific., vi, 1, etc. - -[778] Now Somaliland. - -[779] Cosmas, _op. cit._, xi; cf. Strabo, XVI, iv, 14. When Nonnosus -went to Axume, _c._ 330, he saw 5,000 elephants grazing in a vast -plain; Excerpt., p. 480. - -[780] Cosmas, _op. cit._, ii. This kind of wordless barter was also the -mode of trading with the Serae or Chinese on the higher reaches of the -Brahmaputra (?); Pliny, Hist. Nat., vi, 24; Ammianus, xxiii, 6; cf. -Herodotus, iv, 196. - -[781] Pliny, _op. cit._, xii, 30. This district was also called the -land of Frankincense; cf. Strabo, XVI, iv, 25; Pseud-Arrian, _op. -cit._, 29. There was also a port called Arabia Felix on or near the -site of modern Aden. - -[782] Cosmas, _op. cit._, xi. White slaves, especially beautiful -females for concubinage, were among the most important exports to -India; Pseud-Arrian, _op. cit._, 49. One Eudoxus tried to reach -that country by rounding West Africa with a cargo of choir girls, -physicians, and artisans, but twice failed; Strabo, II, iii, 4. In the -time of Pliny the Empire was drained by the East yearly to the amount -of £800,000 in specie; Hist. Nat., xii, 41. Statues and paintings were -also exported from the Empire; Strabo, XVI, iv, 26; Pseud-Arrian, _op. -cit._, 48; Philostratus, Vit. Apol., v, 20. The import of precious -stones, etc., may be conceived from the statement that Lollia Paulina -appeared in the theatre wearing emeralds and pearls to the value of -£304,000; Pliny, _op. cit._, ix, 58. - -[783] Cosmas, _op. cit._, ii. - -[784] Malchus, p. 234; Theophanes, an. 5990. The island was taken -by the Scenite (tent-dwelling) Arabs under Theodosius II, but was -recovered by Anastasius. - -[785] _Ibid._ - -[786] Antoninus Martyr, Perambulatio, etc., 38, 41 (trans. in Pal. -Pilgr. Text Soc., ii). The martyr, however, is a liar, as he professes -to have produced wine from water at Cana, unless some brother monk in -copying has been anxious to enhance his reputation. Clysma is now Suez. - -[787] Rhinocolura, near Gaza, was the depôt for this trade in the time -of Strabo (XVI, iv, 24). - -[788] Strabo, XVII, i, 45; Pliny, Hist. Nat., vi, 26; Pseud-Arrian, -_op. cit., passim_. Cosmas does not mention Berenice, but it was -flourishing in the time of Procopius (De Aedific., vi, 2). - -[789] Strabo, XVII, i, 45; Pliny, _op. cit._, vi, 26. - -[790] Strabo, XVI, iv, 24; XVII, iv, 10, _et seq._ There was a canal -from the Red Sea to the Nile, but it silted up too rapidly to be -permanently used. In Roman times Trajan last reopened it; see Lethaby -and S., _op. cit._, p. 236, for monographs on this subject. - -[791] Notitia Or., X, XII; Cod. Theod., X, xx, xxi, xxii, and -Godefroy’s commentaries; Cod., XI, viii, ix, x. - -[792] Strabo, XVI, iv, 24; Pliny, _op. cit._, v, 16. There were -different shades of purple and only the imperial shade was prohibited; -Pliny, _op. cit._, xxi, 22. The murex was gathered in several other -places, especially Laconia, where it was inferior only to that of Tyre; -Pausanias, iii, 21, etc. - -[793] Sozomen, v, 15. Much money was also coined at Cyzicus. - -[794] Cod. Theod., X, xx, 8. - -[795] Cod., IV, lxxxiii, 6. This doubtless applied only to great -houses, not to petty retail dealers and shopkeepers (to the -ἔμπορος not the κάπηλος); the number seems too large to understand it -of the capital alone. - -[796] Pliny, _op. cit._, viii, 73; Athenaeus, i, 50; xv, 17, etc. - -[797] Strabo, XII, viii, 16; Pliny, _op. cit._, 73, etc. - -[798] Athenaeus, ii, 30; vi, 67. - -[799] Pliny, _op. cit._, xi, 27, etc. It is a question whether the -transparent Coan fabrics were of silk, linen, or cotton, or a mixture. - -[800] Procopius, Anecdot., 25. - -[801] _Ibid._ - -[802] Athenaeus, i, 50. - -[803] Pliny, _op. cit._, xxxv, 46. - -[804] Strabo, XVI, ii, 25; Pliny, _op. cit._, xxxvi, 65. False stones -were plentifully manufactured; _ibid._, xxxvii, 78, etc. - -[805] Strabo, XIII, iv, 17. - -[806] Athenaeus, i, 50; xiii, 24. - -[807] Pliny, _op. cit._, xiii, 21. - -[808] Strabo, XVII, i, 15; Pliny, _op. cit._, xiii, 22; Hist. August. -Firmus, etc. - -[809] Pausanias, v, 5; vii, 21. - -[810] Strabo, XIII, iv, 14. - -[811] Cod. Theod., XV, xi; Cod., XI, xliv. Indigenously called Mabog. -It was a mart of venal beauty as well as of beasts; Lucian, De Syria -Dea. - -[812] Ammianus, xxix, 4; Procopius, Anecdot. 21. - -[813] Pliny, _op. cit._, iv, 27; xxxvii, 11. - -[814] Pliny, _op. cit._, xiv, _passim_; Athenaeus, i, 52, 55; x, -_passim_. - -[815] Strabo, XVII, iii, 23; Pliny, xxiv, 48; measuring more than 100 -by 30 miles. What silphium really was is now indeterminate, but it -was economically akin to garlic and asafoetida. It seems to have been -indispensable in ordinary cooking. - -[816] Totius Orb. Descript. (Müller, Geog. Graec. Min., Paris, 1861) -36; Procopius, De Aedific., v, 1. - -[817] Tot. Orb. Descr., 51, 53. This tract from a Greek original (_c._ -350) summarizes the productions of the whole Empire, and for the most -part confirms the continuance of the industries adverted to by the -earlier and more copious writers. - -[818] Athenaeus, i, 49. - -[819] _Ibid._ - -[820] Strabo, VII, vi, 2; Pliny, ix, 17, _et seq._ - -[821] Cosmas, _op. cit._, ii. - -[822] Several “embassies” from Rome are mentioned in the Chinese -annals, but nothing seems to have been known of them in the West. Stray -merchants sometimes penetrated very far; Strabo, XV, i, 4. At first -Rome is disguised as _Ta-thsin_, but later (643) the Byzantine power -figures as _Fou-lin_; see Pauthier, Relat. polit. de la Chine avec les -puiss. occid., 1859; cf. Hirth, _op. cit._, who was without books to -pursue the inquiry; Florus, iv, 12, etc. - -[823] Aristotle, Hist. Animal., v, 19; Pliny, _op. cit._, xi, 26; -Pausanias, vi, 26. - -[824] Cosmas, _op. cit._, ii. - -[825] Procopius, De Bel. Pers., i, 30. - -[826] A serf was called _colonus_, _inquilinus_, or _adscriptus -glebae_, terms fairly synonymous; Cod., XI, xlvii, 13. Godefroy’s -paratitlon to Cod. Theod., V, ix, x, is an epitome of everything -relating to the serfs of antiquity; cf. Savigny, Römische Colonat -u.s.w. Berlin Acad., 1822-3. The name of modern works on slavery and -serfdom is legion. - -[827] Cod., XI, xlvii, 21. - -[828] _Ibid._, 18, 23. - -[829] Cod. Theod., X, xv, and Godefroy _ad loc._; Pand., XLVII, vi; -Novel., xvii, 17; lxxxv, 4, etc. This general disarmament of the -industrial classes often left them defenceless against the barbarian -raiders, as is instanced practically by Synesius, Epist. 107. Yet in an -age of non-explosives peasants armed only with agricultural implements -could become terrible, as was shown in Paphlagonia (359), when the -incensed Novatian sectaries routed the legionaries sent against them -with their hatchets, reaping-hooks, etc.; Socrates, ii, 30; Sozomen, -iv, 21. - -[830] Cod. Theod., X, xx, 16. - -[831] _Ibid._, X, xx, xxi, xxii; Cod., XI, viii, ix, x. To be a public -baker (_manceps_) was a particular sort of punishment; Cod. Theod., -XIV, lii, 22, etc. - -[832] _Ibid._, X, xx, 3, 5, 10, 15. Male and female alike, as well as -their offspring, became bound to the sodality into which they married. -The _addicti_ were branded on the arm like recruits; _ibid._, X, xxi, -4; cf. IX, xl, 2; Cod., XI, ix, 2. Scarcely less stringent were the -rules by which even the private guilds or colleges were governed. All -the trades were incorporated in such associations under an official -charter; Cod. Theod., XIV, ii-viii. But the note of personal liberty -had already been sounded, and the more coercive restrictions were -omitted from the later Code; cf. Choisy, L’art de batir chez les -Byzantins, Paris, 1883, p. 200, etc. (Mommsen’s pioneer work on guilds -is well known). - -[833] Cod. Theod., XIII, v, vi, ix; Cod., X, ii, etc. (and Godefroy). - -[834] Procopius, De Aedfiic., v, 1. - -[835] Although their property was held in lien by the state as security -for the maintenance of ships, it appears that they could grow rich -through the facilities they enjoyed for private commerce and possess an -independent fortune; Cod. Theod., XIII, vi; cf. Pand., L, iv, 5. Hence -some joined voluntarily. - -[836] Cod. Theod., XII, i. This title, the longest of all (192 laws), -provides us with a plummet with which we may sound the depths of their -misery, and exemplifies their eagerness to escape to any other mode of -existence as well as the stringency with which they were reclaimed. - -[837] Hence their property was always in chancery, as we may say, -and the Curia to which they belonged was their reversionary heir, -necessarily to a fourth; Cod., X, xxxiv. In the Code the laws relating -to them are reduced to about seventy; X, xxxi, _et seq._ Their duties -and liabilities are indexed in Godefroy’s paratitlon. Libanius had seen -people of substance reduced to beggary by these obligations; Epitaph. -Juliani (R., I., p. 571). Majorian (457-61) attempted reforms in the -West. - -[838] See Libanius, Epist., 248, 339, 825, 1079, 1143, etc. The sophist -had much interest owing to the number of pupils he had trained to -succeed in advocacy, etc., and could often beg off one old disciple -by appealing to another. A Rector’s nod in such cases was more potent -than an Imperial rescript; Cod. Theod., XII, i, 17; _ibid._, 1, -notwithstanding. Zeno enacted that even some Illustrious officials -should not be exempt after vacating their office; Cod., X, xxxi, 64, 65. - -[839] Fathers of a dozen children were released or not called upon; -Cod. Theod., XII, i, 55; Cod., X, xxxi, 24. Otherwise disease or -decrepit old age seem to have the only effective claims for relief, -apart from interest, bribery, etc. The general result of this political -economy was that the Empire resembled a great factory, in which each -one had a special place, and was excluded from everywhere else. -“In England a resident of Leeds is at home in Manchester, and has -judicially the same position as a citizen of Manchester, whereas in the -Roman Empire a citizen of Thessalonica was an alien in Dyrrachium; a -citizen of Corinth an alien in Patras”; Bury, Later Rom. Emp., i, p. 38. - -[840] The Verrine sequence of Cicero’s speeches remains a picture up -to this date of the usual tyranny of a Roman governor. Few went to the -provinces with any other idea but that of rapine. “Cessent jam nunc -rapaces officialium manus,” says Constantine, “cessent inquam: nam -si moniti non cessaverint, gladiis praecidentur,” etc.; Cod. Theod., -I, vii, 1. The revolution of two centuries brings no improvement: -“Confluunt huc (Constantinople) omnes ingemiscentes, sacerdotes, et -curiales, et officiales, et possessores, et populi, et agricolae, -judicum furta merito et injustitias accusantes,” etc.; Novel., viii, -Pro. For this law, ineffective as ever, all are enjoined to return -thanks to God! a vain parade of legislation. - -[841] Cod. Theod., X, xxiv; XII, ix; Salvian, De Gubern. Dei, v, 4, _et -passim_. Titles x, xi, xii, xiii, xiv (of X) deal with the self-seekers -who, in the guise of delators or informers, infested the Court in -unsettled times and tried to oust people from their possessions by -accusing them of treason; cf. Ammianus, xix, 12, etc. - -[842] Cod. Theod., XI, vi; Ammianus, xvii, 3; Salvian, _op. cit._, v, -7, etc. - -[843] So Verres, ii, 38, etc. - -[844] Cod. Theod., XII, vi, 27, etc. - -[845] _Ibid._, XI, vi, viii; XV, i; and Godefroy’s commentaries. The -Defenders of the Cities seem to have been in general too cowed to -exercise their prerogative or were gained over. - -[846] _Ibid._, VIII, xv. In this, as in other instances, I refer to the -laws against the offences which were committed in disregard of them. -Godefroy usually supplies exemplifications. - -[847] _Ibid._, XI, xxx, 4; xxxiv. - -[848] Cod. Theod., X, ix, 1, and Godefroy _ad loc._; cf. _ibid._, i, -2; Novel. xvii, 15; Agathias, v, 4. They even attempted to invalidate -Imperial grants. Notices on purple cloth were suspended to denote -confiscation of estates to the crown. - -[849] Cassiodorus, Var. Epist., v, 34; ix, 14, etc. - -[850] Palladius, Vit. Paphnutii; Hist. Lausiaca, 63 (not by Jerome, as -Godefroy _ad_ Cod. Theod., III, iii). - -[851] Synesius, Epist., 79, 96, etc. These may have been isolated -devices of Andronicus at Ptolemais. One of his subordinates used to -seize objects of art _à la_ Verres. Yet these men were only reached by -the happy thought of excommunicating them. In this the great Athanasius -had set the example. - -[852] Cod. Theod., IX, xxxv, and Godefroy. This was the regular method -of scourging, but illegal as a means of enforcing payment of taxes; -_ibid._, XI, vii, 7. The Egyptians were particularly obstinate, and -even proud to show the weals they had suffered sooner than pay; -Ammianus, xxii, 6, 16. - -[853] Cod. Theod., XI, xxviii, 10, 14; cf. vii, 20. - -[854] Evagrius, iii, 39. He pretended to have made a sad mistake, and -spread a report that he would promptly reimpose it were he not without -documentary evidence to enable the books to be reopened. Enticed by -this ruse the knavish collectors brought in the accounts they had kept -back and a second conflagration was made with them. - -[855] Under Arcadius the traffic was barefaced by Eutropius, and -probably little less so in the succeeding reign by Chrysaphius: - - Vestibulo pretiis distinguit regula gentes. - Tot Galatae, tot Pontus, eat, tot Lydia nummis. - Si Lyciam tenuisse velis, tot millia ponas, etc. - Claudian, In Eutropium, i, 202. - -Afterwards it was more underhand; see Novel. viii. - -[856] As Bury well observes; Gibbon, v, p. 533. - -[857] Cod., I, xlviii. - -[858] Novel. viii; xcv; clxi. - -[859] Cod. Theod., III, iii; V, viii; XI, xxvii, and Godefroy’s -illustrations. Sold in this way, Roman citizens were not held in -perpetual bondage, but regained their liberty after serving for a term; -cf. Cassiodorus, Var. Ep., viii, 33. Constantine was shocked to find -that deaths from starvation were frequent in his dominions, and so -advertised a measure of outdoor relief, which Rectors were instructed -to exhibit conspicuously in all parts; cf. Lactantius, Divin. Inst., -vi, 20. The same Constantine is the author of an extravagant law by -which lovers who elope together are subjected to capital (?) punishment -without any suffrance of accommodation, whilst even persons who may -have counselled them to the step are condemned to perish by having -molten lead poured down their throats. By such frantic whims could -legislation be travestied in those days; Cod. Theod., IX, xxiv. - -[860] Cod. Theod., II, xiv; Cod., II, xvi; Augustine, Enarr. in Psalm. -XXI, etc. - -[861] Cod., IX, xii, 10. See Priscus for a general outline of some of -the grievances dealt with in this article; Hist. Goth. Excerpt., p. -190; cf. Nov. xxxiii, etc. - -[862] Cod. Theod., XI, xxiv; Cod., XI, liii; cf. liv. Libanius in the -East and Salvian in the West, at the distance of nearly a century, -complain in analogous terms of the manner in which the wealthy -residents turned the tribulations of their poorer neighbours to their -own profit; De Prostasiis (ii, p. 493 R.); De Gubern. Dei, v, 8, 9; cf. -Nov. xxxiii, etc. - -[863] Cod. Theod., XIII, i, 16; XVI, ii, 10, etc. “Distincta enim -stipendia sunt religionis et calliditatis” is the caustic taunt -put into the mouth of Arcadius. The concessions were withdrawn by -Valentinian III (Novel. II, xii), ineffectively we may safely assume -from Nov. xliii; 1,100 duty-free shops at CP. belonging to St. Sophia -alone. - -[864] Cod. Theod., XII, xiv. - -[865] _Ibid._, IX, xxx, 2, 5; xxxi. A further hardship was the -quartering of soldiers on private persons, but this, of course, -was only local and temporary. The Goths and other barbarians were -especially harsh and grasping among those who had to receive them when -in transit through the country; see Jos. Stylites, _op. cit._, 86. -Generally the military were arrogant towards, and contemned the civil -population; Zosimus, ii, 34. - -[866] There seems to be no good reason why children should not now be -taught from a primer of scientific cosmology, and have a catechism -of ethics as well to the exclusion of everything mythological. The -human brain is a weak organ of mind, and requires, above all things, -a tonic treatment. Nothing can be more enfeebling than any teaching -which causes children to imagine that they are surrounded by unseen -intelligences having the power to affect them for good or evil. In most -instances, a mind so subdued never recovers its resiliency; liberty -of thought is always hampered by dread of the invisible; and many of -our greatest men have been unable in after life to free themselves -from this fatuity. There should, however, be places of public assembly -where people could resort for ethical direction and encouragement, -without the lessons taught being vitiated or nullified by being made to -depend on mythology. But the objectionable name “agnostic” should be -discarded, as if to be properly educated were to belong to a peculiar -sect. It suggests a country in which a special designation has to be -given to all who are neither diseased nor deformed. - -[867] Even Cicero affects to think it _infra dig._ for him to show any -correct knowledge of the most famous Greek sculptors; Verres, II, iv. - -[868] Suetonius, De Ill. Gram., 2; De Clar. Rhet., 1; Aul. Gell., xv, -11. Crates Mallotes has the credit of being the first Greek Grammarian -who taught at Rome, _c. 157_ B.C. The Rhetoricians had migrated -earlier, and in 161 a SC. was launched against them, and again a few -years later. - -[869] When the system was fully organized under Ant. Pius (138-161), -the largest communities were allowed ten Physicians, five Rhetoricians -(or Sophists), and three Grammarians; the smallest recognized under the -scheme, five Physicians, three Rhetoricians, and three Grammarians; -Pand., XXVII, i, 6; Hist. August. Ant. Pius, 11. Antonius Musa, -physician to Augustus, seems to have been the first learned man to -whom public honours were decreed at Rome, viz., a statue of brass on -the recovery of the Emperor, 23 B.C.; Suetonius, August., 59, 81. He -was even the cause of privileges being conferred on his profession -generally; Dion Cass., liii, 30. Vespasian was the first to give -regular salaries to Rhetoricians; he also gave handsome presents to -poets, artists, and architects, and granted relief from public burdens -to physicians and philosophers; Suetonius in Vita, 18; Pand., L, iv, -18(30). But the idea of remitting their taxes to learned men was old; -Diogenes Laert., Pyrrho, 5. That of selling philosophers for slaves -when they could not pay them, was also old; _ibid._, Xenocrates; Bion. -Hadrian, called _Graeculus_ from his pedantry, also did much for the -cause of learning; Hist. August. in Vita, 1, 17, and commentators. The -Athenaeum at Rome was his foundation, an educational college of which -no details are known; Aurel. Victor, in Vita. Alexander Sev. went -further than any of his predecessors in granting an allowance to poor -students; Hist. August. in Vita, 44. - -[870] Cod. Theod., XV, i, 53, and Godefroy _ad loc._ - -[871] Zacharias, De Opific., Mund., 40, _et seq._ (in Migne, S. G., -lxxxv, 1011); See Hasaeus, De Acad. Beryt., etc. Halae Magd., 1716. The -humblest school was adorned with figures of the Muses; Athenaeus, viii, -41; Diogenes Laert., Diog., 6. A lecture hall was generally called a -“Theatre of the Muses”; Himerius, Or., xxii; Themistius, Or., xxi. - -[872] Diogenes Laert., Theophrastus, 14; Eumenius, De Schol. Instaur.; -Themistius, Or., xxvi, etc. - -[873] Gregory Naz., Laud. Basil, 14, _et seq._ In Julian, ii; Zosimus, -v, 5. Synesius pictures the schools as deserted when he visited Athens -(_c. 410_); no philosophers, no painted porches, nothing in evidence -but the jars of honey from Hymettus. Hypatia, in fact, was attracting -every one to Alexandria. After her murder, however, it doubtless began -to recuperate (_c_. 415). Themistius inveighs against those parents -who sent their sons to a _place_ on account of its repute, instead of -looking out for the _best man_. He mentions that pupils came to him -at CP. from Greece and Ionia; Or., xxvii; xxiii. The students of this -age are described as extremely fractious. At Athens, a great commotion -greeted the arrival of a freshman, who was put through a rude ordeal -until they had passed him into the public bath, whence he issued again -as an accepted comrade; Gregory Naz., Laud. Basil., 16. There also they -fought duels, and Libanius reprobates their presenting themselves to -him slashed with knives; Epist., 627; Himerius, Or., xxii. Practical -jokes amongst themselves, or played on the professors, were often -pushed by the students to the verge of criminality; Pand. praef., -2(9). At Carthage St. Augustine found his class for rhetoric so unruly -that he threw it up and migrated to Rome. There, indeed, they were -more orderly, but indulged in the galling practice of flocking in a -body to a certain teacher, whom they suddenly abandoned after a time, -forgetting to pay their fees. Sick of it all, he eagerly closed with an -offer of the P. U. to take up a salaried post at Milan; Confess., v, 8, -12, 13. - -[874] Cod. Theod., XIV, ix, 3; Cod., XI, xviii. - -[875] _Ibid._ - -[876] Cod. Theod., XIV, ix, 2. Constantius seems to have founded the -first great library (_c._ 351), and another was originated by Julian; -Themistius, Or., iv; see p. 88. Themistius says that he spent twenty -years in studying the “old treasures” of literature at CP.; Or., xxxiii -(p. 359, Dind.). - -[877] Themistius, Or., xxiii; xxviii, etc. Chrysostom, Ad Pop. Ant. -Hom. xvii, 2 (in Migne, ii, 173). - -[878] See p. 58; Themistius, Or., xxiv; cf. Cresollius, Theatr. Vet. -Rhet., Paris, 1620, a huge repertory of details relating to this class. - -[879] Themistius, Or., xxviii, etc. - -[880] Themistius, Or., xiii; Chrysostom, In Epist. ad Ephes. Hom. xxi, -3 (in Migne, xi, 153); Eunapius, Proaeresius. These popular lectures -were often merely colloquial entertainments, such as used to be -associated with the name of Corney Grain, without the music. See the -correspondence of Basil Mag. with Libanius, Epist., 351 (Migne), _et -seq._, L.’s most effective piece, a dialogue in which he mimicked the -fretfulness of a morose man. - -[881] Cod. Theod., XIII, iii, 1, and Godefroy _ad loc._ At this time, -however, pagan professors were often much persecuted by Christian -fanatics, and Themistius complains that they were even officially -muzzled; Or., xxvi, and _ibid._ Professors were naturally the last to -become converts. As to the general esteem in which the class was held, -see the poetical commemoration of the Bordeaux professors by Ausonius. -Lucian deals satirically with philosophers in his Eunuch, De Merc. -Cond., Hermotimus, etc. - -[882] Cod. Theod., XIII, iii, 7, and Godefroy _ad loc._; Cod., X, lii, -8; Themistius, Or., xxi, etc. Chrysostom, _loc. cit._ (note 4 _supra_). - -[883] Cod. Theod., XIII, iii, 5. A law of Julian to facilitate his -ousting Christian professors, but retained for its literal application. - -[884] Themistius fairly covers the ground as to this question; Or., -xxi; xxiii. The inferior teachers were exacting, and even extortionate. -They accused him of requiring a talent (£240?), but he asked nothing at -CP. where he was subsidized; on the contrary, he assisted needy pupils. -Still, he received a great deal of money as presents. At Antioch, where -it was the custom, he took fees like the rest. For more ancient times -and generally, see Cresollius, _op. cit._, v, 3, 4, etc. What the -government paid is uncertain. Augustus gave V. Flaccus £800 a year for -acting exclusively as tutor to his nephews; Suetonius, De Ill. Gram., -17. £1,040 has been conjectured as the salary of Eumenius (600,000 -_nummi_, _op. cit._). In Diocletian’s Act for fixing prices, ordinary -schoolmasters are allowed only about 4_s._ a month, professors 12_s._; -for each pupil in a class, of course. The case of M. Aurelius bestowing -£400 per ann. on the professors at Athens is also to be noted; Dion -Cass., lxxxi, 31. - -[885] Chrysostom, Genesis, i, Hom. iii, 3 (in Migne, iv, 29); In Epist. -ad Coloss. Hom. iv, 3 (in Migne, xi, 328); Paulus Aegin., i, 14; cf. -Quintilian, i, 1, etc. Youths from the provinces studying at Rome were -packed home again at twenty, but this order seems to have been dropped -later on; Cod. Theod., XIV, ix, 1 (not retained in Code). - -[886] On first methods with children, see Quintilian, i; Jerome, -Epist., 107; Chrysostom, Ad Pop. Ant. Hom. xvi, 14 (in Migne, ii, -168); De Mut. Nom. ii, 1 (in Migne, iii, 125); Genesis, i, Hom. iii, -3; Epist. Coloss. i, Hom. iv, 3 (in Migne, xi, 329), etc. Libanius, In -Chriis (Reiske, ii, p. 868). The first book of Augustine’s Confessions -gives many particulars as to his own bringing up in childhood. Greek -nursemaids were hired at Rome so that young children might learn the -language; Tacitus, De Caus. Cor. Eloq., 29. Wooden or ivory letters -were used as playthings. These schoolmasters are represented as very -harsh instructors, who cowed the spirit of their pupils. The rod was -freely used, and chiefly by the paedagogue. Even scholars of maturer -age were corrected by whipping. Libanius used to “wake up the lazy ones -with a strap, the incorrigible he expelled.” Epist., 1119. Chrysostom -himself accepts as axiomatic that nothing can be done with boys without -beating; Act. Apost. Hom. xlii, 4 (in Migne, ix, 308). Quintilian and -Paul of Aegina, however, advise going on the opposite tack; _loc. cit._ - -[887] Pand., L, v, 2, etc. - -[888] Martianus Capella, an African who lived in the fifth century, is -the author of the only self-contained manual of liberal education which -has come down to us. His treatise seems to contain all the book-work a -student was expected to do while under oral teaching by the professors. -Cassiodorus has left a slight tract, but he recommends other volumes to -supplement his own merely tentative work. Isidore of Seville, a century -later, has also included an epitome of the seven liberal arts in the -first three books of his Etymologies, but his exposition is almost as -thin as that of Cassiodorus. The remaining seventeen books are a sort -of encyclopaedic dictionary with explanatory jottings on almost every -subject, well worth dipping into. - -[889] Introduced, perhaps, by Boethius; De Arith., i, 1. -Τετρακτὺς is found in Greek; Anna Comn.; i, pref.; see Ducange, -_sb. voc._ The latter word is really the original and goes back to -Pythagorean times. - -[890] See Priscian, Partitiones, xii, Vers. Aen., etc. - -[891] After Rome had produced good writers, such as Virgil, Horace, -Livy, etc., they were added to the course of literature in the West; -Quintilian, i, 8; x. - -[892] There is some obscurity about his date, which suggests that he -was a centenarian. Ordericus Vit. says he died in 425; cf. Cassiodorus, -De Orthograph., 12, etc. - -[893] “One father,” says Chrysostom, “points out to his son how some -one of low birth by learning eloquence obtained promotion to high -office, won a rich wife, and became possessed of wealth with a fine -house, etc., or how another through a mastery of Latin achieved a great -position at Court”; Adv. Oppug. Vit. Mon., iii, 5 (in Migne, i, 357). - -[894] The details of teaching are presented most circumstantially in -the rhetorical catechism of Fortunatianus (_c. 450_). - -[895] Cresollius has brought together an immense amount of information -on this branch of the art in his Vacationes Autumnales, Paris, 1620; -cf. Kayser in his introduction to the lives of Philostratus (Teubner). -Blandness of voice was sedulously pursued by professional sophists, and -_plasmata_, or emollient medicaments were much resorted to. There was -a _phonascus_, or voice-trainer, who paid special attention to such -matters. - -[896] Libanius has outlined very clearly the course of instruction -through which he put his class; Epist., 407. - -[897] Nothing could be more meagre than the allusions to this subject; -even the treatise on geometry by Boethius, which seems to have been -the only one current, contains little more than enunciations of -propositions. - -[898] I have already referred to the geography of this period, see p. -182. - -[899] - - Altera pars orbis sub aquis jacet invia nobis, - Ignotaeque hominum gentes, nec transita regna, - Commune ex uno lumen ducentia sole, etc. - Manilius (Weber), i, 375. - -The Christian fathers ridicule the antipodes severely. “More rational -to say that black was white”; Lactantius, Div. Inst., iii, 24; Epitome, -39. “The earth stands firm on water [going back to Thales] and does -not turn”; Chrysostom, Genesis, Hom. xii, 3, 4 (in Migne, iv, 101); In -Titum Hom. iii, 3 (in Migne, xi, 680); cf. Cosmas Ind., _op. cit._, x, -for other theological authorities on cosmology. - -[900] Such as that five represents the world, being made up of three -and two, which typify male and female respectively; or that seven -equates Minerva, the virgin, neither contained or containing; and -other Pythagorean notions; see M. Capella, vii, and the arithmetic of -Boethius. - -[901] Such is the well-known system elaborated by Hipparchus and -Ptolemy, but the Pythagoreans put the sun at the centre, though without -definite reasons and with imaginative details; see Diogenes Laert. -and Delambre’s Hist. Astron. Ant. Although Democritus, Epicurus, and -others held that there were an infinite number of worlds (κόσμοι), they -regarded the objective universe as only one of them, and had no idea -that myriads of systems similar to that in which they lived lay before -their eyes. - -[902] Thus M. Capella states that Mercury and Venus revolve round -the sun; and Isidore of Seville says the crystalline sphere runs so -fast that did not the stars retard it by running the opposite way the -universe would fall to pieces; Etymolog., iii, 35. - -[903] See Themistius, Or., xxvi (p. 327 Dind.); cf. Boethius (?), De -Discipl. Scholar., iii. - -[904] Graduated from about A below treble stave to E in fourth space (A -to E″ = La_{2} to Mi_{4}), but there seems to have been great variety -in pitch. - -[905] Cassiodorus often alludes to the organ of his time, especially in -Exposit. Psal. CL, where he describes many instruments. See Daremberg -and Saglio, _sb. voc._ - -[906] See M. Capella, ix; Boethius on Music, etc., and Hadow’s Oxford -History of Music, 1901. - -[907] See Plato, Protagoras, 43, etc. Even in the time of Homer the -Greek warriors were practical musicians, but the Romans were not -so originally. I can make no definite statement as to how far the -Byzantine upper classes were performers on instruments at this date, -but see Jerome, Ep., 107. Further remarks on Greek education, with -references to an earlier stratum of authors, will be found in Hatch, -Hibbert Lectures, 1888, ii, _et seq._ There is a great compilation by -Conringius (De Antiq. Academ., Helmstadt, 1651), which I have found -extremely useful. From the observations of Chrysostom (see p. 118), it -appears that little advantage was taken of educational facilities in -his day, but it may be assumed that the foundation of the Auditorium -caused mental culture to be fashionable, at least for a time. - -[908] Themistius, Or., xxvi, _loc. cit._ Theodosius II was the first -Christian emperor who systematically fostered philosophy by creating -a faculty at CP. and extending clearly to philosophers the immunities -granted to other professors; Cod. Theod., XIII, iii, 16; XIV, ix, -3; Cod., X, lii, 14, etc. We are continually reminded that Socrates -brought down the sophists of his time from star-gazing and speculation -as to the origin of things to the ethics of common life. Thence arose -a succession of dialogues in which Utopian republics were discussed, -where wives should be in common so that everybody might be the -supposititious brother, etc., of every one else. A more harmonious -community could not be engendered by such a device; cf. Herodotus, iv, -104. - -[909] See the elogium of Berytus in Nonnus, Dionysiacs, xli. From -389, etc., Hasacus (_op. cit._) thinks that the school was founded by -Augustus after the battle of Actium, but it is first distinctly noted -as flourishing _c. 231_; Gregory Thaum., Panegyric. in Origen, 1, 5 (in -Migne, S. G., 1051). - -[910] Pand. praef., 2 [7]; Totius Orb. Descript.; Gotlefroy _ad_ Cod. -Theod., XI, i, 19, etc. - -[911] Nowhere definitely expressed, but inferred from Pand. praef., 2 -(superscription), with confirmative evidence; see Hasaeus, _op. cit._, -viii, 2, _et seq._ - -[912] The freshmen rejoiced in the “frivolous and ridiculous cognomen” -of _Dupondii_ (equivalent to “Tuppennies,” apparently); in the second -year they became _Edictionaries_ (students of Hadrian’s Perpetual -Edict); thirdly, _Papinianistae_ (engaged on the works of Papinian); -fourthly, Αύται (when reading Paulus); fifthly, the last year, -_Prolytae_ (mainly given up to reviewing previous studies); Pand. -praef., 2. The last two terms are not explained; the idea is evidently -that of being _loosed_ or dismissed from the courses. Cf. Macarius -Aegypt. Hom. xv, 42 (in Migne, S. G., xxxiv, 604), who presents a -different scheme, perhaps, from the Alexandrian law-school. - -[913] The first attempt at consolidating the laws was the Perpetual -Edict of Hadrian, _c. 120_. - -[914] Pand., _loc. cit._ And many more were probably dragged up in -court from time to time, which it would be the bent of despotism to -taboo. Cod. Theod., I, iv, gives the rule as to deciding knotty points -by the collation of legal experts. - -[915] It was specially decreed by Diocletian that students might remain -at B. to the age of twenty-five; Cod., X, xlix, 1. This law could -doubtless be pleaded even against a call to their native Curia. We -need not suppose that the periods allotted to the various branches of -education were always rigidly adhered to in spite of circumstances. -Thus Libanius complains that his pupils used to run off to the study -of law before he had put them through the proper routine of rhetorical -training, the moment they had mastered a little Latin in fact; iii, p. -441-2 (Reiske). - -[916] Sufficiat medico ad commendandam artis auctoritatem, si -Alexandriae se dixerit eruditum; Ammianus, xxii, 16. This celebrity was -won _c. 300_ B.C. through the distinction acquired by Erasistratus and -Herophilus. See Conringius, _op. cit._, i, 26. - -[917] Cod., I, ii, 19, 22; this and the next title for charities -_passim_. - -[918] Even Plato held this notion (Timaeus, 72), but it was flouted at -once by Chrysippus; Plutarch, De Stoic. Repug., 29. - -[919] Galen gives very correct descriptions of the action of the -larynx; Oribasius, xxiv, 9; and tells us how he satisfied himself by -various vivisections that the blood actually flowed in the arteries; An -Sanguis in Arter. Nat. Cont.; De Placit., i, 5; vi, 7, 8, etc. - -[920] Themistius, Or., i. - -[921] What appears to be an epitome of current knowledge of natural -history and botany is given by Cicero in De Nat. Deor., ii, 47, etc. - -[922] See especially Dioscorides, ii. Tinctures and ointments made from -toads, scorpions, bugs, woodlice, centipedes, cockroaches, testes of -stag and horse, etc., were staple preparations. The realistic coloured -illustrations in the great edition published by Lonicerus in 1563 with -a colossal commentary, are worth looking at. The pills of seminal fluid -(_à la_ Brown-Séquard) decried in the _Pistis Sophia_ appear to have -been merely a mystic remedy. - -[923] The profession did not yet stand apart from the lay community -as pronouncedly as at present. Thus Celsus, author of a noted medical -treatise, was an amateur, a Roman patrician in fact; and the precious -MS. of Dioscorides, with coloured miniatures, preserved at Vienna, was -executed (_c. 500_) for a Byzantine princess, Julia Anicia, daughter of -Olybrius, one of the fleeting emperors of the West. - -[924] Less than a century previously Plutarch had declared the common -opinion that Fortune, having divested herself of her pinions and winged -shoes, had settled down as a permanent inhabitant of the Palatine Hill; -De Fortuna Rom. - -[925] Art in the time of Augustus and Tiberius has to be judged mainly -by the wall-paintings recovered at Rome and Pompeii, many of which are -highly meritorious. For succeeding centuries a series of sculptures -remain which allow us to keep the retreat of art in constant view. -The chief landmarks are: 1. The arch of Titus and the column of -Trajan; 2. The Antonine column and the arch of Severus; 3. The arch -of Constantine, remarkable for its crudity and for some spaces being -filled by figures ravished from that of Titus; 4. The Theodosian -column at CP.; though much defaced, the incapacity of the executant is -still recognizable. The reproduction of the Arcadian pillar published -by Banduri (see p. 49) cannot be regarded as a faithful copy, it -being evident that the artist has elevated the bas-reliefs to his own -standard. In Agincourt, _op. cit._, and Mau’s Pompeii these subjects -are pictorially represented, as well as in many other works. - -[926] Cod. Theod., XIII, iv, 1. Architectis plurimis opus est, sed quia -non sunt, etc. (334). His buildings were so hastily run up that they -soon went to ruin; Zosimus, ii, 32. Hence, perhaps, C.’s opinion that -there were no proper architects. - -[927] Cod. Theod., XIII, iv, 1, 4. Few, however, of these regulations, -if any, were new; they were mostly in force before the reign of -Commodus; Pand., L, vi, 9. - -[928] In the eleventh century, after a flush of splendour in the -already greatly contracted Empire, owing to the conquests of the -Saracens, this particular form of degeneracy began to be manifested. -“Les personnages sont trop longs, leur bras trop maigres, leur gestes -et leur mouvements plein d’affectation; une rigidité cadavérique est -repandue sur l’ensemble”; Kondakoff, Hist. de l’art byz., Paris, 1886, -ii, p. 138. - -[929] This was not altogether new to the Greeks; for in the -juxtaposition of Athenian and Assyrian bas-reliefs at the British -Museum it can be seen that even the school of Phidias adhered to some -types which had originated in the East, drawing of horses, etc. - -[930] See Lethaby and Swainson for arguments on this head. Certain -churches in the domical style at Antioch, Salonica, etc., are -maintained by some authorities to be anterior to the sixth century; -_op. cit._, x. For illustrations see Vogüé, Archit. de la Syrie cent., -Paris, 1865-77. - -[931] Thus even maidens in a state of nudity engaged publicly in the -athletic games at Sparta and Chios; Plutarch, Lycurgus; Athenaeus, -xiii, 20. The parade of virgins before Zeuxis at Agrigentum in order -that he might select models for his great picture of the birth of -Venus, as related by Pliny, has often been quoted; Hist. Nat., xxxv, -36. Yet even among the Greeks a squeamish modesty existed in some -quarters, as is evidenced by the famous statue of Venus by Praxiteles -having been rejected by the Coans in favour of a draped one, previous -to its being set up at Cnidus; _ibid._, xxxvi, 4; cf. Lucian, Amores. - -[932] Thus Shakespeare: - - See what a grace was seated on this brow: - Hyperion’s curls; the front of Jove himself; - An eye like Mars, to threaten and command; - A station like the herald Mercury, - New-lighted on a heaven-kissing hill. - Hamlet, III, 4. - - -[933] See p. 109. - -[934] They vary in merit considerably; see some reproductions of the -better ones in Bayet, L’art byz., Paris, 1892, ii, 3, and other similar -works, especially Gori, _op. cit._ Specimens at South Kensington. - -[935] Choricius of Gaza (_c._ 520) has left us an elaborate description -of such a church interior and also of the frescoes in a palace. The -whole has been republished by Bertrand in his work, Un art crit. dans -l’antiq., Paris, 1882. Modern Greek churches are precisely similar, -and those belonging to the monasteries of Mt. Athos are especially -noteworthy; see Bayet, _op. cit._, iv, 2. Two can be inspected in -London. That in Bayswater is a “Kutchuk Aya Sofia.” Walsh’s CP., Lond., -1838, has a good engraving; ii, p. 31. See also the striking mosaics -of St. George’s, Salonica (Texier and P., _op. cit._), the Pompeiesque -style of which suggest an early date in church building—vistas of -superimposed arcades raised on a forest of fantastically graceful, but -impossible columns, architecture run wild in fact. - -[936] “Du moment qu’il avait exécuté une composition dans la manière -antique et qu’il y avait mis toute la splendeur de sa palette, il -ne se demandait pas si le dessin de ses personnages était correct -ou non, s’ils se trainaient bien sur leur jambes, s’ils étaient -réellement assis sur une chaise ou un fauteuil, ou simplement appuyés -contre ces meubles”; Kondakoff, _op. cit._, i, 108. Of existing MSS. -with coloured miniatures, only some six or eight date back to these -early centuries. Labarte’s Hist. des arts indust., Paris, 1892, with -coloured facsimiles is the most satisfying work in which to study -mediaeval art objectively. At South Kensington a variety of specimens -are to be found, including ivories, enamels, paper casts of mosaics, -reproductions of frescoes, etc., many of which go as far back as the -sixth century. - -[937] Oribasius, physician to Julian, seems to be the genuine father of -bookmaking, the real prototype of the “scissors and paste” author, but -he foreran the swarming of the brood by a couple of centuries. - -[938] Gregory Nys., De Vit. S. Macrinae (in Migne, iii, 960). Whence it -appears that it was unusual for them to be taught to apply themselves -to the distaff or the needle. Maidenhood was mostly passed in luxury -and adornment; Chrysostom, Qual. Duc. Sint Uxores, 9 (in Migne, iii, -239); in Epist. ad Ephes., iv, Hom. xiii, 3 (in Migne, xi, 97); cf. -Jerome, Epist., 128, 130. The latter sets forth his ideas as to the -training of a girl at some length. As soon as she has imbibed the -first rudiments she is to begin psalm-singing and reading of prophets, -apostles, etc. Later she should proceed to the study of the fathers, -especially Cyprian, Athanasius, and Hilarius. She should spend much -time in church with her parents, and must be guarded circumspectly from -the attentions of the curled youth (_cincinatti_, _calamistrati_). She -rises betimes to sing hymns, and employs herself generally in weaving -plain textures. Silks and jewellery are to be rigorously eschewed; -and the saint cannot reconcile himself to the idea of an adult virgin -making use of the bath, as she should blush to see herself naked; -Epist., 107. His remarks, of course, apply directly to life at Rome. - -[939] From Jerome’s letter just quoted it appears that it was usual for -girls to play on the lyre, pipe, and organ. - -[940] See her life by Gregorovius, 1892. Her cento of Homeric verses -applied to Christ is extant. To her inspiration most probably is due -the foundation of the Auditorium at CP., and the prominence given -to philosophy. Pulcheria was occupied in building churches and in -disinterring the relics of martyrs. - -[941] She is best known from the epistles of Synesius. Nothing of -hers is extant. Murdered 415, wife or maid uncertain; see Suidas, -_sb. nom._ She was scraped to pieces with shells, a mode of official -torture peculiar to the Thebais, which may have been inflicted often on -Christian ladies during Pagan persecutions. In other districts an iron -scraper was used; Eusebius, Hist. Eccles., viii, 9; 3, etc. - -[942] I need not refer more particularly to the phenomena of -radio-activity and cathode rays, information concerning which has been -exploited by every popular periodical. The atoms (electrons) which -become visible in the low-pressure tube have been calculated to be of -but 1∕800 the magnitude of the hydrogen atom, and many physicists are -inclined to regard them as the first state of matter on its way to -resolution into the formless protyle or ether. - -[943] A great part of modern books on chemistry is now devoted to -synthesis. Not only have such well-known organic substances as indigo, -vanilla, citric acid, etc., been prepared artificially, but also those -new articles of commerce, the aniline dyes, saccharine, etc. Numbers of -new drugs for therapeutic experiment are synthetized annually in the -great German laboratories of Bayer, Merck, etc. - -[944] Especially suggestive are the ingenious experiments with -ferments, which tend to show that the anabolic and katabolic activities -of living matter may soon be imitated in the laboratory; see Buchner, -Bericht d. deutsch. chem. Gesel., xxx, xxxi, xxxii; also recent -physiological treatises in which are contained the speculations of -Pflüger and others as to the “biogens” of protoplasm, etc. Most -important of all is Loeb’s discovery of the possibility of chemical -fertilization; see Boveri, Das Problem der Befruchtung, Jena, 1902. - -[945] Archytas, with his flying wooden dove, was the most noted -mechanician in this line; A. Gellius, x, 12, etc. - -[946] Even windmills were unknown until they were introduced into -Europe by the Saracens in the twelfth century. - -[947] It appears that of late years a dearth of candidates for orders -in every religious denomination of Christendom has been experienced, -but this may be due merely to the usual poverty of the career. The -Church should fall to principle not to poverty. And here we may -catch a glimpse of the process by which the various Protestant sects -may ultimately die out naturally: that young men of high character, -ambitious of honourable distinction, will avoid a profession which -entails an attitude of disingenuous reserve towards those whom they -are deputed to instruct. On the other hand it may be foreseen that the -Romish and Orthodox churches, upholding as they do a gross superstition -and instituting the members of their priesthood almost from childhood, -will retain their power over the masses for a much longer period, -until at last they have to face suppression by force. Those who at the -present time are engaged in impressing a belief in obsolete mythologies -on the community should realize that they are doing an evil service to -their generation instead of exerting themselves for the liberation and -elevation of thought. However brilliant their temporary position, they -deserve, much more than the oblivious patriot, to go down - - To the vile dust from whence they sprung, - Unwept, unhonoured, and unsung. - - -[948] Grotius has made a large collection of those passages in -classical and other ancient writers, which seem to support the -creation-myth of Genesis; De Veritate Relig. Christ., i, 16. For the -Chaldaean or Babylonian variations, and some earlier associations of -Adam, see King’s Seven Tablets of Creation, Lond., 1903. It appears -that the protoplast in the original account was created by Marduk, the -tutelary deity of Babylonia, out of his own blood, a circumstance which -the “priestly” redactor of Genesis has suppressed, together with many -other interesting details; cf. Radau, Creation Story of Genesis i, -Chicago, 1903. Margoliouth’s attempt to show that Abraham’s Jehovah was -the male moon-god of Ur is interesting; Contemporary Review, 1896. - -[949] In this country the subject of comparative mythology and the -origin of theistic notions has been exhaustively treated by Herbert -Spencer, Andrew Lang, J. G. Frazer, and others. Nevertheless, it -cannot be determined whether the fear of ghosts or the innate bent of -the human mind to speculate as to casuality is the germ of religious -systems. Their development has, no doubt, always been much indebted to -the ascendancy to be gained as the reward of successful imposture in -such matters. - -[950] Avowed atheists were rare among the Greeks, as there was always -some personal risk in ventilating opinions which clashed with the -popular superstitions. Some, however, incurred the odium of holding -such views. Of these the most noteworthy was Diagoras, who is said to -have impiously chopped up his image of Hercules to boil his turnips; -Athenagoras, Apol., 4. The jaunty impiety of Dionysius, tyrant of -Syracuse (_c. 400_ B.C.), was celebrated in antiquity. After pillaging -the temple of the Locrian Proserpine, he sailed back home and, finding -the wind favourable, remarked to his companions, “See what a fine -passage the gods are granting to us sacrilegious reprobates.” He seized -the golden cloak from the shoulders of Jupiter Olympus, observing that -it was “too heavy for summer and too cold for winter, whereas a woollen -one would suit him well for all seasons.” Noticing a gold beard on -Æsculapius at Epidaurus, he removed it, saying, that it was “improper -for him to wear it, since his father, Apollo, was always represented -beardless.” Whenever in the temples he met with statues proffering, -as it were, jewels and plate with their projecting hands, he took -possession of the valuables, asserting that it “would be folly not to -accept the good things offered by the gods.” The pious were aghast at -the example of such a man enjoying a long and prosperous reign and -transmitting the throne to his son; Cicero, De Nat. Deor., iii, 34; -Lactantius, Div. Instit., ii, 4, etc. With a view to such instances, -Plutarch wrote a treatise to prove that “the mills of God grind slow, -but very sure.” Euhemerus and Palaephatus transformed mythology into -history by a rationalizing process, assigning the origin to popular -exaggeration of common occurrences. - -[951] A system of verbal trickery originated with the Eleatics, of -which Zeno (_c. 400_ B.C.) was the chief exponent. Their catches were -generally ingenious; that disproving the reality of motion is best -known—“If a thing moves, it must do so in the place in which it is, or -in a place in which it is not; but it cannot move in the place in which -it is, and it certainly does not move in a place in which it is not; -therefore there is no motion at all;” Diogenes Laert., Pyrrho, 99, etc. -See Plato’s Euthydemus for a sample of ridiculous word-chopping. - -[952] There were six principal sects which achieved a sort of -permanency and retained their vitality for several centuries. They may -be characterized briefly: Academics (Plato), sceptical and respectable; -Peripathetics (Aristotle), inquisitive and progressive; Stoics (Zeno -of Citium, Chrysippus), ethical and intense; Cynics (Antisthenes, -Diogenes), squalid, morose, and sententious; Epicureans, tranquil -enjoyment and indifference; Cyreneans (Aristippus), pure hedonism with -discretion. In general the Epicureans are wrongly associated with the -last conception. - -[953] Aristotle (_c. 350_ B.C.) was the first to perceive the -importance of collecting facts and disposing them into their proper -groups. Thus zoology, botany, anatomy, physiology, mineralogy, -astronomy, meteorology, etc., began to take form in his hands, each -being relegated to a separate compartment for consideration as a -concordant whole and to receive future additions. - -[954] Even with his limited outlook Aristotle had sufficient astuteness -to divine that nature might become the “slave of man,” and expresses -himself clearly to that effect; Metaphysics, i, 2. Such a claim may -provoke a smile from the modern who reviews the mild conquests of the -embryo science of his day. - -[955] A few of their utterances may be quoted: - - Ἐχθρὸς γάρ μοι κεῖνος ὁμως Αἰδᾶο πύλησιν, - Ὅς χ’ ἕτερον μὲν κεύθῃ ἐνὶ φρεσὶν ἄλλο δὲ εἴπῃ. - _Iliad_, ix, 312. - Ἔργον δ’ οὐδὲν ὄνειδος, ἀεργίη δέ τ’ ὄνειδος. - _Op. et Dies_, 311. - Μὴ κακὰ κερδαίνειν, κακὰ κέρδεα ἷσ’ ἄτῃσιν. - _Ibid._, 352. - - -[956] From the Golden Verses of Pythagoras; Epictetus, iii, 10. - -[957] Hence Socrates would not save his life by flight from Athens -after his condemnation, although his friends had made everything secure -for his escape; see the Crito. - -[958] Plato, Gorgias, 55, etc.; Protagoras, 101, etc. - -[959] Isocrates, Ad Nicoclem, 61. This maxim, in slightly differing -forms, has been attributed to Confucius and many others. Pythagoras -enjoined his disciples to love a friend as oneself; see Bigg, Christian -Platonists, London, 1886, p. 242. “Love your fellow men from your -heart,” says Marcus Aurelius, viii, 34. - -[960] Cicero, De Officiis, iii, 8. In this treatise the author is for -the most part merely voicing the sentiments of the Stoic Panaetius. - -[961] Epictetus, ii, 2. - -[962] _Ibid._, i, 18. - -[963] Marcus Aurelius, xii, 12. - -[964] Seneca, Epist., 47; De Beneficiis, 18, etc. To a master who -ill-treats his servants Epictetus addresses himself: “Slave! can you -not be patient with your brother, the offspring of God and a son of -heaven as much as you are”; i, 13. - -[965] Tuscul. Disp., ii, 17. - -[966] Epist. 7. - -[967] Lucian, Demonax. - -[968] It was, however, prohibited early at Thebes; Aelian, Var. Hist., -ii, 7. - -[969] Pand., XXV, iii, 4; see Noodt’s Julius Paulus, etc., 1710. -Aristotle upheld the custom without scruple; Politics, viii, 16. - -[970] Then Valentinian proscribed it with a penalty, but the -legislation was tentative, and the practice was scarcely suppressed -until modern times; Cod. Theod., V, vii; Cod., VIII, lii, 2; cf. -Lactantius, Div. Inst., vi, 20. It was palliated by the institution of -the brephotrophia; see p. 82. - -[971] Odyssey, xx, 55. - -[972] See Lysias, Orat., Ὑπερ τοῦ ἀδυνάτου, etc., Plutarch, Aristides -_ad fin._ - -[973] See p. 81. - -[974] Trajan appears to have established orphanages and homes for the -children of needy parents; see Pliny, Panegyric., 27, etc. The fact is -also indicated by coins (ALIMENTA ITALIAE), and a sculptured slab found -in the Roman forum; Cohen, ii, p. 18; Middleton, Rome, etc., Lond., -1892, p. 346. Faustina, wife of Antoninus Pius, also busied herself -in a similar way, as is evidenced by well-known coins (PUELLULAE -FAUSTINIANAE); Cohen, ii, p. 433. - -[975] Isis and Serapis, after a stormy career which lasted more than a -century, became finally seated in the city under Vespasian; see “Isis” -in Smith’s Classical Dictionary and similar works. But the greatest run -was on Mithras, a sun-god extracted from the Persian mythology, who -grew in favour from the time of Pompey until his worship reached even -to the north of Britain. Quite a literature exists under his name at -present; see Cumont, Mysteries of Mithras, Lond., 1903. For the account -of a regular invasion of Syrian deities see Hist. August., Heliogabalus. - -[976] Polybius complains of the rising scepticism at Rome in his time; -vi, 56. I need not reproduce the oft-quoted lines of Juvenal (ii, 149), -but the following are not generally brought forward: - - Sunt, in fortunae qui casibus omnia ponunt, - Et nullo credant mundum rectore moveri, etc. - xiii, 86. - -Such unbelief, however, did not penetrate beyond the upper social -stratum; and even at Athens in the second century those who scouted -the ancient myths were considered to be impious and senseless by the -multitude; see Lucian, Philopseudes, 2, etc. The voluminous dialogues -of Cicero are sufficient to prove how practised the Romans had become -in tearing the old mythology to pieces. But the pretence of piety was -kept up in the highest places. “The soul of Augustus is not in those -stones,” exclaimed Agrippina in a moment of vexation when she found -Tiberius sacrificing to the statues of his predecessor; Tacitus, Ann., -iv, 52. - -[977] There were many grades of charlatans from Apollonius of Tyana, -who seems to have been a genuine illusionist or mystic, to Alexander -Abonoteichos, an impudent impostor, and Marcus, an infamous rascal; -Philostratus, Vit. Apol.; Lucian, Pseudomantis; Irenaeus, i, 13. - -[978] But he never left Rome and the duties were performed by Pomponius -Flaccus; Tacitus, Ann., ii, 32; vi, 27, etc. Jn. Malala mentions one -Cassius, p. 241. - -[979] That is, sufferers from epilepsy, St. Vitus’s dance, mania, -etc., diseases which might be cured by hypnotic suggestion, neuroses -of various kinds. This popular fallacy was not held universally, but -was derided by the more educated, including the medical faculty; see -Philostorgius, viii, 10. - -[980] Thus a century later, when a true messianic note was struck, -half a million of Jews rushed frantically to destruction in the wake -of Barcochebas, the leader of their revolt under Hadrian, though not -without the satisfaction of dragging 100,000 Gentiles to their doom -at the same time. Some exegetes are tempted to see in John, v, 4, an -allusion to this war, and hence to find a date for that gospel (the -bridge, via Philo Judaeus, between Judaeism and Hellenism), _c._ 140. - -[981] Rufus (or Fufius) and Rubellius are probably meant; Lactantius, -De Morte Persec., 2. See the differing statements in the Chronicles -from Jn. Malala onwards; also articles on biblical chronology in recent -encyclopaedias, Chron. of Eusebius, Consular Fasti appended to Chron. -Paschal., etc. By the synoptical gospels the ministry of Jesus seems -to have lasted one year only, but two, three, and even four years have -been assumed from the later composition of John, _e.g._, in Jerome’s -chronicle, _sb._ A.D. 33. - -[982] It is, however, improbable that any Christian could have given a -consecutive account of the life of Jesus prior to 120 or thereabouts. -The newly-discovered Apology of Aristides seems to be the earliest -evidence for the existence of gospels. It was presented to Hadrian, -perhaps, _c._ 125. On the other hand First Clement, moored at 95, but -with an incorrigible tendency to rise to 140, is clearly by a writer -who possessed no biography, but merely Logia of Jesus. - -[983] They were coated with inflammable matter, pitch, etc., and used -for torches to illuminate the public gardens at night (Nov., 64); -Tacitus, Ann., xv, 44; Suetonius, Nero, 16, etc. - -[984] Dion Cass., lxvii, 14; Eusebius, Hist. Eccles., iii, 18, _et -seq._; cf. Lactantius, De Morte Persec., 3; Suetonius, Domitian. -Clement, a cousin of this emperor, appears to have been put to death -for being a Christian, and has been claimed by some as one of the first -popes. - -[985] Pliny, Epist., x, 97, 98. This correspondence and, indeed, the -whole book which contains it has been stigmatized as a forgery by some -investigators; see Gieseler, Eccles. Hist., i, 33, for refs. The same -suspicion rests, in fact, on every early allusion to the Christians. It -certainly seems strange that they should be such unfamiliar sectaries -to Trajan and Pliny if they were well known at Rome under Nero and -Domitian. Much less can we believe that in the destruction of Jerusalem -Titus was actuated chiefly by a desire to extinguish Christianity, -or that he had weighed the differences in theological standpoint -between Jews and Christians; Sulp. Severus, Hist. Sacr., ii, 30. Such -is history “as she was wrote” at that epoch. The whole evidence that -Christians were popularly known and recognized politically during the -first century is scanty and unsatisfactory. Trajan achieved a great -reputation, which never died out even among the Christians, perhaps on -account of the tolerant attitude attributed to him on this occasion. He -was prayed out of hell by one of the popes along with one or two other -noted pagans whom the Church was anxious to take under its wing. - - Quivi era storiata l’alta gloria - Del roman prince, lo cui gran valore - Mosse Gregorio alia sua gran vittoria: - Io dico di Traiano imperadore; etc. - Dante, Purg., x; Parad., xx. - - -[986] Hence the anti-Christian philosopher Celsus (_c._ 160) exclaims: -“You say that no educated, wise or intellectual person need approach -you, but only those that are ignorant, silly, and childish. In fact you -are able to persuade the vulgar only, slaves, women, and children”; -Origen c. Celsum, iii, 44. - -[987] Minucius Felix, Octavius, 12, etc. Their gloomy austerity is -strongly brought out by Tertullian in his tract De Spectaculis. - -[988] Tertullian, De Idololatria, 17, _et seq._; De Corona Militis, 11; -Origen c. Celsum, viii, 55, 60, _et seq._ Not only did they refuse the -quasi-divine honours to the Emperor, but they would not even join in -the illumination and floral decoration of their houses required of all -loyal citizens during imperial festivals; Tertullian, De Idololatria, -13, _et seq._; Ad Nationes, i, 17; Theophilus, Autolycus, i, 11, -etc. The causes of the unpopularity of the Christians can be studied -very completely with the aid of Gieseler (Eccles. Hist., i, 41), who -has brought together numerous extracts and references bearing on the -subject. As was natural under the circumstances, atrocious libels began -to be spread abroad against them, such as that they worshipped an -ass’s head, that the sacrifice of new-born infants was a part of their -ritual, etc.; Tertullian, Apology, 16; Minucius Felix, 9, etc. - -[989] Origen c. Celsum, viii, the latter half especially. As early as -500 B.C. Xenophanes had said “God is the One,” but this was recondite -philosophy which could not penetrate to the masses, and, if preached -openly, would have aroused popular fanaticism; Aristotle, Metaphysics, -i, 5. - -[990] The prohibitive campaign was almost confined to Lyons and Vienne -in Gaul; Eusebius, Hist. Eccles., v, 1, _et seq._ The animus against -the Christians was so intense that slaves were even allowed to inform -on their owners, ordinarily a criminal act; Pand., XLVIII, xviii, 1, -18, etc. The Acts of the Martyrdom of Polycarp (_c._ 155-161), after -holding their ground so long, are now at last beginning to be classed -as spurious; see Van Manen in Encyclop. Biblica, _sb._ Old Christ. -Literat. - -[991] See Tertullian’s Address to the Martyrs; also Cyprian’s -restrained efforts to modify the reverence paid to them; Epist., 22, -83, etc.; cf. Eusebius, Martyrs of Palestine; Lactantius, De Morte -Persec.; Neander, Church Hist., ii. - -[992] Ten persecutions were reckoned by those who wished to make up -a mystic number to accord with the ten plagues of Egypt, Revelat., -xvii, etc., but the specification of them does not correspond in -different writers. After a certain date, which cannot be accurately -fixed, there was always local animosity against the sect, the practical -issue of which varied relatively to the temper of the populace and the -provincial governor; see Gieseler, i, 56. - -[993] Lactantius, De Morte Persec., 48; Eusebius, Eccles. Hist., x, 5. -Advanced critics, however, are now beginning to doubt the authenticity -of this decree as presented by the Fathers of the Church; see Seeck, -Gesch. d. Untergangs d. antiken Welt, 1895, ii, pp. 457, 460. - -[994] At present it appears that some nourish a hope of the reality of -miracles being still believed in by supposing them to have occurred as -an “extension of the natural.” In this way it may become credible that -cartloads of baked bread and cooked fish—vertebrate animals with all -their physiological parts—suddenly sprang into existence out of the -air. A travesty of the ridiculous, not an extension of the natural, is -the more proper description of such assumptions. Natural phenomena, -observed, but so far ill understood, lie in quite a different plane -from contradictions of natural law in which consists the essence of -legendary miracles. - -[995] The more timorous critics still cling to one or two of the -Epistles grouped together under the name of St. Paul, but the -advanced school has decided to reject them in their entirety; see Van -Manen, Encycl. Biblica, _sb._ “Paul.” I may exemplify the general -discrepancy of views still prevailing in this field of research by -a single illustration: “It has now been established that the latter -(Epistles of Ignatius) are genuine”; Encycl. Britan., _sb._ “Gospels” -and “Ignatius”: “certainly not by Ignatius”; Encycl. Biblica, _sb._ -“Old Christ. Lit.” Such opposing statements will continue to be put -forward as long as we have Faculties of Divinity at Universities -filled by scholars who are constrained to treat historical questions -in conformity with the requirements of an established ministry; and so -long shall we be edified by the spectacle of men engaged in balancing -truth and error in such a manner as to pretend not to be refuting the -latter, so that in perusing their treatises we must either suspect -their candour or distrust their judgement. Yet in not a few instances -the men may be observed exulting amid the ruins of the fortress which -they had entered to hold as an invincible garrison. - -[996] A. D. Loman decided in 1881 that Jesus had not been a real -personage, but he now thinks he went too far; Encycl. Biblica, -_sb._ “Resurrection.” Edwin Johnson, author of _Antiqua Mater_, -1887, has marshalled the evidence against his existence very fully -and fairly, but in some of his later work he has gone too far, and -such exaggerated scepticism, while it may often amuse, can scarcely -succeed in convincing. Jn. M. Robertson, author of A Short History of -Christianity, 1902, and previous works of some magnitude from similar -studies, argues on the same side. Havet says, “Sa trace dans l’histoire -est pour ainsi dire imperceptible”; Le Christianisme, iii, 1878, p. -493. Bruno Brauer concludes that “the historic Jesus becomes a phantom -which mocks all the laws of history”; Kritik d. evang. Geschichte, -1842, iii, p. 308; see also Frazer’s Golden Bough, 1900, iii, p. 186, -_et seq._ Disregarding the Gospels, a form of narrative which could not -be accepted by us as historical in connection with any other religion, -the slight allusions to Jesus in known writers (Josephus, Tacitus, -Suetonius), are evidently mere hearsay derived from the Christians -themselves. Hegesippus, a lost church historian (_c._ 170), gives -some details as to the death of “James, the brother of the Lord,” and -also states that some poor labourers of Judaea, for whom a descent -from the Holy Family was claimed, were brought before Domitian and -dismissed as of no account; fragments in Eusebius, Hist. Eccles., iii, -20. Remarkable is the silence, in his voluminous writings, of Philo -Judaeus, a philosophico-theological Jew of Alexandria, a prominent -citizen, and a man of middle age at the time of the Crucifixion. -So close to the scene itself he could scarcely have failed to have -heard of any popular agitation centring round a Messiah at Jerusalem. -When Augustus was told that Herod had executed two of his sons he -observed that “it was better to be Herod’s pig than his son.” In -ignorant repetition at a later date this remark was construed into an -allusion to the slaughter of the innocents; Macrobius, ii, 4. Several -(non-extant) Jewish historians, Justus Tiberiensis for example, made -no mention of Jesus. Still worse is the case for the Apostles; they -are not noticed outside the N. T. unless in Acts conceded on all -hands to be apocryphal. Most singular is it that no descendants of -theirs were ever known. Towards the middle of the second century when -the Christians loom into view as a compact body of co-religionists -we should assuredly expect to find relations of the Apostles, direct -or collateral, moving with extraordinary prestige among the Saints -on earth. But, beyond a vague allusion to two daughters of Philip -(Eusebius, Hist. Eccles., iii, 39), there is no trace of any such -individuals. The descendants of Mahomet alone were numerous a century -after his death, but the Twelve proved as barren of progeny as if they -had never existed. With respect to the canon of the N. T. it is known -that it was formed almost as at present before the third century, a -great many similar works being put aside as apocryphal or unsuitable. -Those selected were altered to some extent to meet the requirements of -doctrine; Origen c. Celsum, ii, 27; Dionysius of Corinth in Eusebius, -_op. cit._, iv, 23, etc. They were, in fact, edited from time to -time in the interests of orthodoxy or heresy, interchangeable terms, -as is shown by Origen, Epiphanius, and Jerome; see Nestle’s Textual -Criticism, Lond., 1899. Much of the Apocrypha remains to this day, -including circumstantial accounts of the childhood of Jesus; see -Clark’s Ante-Nicene Library, in which Tatian’s Diatessaron (_c._ 170, -an Arabic version only remains), shows the absence of texts now found -in the Gospels, especially that relating to the Church being founded -on a rock (Peter). The striking likeness between the legend of Buddha -(_c._ 500 B.C.), and the life of Jesus has been set forth by several -Orientalists; see Seydel, Die Buddha-Legende und das Leben Jesu, 1884. -The resemblance to early Egyptian folklore may be seen in Griffith’s -High Priests of Memphis (story of Khammuas), 1900 (from recent demotic -papyri). Some interesting questions are raised in Mead’s Did Jesus -Live 100 B.C.? (on Talmudic legends or libels). It must be borne in -mind that scarcely a MS. of a classical author (excepting some scraps -recently recovered in Egypt) exists, which has not passed the pen of -monkish copyists. Hardouin taxes them with having forged nearly all -patristic literature, both Greek and Latin. They had, he says, suitable -materials for various ages, parchments, inks, etc., and executants -who practised various styles of writing. In recording his conclusions -he deprecates the accusation of insanity. Such is the deliberate -verdict of a Roman Cardinal whose learning is indisputable, and whose -discrimination in other matters has not been impugned; Ad Censur. -Vet. Script. Prolegomena, Lond., 1766. At any rate the acknowledged -forgeries make up an enormous bulk, Gospels, Acts, Epistles, laws, -decretals, etc. It seems scarcely possible that the question as to the -existence of Jesus and the Twelve can ever be definitely disposed of; -and it must take its place beside such problems as to whether there -was ever a Siege of Troy, a King Arthur, etc. In the cases of Pope -Joan and William Tell, local and contemporary records were obtainable -sufficiently comprehensive to prove a negative; but no evidence is -likely to come to hand close enough to exclude the credible details of -the Gospel narrative from the possible occurrences at Jerusalem during -the period. The English reader now possesses in the Encyclopaedia -Biblica, a repertory in which Biblical investigations are treated in -a manner as free from bias and obscurantism as is attainable at the -present time. Such a work has long been needed in English literature, -and marks a national advance. But much more remains to be done, and -within a score or two of years we may see such discussions take up a -stable position between the advanced critics who still feel obliged to -entertain some illogical propositions, and the rather wild free-lances -who would dissipate all marvel-tainted evidence by their uncompromising -scepticism, in which they sometimes do more harm than good by their -disregard of critical sanity. By that time a liberal application of the -critic’s broom will have swept many documents now held up to public -respect into the limbo to which they properly belong. - -[997] Previous to the overthrow of Biblical and other ancient -cosmogonies by the extension of natural knowledge the historic inquiry -as to the truth of supernatural religion was paramount. As recently as -the fifties of the last century a sceptic, if asked to give reasons for -his disbelief, might have answered that it was due to the absence of -witnesses of known position and integrity to attest the occurrences; -and that if such evidence were forthcoming he should certainly consider -that Christianity rested on foundations which could never be shaken. -Let us see whether it is in our power to prove that if a religion -based on miracles could pass such an ordeal it would not necessarily -even then hold an impregnable position. In 1848 certain phenomena, -termed the “Rochester knockings,” occurring at a place in New England, -impelled a wave of credulity as to spiritual manifestations throughout -Christendom, which has not wholly subsided up to the present date. -Prof. Robt. Hare, an eminent chemist and electrician, was attracted to -investigate the matter with the firm intention of exposing the folly. -But he became convinced instead, and by the aid of a lady who could -produce “raps,” apparently unconnected with her person, he devised a -code of signals from which resulted a couple of bulky volumes devoted -by the professor to explicit details of the doings in, and the beauties -of, the spirit-land, the whole recounted by deceased relations of his -own; Spiritualism Scientifically Demonstrated, New York, 1855. But the -spirits did not for long restrict themselves to merely audible signs; -they responded generously to the attention paid to them and soon began -to reveal their hands, faces, and even their whole persons for physical -observation, often pelting the audience with flowers, presenting them -with bouquets, and showing themselves to be accomplished musicians -in the negro mode by performances on unseen instruments. Although -their deeds were never dark, yet they always insisted on darkness as -indispensable for the perpetration of them. In 1852, after the craze -reached England, many men of academical and scientific repute observed -and attested incredible phenomena, of which Prof. Challis of Cambridge -said that, if the statements had to be rejected, “the possibility of -ascertaining facts by human testimony must be given up.” Mr. A. R. -Wallace, the congener of Darwin, became a convert, and bore witness to -the miracles of Mrs. Guppy, her floral materializations, etc.; Modern -Miracles and Spiritualism, 1874, etc. (I cannot omit to mention that -this author, at one time at least, was an anti-vaccinationist). Sir -W. Crookes, the celebrated scientist, had séances in his own house, -where he walked and talked with a young lady from the Orient, dead -a century before, subjected her to a quasi-medical examination, and -possessed himself of a lock of her hair; Researches on the Phenomena -of Spiritualism, 1870. The professors of Leipzig University received -the celebrated medium, Dr. Slade, in their private study on several -occasions, when he satisfied them of his ability to perform the -impossible by producing untieable knots, passing matter through matter, -and causing writing to appear on slates from invisible correspondents; -Transcendental Physics, by Prof. Zöllner, Lond., 1883. Other observers -who upheld the reality of spiritual achievements are Sir R. Burton, -Mr. Cromwell Varley, F.R.S., Dr. Lockhart Robinson, Lord Lindsay, etc. -The list of veracious witnesses is, in fact, a long one and a weighty. -Yet all these eminent men have been deceived by cunning impostors. -See the Reports of the Societies for Psychical Research, English and -American, which have been issued regularly for nearly twenty years. -Hallucinations, ghost-stories, and hypnosis have been exhaustively -investigated, but no spirits have ventured to materialize themselves -whenever conclusive tests were insisted on. At the most it has been -demonstrated that telepathy, a kind of wireless telegraphy between -brain and brain, may occur under favourable but rare conditions. -Whenever trickery was excluded the pretended mediums were invariably -unsuccessful. The redoubtable Dr. Slade, when he found that dupes -failed him, retired from the profession, and shortly after, on meeting -a friend who challenged him, replied, “you never believed in the -old spirits, did you?” The absurdities which were effective among -the credulous when their superstitions were appealed to were often -a ludicrous feature. A stone picked up by the wayside and ejected -adroitly from the medium’s pocket during a dance is looked upon as a -supernatural occurrence. See Truesdell’s ridiculous exposure of Slade -and other charlatans of that class; Bottom Facts of Spiritualism, -N.Y., 1883. The career of an English impostor has been unveiled -throughout by a confederate in Confessions of a Medium, Lond., 1882. -The literature on both sides is very large and is still accumulating. -Several spiritual journals are published with the support of thousands -of believers in Europe and America, etc. This modern illustration -teaches us very conclusively: (1) That had the Gospels come down to us -as the acknowledged writings of some of the best known and trustworthy -men of antiquity, their contents would still have to be discredited -as originating in fraud or illusion: (2) That devotion to a branch of -science, or even to science generally, is not essentially productive -of any critical insight into matters theological or professedly -supernatural: (3) That phenomena of cerebration, normal, aberrant, and -perhaps supranormal (exalted sensitiveness), may easily be utilized -for purposes of imposture; and are a proper subject for methodized -psychical study. Since a contemporary religion, supported by a mass of -direct and definite evidence thus collapses before a strict scrutiny, -we must ask what truth could reside in those generated in the womb of -Oriental mysticism, for which no solid foundations can be perceived? -When we see that even scientists do not always succeed in persuading -themselves that nothing is credible but fact, _quod semper, quod -ubique, quod omnibus demonstrabile sit_, how little reliance can be -placed on popular reports and unauthentic tracts. Even if we had not -spiritualism to hand, a practically similar lesson might be taught from -a consideration of Shakerism, Mormonism, Harris’s Brotherhood of the -New Life, the Zion Restoration Host, with its reincarnated Elijah, etc. -See Oxley’s Modern Messiahs, 1889, for many interesting details as to -popular illusionists who have assumed the prophet’s mantle. - -[998] Timaeus, 9, _et seq._ Plato is not here inventing, but for the -most part merely co-ordinating previous notions, especially those -of the philosopher whose name is affixed to the dialogue. Reference -to some other dialogues is necessary to complete the picture of his -religion and theology. - -[999] Parmenides; Republic, vi, 19; Plotinus, Enneads, vi, 9. - -[1000] That is fire, air, water, and earth; not our chemical elements. - -[1001] The original (?) Trinity here invented consists of: 1. The -ποιητής, πατήρ, or δημιουργός. 2. Νοῦς. 3. Ψυχή. From the spurious -Epinomis Νοῦς may be equaled with Λόγος. - -[1002] Phaedo, 19, 25, etc. - -[1003] Thus the period of eclecticism was entered on, for an account of -which see Zeller’s Eclectics, Lond., 1883. It began about the age of -Cicero, but a definite system did not crystallize out of it till the -time I am treating of. - -[1004] Born at Lycopolis in 205; died in Campania, 270. - -[1005] There was no creed in Neoplatonism, and, therefore, what was -believed has to be deduced from a study of the Enneads of Plotinus, -so-called as consisting of a series of books, six in all, each -containing nine treatises. The logical germ of the conception is that -the One emits continually the Nous or intelligence; and the latter the -Soul. The Soul animates the world, but becomes lost should it allow -itself to coalesce with matter by yielding to sin. The subject has been -treated exhaustively by Vacherot, L’école d’Alexandrie, Paris, 1846; -and by Zeller, Philosophie der Griechen, iii, Leipzig, 1881. Neither -of these works has been translated, but there is an excellent summary -by Bigg (Neoplatonism, Lond., 1892), who has dealt with some phases of -the movement at length in his Christian Platonists of Alexandria, 1886. -According to Bigg’s expression, the Christian Father, Clement Alex. -(_c._ 190), “separated the thinker from the thought, and thus founded -Neoplatonism.” Numenius, who was, perhaps, a Jew, made some advances -in the definition of the Platonic trinity; and Plotinus was accused of -borrowing from him; see Bigg’s latter work, pp. 64, 250, etc. Ammonius -Saccas, a porter of Alexandria, was the teacher of Plotinus, and is -considered to be the immediate begetter of Neoplatonism. - -[1006] Philo Judaeus (_c._ 20) is the first known to have taught this -doctrine of ecstasy, but it is not certain that the Neoplatonists -utilized his works. He also was the first to corrupt the rigid -monotheism of the Jews by assuming the Platonic (?) Logos as a -necessary mediator between Jehovah and the world; see Harnack, History -of Dogma, Lond., 1892, i, p. 115, etc.; also Bigg as above, and the -Histories of Philosophy by Zeller, Ueberweg, etc. - -[1007] The details of the life of Plotinus are due to Porphyry, who -gives the most succinct account of his doctrine, and describes his -excursions into the higher sphere by means of self-hypnosis. The whole -field of modern spiritualism seems to have been cultivated by the -Neoplatonists, and, indeed, by other mystics long before; allusions -by Plotinus himself will be found in Enneads, v, 9; vi, 7; iii, 8, -etc. Porphyry relates that during the six years of his intimacy with -him, his master attained to ecstatic union on four occasions. It will -be seen, therefore, that Plotinus was very abstemious in indulging in -such a luxury; he would have much to learn from modern improvements -under which Mrs. Piper and other trance-mediums enter the vacuous realm -regularly day by day; see the Psychical Society’s Reports; cf. Bigg, -Christian Platonists, etc., p. 248; also Myers’ Classical Essays, 1883, -p. 83, _et seq._ - -[1008] “Only the cultured,” he remarks, “can aspire to the summit -and upwards; as for the vulgar crowd, they are bound down to common -necessaries”; Enneads, II, ix, 9. - -[1009] The Stoics began this allegorizing of the ancient books; see -Zeller (Stoics, Epicureans, and Sceptics, Lond., 1892) for an account -of their conceits. Philo Judaeus performed a similar service for -the Pentateuch, of which the Jews do not seem to have believed much -literally in his day; nor, in fact, did the early Christian Fathers; -see Origen, Comment. in Genesim, etc. He notices, amongst other things, -the difficulty which arises from the production of light before the -sun was created; Gen., i, 3, 16. Porphyry’s treatise on the Cave of -the Nymphs (Odyssey, xiii, 102) remains to show the method of exegesis -adopted by the Neoplatonists in order to demonstrate the divine -inspiration of the old Greek poets. Kingsley’s novel, “Hypatia,” gives -a good picture of Neoplatonism in some of its popular aspects. - -[1010] A treatise emanating from the school of Iamblichus is extant, -viz., The Mysteries of the Egyptians, an exposition supposed to be -written by Abamon in answer to a sceptical letter from Porphyry to -Anebo, assumed characters apparently. It includes a whole system of -Neoplatonic magic and theurgy, and describes the various appearances -of daemonic phantasms with the accuracy of one accustomed to be -familiarly associated with them. Objectively the series descends from -the celestial light which defines the personality of a god to a turbid -fire indicative of the form of a lower daemon, perhaps of malignant -propensities. There is a recent edition of this work in English, -probably a venture addressed to spiritualistic circles. - -[1011] Irenaeus, i, 23; Hippolytus, vi, 7, etc. His contests with St. -Peter were a favourite subject in early Christian literature; see -Ordericus Vitalis (ii, 2), who has extracted some amusing incidents -as to their rivalry at Rome, etc. In the Clementine Homilies and -Recognitions, which form a kind of religious novel, at the time put -forward as genuine, he fills the stage as the villain of the piece, -but is considered to be merely a pseudonym for St. Paul, a name which -typified a policy to which the author of the composition was opposed. -See the article on Simon in any comprehensive encyclopaedia of recent -date. - -[1012] Mansel’s Gnostic Heresies (1875) supersedes to a great -extent the larger treatises of Matter and others, as it embodies a -discussion of details more recently derived from Hippolytus, etc. -Their sects increased rapidly in number, from the thirty-seven dealt -with by Irenaeus (_c._ 185), to the eighty refuted by Epiphanius -(_c._ 350). There were two main schools of Gnostics, the Syrian and -the Alexandrian. The former was frankly dualistic, but the Egyptian -assimilated Buddhistic notions, which saw in matter the essence of -evil; only, however, when vitalized by the celestial emanations after -they had become impoverished, as the result of their descent to an -infinite distance from the throne of light. In general the attitude -of Gnostics towards Christianity was rejection of the Jewish creator -as an evil demiurge, and the acceptance of Jesus as an emissary from -the god of love to rescue the world from sin and darkness. Their -Christology was docetic; that is, the Saviour was merely a phantom who -appeared suddenly on the banks of the Jordan, in the semblance of a man -of mature age. Their greatest leader, though not a pure Gnostic, was -Marcion of Pontus. His bible consisted of the Pauline Epistles, and -a Gospel said to be Luke mutilated, but more justly recognized as an -independent redaction of the primitive tradition. Marcion’s Jesus said, -“I come not to fulfil the law, but to destroy it”; see Tertullian, Adv. -Marcion, iv, 7, 9. The modern Christian might imagine that his faith is -dualistic, owing to the power and prominence given to the devil, but -such a view would be inexpiable heresy. Satan and his crew are merely -rebellious angels, whose relations to Jehovah are similar to that of -sinful men in general, so much so that some of the Fathers in the early -Church held that Christ would descend into Hell to be crucified there a -second time for the salvation of devils; see Origen, De Principiis, I, -vi, 2, 3; Labbe, Concil. (1759), ix, 533, can. 7, etc. - -[1013] Unless it should be maintained that Christianity germinated in -Gnostic soil, the most vigorous growth which overshadowed and in the -end annihilated its weaker associates, a not untenable hypothesis. - -[1014] The two portly folios devoted to the history of Manichaeism -(Amst., 1734), by Beausobre, must now be supplemented by more recent, -though less extensive, works, owing to the activity of modern scholars -among Oriental sources. St. Augustine was a Manichaean for eight years, -and the most reliable details are to be collected from his writings -after he became a Christian, and issued diatribes against his former -teachers. Socrates gives a short life of Mani, fabulous in great part -most likely; i, 22; the latest researches are those of Kessler. The -best summary will be found in Harnack, Hist. of Dogma, iii, p. 317, to -which is appended a bibliography of the subject. - -[1015] An old Persian notion; see Xenophon, Cyropaedia, vi, 1. - -[1016] “Not the devilish Messiah of the Jews, but a contemporaneous -phantom Jesus, who neither suffered nor died”; Harnack, Encycl. Brit., -_sb._ “Manichaeism.” - -[1017] The text of his edict, with references to the sources, is given -by Gieseler, Hist. Eccles., i, 61. The enactment, however, is regarded -with suspicion, and is never mentioned unless accompanied by a query as -to its genuineness. See also Haenel, Cod. Theod., 44^*. - -[1018] See the laws against mathematicians, etc., for so were sorcerers -and witches designated at the time, from the Antonines onwards; Cod. -Theod., IX, xvi; Cod., IX, xviii. - -[1019] As Harnack remarks (_loc. cit._), it commended itself -successfully to the partly Semitic inhabitants of North Africa, among -whom was Augustine. But it permeated Europe as well, and in a more -Christianized form flourished among such comparatively modern sects as -the Cathari, Albigenses, Bogomils, etc. Its fate in these quarters is -traced out by Gieseler and other church historians. But the Manichaean -pedigree of these sects is not now accepted so freely as formerly; see -Bury’s Gibbon, vi, p. 543. At one time all heretics were stigmatized as -Manichaeans in the vituperation of the orthodox, especially when their -views approached the docetism held by all Gnostics, as in the case of -the Monophysites; Labbe, Concil., v, 147, etc. - -[1020] Justin. Apol., i, 11; Eusebius, Hist. Eccles., v, 16; see -Gieseler, _op. cit._, i, 41, 48, etc. The belief in the Millennium -was, doubtless, the most potent influence in segregating the first -Christians from their fellow subjects. It was conceived by some that as -the world was created in six days it would last for six thousand years, -and the seventh thousand would be distinguished by the reign of Christ -on earth; see the Church Histories and Harnack’s article “Millennium,” -in Encycl. Brit., etc. As the chronology was uncertain the critical -transition might be revealed at any moment. Christian writers now began -to date from the creation of the world as per Genesis; some made it -about 5500 B.C., so that the Millennium should have been entered on -during the reign of Anastasius. But according to others it should have -begun under Nero or Trajan. Michael Melit. (Langlois); Jn. Malala, p. -428, etc. - -[1021] See Apostolical Constit., ii, 25; Hatch, Early Church, pp. 40, -69, etc. The Emperor Julian was rather exasperated at finding that -the Christians took the wind out of his sails by their indiscriminate -charity, and so cultivated the good will of all the lower classes; -Epist. (frag.), p. 391 (H). He seems to be addressing some Pagan priest. - -[1022] See The Teaching of the Twelve Apostles, 11, _et seq._; -Gieseler, _op. cit._, i, 30. It is uncertain whether the first -assemblies were convened after the pattern of the Jewish synagogue -or the guild meetings of the Empire; probably after one or the other -according to local affinity. - -[1023] It may be imagined that this transformation was not effected -without a conflict when parties with opposed views found themselves -at the parting of the ways. This rupture was called Montanism, from -Montanus, a Phrygian who, with two “prophetesses,” proclaimed a renewal -of the original dispensation. The movement spread to the West, where -the celebrated Tertullian became one of its most ardent advocates. See -Gieseler, _op. cit._, i, 48, etc., or Harnack in Encycl. Brit., _sb. -nom._ - -[1024] Origen c. Celsum, iii, 9. - -[1025] Some details of the catechetical course are known. The -student was first taken through the “science” of the period until, -like Socrates, he found that he knew nothing. Then the current of -Jewish-Christian legend and mythology was allowed to flow, and -everything was lighted up instantly as by an electric illumination; -Gregory Thaumaturgus, Panegyr. in Origen, 5, _et seq._ Almost the -strongest argument the Fathers found for the acceptance of their -creed was the failure of Greek philosophical speculation to explain -the universe. Many of them dwell at great length on this subject; see -Tatian, Athenagoras, Lactantius, etc. One of the best summaries of -ancient metaphysics is given by Hippolytus in his first book against -heresies. But Clement and Origen were more concerned to correlate -the two, thinking there was something divine in both. Eusebius is on -similar ground in his Praep. Evang., etc. - -[1026] As late as 160, or so, the Christians were taunted with having -no visible places of worship; Origen c. Celsum, viii, 17, 19, etc.; -Minucius Felix, 10. About a century later the handsome churches began -to be erected; Apostolic Constit., ii, 57; Eusebius, Hist. Eccles., -viii, 1; x, 4, etc. An inventory of the actual contents of a church at -Cirta, in N. Africa, _c._ 300, is extant; Routh, Reliquiae Sacrae, ii, -p. 100. - -[1027] See the account of Hierocles, the hostile proconsul, in -Lactantius, Div. Inst., v, 2; De Morte Persec., 16. He and the Emperor -Galerius appear to have been the prime movers of the Diocletian -persecution in 303; cf. Eusebius, _op. cit._, viii, 2, etc. After -several years, however, Galerius found the task of stamping out -Christianity beyond him, and issued an edict of toleration. Hence there -was really no call for Constantine to legislate anew. This Hierocles -was one of those who set up the idealized Apollonius of Tyana as an -avatar of the Deity, and tried to exalt him as an object of adoration -above Jesus. But the attempt failed; Apollonius was a real personage -with a familiar name; Jesus was a dream; see the controversial tract of -Eusebius against Hierocles. - -[1028] Cod. Theod., XVI, vii, 1; x, 1, 7, etc., and Godefroy _ad -loc._ About this time (380) Gratian discarded the dignity of Pontifex -Maximus, which the previous Christian emperors had continued to assume; -Zosimus, iv, 36. - -[1029] A civil war was opened throughout the East by many bishops, who -proceeded to demolish the temples at the head of gangs of monks and -other enthusiasts. On both sides infuriated mobs fought zealously for -their religion, and much slaughter resulted. The most violent commotion -was occasioned by the destruction of the great temple of Serapis at -Alexandria (389); see the ecclesiastical historians: Socrates, v, 16; -Sozomen, vii, 15; Theodoret, v, 21, etc. Such doings became official -under Arcadius; Cod. Theod., XVI, x, 16 (399); cf. Gieseler, i, 79. - -[1030] In 367 Damasus and Ursinus fought a battle in one of the Roman -churches for the papal seal; 137 corpses were removed next day from the -pavement of the sacred edifice. “I am not surprised at the contention,” -says Ammianus, “when I consider the splendour of the dignity. The -successful aspirant is enriched by the offerings of matrons, rolls -about in his chariot sumptuously apparelled, and surpasses the -profusion of royalty in his banquets”; xxvii, 3. As the Vicar of God, -bishops professed to stand above temporal princes; Apostol. Constit., -ii, 34. The Bishop of Tripolis declared to the Empress Eusebia (_c._ -350) that he would not visit her unless she descended from the throne -to meet him, kissed his hands, and waited his permission to reseat -herself after he had sat down, etc.; Suidas, _sb._ Λεόντιος. St. Martin -of Tours (_c._ 370) was waited on at table by the Empress; he handed -the cup to his chaplain, thus giving him precedence over the Emperor; -Sulp. Severus, Vita St. M., 20; Dial., ii, 6. See further Gieseler, -_op. cit._, i, 91. - -[1031] See the original church historians. Theodoret’s account is the -most definite and satisfactory; i, 2, _et seq._ Recently Arianism has -been treated by Gwatkin in a separate work. Harnack’s exposition of -it is, as usual, most lucid and interesting; Hist. Dogma, iv. This is -the great controversy in which the celebrated words _Homoousios_ and -_Homoiousios_ were combined to distinguish the contending theories: - - D’une syllabe impie un saint mot augmenté - Remplit tous les esprits d’aigreurs si meurtrières, - Et fit de sang chrétien couler tant de rivières, etc. - Boileau, Sat. xii. - -_Homoean_ and _Anomoean_ denote Arian sub-sects who differed more or -less from orthodoxy. In fact, the Arian heresy has never really died -out, and is now represented by Unitarianism. - -[1032] “Tradendi ratio sicca est, memoriaeque potius, quam -intelligentiae accommodata”; Mosheim, Eccles. Hist., IX, ii, 3. The -first great theological debates concerned the mutual relations of the -persons of the Trinity in their celestial abode; and were decided -against those who confounded the persons (Sabellians, Monarchians) or -divided the substance (Arians). Such momentous matters being settled -as finally registered in the so-called Athanasian Creed, the Fathers -descended to earth and busied themselves in analyzing the mystic -conjunction of the Godhead with the flesh, viz., the Incarnation of -Jesus. These controversies were determined by the ejection from the -fold of Orthodoxy of those who maintained the existence of but one -nature or one will in the God-man (Monophysites, Monotheletes), and -also of a small party who propounded the incorruptibility of the body -of Jesus (Aphthartodocetae). The erection of this fabric of dogma was -essential to Orthodoxy, the underlying conception of which was that God -became man so that man might become God; ii Clement, 9; cf. Bigg, _op. -cit._, p. 71. Hence if the Saviour were made out to be merely a sham -human being the whole scheme of redemption must fall through at once. -The last step led them to consult about the mundane relatives of Jesus, -and ended in the dogma that Mary’s was an asexual birth, the Immaculate -Conception, and that, as she could never have been sullied by any -carnal conversation, the brothers of Jesus, as represented, must merely -have been his cousins. But the Church did not approach some of these -latter considerations till a later age. - -[1033] His laws have already been referred to. For the result as -represented by an educated Pagan, see Libanius, De Templis. This -Council enacted that the Bishop of CP. should hold the next rank to -the Roman Pontiff; Socrates, v, 8 (Concil., can. 3). About this time -the title of Patriarch began to be restricted to the higher bishops; -_ibid._ Constantine’s pagan temples at CP. were now ruined; Jn. Malala, -p. 345. - -[1034] The chief source for the Council of Chalcedon is Evagrius, ii, -1, _et seq._ By Canon 21 the equality of the Byzantine Patriarch with -the Pope was affirmed; Labbe, Concil., vii, 369; cf. Cod. Theod., XVI, -ii, 45, etc. - -[1035] Evagrius, iii, 13, _et seq._ It was composed by Acacius, the -Patriarch of the capital. - -[1036] See pp. 104, 180. To the Monophysites, Anastasius is, of course, -“the pious and orthodox Emperor”: see John of Nikiu (Zotenberg); -Zachariah of Mytilene (Hamilton), etc. - -[1037] Cod., I, v, 12; Codinus, p. 72; Procopius, De Aedific, i, 4. See -Ducange, CP. Christ., _sb. nom._, for a collection of passages relating -to St. Mocius. - -[1038] In 423 Theodosius II considered that Paganism was virtually -extinct, so little in evidence were those who still adhered to the old -religion; Cod. Theod., XVI, x, 22. But subsequent events proved that -his confidence was premature. I have anticipated the use of the word -“Pagan” (_paganus_, rustic, villager) as a term of reproach to those -who had not been illuminated by Christianity. In this sense it is first -found in a law of Valentinian I: Cod. Theod., XVI, ii, 18 (365). It -arose at a time when the urban population exhibited a sharp contrast to -the country people in the matter of religion. Long after the former had -been converted _en masse_, polytheism lingered in the rural districts, -the scattered inhabitants of which did not come into touch with the -Christian propagandists and their new creed for a considerable time. -Hence the idea of a country fellow became synonymous with that of a -worshipper of the gods long since despised. - -[1039] The history of their migration and subsequent activity at the -local source of their inspiration will deserve our attention in a -future chapter. - -[1040] Valentinian I and the succeeding emperors legislated definitely -against them; Cod. Theod., XVI, v, 3, 18, 40, 43, 59; cf. Cod., I, v. -The whole title against heretics contains sixty-six laws, a monument -of Christian bigotry and intolerance. The novelty of the Christian -doctrines and the constant dissensions of ecclesiastics as to the -proper mode of apprehending them, caused all classes to be infected -with a mania for drawing theological distinctions, _ex. gr._, “If you -require some small change, the person you address will begin to argue -about ‘begotten and unbegotten’; should you ask the price of bread you -will hear that the Father is greater and the Son inferior; or in reply -to an inquiry whether your bath is prepared, the attendant will define -for your benefit that the Son was made out of nothing”; Gregory Nys., -Orat. De Deitate, etc., 2 (in Migne, i, 557). Yet sometimes a prelate -would assume a jocular tone in the pulpit when speaking on these grave -questions. Thus Eudoxius, Bishop of CP., began his discourse one day -with the assertion, “The Father is impious, but the Son is pious.” -The congregation seemed awe-struck, but he at once continued, “Be not -alarmed; the Son is pious because he worships the Father, but the -Father worships no one”; Socrates, ii, 43. Marrast has devised some -scenes to bring out the absurd way in which theological hair-splitting -disturbed everyday social relations at this period; _op. cit._, p. 89. - -[1041] Chrysostom mentions the fact with exultation. Objectors fear -that the race may die out as the result of the widespread celibacy, -but the Saint knows better; the women who remain will be rendered more -fecund by the Deity, and thus the numerical complement of mankind -will be maintained. He also knows that there is a countless host -of heaven, asexual, who are propagated in a passionless manner by -divine ordination; In Epist. Rom. Hom. xiii, 7 (in Migne, ix, 517); -De Virginitate, 14, _et seq._ (in Migne, i, 544); cf. Ambrose, De -Virginitate, 3; Rufinus, Hist. Monach., 7 (in Migne, 413). - -[1042] Monks are enjoined by Theodosius I “deserta loca et vastas -solitudines sequi atque habitare”; Cod. Theod., XVI, iii. - -[1043] The literature of early monkish life, descriptive and laudatory, -is very extensive; see Gieseler, Eccles. Hist., i, 95, 96, etc. The -most striking picture will be found in Evagrius, i, 21; iv, 33, etc. He -is lost in admiration of them; they suppressed their natural appetites -so rigidly that they looked like corpses wandering away from their -graves. Some lived in dens and caves where they could neither stand -nor lie. Some dwelt in the open air almost naked, exposed to excessive -heat or cold. Others rejected human food and took to grazing like -cattle, shunning human beings as if they were wild beasts. Both sexes -embraced such lives of unremitting castigation. Some of the males -made a practice of repairing from time to time to the cities in order -to demonstrate their sexual frigidity by bathing in the public baths -amongst nude women. They applied themselves to prayer, of course, until -they brought themselves to the verge of exhaustion; cf. Sozomen, vi, -28, _et seq._ One Apelles had a conflict with the devil similar to that -related of the English St. Dunstan. - -[1044] The celebrated Simeon Stylites was the inventor of this sublime -method of serving the Deity. From 420 he lived on columns near Antioch -for thirty-seven years; Evagrius, i, 13; see Gieseler, i, _loc. cit._, -for reference to fuller accounts, separate biographies, etc. - -[1045] He was contemporary with Athanasius, who wrote an extant life of -him; see Sozomen, i, 13, etc. - -[1046] Sozomen, iii, 14. - -[1047] Socrates, iv, 23; Sozomen, i, 12, _et seq._ Previous to -Christianity there were at least two communities of Jewish ascetics in -the near East, the Essenes, who dwelt west of the Dead Sea, and the -Therapeutae, who lived by Lake Moeris, near Alexandria. The first have -been described briefly by Pliny (Hist. Nat., v, 15) and the second by -Philo Judaeus in a separate tract (De Vita Contemplativa) respecting -the authorship and date of which, however, opinion continually -fluctuates; I do not know whether at present it is on the crest of the -wave or in the trough of the sea. These solitaries consisted of males -and females, and were recruited regularly by persons who became sick of -the world and determined to fly far from the madding crowd. About them -generally see Neander, Church Hist., Introd. - -[1048] Socrates, iv, 21; Gregory Nazianz., Laud. Basil (in Migne, ii, -577). - -[1049] Nicephorus, Cal., xv, 23; see p. 78. Not psalmody, however, -says Card. Hardouin, but restless application to work. Manufacture of -fictitious documents he insinuates, doubtless. - -[1050] Cod., XII, i, 63; Orosius, vii, 33; Jerome, Chron., an. 375; cf. -Socrates, iv, 24. - -[1051] The histories of monachism are numerous and voluminous, -especially those composed some two or three centuries ago. Helyot’s -Hist. des Ordres Mon., Paris, 1714, etc., in 8 vols., may be read for -amusement as well as instruction. - -[1052] Epicurus, the unavowed disciple of Leucippus and Democritus, the -earliest atomists, conceived the coalescence of the particles to result -from their rushing onwards always under the influence of a certain -natural deflection which led to their meeting continually so as to -become conjoined. As an Academic, and, therefore, a sceptic, Carneades -could not accept this or any other theory, but in criticizing its -fortuity, he remarked that it might have been perfected, or, at least, -made more intelligible if Epicurus had conferred some faculty of will -or intention on his atoms; Cicero, De Finibus, i, 6; De Fato, 11. With -our increased knowledge of physics, we may now venture to supply the -deficiency in accordance with the suggestion of Carneades. Not even in -the process of crystallization can the motion of the atoms or molecules -be considered as fortuitous, since they seem to be borne towards each -other under the influence of some irresistible desire. The recent -investigators strongly uphold the vitality of the process. - -[1053] The question of abiogenesis or spontaneous generation, remains -still indeterminate. Substances in transitional stages between the -vital and the non-vital state have not been observed; perhaps because -such matter is too inconspicuous to have been discovered so far and -recognized, or, it may be, that the swarm of germs by descent is now -so great, that the incipiently organic at once becomes their prey, and -forms, perhaps, their constant pabulum. If identical atoms underlie all -kinds of matter, and the recent _début_ of electrons brings the proof -appreciably nearer that it is so, we are still at a loss to explain why -they should at one time, by their association, exhibit vital phenomena, -and at another reveal to us their versatility in aggregating under the -species of gold, sulphur, etc. The statement in the text might run that -the chemical compounds combine with each other in greater complexity to -form the elements of protoplasm. - -[1054] That the effective origin of evolution consists in will capable -of responding to a stimulus, being an essential attribute of matter, -is a conclusion to which we are led necessarily by a consideration -of the subject. When an amoeba protrudes a process, incited from -within or without by some desire, it is already on the way to evolve -itself into a higher form; and when a hygienist essays to preserve or -prolong life by his studies in bacteriology, etc., in his immeasurably -higher sphere, he literally does no more. The earlier evolutionists, -Huxley, for example, were inclined to hold that the potency of cosmic -evolution became evanescent progressively with the elaboration of -purposive intelligence and social institutions, but such a view is -manifestly erroneous, and would not now, I presume, be maintained by -any contemporary scientists. - -[1055] Our means of astronomical research are not sufficiently definite -to enable us to explain conclusively the appearance of previously -unobserved stars (_e.g._ Nova Persei, 1901), but there is good reason -to suppose that these new lights sometimes signal to us the catastrophe -of millions of beings more or less similar to ourselves. We are, -however, well acquainted with the convulsions of nature, which often -bring swift destruction to thousands of those dwelling on this small -globe; for instance, the Mont Pelée eruption of 1903, which claimed -some 40,000 victims. It might indeed be imagined from the occurrence of -such disasters that animated nature is merely a kind of surface disease -of the earth, which undergoes a spontaneous cure from time to time by -means of earthquakes, floods, volcanic action, etc. Certainly, if we -are the only result of the activities of this solar system, there would -seem to be much superfluous expenditure of power and materials. The -conception of God, when cleared of all irrelevancy, is merely that of -a perpetual source of energy; and that we must find in the medium we -exist in or nowhere. It is nugatory to talk of beginnings and endings -when dealing with the infinite, unless as regards phases of phenomena; -if there had to be an end of the universe, there would never have been -a beginning. - -[1056] Amongst some follies, the Stoic philosophers, in their -pantheistic conception of nature, reached the highest level which has -yet been attained in the expression of theocratic dogma. With them, the -universe is the very body of the divine essence, and the good and wise -man is in no way inferior to the sublimest manifestation of it. He is -rightly called a god upon earth, and his intellect is an efflux of the -Deity. “Back to the Porch for your ideas of God and nature,” the modern -philosopher may cry to his age. “You are gods yourselves, and nature -is your realm to conquer and hold in subjection.” The religion of the -future will be more akin to Stoicism than to any other doctrine which -has been formulated by thinkers in the past—a high ethical code upheld -by a pride of race and a devotion to the evolution of humanity. The -Stoic would not now be ready to make his own quietus with a bare bodkin -should the currents turn awry. He would stand to his post till the last -hour, working for the advancement of science. “Les stoiciens n’étaient -occupés qu’a travailler au bonheur des hommes, à exercer les devoirs -de la société: il semblait qu’ils regardassant cet esprit sacré qu’ils -croyaient être en eux-mêmes, comme une espèce de providence favorable -qui veillait sur le genre humain”; Montesquieu, Esprit des Lois, xxiv, -10. See Plutarch, De Stoic. Repug., 13; Adv. Stoicos, 33; Seneca, De -Provid., 1; Epist., cvi; cxvii, etc.; Epictetus, ii, 8, 9; Lactantius, -Div. Inst., i, 5, 27, etc. - -[1057] Accepting the identity of the evolutionary process at all grades -of its prepotency, we may suppose that future advancement will be -the result of deliberate effort; and that the more determinate such -effort, the more rapid must be the progress. While the aptitude of -our faculties must be increased by their being constantly exercised -in study and research, the knowledge attainable by such work may -ultimately win for us some controlling influence over our physiological -constitution. The wild dreams of mediaeval alchemists now seem to us -less unreal since we have had experience of the properties of radium; -and the vision of an _elixir vitae_, which illuded those investigators, -appears more realizable in the light of recent research. The arrest of -senility may come within the range of the future therapeutist; and a -new Demeter may subject the modern Triptolemus to some alchemical fire, -to render him proof against mortality. Less remotely, the systematic -administration of sexual associations would exert a powerful influence -over mental and bodily development; and it would be physiologically -correct if famous stallions should stand to cover brood mares in the -human as well as in the equine world. The Spartans realized something -of this in practice; Plutarch, Lycurgus. The tendency to equalization -of the sexes which has been growing of late years, is undoubtedly a -forward movement on the path of evolution. The possibility of man in -the future being endowed with greatly increased intellectual power -must not be lost sight of. Exceptional gifts of genius, in some cases -uniquely manifested, and the occurrence of “prodigies,” especially -in relation to mathematics, music, and art, teach that the mental -faculties of the human race may yet be evolved in a much higher degree. -The limitations imagined by Greg, which are, perhaps, generally -entertained, must now be contemplated with suspended judgement: “Two -glorious futures lie before us: the progress of the race here, the -progress of the man hereafter. History indicates that the individual -man needs to be translated in order to excel the past. He appears -to have reached his perfection centuries ago.... What sculptor has -surpassed Phidias? What poet has transcended Homer?” etc.; Enigmas -of Life, 1891, p. 177. This is an evident misconception of the pace -at which evolution moves; such short periods count for nothing. In -evolutionary time, Homer and Phidias are our contemporaries. We know -nothing of the final state of such beings as ourselves after they have -passed through some millions of years, to which most probably the life -of this planet must extend. They may well attain to some condition -resembling that of the “gods” of Epicurus, who existed with a “quasi -corpus, quasi sanguis,” etc. The chemist and biologist have a wide -field before them in which they will yet make many conquests. - -[1058] Compare the account of the soldier Ammianus with those of the -church historians; Socrates, iii; Sozomen, v; Philostorgius (an Arian), -vii; Theodoret, iii, etc. These are honest writers and, although they -often relied on mere hearsay, most of the matter they bring forward is -historical. On the other hand the Church History of Eusebius, who was -infinitely above them in abilities and learning, contains little but -popular report and legend. It is improbable that Julian inflicted any -physical persecution on the Christians, but no doubt his subordinates -did so on the strength of his attitude towards them and he afterwards -got all the credit of it. - -[1059] It is generally suggested that the constant immigration of -barbarians and their wholesale collocation in the army must have -gradually undermined the civilization of the Empire. But a great state -is able to digest an enormous quantity of such accretions; and in the -pride of their recent elevation such new citizens would have become -more Roman than the Romans themselves. The great Transatlantic Republic -has been built up during three centuries by the immigration of alien -barbarians. For a good summary of the peaceful settlement of barbarians -in the Roman territories see Bury, _op. cit._, i, p. 31. - -[1060] See Gieseler (_op. cit._, i, 99), where the assimilation of -heathenism is well summarized and instanced. Augustine (_c._ 400) draws -a striking picture of the impostors, who, in the garb of monks, tramped -the country selling sham relics, phylacteries, etc.; De Op. Monach., -28, 31, etc.; Epist. ad Jan. (118). Jerome, in his diatribe against -Vigilantius, unwittingly makes a display of the gross superstition -which that earnest reformer sought to suppress. Bayle’s article on -Vigilantius (Dictionnaire, etc.) is a full and interesting account -of the subject, but there is more still in Gilly’s V. and his Times, -Lond., 1844. - -[1061] The first victims of ecclesiastical rancour were the -Priscillianists, who arose in Spain about 380. They were tainted with -Manichaeism, and two bishops persuaded the tyrant of Gaul, Maximus, -to put several of them to death in 385. Generally the Fathers of the -Church were shocked at this execution, but the utility of subjecting -heretics to the capital penalty was soon perceived and the practice -thenceforward became an intrinsic part of Christian discipline. The -result is well known to students of Church history and the religious -wars waged against the Paulicians, Albigenses, Huguenots, etc., and -the horrors of the Inquisition are familiar subjects in popular -literature. During three centuries in Spain (1471-1781), the first and -the last scene of the judicial slaughter of heretics, nearly 250,000 -persons were dealt with by the Inquisitors, a circumstance which Galton -considers to have been equivalent to the suppression of national genius -and to account for “the superstitious and unintelligent Spanish race -of the present day”; see Hereditary Genius, 1869, p. 359. The same -reasoning would, of course, apply to any process, such as is occurring -in Russia at the present day, by which the more active and effective -members of a community are being constantly weeded out. Paganism was -not, of course, absolutely free from intolerance; and the cases of -Socrates, Anaxagoras, etc., will occur to every one. Even Cleanthes, -the Stoic, denounced Aristarchus of Samos for running counter to the -popular religion when he put forth some astronomical anticipations of -the Copernican system; Plutarch, De Facie in Orbe Lunae, 6. Even Cicero -in his “Laws” (ii, 8) decidedly proscribes nonconformity with the -state religion. Polytheism was tolerant because it was comprehensive -and could easily assimilate all kindred beliefs. Thus a hospitable -reception was ensured to any new arrival who was fairly accredited as a -member of the Olympian family. - -[1062] Seven Crusades to Palestine were undertaken between 1096 and -1270. During that period more than 7,000,000 persons are said to have -started from Western Europe on their way to the East. Perhaps the -weeding out of the worst fanatics in this way may have conduced to -subsequent progress. - -[1063] Dante (1265-1321) may be considered as the first prominent -figure of the Renaissance; Wycliffe (1325-84) of the Reformation, but -Arnold of Brescia (_c._ 1100-55) has some claim to the credit of being -the first Protestant. - -[1064] In the daily press of March 15, 1896, we read the utterance of a -R. C. prelate when speaking of the Anglican clergy: “Do they claim the -power to produce the actual living Jesus Christ by transubstantiation -on the altar, according to the claims of the priesthood of the Eastern -and Western Churches?” Persons who address a public audience in the -Metropolis in this manner are not considered to be insane nor are they -classed as charlatans. Concomitantly with such proceedings we find that -the greatest of English encyclopaedias is published with introductory -articles in which it is allowed that the old religion is now a mere -phantasm on the stage of reality. At the present moment every form of -religious belief rests secure and stable on the broad back of popular -ignorance; and it remains for posterity in ages to come to solve the -problem as to how long humanity will have to wait for the evolution -of that elevation of mind which will decline to pay the tribute of -hypocrisy and reticence for the assurance of a stipend. - -[1065] Sooner or later the progress of colonization is always resisted -by the aborigines, but the numbers of them who fall in war would soon -be regenerated and their gradual extinction is due to the restrictions -imposed on them by civilization or to their becoming addicted to its -vices. The decrease of the U. S. Indians (303,000, 1880; 266,000, -1900; previous decrease unknown) and of the Maoris (100,000, 1780; -46,000, 1901) is partly due to conflicts with the whites, but that -of the Hawaiians (200,000, 1780; 31,000, 1900) results solely from -the immigration of higher races. Similarly the Tasmanians have become -extinct in the last half of the nineteenth century. The peaceful -pioneer of civilization, perhaps a missionary, is more deadly to the -native races than periodical invasions by an armed force. - -[1066] The ecclesiastical dictatorship of the Byzantine emperors, for -which the term “Caesarpapism” has been coined, is specially illustrated -by Gfrörer, Byzant. Geschichte, Graz, 1874, ii, 17, _et seq._ - -[1067] All the chronographers connect his death with a thunderstorm, -and it appears at least probable that he was affected with brontophobia -in his later years. He is even said to have built a chamber to retire -into, for fear of being struck by lightning; Cedrenus, etc. - -[1068] Theodore Lect., ii, 7, etc. - -[1069] It appears that he set up a private chair or stand in one of the -churches, from which he used to address a crowd to gain converts for -his doctrine. He was ejected thence by the same Patriarch, who shortly -afterwards had to crown him; Theophanes, an. 5982; Suidas, _sb._ -φατρία; see p. 104. - -[1070] Evagrius, iii, 34. - -[1071] He tried to obtain its acceptance in 496, and again 508; Victor -Ton., an. 496; Theophanes, an. 6001, etc. He even tried to convert the -Pope, Anastasius II; Theodore Lect., ii, 17. - -[1072] He favoured the Reds, a mere appendix of the Greens, and so kept -himself free from any absolute partisanship; Jn. Malala, xvi. Rambaud -(_op. cit._, 4, 5) is successful in proving by texts that the Demes -did not represent definitely any political or religious party; and the -notion of comparing them to a sort of popular house, with “supporters -of the government,” and an “opposition” cannot be substantiated. -They were rivals in the games and threefold rivals for the Emperor’s -favour, in the Hippodrome, for interpreting his will to the people, and -for conveying to him the popular sentiment. Thus they had a place in -the administration, but not one that can be paralleled in any modern -constitution. They were practically indifferent to creed or policy. The -numbers recruited under each colour at CP. might be from 900 to 1,500; -Theophylact Sim., viii, 7. - -[1073] See p. 155. But the exactions of Marinus the Syrian, P.P. who -committed the local supervision of the taxes to so-called _vindices_ -of his own creation, instead of to the Decurions, ultimately branded -A. with the opprobrium of being a grasping character: Jn. Lydus, De -Magistr., iii, 36, 46, 49; Evagrius, iii, 42, etc. - -[1074] The large sum he left in the Treasury has already been alluded -to; see p. 163. - -[1075] The closest personal view of him is to be got from Cyril -Scythop., Vit. S. Saba, 50, _et seq._ He was surnamed Dicorus -(double-pupil), because his eyes differed in colour. - -[1076] Procopius, De Bel. Pers., i, 10; De Aedific., iii, 2, etc.; Jn. -Lydus, De Magistr., iii, 47, _et passim_. - -[1077] Especially Evagrius and Cyril Scythop., both of whom condemned -him as a heretic. - -[1078] Marcellinus Com., an. 518. Now Uskiub, a flourishing Turkish -town, nearly on the same site. The whole district has recently been -explored by Evans; Antiquarian Researches in Illyricum, Archaeologia, -xlix, 1885. - -[1079] The Balkans. See generally Tozer’s Travels in the Turkish -Highlands, 1869, i, 16, etc. - -[1080] Procopius, De Aedific., iv, 1. It seems that they are still -represented by villages called Taor and Bader; see Tozer, _op. cit._, -ii. Append. - -[1081] See Tozer’s narrative of his journey through the Pass from -Prisrend to Uskiub; _loc. cit._ - -[1082] Novel. vii, 1. The extensive remains of the Latin occupation -still to be seen are described by Evans, _op. cit._ - -[1083] Procopius, De Bel. Vand., ii, 16. - -[1084] _Ibid._, Anecdot., 6. The names of the other two are given as -Zimarchus and Ditybistus, but I see no reason to call them his brothers -as is sometimes done. Justin was cowherd, or swineherd, or field -labourer according to Zonaras, xiv, 5. - -[1085] Procopius, _loc. cit._ - -[1086] According to Alemannus (pp. 361, 461), however, Zimarchus as a -centenarian (!) was active in important posts; Theophanes, an. 6054-5. -cf. Jn. Malala, xviii, p. 490 - -[1087] Jn. Antioch. (Müller, Frag. Hist. Graec., v, p. 31); Procopius, -_loc. cit._ - -[1088] Procopius, De Bel. Pers., i, 8. - -[1089] Theodore Lect., ii, 37; Const. Porph. De Cerim., i, 93, etc. His -title was Count of the Excubitors. - -[1090] Jn. of Antioch., _loc. cit._, p. 35. - -[1091] Procopius, Anecdot., 6. - -[1092] _Ibid._, De Aedific., iv, 1. - -[1093] _Ibid._, Anecdot., 12; Theophanes, an. 6024. The name seems to -have been common at this epoch; see Socrates, v, 21, etc. - -[1094] The girl’s name was Vigilantia; Procopius, De Bel. Vand., ii, -24, etc. Probably her mother’s name. - -[1095] Corp. Insc. Lat., v, 8120. - -[1096] Inferred from subsequent history. The point is discussed by -Ludewig, _op. cit._, viii, 5; cf. Alemannus, p. 437, _et seq._ - -[1097] Victor Ton., an. 520; Const. Porph., _op. cit._, i, 93. - -[1098] The circumstances and date of the adoption are not recorded, but -that it must have taken place appears evident from Cod., II, ii, 9; -Novel. xxviii, 4, etc. Ludewig argues against it in the face of facts. - -[1099] Almost certainly: the correct form would have been Justinus -Sabbatianus, but the Byzantines were ignorant or varied old rules _ad -lib._ There seems to have been no classical Justinian, but two of that -name flit across the stage under Honorius; Zosimus, v, 30; vi, 2. - -[1100] See pp. 103, 104. - -[1101] From Chron. Paschal. and Theophanes it might be argued that -there was an interregnum, but the contemporary accounts of Peter -Magister (Const. Porph., _loc. cit._) and Cyril Scythop. (_op. cit._, -60) prove that Anastasius died early in the morning on July 9, and -that Justin was elevated on the same day. Some give Justin the credit -of having betrayed the cause of the eunuch by his astuteness, but it -appears rather that his greatness was thrust upon him; Jn. Malala, -xvii; Evagrius, iv, 12; Zonaras, xiv, 51, etc. - -[1102] The official record of the election by Peter Magister (_loc. -supra cit._) has been preserved. It was Justin’s own duty to announce -publicly that the throne was vacant. The Circus was immediately filled -and, as there was no known claimant to the succession, a wild scene -ensued. First one of Justin’s subordinates was set up on a shield by -a company of the guards, but the Blues, disapproving, made a rush and -dispersed the throng. Then a patrician general was seized on by a body -of the Scholars, but the Excubitors attacked them and were dragging the -unlucky officer away to lynch him when he was rescued by the Candidate -Justinian, who was watching the tumult. Upon this the crowd scurried -round Justinian himself, but he declined the dangerous distinction, -being doubtless aware that a decisive election was maturing behind the -scenes among responsible representatives. Still, however, the attempts -to create an emperor went on, until at last the doors of the Cathisma -were thrown open and Justin appeared, supported by the Patriarch, the -Senate, and the chief military officers. All then perceived that an -emperor had been chosen by legitimate methods, and both factions with -the rest of the populace applauded the new monarch in the usual way: -“Justin Augustus, may you be victorious! Reign as you have lived!” -etc. It will be observed that Justin did not ascend the throne as the -emperor of the Blues or the Greens, but that both Demes joined in their -acquiescence. This apparently was always the case unless some party -usurper, such as Phocas, managed to seize the reins of power; see -Theophanes, an. 6094. - -[1103] Procopius, Anecdot., 6. Nearly all the chronographers note his -illiteracy. A certain Marinus painted in one of the public baths a -sequence of pictures in which he portrayed the career of Justin from -his youth upwards. For this he was taken to task by the Emperor, but he -extricated himself by explaining that his intention was an ethical one, -in order to teach the people that in the Byzantine Empire a man might -raise himself by his talents from the dunghill to the first position in -the state; Zachariah Mytil., viii, 1. - -[1104] Theodore Lect., ii, 37, etc. The name Lupicina was, of course, -the popular sobriquet for a prostitute, being connected with _lupa_, -_lupanar_, etc. - -[1105] Victor Ton., an. 523; Cyril Scythop., _op. cit._, 68. - -[1106] Marcellinus Com., an. 527. He also took over his uncle’s post of -Count of the Excubitors; Hormisdas, Epist., 37. - -[1107] Procopius, Anecdot., 6; De Bel. Vand., i, 9; Jn. Lydus, De -Magistr., iii, 51, etc. - -[1108] Zonaras, xiv, 5. - -[1109] Procopius, Anecdot., 6. He was probably the _ex officio_ -president of the Consistorium. It was generally anticipated that -Anastasius would have chosen a successor from one of his three -nephews, Hypatius, Pompeius, and Probus, all of whom he had raised to -important positions. His failure to do so is accounted for seriously -by a singular story. Being undecided as to which of them he should -select to inherit the Empire, he arranged that they should dine -together at the Palace on a certain day in an apartment by themselves. -Here he provided three couches, on which, according to custom, they -would take a siesta after the meal. One of these he designated in his -own mind as the Imperial bed, and kept watch in order to see which -of them would occupy it. As it happened, however, two of the three -threw themselves down together on the same couch, and the significant -position remained vacant. Judging that a higher power had ruled the -event, he then prayed that his successor might be revealed to him as -the first person who should enter to him next morning. This proved to -be that very likely officer of his household, Justin, a result which -appears to have satisfied him; Anon. Vales., 13. Such relations cannot -be rejected in this age on the grounds that so-and-so had too much good -sense, etc. On the contrary, they serve to indicate the mental calibre -of the time. The slaughter of several “Theos” as possible successors -by Valens (Ammianus, xxix, 1) may be remembered, and Zeno is said to -have executed an unfortunate silentiary anent of a silly prediction; -Jn. Malala, xv; Theophanes, an. 5982. But Justin and Justinian, being -arrested on two occasions, as it is said, were providentially preserved -by visions which enjoined their release; Procopius, Anecdot., 8; -Cedrenus, i, p. 635, etc. - -[1110] Procopius, Anecdot., 6; Jn. Malala, xvii (the fuller transcript -by Mommsen, Hermes, vi, 1885, p. 375); Zachariah Mytil., viii, 1, etc. -The cruel fate of Theocritus is specially indicated by Marcellinus -Com., an. 519. Before the death of Anastasius, Amantius was indulged -with a pre-vision of his destiny, having seen himself in a dream on the -point of being devoured by a great pig, symbolizing, of course, Justin -the swineherd. - -[1111] The massacres of Monophysites in Asia Minor are described -at length with the names of numerous sufferers by Michael Melit. -(Langlois). Among them, two stylites with their pillars were hurled to -the ground. - -[1112] Jn. Malala, xvii, etc. - -[1113] _Ibid._ It was proposed that he should become one of the two -Masters of the Forces _in praesenti_. - -[1114] Zachariah Mytil., viii, 2. This was the church in which the -great Council of Chalcedon was held. Evagrius gives a picturesque -description of it. - -[1115] Zachariah Mytil., viii, 2; Procopius, Anecdot., 6. After this -Justinian spoke of him as his “most distinguished brother”; Hormisdas, -Epist., 55. - -[1116] In the government of the Church he showed great activity, traces -of which will be found in Concil. and Baronius, etc., during these -years. - -[1117] Jn. Malala, especially in Hermes, _loc. cit._ - -[1118] Procopius, _loc. cit._; Evagrius, iv, 3; Victor Ton., an. 523. -As to the _Delphicum_, or banqueting room, see Procopius, De Bel. -Vand., i, 21. - -[1119] Marcellinus Com., an. 520. Theophanes says he was killed in -an _émeute_ by the Byzantines to avenge those who perished through -his insurrection under Anastasius, but this is evidently a report -circulated later on to cover Justinian’s guilt. Zonaras mentions both -versions of the murder. - -[1120] Const. Porph., De Them., i, 12. - -[1121] Memorials of this consulate still exist, and samples of the -diptychs are preserved at Paris and Milan; Corp. Insc. Lat., _loc. -cit._ Unfortunately they are simple in design and do not attempt -a likeness of Justinian. From them we learn that at this time he -had assumed the names of Flavius Petrus Sabbatius Justinianus; for -reproductions see Molinier, Hist. gen. des Arts, etc., Paris, 1896, -and Diehl, _op. cit._ Perhaps the later diptych in Gori represents -him; see p. 50. As to the adulatory attempts to fasten the name of -Anicius on Justin and his nephew in order to connect them with the most -distinguished Roman family of the age, see Ludewig and Isambert (_op. -cit._), who have discussed the question at length. Justinian and St. -Benedict, a contemporary, are brought into relationship and presented -as scions of the same race as the existing royal house of Hapsburg. - -[1122] Marcellinus Com., an. 521. Trajan, after his conquest of -the Dacians, exhibited 10,000 gladiators and 11,000 animals in the -Colosseum; Dion Cass., lxviii, 15. Under Claudius I a naval battle for -sport on Lake Fucinus brought 100 ships, manned by 19,000 combatants, -into play; Tacitus, Ann., xii, 56; Dion Cass., lx, 33. Real warfare -among the Grecian states was often on a less extensive scale. -Justinian’s display cost about £150,000, his first considerable draught -on the savings of Anastasius. - -[1123] Const. Porph., De Them., i, 12. - -[1124] Procopius, De Aedific., i, 4; Codinus, p. 87; see p. 37. cf. -Chron. Paschal., an. 605 - -[1125] A history of the reign of Justin is enumerated among the works -of Hesychius of Miletus, but nothing remains to us but the jottings, -more or less brief, of the chroniclers. Nicephorus Callistus (_c._ -1400) has rolled into one nearly all previous Church historians. - -[1126] Jn. Malala, xvii; cf. Marcellinus Com., an. 523, etc. Theodotus, -the P.U. of CP. was especially severe in his repressive measures and -went too far in executing a man of rank. On the strength of a serious -illness of Justinian it seems likely that he even aimed at the purple, -but Justinian recovered and immediately brought him to trial for his -excesses. By the influence of Proclus he escaped with exile; Procopius, -Anecdot., 9; Jn. Malala, xvii; cf. Alemannus, p. 368. - -[1127] Paulus Diaconus, Hist. Miscel., xvii. - -[1128] _Ibid._; Marcellinus Com., an. 525; Theophanes, an. 6016, etc. - -[1129] Paulus Diac., _loc. cit._; Anon. Vales., 16. These writers, -however, represent Justin as conceding everything demanded, although -the statement is at variance with the general tenor of their own -account, and there is no trace of a wave of leniency in the literature -of the East. That John got the credit of having betrayed his trust in -the interests of orthodoxy is shown by a spurious letter in which he -is seen urging the Italian bishops from his prison to persecute the -Arians; Labbe, Concil., viii, 605. - -[1130] Pliny (Hist. Nat., vi, 15) adverts to the common error of -calling them Caspian, instead of Caucasian. Properly the Caspian, also -Albanian Gates (now Pass of Derbend), were situated at the abutment of -the Caucasus on the sea of that name. There were other Caspian Gates -south of that sea in Hyrcania. - -[1131] On the Russian military road from Vladikavkaz to Tiflis. It -rises to 8,000 feet. - -[1132] Pliny, Hist. Nat., vi, 12; Procopius, De Bel. Pers., i, 10. An -old way of blocking dangerous passes; Xenophon, Anab., i, 4. - -[1133] Jn. Lydus, De Magistr., iii, 52, _et seq._ - -[1134] _Ibid._, Procopius, _loc. cit._ - -[1135] Jn. Lydus, _loc. cit._ - -[1136] Zachariah Mytil., viii, 5. Cavades demanded 500 lb. of gold -(£20,000) each year. - -[1137] Al Mundhir (Nöldeke). - -[1138] Zachariah Mytil., _loc. cit._; cf. Procopius, De Bel. Pers., i, -17. - -[1139] Zachariah Mytil., _loc. cit._ This account seems to emanate -from a contemporary native of Syria; cf. Procopius, De Bel. Pers., -ii, 28. Al Lât and Al Uzzâ, names of a lascivious duality, held sway -at Mecca till overthrown by Mahomet. This Arab, like most of his -tribe, appears to have possessed a subtle wit, a circumstance which -was utilized for the invention of a skit pointed at the Monophysites. -It was related that two bishops of that sect, paying him a visit in -the hope of converting him to Christianity, found him apparently in a -state of great despair. On being questioned, Alamundar replied that -he was shocked at having just heard of the death of the archangel -Michael. The missionaries assured him that the death of an angel was an -impossibility. “How then,” exclaimed the Arab, “can you pretend that -Christ, being very God, died on the cross, if he had but one divine -nature?” The bishops retired discomfited; Theodore Lect., ii, 35, etc. - -[1140] Rufinus, x, 10; Socrates, i, 20, etc. A Christian captive, a -female, won over the royal family by miraculous cures, etc. - -[1141] In the classical period Iberia was the usual name for Spain -among the Greeks. - -[1142] Jn. Malala, xvii, etc. The tables (see p. 90) of his cloak, were -embroidered with the likeness of Justin. - -[1143] Jn. Malala, xvii, etc. - -[1144] See p. 176. - -[1145] Jn. Malala, _loc. cit._, etc. - -[1146] Khosrau (Nöldeke); also called Nushirvan (Anosharwán), as -Zotenberg always names him in his translation of Tabari. - -[1147] Procopius, De Bel. Pers., i, 11. He even tried to make out -that it was a cunningly devised plot to annex the Empire to Persia. -The power of Proclus, who seems to have been an alarmist, is clearly -brought out by this incident. - -[1148] Procopius, _loc. cit._ Theophanes (followed by Clinton, Fast. -Rom.) places this affair in 521, a date which removes it altogether out -of its setting; 525 is the most likely year. - -[1149] Hypatius and Probus, the nephews of Anastasius. - -[1150] Procopius, De Bel. Pers., i, 12. - -[1151] Procopius, De Bel. Pers., i, 12. As, however, the Roman guard -could only be victualled by the active co-operation of the Lazi, and -after a short time they proved too lazy to bring in provisions to the -fort, it was evacuated and left to the Persians; _ibid._ - -[1152] _Ibid._ - -[1153] “Sidus cometes effulsit; de quo vulgi opinio est tanquam -mutationem regnis portendat,” etc.; Tacitus, Ann., xiv, 22; cf. xv, 47. -As Milton expresses it: - - Satan stood - Unterrified, and like a comet burn’d, - That fires the length of Ophiuchus huge - In the arctic sky, and from his horrid hair - Shakes pestilence and war. - Paradise Lost, ii. - - -[1154] The fullest account of these calamities is given by Jn. Malala, -xvii. - -[1155] Cedrenus and Zonaras place it in this reign. Jn. Malala a little -later. - -[1156] This was not the first occurrence of the kind, and all the -chronographers are anxious to record that a slab now came to light with -a punning inscription or prophecy, which may be rendered in English as, -“The river Skip will skip some evil skippings for the townspeople”; as -anxious as they are to note the peregrinations of a Cilician giantess, -over seven feet high, who tramped the Empire, begging a penny at all -the workshops for showing herself. After its restoration Edessa was -called Justinopolis in legal acts. - -[1157] Procopius puts it as high as 300,000; De Bel. Pers., ii, 14. - -[1158] Jn. Lydus, De Magistr., iii, 54. - -[1159] Zachariah Mytil., viii, 4. - -[1160] Nearly all these particulars are due to John Malala, who, from -the amount of detail he supplies about his native city, may be called -the historian of Antioch. From him we learn that the Olympic games -continued to be celebrated at Antioch, but were finally suppressed in -521 by Justin, for reasons similar to those which about half a century -ago led to the abolition of Donnybrook Fair. - -[1161] Cedrenus, i, p. 641. Perhaps he is only speaking figuratively. - -[1162] Jn. Lydus, _loc. cit._ - -[1163] Evagrius, iv, 6. Jn. Malala (xviii, p. 443) puts the -re-christening in 528. He adds that Justinian remitted three years’ -taxes to several of the towns then damaged by earthquakes. - -[1164] His death is said to have resulted from the recrudescence of -an old wound in the foot at the age of seventy-five (Jn. Malala) or -seventy-seven (Chron. Paschal.). The higher number is to be preferred, -as Procopius says that at his accession he was τυμβογέρων, that is, an -old man “with one foot in the grave”; Anecdot., 6; cf. Alemannus, p. -385. - -[1165] The age of Justinian is not satisfactorily known, but Cedrenus -and Zonaras give him forty-five years at his coronation. I need only -allude to the reputed life of Justinian by his so-called tutor, Bogomil -or Theophilus, quoted implicitly by Alemannus, a historical puzzle -for nearly three centuries, but at last solved a few years ago; see -Bryce, English Hist. Rev., 1887. It is little more than a MS. leaflet -(in the Barberini library at Rome), and proves to be devoid of any -sort of authenticity. The chief non-corroborated statement is that -Justinian spent some time at Ravenna, as a hostage, with Theodoric the -Goth. Justinian himself was, in fact, a barbarian of some tribe, and -the bogus name given him, _Uprauda_, seems to have some affinity with -“upright” and “Justinian.” - -[1166] The characters of Helen, Andromache, and Penelope, as they -appear in the Iliad and Odyssey, have taken a place permanently in -modern literature. - -[1167] See Plutarch’s account of the legislation of Lycurgus. A king -of Sparta was fined by the Ephors for marrying a wife of poor physique -for money, instead of choosing a strapping young lady with a view to -having a vigorous family; _ibid._, Agesilaus; Athenaeus, xiii, 20. The -Spartans applauded the adulterous union of Acrotatus and Chelidonis, -because they seemed to be physically well matched for the production of -offspring; Plutarch, Pyrrhus. In fact Lycurgus thought that wives might -properly be lent to suitable mates for breeding purposes. As an example -of noble character in the female, the conduct of Chelonis is recorded: -also the resolution and bravery of the female relatives of Cleomenes -when they all met their death at Alexandria; _ibid._, Agis; Cleomenes. - -[1168] On the Athenian women in general, see Becker-Göll, Charicles, -Excurs. - -[1169] To a female visitor from another country it seemed that the -Lacedaemonian women ruled the men; Plutarch, Lycurgus; cf. Aristotle, -Politics, ii, 9. He makes out that things were muddled at Sparta, owing -to interference by the women. - -[1170] Herodotus, vii, 99; viii, 87, etc. Several of her ruses in war -are mentioned by Polyaenus, Stratagems, viii, 53. - -[1171] Pliny, Hist. Nat., xxxvi, 5, etc. The fragments of it to a -large amount are now in a special room of the British Museum, together -with attempted restorations in the solid and on the flat. It was -delightfully situated on the Bay of Halicarnassus, a sight in itself, -and a point of sight for a splendid prospect of sea, contained in a -circuit of rising coast, covered with specimens of Greek architecture. -Herodotus himself hailed from this town. - -[1172] Polyaenus, Stratagems, viii, 60. - -[1173] Athenaeus, xiii, 10. - -[1174] Diodorus Sic., xix, 52; 11; 51; Justin, xiv, 5, 6, etc. - -[1175] Laodicea in Phrygia (and elsewhere), by Seleucus after his -mother Laodice; Thessalonica by Cassander, and Nice (Nicaea) in -Bithynia, of ecclesiastical fame, by Lysimachus, from their wives. -These were generals and successors of Alexander, _c._ 320 B.C. - -[1176] The most illustrious lady of this age was Phila, wife of -Demetrius Poliorcetes (her third marriage). She acted the part of -political adviser and ambassadress; and was amiable and pacific as -well as intellectual; Plutarch, Demetrius; Diodorus Sic., xx, 93. A -flatterer of D. raised a temple to her, and called it the Philaeum; -Athenaeus, vi, 65. - -[1177] Justin, xxxix, 1, 2. - -[1178] _Ibid._, 4. These queens flourished _c._ 100 B.C. - -[1179] Justin, xxvi, 3. He was called Demetrius the Handsome, son of -the D. above-named, but not by Phila. She stood at the door of the -chamber, while the ministers of her vengeance were operating within, -calling out to them to spare her mother (_c._ 250 B.C.). Her own fate -was to be put to death by her son, Ptolemy IV of Egypt, in 221 B.C. - -[1180] That is, her hair cut off and suspended in the temple of -Aphrodite to propitiate divine favour for her husband (Ptolemy III), -during his Syrian war, _c._ 245 B.C. It became a constellation -according to the adulators of the day, as is shown in the poem of -Catullus, a translation from the Greek of Callimachus. - -[1181] The constitution of the Roman family can be apprehended readily -by running through the consecutive expositions in Muirhead’s Private -Law of Rome, Edin., 1886, pp. 24, 64, 115, 248, 345, 514. In law the -mother and children were practically the slaves of the _paterfamilias_: -he could divorce his wife at pleasure, and yet 500 years elapsed before -a husband made use of this power, so potent was the high ethical code -which sustained the Republic. - -[1182] The story or legend of Cloelia used to be well known. Being -delivered as a hostage, with a number of other maidens, to Porsena, she -encouraged them to escape, and headed the band in swimming across the -Tiber. But they were all punctiliously returned (_c._ 508 B.C.); Livy, -ii, 13; Plutarch, Publicola, etc. - -[1183] Portia, daughter of Cato, and wife of Brutus, the assassin of -Caesar, aspired to be the confidante of her husband, but, distrusting -her feminine nature, she refrained from soliciting him to trust -her, until, by stabbing herself in the thigh, she felt satisfied -of possessing sufficient masculine strength of mind to become the -repository of state secrets (44 B.C.); Plutarch, Brutus, etc. See -Shakespeare’s delineation of her in _Julius Caesar_, where she recounts -her action to Brutus. - -[1184] The accomplishments of Cornelia, the fifth wife of Pompey, are -given in detail by Plutarch. She was well read in literature, played -the lyre, had made progress in geometry, and fortified herself by -the study of philosophy. Julia, the mother of Mark Antony, is called -“a most learned woman” by Cicero, Catiline, iv, 6. Greek culture was -fashionable at this time among the Romans. But an earlier Cornelia -(_c._ 330 B.C.) became famous in infamy as the centre of a female -society for poisoning men of note; Livy, viii, 18. - -[1185] Tacitus, Ann., xiii, 5. - -[1186] Hist. Aug. Heliogabalus, 2, _et seq._ She “lived the life of a -prostitute,” and she also instituted a “petty senate” of females, which -prescribed the fashions of the day to women. Manners, dress, jewellery, -style of carriages, choice of draught-animals, horses, asses, or oxen, -etc., were the subject of their jurisdiction. - -[1187] _Ibid._, 17, _et seq._ Both were murdered, and their bodies -dragged through the streets by the Praetorian guard, before their reign -had lasted quite four years. - -[1188] She was a daughter of the great Theodosius. The turning-point -in the fall of the Western Empire was the sacking of Rome by Alaric -in 410. From about 425 her authority was paramount at Ravenna, the -provisional capital or rather refuge of the mouldering government. Most -information about her is contained in Zosimus, vi, 12, and Procopius, -De Bel. Vand., i, 3, _et seq._ - -[1189] I have several times had occasion to mention this princess. -There is no consecutive history of this period, but merely scraps to be -collected from brief chronicles, Church historians, and fragments of -lost works, etc. - -[1190] See pp. 103, 302. - -[1191] Const. Porph., i, 93; see p. 303. - -[1192] Jn. Malala, xv.; Theophanes, an. 5967, _et seq._ - -[1193] Tacitus, Ann., iv, 19; the case of Sosia Galla. Cf. the account -of Salonina and her gorgeous appearance, riding in the van of the army -with her husband Caecina; _ibid._, Hist., ii, 20. - -[1194] Tacitus, Ann., iii, 33. - -[1195] _Ibid._, i, 69. - -[1196] _Ibid._, ii, 55, 74; iii, 17, etc. As she acted with the secret -approval of the Court, she was acquitted at a mock trial (20), but a -dozen years later, on the death of her accessories, she anticipated her -fate by suicide; _ibid._, vi, 26. - -[1197] _Ibid._, iii, 33. Plutarch (De Mul. Virt.), has collected -twenty-seven instances of the notable doings of women, and Polyaenus -(Stratagemata, viii) has repeated most of them, and added almost as -many more. The latter record extends up to about 170. - -[1198] Herodotus, i, 199. This applies to Babylon and Cyprus, but -there were several other places, and the custom was carried by the -Semites as far west as Sicca Veneria, in Numidia, N. Africa; Valerius -Max., ii, 6 (15). See the commentators on the passage of Herodotus; -Strabo, XVI, i, 20, etc. At all times the simplicity of devout females -was liable to be abused, several instances of which are recounted. -For example, an ancient rite ordained that a Phrygian damsel should -on the eve of her marriage bathe in the Scamander, whilst invoking -the river-god to accept her virginity. In this custom on one occasion -a youth of the neighbourhood found his opportunity. Hearing of the -nuptials of a young lady who was socially unapproachable to him, but -of whom he had long been enamoured, he bedizened himself with reeds -and water-flowers and posted himself in a recess to await her coming. -On her entering the water he came forward thus in the guise of the -divinity she was supposed to meet, and the guileless maid permitted him -to embrace her without resistance, devoutly unconscious of anything -being wrong. Subsequently, as she was walking in the bridal procession, -her eyes fell upon him among the spectators, whereupon she made him a -profound obeisance and pointed him out to those who accompanied her -as the genius of the sacred stream; Aeschines, Epist., 10. This was -an isolated and comparatively blameless case, but later on some of -the semi-Christian charlatans managed such matters wholesale; see the -account of Marcus in Irenaeus, i, 13. - -[1199] Strabo, VIII, vi, 20 - -[1200] Athenaeus, xiii, 25. St. Augustine was of the same opinion: -“Aufer meretrices de rebus humanis, turbaveris omnia libidinibus”; De -Ordine, ii, 4 (in Migne, i, 1000). - -[1201] Athenaeus, xiii, 46. Nicarete of Megara is noted as being a -disciple of Stilpo of the same town, a philosopher who achieved a great -and lasting reputation; _ibid._, 70; Diogenes Laert. in Vita, “A wife -is legally countenanced in sulking and keeping to the house, but a -hetaira knows that it is only by her social talents that she can attach -friends to herself”; Athenaeus, xiii, 7. - -[1202] The names of these biographers are preserved, viz., Aristophanes -of Byzantium, Apollodorus, Antiphanes, Ammonius, and Gorgias of Athens, -but their works are lost; Athenaeus, xiii, 21, 46. The first-named -composed as many as 135 lives, and Apollodorus exceeded even this -number. The gist of their writings, however, seems to have been -preserved by Athenaeus in his thirteenth book; and among the moderns, -Jacobs has attempted to reconstruct all the principal biographies; -Attische Museum, 1798-1805. The accounts of them are almost wholly -made up of anecdotes as to their witty remarks and rejoinders. But -at least one modern author has written biographies of courtesans; -see Devaux-Mousk, Fleurs du Persil, Paris, 1887 (with portraits and -autographs). - -[1203] Plutarch, Pericles, etc. At the same time it was not beneath her -to become a procuress, and it is said that all Greece was supplied with -girls by her agency. It was even maintained that the immediate cause of -the Pelopennesian war was the abduction of one of these girls imported -from Megara; Athenaeus, xiii, 25; Plutarch, _loc. cit._ Parallels to -Aspasia are not altogether wanting in very recent times. Thus of Cora -Pearl (_née_ Crouch, of Plymouth) we read: “For some time she excited -the greatest interest among all classes of Parisian society, and ladies -imitated her dress and manners”; Dict. Nat. Biog., _sb. nom._ - -[1204] Memorabilia, iii, 11. - -[1205] Diogenes Laert., Epicurus; Cicero, De Nat. Deor., i, 33; see an -imaginary letter of hers in Alciphron, ii, 2. - -[1206] Athenaeus, xiii, 37, 38, 56. Timotheus, when it was thrown -in his teeth that his mother was a prostitute, replied that he was -very much obliged to her for making him the son of Conon. The son of -Pericles by Aspasia was legitimated and became a general. - -[1207] _Ibid._, 40, 38. Hieronymus, the last king of Syracuse, is said -to have married a common prostitute, but their issue did not succeed to -any crown; _ibid._ In modern times the assumption of the premiership of -Bavaria by the notorious Lola Montez (_née_ Gilbert of Limerick) will -be remembered. “She now ruled the kingdom of Bavaria, and, singular to -say, ruled it with wisdom and ability. Her audacity confounded alike -the policy of the Jesuits and of Metternich”; Dict. Nat. Biog., _sb. -nom._ Her _régime_ did not, however, last more than a year, being -unable to stem the tide of revolution in 1848. More fortunate was -the _castrato_ singer, Farinelli, who retained a position differing -little from that of prime minister under Philip V of Spain and his -successor for nearly twenty-five years. The reign of courtesans in the -seventeenth century, when the aristocratic blood of France and England -was enriched by “legitimated princes” and peers under Louis XIV and -Charles II is too well known to need comment here; but the acquisition -of governmental power at the hands of Louis XV by Jeanne Vaubernier -(Countess Du Barry), a low-class strumpet, doubtless helped decidedly -to bring that disgraceful epoch to a close; see Voltaire’s _Louis XIV_ -and _Louis XV_, etc. - -[1208] Athenaeus, xiii, 38; Alciphron, ii, 1. - -[1209] Athenaeus, xiii, 60. Here, again, a parallel is afforded by -Cora Pearl. During the war of 1870 she transformed her house into an -“ambulance,” where she spent her time and money to the amount of £1,000 -in nursing wounded soldiers. Afterwards she claimed to be reimbursed, -but £60 only was granted to her by the government; see her Mémoires, -Paris, 1886. Ultimately she was expelled from Paris. - -[1210] _Ibid._, xiii, 7, 31. - -[1211] _Ibid._, xiii, 70; Polyaenus, viii, 45, etc. - -[1212] Athenaeus, xiii, 34. - -[1213] _Ibid._, xiii, 54. A figurative memorial, a lioness tearing a -ram; Pausanias, ii, 2. - -[1214] _Ibid._, xiii, 59; Aelian, Var. Hist., ix, 32. Crates, the -Cynic, said that it was an advertisement of the profligacy of Greece. - -[1215] Athenaeus, xiii, 69; and another at Babylon, the seat of his -governorship. Plutarch (Phocion) says it cost about £7,000, and was -poor value for the money, but Pausanias extols it; i, 37. - -[1216] Athenaeus, xiii, 34. - -[1217] _Ibid._, vi, 62. Plutarch tells us that he fined the Athenians -£70,000, which he handed over to Lamia and the rest of his harem to buy -_soap_! - -[1218] A _licentia stupri_ was issued to each woman by the _aediles_; -Tacitus, Ann., ii, 85. - -[1219] Plutarch, Sulla. - -[1220] _Ibid._, Pompey. - -[1221] Plutarch, Lucullus. - -[1222] In the year 19 Rome was shocked by Vistilia, a married woman of -noble birth, applying for a licence. She was banished, and a law passed -to prevent the repetition of such an occurrence; Tacitus, Ann., ii, 85. -Half a century later probably no notice would have been taken, but the -ethics of the day varied regularly with the character of the reigning -emperor. - -[1223] Dion Cass., lxvi, 14. As a proof of the meanness of Vespasian, -he relates that Titus expostulated with his father on the unseemliness -of maintaining a tax on the collection of urine, whereupon the Emperor, -drawing a handful of gold from his pocket, tendered it to his son, -saying, “Smell, does it stink?” cf. Suetonius, 23. - -[1224] Socrates, v, 18. The punishment of an adultress at this epoch -took the ridiculous form of impounding her in a narrow cabinet next -the street, where she was forced to prostitute herself to all comers. -Every time she received a companion a jingling of little bells was -kept up to publish the circumstance to passers by. At the same period -immense underground bakeries were run by contractors for the supply -of the Steps (see p. 81), and they hit on a remarkable expedient for -procuring slaves to work in them. Taverns served by prostitutes were -set up contiguous to the vaults; and customers, chiefly strangers, were -lured into a compartment, from which they were suddenly lowered into -the cavity beneath, by a sinking floor. There they ended their days in -enforced labour, being never again allowed to see the light. A bold -soldier of Theodosius, however, being thus entrapped, drew a dagger and -fought his way out. He then laid information, which brought about the -destruction of all such infamous dungeons; _ibid._ - -[1225] In the Middle Ages the absence of judicious and uniform -legislation is one of the most marked features, and in every province -the extremes of sociological phenomena are commonly to be observed. -Side by side with measures for the total abolition of prostitution we -find brothels tolerated as a regular department of royal palaces. In -1546, for example, prostitution was suppressed at Strasbourg, and at -Toulouse in 1587. On the other hand, from the eleventh century onwards, -a community of courtesans was maintained as part of the establishment -of the kings of France. They were placed in the charge of an officer, -named _le Roi des Ribauds_. His position, however, was low, and his -right to eat at the same board with the other members of the household -was disputed; see Rabutaux, La Prostitution (_au moyen âge_), Paris, -1851, ff. 16, 21, 32, 33. Again, it is well authenticated, though -almost incredible, that in the sixteenth century nobles and generals of -the south of Europe kept in the camp elegantly caparisoned goats for -amatory purposes; see Bayle, _sb._ Bathyllus. - -[1226] See p. 89. - -[1227] Our knowledge of these facts in detail is due to Procopius -(Anecdota or Hist. Arcana), but sufficient corroboration from other -sources is not wanting. The question as to the authenticity of this -work of Procopius has been finally set at rest by the recent researches -of Dahn and Haury. It is doubtless as true as all history in detail, -_i.e._, vitiated by prejudice, ignorance, and mistakes. The life and -literary activity of P. will be noticed later on. - -[1228] Procopius, Anecdot., 10. - -[1229] This was a staple piece of “gag” for centuries, and is another -instance of the uniformity of Byzantine life during long periods; see -Tertullian and Gregory Naz., as quoted by Alemannus, _op. cit._, p. 380. - -[1230] See Mirecourt (Les Contemporains, Paris, 1855, 78) for an -amusing account (with portrait) of Lola Montez, and her bold procedure -in dispensing with her _maillots_, “to the delight of the gentlemen -of the orchestra,” when dancing at Paris. Some may still remember the -popularity of “the Menken,” as Mazeppa at Astley’s, the result of her -having been counselled to turn “to account her fine physique”; see Dic. -Nat. Biog., _sb. nom._, for her career and distinguished associates. -Her apology, protesting against the performance being denounced as an -exhibition of nakedness, was published, and is extant. This hetaira -approached somewhat to her Greek prototypes, and issued a volume of -poems, which, if not equal to Sappho’s, had a merit of their own. The -same significance cannot, however, be attached to such displays as at -the present day. The indiscriminate bathing was only just passing into -disrepute, and ingenuous exhibitions of that kind were still possible. -See, for instance, Aristaenetus (i, 7), where a “modest” young lady -trips down to the beach, coolly divests herself of her clothing, and -asks a young gentleman, who happens to be reclining there, to keep an -eye on her things while she is in the water. This author, waiting _c._ -500, could scarcely have deemed such an incident preposterous in his -time. As to naked women in the theatre, in addition to the notices -already given from Chrysostom, see In Matth. Hom. xix, 4 (in Migne, -viii, 120). - -[1231] Her proceedings are described by Procopius, with the openness -and detail which was natural to the age in which he lived. For this, -however, he has been censured, to the damage of his historical credit, -as if he thereby proved himself to be a dissolute person, unusually -experienced in the vices of the times. But the charge is unjust, and -might be urged with greater force against almost all of the Christian -fathers who continually inveigh against abuses of the sexual instinct, -in the intricacies of which they show themselves to be far better -versed. Beginning with the Epistle of Barnabas they never tire of -decrying circumstantially all sexual relations, especially those -who “medios viros lambunt, libidinoso ore inguinibus inhaerescunt”; -Minucius Felix, 28; cf. Arnobius, Adv. Gen., ii; Lactantius, Div. -Inst., vi, 23, etc. Their rigid text is “genitalem corporis partem -nulla alia causa nisi efficiendae sobolis accepimus”; _ibid._ Nor was -it regarded as proper that the knowledge and discussion of such matters -should be ordinarily thrust out of sight; on the contrary they were -included in the category of topics habitually invested with interest to -“society.” Thus the polished Agathias in an amatory epigram (28), after -lamenting the pangs and torments of love, makes his point with: - - Πάντ’ ἄρα Διογένης ἔφυγεν τάδε, τὸν δ’ Ὑμέναιον - ἤειδεν παλάμῃ, Λαΐδος οὐ χατέων. - -This graphic effusion duly found its place in that book of “elegant -extracts,” compiled for the delectation of the Byzantine drawing-room, -the Greek Anthology, where it remains enshrined amid a crowd of -companions, at least ten times as remote as itself from modern ideas of -decency. - -[1232] One example of her unusual turpitude may be reproduced. After -enlivening a party of ten or more young men for a whole evening, -she “παρὰ τοὺς ἐκείνων οἰκέτας ἰοῦσα τριάκοντα ὄντας ἂν οὕτω τύχοι, -ξυνεδυαζετο μὲν τούτων ἑκάστῳ”; Procopius, Anecdot., 9. Unconsciously -she was emulating the activities of the Empress Messalina five -centuries previously: - - Claudius audi - Quae tulerit: dormire virum cum senserat uxor ... - Intravit calidum veteri centone lupanar ... - Excepit blanda intrantes, atque aera poposcit: - Mox lenone suas jam dimittente puellas, - Tristis abit; etc. - Juvenal, Sat. vi, 115, _et seq._ - -Pliny discusses her proclivities in the inquiring mood of a -physiologist; Hist. Nat., x, 83. - -[1233] This is in direct opposition to the established views of -Byzantine superstition; see p. 119. - -[1234] The age of Theodora is nowhere mentioned, but Ludewig and -Isambert favour 497. Nicephorus Cal. (xvi, 39) says that she was -born in Cyprus, an assertion which cannot be contradicted, but which -is, on the whole unlikely, and some of his collateral statements are -erroneous. The following information _pour rire_ has found its way -into so considerable a work as Hefner-Altneck’s Trachten: “Theodora -was the daughter of Acacius, Patriarch of CP., and was trained by -her mother (!) for the theatre, in which she distinguished herself -by her art as a pantomimist”; i, p. 124. The Patriarch Acacius was -doubtless a celibate. The whitewashing of Theodora has, of course, been -undertaken, but late, not till 1731, by Ludewig. She was, in fact, in -bad odour with the Church, and the worst that could be said of her -was acceptable. Recently a further attempt has been made by Débidour -(L’Impératrice Theodora, Paris, 1885, Latin Thesis, 1877), called forth -by Sardou’s well-known play of _Theodora_, in which she is undoubtedly -misrepresented. A pendant to this _brochure_, containing all the facts -of the defence, will be found in Eng. Hist. Rev., 1887 (Mallet). -Present flatterers were, of course, ready to swear that she was an -Anician! See p. 308. - -[1235] Procopius, Anecdot., 10, 17. His horror at the practice of -abortion teaches us that a great revulsion of public sentiment must -have taken place since the time of Aristotle, who counsels resorting to -it when over-population is threatened; Politics, vii, 16. - -[1236] Procopius, Anecdot., 17. - -[1237] _Ibid._, 9. - -[1238] Codinus, p. 104 (Anon. of Banduri). This information dates from -the early part of the eleventh century, but must have been copied from -some earlier document. It is in general agreement with Procopius, -Anecdot., 9. - -[1239] Socrates, iv, 28. The Novation purists made great headway there; -_ibid._, ii, 30, etc. - -[1240] Contiguous to the church of St. Panteleemon, which stood on the -Propontis to the east of the Theodosian Port; see Notitia, reg. ix and -Ducange _sb. Homonoea_. The suburban St. P. is said to be indicated by -ruins still existing at the foot of the “Giant’s Grave,” on the Asiatic -side of the Bosphorus; see Gyllius, De Bosp., iii, 6; Procop., etc., -Notitia, reg. ix; Ducange, _sb. Homonoea_; Procopius, De Aedific., i, 9. - -[1241] Codinus, _loc. cit._ - -[1242] Procopius, Anecdot., 9. - -[1243] _Ibid._, 10. He allows that she was sufficiently well looking, -but he also states that her countenance was disfigured by debauchery; -_ibid._, 9. At a later date he praises her beauty as something almost -superhuman, but this was intended for the eyes of the Court; De -Aedific., i, 11. - -[1244] In natural gifts she may have had some resemblance to Cleopatra; -see Shakespeare’s presentation of the latter: - - Age cannot wither her, nor custom stale - Her infinite variety, etc. - Act ii, 2. - - -[1245] Procopius, Anecdot., 9; cf. John of Ephesus, Com. de Beat. -Orient. (Van Douven and Land), p. 68, where the words occur, “ad -Theodoram τὴν ἐκ τοῦ πορνείου, quae illo tempore patricia erat.” She -is often mentioned in this work in a laudatory strain, with which -this sentence, as Diehl (_op. cit._) forcibly observes, is decidedly -incongruous. Probably, therefore, it has been introduced by a copyist, -but of what date I cannot surmise. - -[1246] Probably she now took up her residence in the palace of -Hormisdas; see pp. 37, 309. - -[1247] As shown by subsequent events; Theophanes, an. 6019; Victor -Ton., an. 566; Jn. Malala, xviii, p. 430; _ib._, an. 6020. - -[1248] Her position was now very similar to that of Caenis under -Vespasian; see p. 336. - -[1249] See p. 108. - -[1250] Procopius, Anecdot., 10; the law itself, Cod., V, iv, 23 (De -Nuptiis). This relaxation, however, was quite in accordance with the -development of Christian sentiment. Thus Chrysostom expresses it: -“Inflamed by this fire (Christian repentance) the prostitute becomes -holier than virgins”; In Matth. viii, Hom. vi, 5 (in Migne, vii, 69). - -[1251] Procopius, Anecdot., 9. The spurious life by Theophilus (see -p. 320) tells us also that Justinian’s mother, her name Biglenitza -(Vigilantia), opposed the marriage, not on account of unchastity, but -because Theodora was too clever and addicted to magic, etc. There is no -historical mention of this Vigilantia. - -[1252] _Ibid._, 10. - -[1253] Jn. Malala, xvii, etc. - -[1254] According to Michael the Syrian, Jacobite Patriarch of Antioch, -Theodora was the daughter of an “orthodox” (_i.e._, Monophysite) -priest, who would not part with his daughter until Justinian had -pledged his word not to coerce her to conform to Chalcedon! See -Chabot’s trans. from the Syriac, 1901, ix, 20. She built St. P. (p. -344) on the site of her chaste pre-nuptial life. - -[1255] Procopius, Anecdot., 1. Aimoin (Hist. Franc., ii, 5), a western -author of the eleventh century, but in great part fabulous, relates -that Belisarius and Justinian entered a brothel and chose there two -prostitutes, Antonina and _Antonia_, sisters, whom they subsequently -married. If this is not merely loose hearsay emanating originally -from a reader of Procopius, it shows the sort of stories which were -popularly current on the subject. Although the anecdote is scarcely -far-fetched, it is rendered impossible by the fact that the ages of the -two men differed by something like a score of years. - -[1256] Later we hear from Procopius (De Bel. Goth., i, 5) that in 535 -he had just become old enough to receive a separate command in the -army; which probably indicates that he had then attained to the age of -eighteen, the period when a young Roman was freed from his guardian -(_curator_) and became _sui juris_. About nine years earlier (_c._ 526, -De Bel. Pers., i, 12) Belisarius is referred to in very similar terms, -so that the relative ages of these two characters can be determined -with tolerable accuracy. Belisarius was then “πρῶτος ὑπηνήτης.” - -[1257] Antonina and her son Photius are personages almost peculiar -to Procopius and do not come to light noticeably in the ordinary -chronographers. - - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE AGE OF JUSTINIAN AND THEODORA, -VOLUME 1 (OF 2) *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm -concept and trademark. 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- color: black; - font-size:smaller; - padding:0.5em; - margin-bottom:5em; - font-family:sans-serif, serif; - } - -.illowp86 {width: 86%;} -.illowp100 {width: 100%;} - - - </style> - </head> -<body> - -<div style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Age of Justinian and Theodora, Volume 1 (of 2), by William Gordon Holmes</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<table style='min-width:0; padding:0; margin-left:0; border-collapse:collapse'> - <tr><td>Title:</td><td>The Age of Justinian and Theodora, Volume 1 (of 2)</td></tr> - <tr><td></td><td>A History of the Sixth Century A.D.</td></tr> -</table> - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: William Gordon Holmes</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: May 16, 2021 [eBook #65337]</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Character set encoding: UTF-8</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Produced by: Turgut Dincer, Les Galloway and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)</div> - -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE AGE OF JUSTINIAN AND THEODORA, VOLUME 1 (OF 2) ***</div> - -<div class="transnote"> -<h3>Transcriber’s Notes</h3> - -<p>Obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected. -Variations in hyphenation and accents have been standardised but all -other spelling and punctuation remains unchanged.</p> - -<p>The Errata and Additional Corrections have been incorporated, apart -from those indicated by {} which could not be unambiguously identified.</p> - -<p>The cover was prepared by the transcriber and is placed in the public -domain.</p> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<p class ="half-title"> -THE AGE OF JUSTINIAN AND<br /> -THEODORA</p> - - -<p class="center"> -LONDON: GEORGE BELL AND SONS<br /> -PORTUGAL ST. LINCOLN’S INN, W.C.<br /> -CAMBRIDGE: DEIGHTON, BELL & CO.<br /> -NEW YORK: THE MACMILLAN CO.<br /> -BOMBAY: A. H. WHEELER & CO.</p> - - - - - -<h1> -THE AGE OF JUSTINIAN<br /> -AND THEODORA</h1> - -<p class="center">A HISTORY OF THE SIXTH CENTURY A.D.</p> - -<p class="center"><span class="fs2">BY</span></p> -<p class="center">WILLIAM GORDON HOLMES</p> - -<p class="center"><span class="fs2">VOL. I</span></p> - -<p class="center"><span class="fs2"><i>SECOND EDITION</i></span></p> - -<p class="center">LONDON<br /> -G. BELL AND SONS, LTD.<br /> -<span class="fs2">1912</span></p> - - - - -<p class="center"><span class="fs3"> -CHISWICK PRESS: CHARLES WHITTINGHAM AND CO.<br /> -TOOKS COURT, CHANCERY LANE, LONDON.</span> -</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_v"> v</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PREFACE">PREFACE</h2> -</div> - - -<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">Although</span> the age of Justinian is the most interesting -and important in the whole series of the Byzantine -annals, no comprehensive work has hitherto been devoted to -the subject. The valuable and erudite “Vita Justiniani” of -Ludewig is more of a law book than of a biography, and less -of a circumstantial history than of either. The somewhat -strange medley published by Isambert under the title “Vie -de Justinien” is scarcely a complete chronology of the events, -and might be called a manual of the sources rather than a -history of the times.<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> Excellent accounts, however, of Justinian -are to be found in some general histories of the Byzantine -Empire as well as in several biographical dictionaries, whilst -monographs of greater or lesser extent exist under the names -of Perrinus, Invernizi, and Padovani, etc., but any student -of the period would decide that it deserves to be treated at -much greater length than has been devoted to it in any of -these books. In the present work the design has been to -place before the reader not only a record of events, but a -presentment of the people amongst whom, and of the stage -upon which those events occurred. I have also attempted -to correlate the aspects of the ancient and the modern -world in relation to science and progress.</p> - -<p class="psig"> -W. G. H.</p> -<p class="pdate"> -<span class="smcap">London</span>,<br /> -<i>February, 1905</i>.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_vi"> vi</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PREFATORY_NOTE_TO_SECOND">PREFATORY NOTE TO SECOND -EDITION</h2> -</div> - - -<p>This work has now been carefully revised and slightly -enlarged. I am indebted to suggestions from various -reviewers of the first edition for several of the improvements -introduced. Occasionally, however, they are in error and at -variance among themselves on some of the points noted. A -few of my critics have accused me of being too discursive, -especially in my notes, an impression which is the natural -result of my not having expressed it definitely anywhere that -my object was to present not merely the sociology and events -of a particular period, but also to illustrate, in an abridged -sense, the history of all time.</p> - -<p class="psig"> -W. G. H.</p> -<p class="pdate"> -<span class="smcap">London</span>,<br /> -<i>August, 1912</i>.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_vii"> vii</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS</h2> -</div> - - -<table class="standard" summary=""> -<tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="3"></td> -<td class="tdr"><span class="fs2">PAGE</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td></td> -<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap"><a href="#PROEM">Proem</a></span></td> -<td></td> -<td class="tdr">ix</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdrt"><span class="smcap">Chap.</span> <a href="#CHAPTER_I">I.</a></td> -<td class="tdh" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Constantinople in the Sixth Century</span></td> -<td class="tdrb">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdrt"><a href="#section_I">I</a>.</td> -<td class="tdl">History</td> -<td class="tdrb">2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdrt"><a href="#section_II">II</a>.</td> -<td class="tdl">Topography</td> -<td class="tdrb">23</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdrt"><a href="#section_III">III</a>.</td> -<td class="tdl">Sociology</td> -<td class="tdrb">83</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdrt"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">II</a>.</td> -<td class="tdh" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">The Roman Empire under Anastasius: -the Inheritance of Justinian</span></td> -<td class="tdrb">127</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdrt"><a href="#section_I_1">I</a>.</td> -<td class="tdl">Political</td> -<td class="tdrb">134</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdrt"><a href="#section_II_1">II</a>.</td> -<td class="tdl">Educational</td> -<td class="tdrb">204</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdrt"><a href="#section_III_1">III</a>.</td> -<td class="tdl">Religious</td> -<td class="tdrb">233</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdrt"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">III</a>.</td> -<td class="tdh" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Birth and Fortunes of the Elder -Justin: the Origins of Justinian</span></td> -<td class="tdrb">295</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdrt"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">IV</a>.</td> -<td class="tdh" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Pre-Imperial Career of Theodora: -the Consort of Justinian</span></td> -<td class="tdrb">321</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td></td> -<td class="tdh" colspan="2"><span class="smcap"><a href="#INDEX">Index</a></span></td> -<td class="tdr">351</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="3"><span class="smcap"><a href="#ERRATA">Corrections</a></span></td> -<td class="tdr">360</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="3"><span class="smcap"><a href="#ADDITIONS">Additions</a></span></td> -<td class="tdr">361</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="4">MAPS</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdh" colspan="3"><span class="smcap"><a href="#Diagram_of_CP">Diagram of Constantinople in Sixth Century</a></span></td> -<td class="tdrb">80</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdh" colspan="3"><span class="smcap"><a href="#ROMAN_EMPIRE">Roman Empire and Vicinity</a></span>, <i>c.</i> 500 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span></td> -<td class="tdrb">144</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_viii"> viii</span></p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_ix"> ix</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PROEM">PROEM</h2> -</div> - - -<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">The</span> birth and death of worlds are ephemeral events -in a cycle of astronomical time. In the life history of -a stellar system, of a planet, of an animal, parallel periods -of origin, exuberance, and of extinction are exhibited to our -experience, or to our understanding. Man, in his material -existence confined to a point, by continuity of effort and -perpetuity of thought, becomes coequal and coextensive with -the infinities of time and space. The intellectual store of -ages has evolved the supremacy of the human race, but the -zenith of its ascendancy may still be far off, and the aspiration -after progress has been entailed on the heirs of all -preceding generations. The advancement of humanity is the -sum of the progress of its component members, and the individual -who raises his own life to the highest attainable -eminence becomes a factor in the elevation of the whole -race. Familiarity with history dispels the darkness of the -past, which is so prolific in the myths that feed credulity -and foster superstition, the frequent parents of the most -stubborn obstacles which have lain in the path of progress. -The history of the past comprises the lessons of the future; -and the successes and failures of former times are a pre-vision -of the struggles to come and the errors to be avoided. -The stream of human life having once issued from its -sources, may be equal in endurance to a planet, to a stellar<span class="pagenum" id="Page_x"> x</span> -system, or even to the universe itself. The mind of the universe -may be man, who may be the confluence of universal -intelligence. The eternity of the past, the infinity of the -present, may be peopled with races like our own, but whether -they die out with the worlds they occupy, or enjoy a perpetual -existence, transcends the present limits of our knowledge. -From century to century the solid ground of science -gains on the illimitable ocean of the unknown, but we are -ignorant as to whether we exist in the dawn or in the noonday -of enlightenment. The conceptions of one age become -the achievements of the next; and the philosopher may -question whether this world be not some remote, unaffiliated -tract, which remains to be annexed to the empire of universal -civilization. The discoveries of the future may be as -undreamt of as those of the past,<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> and the ultimate destiny -of our race is hidden from existing generations.</p> - -<p>In the period I have chosen to bring before the reader, -civilization was on the decline, and progress imperceptible, -but the germs of a riper growth were still existent, concealed -within the spreading darkness of mediaevalism. When -Grecian science and philosophy seemed to stand on the -threshold of modern enlightenment the pall of despotism -and superstition descended on the earth and stifled every -impulse of progress for more than fifteen centuries. The -Yggdrasil of Christian superstition spread its roots throughout -the Roman Empire, strangling alike the nascent ethics -of Christendom, and the germinating science of the ancient -world. Had the leading minds of that epoch, instead of expending -their zeal and acumen on theological inanities, -applied themselves to the study of nature, they might have -forestalled the march of the centuries, and advanced us a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xi"> xi</span> -thousand years beyond the present time. But the atmosphere -of the period was charged with a metaphysical mysticism -whereby all philosophic thought and material research were -arrested. The records of a millennium comprise little more -than the rise, the progress, and the triumph of superstition -and barbarism. The degenerate Greeks became the serfs -and slaves of the land in which they were formerly the -masters, and retreated gradually to a vanishing point in the -vast district from the Adriatic to the Indus, over which the -eagle-wing of Alexander had swept in uninterrupted conquest. -Unable to oppose their political solidarity and martial -science to the fanaticism of the half-armed Saracens, they -yielded up to them insensibly their faith and their empire, -and their place was filled by a host of unprogressive Mohammedans, -who brought with them a newer religion more -sensuous in its conceptions, but less gross in its practice, -than the Christianity of that day. But the hardy barbarians -of the North, drinking at the fountain of knowledge, had -achieved some political organization, and became the natural -and irresistible barriers against which the waves of Moslem -enthusiasm dashed themselves in vain. The term of Asiatic -encroachment was fixed at the Pyrenees in the west, and at -the Danube in the east by the valorous Franks and Hungarians; -and on the brink of the turning tide stand the heroic -figures of Charles Martel and Matthias Corvinus. Civilization -has now included almost the whole globe in its comprehensive -embrace; both the old world and the new have -been overrun by the intellectual heirs of the Greeks; in -every land the extinction of retrograde races proceeds with -measured certainty, and we appear to be safer from a returning -flood of barbarism than from some astronomical -catastrophe. The mediaeval order of things is reversed, the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xii"> xii</span> -ravages of Attila reappear under a new aspect, and the descendants -of the Han and the Hun alike are raised by the -hand, or crushed under the foot of aggressive civilization.</p> - -<p>In the infancy of human reason intelligence outstrips -knowledge, and the mature, but vacant, mind soon loses itself -in the dark and trackless wilderness of natural phenomena. -An imaginative system of cosmogony, baseless as the fabric -of a dream, is the creation of a moment; to dissipate it the -work of ages in study and investigation. Less than a century -ago philosophic scepticism could only vent itself in a sneer -at the credibility of a tradition, or the fidelity of a manuscript; -and the folklore of peasants, encrusted with the hoar -of antiquity, was accepted by erudite mystics as the solution -of cosmogony and the proof of our communion with the -supernatural. An illegible line, a misinterpreted phrase, a -suspected interpolation, in some decaying document, the -proof or the refutation, was often hailed triumphantly by -ardent disputants as announcing the establishment or the -overthrow of revelation. But the most signal achievements -of historic research or criticism were powerless to elucidate -the mysteries of the universe; and the inquirer had to fall -back perpetually on the current mythology for the interpretation -of his objective environment. In the hands of science -alone were the keys which could unlock the book of nature, -and open the gates of knowledge as to the enigmas of visible -life. A flood of light has been thrown on the order of natural -phenomena, our vision has been prolonged from the dawn of -history to the dawn of terrestrial life, an intelligible hypothesis -of existence has been deduced from observation and -experiment, idealism and dogma have been recognized as -the offspring of phantasy and fallacy, and the mystical elements -of Christianity have been dismissed by philosophy to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xiii"> xiii</span> -that limbo of folly which long ago engulfed the theogonies -of Greece and Rome. The sapless trunk of revelation lies -rotting on the ground, but the undiscerning masses, too -credulous to inquire, too careless to think, have allowed it -to become invested with the weeds of superstition and ignorance; -and the progeny of hierophants, who once sheltered -beneath the green and flourishing tree, still find a cover in -the rank growth. In the turn of the ages we are confronted -by new Pagans who adhere to an obsolete religion; and the -philosopher can only hope for an era when every one will -have sufficient sense and science to think according to the -laws of nature and civilization.</p> - -<p>The history of the disintegrating and moribund Byzantine -Empire has been explored by modern scholars with untiring -assiduity; and the exposition of that debased political system -will always reflect more credit on their brilliant researches -than on the chequered annals of mankind.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="ADDITIONAL_CORRECTIONS">ADDITIONAL CORRECTIONS</h2> -</div> - - -<p>P. 127, n. 1, legends and hearsay; p. 133, n. 3, καρξιμάδες; p. 141, -n. 2, i; p. 165, regions,<sup>1</sup> own,<sup>2</sup> other<sup>3</sup> (to n. 1 next page); p. 166, -soldiers, arms,<sup>2</sup> etc.; p. 169, n. 6, Marcellinus; p. 188, herd; {<i>ib.</i>, n. 1, -<i>c.</i> 530}; p. 191, n. 1, XII, not xii; p. 220, judgment; p. 225, n. 1, -cadavérique; p. 232, n. 1, add, on its way to resolution into the formless -protyle or ether; p. 283, the outposts; p. 300, n. 6, add, cf. Jn. -Malala, xviii, p. 490; p. 309, n. 2, add, cf. Chron. Paschal., an. 605; -{p. 316, mood}; p. 330, n. 2, Strabo, VIII, vi, 20; p. 344, near the district -of Hormisdas, not Palace; <i>ib.</i>, n. 2, read, which stood on the -Propontis to the east of the Theodosian Port; see Notitia, reg. ix and -Ducange <i>sb. Homonoea</i>. The suburban St. P. is said to be indicated by -ruins still existing at the foot of the “Giant’s Grave,” on the Asiatic -side of the Bosphorus; see Gyllius, De Bosp., iii, 6; Procop., etc., -p. 346, n. 1, insert, Jn. Malala, xviii, p. 430; <i>ib.</i>, an. 6020; {p. 362, -read, This question and the <i>Yeri</i>, etc.}</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1"> 1</span></p> - -<p class="half-title">THE AGE OF JUSTINIAN -AND THEODORA</p> - - - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I<br /> - - -<small>CONSTANTINOPLE IN THE SIXTH CENTURY<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> -</small></h2></div> - - -<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">The</span> Byzantine peninsula has been regarded from a very -early date as an ideal situation for a capital city. Placed -at the junction of two great seas which wash the shores of -three continents, and possessed of a safe and extensive -anchorage for shipping, it might become the centre of -empire and commerce for the whole Eastern hemisphere. -Yet, owing to an adverse fate, the full realization of this -splendid conception remains a problem of the future. -Byzantium as an independent city was little more than an -outpost of civilization; as a provincial town of the Roman -Empire its political position allowed it no scope for development; -as the metropolis of the same Empire in its age of -decadence its fitful splendour is an unsubstantial pageant<span class="pagenum" id="Page_2"> 2</span> -without moral or political stability. Lastly, in the hands of -the Turk its growth has been fettered by the prejudices of a -nation unable to free itself from the bondage of an effete -civilization.</p> - - -<h3 id="section_I">I. <span class="smcap">History</span></h3> - -<p>The first peopling of the site of Constantinople is a question -in prehistoric research, which has not yet been elucidated -by the palaeontologist. Unlike the Roman area, no relics of -an age of stone or bronze have been discovered here;<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> do -not, perhaps, exist, but doubtless the opportunities, if not the -men, have been wanting for such investigations.<a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> That the -region seemed to the primitive Greeks to be a wild and -desolate one, we learn from the tradition of the Argonautic -expedition;<a id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> and the epithet of “Axine,”<a id="FNanchor_7" href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> or inhospitable,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_3"> 3</span> -applied in the earliest times to the Euxine or Black Sea. By -the beginning, however, of the seventh century before the -Christian era these seas and maritime channels had been -explored, and several colonies<a id="FNanchor_8" href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> had been planted by the -adventurous Greeks who issued from the Ionian seaport of -Miletus. Later than the Milesians, a band of Dorians from -Megara penetrated into these parts and, by a strange choice, -as it was afterwards considered, selected a point at the mouth -of the Bosphorus on the Asiatic shore for a settlement, which -they called Chalcedon.<a id="FNanchor_9" href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> Seventeen years later<a id="FNanchor_10" href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> a second -party from Megara fixed themselves on the European headland, -previously known as Lygos,<a id="FNanchor_11" href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> nearly opposite their first -colony. The leader of this expedition was Byzas,<a id="FNanchor_12" href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> and from -him the town they built was named Byzantium.<a id="FNanchor_13" href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> The actual<span class="pagenum" id="Page_4"> 4</span> -limits of the original city are now quite unknown, but doubtless -they were small at first and were gradually extended -according as the community increased in wealth and prosperity.<a id="FNanchor_14" href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> -During the classic period of Greek history the town -rose to considerable importance, as its commanding position -enabled it to impose a toll on ships sailing to and from the -Euxine sea; a power of which, however, it made a very -sparing use.<a id="FNanchor_15" href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> It was also enriched by the countless shoals of -fish<a id="FNanchor_16" href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> which, when the north winds blew, descended from the -Euxine and thronged the narrow but elongated gulf called, -most probably for that reason, <i>Chrysoceras</i> or Golden Horn.<a id="FNanchor_17" href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_5"> 5</span> -Ultimately Byzantium became the largest city in Thrace, -having expanded itself over an area which measured four -and a half miles in circumference, including, probably, the -suburbs.<a id="FNanchor_18" href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> It exercised a suzerainty over Chalcedon and -Perinthus,<a id="FNanchor_19" href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> and reduced the aboriginal Bithynians to a state -of servitude comparable to that of the Spartan Helots.<a id="FNanchor_20" href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> Notwithstanding -its natural advantages, the town never won any -pre-eminence among the Hellenic communities, and nothing -more unstable than its political position is presented to us -in the restless concourse of Grecian nationalities. In the -wars of Persians with Greeks, and of Greeks with Greeks, it -always became the sport of the contending parties; and during -a century and a half (about 506 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> to 350 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>) it was -taken and re-taken at least six times by Medes, Spartans, -Athenians, and Thebans, a change of constitution following, -of course, each change of political connection.<a id="FNanchor_21" href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> In 340 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, -however, the Byzantines, with the aid of the Athenians, withstood -a siege successfully, an occurrence the more remarkable -as they were attacked by the greatest general of the age, -Philip of Macedon. In the course of this beleaguerment, it -is related, on a certain wet and moonless night the enemy -attempted a surprise, but were foiled by reason of a bright -light which, appearing suddenly in the heavens, startled all -the dogs in the town and thus roused the garrison to a sense -of their danger.<a id="FNanchor_22" href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> To commemorate this timely phenomenon, -which was attributed to Hecate, they erected a public statue<span class="pagenum" id="Page_6"> 6</span> -to that goddess and, as it is supposed, assumed the crescent -for their chief national device. For several centuries after -this event the city enjoyed a nominal autonomy, but it -appears to have been in perpetual conflict with its civilized -or barbarous neighbours; and in 279 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> it was even laid -under tribute<a id="FNanchor_23" href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> by the horde of Gauls who penetrated into -Asia and established themselves permanently in Galatia. -After the appearance of the Roman legionaries in the East -the Byzantines were always the faithful friends of the Republic, -while it was engaged in suppressing the independent -potentates of Macedonia and Asia Minor. For its services -Byzantium was permitted to retain the rank of a free city,<a id="FNanchor_24" href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> -and its claim to indulgence was allowed by more than one -of the Roman emperors,<a id="FNanchor_25" href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> even after <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 70, when Vespasian -limited its rights to those of a provincial town.<a id="FNanchor_26" href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a></p> - -<p>Of all the ancient historians one only has left us a description -capable of giving some visual impression as to the -appearance of old Byzantium. “This city,” says Dion -Cassius,<a id="FNanchor_27" href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> “is most favourably situated, being built upon an -eminence, which juts out into the sea. The waters, like a -torrent, rushing downwards from the Pontus impinge against -the promontory and flow partly to the right, so as to form -the bay and harbours, but the main stream runs swiftly -alongside the city into the Propontis. The town is also extremely -well fortified, for the wall is faced with great square -stones joined together by brazen clamps, and it is further<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7"> 7</span> -strengthened on the inside through mounds and houses -being built up against it. This wall seems to consist of a -solid mass of stone,<a id="FNanchor_28" href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> and it has a covered gallery above, -which is very easily defended. On the outside there are -many large towers, perforated with frequent loopholes and -ranged in an irregular line, so that an attacking party is -surrounded by them and exposed on all sides at once. -Toward the land the fortifications are very lofty, but less so -on the side of the water, as the rocks on which they are -founded and the dangers of the Bosphorus render them -almost unassailable. There are two harbours within the -walls,<a id="FNanchor_29" href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> guarded by chains, and at the ends of the moles -inclosing them towers facing each other make the passage -impracticable to an enemy. I have seen the walls standing -and have also heard them speaking; for there are seven -vocal towers stretching from the Thracian gates to the sea. -If one shouts or drops a pebble in the first it not only resounds -itself or repeats the syllables, but it transmits the -power for the next in order to do the same; and thus the -voice or echo is carried in regular succession through the -whole series.”<a id="FNanchor_30" href="#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a></p> - -<p>At the end of the second century the Byzantines were -afflicted by the severest trial which had ever come within -their experience. In the tripartite struggle between the -Emperor Severus and his competitors of Gaul and Asia, the -city unfortunately threw in its lot with Niger, the Proconsul<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8"> 8</span> -of Syria. Niger soon fell, but Byzantium held out with inflexible -obstinacy for three years and, through the ingenuity -of an engineer named Priscus, defied all the efforts of the -victor. During this time the inhabitants suffered progressively -every kind of hardship and horror which has been put on -record in connection with sieges of the most desperate -character. Stones torn from the public buildings were used -as projectiles, statues of men and horses, in brass and marble, -were hurled on the heads of the besiegers, women gave their -hair to be twisted into cords and ropes, leather soaked in -water was eaten, and finally they fell on one another and fed -on human flesh. At last the city yielded, but Severus was -exasperated, and his impulse of hostility only ceased with the -destruction of the prize he had won at such a cost in blood -and treasure. The garrison and all who had borne any public -office, with the exception of Priscus, were put to death, the -chief buildings were razed,<a id="FNanchor_31" href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> the municipality was abolished, -property was confiscated, and the town was given over to the -previously subject Perinthians, to be treated as a dependent -village. With immense labour the impregnable fortifications -were levelled with the ground, and the ruins of the first bulwark -of the Empire against the barbarians of Scythia attested -the wisdom and temperance of the master of the East and -West.<a id="FNanchor_32" href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a></p> - -<p>But the memory of Byzantium dwelt in the mind of -Severus and he was attracted to revisit the spot. In cooler -moments he surveyed the wreck; the citizens, bearing olive -branches in their hands, approached him in a solemn and -suppliant procession; he determined to rebuild, and at his -mandate new edifices were reared to supply the place of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9"> 9</span> -those which had been ruined. He even purchased ground, -which had been previously occupied by private gardens, for -the laying out of a hippodrome,<a id="FNanchor_33" href="#Footnote_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> a public luxury with which -the town had never before been adorned. But the hateful -name of Byzantium was abolished and the new city was -called Antonina<a id="FNanchor_34" href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> by Severus, in honour of his eldest son; -a change, however, which scarcely survived the life of its -author. Through Caracalla,<a id="FNanchor_35" href="#Footnote_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> or some rational statesman acting -in the name of that reprobate, the city regained its political -privileges, but the fortifications were not restored, and for -more than half a century it remained defenceless against the -barbarians, and even against the turbulent soldiery of the -Empire. Beginning from about 250 the Goths ravaged the -vicinity of the Bosphorus and plundered most of the towns, -holding their own against Decius and several other short-lived -emperors. Under Gallienus a mutinous legion is said -to have massacred most of the inhabitants, but shortly afterwards -the same emperor gave a commission to two Byzantine -engineers to fortify the district, and henceforward Byzantium -again appears as a stronghold, which was made a centre of -operations against the Goths, in the repulse of whom the -natives and their generals even played an important part.<a id="FNanchor_36" href="#Footnote_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_10"> 10</span> -In 323 Licinius, the sole remaining rival of Constantine, -after his defeat in a great battle near Adrianople, took refuge -in Byzantium, and the town again became the scene of a -contest memorable in history, not for the magnitude of the -siege, but for the importance of the events which it inaugurated. -Licinius soon yielded, and a new era dawned for -Byzantium, which in a few years became lastingly known to -the nations as the City of Constantine.</p> - -<p>The tongue of land on which Constantinople is built is -essentially a low mountainous ridge, rising on three sides by -irregular slopes from the sea. Trending almost directly eastward -from the continent of Europe, it terminates abruptly in a -rounded headland opposite the Asiatic shore, from which it -is separated by the entrance of the Bosphorus, at this point -a little more than a mile in width. This diminutive peninsula, -which is bounded on the north by the inland extension of -the Bosphorus, called the Golden Horn, and on the south -by the Propontis or Sea of Marmora, has a length of between -three and four miles. At its eastern extremity it is about a -mile broad and it gradually expands until, in the region -where it may be said to join the mainland, its measurement -has increased to more than four times that distance. The -unlevel nature of the ground and reminiscences of the seven -hills of classical Rome have always caused a parallel to be -drawn between the sites of the two capitals of the Empire, -but the resemblance is remote and the historic import of the -Roman hills is totally wanting in the case of those of Constantinople. -The hills of the elder city were mostly distinct -mounts, which had borne suggestive names in the earliest -annals of the district. Every citizen had learned to associate<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11"> 11</span> -the Palatine with the Roma Quadrata of Romulus, the -Aventine with the ill-omened auspices of Remus, the Quirinal -with the rape of the Sabine women, the Esquiline with the -murder of King Servius, the Capitol with the repulse of the -Gauls by Manlius; and knew that when the standard was -raised on the Janiculum the comitia were assembled to -transact the business of the Republic. But the Byzantine -hills are little more than variations in the face of the slope -as it declines on each side from the central dorsum to the -water, and have always been nameless unless in the numerical -descriptions of the topographer. On the north five depressions -constitute as many valleys and give rise to six hills, -which are numbered in succession from the narrow end of -the promontory to the west. Thus the first hill is that on -which stood the acropolis of Byzantium. Two of the valleys, -the third and fifth, can be traced across the dorsum of the -peninsular from sea to sea. A rivulet, called the Lycus, -running from the mainland, joins the peninsula near its -centre and then turns in a south-easterly direction so as to -fall into the Propontis. The valley through which this stream -passes, the sixth, bounds the seventh hill, an elevation known -as the Xerolophos or Dry-mount, which, lying in the south-west, -occupies more than a third of the whole area comprised -within the city walls.<a id="FNanchor_37" href="#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> From every high point of the promontory -the eye may range over seas and mountains often celebrated -in classic story—the Trojan Ida and Olympus, the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_12"> 12</span> -Hellespont, Athos and Olympus of Zeus, and the Thracian -Bosphorus embraced by wooded hills up to the “blue -Symplegades” and the Euxine, so suggestive of heroic tradition -to the Greek mind. The Golden Horn itself describes -a curve to the north-west of more than six miles in length, -and at its extremity, where it turns upon itself, becomes -fused with the estuary of two small rivers named Cydarus -and Barbyses.<a id="FNanchor_38" href="#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> Throughout the greater part of its course it -is about a quarter of a mile in width, but at one point below -its centre, it is dilated into a bay of nearly double that -capacity. This inlet was not formerly, in the same sense as -it is now, the port of Constantinople; to the ancients it was -still the sea, a moat on a large scale, which added the safety -of water to the mural defences of the city; and the small shipping -of the period was accommodated in artificial harbours -formed by excavations within the walls or by moles thrown -out from the shore.<a id="FNanchor_39" href="#Footnote_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> The climate of this locality is very -changeable, exposed as it is to north winds chilled by transit -over the Russian steppes, and to warm breezes which -originate in the tropical expanses of Africa and Arabia. -The temperature may range through twenty degrees in a -single day, and winters of such arctic severity that the Golden -Horn and even the Bosphorus are seen covered with ice are -not unknown to the inhabitants.<a id="FNanchor_40" href="#Footnote_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> Variations of landscape<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13"> 13</span> -due to vegetation are found chiefly in the abundance of -plane, pine, chestnut, and other trees, but more especially -of the cypress. Earthquakes are a permanent source of -annoyance, and have sometimes been very destructive. Such -in brief are the geographical features of this region, which -the caprice of a prince, in a higher degree, perhaps, than its -natural endowments, appointed to contain the metropolis of -the East.</p> - -<p>When Constantine determined to supplant the ancient -capital on the Tiber by building a new city in a place of his -own choice,<a id="FNanchor_41" href="#Footnote_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a> he does not appear to have been more acute in -discerning the advantages of Byzantium than were the first -colonists from Megara. It is said that Thessalonica first -fixed his attention; it is certain that he began to build in -the Troad, near the site of Homeric Ilios; and it is even -suggested that when he shifted his ground from thence he<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14"> 14</span> -next commenced operations at Chalcedon.<a id="FNanchor_42" href="#Footnote_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> By 328,<a id="FNanchor_43" href="#Footnote_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a> however, -he had come to a final decision, and Byzantium was -exalted to be the actual rival of Rome. This event, occurring -at so advanced a date and under the eye of civilization, -yet became a source of legend, so as to excel even in that -respect the original foundation by Byzas. The oracles had -long been lapsing into silence,<a id="FNanchor_44" href="#Footnote_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a> but their place had been -gradually usurped by Christian visions, and every zealot who -thought upon the subject conceived of Constantine as acting -under a special inspiration from the Deity. More than a -score of writers in verse and prose have described the circumstances -under which he received the divine injunctions, and -some have presented to us in detail the person and words of -the beatific visitant.<a id="FNanchor_45" href="#Footnote_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> On the faith of an ecclesiastical historian<a id="FNanchor_46" href="#Footnote_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a> -we are asked to believe that an angelic guide even -directed the Emperor as he marked out the boundaries of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15"> 15</span> -his future capital. When Constantine, on foot with a spear -in his hand, seemed to his ministers to move onwards for an -inordinate distance, one of them exclaimed: “How far, O -Master?” “Until he who precedes me stands,” was the -reply by which the inspired surveyor indicated that he -followed an unseen conductor. Whether Constantine was a -superstitious man is an indeterminate question, but that he -was a shrewd and politic one is self-evident from his career, -and, if we believe that he gave currency to this and similar -marvellous tales, we can perceive that he could not have -acted more judiciously with the view of gaining adherents -during the flush of early Christian enthusiasm.<a id="FNanchor_47" href="#Footnote_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a></p> - -<p>The area of the city was more than quadrupled by the wall -of Constantine, which extended right across the peninsula in -the form of a bow, distant at the widest part about a mile -and three-quarters from the old fortifications.<a id="FNanchor_48" href="#Footnote_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a> This space, -by comparison enormous, and which yet included only four -of the hills with part of the Xerolophos, was hastily filled -by the Emperor with buildings and adornments of every description.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16"> 16</span> -Many cities of the Empire, notably Rome, Athens, -Ephesus, and Antioch, were stripped of some of their most -precious objects of art for the embellishment of the new capital.<a id="FNanchor_49" href="#Footnote_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> -Wherever statues, sculptured columns, or metal castings -were to be found, there the agents of Constantine were busily -engaged in arranging for their transfer to the Bosphorus. -Resolved that no fanatic spirit should mar the cosmopolitan -expectation of his capital the princely architect subdued his -Christian zeal, and three temples<a id="FNanchor_50" href="#Footnote_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a> to mythological divinities -arose in regular conformity with pagan custom. Thus the -“Fortune of the City” took her place as the goddess Anthusa<a id="FNanchor_51" href="#Footnote_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a> -in a handsome fane, and adherents of the old religion could -not declare that the ambitious foundation was begun under -unfavourable auspices. In another temple a statue of Rhea, -or Cybele, was erected in an abnormal posture, deprived of -her lions and with her hands raised as if in the act of praying -over the city. On this travesty of the mother of the Olympians, -we may conjecture, was founded the belief which prevailed -in a later age that the capital at its birth had been -dedicated to the Virgin.<a id="FNanchor_52" href="#Footnote_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a> That a city permanently distinguished -by the presence of an Imperial court should remain -deficient in population is opposed to common experience of -the laws which govern the evolution of a metropolis. But<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17"> 17</span> -Constantine could not wait, and various artificial methods -were adopted in order to provide inhabitants for the vacant -inclosure. Patricians were induced to abandon Rome by -grants of lands and houses, and it is even said that several -were persuaded to settle at Constantinople by means of an -ingenious deception. Commanding the attendance in the -East of a number of senators during the Persian war, the -Emperor privately commissioned architects to build counterparts -of their Roman dwellings on the Golden Horn. To -these were transferred the families and households of the -absent ministers, who were then invited by Constantine to -meet him in his new capital. There they were conducted to -homes in which to their astonishment they seemed to revisit -Rome in a dream, and henceforth they became permanent -residents in obedience to a prince who urged his wishes with -such unanswerable arguments.<a id="FNanchor_53" href="#Footnote_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> As to the common herd we -have no precise information, but it is asserted by credible -authority that they were raked together from diverse parts, -the rabble of the Empire who derived their maintenance -from the founder and repaid him with servile adulation in -the streets and in the theatre.<a id="FNanchor_54" href="#Footnote_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a></p> - -<p>By the spring of 330<a id="FNanchor_55" href="#Footnote_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a> the works were sufficiently advanced -for the new capital to begin its political existence, and Constantine -decreed that a grand inaugural festival should take<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18"> 18</span> -place on the 11th of May. The “Fortune of the City” was -consecrated by a pagan ceremony in which Praetextatus, a -priest, and Sopater, a philosopher, played the principal parts;<a id="FNanchor_56" href="#Footnote_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a> -largess was distributed to the populace, and magnificent -games were exhibited in the Hippodrome, where the Emperor -presided, conspicuous with a costly diadem decked -with pearls and precious stones, which he wore for the first -time.<a id="FNanchor_57" href="#Footnote_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a> On this occasion the celebration is said to have lasted -forty days,<a id="FNanchor_58" href="#Footnote_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a> and at the same time Constantine instituted the -permanent “Encaenia,” an annual commemoration, which -he enjoined on succeeding emperors for the same date. A -gilded statue of himself, bearing a figure of Anthusa in one -hand, was to be conducted round the city in a chariot, escorted -by a military guard, dressed in a definite attire,<a id="FNanchor_59" href="#Footnote_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a> and -carrying wax tapers in their hands. Finally, the procession -was to make the circuit of the Hippodrome and, when it -paused before the cathisma, the emperor was to descend from -his throne and adore the effigy.<a id="FNanchor_60" href="#Footnote_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a> We are further told that an -astrologer named Valens was employed to draw the horoscope -of the city, with the result that he predicted for it an -existence of 696 years.<a id="FNanchor_61" href="#Footnote_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_19"> 19</span></p> - -<p>After the fall of Licinius it appears most probable that Constantine, -as a memorial of his accession to undivided power, -gave Byzantium the name of Constantinople.<a id="FNanchor_62" href="#Footnote_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a> When, however, -he transformed that town into a metropolis, in order to -express clearly the magnitude of his views as to the future, -he renamed it Second, or New Rome. At the same time he -endowed it with special privileges, known in the legal phraseology -of the period as the “right of Italy and prerogative -of Rome”;<a id="FNanchor_63" href="#Footnote_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a> and to keep these facts in the public eye he -had them inscribed on a stone pillar, which he set up in a -forum, or square, called the Strategium, adjacent to an -equestrian statue of himself.<a id="FNanchor_64" href="#Footnote_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a> To render it in all respects the -image of Rome, Constantinople was provided with a Senate,<a id="FNanchor_65" href="#Footnote_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a> -a national council known only at that date in the artificial -form which owes its existence to despots. After his choice of -Byzantium for the eastern capital Constantine never dwelt -at Rome, and in all his acts seems to have aimed at extinguishing -the prestige of the old city by the grandeur of the -new one, a policy which he initiated so effectively that in -the century after his death the Roman Empire ceased to be -Roman.<a id="FNanchor_66" href="#Footnote_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_20"> 20</span></p> - -<p>Constantine is credited with the erection of many churches<a id="FNanchor_67" href="#Footnote_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a> -in and around Constantinople, but, with the exception of -St. Irene,<a id="FNanchor_68" href="#Footnote_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a> the Holy Cross,<a id="FNanchor_69" href="#Footnote_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a> and the Twelve Apostles,<a id="FNanchor_70" href="#Footnote_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a> their -identification rests with late and untrustworthy writers. One, -St. Mocius,<a id="FNanchor_71" href="#Footnote_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a> is said to have been built with the materials of -a temple of Zeus, which previously stood in the same place, -the summit of the Xerolophos, outside the walls. Another, -St. Mena, occupied the site of the temple of Poseidon -founded by Byzas.<a id="FNanchor_72" href="#Footnote_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a> Paganism was tolerated as a religion of -the Empire until the last decade of the fourth century, when -it was finally overthrown by the preponderance of Christianity. -Laws for its total suppression were enacted by -Theodosius I, destruction of temples was legalized, and at -the beginning of the fifth century it is probable that few<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21"> 21</span> -traces remained of the sacred edifices which had adorned -old Byzantium.<a id="FNanchor_73" href="#Footnote_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a></p> - -<p>After the age of Constantine the progress of New Rome -as metropolis of the east was extremely rapid,<a id="FNanchor_74" href="#Footnote_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a> the suburbs -became densely populous, and in 413 Theodosius II gave a -commission to Anthemius,<a id="FNanchor_75" href="#Footnote_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a> the Praetorian Prefect, to build -a new wall in advance of the old one nearly a mile further -down the peninsula. The intramural space was thus increased -by an area more than equal to half its former -dimensions; and, with the exception of some small additions -on the Propontis and the Golden Horn, this wall -marked the utmost limit of Constantinople in ancient or -modern times. In 447 a series of earthquakes, which lasted -for three months, laid the greater part of the new wall in -ruins, fifty-seven of the towers, according to one account,<a id="FNanchor_76" href="#Footnote_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a> -having collapsed during the period of commotion. This was -the age of Attila and the Huns, to whom Theodosius, sooner -than offer a military resistance, had already agreed to pay an -annual tribute of seven hundred pounds of gold.<a id="FNanchor_77" href="#Footnote_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a> With the -rumour that the barbarians were approaching the undefended<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22"> 22</span> -capital the public alarm rose to fever-heat, and the Praetorian -Prefect of the time, Cyrus Constantine, by an extraordinary -effort, not only restored the fortifications of Anthemius, but -added externally a second wall on a smaller scale, together -with a wide and deep fosse,<a id="FNanchor_78" href="#Footnote_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a> in the short space of sixty days. -To the modern observer it might appear incredible that such -a prodigious mass of masonry, extending over a distance of -four miles, could be reared within two months, but the fact -is attested by two inscriptions still existing on the gates,<a id="FNanchor_79" href="#Footnote_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a> by -the Byzantine historians,<a id="FNanchor_80" href="#Footnote_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a> and by the practice of antiquity -in times of impending hostility.<a id="FNanchor_81" href="#Footnote_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_23"> 23</span></p> - - -<h3 id="section_II">II. <span class="smcap">Topography</span></h3> - -<p>Having now traced the growth of the city on the Golden -Horn from its origin in the dawn of Grecian history until its -expansion into the capital of the greatest empire of the past, -I have reached the threshold of my actual task—to place -before the reader a picture of Constantinople at the beginning -of the sixth century in its topographical and sociological -aspects. The literary materials, though abundant, are -in great part unreliable and are often devoid of information -which would be found in the most unpretentious guide-book -of modern times.<a id="FNanchor_82" href="#Footnote_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a> On the other hand the monumental remains<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24"> 24</span> -are unusually scanty, insignificant indeed compared -with those of Rome, and few cities, which have been continuously -occupied, have suffered so much during the lapse -of a few centuries as Constantinople. Political revolution -has been less destructive than that of religion, and Moslem -fanaticism, much more than time or war, has achieved the -ruin of the Christian capital. On this ground, the same -calamities which Christianity inflicted on paganism in the -fourth century, she suffered herself at the hands of Islam in -the fifteenth.</p> - -<p>The modern visitor, who approaches Constantinople, is at<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25"> 25</span> -once impressed by the imposing vista of gilded domes and -minarets, which are the chief objective feature of the Ottoman -capital. It is scarcely necessary to say that in the sixth -century the minaret, uniquely characteristic as it is of a -Mohammedan city, would be absent, but the statement must -also be extended to the dome, the most distinctive element -in Byzantine architecture, which at the date of my description -scarcely yet existed even in the conception of the builder.<a id="FNanchor_83" href="#Footnote_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a> -If we draw near from the Sea of Marmora (the Propontis) at -the time of this history, we shall observe, extending by land -and sea from the southernmost point, the same ranges of -lofty walls and towers, now falling into universal ruin, but -then in a state of perfect repair. Within appear numerous -great houses and several tall columns interspersed among a -myriad of small red-roofed dwellings, densely packed; and -here and there the eye is caught by a gleam of gilded tiles -from the roof of a church or a palace. In order to inspect -the defences on the land side, the aspect of the city most -strongly fortified, we must disembark near the south-west -corner of the Xerolophos, the locality now known as the -Seven Towers. Without the city, towards the west, the -ground consists of flowery meadows diversified by fruit-gardens -and by groves of cypress and plane trees.<a id="FNanchor_84" href="#Footnote_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a> Almost -at the water’s edge is an imposing bastion, which from its -circular form is called the Cyclobion.<a id="FNanchor_85" href="#Footnote_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a> Proceeding inland<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26"> 26</span> -we shall not at this date find a road winding over hill and -dale from sea to sea as at the present day.<a id="FNanchor_86" href="#Footnote_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a> Most of the -country is occupied by walled <i>philopatia</i> or pleasaunces in -which landscape gardening has been developed with considerable -art, suburban residences of the Byzantine aristocracy.<a id="FNanchor_87" href="#Footnote_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a> -In a grove about a mile from the shore we come -upon a certain well, which is regarded as sacred and frequented -by sufferers from various diseases on account of the -healing virtue attributed to its waters.<a id="FNanchor_88" href="#Footnote_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a> Northwards the -extramural district abutting on the Golden Horn is called -Blachernae from the chief of a Thracian tribe, which formerly -occupied this quarter.<a id="FNanchor_89" href="#Footnote_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a> Here, contiguous to the wall, -we may notice a small summer palace on two floors, built -of brick with rows of stone-framed, arched windows, now -undergoing restoration and extension by the Emperor Anastasius.<a id="FNanchor_90" href="#Footnote_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_27"> 27</span> -A few paces further on is a Christian chapel -dedicated to the Theotokos or Mother of God, founded by -Pulcheria,<a id="FNanchor_91" href="#Footnote_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a> the pious but imperious sister of Theodosius II, -and finally the maiden wife of the Emperor Marcian. Hard -by is a natural well,<a id="FNanchor_92" href="#Footnote_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a> which from its interesting associations -is now beginning to ripen into sanctity.</p> - -<p>The scheme of fortification consists of three main defences: -(1) a foss, (2) an outer wall with frequent towers, and (3) an -inner wall, similar, but of much greater proportions.</p> - -<p>(1) Since the moat necessarily follows the trend of the -ground as it rises on either side from the beach to the dorsum -of the peninsula, this canal, instead of maintaining a uniform -level, consists of a number of sections divided by cross-walls, -the distances between which are determined by the -exigences of ascent or descent. In its course it outlines the -contour of the walls, which advance on the peninsula from -each end in the form of a bow. The average width of this -foss is about sixty, and its depth about thirty feet. It is -lined on both sides from the bottom with substantial stone -walls, but, whilst that on the outside only reaches the level -of the ground, the wall next the city, with a crenellated top, -rises for several feet,<a id="FNanchor_93" href="#Footnote_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a> so as to convey the impression of a -triple wall of defence. In peace time the water is allowed -to run low, but if an assault is apprehended the trench can -be quickly flooded by means of earthenware pipes concealed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28"> 28</span> -within the partition walls. From these conduits the city -also derives a secret supply of water not likely to be tampered -with by a besieging army.<a id="FNanchor_94" href="#Footnote_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a></p> - -<p>(2) At a distance of about twenty yards from the inner -edge of the moat, rising to a height of nearly thirty feet, -with dentated parapets, stands the lesser wall. Towers of -various shapes, square, round, and octagonal, project from -its external face at intervals of about fifty yards. Each tower -overtops the wall and possesses small front and lateral windows, -which overlook the level tract<a id="FNanchor_95" href="#Footnote_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a> stretching from the -foss. High up in each tower is a floorway having an exit on -the intramural space behind, and they have also steps outside -which lead to the roof. The vacant interval between the -walls is about fifty feet wide, usually called the <i>peribolos</i>.<a id="FNanchor_96" href="#Footnote_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a> It -has been artificially raised to within a few feet of the top of -the wall by pouring into it the earth recovered in excavating -the moat.<a id="FNanchor_97" href="#Footnote_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a> This is the special vantage-ground of the defenders<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29"> 29</span> -of the city during a siege: from hence mainly they -launch their missiles against the enemy or engage them in a -hand-to-hand fight should they succeed in crossing the moat -and planting their scaling-ladders against the wall.<a id="FNanchor_98" href="#Footnote_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a></p> - -<p>(3) Bounding the <i>peribolos</i> posteriorly lies the main land-wall -of Constantinople, the great and indisputable work of -Theodosius II. In architectural configuration it is almost -similar to the outer wall, but its height is much greater, and -its towers, placed so as to alternate with the smaller ones in -front, occupy more than four times as much ground. Built -as separate structures, but adherent to the wall behind, they -rise above it and project forwards into the interspace for -more than half its breadth. Most of the towers are square, -but those of circular or octagonal shape are not infrequent. -In level places offering facilities for attack the wall has a -general height of seventy feet, but in less accessible situations, -on rising or rugged ground, it attains to little more -than half that elevation.<a id="FNanchor_99" href="#Footnote_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a> As in the case of the outer defences, -the wall and towers are crested by an uninterrupted -series of crenellated battlements.</p> - -<p>The towers are entered from the city at the back, and -within each one is a winding stone staircase leading to the -top. Here, sheltered by the parapet, there is room for sixty -or seventy men to assail an enemy with darts or engines of -war. There is also a lower floor from which a further body -of soldiers can act on the offensive by means of front and -side windows or loopholes. At intervals certain of the towers -have an exit on the <i>peribolos</i> for the use of those militants -who have their station on that rampart. In time of peace<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30"> 30</span> -these towers serve as guard-houses, and the sentries are enjoined -to maintain their vigilance by passing the word of -each successive hour from post to post during the night.<a id="FNanchor_100" href="#Footnote_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a> -The usual thickness of this wall is about eight feet, but no -regular rampart has been prepared along the summit, the -defensive value of such an area being superseded by the -<i>peribolos</i>. Hence the top, the width of which is limited to -less than five feet by the encroachment of the parapet, has -no systematic means of access from the ground or from the -towers. Hewn stone, worked in the vicinity, has been used -for the construction of these fortifications,<a id="FNanchor_101" href="#Footnote_101" class="fnanchor">[101]</a> and in some -places close to the city the ground may be seen to have -been quarried into hills and hollows<a id="FNanchor_102" href="#Footnote_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a> for the supply of the -builders.<a id="FNanchor_103" href="#Footnote_103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_31"> 31</span></p> - -<p>At about every half mile of their length these walls are -pierced by main gateways for the passing to and fro of the -inhabitants. In these situations the inner wall is increased -to more than treble its ordinary thickness, and the passage -is flanked by a pair of the greater towers, which here approximate -at much less than their usual distance. The -thoroughfare consists of a deep and lofty archway, which on -occasion can be closed by ponderous doors revolving on -huge iron hinges. Opposite each gate the moat is crossed -by wooden drawbridges easily removable in case of a siege. -The most southerly entrance, being opposite the holy well, -is called the Gate of the Fountain; next comes the Gate of -Rhegium, then that of St. Romanus, fourthly the Charsios -or oblique Gate,<a id="FNanchor_104" href="#Footnote_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a> and lastly the Xylokerkos Gate—that of -the wooden circus. Between the third and fourth gates the -moat is deficient and the walls are tunnelled for the transit -of the streamlet Lycus, which, though almost dry in summer, -swells to a considerable volume in winter. The second and -last portals bear metrical inscriptions, differing verbally, but -each declaring the fact that the Prefect, Cyrus Constantine, -built the wall in two months.<a id="FNanchor_105" href="#Footnote_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a> On the second gate, that of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32"> 32</span> -Rhegium, the circumstance is recorded in a Latin tristich -as well as in a Greek distich.<a id="FNanchor_106" href="#Footnote_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a></p> - -<p>Besides these popular approaches there is another series -of five gates, architecturally similar, but designed only for -military or strategic purposes. About intermediate in position -and in line with neither roads nor bridges, they are closed -to the general public and named merely in numerical succession -from south to north.<a id="FNanchor_107" href="#Footnote_107" class="fnanchor">[107]</a> Just above the third gate, that -is, about half way between the Golden Horn and the Propontis, -the walls dip inwards for a distance of nearly one<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33"> 33</span> -hundred yards, forming a crescent or, as the Greeks call it, -Sigma.<a id="FNanchor_108" href="#Footnote_108" class="fnanchor">[108]</a></p> - -<p>The first strategic gate, first also of the land-wall, being -scarcely a furlong from the Propontis, offers a notable exception -to the constructive plainness of all the other entries. -Intended only as a state entry to the capital for the display -of Imperial pomp, it has been built and adorned with the -object of rendering it the most splendid object in this part -of the city. A pair of massive towers, each one hundred feet -high, advance from a façade of equal altitude, which is -traversed by three arched portals, that in the centre being -elevated to sixty feet. The whole is constructed in white -marble, and this chaste and imposing foundation is made -resplendent by the addition of gilded statues, bas-reliefs, and -mouldings. From a central pedestal above rises a figure of -Victory<a id="FNanchor_109" href="#Footnote_109" class="fnanchor">[109]</a> with flowing draperies, her hand extended offering -a laurel crown. At her feet stands an equestrian statue of -Theodosius the Great,<a id="FNanchor_110" href="#Footnote_110" class="fnanchor">[110]</a> and from the extremity of each tower -springs the two-headed Byzantine eagle.<a id="FNanchor_111" href="#Footnote_111" class="fnanchor">[111]</a> Below, the surfaces -of the monument are ensculptured all round with mythological -designs,<a id="FNanchor_112" href="#Footnote_112" class="fnanchor">[112]</a> among which we may recognize Prometheus -the Fire-giver, Pegasus, Endymion, the labours of Hercules -and many others. Corinthian columns of green-veined -marble<a id="FNanchor_113" href="#Footnote_113" class="fnanchor">[113]</a> bound the main portal, within which is erected a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34"> 34</span> -great cross.<a id="FNanchor_114" href="#Footnote_114" class="fnanchor">[114]</a> In the fore area are placed a pair of marble -elephants, recalling those used by Theodosius in his triumphal -procession after the defeat of Maximus of Gaul; -and behind these his grandson,<a id="FNanchor_115" href="#Footnote_115" class="fnanchor">[115]</a> the builder of the gate, has -raised a column bearing a statue of himself. Profusely -gilded, this elaborate pile is popularly and officially known -as the Golden Gate.<a id="FNanchor_116" href="#Footnote_116" class="fnanchor">[116]</a></p> - -<p>To proceed with our survey we may re-embark on the -Propontis and skirt the promontory by water from end to -end of the land-wall, passing through the mouth of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35"> 35</span> -Bosphorus between Europe and Asia and finishing our circuit -in the upper reaches of the Golden Horn. The single south -wall, rising from the brink of the sea, is similar to that of -Anthemius, and the towers exhibit the same diversity of -form.<a id="FNanchor_117" href="#Footnote_117" class="fnanchor">[117]</a> Courses of rough stones immersed in the water lie -along its base and form a kind of primitive breakwater, which -saves its foundations from being sapped by the waves in -tempestuous weather. These are said to have been quarried -from the tops of the hills during the process of levelling the -ground for the extension of the city, and then, at the suggestion -of Constantine, sent rolling down the slopes until -they became lodged in their present position.<a id="FNanchor_118" href="#Footnote_118" class="fnanchor">[118]</a></p> - -<p>Several gates in this wall give access to the water, but -they possess no architectural distinction. Westerly is the -Porta Psamathia or Sand-gate, so called because an area of -new ground has been formed here by silting up of sand outside -the wall.<a id="FNanchor_119" href="#Footnote_119" class="fnanchor">[119]</a> Near the opposite extremity is the Porta -Ferrea or Iron-gate, thus designated from the unstable beach -having been guarded by rails of iron to enable it to sustain -the ponderous burdens imported by Constantine.<a id="FNanchor_120" href="#Footnote_120" class="fnanchor">[120]</a> Towards -the centre of this shore is situated the Gate of St. Aemilian, -named from its proximity to a church sacred to that martyr.<a id="FNanchor_121" href="#Footnote_121" class="fnanchor">[121]</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_36"> 36</span> -More noticeable in this range of wall are the entrances to -two excavated harbours, each closed by a chain stretching -between a pair of containing towers. The first, at the foot -of the Xerolophos, dates from the time of Constantine, who -called it the Port of Eleutherius<a id="FNanchor_122" href="#Footnote_122" class="fnanchor">[122]</a> after his master of the -works. Remade by Theodosius I, it has since been most -commonly associated with the name of that emperor.<a id="FNanchor_123" href="#Footnote_123" class="fnanchor">[123]</a> Paved -at the bottom and surrounded by a stone quay,<a id="FNanchor_124" href="#Footnote_124" class="fnanchor">[124]</a> it is about -a Roman mile in circuit,<a id="FNanchor_125" href="#Footnote_125" class="fnanchor">[125]</a> and is divided centrally by a dike -into an inner and outer basin.<a id="FNanchor_126" href="#Footnote_126" class="fnanchor">[126]</a> More easterly is another -similar but smaller harbour, having only one basin, designated -Port Julian<a id="FNanchor_127" href="#Footnote_127" class="fnanchor">[127]</a> from its Imperial founder, but it is more often -spoken of as the New Port.<a id="FNanchor_128" href="#Footnote_128" class="fnanchor">[128]</a> Owing, however, to the exceptional -suitability for shipping of the north side of the city, -both these harbours have gradually fallen into disuse and, -becoming choked with sand, have been looked on merely -as fit receptacles for the rubble accumulated in clearing -building sites.<a id="FNanchor_129" href="#Footnote_129" class="fnanchor">[129]</a> But the Port of Julian is soon to be reopened, -for, at the direction of Anastasius, rotatory pumps -have been fixed to empty it of its water and dredging operations -are in progress.<a id="FNanchor_130" href="#Footnote_130" class="fnanchor">[130]</a> To insure its continued patency a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37"> 37</span> -mole is even in course of construction in the Propontis over -against its mouth.<a id="FNanchor_131" href="#Footnote_131" class="fnanchor">[131]</a> Passing the Porta Ferrea, as we begin -to round the headland, a large mansion or palace comes -into view, substituted apparently for the wall in about fifty -feet of its length. Fronted along its base with slabs of -white marble, the edifice presents a lofty stone balcony overhanging -the water,<a id="FNanchor_132" href="#Footnote_132" class="fnanchor">[132]</a> and opening on to it, a central group of -three rectangular windows or doors with jambs and lintels -of sculptured stone. Above, a row of seven nearly semicircular -windows indicates the uppermost floor of the building, -which is known as the palace of the Boukoleon. Contiguous, -to the west, we observe a small but very ornate harbour, -formed on quite a different plan from those previously -seen. Curved piers of masonry, enriched with marbles, extending -from the land, inclose about an acre of water, which -is approached from the city by flights of white marble steps.<a id="FNanchor_133" href="#Footnote_133" class="fnanchor">[133]</a> -On the intervening quay rests a handsome group of statuary -representing a lion and a bull in the agonies of a death -struggle.<a id="FNanchor_134" href="#Footnote_134" class="fnanchor">[134]</a> This is the exclusive port of the Imperial Palace,<a id="FNanchor_135" href="#Footnote_135" class="fnanchor">[135]</a> -an important segment of which adjoins the wall at this point. -Both palace and harbour have taken the name of Boukoleon -from the piece of sculpture which so conspicuously marks the -site.<a id="FNanchor_136" href="#Footnote_136" class="fnanchor">[136]</a> In this vicinity, behind the wall on the city level, is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38"> 38</span> -the palace of the once famous Persian refugee, Prince -Hormisdas.<a id="FNanchor_137" href="#Footnote_137" class="fnanchor">[137]</a></p> - -<p>Farther on is a small entry from the water leading to a -chapel sacred to the Theotokos, surnamed the Conductress, -another foundation of the devout Pulcheria.<a id="FNanchor_138" href="#Footnote_138" class="fnanchor">[138]</a> Here are preserved -a portrait of the Virgin painted by St. Luke, the -swaddling-clothes of Jesus, and other recondite memorials of -Gospel history<a id="FNanchor_139" href="#Footnote_139" class="fnanchor">[139]</a> grafted by imposture on the credulity of the -age. This Conductress,<a id="FNanchor_140" href="#Footnote_140" class="fnanchor">[140]</a> by virtue of a holy fount, is credited -with being able to point out the way for the blind to receive -their sight;<a id="FNanchor_141" href="#Footnote_141" class="fnanchor">[141]</a> and a retreat for the blind, therefore, has been -established on the spot.<a id="FNanchor_142" href="#Footnote_142" class="fnanchor">[142]</a></p> - -<p>As soon as we turn the north-east point, which marks the -beginning of the Golden Horn, we exchange the inhospitable -aspect of a fortified coast for a busy scene of maritime life. -The wall recedes gradually to some distance from the waterline -and forms an inconspicuous background to the impressive -spectacle, which indicates the port of entry of a vast city. In<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39"> 39</span> -the course of over a mile the shore has been fashioned into -wharves from which three sets of stairs of ample width descend -to the water’s edge to facilitate the unloading of vessels. -The first stair, named from its constructor, is that of -Timasius;<a id="FNanchor_143" href="#Footnote_143" class="fnanchor">[143]</a> next comes that of Chalcedon;<a id="FNanchor_144" href="#Footnote_144" class="fnanchor">[144]</a> and lastly the -stairs of Sycae,<a id="FNanchor_145" href="#Footnote_145" class="fnanchor">[145]</a> a region of the city on the opposite side of -the gulf. Alternating with the stairs are placed the entrances -of two excavated harbours: the Prosphorian Port<a id="FNanchor_146" href="#Footnote_146" class="fnanchor">[146]</a> for the -landing of all kinds of imported provisions, and the Neorian -Port, used chiefly as a naval station and for ship-building. -The quays of the latter port, which are distinguished by the -brazen statue of an ox, are also habitually frequented by the -merchants of Constantinople, who make it their principal -Exchange.<a id="FNanchor_147" href="#Footnote_147" class="fnanchor">[147]</a> Similarly the vacant spaces about the Prosphorian -Port are set apart for a cattle market.<a id="FNanchor_148" href="#Footnote_148" class="fnanchor">[148]</a></p> - -<p>The first issue from the city on this side is called the Gate -of Eugenius,<a id="FNanchor_149" href="#Footnote_149" class="fnanchor">[149]</a> and is situated in the retreating portion of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40"> 40</span> -wall. More remarkable is the Tower of Eugenius, called -also the Centenarian Tower,<a id="FNanchor_150" href="#Footnote_150" class="fnanchor">[150]</a> a massive pile closer to the -bank, which corresponds to a similar erection across the -water. These structures are the work of Constantine, who -raised them to serve as the points of attachment of a ponderous -iron chain, which should close the Golden Horn -against the attack of a hostile fleet. So far, however, no -enemy has been encountered so adventurous as to necessitate -the practical application of this means of defence.<a id="FNanchor_151" href="#Footnote_151" class="fnanchor">[151]</a></p> - -<p>Beyond the stairs of Sycae the locality is called the -Zeugma.<a id="FNanchor_152" href="#Footnote_152" class="fnanchor">[152]</a> This tract is reserved for the storage of wood, -which, coal being unknown, is the only fuel available for -cooking, heating of baths, and all other purposes. Immense -quantities have, therefore, to be brought down by sea from -the wild countries bordering on the Euxine<a id="FNanchor_153" href="#Footnote_153" class="fnanchor">[153]</a> and deposited -here for the use of the Constantinopolitans. At this point -we have reached the limits of the wall of Byzantium and -henceforth to the end of the land-wall at Blachernae this side<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41"> 41</span> -of the city lies open to the water. Deeming it improbable -that the town should ever be assaulted from this sequestered -inlet, Constantine and his successors have omitted to fortify -this bank. Originally this shore was indented by a number of -small creeks,<a id="FNanchor_154" href="#Footnote_154" class="fnanchor">[154]</a> but the teeming population, overflowing into -every available space, has now so crowded the strand with -houses that the outer rank, founded on piles, extends beyond -the water’s edge.<a id="FNanchor_155" href="#Footnote_155" class="fnanchor">[155]</a> In the further part of this district the -stream becomes narrower, and from a projecting point a -wooden bridge has been thrown across to the opposite shore.<a id="FNanchor_156" href="#Footnote_156" class="fnanchor">[156]</a> -In its vicinity a brazen dragon commemorates or suggests a -legend of virgins ravished and devoured until the destruction -of the monster by St. Hypatius.<a id="FNanchor_157" href="#Footnote_157" class="fnanchor">[157]</a> A slight expansion of the -Golden Horn at Blachernae is called the Silver Bay.<a id="FNanchor_158" href="#Footnote_158" class="fnanchor">[158]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_42"> 42</span></p> - -<p>Having inspected the outside of Constantinople, it now -remains for us to enter the city and pass in review its principal -streets, buildings, and open spaces, whence we shall be led -to make some acquaintance with the manners and customs -of its inhabitants. From the Gate of Eugenius we can proceed -directly to the most aristocratic quarter, where a majority -of the public buildings are clustered round the Imperial -Palace. Inside we shall find that thoroughfares of three -kinds intersect the city for the purposes of general traffic: -(1) main or business streets; (2) squares or market-places; -and (3) lanes or side-streets for private residents.</p> - -<p>(1) A main street consists of an open paved road, not -more than fifteen feet wide, bounded on each side by a -colonnade or portico. More than fifty of such porticoes are -in existence at this date, so that a pedestrian can traverse -almost the whole city under shelter from sun or rain.<a id="FNanchor_159" href="#Footnote_159" class="fnanchor">[159]</a> Many -of them have an upper floor, approached by wooden or stone -steps, which is used as an <i>ambulacrum</i> or promenade. They -are plentifully adorned with statuary of all kinds, especially -above,<a id="FNanchor_160" href="#Footnote_160" class="fnanchor">[160]</a> and amongst these presentments of the reigning -emperor are not infrequent. The latter may be seen in busts -of brass and marble, in brazen masks, and even in painted -tablets.<a id="FNanchor_161" href="#Footnote_161" class="fnanchor">[161]</a> Such images are consecrated and are sometimes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43"> 43</span> -surreptitiously adored by the populace with religious rites.<a id="FNanchor_162" href="#Footnote_162" class="fnanchor">[162]</a> -They are also endowed with the legal attribute of sanctuary, -and slaves not uncommonly fly to them for refuge as a protest -against ill-treatment by their masters.<a id="FNanchor_163" href="#Footnote_163" class="fnanchor">[163]</a> Portraits of popular -actors, actresses, and charioteers may also be observed, -but they are liable to be torn down if posted close to the -Imperial images or in any position too reputable for their -pretensions.<a id="FNanchor_164" href="#Footnote_164" class="fnanchor">[164]</a> On the inside the porticoes are lined for the -most part by shops and workshops.<a id="FNanchor_165" href="#Footnote_165" class="fnanchor">[165]</a> Opening on to them in -certain positions are public halls or auditoriums, architecturally -decorative and furnished with seats, where meetings can -be held and professors can lecture to classes on various topics.<a id="FNanchor_166" href="#Footnote_166" class="fnanchor">[166]</a> -Between the pillars of the colonnades next the thoroughfare -we find stalls and tables for the sale of all kinds of wares. In -the finer parts of the city such stalls or booths must by law -be ornamentally constructed and encrusted outside with -marbles so as not to mar the beauty of the piazza.<a id="FNanchor_167" href="#Footnote_167" class="fnanchor">[167]</a> At the -tables especially are seated the money-changers or bankers, -who lend money at usury, receive it at interest, and act -generally as the pawnbrokers of the capital.<a id="FNanchor_168" href="#Footnote_168" class="fnanchor">[168]</a> Such pleasant<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44"> 44</span> -arcades have naturally become the habitual resort of -courtezans,<a id="FNanchor_169" href="#Footnote_169" class="fnanchor">[169]</a> and they are recognized as the legitimate place -of shelter for the houseless poor.<a id="FNanchor_170" href="#Footnote_170" class="fnanchor">[170]</a></p> - -<p>(2) The open spaces, to which the Latin name of <i>forum</i> -is applied more often than the Greek word <i>agora</i>, are expansions -of the main streets, and, like them, are surrounded on -all sides by porticoes. They are not, however, very numerous -and about a dozen will comprise all that have been constructed -within the capital. They originate in the necessity -of preserving portions of the ground unoccupied for use as -market-places, but the vacant area is always more or less -decorative and contains one or more monuments of ornament -or utility. Each one is named distinctively either from -the nature of the traffic carried on therein or in honour of -its founder, and most of them will deserve special attention -during our itinerary of the city.</p> - -<p>(3) The greater part of the ground area of Constantinople -is, of course, occupied by residential streets, and these are -usually, according to modern ideas, of quite preposterous -narrowness.<a id="FNanchor_171" href="#Footnote_171" class="fnanchor">[171]</a> Few of them are more than ten feet wide, and -this scanty space is still more contracted above by projecting -floors and balconies. In many places also the public way is -encroached upon by <i>solaria</i> or sun-stages, that is to say by -balconies supported on pillars of wood or marble, and often<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45"> 45</span> -furnished with a flight of stairs leading to the pavement -below. In such alleys low windows, affording a view of the -street, or facile to lean out of,<a id="FNanchor_172" href="#Footnote_172" class="fnanchor">[172]</a> are considered unseemly by -the inmates of opposite houses. Hence mere light-giving -apertures, placed six feet above the flooring, are the regular -means of illumination. Transparent glass is sometimes used -for the closure of windows, but more often we find thin plates -of marble or alabaster with ornamental designs figured on -the translucent substance.<a id="FNanchor_173" href="#Footnote_173" class="fnanchor">[173]</a> Simple wooden shutters, however, -are seen commonly enough in houses of the poorer class.<a id="FNanchor_174" href="#Footnote_174" class="fnanchor">[174]</a></p> - -<p>Impatient to see the immense vacant area which he added -to Byzantium covered with houses Constantine exercised -little or no supervision over private builders; necessary -thoroughfares became more or less blocked, walls of public -edifices were appropriated as buttresses for hastily erected -tenements, and the task of evolving order out of the resulting -chaos was imposed on succeeding rulers.<a id="FNanchor_175" href="#Footnote_175" class="fnanchor">[175]</a> On Constantinople -becoming the seat of empire, as a resident of the period -remarks, “such a multitude of people flocked hither from all<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46"> 46</span> -parts, allured by military or mercantile pursuits, that the -citizens out of doors and even at home are endangered by -the unprecedented crush of men and animals.”<a id="FNanchor_176" href="#Footnote_176" class="fnanchor">[176]</a> In 447 -Zeno, taking advantage of an extensive fire, promulgated a -very stringent building act, contravention of which renders -the offending structure liable to demolition, and inflicts a fine -of ten pounds of gold on the owner. The architect also becomes -liable in a similar amount, and is even subjected to -banishment if unable to pay.<a id="FNanchor_177" href="#Footnote_177" class="fnanchor">[177]</a> By this act, which remains -permanently in force throughout the Empire, the not very -ample width of twelve feet is fixed for private streets, <i>solaria</i> -and balconies must be at least ten feet distant from similar -projections on the opposite side, and not less than fifteen feet -above the pavement; whilst stairs connecting them directly -with the thoroughfare are entirely abolished. Prospective -windows also are forbidden in streets narrower than the -statutory allowance of twelve feet. These enactments, however, -too restricted in their practical application, have done -but little to relieve the congested thoroughfares. Thus, long -afterwards, another resident complains that every spot of -ground is occupied by contiguous dwellings to such an extent -that “scarcely can an open space be discovered, which -affords a clear view of the sky without raising the eyes -aloft.”<a id="FNanchor_178" href="#Footnote_178" class="fnanchor">[178]</a></p> - -<p>These by-streets, of which there are more than four hundred<a id="FNanchor_179" href="#Footnote_179" class="fnanchor">[179]</a> -in the capital, consist chiefly of houses suitable for -single families of the middle or lower classes. There are also, -however, a large number of dwellings for collective habitation, -which cover a greater area and rise by successive stories<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47"> 47</span> -to an unusual height; but by law they are not allowed to -exceed an altitude of one hundred feet.<a id="FNanchor_180" href="#Footnote_180" class="fnanchor">[180]</a> When one side of -such buildings is situated next a portico the adjacent part of -the ground floor is usually fitted up as a range of shops.<a id="FNanchor_181" href="#Footnote_181" class="fnanchor">[181]</a></p> - -<p>Besides the ordinary domiciles, which constitute the bulk -of the city, there are the mansions or palaces of the wealthy, -situated in various choice and open positions throughout the -town. Such residences are generally two-storied, and have -ornamental façades on which sculptured pillars both above -and below are conspicuous. The windows, arched or rectangular, -are divided by a central pilaster, and the roof, usually -slanting, is covered with wood or thin slabs of stone. Within, -a lofty hall is supported on tall columns surmounted by -gilded capitals, and the walls are inlaid with polished marbles -of various colours and textures. Throughout the house the -principal apartments are similarly decorated, and even bedrooms -are not destitute of the columnar adornments so dear -to luxurious Byzantines. Ceilings are almost invariably -fretted and liberally gilt. In houses of this class a central -court, contained by a colonnade, giving air and light to the -whole building, is considered a necessity. Much wealth is -often expended in order to give this space the appearance of -a landscape in miniature. Trees wave, fountains play, and -artificial streams roll over counterfeited cliffs into pools -stocked with tame fish.<a id="FNanchor_182" href="#Footnote_182" class="fnanchor">[182]</a></p> - -<p>Within the gate of Eugenius we are on the northern<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48"> 48</span> -slopes of the first hill, whereon was placed the citadel of -Byzantium. Rounding it to the east we soon approach a -tall Corinthian column of white marble, bearing on its summit -a statue of Byzas,<a id="FNanchor_183" href="#Footnote_183" class="fnanchor">[183]</a> a memorial of the victories by land -and sea of Venerianus or other Byzantine generals over the -marauding Goths about 266.<a id="FNanchor_184" href="#Footnote_184" class="fnanchor">[184]</a> “Fortune has returned to the -city,” so runs the inscription on the base, “since the Goths -have been overcome.”<a id="FNanchor_185" href="#Footnote_185" class="fnanchor">[185]</a> But these events have now passed -into oblivion, and the vicinity is given up to low taverns, -whilst in the popular mind the monument is associated with -the more signal exploits of Pompey the Great in his Mithridatic -wars.<a id="FNanchor_186" href="#Footnote_186" class="fnanchor">[186]</a> To the south of this pillar, and close to the -eastern wall, is situated the Imperial arsenal or Manganon, -founded by Constantine, a repertory of weapons of all -descriptions, and of machines used in the attack and defence -of fortifications.<a id="FNanchor_187" href="#Footnote_187" class="fnanchor">[187]</a> It contains, besides, a military library.<a id="FNanchor_188" href="#Footnote_188" class="fnanchor">[188]</a></p> - -<p>Passing the Cynegium, a deserted amphitheatre of pre<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49"> 49</span>-Constantinian -date,<a id="FNanchor_189" href="#Footnote_189" class="fnanchor">[189]</a> and a small theatre, we may make the -circuit of the first hill on the south side and enter the chief -square of the city. This area, the ancient market-place of -Byzantium,<a id="FNanchor_190" href="#Footnote_190" class="fnanchor">[190]</a> is called the Augusteum,<a id="FNanchor_191" href="#Footnote_191" class="fnanchor">[191]</a> that is the Imperial -Forum; and it forms a court to those edifices which are -particularly frequented by the Emperor. Around it are -situated his Palace, his church, his Senate-House, and a -vast Circus or Hippodrome, where the populace and their -ruler are accustomed to meet face to face. Almost all the -public buildings at this date, which aspire to architectural -beauty, are constructed more or less exactly after the model -of the classical Greek temple; that is, they are oblong, and -have at each end a pediment corresponding to the extremities -of a slanting roof. The eaves, projecting widely and -supported on pillars, form a portico round the body of the -building, which, in the most decorative examples, is excavated -externally by a series of niches for the reception of -statues.<a id="FNanchor_192" href="#Footnote_192" class="fnanchor">[192]</a> The vestibule of the Palace, which opens on the -southern portico of the Augusteum, is a handsome pillared -hall named Chalke, or the Brazen House, from being roofed -with tiles of gilded brass.<a id="FNanchor_193" href="#Footnote_193" class="fnanchor">[193]</a> An image of Christ, devoutly -placed over the brazen gates which close the entrance, dates -back to Constantine,<a id="FNanchor_194" href="#Footnote_194" class="fnanchor">[194]</a> but the remainder of the building has<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50"> 50</span> -lately been restored by Anastasius.<a id="FNanchor_195" href="#Footnote_195" class="fnanchor">[195]</a> This vestibule leads to -several spacious chambers or courts which are rather of an -official than of a residential character. Amongst these most -room is given to the quarters of the Imperial guards, which -are divided into four companies called Scholars, Excubitors, -Protectors, and Candidates respectively.<a id="FNanchor_196" href="#Footnote_196" class="fnanchor">[196]</a> The latter are -distinguished by wearing white robes when in personal -attendance on the Emperor.<a id="FNanchor_197" href="#Footnote_197" class="fnanchor">[197]</a> Here also we find a state -prison, the Noumera, a great banqueting hall, the Triclinium -of Nineteen Couches, and a Consistorium or Throne-room.<a id="FNanchor_198" href="#Footnote_198" class="fnanchor">[198]</a> -Three porphyry steps at one end of this apartment lead to -the throne itself, which consists of an elaborately carved -chair adorned with ivory, jewels, and precious metals. It is -placed beneath a silver <i>ciborium</i>, that is, a small dome raised -on four pillars just sufficiently elevated to permit of the -occupant standing upright. The whole is ornamentally -moulded, a pair of silver eagles spread their wings on the -top of the dome, and the interior can be shut in by drawing -rich curtains hung between the columns.<a id="FNanchor_199" href="#Footnote_199" class="fnanchor">[199]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_51"> 51</span></p> - -<p>Beyond Chalke, the term includes its dependencies, we -enter a court, colonnaded as usual, which leads on the -right to a small church dedicated to St. Stephen,<a id="FNanchor_200" href="#Footnote_200" class="fnanchor">[200]</a> the upper -galleries of which overlook the Hippodrome. On the left, -that is on the east of this court, is an octagonal hall, the first -chamber in a more secluded section of the palace called -Daphne.<a id="FNanchor_201" href="#Footnote_201" class="fnanchor">[201]</a> It derives its name from a notable statue of -Daphne, so well known in Greek fable as the maiden who -withstood Apollo.<a id="FNanchor_202" href="#Footnote_202" class="fnanchor">[202]</a> On the domed roof of this second -vestibule stands a figure, representing the Fortune of the -City, erected by Constantine.<a id="FNanchor_203" href="#Footnote_203" class="fnanchor">[203]</a> The palace of Daphne -contains the private reception rooms of the Emperor and -Empress, whose chief personal attendants are a band of -nobles entitled Silentiaries. The duty of these officers,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52"> 52</span> -amongst whom Anastasius was included before his elevation -to the purple,<a id="FNanchor_204" href="#Footnote_204" class="fnanchor">[204]</a> is to keep order in the Imperial chambers.<a id="FNanchor_205" href="#Footnote_205" class="fnanchor">[205]</a> -The terraces and balconies of Daphne, which face the west, -overlook the Hippodrome. Adjoining the Palace on the -south is an area fitted up as a private circus, which is used -by members of the Court for equestrian exercises.<a id="FNanchor_206" href="#Footnote_206" class="fnanchor">[206]</a></p> - -<p>Passing through Daphne to the east we enter a further -court, and find ourselves opposite a third vestibule which, -being of a semi-elliptical form, is called the Sigma of the -Palace.<a id="FNanchor_207" href="#Footnote_207" class="fnanchor">[207]</a> The division of the Imperial residence to which -this hall introduces us is specially the Sacred or “God-guarded” -Palace, because it contains the “sacred cubicle” -or sleeping apartment of the Emperor.<a id="FNanchor_208" href="#Footnote_208" class="fnanchor">[208]</a> In this quarter a -numerous band of cubicularies or eunuchs of the bed-chamber -have their principal station, controlled by the -Praepositus of the sacred cubicle.<a id="FNanchor_209" href="#Footnote_209" class="fnanchor">[209]</a> Here also are a crowd<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53"> 53</span> -of vestiaries or dressers who are occupied with the royal -apparel, including females of various grades with similar -titles for the service of the Empress. At the eastern limit of -the Palace stands the Pharos, a beacon tower afterwards, if -not now, the first of a series throughout Asia Minor by -which signals were flashed to and from the capital.<a id="FNanchor_210" href="#Footnote_210" class="fnanchor">[210]</a> The -Tzykanisterion,<a id="FNanchor_211" href="#Footnote_211" class="fnanchor">[211]</a> Imperial Gardens, large enough to be called -a park, occupies a great part of the south-eastern corner of -the peninsula.<a id="FNanchor_212" href="#Footnote_212" class="fnanchor">[212]</a> It is surrounded, or rather fortified, by substantial -walls which join the sea walls of the city on the east -and south.<a id="FNanchor_213" href="#Footnote_213" class="fnanchor">[213]</a> The western section, which terminates on the -south near the palace of Hormisdas and Port Julian, is -surmounted by a covered terrace named the Gallery of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54"> 54</span> -Marcian,<a id="FNanchor_214" href="#Footnote_214" class="fnanchor">[214]</a> the emperor who caused it to be constructed. A -detached edifice within this inclosure, close to the Bucoleon -Port, possesses considerable historical interest. It is called -the Porphyry Palace, and Constantine is said to have enjoined -on his successors that each empress at her lying-in -should occupy a chamber in this building.<a id="FNanchor_215" href="#Footnote_215" class="fnanchor">[215]</a> Hence the -royal children are distinguished by the epithet of Porphyrogeniti -or “born in the purple.” The edifice is square, and -the roof rises to a point like a pyramid. The walls and -floors are covered with a rare species of speckled purple -marble imported from Rome.<a id="FNanchor_216" href="#Footnote_216" class="fnanchor">[216]</a> Hence its name. All parts -of the Imperial palace are profusely adorned with statues, -some mythological, others historical, representing rulers of -the Empire, their families, or prominent statesmen and -generals. Chapels or oratories dedicated to various saints -are attached to every important section of the building.<a id="FNanchor_217" href="#Footnote_217" class="fnanchor">[217]</a></p> - -<p>The north side of the Augusteum, opposite the vestibule<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55"> 55</span> -of Chalke, is occupied by an oblong edifice with an arched -wooden roof,<a id="FNanchor_218" href="#Footnote_218" class="fnanchor">[218]</a> the basilica of St. Sophia,<a id="FNanchor_219" href="#Footnote_219" class="fnanchor">[219]</a> commonly -called the Great Church. The entrance faces the east,<a id="FNanchor_220" href="#Footnote_220" class="fnanchor">[220]</a> and -leads from a cloistered forecourt to a narrow hall, named -the <i>narthex</i>, which extends across the whole width of the -church. The interior consists of a wide nave separated from -lateral aisles by rows of Corinthian columns, which support -a gallery on each side. At the end of the nave stands the -pulpit or <i>ambo</i>,<a id="FNanchor_221" href="#Footnote_221" class="fnanchor">[221]</a> approached by a double flight of steps, one -on each side. Behind the <i>ambo</i> the body of the church is -divided from the <i>Bema</i> or chancel by a lofty carved screen, -decorated with figures of sacred personages, called later the -<i>Iconostasis</i> or image-stand. Three doors in the <i>Iconostasis</i> -lead to the <i>Bema</i>, which contains the altar,<a id="FNanchor_222" href="#Footnote_222" class="fnanchor">[222]</a> a table of costly -construction enriched with gold and gems, and covered by -a large and handsome <i>ciborium</i>. The edifice is terminated -by an apse furnished with an elevated seat, which forms the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56"> 56</span> -throne of the Patriarch or Archbishop of Constantinople.<a id="FNanchor_223" href="#Footnote_223" class="fnanchor">[223]</a> -Light enters through mullioned windows glazed with plates -of translucent marble. Every available space in the church -is adorned with statues to the number of several hundreds, -the majority of them representing pagan divinities and personifications -of the celestial signs. Among them is a nearly -complete series of the Roman emperors, whilst Helena, the -mother of Constantine, appears thrice over in different -materials, porphyry, silver, and ivory.<a id="FNanchor_224" href="#Footnote_224" class="fnanchor">[224]</a> Close to St. Sophia -on the north is the church of St. Irene, one of the earliest -buildings erected for Christian worship by Constantine. It -is usually called the Old Church.<a id="FNanchor_225" href="#Footnote_225" class="fnanchor">[225]</a> Between these two sacred -piles stands a charitable foundation, Sampson’s Hospital, -practically a refuge for incurables reduced by disease to a -state of destitution.<a id="FNanchor_226" href="#Footnote_226" class="fnanchor">[226]</a> Yet a third place of worship in this -locality to the north-west of the Great Church may be mentioned, -Our Lady (Theotokos) of the Brassworkers, built in -a tract previously devoted to Jewish artisans of that class.<a id="FNanchor_227" href="#Footnote_227" class="fnanchor">[227]</a></p> - -<p>On the east side of the Augusteum are situated two -important public buildings, viz., the Senate-house, and, to -the south of it, a palatial hall, the grand triclinium of -Magnaura.<a id="FNanchor_228" href="#Footnote_228" class="fnanchor">[228]</a> The latter stands back some distance from the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57"> 57</span> -square in an open space planted with trees,<a id="FNanchor_229" href="#Footnote_229" class="fnanchor">[229]</a> and consists of -a pillared façade, from whence we pass into a vast chamber -supported on marble columns. It is the largest of the State -reception rooms, and is the established rendezvous of -Imperial pageantry whenever it is desirable to overawe the -mind of foreign ambassadors.<a id="FNanchor_230" href="#Footnote_230" class="fnanchor">[230]</a></p> - -<p>Next to Chalke on the west is placed the handsomest public -bath in the city, that of Zeuxippus, the most ambitious work -of Severus during his efforts at restoration.<a id="FNanchor_231" href="#Footnote_231" class="fnanchor">[231]</a> It is compassed -by ample colonnades which are conjoined with those of the -Palace,<a id="FNanchor_232" href="#Footnote_232" class="fnanchor">[232]</a> and are especially notable for their wealth of -statuary in bronze and marble, dating from the best period -of Grecian art. Within and without, in the palatial halls and -chambers encrusted with marble and mosaic work, and in the -niches of the porticoes, are to be found almost all the gods -and goddesses, the poets, politicians, and philosophers of -Greece and Rome, as celebrated by the Coptic poet Christodorus -in a century of epigrams.<a id="FNanchor_233" href="#Footnote_233" class="fnanchor">[233]</a> Amongst these a draped -full-length figure of Homer is particularly admired: with his -arms crossed upon his breast, his hair and beard unkempt, -his brows bent in deep thought, his eyes fixed and expressionless -in token of blindness, the bard is represented as he -lived, absorbed in the creation of some sublime epic.<a id="FNanchor_234" href="#Footnote_234" class="fnanchor">[234]</a> The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58"> 58</span> -bath, or institution,<a id="FNanchor_235" href="#Footnote_235" class="fnanchor">[235]</a> as it may properly be called, is brilliantly -illuminated during the dark hours of night and morning on -an improved system devised by the Praefect Cyrus Constantine.<a id="FNanchor_236" href="#Footnote_236" class="fnanchor">[236]</a></p> - -<p>On the west side of the Augusteum the ground is chiefly -taken up by a large covered bazaar, in which dress fabrics of -the most expensive kind, silks, and cloth of gold, are warehoused -for sale to the Byzantine aristocracy. It is known as -the House of Lamps, on account of the multitude of lights -which are here ignited for the display of the goods after -nightfall.<a id="FNanchor_237" href="#Footnote_237" class="fnanchor">[237]</a> Close by is the Octagon, an edifice bordered by -eight porticoes. It contains a library and a lecture theatre, -and is the meeting-place of a faculty of erudite monks, who -constitute a species of privy council frequently consulted by -the Emperor.<a id="FNanchor_238" href="#Footnote_238" class="fnanchor">[238]</a> Preferment to the highest ecclesiastical -dignities is the recognized destiny of its members. In the -same vicinity is a basilica named the Royal Porch, wherein -is preserved a library founded by the Emperor Julian.<a id="FNanchor_239" href="#Footnote_239" class="fnanchor">[239]</a> Here -principally judicial causes are heard, and its colonnades have -become the habitual resort of advocates, who for the -greater part of each day frequent the place in expectation of, -or consulting with, clients.<a id="FNanchor_240" href="#Footnote_240" class="fnanchor">[240]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_59"> 59</span></p> - -<p>In the open area of the Augusteum we may notice several -important monuments. South of St. Sophia are two silver -statues raised on pedestals, one on the west representing the -great Theodosius,<a id="FNanchor_241" href="#Footnote_241" class="fnanchor">[241]</a> and another on the east opposite the -Senate-house, a female figure in a trailing robe, the Empress -Eudoxia, wife of Arcadius. This is the famous statue round -which the populace used to dance and sing so as to disturb -the church service in the time of Chrysostom, whose invectives -against the custom were deemed an insult by the -Court, and made the occasion of his deposition and banishment.<a id="FNanchor_242" href="#Footnote_242" class="fnanchor">[242]</a> -Adjoining is a third statue, that of Leo Macella, -elevated by means of a succession of steps, whereon popular -suitors for Imperial justice are wont to deposit their petitions. -These are regularly collected and submitted to the Emperor -for his decision, whence the monument is called the Pittakia -or petition-stone.<a id="FNanchor_243" href="#Footnote_243" class="fnanchor">[243]</a> Near the same spot is a fountain known -as the Geranium.<a id="FNanchor_244" href="#Footnote_244" class="fnanchor">[244]</a> The most important structure, however, -is the Golden Milestone or Milion,<a id="FNanchor_245" href="#Footnote_245" class="fnanchor">[245]</a> situated in the south-west -corner of the square. This is merely a gilded column -to mark the starting-point of the official measurement of -distances, which are registered systematically on mile-stones<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60"> 60</span> -fixed along all the main roads of the Empire. But, in order -to signalize its position, a grand triumphal arch, quadrilateral, -with equal sides, and four entries, has been erected above it. -The arch is surmounted by figures of Constantine and his -mother holding a great cross between them. This group is -of such magnitude that it is not dwarfed by equestrian statues -of Trajan and Hadrian, which are placed behind it.<a id="FNanchor_246" href="#Footnote_246" class="fnanchor">[246]</a> Beneath -the arch a flying group, representing the chariot of the Sun, -drawn by four flame-coloured horses, is elevated upon two -lofty pillars.<a id="FNanchor_247" href="#Footnote_247" class="fnanchor">[247]</a></p> - -<p>The Hippodrome or Circus commences near the Milion, -whence it stretches southwards towards the sea and terminates -in the vicinity of the Sigma of Julian,<a id="FNanchor_248" href="#Footnote_248" class="fnanchor">[248]</a> a crescentic portico -verging on the harbour of that name. It is an artificially -constructed racecourse having an external length of about a -quarter of a mile, and a breadth of nearly half that distance. -This elongated space, straight on the north and round at the -opposite end, is contained within a corniced wall decorated -outside with engaged Corinthian columns, thirty feet in -height.<a id="FNanchor_249" href="#Footnote_249" class="fnanchor">[249]</a> Owing to the declivity of the ground as it sinks -towards the shore, the circular portion of the architectural<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61"> 61</span> -boundary is supported on arcades which gradually diminish -in altitude on each side as they approach the centre of the -inclosure.<a id="FNanchor_250" href="#Footnote_250" class="fnanchor">[250]</a> Interiorly, except at the straight end, a sloping -series of marble benches<a id="FNanchor_251" href="#Footnote_251" class="fnanchor">[251]</a> runs continuously round the arena, -the level of which is maintained in the <i>sphendone</i> or rounded -part by the vaulted substructions based on the incline of the -hill.<a id="FNanchor_252" href="#Footnote_252" class="fnanchor">[252]</a> The northern extremity is flanked by a pair of towers, -between which, on the ground level, lies the Manganon,<a id="FNanchor_253" href="#Footnote_253" class="fnanchor">[253]</a> -offices for the accommodation of horses, chariots, and charioteers. -Above the Manganon is placed the Kathisma,<a id="FNanchor_254" href="#Footnote_254" class="fnanchor">[254]</a> the -name given to the seat occupied in state by the Emperor,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62"> 62</span> -when viewing the races. It is situated in a covered balcony -or lodge fronted by a low balustrade, and is surrounded by -an ample space for the reception of guards and attendant -courtiers. In advance of the Kathisma, but on a lower level, -is a square platform sustained by marble columns called the -Stama, which is the station of a company of Imperial guards -with standard-bearers.<a id="FNanchor_255" href="#Footnote_255" class="fnanchor">[255]</a> Behind the Kathisma is a suite of -retiring rooms, from whence a winding staircase<a id="FNanchor_256" href="#Footnote_256" class="fnanchor">[256]</a> leads, by -the gallery of St. Stephen’s chapel, to the colonnades of -Daphne. This is the royal route to the Circus.<a id="FNanchor_257" href="#Footnote_257" class="fnanchor">[257]</a> The whole -of the edifice superimposed on the Manganon is named the -Palace of the Kathisma or of the Hippodrome.<a id="FNanchor_258" href="#Footnote_258" class="fnanchor">[258]</a> A narrow -terrace constructed in masonry, about three feet high, extends -along the centre of the arena equidistant from all parts of the -peripheral boundary. This Spine, as it was called in the old -Roman nomenclature, but now renamed the Euripus,<a id="FNanchor_259" href="#Footnote_259" class="fnanchor">[259]</a> serves<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63"> 63</span> -to divide the track of departure from that of return. It is -adorned from end to end with a range of monuments of great -diversity. In the middle stands an Egyptian obelisk, inscribed -with the usual hieroglyphs, resting on four balls sustained in -turn by a square pedestal. An inscription at the bottom of -the pedestal, illustrated by diagrams, exhibits the engineering -methods adopted under the great Theodosius for the erection -of the monolith on its present site; higher up elaborate -sculptures show the Emperor in his seat presiding at the -games.<a id="FNanchor_260" href="#Footnote_260" class="fnanchor">[260]</a> Farther to the south is a still loftier column of the -same shape, covered with brass plates, called the Colossus.<a id="FNanchor_261" href="#Footnote_261" class="fnanchor">[261]</a> -Intermediately is the brazen pillar, ravished from the temple -of Delphi, composed of the twisted bodies of three serpents, -whose heads formerly supported the golden tripod dedicated -to Apollo by the Grecian states in memory of the defeat of -the Persians at Plateia.<a id="FNanchor_262" href="#Footnote_262" class="fnanchor">[262]</a> The names of the subscribing communities<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64"> 64</span> -can still be read engraved on the folds of the snakes. -Adjacent is a lofty pillar bearing the figure of a nymph with -flowing robes, who holds forth a mail-clad knight mounted on -horseback with one hand.<a id="FNanchor_263" href="#Footnote_263" class="fnanchor">[263]</a> Near the south end is a fountain -or bath with a central statue, known as the Phial of the -Hippodrome.<a id="FNanchor_264" href="#Footnote_264" class="fnanchor">[264]</a> Contiguous is an aedicule raised on four -pillars, in which is displayed the laurelled bust of the reigning -Emperor.<a id="FNanchor_265" href="#Footnote_265" class="fnanchor">[265]</a> Above the obelisk, on a column, is a celebrated -statue of Hercules Trihesperus by Lysippus; the hero of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65"> 65</span> -colossal size, in a downcast mood seated on his lion’s hide.<a id="FNanchor_266" href="#Footnote_266" class="fnanchor">[266]</a> -There are also several pyramids in various positions along -the Spine as well as numerous figures of famous charioteers -interspersed among the other ornaments.<a id="FNanchor_267" href="#Footnote_267" class="fnanchor">[267]</a> To these are to be -added the necessary furniture of the Spine of a Roman Circus, -viz., the narrow stages raised on a pair of pillars at each end, -the one supporting seven ovoid bodies, by the removal or replacing -of which the spectators at both extremities are enabled -to see how many laps of the course have been travelled -over by the chariots; the other, seven dolphins,<a id="FNanchor_268" href="#Footnote_268" class="fnanchor">[268]</a> ornamental -waterspouts through which water is pumped into the Phial -beneath.<a id="FNanchor_269" href="#Footnote_269" class="fnanchor">[269]</a> At each end of the Euripus are the usual triple -cones,<a id="FNanchor_270" href="#Footnote_270" class="fnanchor">[270]</a> figured with various devices, the “goals” designed to -make the turning-points of the arena conspicuous. Over the -Manganon, on each side external to the Kathisma, are a pair -of gilded horses removed by Theodosius II from the Isle of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66"> 66</span> -Chios.<a id="FNanchor_271" href="#Footnote_271" class="fnanchor">[271]</a> The Podium, or lower boundary of the marble benches, -is elevated about twelve feet above the floor of the arena by -a columnar wall;<a id="FNanchor_272" href="#Footnote_272" class="fnanchor">[272]</a> at the upper limit of these seats a level -terrace or promenade is carried completely round the Circus. -This walk is crowded with statues in brass and stone, many -of them inscribed with their place of origin, from whence -they have been carried off.<a id="FNanchor_273" href="#Footnote_273" class="fnanchor">[273]</a> A number of them are deserving -of special mention: a bronze eagle with expanded pinions -rending a viper with its talons, and engraved with mystic -symbols beneath the wings, said to have been erected by the -arch-charlatan or illusionist, Apollonius Tyaneus, as a charm -against the serpents which infested Byzantium;<a id="FNanchor_274" href="#Footnote_274" class="fnanchor">[274]</a> a group representing -the semi-piscine Scylla devouring the companions -of Ulysses, who had been engulfed by Charybdis;<a id="FNanchor_275" href="#Footnote_275" class="fnanchor">[275]</a> the figure -of a eunuch named Plato, formerly a Grand Chamberlain, -removed from a church notwithstanding a prohibition cut on -the breast: “May he who moves me be strangled”;<a id="FNanchor_276" href="#Footnote_276" class="fnanchor">[276]</a> a man -driving an ass, set up by Augustus at Actium in memory of -his having met, the night before that battle, a wayfarer thus -engaged, who, on being questioned, replied, “I am named -Victor, my ass is Victoria, and I am going to Caesar’s camp;”<a id="FNanchor_277" href="#Footnote_277" class="fnanchor">[277]</a> -the infants Romulus and Remus with their foster-mother<span class="pagenum" id="Page_67"> 67</span> -the wolf;<a id="FNanchor_278" href="#Footnote_278" class="fnanchor">[278]</a> a Helen of the rarest beauty, her charms enhanced -by the most captivating dress and ornaments; a factitious -basilisk crushing an asp between its teeth; a hippopotamus, -a man grappling with a lion, several sphinxes,<a id="FNanchor_279" href="#Footnote_279" class="fnanchor">[279]</a> a well-known -hunchback in a comic attitude,<a id="FNanchor_280" href="#Footnote_280" class="fnanchor">[280]</a> statues of emperors on foot -and on horseback, and various subjects from pagan mythology, -the whole representing the spoliation of more than a score of -cities looted in time of peace at the caprice of a despot.<a id="FNanchor_281" href="#Footnote_281" class="fnanchor">[281]</a> -Four handsome arched gateways, two on each side, with containing -towers,<a id="FNanchor_282" href="#Footnote_282" class="fnanchor">[282]</a> give the public access to the interior of the -Hippodrome.<a id="FNanchor_283" href="#Footnote_283" class="fnanchor">[283]</a> That on the south-east is named the Gate of -the Dead,<a id="FNanchor_284" href="#Footnote_284" class="fnanchor">[284]</a> a term which originated at the time when a special -entry was reserved for removing the bodies of those slain in -the fatal, but now obsolete, combats of gladiators. The -Sphendone, however, is now frequently used for the execution -of offenders of rank, not always criminal, and this portal has -still, therefore, some practical right to its name.<a id="FNanchor_285" href="#Footnote_285" class="fnanchor">[285]</a> When necessary, -the Circus can be covered with an awning as a protection -against the sun or bad weather.<a id="FNanchor_286" href="#Footnote_286" class="fnanchor">[286]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_68"> 68</span></p> - -<p>From the western arch of the Milion we enter the Mese, -that is, the Middle, Main, or High Street of the city, which -traverses the whole town from east to west with a southerly -inclination between the Augusteum and the Golden Gate. -It is bounded in almost all of its course by porticoes said to -have been constructed by Eubulus, one of the wealthy Romans -who were induced to migrate by Constantine. The -same patrician gifted the city with two other colonnades -which extend for a considerable distance along the eastern -portion of the north and south shores.<a id="FNanchor_287" href="#Footnote_287" class="fnanchor">[287]</a> The Mese proceeds -at first between the north of the Hippodrome and the Judicial -or Royal Basilica with the adjacent buildings already mentioned. -Contiguous to the Royal Porch is a life-size statue -of an elephant with his keeper, erected by Severus to commemorate -the fact that the animal had killed a money-changer, -who was afterwards proved dishonest, to avenge the death -of his master.<a id="FNanchor_288" href="#Footnote_288" class="fnanchor">[288]</a> Near the western flank of the Circus is the -Palace of Lausus, said to be one of those reared by Constantine -to allure some of the Roman magnates to reside -permanently in his new capital.<a id="FNanchor_289" href="#Footnote_289" class="fnanchor">[289]</a> Subsequently, however, it -was transformed into an inn for the public entertainment of -strangers.<a id="FNanchor_290" href="#Footnote_290" class="fnanchor">[290]</a> In its vestibule and galleries were collected many -gems of Grecian statuary, but most of these have been destroyed -by the great fire which raged in this quarter under -Zeno.<a id="FNanchor_291" href="#Footnote_291" class="fnanchor">[291]</a> Amongst them were the celebrated Venus of Cnidos -in white marble, a nude work of Praxiteles;<a id="FNanchor_292" href="#Footnote_292" class="fnanchor">[292]</a> the Lindian -Athene in smaragdite; the Samian Hera of Lysippus; a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69"> 69</span> -chryselephantine, or ivory and gold statue of Zeus by Phidias, -which Pericles placed in the temple at Olympia;<a id="FNanchor_293" href="#Footnote_293" class="fnanchor">[293]</a> an allegorical -figure of Time by Lysippus, having hair on the frontal -part of the head, but with the back bald; and also many figures -of animals, including a cameleopard.<a id="FNanchor_294" href="#Footnote_294" class="fnanchor">[294]</a></p> - -<p>Proceeding onwards for about a quarter of a mile we pass -on our right the Argyropratia, that is, the abode of the silversmiths,<a id="FNanchor_295" href="#Footnote_295" class="fnanchor">[295]</a> -and arrive at the Forum of Constantine, which -presents itself as an expansion of the Mese. This open space, -the most signal ornament of Constantinople, is called prescriptively -the Forum; and sometimes, from its finished -marble floor, “The Pavement.” Two lofty arches of white -Proconnesian marble, opposed to each other from east to -west, are connected by curvilinear porticoes so as to inclose -a circular area.<a id="FNanchor_296" href="#Footnote_296" class="fnanchor">[296]</a> From its centre rises a tall porphyry column -bound at intervals with brazen laurel wreaths. This pillar is -surmounted by a figure of Constantine with the attributes -of the Sun-god, his head resplendent with a halo of gilded -rays.<a id="FNanchor_297" href="#Footnote_297" class="fnanchor">[297]</a> The mystic Trojan Palladium, furtively abstracted -from Rome, is buried beneath the monument, on the base -of which an inscription piously invokes Christ to become the -guardian of the city.<a id="FNanchor_298" href="#Footnote_298" class="fnanchor">[298]</a> The sculptural decorations of this<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70"> 70</span> -Forum are very numerous: the Fortune of the City, called -Anthusa, was originally set up here, and adored with bloodless -sacrifices;<a id="FNanchor_299" href="#Footnote_299" class="fnanchor">[299]</a> a pair of great crosses inscribed with words -of the Creed and Doxology are erected on opposite sides; -Constantine with his mother Helena, and a pair of winged -angels form a group about the one, whilst the sons of the -same emperor surround the other.<a id="FNanchor_300" href="#Footnote_300" class="fnanchor">[300]</a> Here also may be seen -Athene, her neck encircled by snakes emanating from the -Gorgon’s head fixed in her aegis; Amphitrite distinguished -by a crown of crab’s claws; a dozen statues of porphyry ranged -in one portico, and an equal number of gilded sirens or sea-horses -in the other; and lastly the bronze gates bestowed by -Trajan on the temple of Diana at Ephesus, embossed with a -series of subjects illustrating the theogonies of Greece and -Rome. These latter adorn the entrance to the original -Senate-house which is situated on the south side of the Forum.<a id="FNanchor_301" href="#Footnote_301" class="fnanchor">[301]</a></p> - -<p>If we diverge from the Mese slightly to the north-east -of the Pavement, we shall enter a large square named the -Strategium, from its forming a parade-ground to the barracks -of the Palatine troops.<a id="FNanchor_302" href="#Footnote_302" class="fnanchor">[302]</a> Amongst several monuments a -Theban obelisk conspicuously occupies the middle place,<a id="FNanchor_303" href="#Footnote_303" class="fnanchor">[303]</a> -but the most striking object is an equestrian figure of Constantine<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71"> 71</span> -with the pillar alongside it by which Constantinople -is officially declared to be a second Rome.<a id="FNanchor_304" href="#Footnote_304" class="fnanchor">[304]</a> This locality -is associated in historic tradition with Alexander the -Great, of whom it contains a commemorative statue.<a id="FNanchor_305" href="#Footnote_305" class="fnanchor">[305]</a> From -hence he is said to have started on his expedition against -Darius after holding a final review of his forces. On this -account it was chosen by Severus as a permanent site for -military quarters.<a id="FNanchor_306" href="#Footnote_306" class="fnanchor">[306]</a> The public prison is also located in this -square.<a id="FNanchor_307" href="#Footnote_307" class="fnanchor">[307]</a></p> - -<p>Continuing our way beneath the piazzas of the Mese beyond -the Forum of Constantine we reach the district known -as the Artopolia or public bakeries which lie to the north of -the main street. A strange group of statuary, allegorizing -the fecundity of nature, is collocated in this region, viz., a -many-headed figure in which the faces of a dozen animals -are seen in conjunction; amongst them are those of a lion, -an eagle, a peacock, a ram, a bull, a crow, a mouse, a hare, -a cat, and a weasel. This eccentric presentment is flanked -by a pair of marble Gorgons.<a id="FNanchor_308" href="#Footnote_308" class="fnanchor">[308]</a> Adjacent we may also observe -a paved area in which a cross stands conspicuously on a -pillar, another record of the hybrid piety of Constantine.<a id="FNanchor_309" href="#Footnote_309" class="fnanchor">[309]</a></p> - -<p>Farther on by a couple of furlongs is the great square of -Taurus, also called the Forum of Theodosius, through its -being specially devoted to memorials of that prince. It covers -an oblong space, extending from level ground on the south -up the slope of the third hill, the summit of which it includes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72"> 72</span> -in its northern limit.<a id="FNanchor_310" href="#Footnote_310" class="fnanchor">[310]</a> This eminence, in accordance with the -conception of making Constantinople a counterpart of Rome, -is called the Capitol, and is occupied by an equivalent of the -Tabularium, that is, by a building which contains the -Imperial archives.<a id="FNanchor_311" href="#Footnote_311" class="fnanchor">[311]</a> Similarly, this site has been chosen for -an edifice composed of halls and a lecture-theatre assigned -to a faculty of thirty professors appointed by government to -direct the liberal studies of the youth of the capital—in short, -for the University, as we may call it, of Constantinople.<a id="FNanchor_312" href="#Footnote_312" class="fnanchor">[312]</a> The -principal monument in Taurus is the column of Theodosius -I, the sculptural shaft of which illustrates in an ascending -spiral the Gothic victories of that Emperor.<a id="FNanchor_313" href="#Footnote_313" class="fnanchor">[313]</a> But the equestrian -statue which originally crowned this pictured record of -his achievements, having been overthrown by an earthquake, -has lately been replaced by a figure of the unwarlike -Anastasius.<a id="FNanchor_314" href="#Footnote_314" class="fnanchor">[314]</a> To the north of this column, on a tetrapyle or -duplex arch, Theodosius the Less presides over the titular -Forum of his grandfather.<a id="FNanchor_315" href="#Footnote_315" class="fnanchor">[315]</a> But in the fading memory of the -populace the figure of this Emperor is already confounded<span class="pagenum" id="Page_73"> 73</span> -with a horseman said to have been abstracted from Antioch, -whom some imagine to be Jesus Nava,<a id="FNanchor_316" href="#Footnote_316" class="fnanchor">[316]</a> and others Bellerophon.<a id="FNanchor_317" href="#Footnote_317" class="fnanchor">[317]</a> -Facing each other from east to west on opposite -sides of the square are arches supporting figures of those -degenerate representatives of the Theodosian dynasty, Arcadius -and Honorius.<a id="FNanchor_318" href="#Footnote_318" class="fnanchor">[318]</a> To the western of these arches we -may observe that an assortment of troublesome insects, -counterfeited in brass, have been carefully affixed—another -charm of Apollonius Tyaneus intended to protect the -inhabitants against such diminutive pests.<a id="FNanchor_319" href="#Footnote_319" class="fnanchor">[319]</a> In this vicinity -is also a palace, built by Constantine, in which strangers from -all parts are hospitably entertained without expense or -question.<a id="FNanchor_320" href="#Footnote_320" class="fnanchor">[320]</a></p> - -<p>From the west side of Taurus we may perceive the great -aqueduct of Valens, which crosses the third valley, and is here -conjoined with the chief <i>Nymphaeum</i>, a decorative public hall -built around a fountain.<a id="FNanchor_321" href="#Footnote_321" class="fnanchor">[321]</a> Several of these <i>Nymphaea</i> exist in -the city, and they are often made use of for private entertainments, -especially nuptial festivals, by citizens who have -not sufficient space for such purposes in their own homes.<a id="FNanchor_322" href="#Footnote_322" class="fnanchor">[322]</a> -The water supply of the town is under the care of a special -Consul, and very stringent laws are in force to prevent waste -or injury to the structures necessary for its storage and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_74"> 74</span> -distribution.<a id="FNanchor_323" href="#Footnote_323" class="fnanchor">[323]</a> With the exception, however, of that of Valens, -aerial aqueducts (so conspicuous at Rome) have not been -carried near to, or within, the walls of Constantinople; and -subterranean pipes of lead or earthenware are the usual means -of conveying the precious liquid from place to place.<a id="FNanchor_324" href="#Footnote_324" class="fnanchor">[324]</a> The -public cisterns are in themselves a striking architectural -feature of the city. Some of these are open basins, but many -of them possess vaulted roofs, upborne by hundreds of -columns whose capitals are sculptured in the varied styles of -Byzantine art.<a id="FNanchor_325" href="#Footnote_325" class="fnanchor">[325]</a> Most of these receptacles for water are -distinguished by special names; thus, beneath the Sphendone -of the Hippodrome, we have the Cold cistern,<a id="FNanchor_326" href="#Footnote_326" class="fnanchor">[326]</a> and near to -the palace or <i>hospice</i> of Lausus the Philoxenus, or Travellers’ -Friend.<a id="FNanchor_327" href="#Footnote_327" class="fnanchor">[327]</a> By a law of Theodosius II, the wharf dues, paid for -the use of the various stairs on the Golden Horn, are applied -to the repair of the aqueducts, the supply of water from which -is free to the public.<a id="FNanchor_328" href="#Footnote_328" class="fnanchor">[328]</a> In connection with the cisterns a group -of three storks in white marble is pointed out as a further<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75"> 75</span> -result of the fruitful visit of Apollonius Tyaneus to Byzantium; -owing to the district becoming infested by serpents, flocks -of these birds were attracted hither, and caused a terrible -nuisance through having contracted a habit of casting the -dead bodies of the reptiles into the water reservoirs; but the -erection of this monument speedily achieved their perpetual -banishment from the city.<a id="FNanchor_329" href="#Footnote_329" class="fnanchor">[329]</a></p> - -<p>If we step aside a short distance from Taurus, both on the -north and south sides, we shall in each case come upon an -interesting monument. 1. On the far side of the Capitol, -overlooking the Zeugma, on a marble pillar, is a noted statue -of Venus, which marks the site of the only <i>lupanar</i> permitted -by Constantine to exist in his new capital.<a id="FNanchor_330" href="#Footnote_330" class="fnanchor">[330]</a> Around, each -secluded within its curtained lattice, are a series of bowers -consecrated to the illicit, or rather mercenary, amours of the -town. The goddess, however, who presides here is credited -with a remarkable leaning towards chastity; for, it is believed, -that if a wife or maid suspected of incontinence be brought -to this statue, instead of denying her guilt, she will by an -irresistible impulse cast off her garments so as to give an -ocular proof of her shamelessness.<a id="FNanchor_331" href="#Footnote_331" class="fnanchor">[331]</a> 2. To the south, elevated -on four pillars, is a lofty pyramid of bronze, the apex of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76"> 76</span> -which sustains a female figure pivoted so as to turn with every -breath of wind. The surfaces of the pyramid are decorated -with a set of much admired bas-reliefs; on one side a sylvan -scene peopled with birds depicted in flight or song; on -another a pastoral idyl representing shepherds piping to their -flocks, whilst the lambs are seen gambolling over the green; -again, a marine view with fishers casting their nets amid -shoals of fish startled and darting in all directions; lastly, a -mimic battle in which mirthful bands of Cupids assault each -other with apples and pomegranates. This elaborate vane, -which is visible over a wide area, is known as the <i>Anemodulion</i>, -or Slave of the Winds.<a id="FNanchor_332" href="#Footnote_332" class="fnanchor">[332]</a></p> - -<p>Beyond Taurus the Mese leads us to the <i>Philadelphium</i>, -a spot dedicated to brotherly love and embellished by a group -representing the three sons of Constantine in an affectionate -attitude. The monument commemorates the last meeting of -these noble youths, who, on hearing of the death of their -father, encountered each other here prior to assuming the -government of their respective divisions of the Empire.<a id="FNanchor_333" href="#Footnote_333" class="fnanchor">[333]</a> -Opposite is another group of the same princes, who ultimately -destroyed each other, erected by Constantine himself with -the usual accompaniment of a large gilt cross.<a id="FNanchor_334" href="#Footnote_334" class="fnanchor">[334]</a> A few paces -farther on, our route is again interrupted by a square, the -entrance to which is marked by a Tetrapyle, or arch of four<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77"> 77</span> -portals, executed in brass. Above the first gateway is affixed -a significant symbol, namely, a modius or measure for wheat -standing between a pair of severed hands. It records the -punishment by Valentinian I of an unjust dealer who ignored -his law that corn should be sold to the people with the measure -heaped up to overflowing.<a id="FNanchor_335" href="#Footnote_335" class="fnanchor">[335]</a> The Forum on which the -Tetrapyle opens is called the <i>Amastrianum</i>, perhaps from a -wanderer belonging to Amastris in Paphlagonia, who was -found dead on this spot.<a id="FNanchor_336" href="#Footnote_336" class="fnanchor">[336]</a> It is the usual place of public -execution for the lower classes, whether capital or by mutilation.<a id="FNanchor_337" href="#Footnote_337" class="fnanchor">[337]</a> -This square, which is close to the streamlet Lycus,<a id="FNanchor_338" href="#Footnote_338" class="fnanchor">[338]</a> is -no exception to the rule that such open spaces should be -crowded with statues. Among them we may notice the Sun-god -in a marble chariot, a reclining Hercules, shells with -birds resting on the rim, and nearly a score of dragons.<a id="FNanchor_339" href="#Footnote_339" class="fnanchor">[339]</a></p> - -<p>Yet two more open spaces on the Mese arrest our progress -as we proceed to the Golden Gate. The first is the Forum -of the Ox, which contains a colossal quadruped of that species -brought hither from Pergamus.<a id="FNanchor_340" href="#Footnote_340" class="fnanchor">[340]</a> This is in reality a brazen -furnace for the combustion of malefactors condemned to -perish by fire, and has the credit of having given some martyrs -to the Church, especially under the Emperor Julian.<a id="FNanchor_341" href="#Footnote_341" class="fnanchor">[341]</a> -Farther on is the last square we shall find it necessary to view, -the Forum of Arcadius, founded by that prince.<a id="FNanchor_342" href="#Footnote_342" class="fnanchor">[342]</a> Its distinguishing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78"> 78</span> -monument is a column similar in every way to -that in Taurus,<a id="FNanchor_343" href="#Footnote_343" class="fnanchor">[343]</a> but the silver statue which surmounts it is -the figure of Arcadius himself.<a id="FNanchor_344" href="#Footnote_344" class="fnanchor">[344]</a> We are now on the top of -the Xerolophos, and the colonnades which lead hence to the -walls of Theodosius are named the <i>Porticus Troadenses</i>.<a id="FNanchor_345" href="#Footnote_345" class="fnanchor">[345]</a> -But about halfway to the present Imperial portal we pass -through the original Golden Gate,<a id="FNanchor_346" href="#Footnote_346" class="fnanchor">[346]</a> a landmark which has -been spared in the course of the old walls of Constantine. -The extensive tract added by Theodosius II to the interior -of the city was formerly the camping ground of the seven -bodies of Gothic auxiliaries, and for that reason was divided -into seven districts, denoted numerically from south to north. -The whole of this quarter is now spoken of as the <i>Exokionion</i>, -that is, the region outside the Pillar, in allusion to a -well-known statue of Constantine which marks the border.<a id="FNanchor_347" href="#Footnote_347" class="fnanchor">[347]</a> -But, in order to particularize the smaller areas of this quarter, -some of the numbers are still found indispensable, and we -often hear of the Deuteron, Triton, Pempton, and Hebdomon. -Adjacent to the Golden Gate is situated the great -monastery of St. John Studii, which maintains a thousand -monks.<a id="FNanchor_348" href="#Footnote_348" class="fnanchor">[348]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_79"> 79</span></p> - -<p>On entering the <i>Exokionion</i> the Mese gives off a branch -thoroughfare which leads to the Gate of the Fountain, skirting -on its way the church of St. Mocius, a place of worship -granted to the Arians by Theodosius I when he established -the Nicene faith at Constantinople.<a id="FNanchor_349" href="#Footnote_349" class="fnanchor">[349]</a> By this route also we -arrive at a portico which adorns the interior of the mural -Sigma,<a id="FNanchor_350" href="#Footnote_350" class="fnanchor">[350]</a> and contains a monument to Theodosius II erected -by his Grand Chamberlain, the infamous eunuch Chrysaphius.<a id="FNanchor_351" href="#Footnote_351" class="fnanchor">[351]</a></p> - -<p>If we now retrace our steps to the Philadelphium and diverge -thence from the Mese in a north-westerly direction, -we shall soon reach the church of the Holy Apostles, the -most imposing of the Christian edifices founded by Constantine. -It is contained within an open court surrounded -by cloisters, on which give the numerous offices required for -the guardians of the sacred precincts. This church is one of -the first of those constructed in the form of a cross.<a id="FNanchor_352" href="#Footnote_352" class="fnanchor">[352]</a> Outside -it is covered with variegated marbles, and the roof is composed -of tiles of gilded brass. The interior is elaborately -decorated with a panelled ceiling and walls invested with -trellis-work of an intricate pattern, the whole being profusely -gilded. Cenotaphs ranged in order are consecrated to the -honour and glory of the Twelve Apostles, and in the midst -of these is a porphyry sarcophagus wherein repose the remains -of Constantine himself and his mother. The building -is in fact a <i>heroon</i> or mausoleum designed to perpetuate the -fulminating flattery of the period by which Constantine was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80"> 80</span> -declared to be the “equal of the Apostles.”<a id="FNanchor_353" href="#Footnote_353" class="fnanchor">[353]</a> Subsequently, -however, this religious pile was adopted as the customary -place of interment of the Imperial families, and many tombs -of royal personages are now to be seen scattered around. -Amongst them lie the sons of Constantine, Theodosius I and -II, Arcadius, Marcian, Pulcheria, Leo I, and Zeno.<a id="FNanchor_354" href="#Footnote_354" class="fnanchor">[354]</a> On -leaving this spot, if we turn to the south for a short distance, -we shall be enabled to examine a tall column with a heavy -capital elaborately sculptured in a Byzantino-Corinthian -style. An inscription on the pedestal testifies to its having -been erected by the Praefect Tatian to the memory of the -Emperor Marcian.<a id="FNanchor_355" href="#Footnote_355" class="fnanchor">[355]</a></p> - -<p>The region of Sycae, built on the steep slope of the hill -which rises almost from the water’s edge to the north of the -Golden Horn, is considered to be an integral part of the -city. It is particularly associated with the brother of Arcadius, -the enervated Honorius, who ruled the Western Empire for -more than thirty years, an effigy rather than the reality of a -king. Thus the Forum of Honorius constitutes its market-place, -and its public baths are also distinguished by the name -of the same prince. It possesses, moreover, a dock and a -church with gilded tiles, and is fortified in the usual way by -a wall with towers.<a id="FNanchor_356" href="#Footnote_356" class="fnanchor">[356]</a></p> - -<p><a id="Diagram_of_CP"></a></p> -<div class="figcenter illowp86" id="i_fp080" style="max-width: 125em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/i_fp080.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Diagram of CP. in 6th century.<br /> -Latitude 41° N. (Nearly level with -Naples and Madrid) </div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_81"> 81</span></p> - -<p>Rome was divided by Augustus into fourteen regions or -parishes, to each of which he appointed a body of public -officers whose functions much resembled those of a modern -Vestry.<a id="FNanchor_357" href="#Footnote_357" class="fnanchor">[357]</a> The municipal government of the new Rome is an -almost exact imitation of that instituted by the founder of -the Empire for the old capital. Here are the same number -of regions, named numerically and counted in order from -east to west, beginning at the end of the promontory. The -last two of these, however, are outside the wall of Constantine, -that is to say, Blachernae on the north-west and Sycae -over the water. To each division is assigned a <i>Curator</i> or -chief controller, a <i>Vernaculus</i> or beadle, who performs the -duties of a public herald, five <i>Vicomagistri</i>, who form a night -patrol for the streets, and a considerable number of <i>Collegiati</i>, -in the tenth region as many as ninety, whose duty -it is to rush to the scene of fires with hatchets and water-buckets.<a id="FNanchor_358" href="#Footnote_358" class="fnanchor">[358]</a> -At night the main thoroughfares are well lighted -by flaring oil-lamps.<a id="FNanchor_359" href="#Footnote_359" class="fnanchor">[359]</a></p> - -<p>One remarkable feature of the city, to be encountered by -the visitor at every turn, is an elevated shed which can be approached -on all sides by ranges of steps. These “Steps,” as -they are briefly called, are stations for the gratuitous daily -distribution of provisions to the poorer citizens. Every morning -a concourse of the populace repairs to the Step attached -to their district, and each person, on presenting a wooden -<i>tessera</i> or ticket, inscribed with certain amounts, receives a -supply of bread, and also a dole of oil, wine, and flesh.<a id="FNanchor_360" href="#Footnote_360" class="fnanchor">[360]</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_82"> 82</span> -More than six score of such stations are scattered throughout -the town, and the necessary corn is stored in large -granaries which are for the most part replenished by ships -arriving every season from Alexandria.<a id="FNanchor_361" href="#Footnote_361" class="fnanchor">[361]</a> More than twenty -public bakeries furnish daily the required demand of bread.<a id="FNanchor_362" href="#Footnote_362" class="fnanchor">[362]</a> -Besides free grants of food and houses for the entertainment -of strangers, the city contains various other charities under -the direction of state officials, the chief of which are hospitals -for the sick and aged, orphanages, poor-houses, and institutions -for the reception of foundlings.<a id="FNanchor_363" href="#Footnote_363" class="fnanchor">[363]</a> A medical officer, -entitled an arch-physician, with a public stipend, is attached -to each parish to attend gratuitously to the poor.<a id="FNanchor_364" href="#Footnote_364" class="fnanchor">[364]</a></p> - -<p>The civic authorities are well aware that disease arises -from putrid effluvia, and hence an elaborate system of deep -drainage has been constructed so that all sewage is carried -by multiple channels into the sea.<a id="FNanchor_365" href="#Footnote_365" class="fnanchor">[365]</a> Since the introduction of -Christianity, cremation has become obsolete, and burial in the -earth is universally practised.<a id="FNanchor_366" href="#Footnote_366" class="fnanchor">[366]</a> Public cemeteries, however, -are not allowed within the walls, but churches and monasteries -are permitted to devote a portion of their precincts to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83"> 83</span> -the purpose of interment. Such limited space is necessarily -reserved for members of the hierarchy and persons of a certain -rank, who have been beneficiaries of the church or order.<a id="FNanchor_367" href="#Footnote_367" class="fnanchor">[367]</a></p> - -<p>We may here terminate our exploration of the topography -of Constantinople, content to leave a multitude of objects, -both interesting and important, beyond the limits of our -survey. Were I to attempt the description of everything -worthy of notice in the city, my exposition would soon resemble -the catalogue of a museum, and the reader’s attention would -expire under the sense of interminable enumerations. Our -picture has been filled in with sufficient detail to convey the -impression of a vast capital laid out in colonnaded squares -and streets, to the adornment of which all that Grecian art -could evolve in architecture and statuary has been applied -with a lavishness attainable only by the fiat of a wide-ruling -despot.</p> - - -<h3 id="section_III">III. <span class="smcap">Sociology</span></h3> - -<p>To make this chapter fully consonant to its title it now -remains for us to pass in review the sociological condition -of the inhabitants, whilst we try to learn something of their -mode of life, their national characteristics, and their mental -aptitudes. We have already seen that in the case of the -Neo-Byzantines or Lesser Greeks,<a id="FNanchor_368" href="#Footnote_368" class="fnanchor">[368]</a> the path of evolution lay<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84"> 84</span> -through a series of historical vicissitudes in which there was -more of artificial forcing than of the insensible growth essential -to the formation of a homogeneous people. Owing to -its geographical position it was perhaps inevitable from the -first that Byzantium should become a cosmopolitan town, -whose population should develop little political stability or -patriotic coherence. In addition, however, it happened that -the Megareans, their chief progenitors, had gained an unenviable -notoriety throughout Greece; they were generally -esteemed to be gluttonous, slothful, ineffective, and curiously -prolific in courtesans, who, for some reason which now -escapes us, were peculiarly styled “Megarean sphinxes.”<a id="FNanchor_369" href="#Footnote_369" class="fnanchor">[369]</a> -Once established on the Golden Horn the Byzantines seem -to have found life very easy; their fisheries were inexhaustible -and facile beyond belief;<a id="FNanchor_370" href="#Footnote_370" class="fnanchor">[370]</a> whilst the merchants trading in -those seas soon flocked thither so that port dues furnished -an unearned and considerable income. As a consequence -the bulk of the populace spent their time idling in the market-place -or about the wharves, each one assured of meeting -some visitor to whom for a valuable consideration he was -willing to let his house and even his wife, whilst he himself -took up his abode in the more congenial wine-shop. So -firmly did this dissolute mode of life gain a footing, that -when the town was besieged the citizens could not be rallied -to defend the walls until the municipal authorities had set -up drinking-booths on the ramparts.<a id="FNanchor_371" href="#Footnote_371" class="fnanchor">[371]</a> Law was usually in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85"> 85</span> -abeyance,<a id="FNanchor_372" href="#Footnote_372" class="fnanchor">[372]</a> finance disorganized,<a id="FNanchor_373" href="#Footnote_373" class="fnanchor">[373]</a> and political independence -forfeit to the leading power of the moment, whether Greek -or Persian.</p> - -<p>Such was the community whose possession of a matchless -site decided Constantine to select them as the nucleus of -population for his new Rome, the meditated capital of the -East. And, in order to fill with life and movement the streets -newly laid out, he engrafted on this doubtful stock a multitude -of servile and penurious immigrants, whom he allured -from their native haunts by the promise of free residence and -rations.<a id="FNanchor_374" href="#Footnote_374" class="fnanchor">[374]</a> Nevertheless a metropolis constituted from such -elements was scarcely below the level of the times, and was -destined to prove a successful rival of the degenerate Rome -which Constantine aspired to supplant.</p> - -<p>The impressions of life and colour which affect a stranger -on entering a new city arise in great part from the costume -of its inhabitants. At Constantinople there prevails in this<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86"> 86</span> -age a decency in dress foreign to Rome during the first centuries -of the Empire, and even to Greece in the most classic -period. Ladies invested with garments of such tenuity as to -reveal more than they conceal of their physical beauties, to -the confusion of some contemporary Seneca, are not here to -be met with in the streets;<a id="FNanchor_375" href="#Footnote_375" class="fnanchor">[375]</a> the Athenian maiden, with her -tunic divided almost to the hip, or the Spartan virgin displaying -her limbs bare to the middle of the thigh, have no -reflection under the piazzas of renascent Byzantium. A new -modesty, born of Christian influences, has cast a mantle of -uniformity over the licence as well as over the simplicity of -the pagan world. In observing the costume of this time a -modern eye would first, perhaps, note the fact that in civil -life the garb of men differs but little from that of women. -Loose clothing, which hides the shape of the body, and in -general the whole of the lower limbs, is common to both -sexes. Men usually shave, but a moustache is often worn; -their hair is cropped, but not very close.<a id="FNanchor_376" href="#Footnote_376" class="fnanchor">[376]</a> Head-gear is an -exception, and so, for the lower classes, are coverings for the -feet. A workman, an artisan, or a slave, the latter a numerous -class, wears a simple tunic of undyed wool, short-sleeved, -girt round the waist and reaching to the knees, with probably -a hood which can be drawn over the head as a protection -against the weather.<a id="FNanchor_377" href="#Footnote_377" class="fnanchor">[377]</a> This garment is in fact the foundation<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87"> 87</span> -dress of all ranks of men, but the rich wear fine materials, -often of silk and of varied hues, have long sleeves, and use -girdles of some costly stuff. They, in addition, are invested -in handsome cloaks reaching to the ankles, which are open -for their whole length on the right side and are secured by -a jewelled clasp over the corresponding shoulder. Shoes -often highly ornamented,<a id="FNanchor_378" href="#Footnote_378" class="fnanchor">[378]</a> and long hose, coloured according -to taste, complete the dress of an ordinary Byzantine gentleman. -On less formal occasions a short sleeveless cloak, -fastened at the neck, but open down the front, is the -customary outer vestment. The tunic or gown of women -reaches to the feet, and, in the case of ladies, is embroidered -or woven with designs of various patterns and tints. The -latter usually consist of some small variegated device which -is repeated in oblique lines all over the garment. Shawls, -somewhat similar in colour and texture to the gown, thrown -over the back and shoulders or wound round the bust, are -habitually worn at the same time. Gloves, shoes and stockings -of various hues, and a simple form of cap which partly -conceals the hair, are also essential to the attire of a Byzantine -lady. As in all ages, jewellery is much coveted, and women of -any social rank are rarely to be seen without heavy necklaces, -earrings of an elaborate spreading design,<a id="FNanchor_379" href="#Footnote_379" class="fnanchor">[379]</a> and golden<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88"> 88</span> -girdles.<a id="FNanchor_380" href="#Footnote_380" class="fnanchor">[380]</a> A less numerous class of the community are male -ascetics, celibates of a puritanical cast, who love to placard -themselves by wearing scarlet clothing and binding their -hair with a fillet;<a id="FNanchor_381" href="#Footnote_381" class="fnanchor">[381]</a> also virgins devoted to the service of the -churches, who are known by their sombre dress, black -hoods, gray mantles, and black shoes.<a id="FNanchor_382" href="#Footnote_382" class="fnanchor">[382]</a> Philosophers adopt -gray, rhetoricians crimson, and physicians blue, for the tint -of their cloaks.<a id="FNanchor_383" href="#Footnote_383" class="fnanchor">[383]</a> To these may be added the courtesans who -try to usurp the costume of every grade of women, even that -of the sacred sisterhood.<a id="FNanchor_384" href="#Footnote_384" class="fnanchor">[384]</a> Such is the population who usually -crowd the thoroughfares and lend them a gaudy aspect -which is still further heightened by numbers of private -carriages—literally springless carts—bedizened with paint -and gilding, and most fashionable if drawn by a pair of -white mules with golden trappings. Such vehicles are indispensable -to the outdoor movements of matrons of any rank;<a id="FNanchor_385" href="#Footnote_385" class="fnanchor">[385]</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_89"> 89</span> -and in each case a train of eunuchs in gorgeous liveries, and -decked with ornaments of gold, mark the progress of a great -lady.<a id="FNanchor_386" href="#Footnote_386" class="fnanchor">[386]</a> Occasionally we may see the Praefect of the City, or -some other man of signal rank, passing in a silver wagon -drawn by four horses yoked abreast.<a id="FNanchor_387" href="#Footnote_387" class="fnanchor">[387]</a> Often we meet a noble -riding a white horse, his saddle-cloth embroidered in gold; -around him a throng of attendants bearing rods of office -with which they rudely scatter all meaner citizens to make -way for their haughty master.<a id="FNanchor_388" href="#Footnote_388" class="fnanchor">[388]</a> A person of any consequence -perambulating the city is followed by at least one slave -bearing a folding seat for incidental rest.<a id="FNanchor_389" href="#Footnote_389" class="fnanchor">[389]</a> In some retired -nook we may encounter a circle of the populace gazing intently -at the performance of a street mountebank; he juggles -with cups and goblets; pipes, dances, and sings a lewd -ballad; the bystanders reward him with a morsel of bread -or an obole; he invokes a thousand blessings on their heads, -and departs to resume his display in some other spot.<a id="FNanchor_390" href="#Footnote_390" class="fnanchor">[390]</a></p> - -<p>The Byzantine Emperor and Empress are distinguished -in dress from all their subjects by the privilege of wearing -the Imperial purple.<a id="FNanchor_391" href="#Footnote_391" class="fnanchor">[391]</a> The Emperor is further denoted by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90"> 90</span> -his jewelled shoes or slippers of a bright scarlet colour, a -feature in his apparel which is even more exclusive than his -cloak or his crown. The latter symbol of majesty is a broad -black hoop expanding towards the top, bordered above and -below with a row of pearls, thickly studded with gems all -round, and bearing four great pendent pearls which fall in -pairs on the nape of the neck. His ample purple robe, -which falls to his feet, is fastened by a costly shoulder-clasp -of precious stones. Its uniformity is diversified by two -squares or tables of cloth of gold embroidered in various -colours, which approach from the back and front the division -on the right side. Purple hose and a white tunic, sleeved to -the wrists and girt with a crimson scarf, complete the civil -attire of the Emperor. When sitting in state he usually -bears a globe surmounted by a cross<a id="FNanchor_392" href="#Footnote_392" class="fnanchor">[392]</a> in his left hand. His -attendant nobles, a new order of patricians who are styled -the Fathers of the Emperor,<a id="FNanchor_393" href="#Footnote_393" class="fnanchor">[393]</a> are garbed all in white, but the -tables of their gowns are of plain purple, their girdles are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_91"> 91</span> -red, and their shoes are black. His Protectors or guards -wear green tunics, with red facings, and are shod in black -with white hose; a thick ring of gold, joined to a secondary -oval one in front, encircles the neck of each one; they are -armed with a long spear, and carry an oval shield bordered -with blue and widely starred from the centre in black on -a red ground. Their Count or Captain is distinguished by -a red and purple breasted tunic, and by the Christian monogram -of his shield in yellow on a green ground. The dress -of the Empress is very similar to that of her consort, but her -crown is more imposing, being heightened by sprays of -jewels, and laden with strings of pearls which fall over her -neck and shoulders.<a id="FNanchor_394" href="#Footnote_394" class="fnanchor">[394]</a> Her purple mantle is without tables, -but is brocaded with gold figures around the skirt; she wears -besides an under-skirt embroidered in bright hues, golden -slippers with green hose, and all jewels proper to ladies of -the most costly description.<a id="FNanchor_395" href="#Footnote_395" class="fnanchor">[395]</a> Two or three patricians usually -wait on the Empress, but her Court is chiefly composed of -a bevy of noble matrons or maids, female patricians who -act as her tire-women; the leader<a id="FNanchor_396" href="#Footnote_396" class="fnanchor">[396]</a> of these is distinguished -by her purple gown.<a id="FNanchor_397" href="#Footnote_397" class="fnanchor">[397]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_92"> 92</span></p> - -<p>Every morning at seven o’clock the Grand Janitor of the -Palace,<a id="FNanchor_398" href="#Footnote_398" class="fnanchor">[398]</a> taking his bunch of keys, proceeds with a company -of guards and Silentiaries to open all the doors which lead -from the Augusteum to the Consistorium. After the lapse of -an hour the Primicerius or captain of the watch knocks at -the door of the Emperor’s private apartments. Surrounded -by his eunuchs the prince then sallies forth and first, standing -before an image of Christ in a reverential attitude, -recites a formal prayer. On the completion of this pious -office he takes his seat on the throne and calls for the Logothete<a id="FNanchor_399" href="#Footnote_399" class="fnanchor">[399]</a> -or steward of the royal household. Upon this the -Janitor, pushing aside the variegated curtains which close -the door leading to the antechamber, passes out, and in -a short time returns with the desired official. The Logothete -first drops on one knee and adores the majesty of the -Emperor, after which he rises and transaction of business -for the day begins. By this time the antechamber of the -Throne room has become crowded with dignitaries of state,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93"> 93</span> -patricians, senators, praefects, and logothetes of various -denominations. The Emperor commands the presence from -time to time of such of these as he wishes to confer with, -and all of them at their first entrance salute him with the -same form of submissive obeisance, except those of patrician -rank, who merely bow profoundly, and are greeted by the -Emperor with a kiss.<a id="FNanchor_400" href="#Footnote_400" class="fnanchor">[400]</a> Codicils or commissions for the -appointment of officers of state or rulers of provinces are -presented by the Master of the Rolls,<a id="FNanchor_401" href="#Footnote_401" class="fnanchor">[401]</a> and the Emperor -signs the documents in purple ink, the use of which is forbidden -to subjects.<a id="FNanchor_402" href="#Footnote_402" class="fnanchor">[402]</a> Such codicils are illustrated in colours -with various devices symbolical of the dignity or duties of -the office conferred. Those of praefects and proconsuls of -the highest rank display a draped <i>abacus</i> or table on which -rests a framed image of the Emperor lighted by wax tapers; -in addition, busts of the Emperor with his imperial associates -or heirs on a pedestal, and a silver quadriga—insignia -of office, which adorn the local vestibule or denote the -vicegerent of the sovereign in his progress through the -public ways. The provinces or districts are indicated by -female figures or busts labelled with various names; in -many instances by rivers, mountains, indigenous animals, -and miniature fortresses representing the chief towns. In -the case of rulers of lesser rank—dukes, vicars, correctors, -counts, presidents—a portly volume inscribed with the -initials of a conventional sentence<a id="FNanchor_403" href="#Footnote_403" class="fnanchor">[403]</a> supplants the painted<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94"> 94</span> -image. For Masters of the Forces the codicils are illustrated -with weapons of war or with the numerous designs, geometrical -or pictorial, which distinguish the shields of the -cohorts under their command. Dignitaries of civil rank, -financial or secretarial, are suitably denoted on their diplomas -by vessels loaded with coin, purses, writing-cases, and rolls -of manuscript.<a id="FNanchor_404" href="#Footnote_404" class="fnanchor">[404]</a> In addition to those assigning administrative -appointments honorary codicils are also issued, by -which the prerogative or precedence only pertaining to -various ranks is conferred. These documents are also called -“nude,” as they are not illustrated with those figures which -indicate that the holder is in authority over particular districts. -They are equivalent to patents of nobility, and are -granted for service to the state, general esteem, and probably -also by mere purchase.<a id="FNanchor_405" href="#Footnote_405" class="fnanchor">[405]</a> Among the throng at the Emperor’s -receptions are always a number of officers of a certain rank, -who, on vacating their posts, have the privilege of waiting -on the Emperor in order to adore or kiss his purple.<a id="FNanchor_406" href="#Footnote_406" class="fnanchor">[406]</a> In the -absence of urgent business the audience closes at ten o’clock; -at a sign from the Emperor the Janitor passes into the antechamber -with his keys, which he agitates noisily as a signal<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95"> 95</span> -of dismissal. The Palace is then shut up, but at two o’clock -it is reopened with the same formalities for the further transaction -of affairs. At five o’clock it is again closed and the -routine of Imperial reception is at an end for the day. On -the <i>Dominica</i> or Sunday the assembly is most numerous, -and the company repairs in procession to one of the adjoining -halls to attend the performance of a brief divine service.<a id="FNanchor_407" href="#Footnote_407" class="fnanchor">[407]</a> -As a concession to the holiness of this day adoration of the -Emperor is less formal. When the Emperor or Empress -drives through the streets the carriage is drawn by four -white horses or mules,<a id="FNanchor_408" href="#Footnote_408" class="fnanchor">[408]</a> the vehicle and the trappings of the -animals being ornate in the highest degree.<a id="FNanchor_409" href="#Footnote_409" class="fnanchor">[409]</a> Public processions -on festal days of the Church are regular and frequent; -and on these occasions, as well as on those of national rejoicing, -the Emperor rides a white horse amidst his train of eunuchs, -nobles, and guards. At such times the Praefect of the City -enjoins a special cleansing and decoration of the streets on -the prescribed route. The way is adorned from end to end -with myrtle, rosemary, ivy, box, and flowers of all kinds -which are in bloom at the season. The air is filled with the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96"> 96</span> -odour of incense, and from private windows and balconies -particoloured and embroidered fabrics are suspended by the -inhabitants. Wherever the royal cavalcade passes, cries of -“Long live the Emperor” rise from every throat.<a id="FNanchor_410" href="#Footnote_410" class="fnanchor">[410]</a> At night -the thoroughfares are illuminated by frequent lamps displayed -from windows and doorways. But on occasions of -public calamity, such as ruinous earthquakes or prolonged -drought, this scene of splendour is reversed; and the -Emperor, on foot and uncrowned, proceeds amidst the -clergy and populace, all clad in sombre garments, to one of -the sacred shrines outside the walls to offer up supplications -for a remission of the scourge.<a id="FNanchor_411" href="#Footnote_411" class="fnanchor">[411]</a> And again the Emperor -may be seen as a humble pedestrian, whilst the Patriarch, -who usually rides upon an ass, is seated in the Imperial -carriage, on his way to the consecration of a new church, or -holding on his knees the relics of some saint prior to their -deposition in one of the sacred edifices.<a id="FNanchor_412" href="#Footnote_412" class="fnanchor">[412]</a></p> - -<p>At this date conventional titles of distinction or adulation -have attained to the stage of full development. The Emperor, -in Greek <i>Basileus</i> or <i>Autocrator</i>, the sole Augustus, -is also styled Lord and Master, and is often addressed as -“Your Clemency.”<a id="FNanchor_413" href="#Footnote_413" class="fnanchor">[413]</a> His appointed heir receives the dignity -of Caesar and perhaps the title of <i>Nobilissimus</i>, an epithet -confined to the nearest associates of the throne.<a id="FNanchor_414" href="#Footnote_414" class="fnanchor">[414]</a> Below the -Imperial eminence and its attachments the great officers of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_97"> 97</span> -state are disposed in three ranks, namely, the <i>Illustres</i>, -<i>Spectabiles</i>, and <i>Clarissimi</i>. The Illustrious dignitaries are -termed by the Prince and others “Most Glorious,” and are -variously addressed as “Your Sublimity,” “Magnificence,” -“Eminence,” “Excellence,” “Highness,” “Serenity,” or -“Sincerity,” etc. The two lower ranks are similarly addressed, -but only the less fulsome of such expressions are -applied to them. Consonant to the same scheme the clergy -receive the epithets of “Most Holy,” “Blessed,” “Reverend,” -“Beloved of God”; and are addressed as “Your Beatitude,” -“Eminence,” etc., the emphasis being graduated -according as they may happen to be Patriarchs, Archbishops, -Metropolitans, Bishops, or simple clericals.<a id="FNanchor_415" href="#Footnote_415" class="fnanchor">[415]</a></p> - -<p>In the assemblies of the Hippodrome popular fervour -reaches its highest pitch, whether in times of festive or -political excitement. From Daphne, by the gallery of St. -Stephen’s and the Cochlea, the Emperor, surrounded by -courtiers and guards, gains his throne in the Kathisma.<a id="FNanchor_416" href="#Footnote_416" class="fnanchor">[416]</a> On -his entry the Protectors, already assembled in the Stama or -Pi, elevate the Standards which have previously been lying -on the ground.<a id="FNanchor_417" href="#Footnote_417" class="fnanchor">[417]</a> Before seating himself on his throne the -Emperor, advancing to the balustrade of the Kathisma, -greets the assembled populace by making the sign of the -cross in the air. As soon as the answering cries of adulation -subside, a set hymn<a id="FNanchor_418" href="#Footnote_418" class="fnanchor">[418]</a> is intoned from each side of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98"> 98</span> -Circus in alternate responsions by particular bodies of the -people called <i>Demes</i>, whose importance, not merely agonistic, -but above all political, renders a special account of them -here necessary.</p> - -<p>The Demes or factionaries of the Hippodrome occupy the -benches at the end of the arena on each side adjacent to the -Kathisma,<a id="FNanchor_419" href="#Footnote_419" class="fnanchor">[419]</a> and are called the <i>Veneti</i> and <i>Prasini</i>, that is, -the Blues and Greens.<a id="FNanchor_420" href="#Footnote_420" class="fnanchor">[420]</a> These bodies, which are legally incorporated -as guilds,<a id="FNanchor_421" href="#Footnote_421" class="fnanchor">[421]</a> consist of the contending parties in -the chariot races, and of such others as elect to enroll themselves -as their followers, and to wear the colours of the -respective sides. Each Deme has a subdivision, or rather, a -pendant, to which the colours white and red are attached -respectively.<a id="FNanchor_422" href="#Footnote_422" class="fnanchor">[422]</a> The chief or president of each faction is entitled<span class="pagenum" id="Page_99"> 99</span> -the Demarch.<a id="FNanchor_423" href="#Footnote_423" class="fnanchor">[423]</a> These two parties form cabals in the -state, who are animated by a fierce rivalry engendering an -intensely factious disposition. Every consideration is subordinated -to a strained sense of personal or party honour, -whence is evolved a generally uncompromising defiance to -the restrictions of law and order. Ties of blood and friendship -are habitually set at naught by the insolent clanship of -these factions; even women, although excluded from the -spectacles of the Circus, are liable to become violent partisans -of either colour, and that in opposition sometimes to the -affinities of their own husbands and families. Nor does the -Emperor by an equal distribution of his favours seek to control -the intemperate rivalry of the Demes, but usually becomes -the avowed patron of a particular faction.<a id="FNanchor_424" href="#Footnote_424" class="fnanchor">[424]</a> At the present -time the Greens are in the ascendant, and fill the benches to -the left of the Kathisma, a position of honour assigned to -them by the younger Theodosius.<a id="FNanchor_425" href="#Footnote_425" class="fnanchor">[425]</a> Every town of any magnitude -has a Circus with its Blue and Green factions, and these -parties are in sympathetic correspondence throughout the -Empire.<a id="FNanchor_426" href="#Footnote_426" class="fnanchor">[426]</a></p> - -<p>The throng of spectators within the Hippodrome, who can -be accommodated with seats around the arena, amounts to -about 40,000, but this number falls far short of the whole -mass of the populace eager to witness the exhibition. From -early dawn men of all ages, even if maimed or crippled, -assault the gates; and when the interior is filled to repletion<span class="pagenum" id="Page_100"> 100</span> -the excluded multitude betake themselves to every post of -vantage in the vicinity which overlooks the Circus. Then -windows and roofs of houses, hill-tops and adjacent eminences -of all kinds are seized on by determined pleasure seekers.<a id="FNanchor_427" href="#Footnote_427" class="fnanchor">[427]</a></p> - -<p>Public entertainments are given regularly in the Hippodrome -and the theatre during the first week of January, in -celebration of the Consul being newly installed for the year. -They are given also on the 11th of May, the foundation day -of the city, and on other occasions to celebrate some great -national event, such as the accession of an emperor, the fifth -or tenth anniversary of his reign,<a id="FNanchor_428" href="#Footnote_428" class="fnanchor">[428]</a> the birth or nomination of -a Caesar or successor to the throne, or the happy termination -of an important war.<a id="FNanchor_429" href="#Footnote_429" class="fnanchor">[429]</a> Several Praetors, officers who were -formerly the chief oracles of the law, are nominated annually, -their judicial functions being now abrogated in favour of -organizing and paying for the amusements of the people.<a id="FNanchor_430" href="#Footnote_430" class="fnanchor">[430]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_101"> 101</span></p> - -<p>Twelve chariot races take place in the morning, and, after -an interval of retirement, a similar number in the afternoon;<a id="FNanchor_431" href="#Footnote_431" class="fnanchor">[431]</a> -between the races other exhibitions are introduced, especially -fights of men with lions, tigers, and bears,<a id="FNanchor_432" href="#Footnote_432" class="fnanchor">[432]</a> rope walking,<a id="FNanchor_433" href="#Footnote_433" class="fnanchor">[433]</a> and -matches of boxing and wrestling.<a id="FNanchor_434" href="#Footnote_434" class="fnanchor">[434]</a> In the contests between -two-or four-horse chariots, the competitors make the circuit -of the arena seven times, whence the whole length of the -course traversed amounts to about a mile and a half.<a id="FNanchor_435" href="#Footnote_435" class="fnanchor">[435]</a> The -start is made from the top of the Euripus on the right-hand -side, where a rope is stretched across to keep the horses in -line after their exit from the Manganon, until the signal is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102"> 102</span> -given by the dropping of a white cloth or <i>mappa</i>.<a id="FNanchor_436" href="#Footnote_436" class="fnanchor">[436]</a> The races -are run with great fury, and the charioteers, standing in their -vehicles, make every effort to win, not merely by speed, but -by fouling each other so as to pass in front or gain the inmost -position of the circuit. Hence serious and fatal accidents are -of habitual occurrence, and help to stimulate the popular -frenzy to the highest pitch.<a id="FNanchor_437" href="#Footnote_437" class="fnanchor">[437]</a> The antagonists, however, pay -but little attention to the clamours of the spectators, looking -only to the Emperor’s eye for their meed of approval or -censure.<a id="FNanchor_438" href="#Footnote_438" class="fnanchor">[438]</a> At the conclusion of the games, amid the chanting -of various responsions by the factions and the populace, the -victors, supported by delegates from the four Demes bearing -crosses woven from fresh flowers, wait upon the Emperor in -the Kathisma, and receive from his hand the awards of their -prowess.<a id="FNanchor_439" href="#Footnote_439" class="fnanchor">[439]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_103"> 103</span></p> - -<p>Less frequently the Circus may be contemplated under a -more serious aspect, as the focus of national agitation. In -the year 491, during Easter week, Constantinople was thrown -into a great commotion by a report that the Emperor Zeno -had died somewhat suddenly,<a id="FNanchor_440" href="#Footnote_440" class="fnanchor">[440]</a> and that no successor had yet -been nominated for the throne. The people, the Demes, and -the Imperial guards at once rushed to the Hippodrome, -where all took up the stations allotted to them for viewing the -Circensian games. On all sides an incessant clamour then -arose, and the cry, addressed to those in authority, was -vociferously repeated: “Give an Emperor to the Romans.” -Simultaneously the great officers of the Court, the Senate, -and the Patriarch assembled hastily within the Palace in -order to decide on what course to pursue. In this convention -the counsel of the chief eunuch Urbicius, Grand Chamberlain, -had most weight; and, fearing a riot, it was resolved that -the Empress Ariadne, on whose popularity they relied, should -proceed immediately to the Kathisma, and, by a suitable -address, attempt to pacify the populace. On the appearance -of the Empress in the Hippodrome, with the retinue of her -supreme rank, the clamours were redoubled. Exclamations -arose from every throat: “Ariadne Augusta, may you be -victorious! Lord have mercy on us! Long live the Augusta!<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104"> 104</span> -Give an orthodox Emperor to the Romans, to all the earth!” -The widow of Zeno addressed the multitude at some length, -by the mouth of a crier, who read her speech from a written -document. “Every consideration,” said she, “shall be shown -to the majesty of the people. We have referred the matter to -the Lords of the Court, to the Sacred Senate, and to the -Heads of the Army; nor shall the presence of the Holy -Patriarch be wanting to render the election valid. An orthodox -Emperor shall be given to you and one of blameless life. -Restrain yourselves for the present and be careful not to -disturb the tranquillity of our choice.” With such promises -and exhortations, often interrupted, Ariadne left the Circus -amid the renewed shouts of the vast assembly. Within the -Palace the council was reformed, and, after some debate, -Urbicius carried his proposition that the election of an Emperor -should be referred to the widowed Empress. Upon this -Ariadne put forward a much respected officer of the Court, -the Silentiary Anastasius, a man of about sixty years of age. -Her nominee was about to be accepted unanimously when -the Patriarch interposed his authority and demanded that -Anastasius should give him an engagement to uphold the -orthodox faith. The Silentiary was, in fact, suspected of a -strong leaning towards the monophysite heresy, which declared -that Christ was possessed of only one nature.<a id="FNanchor_441" href="#Footnote_441" class="fnanchor">[441]</a> His proposition -was entertained, and thereupon a guard of honour was -sent to summon Anastasius from his house, and to escort him -to the Palace; but before any formal question was put they all -set about performing the obsequies of the deceased Emperor -Zeno. The next day Anastasius presided in the Consistorium -to receive the officers of state, all of whom waited on him clad<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105"> 105</span> -in white robes. He subscribed the document as required by -the Patriarch, and took an oath to administer the Empire -with a true conscience. He was then conducted to the -Hippodrome, where he appeared in the undress of an emperor, -but wearing the red buskins. Amid the acclamations of the -populace he was exalted on a buckler, and a military officer -crowned him with a golden collar removed from his own -person.<a id="FNanchor_442" href="#Footnote_442" class="fnanchor">[442]</a> Anastasius then retired to the antechamber of the -Kathisma to be invested, by the Patriarch himself, with the -Imperial purple, and to have a jewelled crown placed upon -his head. Again he sought the presence of the assembled -multitude, whom he addressed in a set speech which was read -out to them by a crier. Finally the newly-elected Autocrator -departed to the Palace amid repeated cries of “God bless -our Christian Emperor! You have lived virtuously, Reign as -you have lived!”<a id="FNanchor_443" href="#Footnote_443" class="fnanchor">[443]</a></p> - -<p>But the proceedings in the Hippodrome were not always -merely pleasurable or peacefully political. The Circus was -also the place where sedition was carried to the culminating -point; and the same Anastasius, in his long reign of twenty-seven -years, had to experience on more than one occasion -the fickle humour of the Byzantine populace. About 498, -during the progress of the games, a cry arose that certain<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106"> 106</span> -rioters, who had been committed to prison for throwing stones -inside the arena, should be liberated. The Emperor refused, -a tumult arose, and the Imperial guards were ordered to -arrest the apparent instigators of the disorder. Stones were -immediately flung at Anastasius himself, who only escaped -injury or death by his precipitate flight from the Kathisma. -The mob then set fire to the wooden benches of the -Hippodrome, and a conflagration ensued, which consumed -part of the Imperial Palace in one direction, and ravaged a -large tract of the city as far as the Forum of Constantine on -the other.<a id="FNanchor_444" href="#Footnote_444" class="fnanchor">[444]</a> Again in 512, when the Emperor, yielding to his -heretical tendencies to confound the persons of the Trinity, -proclaimed that in future the Trisagion<a id="FNanchor_445" href="#Footnote_445" class="fnanchor">[445]</a> should be chanted -with the addition “Who wast crucified for us,” the populace -rose in a fury, set fire to the houses of many persons who were -obnoxious to them, decapitated a monk suspected of suggesting -the heresy, and, marching through the streets with his -head upon a pole, demanded that “another Emperor should -be given to the Romans.” Anastasius, affrighted, rushed into -the Hippodrome without his crown, and protested his -willingness to abdicate the purple. The spectacle, however, -of their Emperor in such an abject state appeased the excited -throng, and, on the withdrawal of the offensive phrase, peace -was restored to the community.<a id="FNanchor_446" href="#Footnote_446" class="fnanchor">[446]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_107"> 107</span></p> - -<p>The Byzantine theatre, in which there are usually diurnal -performances,<a id="FNanchor_447" href="#Footnote_447" class="fnanchor">[447]</a> is by no means a lineal descendant of that of -the Greeks and Romans. The names of Aeschylus, Sophocles, -and the rest of those inimitable playwrights, are either -altogether unknown, or are heard with complete indifference. -Pantomime, farce, lewd songs, and dances in which troops -of females<a id="FNanchor_448" href="#Footnote_448" class="fnanchor">[448]</a> virtually dispense with clothing, monopolize the -stage to the exclusion of the classic drama. Ribaldry and -obscenity, set off by spectacular displays,<a id="FNanchor_449" href="#Footnote_449" class="fnanchor">[449]</a> constitute the -essence of the entertainment; and women even go through -the form of bathing in a state of nudity for the delectation -of the audience.<a id="FNanchor_450" href="#Footnote_450" class="fnanchor">[450]</a> A contemporary music-hall, without its -enforced decency, would probably convey to a modern -reader the most correct impression of the stage as maintained -in Christian Constantinople. Actress and prostitute are -synonymous terms, and all persons engaged in the theatrical -profession are regarded in the eye of the law as vile and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108"> 108</span> -disreputable.<a id="FNanchor_451" href="#Footnote_451" class="fnanchor">[451]</a> Nevertheless, the pastimes of the public are -jealously protected; and the amorous youth who runs away -with an actress,<a id="FNanchor_452" href="#Footnote_452" class="fnanchor">[452]</a> equally with him who withdraws a favourite -horse from the Circensian games for his private use,<a id="FNanchor_453" href="#Footnote_453" class="fnanchor">[453]</a> is -subjected to a heavy fine. A woman, however, who wishes -to reform her life on the plea of religious conviction, is -permitted to quit the stage, but is not afterwards allowed to -relapse into her former life of turpitude.<a id="FNanchor_454" href="#Footnote_454" class="fnanchor">[454]</a> Should she betray -any inclination to do so, it is enacted that she shall be kept -in a place of detention until such time as the decrepitude of -age shall afford an involuntary guarantee of her chastity.<a id="FNanchor_455" href="#Footnote_455" class="fnanchor">[455]</a> -The Byzantine aristocracy, from the rank of Clarissimus -upwards is prohibited from marrying an actress or any -woman on a level with that class.<a id="FNanchor_456" href="#Footnote_456" class="fnanchor">[456]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_109"> 109</span></p> - -<p>A particular form of amusement among the Byzantines is -the installation of a Consul every year on the Calends of -January in imitation of the old republican function at Rome. -The person nominated assumes a gorgeous robe decorated -with purple stripes and gold embroidery,<a id="FNanchor_457" href="#Footnote_457" class="fnanchor">[457]</a> grasps a sceptre -surmounted with a figure of Victory,<a id="FNanchor_458" href="#Footnote_458" class="fnanchor">[458]</a> and proceeds in state -to the Hippodrome, where he displays his authority by -manumitting a number of slaves specially provided for the -purpose.<a id="FNanchor_459" href="#Footnote_459" class="fnanchor">[459]</a> He presides at the games from the Kathisma, and -for the moment, if not the Emperor himself, as frequently -happens, the pretence is made of regarding him as the -sovereign of the Empire.<a id="FNanchor_460" href="#Footnote_460" class="fnanchor">[460]</a> The year is legally distinguished -by his name and that of his colleague of the West,<a id="FNanchor_461" href="#Footnote_461" class="fnanchor">[461]</a> a series -of public spectacles are exhibited for seven days,<a id="FNanchor_462" href="#Footnote_462" class="fnanchor">[462]</a> he scatters<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110"> 110</span> -golden coin as largess among the citizens,<a id="FNanchor_463" href="#Footnote_463" class="fnanchor">[463]</a> and emissaries are -dispatched in all directions throughout the provinces to -announce his elevation,<a id="FNanchor_464" href="#Footnote_464" class="fnanchor">[464]</a> and to deposit in the local archives -his diptychs, a pair of ivory plates inscribed with his likeness -or insignia.<a id="FNanchor_465" href="#Footnote_465" class="fnanchor">[465]</a> Immediately afterwards, the office relapses into -a sinecure, and the Consul resumes his ordinary avocations -in life.</p> - -<p>On Sunday there is a cessation of business and pleasure -throughout the city, though not of agricultural labour in the -rural districts.<a id="FNanchor_466" href="#Footnote_466" class="fnanchor">[466]</a> At the boom of the great <i>semantron</i>,<a id="FNanchor_467" href="#Footnote_467" class="fnanchor">[467]</a> a -sonorous board suspended in the porch of each church, and -beaten with mallets by a deacon, the various congregations -issue forth to attend their respective places of worship. In -the forecourt they are met by a crowd of mendicants, exemplifying -every degree of poverty and every form of bodily -infirmity, who enjoy a prescriptive right to solicit alms at this<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111"> 111</span> -time and place. This practice has, in fact, been encouraged -by the early Fathers of the Church, in order that the heart -may be melted to pity and philanthropy at the sight of so -much human misery as the most fitting preparation for the -order of divine service.<a id="FNanchor_468" href="#Footnote_468" class="fnanchor">[468]</a> The centre of the same inclosure -is occupied by a fountain of pure water, in which it is -customary to wash the hands before entering the sacred -edifice.<a id="FNanchor_469" href="#Footnote_469" class="fnanchor">[469]</a> In the narthex or vestibule, in a state of abject -contrition, are found the various penitents, who, for some -offence, have been cut off from the communion of the -faithful, condemned to advance no farther than this part for -a term of years proportionate to the heinousness of their -sin.<a id="FNanchor_470" href="#Footnote_470" class="fnanchor">[470]</a> The males of the congregation make use of the central -or Beautiful Gate of the church, in order to gain their station -in the nave, whilst the females, passing through the doors on -each side, ascend to the galleries which are set apart for their -special accommodation.<a id="FNanchor_471" href="#Footnote_471" class="fnanchor">[471]</a> The liturgy consists of reading from -the Scriptures, of prayers, and of hymns sung in responses;<a id="FNanchor_472" href="#Footnote_472" class="fnanchor">[472]</a> -after which the Patriarch, coming forward from his throne in -the apse to the ambo,<a id="FNanchor_473" href="#Footnote_473" class="fnanchor">[473]</a> preaches a homily based on some<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112"> 112</span> -portion of the Bible. Finally the Eucharist is administered -to the whole congregation, a spoon being used to give a -portion of wine to each person.<a id="FNanchor_474" href="#Footnote_474" class="fnanchor">[474]</a> Ladies, to attend public -worship, bedeck themselves with all their jewels and finery,<a id="FNanchor_475" href="#Footnote_475" class="fnanchor">[475]</a> -whence female thieves, mingling amongst them, often take -the opportunity to reap their harvest.<a id="FNanchor_476" href="#Footnote_476" class="fnanchor">[476]</a> Men, in the most -obvious manner, betray their admiration for the women placed -within their range of vision.<a id="FNanchor_477" href="#Footnote_477" class="fnanchor">[477]</a> The general behaviour of the -audience is more suggestive of a place of amusement than of -a holy temple; chattering and laughter go on continually, -especially among the females; and, as a popular preacher -makes his points, dealing didactically or reprehensively with -topics of the day, the whole congregation is from time to time -agitated with polemical murmurs, shaken with laughter, or -bursts into uproarious applause.<a id="FNanchor_478" href="#Footnote_478" class="fnanchor">[478]</a> Contiguous to each church -is a small building called the Baptistery, for the performance -of the ceremonial entailed on those who wish to be received -among the Christian elect. The practice of the period is to -subject the body to complete immersion in pure water, but -separate chambers or times are set apart for the convenience -of the two sexes. Here on certain occasions nude females of -all ages and ranks descend by steps into the baptismal font, -whilst the ecclesiastics coldly pronounce the formulas of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_113"> 113</span> -mystic rite,<a id="FNanchor_479" href="#Footnote_479" class="fnanchor">[479]</a> a triumph of superstition<a id="FNanchor_480" href="#Footnote_480" class="fnanchor">[480]</a> over concupiscence -pretended more often perhaps than real.<a id="FNanchor_481" href="#Footnote_481" class="fnanchor">[481]</a></p> - -<p>The luxury of the rich, especially in the use of the precious -metals and ivory, is in this age maintained at the -maximum. Practically all the furniture in the house of a -wealthy man, as far at least as the visible parts are concerned, -is constructed of those costly materials. Gilding or plates of -gold or silver are applied to every available surface—to -tables, chairs, footstools, and bedsteads; even silver night-urns -are essential to the comfort of the fastidious plutocracy.<a id="FNanchor_482" href="#Footnote_482" class="fnanchor">[482]</a> -For banqueting the Byzantines make use of a large semicircular<span class="pagenum" id="Page_114"> 114</span> -table,<a id="FNanchor_483" href="#Footnote_483" class="fnanchor">[483]</a> on the convex side of which they recline at -meals, still adhering to the custom of the earlier Greeks -and Romans.<a id="FNanchor_484" href="#Footnote_484" class="fnanchor">[484]</a> By this table is set a ponderous gold vase -with goblets of the same metal for mixing and serving out -the wine. Rich carpets are strewn over the mosaic pavement; -and troops of servants, either eunuchs or of barbarian -origin, permeate the mansion.<a id="FNanchor_485" href="#Footnote_485" class="fnanchor">[485]</a> These domestics are costumed -and adorned as expensively as are their masters, and -in the largest establishments are retained to the number of -one or two thousand.<a id="FNanchor_486" href="#Footnote_486" class="fnanchor">[486]</a> Like animals they are bought and -sold; and, male and female alike, are as much the property -of their owner as his ordinary goods and chattels; their life -is virtually in his hands, but the growth of humanity under -the Empire, and the tenets of Stoicism,<a id="FNanchor_487" href="#Footnote_487" class="fnanchor">[487]</a> have considerably -ameliorated their condition since the time of the old Republic.<a id="FNanchor_488" href="#Footnote_488" class="fnanchor">[488]</a> -In this, as in every other age, the artificial forms of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_115"> 115</span> -politeness, which spring up as the inseparable concomitant -of every aspect of civilization, have developed in social -circles; and the various formalities and affectations of -manners and speech familiar to the modern observer as -characteristic of the different grades of society may be noted -among the Constantinopolitans.<a id="FNanchor_489" href="#Footnote_489" class="fnanchor">[489]</a></p> - -<p>The Byzantine wife is in possession of complete liberty -of action, and is entirely the mistress in her own household. -She is, as a rule, devoted to enervating luxury and enjoyments, -which she gratifies by extravagance in dress and -jewels, by the use of costly unguents and the artificial tinting -of her countenance,<a id="FNanchor_490" href="#Footnote_490" class="fnanchor">[490]</a> and by daily visits to the public baths<span class="pagenum" id="Page_116"> 116</span> -and squares for the purpose of display and gossip.<a id="FNanchor_491" href="#Footnote_491" class="fnanchor">[491]</a> At home -she is often a tyrant to her maidservants, and not infrequently -whips them severely with her own hand.<a id="FNanchor_492" href="#Footnote_492" class="fnanchor">[492]</a> Precisely -the reverse of this picture is the condition of the Byzantine -maiden in her father’s house; before her coverture she is -persistently immured in the women’s apartments, and seldom -passes the outer door of the dwelling; never unless -under strict surveillance.<a id="FNanchor_493" href="#Footnote_493" class="fnanchor">[493]</a> In most instances, however, her -state of seclusion is not of long duration; for, at the age of -fourteen or fifteen she is considered to be marriageable.<a id="FNanchor_494" href="#Footnote_494" class="fnanchor">[494]</a> She<span class="pagenum" id="Page_117"> 117</span> -then becomes an article of traffic in the hands of the professional -match-maker, who is usually an old woman of low -social grade, but remarkable for her tactful and deceptive -aptitudes.<a id="FNanchor_495" href="#Footnote_495" class="fnanchor">[495]</a> By her arts a suitable family alliance is arranged, -but unless by a subterfuge, the proposed husband is not -permitted to behold his future wife.<a id="FNanchor_496" href="#Footnote_496" class="fnanchor">[496]</a></p> - -<p>Once a marriage has been decided on,<a id="FNanchor_497" href="#Footnote_497" class="fnanchor">[497]</a> it is considered -fitting that all the innocence of the ingenuous damsel should -be put to flight on the threshold of the wedded state. In -the dusk of the evening the bride is fetched from her home -by a torchlight procession to the sound of pipes and flutes -and orgiastic songs. Although women are not allowed to -attend the theatre, on this occasion the theatre is brought to -the houses of the contracting parties; and the installation of -a wife takes place amid a scene of riot and debauchery, of -lewdness and obscenity, which tears the veil from all the -secrets of sexual co-habitation.<a id="FNanchor_498" href="#Footnote_498" class="fnanchor">[498]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_118"> 118</span></p> - -<p>Mental culture, even in the mansions of wealthy Byzantines, -occupies a very subordinate place. Everywhere -may be seen dice and draughts, but books are usually conspicuous -by their absence. Bibliophiles there are, however, but -they merely cherish costly bindings and beautiful manuscripts, -and seldom take the trouble to study their literary contents. -They only value fine parchments dyed in various tints, -especially purple, and handsomely inscribed with letters of -gold or silver; these they delight to have bound in jewelled -covers or in plates of carved ivory, and to preserve them in -cabinets, whence they are drawn out on occasion in order -to afford a proof of the taste and affluence of the owner.<a id="FNanchor_499" href="#Footnote_499" class="fnanchor">[499]</a></p> - -<p>Popular superstitions are extremely rife at this time in the -Orient; a few examples of such may be here given. In -choosing a name for a child it is the practice to light a -number of candles, and to christen them by various names; -the candle which burns longest is then selected to convey -its appellation to the infant as an earnest of long life.<a id="FNanchor_500" href="#Footnote_500" class="fnanchor">[500]</a> -Another custom is to take a baby to one of the public baths -and to sign its forehead with some of the sedimental mud -found there as a charm against the evil eye and all the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_119"> 119</span> -powers of enchantment.<a id="FNanchor_501" href="#Footnote_501" class="fnanchor">[501]</a> Amulets are commonly worn, hung -about the neck, and of these, miniature copies of the Gospels -are in great favour, especially for the protection of infants.<a id="FNanchor_502" href="#Footnote_502" class="fnanchor">[502]</a> -Should a merchant on his way to business for the day first -meet with a sacred virgin, he curses his luck and anticipates -a bad issue to any pending negotiations; on the contrary, -should the first woman he encounters be a prostitute, he -rejoices in the auspicious omen with which his day has -opened.<a id="FNanchor_503" href="#Footnote_503" class="fnanchor">[503]</a> At funerals the old Roman custom of hiring -females to act as mourners, who keep up a discordant wailing -and shed tears copiously at will, is still maintained.<a id="FNanchor_504" href="#Footnote_504" class="fnanchor">[504]</a> -Black clothes are worn as a mark of sorrow for the dead.<a id="FNanchor_505" href="#Footnote_505" class="fnanchor">[505]</a> -Great extravagance is often shown in the erection of handsome -sepulchral monuments.<a id="FNanchor_506" href="#Footnote_506" class="fnanchor">[506]</a></p> - -<p>That the capital of the East, and by inference the whole -Empire, is a hotbed of vice and immorality will impress -itself on the mind of the most superficial reader. The dissoluteness -of youth is in fact so appalling that the most sane of -fathers resort to the extreme measure of expelling their sons -from home in a penniless state, with the view that after a -term of trial and hardship they may return as reformed and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_120"> 120</span> -chastened members to the family circle.<a id="FNanchor_507" href="#Footnote_507" class="fnanchor">[507]</a> Yet to complete -the picture one other sin against morality must be mentioned, -which travels beyond the belief and almost eludes the conception -of any ordinary mind. The incredible perversion of -sexual instinct named paederasty is still more than ever rife -in the principal cities of the East. Idealized by the Greek -philosophers,<a id="FNanchor_508" href="#Footnote_508" class="fnanchor">[508]</a> tolerated by the later Republic,<a id="FNanchor_509" href="#Footnote_509" class="fnanchor">[509]</a> and almost -deified<a id="FNanchor_510" href="#Footnote_510" class="fnanchor">[510]</a> under many of the pagan emperors,<a id="FNanchor_511" href="#Footnote_511" class="fnanchor">[511]</a> it has withstood<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121"> 121</span> -the pronouncements of Trajan and Alexander,<a id="FNanchor_512" href="#Footnote_512" class="fnanchor">[512]</a> the -diatribes of the Christian Fathers,<a id="FNanchor_513" href="#Footnote_513" class="fnanchor">[513]</a> and even the laws of -Constantius and Valentinian, by which such delinquents are -condemned to be burnt alive.<a id="FNanchor_514" href="#Footnote_514" class="fnanchor">[514]</a> Preaching at Antioch a -century before this time, the earnest and fearless Chrysostom -cannot refrain from expressing his amazement that that -metropolis, in its open addiction to this vice, does not meet -with the biblical fate of Sodom and Gomorrah.<a id="FNanchor_515" href="#Footnote_515" class="fnanchor">[515]</a> Nor is -there any evidence to refute the assumption that Constantinople -at the beginning of the sixth century is in this -respect less impure than the Syrian capital.<a id="FNanchor_516" href="#Footnote_516" class="fnanchor">[516]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_122"> 122</span></p> - -<p>The Byzantine coinage, which has been recast by Anastasius, -consists of gold, silver, and copper. The standard -gold coin, the <i>aureus</i> or <i>solidus</i>, subdivides the pound<a id="FNanchor_517" href="#Footnote_517" class="fnanchor">[517]</a> of -gold into seventy-two equal parts, and is, therefore, to be -valued at nearly twelve English shillings. Halves and thirds -of the <i>aureus</i> are regularly minted for circulation. There is -also a silver <i>solidus</i> which weighs nearly fifteen times as -much as that of gold.<a id="FNanchor_518" href="#Footnote_518" class="fnanchor">[518]</a> Twelfths, twenty-fourths, and forty-eighths -of this coin are issued; they are named the <i>milliaresion</i>, -the <i>siliqua</i>, and the <i>half-siliqua</i> respectively. In the -copper coinage at the head of the list stands the <i>follis</i>, two -hundred and ten of which are contained in the <i>solidus</i>.<a id="FNanchor_519" href="#Footnote_519" class="fnanchor">[519]</a> -Hence the <i>milliaresion</i> is not much less in value than a -shilling, whilst the <i>follis</i> represents but little more than a -halfpenny. Yet the <i>follis</i> is divided hypothetically into forty -<i>nummia</i>, but pieces of five <i>nummia</i> are the smallest coins in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_123"> 123</span> -actual use,<a id="FNanchor_520" href="#Footnote_520" class="fnanchor">[520]</a> approximately quarter-farthings, and less even -than continental centimes, etc. The money of old Byzantium -was generally figured with a crescent and a star, or with a -dolphin contorted round a trident,<a id="FNanchor_521" href="#Footnote_521" class="fnanchor">[521]</a> but the Imperial coinage -of Constantinople is stamped on the obverse with the bust of -the reigning emperor,<a id="FNanchor_522" href="#Footnote_522" class="fnanchor">[522]</a> and on the reverse, in the case of gold -or silver pieces, with a figure of Victory bearing a cross and a -crown or some similar device. On the reverse of copper coins, -with accompanying crosses and even crescents, we find a -large letter—M, K, I, or E—indicating that they contain 40, 20, -10, or 5 <i>nummia</i> respectively. As specimens of art the coinage -of this epoch appears degraded to the most uncritical eye.<a id="FNanchor_523" href="#Footnote_523" class="fnanchor">[523]</a></p> - -<p>The population of Constantinople in the sixth century is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_124"> 124</span> -unknown, but it may be estimated with some approach to -accuracy at considerably over a million of inhabitants.<a id="FNanchor_524" href="#Footnote_524" class="fnanchor">[524]</a> The -suburbs also are extremely populous, and for many miles -around the capital, both in Europe and Asia, are covered -with opulent country villas, farmhouses, and innumerable -habitations of meaner residents.<a id="FNanchor_525" href="#Footnote_525" class="fnanchor">[525]</a> In this district are situated -immense reservoirs for water, and many of the valleys are -spanned by imposing aqueducts raised by a double series of -lofty arches to a great height.<a id="FNanchor_526" href="#Footnote_526" class="fnanchor">[526]</a> At a distance of thirty-two -miles westwards from the city is situated the Long Wall, a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_125"> 125</span> -stupendous bulwark against the inroads of barbarians, built -by Anastasius in 512. It stretches between the Euxine and -Propontis, a range of nearly fifty miles, and forms also a safe -and facile road for those travelling from sea to sea.<a id="FNanchor_527" href="#Footnote_527" class="fnanchor">[527]</a></p> - -<p>The description of manners given in this chapter, although -nominally applied only to Constantinople, may be received -as illustrating at this date the social features of the whole -Roman Empire; or, to speak more accurately, of the -Grecian fragment of that empire which once extended universally -over Latins and Greeks.</p> - -<p>Before concluding this sociological exposition of the -Graeco-Roman people during the period I am treating of, a -brief reference to their language may be deemed essential to -the integrity of the subject. Viewed from the philological -side the aspect of the Byzantines is peculiar and, perhaps, -unique,<a id="FNanchor_528" href="#Footnote_528" class="fnanchor">[528]</a> since to them may fairly be applied the epithet of a -trilingual nation. By the union of the Roman and Greek -factors of the Empire the Latin tongue, as the official means -of expression, became engrafted on the Eastern provinces;<a id="FNanchor_529" href="#Footnote_529" class="fnanchor">[529]</a> -and in the lapse of centuries a third mode of speech, a -popular vernacular,<a id="FNanchor_530" href="#Footnote_530" class="fnanchor">[530]</a> has been evolved, which often has little -affinity with the first two. Sustained by the solid foundations<span class="pagenum" id="Page_126"> 126</span> -of laws and literature, Latin and Greek of a more or less -classical cast<a id="FNanchor_531" href="#Footnote_531" class="fnanchor">[531]</a> are the requisite equipment of every one who -aims at civil or military employment in any governmental -department,<a id="FNanchor_532" href="#Footnote_532" class="fnanchor">[532]</a> or who even pretends to recognition as a -person of average culture. In the pride of original supremacy -we may perceive that citizens of Latin lineage despise the -feeble Greeks who forfeited nationality and independence, -whilst the latter, pluming themselves on their inheritance of -the harmonious tongue in which are enshrined all the -masterpieces of poetry and philosophy, contemn the uninspired -genius of the Romans, whose efforts to create a literature -never soared above imitation and plagiarism.<a id="FNanchor_533" href="#Footnote_533" class="fnanchor">[533]</a></p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_127"> 127</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II<br /> - -<small>THE ROMAN EMPIRE UNDER ANASTASIUS: THE INHERITANCE -OF JUSTINIAN</small></h2></div> - - -<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">That</span> a spirit of dominion was implanted in the breasts -of those early settlers or refugees who rallied around -Romulus, when, about 750 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, he raised his standard on -the Palatine hill, is made plain by the subsequent history of -that infant community; and the native daring which first -won wives for a colony of outcasts, foreshadowed the career -of conquest and empire which eventually attached itself to -the Roman name.<a id="FNanchor_534" href="#Footnote_534" class="fnanchor">[534]</a> Contemned, doubtless, and disregarded -by their more reputable neighbours as a band of adventurers -with nothing to lose, in despair of being respected they -determined to make themselves feared; and the original -leaven was infused through every further accretion of population, -and was entailed as an inheritance on all succeeding<span class="pagenum" id="Page_128"> 128</span> -generations who peopled the expanding city of the Tiber. -When their kings threatened to become despotic they drove -them out; when the patricians attempted to maintain an -exclusive control the more numerous plebs revolted and -gradually achieved the establishment of a republic, in which -political honours and aristocracy became synonymous with -the ability to fill, or the energy to gain, a ruling position. -They devoted themselves with enthusiasm to the task of -self-government, and sacrificed their private interests to the -welfare of the Republic. Without history and without science, -inflated by ambition within their narrow sphere, they applied -the conception of immortality, which millenniums would -not justify, to being acclaimed in the ephemeral fervour of -the populace or to being remembered for a few decades in -the finite language of poetry and rhetoric.</p> - -<p>While the Roman state was in its cradle a citizen and a -soldier were equivalent terms, and every man gave his military -service as a free contribution to the general welfare of -the public. But as wars became frequent and aggressive, -and armies were compelled to keep the field for indefinite -periods, a system of payment<a id="FNanchor_535" href="#Footnote_535" class="fnanchor">[535]</a> was introduced in order to -compensate the soldier for the enforced neglect of his family -duties. By the continued growth of the military system, war -became a profession, veteran legions sprang into existence, -and generals, whose rank was virtually permanent, became -a power among the troops and a menace to the state. Finally -the transition was made from a republic governed by a -democracy to an empire ruled by the army. In the meantime -the dominion of Rome had been extended on all sides -to the great natural barriers of its position on the hemisphere; -to the Atlantic ocean on the west, to the Rhine, the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_129"> 129</span> -Danube, and the Euxine on the north, to the Euphrates on -the east, and on the south to the securest frontier of all, the -impassable deserts of Libya and Arabia.</p> - -<p>The first emperors affected to rule as civil magistrates and -accepted their appointment from the Senate, but their successors -assumed the purple as the nominees of the troops, -and often held it by right of conquest over less able competitors.<a id="FNanchor_536" href="#Footnote_536" class="fnanchor">[536]</a> -Concurrently the Imperial city had been insensibly -undergoing a transformation; by the persistent influx of -strangers of diverse nationalities its ethnical homogeneity -was lost;<a id="FNanchor_537" href="#Footnote_537" class="fnanchor">[537]</a> a new and more populous Rome, in which the -traditions of republican freedom were dissipated, was evolved; -and the inhabitants without a murmur saw themselves deprived -of the right to elect their own magistrates.<a id="FNanchor_538" href="#Footnote_538" class="fnanchor">[538]</a> The laws -of the Republic were submitted for ratification to the citizens, -but in the ascent to absolutism the emperor became the sole -legislator of the nation.<a id="FNanchor_539" href="#Footnote_539" class="fnanchor">[539]</a> The elevation of an emperor seemed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_130"> 130</span> -at first to be an inalienable privilege of the metropolis, and -the original line of Caesars necessarily descended from a -genuine Roman stock; but in little more than a century the -instability of this law was made plain, and many an able -general of provincial blood was raised to the purple at his -place of casual sojourn.<a id="FNanchor_540" href="#Footnote_540" class="fnanchor">[540]</a> In the sequel, when men of an -alien race, who neither knew nor revered Rome, obtained the -first rank, they chose their place of residence according to -some native preference or in view of its utility as a base for -military operations. The simultaneous assumption of the -purple by several candidates in different localities, each at -the head of an army, foreboded the division of the Empire; -and after the second century an avowed sharing of the -provinces became the rule rather than the exception. As each -partner resided within his own territory, Rome gradually -became neglected and at last preserved only a semblance of -being the capital of the Empire.<a id="FNanchor_541" href="#Footnote_541" class="fnanchor">[541]</a> But after Constantine -founded a capital of his own choice even this semblance was -lost, and the new Rome on the Bosphorus assumed the -highest political rank. From this event we may mark the -beginning of mediaevalism, of the passing of western Europe -under the cloud of the dark ages; and the disintegration of -the Roman Empire in the West was achieved by the barbarians<span class="pagenum" id="Page_131"> 131</span> -within the following century and a half. In 395 a -final partition of the Empire, naturally halved as it was by -the Adriatic sea, was made; and the incapable sons of Theodosius, -Arcadius and Honorius,<a id="FNanchor_542" href="#Footnote_542" class="fnanchor">[542]</a> were seated as independent -sovereigns on thrones in the East and West. During this -period a central administrative energy to uphold Rome as -an Imperial seat was entirely wanting; and a succession of -feeble emperors maintained a mere shadow of authority -while their provinces were being appropriated by the surplus -populations of the north. Italy and south-west Gaul became -the prey of East and West Goths; the valorous Franks under -Clovis founded a kingdom which made itself permanently -respected under the name of France; Vandals, with kindred -tribes, gained possession of Spain and even erected a monarchy -in north Africa, which extended beyond the limits of -ancient Carthage; Britain, divested of Roman soldiers in -409, for centuries became the goal of acquisitive incursions -by the maritime hordes who issued from the adjacent seaboards, -Saxons, Angles, and Danes.</p> - -<p>In the change from a nominally popular or constitutional -monarchy to a professed despotism, a reconstitution of all -subordinate authority was regarded as a matter of necessity. -At first the Empire was administered in about forty provinces,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_132"> 132</span> -but under the later scheme of control it was parcelled out -into nearly three times that number. In earlier times a Roman -proconsul in his spacious province was almost an independent -potentate during his term of office,<a id="FNanchor_543" href="#Footnote_543" class="fnanchor">[543]</a> the head alike of the -civil and military power. But in the new dispensation no man -was intrusted with such plenary authority, and each contracted -province was ruled by a purely civil administrator, whilst the -local army obeyed a different master. For further security, -each of these in turn was dependent on a higher civil or -military officer, to whom was delegated the collective control -of a number of his subordinates. Again a shift of authority was -made, and the reins of government were delivered into fewer -hands, until, at the head of the system, the source of all -power, stood the Emperor himself. In order to perfect this -policy the army itself was treated in detail on a similar plan; -and for the future no homogeneous body of troops of considerable -number was collocated in the hands of a single leader. -A typical Roman legion had previously consisted of about -six thousand foot, seven hundred horse, and of a band of -auxiliaries drawn from foreign or barbarian sources, in all, -perhaps, ten thousand men. Each legion was thus in itself an -effective force; and as it yielded implicit obedience to a single -praefect, the loyalty or venality of a few such officers in respect -of their common general had often sufficed to seat him -firmly on the throne. To obviate the risk, therefore, of revolt, -usurpation, or even of covert resistance to the will of the -Emperor, existing legions were broken up into detachments -which were relegated to different stations so as to be dispersed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_133"> 133</span> -over a wide area. As a consequence the praefect of the legion -could only exist in name, and that office was soon regarded -as obsolete. Consistently, when new legions had to be enrolled -for the exigences of defence or warfare, their number -was limited to about one fifth of the original amount.<a id="FNanchor_544" href="#Footnote_544" class="fnanchor">[544]</a> To complete -the fabric of autocracy all the pomp and pretensions of -Oriental exclusiveness were adopted by Diocletian, so that -henceforward the monarch was only accessible to the subject -under forms of such complexity and abasement as seemed to -betoken a being of more than mortal mould.<a id="FNanchor_545" href="#Footnote_545" class="fnanchor">[545]</a></p> - -<p>Another signal divergence from the simple manners of the -first emperors was the permanent establishment of eunuchs -in high offices about the royal person.<a id="FNanchor_546" href="#Footnote_546" class="fnanchor">[546]</a> The Grand Chamberlain, -as the constant attendant on the privacy of the monarch, -generally became his confidant, and sometimes his master.<a id="FNanchor_547" href="#Footnote_547" class="fnanchor">[547]</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_134"> 134</span> -Ultimately, by habitude, or perhaps with a feeling for the -vicious propensities of the times, the Emperor developed an -almost feminine reserve in relation to the “bearded” or -masculine sex; and in his movements he was guarded by his -staff of eunuchs with as much jealousy as if his virtue were -something as delicate as that of a woman.<a id="FNanchor_548" href="#Footnote_548" class="fnanchor">[548]</a></p> - -<p>Having dismissed these general considerations, I will now -attempt to depict briefly the state of the remaining moiety -of the Empire, of the Eastern provinces, at the beginning of -the sixth century. In order to render my descriptions more -compact and intelligible, I shall treat the subject under three -distinct headings, viz., Political, Educational, and Religious.</p> - - -<h3 id="section_I_1">I. <span class="smcap">Political</span></h3> - -<p>The dominions of Anastasius the elder,<a id="FNanchor_549" href="#Footnote_549" class="fnanchor">[549]</a> for there was a later -emperor of that name, corresponded generally to those ruled -during the first quarter of the past century by the Ottoman -sultans, who were the last to conquer them, and who became -possessed of the whole in 1461.<a id="FNanchor_550" href="#Footnote_550" class="fnanchor">[550]</a> Proceeding from east to west,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_135"> 135</span> -the northern boundary of the Empire followed the coast of the -Euxine in its sweep from the mouth of the Phasis (adjacent -to the modern town of Batoum) to the estuaries of the Danube, -as it delimits Asia on the north and Europe on the east, -by the bold curve of its unequal arms. From the latter point, -taking the Danube for its guide, the northern frontier stretched -westwards to its termination on the banks of that river in the -neighbourhood of Sirmium.<a id="FNanchor_551" href="#Footnote_551" class="fnanchor">[551]</a> The western border, descending -from thence almost due south, was directed in part of its -course by the river Drina, and halved nearly vertically the -modern principality of Montenegro as it struck towards the -shores of the Adriatic. The coast of Greece, with its associated -islands on this aspect, traced the western outline of the -Empire for the rest of its course, excepting a small portion -to be reached by crossing the Mediterranean to the Syrtis -Major, where at this date the confines of Roman Africa -were to be found. In this vicinity the Egyptian territory -began, and the southern frontier coincided for the most -part with the edge of the Libyan desert as it skirts the -fertile lands of the north and east, that is, the Cyrenaica -and the valley of the Nile. An artificial line, cutting that -valley on a level with the first cataract and the Isle of -Philae, marked the southern extension of Egypt as far as -claimed by the Byzantine emperors.<a id="FNanchor_552" href="#Footnote_552" class="fnanchor">[552]</a> From a corresponding<span class="pagenum" id="Page_136"> 136</span> -point on the opposite shore of the Red Sea the Asiatic -border of their dominions began. Passing northwards to -regain that part of the Euxine from whence we started, the -eastern frontier pursued a long and irregular track, at first -along the margin of the Arabian desert as it verges on the -Sinaitic peninsula, Palestine, and Syria; then crossing the -Euphrates it gained the Tigris, so as to include the northern -portion of Mesopotamia. Finally, returning to the former -river, it joined it in its course along the western limits of -Armenia,<a id="FNanchor_553" href="#Footnote_553" class="fnanchor">[553]</a> whence it reached the Phasis on the return journey, -the point from which we set out.<a id="FNanchor_554" href="#Footnote_554" class="fnanchor">[554]</a> Considered in their greatest -length, from the Danube above Sirmium, to Syene on the -Nile, and in their extreme width, from the Tigris in the longitude -of Daras or Nisibis, to the Acroceraunian rocks on the -coast of Epirus, these ample dominions stretch from north to -south for nearly eighteen hundred miles, and from east to -west for more than twelve hundred. In superficial area this -tract may be estimated to contain about half a million of -square miles, that is, an amount of surface fully four times<span class="pagenum" id="Page_137"> 137</span> -greater than that covered by Great Britain and Ireland.<a id="FNanchor_555" href="#Footnote_555" class="fnanchor">[555]</a> At -the present day it is calculated that these vast regions are -peopled by only about twenty-eight millions of inhabitants,<a id="FNanchor_556" href="#Footnote_556" class="fnanchor">[556]</a> -but their modern state of decay is practically the reverse of -their condition in the sixth century, when they were the -flourishing, though already failing, seat of the highest civilization -at that time existing on the earth; and there is good -reason to believe that they were then considerably more, -perhaps even double as, populous.<a id="FNanchor_557" href="#Footnote_557" class="fnanchor">[557]</a></p> - -<p>For the purposes of civil government the Empire was -divided into sixty-four provinces, each of which was placed -under an administrator, who was usually drawn from the -profession of the law.<a id="FNanchor_558" href="#Footnote_558" class="fnanchor">[558]</a> These officers were, as a rule, of -nearly equal rank, but in three instances the exceptional -extent and importance of the provinces necessitated the -bestowal of a title more lofty than usual on the governors.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_138"> 138</span></p> - -<p>1. The whole of Greece, including Hellas proper and the -Peloponnesus, though now no longer classical, was ruled -under the name of Achaia by a vicegerent, to whom was -conceded the almost obsolete dignity of a proconsul. 2. -Similarly, the central maritime division of Asia Minor, -containing the important cities of Smyrna and Ephesus -with many others and grandiosely named “Asia,”<a id="FNanchor_559" href="#Footnote_559" class="fnanchor">[559]</a> was also -allowed to confer on its ruler the title of proconsul. This -magistrate had the privilege of reporting directly to the -Emperor without an intermediary, and had also jurisdiction -over the governors of two adjacent provinces, viz.: the -Hellespont, which abutted on the strait of that name, and -The Islands, a term applied collectively to about a score of -the Cyclades and Sporades. 3. The main district of Lower -Egypt, adorned by the magnificent and populous city of -Alexandria, the second capital of the Empire, was placed -under an administrator bearing the unique title of the -Augustal Praefect. The sixty-one remaining provinces were -intrusted to governors of practically the same standing; of -these, twenty-seven were called consulars, thirty-one presidents, -two correctors, and one duke, the latter officer being on the -southern frontier of Egypt, apparently in both civil and -military charge.<a id="FNanchor_560" href="#Footnote_560" class="fnanchor">[560]</a></p> - -<p>To enumerate severally in this place all the petty provinces -of the Empire would be mere prolixity, but there are a few -whose designations present peculiarities which may save them -from being passed over without notice. The comprehensive<span class="pagenum" id="Page_139"> 139</span> -names of Europe and Scythia, which in general suggest such -vast expansions of country, were given to two small portions -of Thrace, the first to that which extended up to the walls -of Constantinople, and the second to the north-east corner -which lay between the Danube and the Euxine.<a id="FNanchor_561" href="#Footnote_561" class="fnanchor">[561]</a> With -parallel magniloquence, a limited area adjoining the south-east -border of Palestine was denominated Arabia. The -maritime province of Honorias on the north of Asia Minor, -perpetuated the memory of the despicable Emperor of the -West, Honorius. The name of Arcadia awakens us to reminiscences -of Mount Cyllene with Hermes and “universal” -Pan,<a id="FNanchor_562" href="#Footnote_562" class="fnanchor">[562]</a> of Artemis with her train of nymphs heading the chase -through the woods of Erymanthus, or of the historic career -of Epaminondas and the foundation of Megalopolis. But the -Arcadia officially recognized in the Eastern Empire had no -higher associations than the feeble son of Theodosius, -brother of the above-named, and we may be surprised to find -it in central Egypt with Oxyrhyncus and Memphis for its -chief towns.</p> - -<p>By a second disposition of the Empire of an inclusive -kind the provinces were grouped in seven Dioceses, namely: -three European, Dacia,<a id="FNanchor_563" href="#Footnote_563" class="fnanchor">[563]</a> Thrace, and Macedonia; three -Asiatic, the Asian, the Pontic, and the Orient; and one -African, Egypt. The first of these obeys the Praetorian -Praefect of Illyricum, the sixth the Count of the Orient or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_140"> 140</span> -East, and the last the Augustal Praefect, whilst the rulers -of the remaining four are entitled Vicars.<a id="FNanchor_564" href="#Footnote_564" class="fnanchor">[564]</a> When I add that -the Orient, the most extensive of these divisions, comprised -in fifteen provinces the whole of Palestine and Syria as well -as the southern tract of Asia Minor, from the Tigris to the -Mediterranean, and the island of Cyprus, the limits of the -other dioceses may be conjectured from their names with -sufficient accuracy for our present purpose.<a id="FNanchor_565" href="#Footnote_565" class="fnanchor">[565]</a> By a final -partition the dominions of the Byzantine Emperor were -assigned, but very unequally, to two officers of the highest -or Illustrious rank, viz.: the Praetorian Praefects of the East -and of Illyricum. Dacia and Macedonia fell to the rule of -the latter, whilst the remaining five dioceses were consolidated -under the control of the former minister.<a id="FNanchor_566" href="#Footnote_566" class="fnanchor">[566]</a> The -Praefect of the East is in general to be regarded as the -subject in closest proximity to the throne, in fact, the first -minister of the crown.<a id="FNanchor_567" href="#Footnote_567" class="fnanchor">[567]</a> The Imperial capital, as being outside -all these subordinate arrangements, was treated as a -microcosm in itself; and with its Court in permanent residence, -its bureaus of central administration, and its special -Praefect of Illustrious rank, may almost be considered as -a third of the prime divisions of the Empire. Here, as a -rule, through the long series of Byzantine annals, by the -voice of the populace and the army, or by the intrigues of -the Court, emperors were made or unmade.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_141"> 141</span></p> - -<p>The whole Empire was traversed by those narrow, but -solidly constructed roads, the abundant remains of which still -attest how thoroughly his work was done by the Roman -engineer.<a id="FNanchor_568" href="#Footnote_568" class="fnanchor">[568]</a> The repair and maintenance of these public ways -was enjoined on the possessors of the lands through which -they passed; and similarly in the case of waterways, the care -of bridges and banks was an onus on the shoulders of the -riparian owners.<a id="FNanchor_569" href="#Footnote_569" class="fnanchor">[569]</a> On all the main roads an elaborate system -of public posts was studiously maintained; and at certain -intervals, about the length of an average day’s journey, -<i>mansions</i> or inns were located for the accommodation of -those travelling on the public service.<a id="FNanchor_570" href="#Footnote_570" class="fnanchor">[570]</a> Each of such stations<span class="pagenum" id="Page_142"> 142</span> -was equipped with a sufficient number of light and heavy -vehicles, of draught horses and oxen, of pack-horses, sumpter -mules, and asses for the exigences of local transit.<a id="FNanchor_571" href="#Footnote_571" class="fnanchor">[571]</a> Stringent -rules were laid down for the equitable loading of both animals -and carriages, and also for the humane treatment of the -former. Thus a span of four oxen was allowed to draw a load -of fifteen hundred pounds, but the burden of an ordinary -pack-horse was limited to thirty.<a id="FNanchor_572" href="#Footnote_572" class="fnanchor">[572]</a> It was forbidden to beat -the animals with heavy or knotted sticks; they were to be -urged onwards by the use only of a sharp whip or rod fit to -“admonish their lagging limbs with a harmless sting.”<a id="FNanchor_573" href="#Footnote_573" class="fnanchor">[573]</a> In -addition to the mansions there were usually four or five -intermediate stations called <i>mutations</i>, where a few relays -were kept for the benefit of those speeding on an urgent -mission.<a id="FNanchor_574" href="#Footnote_574" class="fnanchor">[574]</a> The abuse of the public posts was jealously guarded -against, and only those bearing an order from the Emperor -or one of the Praetorian Praefects could command their<span class="pagenum" id="Page_143"> 143</span> -facilities, and then only to an extent restricted to their purely -official requirements. A Vicar could dispose of a train of ten -horses and thirteen asses on a dozen occasions in the year, -in order to make tours of inspection throughout his diocese; -legates from foreign countries and delegates from provincial -centres, journeying to Constantinople to negotiate a treaty or -to lay their grievances before the Emperor, were provided for -according to circumstances.<a id="FNanchor_575" href="#Footnote_575" class="fnanchor">[575]</a> The highways were constantly -permeated by the Imperial couriers bearing dispatches to or -from the capital.<a id="FNanchor_576" href="#Footnote_576" class="fnanchor">[576]</a> These emissaries were also deputed to act -as spies, and to report at head-quarters any suspicious -occurrences they might observe on their route,<a id="FNanchor_577" href="#Footnote_577" class="fnanchor">[577]</a> whence they -were popularly spoken of as “the eyes of the Emperor.”<a id="FNanchor_578" href="#Footnote_578" class="fnanchor">[578]</a> -They were known by their military cloak and belt, their tight -trousers,<a id="FNanchor_579" href="#Footnote_579" class="fnanchor">[579]</a> and by a spray of feathers<a id="FNanchor_580" href="#Footnote_580" class="fnanchor">[580]</a> in their hair to symbolize -the swiftness of their course. One or two were appointed -permanently to each province with the task of scouring the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_144"> 144</span> -district continually as inspectors of the public posts.<a id="FNanchor_581" href="#Footnote_581" class="fnanchor">[581]</a> There -was also a regular police patrol on the roads, called Irenarchs, -whose duty it was to act as guardians of the peace.<a id="FNanchor_582" href="#Footnote_582" class="fnanchor">[582]</a></p> - -<p>A Roman emperor of this age, as an admitted despot subjected -to no constitutional restraints, could formulate and -promulgate whatever measures commended themselves to -his arbitrary will. But such authority, however absolute in -theory, must always be restricted in practice by the operation -of sociological laws. Although a prince with a masterful -personality might dominate his subordinates to become the -father or the scourge of his country, a feeble monarch would -always be the slave of his great officers of state. Yet even -the former had to stoop to conciliate the people or the army, -and a sovereign usually stood on treacherous ground when -attempting to maintain a balance between the two.<a id="FNanchor_583" href="#Footnote_583" class="fnanchor">[583]</a> The -army, as the immediate and effectual instrument of repression, -was generally chosen as the first stay of the autocracy, -and there are few instances of a Byzantine emperor whose -throne was not on more than one occasion cemented with -the blood of his subjects. But many a virtuous prince in -his efforts to curb the licence of the troops lost both his -sceptre and his life.<a id="FNanchor_584" href="#Footnote_584" class="fnanchor">[584]</a></p> - -<p><a id="ROMAN_EMPIRE"></a></p> -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_fp144" style="max-width: 125em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/i_fp144.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> ROMAN EMPIRE<br /> -and Vicinity, c. 500 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span></div> -</div> - -<p>The Council of the Emperor, besides the three Praefects -already mentioned, consisted of five civil and of an equal -number of military members, all of Illustrious dignity.<a id="FNanchor_585" href="#Footnote_585" class="fnanchor">[585]</a> Their -designations were severally: 1. Praepositus of the Sacred<span class="pagenum" id="Page_145"> 145</span> -Cubicle, or Grand Chamberlain, Master of the Offices, -Quaestor, Count of the Sacred Largesses, and Count of -the Privy Purse. 2. Five Masters of Horse and Foot,<a id="FNanchor_586" href="#Footnote_586" class="fnanchor">[586]</a> two -at head-quarters,<a id="FNanchor_587" href="#Footnote_587" class="fnanchor">[587]</a> and one each for the Orient, Thrace, and -Illyricum. To these may be added the Archbishop or -Patriarch of Constantinople, always a great power in the -State. In the presence of a variable number of these ministers -it was usual for the Emperor to declare his will, to appeal -to their judgment, or to act on their representations, but -the time, place, and circumstances of meeting were entirely -in the discretion of the prince.<a id="FNanchor_588" href="#Footnote_588" class="fnanchor">[588]</a> The formal sittings of -the Council were not held in secret, but before an audience -of such of the Spectabiles as might wish to attend.<a id="FNanchor_589" href="#Footnote_589" class="fnanchor">[589]</a> The -legislation of the Emperor, comprised under the general -name of Constitutions, fell naturally into two classes, viz., -laws promulgated on his own initiative and those issued in -response to some petition. Edicts, Acts, Mandates, Pragmatic -Sanctions, and Epistles usually ranked in the first -division; Rescripts in the second.<a id="FNanchor_590" href="#Footnote_590" class="fnanchor">[590]</a> A Rescript was granted, -as a rule, in compliance with an <i>ex parte</i> application, and -might be disregarded by the authority to whom it was addressed -should it appear to have been obtained by false pretences<span class="pagenum" id="Page_146"> 146</span>, -but the Court which set it aside did so at its own -peril.<a id="FNanchor_591" href="#Footnote_591" class="fnanchor">[591]</a></p> - -<p>The Senate of Constantinople, created in imitation of that -of Rome, was designed by Constantine rather to grace his -new capital than to exercise any of the functions of government.<a id="FNanchor_592" href="#Footnote_592" class="fnanchor">[592]</a> -Like the new order of patricians, the position of -Senator was mainly an honorary and not an executive rank. -All the members enjoyed the title of Clarissimus, that of the -third grade of nobility, and assembled under the presidency -of the Praefect of the city.<a id="FNanchor_593" href="#Footnote_593" class="fnanchor">[593]</a> As a body the Senate was treated -with great ostensible consideration by the Emperor, and was -never referred to in the public acts without expressions of -the highest esteem, such as “the Venerable,” “the Most -Noble Order,” “amongst whom we reckon ourselves.”<a id="FNanchor_594" href="#Footnote_594" class="fnanchor">[594]</a> This -public parade of their importance, however, endowed them -with a considerable moral power in the popular idea; and -the subscription of the impotent Senate was not seldom -demanded by a prudent monarch to give a wider sanction to -his acts of oppression or cruelty.<a id="FNanchor_595" href="#Footnote_595" class="fnanchor">[595]</a> During an interregnum<span class="pagenum" id="Page_147"> 147</span> -their voice was usually heard with attention;<a id="FNanchor_596" href="#Footnote_596" class="fnanchor">[596]</a> and a prince -with a weak or failing title to the throne would naturally -cling to them for support.<a id="FNanchor_597" href="#Footnote_597" class="fnanchor">[597]</a> They were sometimes constituted -as a High Court for the trial of criminal cases of national -importance, such as conspiring against the rule or life of the -Emperor.<a id="FNanchor_598" href="#Footnote_598" class="fnanchor">[598]</a> They could pass resolutions to be submitted for -the approval of the crown;<a id="FNanchor_599" href="#Footnote_599" class="fnanchor">[599]</a> they had a share in the nomination -of some of the higher and lower officials; and they performed -generally the duties of a municipal council.<a id="FNanchor_600" href="#Footnote_600" class="fnanchor">[600]</a></p> - -<p>In addition to the Imperial provinces there was also, to -facilitate the work of local government, a subsidiary division -of the Empire into Municipia. Every large town or city, with -a tract of the surrounding country, was formed into a municipal -district and placed under the charge of a local Senate<span class="pagenum" id="Page_148"> 148</span> -or Curia. The members of a Curia were called Decurions,<a id="FNanchor_601" href="#Footnote_601" class="fnanchor">[601]</a> -and were selected officially to the number of about one hundred -from the more reputable inhabitants of the vicinity. -They not only held office for life, but transmitted it compulsorily -to their heirs, so that the State obtained a perpetual -lien on the services of their descendants. In each Municipium -the official of highest rank was the “Defender of the City,”<a id="FNanchor_602" href="#Footnote_602" class="fnanchor">[602]</a> -who was elected to his post for five years by the independent -suffrage of the community. His chief duty was to defend -the interests of his native district against the Imperial officers -who, as aliens to the locality, were assumed to have little -knowledge or concern as to its actual welfare. He became -<i>ex officio</i> president of the Curia; and in conjunction with -them acted as a judge of first instance or magistrate in causes -of lesser importance.<a id="FNanchor_603" href="#Footnote_603" class="fnanchor">[603]</a></p> - -<p>A provincial governor, generally called the Rector or -Ordinary Judge, held open court at his Praetorium and sat -within his chancel every morning to hear all causes brought -before him.<a id="FNanchor_604" href="#Footnote_604" class="fnanchor">[604]</a> His chancellors guarded the trellis, which fenced -off the outer court against the onrush of eager suitors;<a id="FNanchor_605" href="#Footnote_605" class="fnanchor">[605]</a> -within, the advocates delivered their pleadings, whilst a body -of scribes and actuaries took a record in writing of the whole<span class="pagenum" id="Page_149"> 149</span> -proceedings.<a id="FNanchor_606" href="#Footnote_606" class="fnanchor">[606]</a> The precincts were crowded with his apparitors,<a id="FNanchor_607" href="#Footnote_607" class="fnanchor">[607]</a> -officers upon whom devolved the duty of executing the judgements -of the court. With the aid of his assessor,<a id="FNanchor_608" href="#Footnote_608" class="fnanchor">[608]</a> a legal expert -well versed in the text of the law, the Rector elaborated -his judgment, a written copy of which he was bound to -deliver to each litigant.<a id="FNanchor_609" href="#Footnote_609" class="fnanchor">[609]</a> But if his decision were asked in -cases which seemed too trivial for his personal attention, he -was empowered to hand them over to a class of petty judges -called <i>pedanei judices</i>.<a id="FNanchor_610" href="#Footnote_610" class="fnanchor">[610]</a> From the provincial court an appeal -lay to the Vicar of the Diocese, or even to the Emperor himself,<a id="FNanchor_611" href="#Footnote_611" class="fnanchor">[611]</a> -but appellants were severely mulcted if convicted of -merely contentious litigation.<a id="FNanchor_612" href="#Footnote_612" class="fnanchor">[612]</a> At certain seasons the Rector -went on circuit throughout his province to judge causes and -to inspect abuses.<a id="FNanchor_613" href="#Footnote_613" class="fnanchor">[613]</a></p> - -<p>I. The permanent existence of any community in a state -of political cohesion depends on its possession of the means -to defray the expenses of government; and, therefore, the -first duty of every primary ruler or administrative body in -chief is to collect a revenue for the maintenance of a national -treasury. The Roman or Byzantine system of raising money -or its equivalent, by means of imposts laid on the subjects -of the Empire, included every conceivable device of taxing -the individual for the benefit of the state. The public were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_150"> 150</span> -called on not only to fill the treasury, but were constrained -to devote their resources in kind, their time, and their -labour to the needs of the government. To obtain every -requisite without purchase for the administration was the -economical policy of the ruling class. Food and clothing, -arms and horses, commuted to a money payment if the -thing were unattainable, were levied systematically for the -use of the civil and military establishment. The degree of -personal liability was determined by the assessment of property, -and those who were possessed of nothing were made -liable for their heads. Social distinctions and commercial -transactions were also taxed under well-defined categories. -A considerable section of the community was, however, -legally freed from the regular imposts. This indulgence was -granted especially to the inhabitants of cities, whose facilities -for combination and sedition were always contemplated with -apprehension by the jealous despot. But immunity from -taxation was also extended with some liberality to all who -devoted themselves to art or learning.</p> - -<p>1. The financial year began with the first of September, -and was spoken of numerically as an <i>indiction</i>, according to -its place in a perpetually recurring series of fifteen. Properly -an indiction was the period of fifteen years<a id="FNanchor_614" href="#Footnote_614" class="fnanchor">[614]</a> which separated -each new survey and revaluation of the private estates throughout -the Empire. At the beginning of such a term the Imperial -Censitors or surveyors pervaded the country districts, -registering in their books and on their plans all the details<span class="pagenum" id="Page_151"> 151</span> -of the new census.<a id="FNanchor_615" href="#Footnote_615" class="fnanchor">[615]</a> Their record showed the amount of the -possessions of each landowner; the quality of the land; to -what extent it was cultivated or lay waste; in what proportions -it was laid out in vineyards and olive-grounds; in woods, -pastures, and arable land. The number and magnitude of -the farm and residential buildings were carefully noted, and -even the geniality of the climate, and the apparent fecundity -of the fruit-bearing trees, which were separately counted and -disposed in classes, exercised the judgement of the Censitor -in furnishing materials for a just estimate as to the value of -an estate. Essential also to the <i>cataster</i>, or assessment, was -a list of the flocks and herds possessed by the owner.<a id="FNanchor_616" href="#Footnote_616" class="fnanchor">[616]</a> The -particulars supplied by the Censitor passed into the hands -of another official named a <i>Peraequator</i>. He divided the -district into “heads” of property, each computed to be of -the value of 1,000 solidi,<a id="FNanchor_617" href="#Footnote_617" class="fnanchor">[617]</a> and assigned to each landowner -his census, that is, the number of heads for which in future -he would be taxed. This assessment was not based on a -mere valuation of the property of each person; it was complicated -by the principle of Byzantine finance that all land -should pay to the Imperial exchequer. It was the duty,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_152"> 152</span> -therefore, of a Peraequator, to assign a nominal possession -in barren or deserted land to each owner in fair proportion -to his apparent means. Thus the possessor of a valuable -farm was often encumbered with a large increment of worthless -ground, whilst the owner of a poor one might escape -such a burthen.<a id="FNanchor_618" href="#Footnote_618" class="fnanchor">[618]</a> Yet a third official, called an <i>Inspector</i>,<a id="FNanchor_619" href="#Footnote_619" class="fnanchor">[619]</a> -came upon the scene, but his services were not always constant -or comprehensive. He visited the province in response -to petitions or appeals from dissatisfied owners, or was sent -to solve matters of perplexity.<a id="FNanchor_620" href="#Footnote_620" class="fnanchor">[620]</a> His acquirements were the -same as those of a Peraequator, but, whereas the latter was -obliged to impose a rate on some one for every hide of land, -the Inspector was allowed considerable discretion. After a -strict scrutiny he was empowered to give relief in clear cases -of over-assessment, and even to exclude altogether any tracts -of land which could not fairly be imposed on any of the inhabitants -of the district. Before final ratification, the cataster -had to pass under the eyes of the local Curia, the provincial -Rector, and of the Imperial financiers at the capital. The -<i>polyptica</i> or censual books were then closed, and remained -immutable until the next indiction.<a id="FNanchor_621" href="#Footnote_621" class="fnanchor">[621]</a></p> - -<p>2. Appended to the land survey was a register of the -labourers, slaves, and animals employed by the possessors of -estates; and upon every ordinary adult of this caste a poll<span class="pagenum" id="Page_153"> 153</span>-tax -was imposed.<a id="FNanchor_622" href="#Footnote_622" class="fnanchor">[622]</a> Similarly with respect to every animal -which performed a task, horses, oxen, mules, and asses for -draught purposes, and even dogs.<a id="FNanchor_623" href="#Footnote_623" class="fnanchor">[623]</a> For this demand the -landowner alone was dealt with by the authorities, but he -was entitled to recover from his labourers whatever he paid -on account of themselves or their families. As this capitation -was very moderate, the individual was freed from it by the -possession of the smallest holding, and subjected to the land-tax -instead;<a id="FNanchor_624" href="#Footnote_624" class="fnanchor">[624]</a> but the farmer still paid vicariously for his -work-people, even when assessed on property of their own. -Slaves were always, of course, a mere personal asset of their -masters, and incapable of ownership. A sweeping immunity -from poll-tax was conferred on all urban communities,<a id="FNanchor_625" href="#Footnote_625" class="fnanchor">[625]</a> whence -nobles and plutocrats escaped the impost for the hosts of -servants they sometimes maintained at their city mansions; -but even in the rural districts, virgins,<a id="FNanchor_626" href="#Footnote_626" class="fnanchor">[626]</a> widows, certain professional -men, and skilled artizans generally, were exempt.<a id="FNanchor_627" href="#Footnote_627" class="fnanchor">[627]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_154"> 154</span></p> - -<p>3. Port or transit dues, called <i>vectigalia</i>,<a id="FNanchor_628" href="#Footnote_628" class="fnanchor">[628]</a> were levied on -all merchandise transported from one province to another -for the sake of gain, that is, for resale at a profit; but for -purely personal use residents were permitted to pass a limited -quantity of goods free of tax. In this category may be included -licenses for gold-mining, which cost the venturer -about a guinea a year.<a id="FNanchor_629" href="#Footnote_629" class="fnanchor">[629]</a> Taxes of this class were let out by -public auction for a term of three years to those who bid -highest for the concession of collecting them.<a id="FNanchor_630" href="#Footnote_630" class="fnanchor">[630]</a> Export of -gold from the Empire was forbidden, and those who had the -opportunity, were exhorted to use every subterfuge in order -to obtain it from the barbarians.<a id="FNanchor_631" href="#Footnote_631" class="fnanchor">[631]</a></p> - -<p>4. A tax, peculiar in some respects to the Byzantine Empire, -was the <i>lustral collation</i> or <i>chrysargyron</i>, a duty of the -most comprehensive character on the profits of all commercial -transactions.<a id="FNanchor_632" href="#Footnote_632" class="fnanchor">[632]</a> Trade in every shape and form was subjected -to it, not excepting the earnings of public prostitutes, beggars, -and probably even of catamites.<a id="FNanchor_633" href="#Footnote_633" class="fnanchor">[633]</a> The <i>chrysargyron</i> was -collected every fourth year only, and for this reason, as it<span class="pagenum" id="Page_155"> 155</span> -appears, was felt to be a most oppressive tax.<a id="FNanchor_634" href="#Footnote_634" class="fnanchor">[634]</a> Doubtless -the demand was large in proportion to the lapse of time since -the last exaction, and weighed upon those taxed, like a sudden -claim for accumulated arrears. When the time for payment -arrived, a wail went up from all the small traders whose -traffic barely sufficed to keep them in the necessaries of life. -To procure the money, parents frequently, it is said, had to -sell their sons into servitude and their daughters for prostitution.<a id="FNanchor_635" href="#Footnote_635" class="fnanchor">[635]</a> -There were limited exemptions in favour of ministers -of the orthodox faith and retired veterans, who might engage -in petty trade; of artists selling their own works; and of -farmers who sold only their own produce.<a id="FNanchor_636" href="#Footnote_636" class="fnanchor">[636]</a> The most popular -and, perhaps, the boldest measure of Anastasius, was the -abrogation of this tax.<a id="FNanchor_637" href="#Footnote_637" class="fnanchor">[637]</a> Fortifying himself with the acquiescence<span class="pagenum" id="Page_156"> 156</span> -of the Senate, he proclaimed its abolition, caused all -the books and papers relating to this branch of the revenue -to be heaped up in the sphendone of the Hippodrome, and -publicly committed them to the flames.<a id="FNanchor_638" href="#Footnote_638" class="fnanchor">[638]</a> The chrysargyron -was never afterwards reimposed.</p> - -<p>5. With some special taxes reaped from dignitaries of -state, the income derived from crown lands and state mines, -and with fines, forfeitures, and heirless patrimonies, the flow of -revenue into the Imperial coffers ceased. From a fiscal point -of view there were four classes of Senators, or to consider -more accurately, perhaps, only two: those who were held to -contribute something to the treasury in respect of their rank, -and those who were absolved from paying anything. Wealthy -Senators, possessed of great estates, paid an extraordinary -capitation proportioned to the amount of their property, but -lands merely adjected to fill up the census were exempt -under this heading; those of only moderate means were -uniformly indicted for two <i>folles</i>, or purses of silver, about -£12 of our money; whilst the poorest class of all were -obliged to a payment of seven <i>solidi</i> only, about £4, with a -recommendation to resign if they felt unequal to this small -demand.<a id="FNanchor_639" href="#Footnote_639" class="fnanchor">[639]</a> Members who enjoyed complete immunity were -such as received the title of Senator in recognition of long, -but comparatively humble, service to the state; amongst these -we find certain officers of the Guards, physicians, professors<span class="pagenum" id="Page_157"> 157</span> -of the liberal arts, and others.<a id="FNanchor_640" href="#Footnote_640" class="fnanchor">[640]</a> Not even, however, with -their set contributions were the Senators released from the -pecuniary onus of their dignity, for they were expected to -subscribe handsome sums collectively to be presented to the -sovereign on every signal occasion, such as New Year’s day, -lustral anniversaries of his reign, birth of an heir, etc.<a id="FNanchor_641" href="#Footnote_641" class="fnanchor">[641]</a> When -any of the great functionaries of state, during or on vacating -office, were ennobled with the supreme title of patrician, an -offering of 100 lb. of gold (£4,000) was considered to be the -smallest sum by which he could fittingly express his gratitude -to the Emperor; this accession of revenue was particularly -devoted to the expenses of the aqueducts.<a id="FNanchor_642" href="#Footnote_642" class="fnanchor">[642]</a> An oblation of -two or three horses was also exacted every five years for the -public service from those who acquired honorary codicils of -ex-president or ex-count.<a id="FNanchor_643" href="#Footnote_643" class="fnanchor">[643]</a> Finally a tax, also under the -semblance of a present, was laid on the Decurions of each -municipality, who, in acknowledgement of their public services, -were freed from all the lesser imposts. To this contribution -was applied the name of <i>coronary gold</i>, the conception -of which arose in earlier times when gold, in the form -of crowns or figures of Victory, was presented to the Senate, -or to the generals of the Republic who had succeeded in -subjecting them, by conquered nations in token of their -subservience.<a id="FNanchor_644" href="#Footnote_644" class="fnanchor">[644]</a> These presentations were enjoined on every -plausible occasion of public rejoicing and the Imperial -officials did not forget to remind the local Curiae of their -duty to overlook no opportunity of conveying their congratulations -in a substantial manner to the Emperor. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_158"> 158</span> -Imperial demesnes lay chiefly in Cappadocia, which contained -some breadths of pasture land unequalled in any -other part of the Empire.<a id="FNanchor_645" href="#Footnote_645" class="fnanchor">[645]</a> The province was from the -earliest times famous for its horses, which were considered -as equal, though not quite, to the highly-prized Spanish -breeds in the West.<a id="FNanchor_646" href="#Footnote_646" class="fnanchor">[646]</a> Mines for gold, silver, and other valuable -minerals, including marble quarries, were regularly -worked by the Byzantine government in several localities -both in Europe and Asia; but history has furnished us with -no precise indications as to the gains drawn from them.<a id="FNanchor_647" href="#Footnote_647" class="fnanchor">[647]</a> -Under the penal code, to send criminals to work in the -mines was classed as one of the severest forms of punishment.<a id="FNanchor_648" href="#Footnote_648" class="fnanchor">[648]</a></p> - -<p>The <i>exaction</i> of the <i>annones</i> and <i>tributes</i>, expressions -which virtually included all the imposts, was the incessant -business of the official class. At the beginning of each -financial year the measure of the precept to be paid by each -district was determined in the office of the Praetorian Praefect, -subscribed by the Emperor, and disseminated through -the provinces by means of notices affixed in the most public -places.<a id="FNanchor_649" href="#Footnote_649" class="fnanchor">[649]</a> A grace of four months was conceded and then the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_159"> 159</span> -gathering in of the <i>annones</i> or canon of provisions, which -included corn, wine, oil, flesh, and every other necessary for -the support of the army and the free distributions to the -urban populace, began. Delivery was enjoined in three instalments -at intervals of four months,<a id="FNanchor_650" href="#Footnote_650" class="fnanchor">[650]</a> but payments in gold -were not enforced until the end of the year.<a id="FNanchor_651" href="#Footnote_651" class="fnanchor">[651]</a> The <i>Exactors</i>, -who waited on the tributaries to urge them to performance, -were usually decurions or apparitors of the Rector.<a id="FNanchor_652" href="#Footnote_652" class="fnanchor">[652]</a> The Imperial -constitutions directed with studied benignity that no -ungracious demeanour should be adopted towards the tax-payers,<a id="FNanchor_653" href="#Footnote_653" class="fnanchor">[653]</a> -that no application should be made on Sundays,<a id="FNanchor_654" href="#Footnote_654" class="fnanchor">[654]</a> -that they should not be approached by <i>opinators</i>, that is, by -soldiers in charge of the military commissariat,<a id="FNanchor_655" href="#Footnote_655" class="fnanchor">[655]</a> that they -should, when possible, be allowed the privilege of <i>autopragias</i> -or voluntary delivery,<a id="FNanchor_656" href="#Footnote_656" class="fnanchor">[656]</a> and that, if recalcitrant, they should -not be sent to prison or tortured, but allowed their liberty -under formal arrest.<a id="FNanchor_657" href="#Footnote_657" class="fnanchor">[657]</a> Only in the last resource was anything -of their substance seized as a pledge, to be sold “under the -spear” if unredeemed,<a id="FNanchor_658" href="#Footnote_658" class="fnanchor">[658]</a> but in general any valid excuse was -accepted and the tributaries were allowed to run into arrears.<a id="FNanchor_659" href="#Footnote_659" class="fnanchor">[659]</a> -Consonantly, however, to the prevailing principle every -effort was made by the Exactors to amass the full precept -from the locality, and those who could pay were convened -to make up for the defaulters.<a id="FNanchor_660" href="#Footnote_660" class="fnanchor">[660]</a> The actual receivers of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_160"> 160</span> -canon were named <i>Susceptors</i>, and their usual place of custom -was at the mansions or mutations of the public posts.<a id="FNanchor_661" href="#Footnote_661" class="fnanchor">[661]</a> -Scales and measures were regularly kept at these stations,<a id="FNanchor_662" href="#Footnote_662" class="fnanchor">[662]</a> -and on stated occasions a Susceptor was in attendance accompanied -by a <i>tabularius</i>, a clerk who was in charge of the -censual register which showed the liability of each person in -the municipality.<a id="FNanchor_663" href="#Footnote_663" class="fnanchor">[663]</a> The <i>tabularius</i> gave a receipt couched in -precise terms to each tributary for the amount of his payment -or consignment, particulars of which he also entered -in a book kept permanently for the purpose.<a id="FNanchor_664" href="#Footnote_664" class="fnanchor">[664]</a> The system -of <i>adaeratio</i>, or commutation of species for money, was extensively -adopted to obviate difficulties of delivery in kind; -and this was especially the case with respect to clothing or -horses for the army, or when transit was arduous by reason -of distance or rough country.<a id="FNanchor_665" href="#Footnote_665" class="fnanchor">[665]</a> The transport of the annones -and tributes to their destination was a work of some magnitude, -and was under the special supervision of the Vicar of -the diocese.<a id="FNanchor_666" href="#Footnote_666" class="fnanchor">[666]</a> Inland the <i>bastagarii</i>, the appointed branch<span class="pagenum" id="Page_161"> 161</span> -of the public service, effected the transmission by means of -the beasts of burden kept at the mansions of the Posts;<a id="FNanchor_667" href="#Footnote_667" class="fnanchor">[667]</a> by -sea the <i>navicularii</i> performed the same task. The latter -formed a corporation of considerable importance to which -they were addicted as the decurions were to the Curia. -Selected from the seafaring population who possessed ships -of sufficient tonnage, their vessels were chartered for the -conveyance of the canon of provisions as a permanent and -compulsory duty.<a id="FNanchor_668" href="#Footnote_668" class="fnanchor">[668]</a> Money payments, in coin or ingots, went -to the capital;<a id="FNanchor_669" href="#Footnote_669" class="fnanchor">[669]</a> provisions to the public granaries of Constantinople<span class="pagenum" id="Page_162"> 162</span> -or Alexandria, the two cities endowed with a free -victualling market,<a id="FNanchor_670" href="#Footnote_670" class="fnanchor">[670]</a> or were widely dispersed to various -centres to supply rations for the troops.<a id="FNanchor_671" href="#Footnote_671" class="fnanchor">[671]</a> Besides the ordinary -officials engaged in exaction there were several of higher -rank to supervise their proceedings: <i>Discussors</i>, the Greek -<i>logothetes</i>, who made expeditions into the provinces from -time to time to scrutinize and audit the accounts;<a id="FNanchor_672" href="#Footnote_672" class="fnanchor">[672]</a> surveyors -of taxes, Senators preferably, whose duties were defined -by the term <i>protostasia</i>,<a id="FNanchor_673" href="#Footnote_673" class="fnanchor">[673]</a> to whom the <i>Susceptors</i> were -immediately responsible; and lastly <i>Compulsors</i>, officers of -the central bureaucracy, <i>Agentes-in-rebus</i>, palatines attached -to the treasury, even Protectors, who were sent on special -missions to stimulate the Rectors when the taxes of a province -were coming in badly.<a id="FNanchor_674" href="#Footnote_674" class="fnanchor">[674]</a></p> - -<p>As to the revenue of the Roman Empire at this or at -any previous period, the historian can pronounce no definitive -word, but it concerns us to note here one important -fact, viz., that Anastasius during the twenty-seven years of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_163"> 163</span> -his reign saved about half a million sterling per annum, so -that at his death he left a surplus in the treasury of nearly -£13,000,000.<a id="FNanchor_675" href="#Footnote_675" class="fnanchor">[675]</a></p> - -<p>II. The political position of the Roman Empire in respect -of its foreign relations presents a remarkable contrast to -anything we are accustomed to conceive of in the case of a -modern state. Having absorbed into its own system everything -of civilization which lay within reach of its arms, there -was henceforth no field in which statesmanship could exert -itself by methods of negotiation or diplomacy in relation to -the dwellers beyond its borders. Encompassed by barbarians, -to live by definite treaty on peaceful terms with its neighbours -became outside the range of policy or foresight; and its -position is only comparable to that of some great bulwark -founded to resist the convulsions of nature, which may leave -it unassailed for an indefinite period, or attack it without a -moment’s warning with irresistible violence. The vast territories -stretching from the Rhine and the Danube to the -frontiers of China, nearly a quarter of the circumference of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_164"> 164</span> -the globe, engendered a teeming population, nomads for the -most part, without fixed abodes, who threatened continually -to overflow their boundaries and bring destruction on every -settled state lying in their path. Among such races the army -and the nation were equivalent terms; the whole people -moved together, and inhabited for the time being whatever -lands they had gained by right of conquest. But their career -was brought to a close when they subdued nations much -more numerous than themselves, with fixed habitations and -engaged in the arts of peace; and they then possessed the -country as a dominant minority, which, whilst giving a -peculiar tincture to the greater mass, was gradually assimilated -by it. In classical and modern times conquest usually -signifies merely annexation, but in the Middle Ages it -implied actual occupation by the victors. Such was the fate -of the Western Empire, when Italy, Africa, Spain, Gaul, and -Britain were dissevered from each other by various inroads; -and those countries at the time I am writing of are found -to be in such a transitional state.<a id="FNanchor_676" href="#Footnote_676" class="fnanchor">[676]</a> Nor can Thrace and -Illyricum, though forming a main portion of the Eastern -Empire, be properly omitted from this list; for, exposed to -barbarian incursions<a id="FNanchor_677" href="#Footnote_677" class="fnanchor">[677]</a> during more than two centuries, they -enjoyed a merely nominal settlement under the Imperial -government; and if we contemplate the Long Wall<a id="FNanchor_678" href="#Footnote_678" class="fnanchor">[678]</a> of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_165"> 165</span> -Anastasius, at a distance of only forty miles from the capital, -we shall need no further evidence that the Byzantines exercised -no more than a shadow of political supremacy in -these regions.<a id="FNanchor_679" href="#Footnote_679" class="fnanchor">[679]</a> But an exception to the foregoing conditions -was generally experienced by the Romans on their eastern -frontier, where the Parthian or Persian power was often able -to meet them with a civil and military organization equal to -their own.<a id="FNanchor_680" href="#Footnote_680" class="fnanchor">[680]</a></p> - -<p>The elaborate scheme for the defence of the Empire -against its restless and reckless foes was brought to perfection -under Diocletian and Constantine. Armies and fleets -judiciously posted were always ready to repel an attack or to -carry offensive operations into an enemy’s country. A chain -of muniments guarded the frontiers in every locality where -an assault could be feared. Forts and fortified camps sufficiently -garrisoned lined every barrier, natural or artificial, -at measured distances. Suitable war vessels floated on the -great circumscribing waterways; and where these were deficient -their place was supplied by walls of masonry, by -trenches, embankments, and palisades, or even by heterogeneous -obstructions formed of felled trees with their -branches entangled one with the other.<a id="FNanchor_681" href="#Footnote_681" class="fnanchor">[681]</a> Border lands were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_166"> 166</span> -granted only to military occupants, who held them by a -kind of feudal tenure in return for their service on the -frontier.<a id="FNanchor_682" href="#Footnote_682" class="fnanchor">[682]</a> Every important station was guarded by from -2,000 to 3,000 soldiers; and in the Eastern Empire the -division of the army to which such duties were assigned may -have amounted to over 200,000 men of all soldiers, arms,<a id="FNanchor_683" href="#Footnote_683" class="fnanchor">[683]</a> etc. These -forces were called the <i>Limitanei Milites</i>, or Border Soldiers, -and in each province of the exterior range were under the -command collectively of a Count or Duke.<a id="FNanchor_684" href="#Footnote_684" class="fnanchor">[684]</a> Such were the -stationary forces of the Empire, of whose services the frontiers -could not be depleted should a mobile army be required to -meet the exigences of strategic warfare. Large bodies of -troops were, therefore, quartered in the interior of the -country, which could be concentrated in any particular -locality under the immediate disposition of the Masters of -the Forces. This portion of the army was organized in two -divisions to which were given the names of <i>Palatines</i> and -<i>Comitatenses</i>. The former, which held the first rank, were -stationed in or near the capital under the two Masters<a id="FNanchor_685" href="#Footnote_685" class="fnanchor">[685]</a> at -head-quarters; and, in accordance with their designation, -were identified most nearly with the conception of defending -the Imperial Palace or heart of the state. The latter were -distributed throughout the provinces under the three Masters<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167"> 167</span> -whose military rule extended over the East, Thrace, and -Illyricum respectively. The <i>Palatine</i> troops comprised about -50,000 men, the <i>Comitatenses</i> about 70,000.<a id="FNanchor_686" href="#Footnote_686" class="fnanchor">[686]</a> Cavalry formed -a large proportion of all the forces, and may be estimated at -about one third of the <i>Limitanei</i> and nearly one fourth of -the other branches. In addition to these troops a fourth -military class, the highest of all, was formed, the Imperial -Guards already mentioned,<a id="FNanchor_687" href="#Footnote_687" class="fnanchor">[687]</a> viz., the Excubitors, Protectors, -Candidates, and Scholars. The latter body consisted of seven -troops of cavalry, each 500 strong, 3,500 in all.<a id="FNanchor_688" href="#Footnote_688" class="fnanchor">[688]</a> Owing their -position solely to birth or veteran service, the three former -groups were probably much less numerous, but their actual -number is unknown.<a id="FNanchor_689" href="#Footnote_689" class="fnanchor">[689]</a> The usual division of the infantry was -the legion of 1,000 men, that of the horse the <i>vexillatio</i> containing -500.<a id="FNanchor_690" href="#Footnote_690" class="fnanchor">[690]</a> The various bodies of foot soldiers were distinguished -by the particular emblems which were depicted -on their brightly painted shields,<a id="FNanchor_691" href="#Footnote_691" class="fnanchor">[691]</a> but amongst horse and -foot alike each separate body was recognizable by an ensign -of special design, for the former a <i>vexillum</i>, for the latter a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_168"> 168</span> -dragon. The Imperial standard, or that of the general in -chief command, was a purple banner embroidered with gold -and of exceptional size. The <i>vexilla</i> were dependent horizontally -from a cross-bar fixed to the pole or spear by which -they were elevated. Mounted lancers displayed small pennons -or streamers near the points of their weapons,<a id="FNanchor_692" href="#Footnote_692" class="fnanchor">[692]</a> but -these were removed as an encumbrance on the eve of battle.<a id="FNanchor_693" href="#Footnote_693" class="fnanchor">[693]</a> -Full armour was worn, in some troops even by the horses.<a id="FNanchor_694" href="#Footnote_694" class="fnanchor">[694]</a> -Besides the weapons adapted for close conflict, much reliance -was placed on missiles, javelins and slings, but especially -bows and arrows in the hands of mounted archers.<a id="FNanchor_695" href="#Footnote_695" class="fnanchor">[695]</a> In replenishing -the ranks great discrimination was exercised; and -not only the physical fitness of the recruit,<a id="FNanchor_696" href="#Footnote_696" class="fnanchor">[696]</a> but the social -atmosphere in which he had sprung up was made the subject -of strict inquiry. No slave was accepted as a soldier,<a id="FNanchor_697" href="#Footnote_697" class="fnanchor">[697]</a> nor -any youth whose mind had been debased by menial employment -or by traffic for petty gains in the slums of a city.<a id="FNanchor_698" href="#Footnote_698" class="fnanchor">[698]</a> The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_169"> 169</span> -sons of veterans were impressed into the service,<a id="FNanchor_699" href="#Footnote_699" class="fnanchor">[699]</a> and the -landowners had periodically either to provide from their own -family or to pay a computed sum for the purchase of a substitute -among such as were not liable to conscription.<a id="FNanchor_700" href="#Footnote_700" class="fnanchor">[700]</a> Many of -the turbulent barbarian tribes on being subdued were obliged -by the articles of a treaty to pay an annual tribute of their -choicest youths to the armies of the Empire.<a id="FNanchor_701" href="#Footnote_701" class="fnanchor">[701]</a> In addition to -the regular forces, barbarian contingents, called <i>foederati</i>,<a id="FNanchor_702" href="#Footnote_702" class="fnanchor">[702]</a> -obeying their own leaders, were often bound by a league to -serve under the Imperial government. In Europe the Goths, -in Asia the Saracens, were usually the most important of -such allies. Of the former nation Constantine at one time -attached to himself as many as 40,000, an effort in which -he was afterwards emulated by the great Theodosius.<a id="FNanchor_703" href="#Footnote_703" class="fnanchor">[703]</a> The -warships of the period were mostly long, low galleys impelled -by one bank of oars from twenty to thirty in number, -built entirely with a view to swiftness and hence called -<i>dromons</i> or “runners.” The smaller ones were employed on -the rivers, the larger for operations at sea.<a id="FNanchor_704" href="#Footnote_704" class="fnanchor">[704]</a> After a period -of service varying from fifteen to twenty-four years the -soldier could retire as a veteran with a gratuity, a grant of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_170"> 170</span> -land, and exemption from taxation on a graduated scale for -himself and his family.<a id="FNanchor_705" href="#Footnote_705" class="fnanchor">[705]</a></p> - -<p>Such was the carefully digested scheme of military defence -bequeathed to his successors by Constantine, who doubtless -anticipated that he had granted a lease of endurance to the -regenerated Empire for many centuries to come. But in the -course of a hundred and fifty years this fine system fell -gradually to pieces; and by the beginning of the sixth -century no more than a <i>cento</i> of the original fabric can be -discerned in the chronicles of the times. The whole forces -were diminished almost to a moiety of their full complement;<a id="FNanchor_706" href="#Footnote_706" class="fnanchor">[706]</a> -the great peripheral bulwark of the <i>Limitanei</i>, scarcely -discoverable on the Illyrian frontier, in other regions was -represented by meagre bodies of one or two hundred men;<a id="FNanchor_707" href="#Footnote_707" class="fnanchor">[707]</a> -whilst the <i>Palatines</i> and <i>Comitatenses</i> betrayed such an -altered character that they could claim merely a nominal -existence.<a id="FNanchor_708" href="#Footnote_708" class="fnanchor">[708]</a> The very name of legion, so identified with -Roman conquest, but no longer available in the deteriorated -military organization, became obsolete. In a Byzantine -army at this period three constituents exist officially, but -with little practical distinction. They appear as the <i>Numeri</i>,<a id="FNanchor_709" href="#Footnote_709" class="fnanchor">[709]</a> -the <i>Foederati</i>, and the <i>Buccellarii</i>. 1. The <i>Numeri</i> are the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_171"> 171</span> -regular troops of the Empire, horse and foot, enrolled under -the direct command of the Masters of the Forces, but the -principle of strict selection has been virtually abandoned, -applicants are accepted indiscriminately,<a id="FNanchor_710" href="#Footnote_710" class="fnanchor">[710]</a> and even slaves -are enlisted and retained under any plausible pretext.<a id="FNanchor_711" href="#Footnote_711" class="fnanchor">[711]</a> 2. The -<i>Foederati</i> now consist of bodies of mercenaries raised as a -private speculation by soldiers of fortune, with the expectation -of obtaining lucrative terms for their services from the -Imperial government.<a id="FNanchor_712" href="#Footnote_712" class="fnanchor">[712]</a> Such regiments were formed without -regard to nationality, and might be composed mainly, or in -part, of subjects of the Empire, or be wholly derived from -some tribe of outer barbarians who offered themselves in a -body for hire. On being engaged, each band received an -<i>optio</i> or adjutant, who formed the connecting link between -them and the central authorities, and arranged all matters -relating to their <i>annones</i> and stipend.<a id="FNanchor_713" href="#Footnote_713" class="fnanchor">[713]</a> But the tie was so -loose that even on a foreign expedition they might arbitrarily -dissolve the contract for some trivial reason, and possibly -join the enemy’s forces.<a id="FNanchor_714" href="#Footnote_714" class="fnanchor">[714]</a> 3. The <i>Buccellarii</i><a id="FNanchor_715" href="#Footnote_715" class="fnanchor">[715]</a> are the armed -retainers or satellites of the Byzantine magnates, whether<span class="pagenum" id="Page_172"> 172</span> -civil or military, but especially of the latter. Officially they -are reckoned among the <i>Foederati</i>,<a id="FNanchor_716" href="#Footnote_716" class="fnanchor">[716]</a> and are obliged to take -an oath of allegiance, not only to their actual chief, but also -to the Emperor.<a id="FNanchor_717" href="#Footnote_717" class="fnanchor">[717]</a> Their number varied according to the -rank and wealth of their employers, and in the case of the -Praetorian Praefects, or the Masters of the Forces, might -amount to several thousands.<a id="FNanchor_718" href="#Footnote_718" class="fnanchor">[718]</a> In each company they were -divided into two classes, named respectively the lancers and -the shieldmen. The former were selected men who formed -the personal guard of their leader, the latter the rank and -file who were officered by them.<a id="FNanchor_719" href="#Footnote_719" class="fnanchor">[719]</a> The lancers were invariably -cavalry, the shieldmen not necessarily so. These satellites -were recruited preferably amongst the Isaurians,<a id="FNanchor_720" href="#Footnote_720" class="fnanchor">[720]</a> a -hardy race of highlanders, who, though within the Empire, -always maintained a quasi-independence in their mountain -fastnesses, and devoted themselves openly to brigandage.<a id="FNanchor_721" href="#Footnote_721" class="fnanchor">[721]</a> -To check their depredations a military Count was always -set over that region, which thus resembled a frontier rather -than an interior province. A fleet of warships was not kept -up systematically at this epoch, but in view of an expedition, -owing to the small size of the vessels, a navy could be created -in a few weeks.<a id="FNanchor_722" href="#Footnote_722" class="fnanchor">[722]</a></p> - -<p>From the foregoing specification it will be perceived that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_173"> 173</span> -the method of enrollment constituted the only practical difference -between the three classes of soldiers who marched in -the ranks of a Byzantine army. The maintenance of the -Empire rested, therefore, on a heterogeneous multitude, -trained to the profession of arms no doubt, but without the -cohesion of nationality or uniform military discipline.<a id="FNanchor_723" href="#Footnote_723" class="fnanchor">[723]</a> In -the multifarious host the word of command was given in -Latin, which Greek and barbarian alike were taught to understand.<a id="FNanchor_724" href="#Footnote_724" class="fnanchor">[724]</a></p> - -<p>Every student of ancient history is familiar with the -methods of warfare among the Greeks and Romans; with the -impenetrable, but inactive, phalanx which subdued the eastern -world; and with the less solid, but mobile, legion which -ultimately succeeded in mastering it.<a id="FNanchor_725" href="#Footnote_725" class="fnanchor">[725]</a> Such armies consisted -mainly of infantry; and the small bodies of cavalry attached -to them, amounting to one tenth, or, perhaps, to as little as -one twentieth part of the whole, were intended merely to -protect the flanks of each division, or to render more effective -the pursuit of a flying enemy. In those times, therefore, the -horsemen were only an auxiliary force, which never engaged -in battle as an independent army. But in the multiple -operations against elusive barbarians in the wide circuit of -the Roman Empire, experience made it evident that the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_174"> 174</span> -mobility of cavalry was indispensable in order to deal effectively -with such wary and reckless foes.<a id="FNanchor_726" href="#Footnote_726" class="fnanchor">[726]</a> Early in the fourth century -the number and importance of the cavalry had increased -to such an extent that they were relegated to a separate -command: and the Master of the Horse was regarded as of -superior rank to his colleague of the infantry.<a id="FNanchor_727" href="#Footnote_727" class="fnanchor">[727]</a> In the East, -however, both branches of the service were soon combined -under a single commander-in-chief; and henceforward the -first military officers are entitled Masters of the Horse and -Foot, or, collectively, of the Forces.<a id="FNanchor_728" href="#Footnote_728" class="fnanchor">[728]</a></p> - -<p>At the period I am writing about, the usual routine of a -pitched battle is to range the infantry in the centre with large -squadrons of cavalry on either flank.<a id="FNanchor_729" href="#Footnote_729" class="fnanchor">[729]</a> Both armies first exhaust -their supply of missiles, after which a general engagement at -close quarters ensues. By the aid of various evolutions, concealed -reserves, and unexpected manœuvres, the opposing -generals strive to take each other at a disadvantage, and victory -rests with the most skilful or fortunate tactician. Single combats -in the interspace between the two armies are not unfrequently<span class="pagenum" id="Page_175"> 175</span> -initiatory to a battle;<a id="FNanchor_730" href="#Footnote_730" class="fnanchor">[730]</a> and sometimes a campaign -is decided by conflicts of cavalry alone.<a id="FNanchor_731" href="#Footnote_731" class="fnanchor">[731]</a></p> - -<p>The various classes of Imperial guards still exist as a fourth -division of the army, but, owing to the introduction of a -system of purchase, these corps have degenerated into the -condition of being mere figures to be mechanically paraded -in the course of state pageantry; soldiers apparently, and -in resplendent uniforms, but unversed in war, who would -sooner buy their release for a large sum than enter on a -campaign.<a id="FNanchor_732" href="#Footnote_732" class="fnanchor">[732]</a></p> - -<p>The wars of Anastasius may be reviewed briefly in this -section. They were four in number. 1. At the outset of his -reign he found himself opposed within the capital by a strong -faction of turbulent Isaurians, the relations and adherents of -the late Emperor Zeno. Some of these held high office, and had -even aspired to the throne.<a id="FNanchor_733" href="#Footnote_733" class="fnanchor">[733]</a> On their dismissal and banishment -from Constantinople the leaders fled to Isauria, where they -levied large forces, and raised a rebellion by the aid of arms -and treasure which Zeno had seen fit to amass in his native -province.<a id="FNanchor_734" href="#Footnote_734" class="fnanchor">[734]</a> The insurgents kept up hostilities for a long period -with declining success against the Imperial generals, and the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_176"> 176</span> -revolt was not fully suppressed till the seventh year (498).<a id="FNanchor_735" href="#Footnote_735" class="fnanchor">[735]</a> -In the fourth year of the war, however, the ringleaders were -captured and decapitated, and their heads were sent to -Constantinople, where they were exhibited to the populace -fixed on poles in the suburb of Sycae.<a id="FNanchor_736" href="#Footnote_736" class="fnanchor">[736]</a> The pacification of -the province was achieved by this war more effectually than -on any previous occasion, and the Isaurians do not again -appear in history as refractory subjects of the Empire.<a id="FNanchor_737" href="#Footnote_737" class="fnanchor">[737]</a></p> - -<p>2. In 502 the Persian king, Cavades,<a id="FNanchor_738" href="#Footnote_738" class="fnanchor">[738]</a> applied to Anastasius -for the loan of a large sum of money which he required in -order to cement an alliance with the barbarian nation of the -Nephthalites or White Huns.<a id="FNanchor_739" href="#Footnote_739" class="fnanchor">[739]</a> For politic reasons this loan -was refused, and the exasperated potentate immediately -turned his arms against the Empire. He invaded the western -portion of Armenia, which was under Roman suzerainty,<a id="FNanchor_740" href="#Footnote_740" class="fnanchor">[740]</a> and -took one or two towns of minor importance before an army -could be sent against him. The principal feature of this war, -which lasted about four years, was the capture and recovery<span class="pagenum" id="Page_177"> 177</span> -of Amida, a strongly fortified city of considerable size, situated -in northern Mesopotamia, on the banks of the Tigris. Although -ill-garrisoned, and neither armed nor provisioned to -stand a siege, the inhabitants received the Persians with the -most insulting defiance and made a very determined resistance -for some months. The massive walls withstood the -attacking engines, and all the devices of the besiegers were -baffled by the ingenuity of those within the city. In despair -Cavades had already given orders to raise the siege when the -downfall of Amida was brought about by a very singular -circumstance, as related by the chief historian of the period.<a id="FNanchor_741" href="#Footnote_741" class="fnanchor">[741]</a> -In the excess of popular frenzy at the news of the proposed -retreat, the harlots of the town hastened to the battlements -in order to jeer at the Persian monarch as he passed on his -rounds, by making an indecent exposure of their persons. -This obscene conduct so impressed the Magi in attendance -that they gave it a mystical signification, and imparted their -opinion to the King that “everything hidden and secret in -Amida would shortly be laid bare.” The departure was -countermanded, and ultimately, through the supineness or -treachery of some monks, to whom the guard of one of the -main towers had been confided, an entry was made. A vengeful -massacre of the vanquished then took place,<a id="FNanchor_742" href="#Footnote_742" class="fnanchor">[742]</a> which was -only stayed by the wit of a suppliant priest, who, in answer -to the irate question of Cavades, “How did you dare to resist -me so violently?” replied, “That the city might be won<span class="pagenum" id="Page_178"> 178</span> -by your valour and not by our cowardice.” Two years later, -as a result of a protracted but ineffective siege, the Persians -agreed to evacuate the town for a payment of one thousand -pounds of gold (£40,000). On entering, the Romans discovered -to their chagrin that such a state of destitution prevailed -as would have compelled the surrender of the stronghold -within a few days. The conclusion of this war was -brought about by an invasion of the Huns,<a id="FNanchor_743" href="#Footnote_743" class="fnanchor">[743]</a> who threatened -Persia from the north; and hence Cavades was glad to make -peace for seven years, on terms which left both parties in the -same position as before the commencement of hostilities. -The issue of this conflict was, on the whole, favourable to -Anastasius, who, in the sense of being the superior power, -soon proceeded to infringe the articles of the treaty by erecting -commanding fortresses against his late foes along his -eastern border. Especially as a counterpoise to the impregnable -Nisibis, which had been ceded to the Persians a century -and a half previously by the inept Jovian,<a id="FNanchor_744" href="#Footnote_744" class="fnanchor">[744]</a> he raised the insignificant -village of Daras to the rank of an important town, -and surrounded it with bastions of imposing strength.<a id="FNanchor_745" href="#Footnote_745" class="fnanchor">[745]</a> The -impotent protests of the Persians were disregarded, and -the two empires did not again come into martial collision for -more than twenty years.</p> - -<p>3. In 505 Anastasius and Theodoric, the Gothic king in -Italy, by mutual inadvertence, as it may be judged, became -involved in a conflict. Simultaneously the Master of the -Forces in Illyricum and the Gothic general Petza were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_179"> 179</span> -engaged in suppressing their several enemies in that region.<a id="FNanchor_746" href="#Footnote_746" class="fnanchor">[746]</a> -The antagonist of the Byzantine general was Mundo, a bandit -chief of the blood of Attila, who, with a body of Hunnish -marauders, was preying on the country. He, on the point of -being worsted, craved the assistance of Petza, who, seeing in -him a natural ally of kindred race, joined him with his -forces. The Goth had, in fact, just achieved the object of -his expedition and probably made this move in the heat of -success. Together they routed the Imperial army, which was -shattered beyond all chance of reparation.<a id="FNanchor_747" href="#Footnote_747" class="fnanchor">[747]</a> To avenge this -defeat, Anastasius in 508 fitted out a naval expedition, which -conveyed a landing force of 8,000 soldiers to the Italian -coast. Making an unforeseen descent on Tarentum, they -ravaged the vicinity with piratical ferocity, and returned as -hastily as they came.<a id="FNanchor_748" href="#Footnote_748" class="fnanchor">[748]</a> Theodoric, however, did not feel equal -to pitting himself against the forces and resources of the East, -and decided not to resent these reprisals. He deprecated the -wrath of the Emperor in deferential language, and these -encounters were soon forgotten as merely fortuitous disturbances -of the peace.<a id="FNanchor_749" href="#Footnote_749" class="fnanchor">[749]</a></p> - -<p>4. In 514 the studied economy of Anastasius provoked -an upheaval of the incongruous elements of the state, which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_180"> 180</span> -threatened the immediate collapse of his administration. -From the hordes of barbarians massed on the banks of the -Danube, troops were continually detached to take service -under the Empire as <i>Foederati</i>; and their numbers had -increased to such an extent that the annones due to them -became an intolerable drain on the revenue. A sweeping -reduction of these supplies was, therefore, decreed;<a id="FNanchor_750" href="#Footnote_750" class="fnanchor">[750]</a> a -measure judicious in itself, which would probably have been -supported in sullen silence by the barbarians had not Count -Vitalian, a Goth, and their principal leader, perceived that a -specious means of retaliation was to hand. Taking advantage -of the religious intractability of Anastasius, which was the -bane of his rule and had alienated from him most of his -pious subjects, he announced himself as the champion of -orthodoxy, and proclaimed a holy war against the heretical -Emperor.<a id="FNanchor_751" href="#Footnote_751" class="fnanchor">[751]</a> The cry was taken up universally, and, especially -within the capital, all the factious fanatics clamoured for -Vitalian as the legitimate occupant of the throne. An -immense host of <i>Foederati</i> followed the standard of the rebel; -a great battle was fought in Thrace, with the result that the -Imperial army was cut to pieces, suffering a loss, it is said, -of more than sixty thousand.<a id="FNanchor_752" href="#Footnote_752" class="fnanchor">[752]</a> A fleet was placed at the -disposal of the pretender, whereupon Vitalian moved on the -capital and blockaded Constantinople by land and sea. -Against this attack the Emperor concerted measures within<span class="pagenum" id="Page_181"> 181</span> -the city with some Athenian philosophers, their chemical -knowledge was utilized effectively, galleys which ejected -bituminous combustibles were launched against the hostile -ships, and the investing fleet retreated precipitately amid -volumes of fire and smoke.<a id="FNanchor_753" href="#Footnote_753" class="fnanchor">[753]</a> The diplomacy of the almost -nonagenarian monarch during this revolt was marked by -much temporizing and duplicity; he disarmed the <i>Foederati</i> -by a liberal donative,<a id="FNanchor_754" href="#Footnote_754" class="fnanchor">[754]</a> and by raising their captain to the -rank of Master of the Forces in Thrace;<a id="FNanchor_755" href="#Footnote_755" class="fnanchor">[755]</a> he mollified the -orthodox ecclesiastics by promises and prepared instruments -for the recall of exiled bishops; and he appealed to Pope -Hormisdas praying that a synod should meet at Heraclea in -order to appease the dissensions of the Church.<a id="FNanchor_756" href="#Footnote_756" class="fnanchor">[756]</a> The synod -met after protracted negotiations, but the combination was -already dissolved, and the head of rebellion was broken; -the concessions offered by the Emperor were presented and -found to be illusory, and the futile assembly separated -without any tangible result.<a id="FNanchor_757" href="#Footnote_757" class="fnanchor">[757]</a> Anastasius had carried his -point; active, yet impotent discontent reigned everywhere, -but he had yielded nothing; and soon afterwards, in extreme -old age, he sank into the grave<a id="FNanchor_758" href="#Footnote_758" class="fnanchor">[758]</a> amid the familiar waves of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_182"> 182</span> -sedition which for twenty-seven years had raged ineffectually -round his throne.<a id="FNanchor_759" href="#Footnote_759" class="fnanchor">[759]</a></p> - -<p>III. The commercial activities of the ancient world, as far -as they come within the vision of history, were almost confined -to these countries which encircle the basin of the -Mediterranean; and in the early centuries of our era the -varied regions to be measured between the Ganges and -Gades were conceived to represent approximately the whole -extent of the habitable earth.<a id="FNanchor_760" href="#Footnote_760" class="fnanchor">[760]</a> Although the theory of a -globe was held by advanced geographers and astronomers, -the fact had not been established by circumnavigation and -survey; and the idea was so far from being realized by the -masses, that the notion of antipodes seemed to them to be -little less than preposterous.<a id="FNanchor_761" href="#Footnote_761" class="fnanchor">[761]</a> In the obscurity of prehistoric<span class="pagenum" id="Page_183"> 183</span> -times the arts and sciences appear to have originated in the -East; and from thence, by the aid of Greece and Rome, -civilization extended until it included almost all the known -parts of Western Africa and Europe. Before the beginning -of the sixth century, however, owing to the incursions and -settlements of Goths and Vandals, those western countries -had retrograded nearly to the same level of barbarism from -which they had been rescued formerly by the civilizing arms -of Rome.</p> - -<p>In the earliest ages the trade of the Mediterranean was -entirely in the hands of the Semitic race; and from their -great ports of Tyre and Sidon the Phoenicians penetrated with -their well-laden ships even as far as Spain and Britain,<a id="FNanchor_762" href="#Footnote_762" class="fnanchor">[762]</a> -disposing of their native manufactures and imported wares -on every coast within their reach.<a id="FNanchor_763" href="#Footnote_763" class="fnanchor">[763]</a> But with the rise and -spread of Hellenic civilization, commerce became more -cosmopolitan; and by the conquests of Alexander the -Greeks were made practically cognizant of a Far East teeming<span class="pagenum" id="Page_184"> 184</span> -with productions which could minister to the needs of -increasing wealth and luxury. At the same period, about -330 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, the foundation of Alexandria by that monarch gave -them the command of Egypt, and they began to explore the -borders of the Arabian Gulf or Red Sea as far as the Gulf -of Aden and the confines of equatorial Africa. Concomitantly -the laborious voyage of Nearchus,<a id="FNanchor_764" href="#Footnote_764" class="fnanchor">[764]</a> undertaken at the -instigation of the Macedonian conqueror, along inhospitable -shores from the mouth of the Indus to the head of the -Persian Gulf, revealed to the Greeks the existence of a chain -of navigable seas by which the treasures of the Indies might -be brought by water to the wharves of the new capital. -Through the establishment of this commerce Alexandria -became the greatest trading centre of the Mediterranean, -and distributed its exports to every civilized community who -peopled the extended littoral of that sea.<a id="FNanchor_765" href="#Footnote_765" class="fnanchor">[765]</a></p> - -<p>The first merchants who crossed the Indian ocean, embarking -in small ships of light draught, timidly hugged the -shore during their whole voyage, dipping into every bight -for fear of losing sight of land. But in the reign of Claudius -a navigator named Hippalus discovered the monsoons, and -noted their stability as to force and direction at certain seasons -of the year.<a id="FNanchor_766" href="#Footnote_766" class="fnanchor">[766]</a> Thenceforward the merchants, furnishing -themselves with larger vessels,<a id="FNanchor_767" href="#Footnote_767" class="fnanchor">[767]</a> boldly spread their sails to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_185"> 185</span> -the wind, ventured into mid-ocean, and made a swift and -continuous passage from the southern coast of Arabia to some -chosen port in the vicinity of Bombay.<a id="FNanchor_768" href="#Footnote_768" class="fnanchor">[768]</a> Such was the southern, -and, within the Christian era, most frequented trade route -between the Roman Empire and the Indies. There were, -however, two other avenues, more ancient, but less safe and -less constant, by which merchandise from the far East, mainly -by inland transit, could enter the Empire. By the first of -these, which traversed many barbarous nations, the eastern -shores of the Euxine were brought into communication with -northern India through the Oxus, the Caspian Sea, and the -Cyrus. From a bend in the latter river, the emporium of the -trade, the town of Phasis, was easily attainable.<a id="FNanchor_769" href="#Footnote_769" class="fnanchor">[769]</a> The second,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_186"> 186</span> -intermediately situated, was the most direct and facile of -the three, but, as it lay through the Persian dominions, the -activity of commerce by this route depended on the maintenance -of peace between the two empires.<a id="FNanchor_770" href="#Footnote_770" class="fnanchor">[770]</a> The Byzantine -government, jealous of the intercourse of its subjects with their -hereditary enemies, fixed Artaxata, Nisibis, and Callinicus<a id="FNanchor_771" href="#Footnote_771" class="fnanchor">[771]</a> -as marts beyond which it was illegal for Roman merchants -to advance for the purposes of trade on this frontier.<a id="FNanchor_772" href="#Footnote_772" class="fnanchor">[772]</a></p> - -<p>In the sixth century the Ethiopian kingdom of Axume,<a id="FNanchor_773" href="#Footnote_773" class="fnanchor">[773]</a> -nearly corresponding with Abyssinia, became the southern -centre of international trade; and its great port of Adule was -frequented by ships and traders from all parts of the East.<a id="FNanchor_774" href="#Footnote_774" class="fnanchor">[774]</a> -Ethiopian, Persian, and Indian merchants scoured the -Gangetic Gulf, and, having loaded their vessels with aloes, -cloves, and sandalwood, obtained at Tranquebar and other -ports, returned to Siedeliba or Ceylon<a id="FNanchor_775" href="#Footnote_775" class="fnanchor">[775]</a> to dispose of their -goods. There transhipments were effected, and sapphires, -pearls, and tortoise-shell, the chief exports of that island, -were added to the cargoes of ships westward bound. In the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_187"> 187</span> -same market a limited supply of silk was obtained from such -Chinese merchants as were venturesome enough to sail so -far.<a id="FNanchor_776" href="#Footnote_776" class="fnanchor">[776]</a> From Ceylon such vessels voyaged along the Malabar -coast between Cape Comorin and Sindu, near the mouth of -the Indus, receiving on board at various places supplies of -cotton and linen fabrics for clothing, copper and rare woods, -together with spices and aromatics, musk, castor, and -especially pepper. In the harbours of that seaboard they -also met with the merchants from Adule, most of whom -sailed no farther, and provided them with the freight for -their homeward voyage.<a id="FNanchor_777" href="#Footnote_777" class="fnanchor">[777]</a></p> - -<p>The traders of Axume were not, however, wholly dependent -for supplies on their intercourse with the Indies. Adjacent -to their own borders lay wide tracts of country which -were to them a fruitful source of the most valuable commodities; -and with such their ships were laden when outward -bound for the further East. Journeying to the south-east -they entered an extensive but wild region called Barbaria,<a id="FNanchor_778" href="#Footnote_778" class="fnanchor">[778]</a> -part of which was known as the Land of Frankincense, -from its peculiar fecundity in that odoriferous balsam. In -this region cinnamon and tortoise-shell were also obtained; -black slaves were purchased from various savage tribes; -elephants were hunted by the natives for food; and ivory<span class="pagenum" id="Page_188"> 188</span> -was supplied in greatest quantity to the markets of the world.<a id="FNanchor_779" href="#Footnote_779" class="fnanchor">[779]</a> -Every other year a caravan of several hundred merchants -set out from Axume, well armed and equipped for a distant -expedition. For six months continuously they travelled -southward until they had penetrated far into the interior of -the African continent. Gold was the object of their journey, -and they took with them a herd of oxen as well as a quantity -of salt and iron to barter for the precious metal. On arriving -at the auriferous region they slaughtered the oxen and cut -up the flesh into joints which they arranged along with the -other objects of trade on the top of a specially erected barrier -formed of thorn bushes. They then retreated to some -distance, upon which the inhabitants, who had been watching -their proceedings, came forward and placed pellets of gold -on such lots as they wished to purchase. On the savages -retreating the traders again advanced and removed or left -the gold, according as they accepted or refused the amount -offered. In this way, after various advances and retreats, bargains -were satisfactorily concluded.<a id="FNanchor_780" href="#Footnote_780" class="fnanchor">[780]</a> In the southern parts -of Arabia bordering on the ocean, myrrh and frankincense -were gathered in considerable quantity, whence the country -acquired the epithet of Felix or Happy.<a id="FNanchor_781" href="#Footnote_781" class="fnanchor">[781]</a> The richest source<span class="pagenum" id="Page_189"> 189</span> -of emeralds lay in the uncivilized territory between Egypt -and Axume, where the mines were worked by a ferocious -tribe of nomads called Blemmyes. From them the Axumite -merchants obtained the gems, which they exported chiefly -to northern India. Amongst the White Huns, the dominant -race in that region, they were esteemed so highly that the -traders were enabled to load their ships with the proceeds -of a few of these precious stones.<a id="FNanchor_782" href="#Footnote_782" class="fnanchor">[782]</a></p> - -<p>Down the Red Sea to Adule resorted the Byzantine merchants, -engaged in the home trade, in great numbers.<a id="FNanchor_783" href="#Footnote_783" class="fnanchor">[783]</a> After -loading their vessels they again sailed northward, a proportion -of them to the small island of Jotabe,<a id="FNanchor_784" href="#Footnote_784" class="fnanchor">[784]</a> situated near the -apex of the peninsula of Mount Sinai, which separated the -Elanitic from the Heroopolitan gulf. At a station there they -were awaited by the officials of the excise, who collected -from them a tenth part of the value of their merchandise.<a id="FNanchor_785" href="#Footnote_785" class="fnanchor">[785]</a> -Some of these ships proceeded up the eastern arm of the -sea to Elath; the rest of them chose the western inlet and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_190"> 190</span> -cast anchor at Clysma.<a id="FNanchor_786" href="#Footnote_786" class="fnanchor">[786]</a> The wares landed at these ports were -intended chiefly for the markets of Palestine and Syria.<a id="FNanchor_787" href="#Footnote_787" class="fnanchor">[787]</a> By -far the greater portion of the fleet, however, terminated their -northward voyage at Berenice,<a id="FNanchor_788" href="#Footnote_788" class="fnanchor">[788]</a> the last port of Egypt, on the -same parallel with Syene. Here they discharged their cargoes -and transferred the goods to the backs of camels, who bore -them swiftly to the emporium of Coptos on the Nile.<a id="FNanchor_789" href="#Footnote_789" class="fnanchor">[789]</a> A -crowd of small boats then received the merchandise and -made a rapid transit down stream to the Canopic arm of the -river, from which by canal they emerged on lake Mareotis,<a id="FNanchor_790" href="#Footnote_790" class="fnanchor">[790]</a> -the inland and busiest harbour of Alexandria. The maritime -traffic between the Egyptian capital and all other parts of -the Empire, Constantinople especially, was constant and -extensive, so that commodities could be dispersed from -thence in every direction with the greatest facility.</p> - -<p>Within the Eastern Empire itself there were manufactories -for the fabrication of everything essential to the requirements -of civilized life, but production was much restricted by the -establishment universally of a system of monopolies. Several -of these were held by the government, who employed both<span class="pagenum" id="Page_191"> 191</span> -men and women in the manufacture of whatever was necessary -to the Court and the army.<a id="FNanchor_791" href="#Footnote_791" class="fnanchor">[791]</a> At Adrianople, Thessalonica, -Antioch, Damascus, and other towns, arms and armour were -forged, inlaid with gold when for the use of officers of rank; -the costly purple robes of the Imperial household emanated -from Tyre,<a id="FNanchor_792" href="#Footnote_792" class="fnanchor">[792]</a> where dye-works and a fleet of fishing-boats for -collecting the murex were maintained; these industries were -strictly forbidden to the subject. There were, besides, at -Cyzicus<a id="FNanchor_793" href="#Footnote_793" class="fnanchor">[793]</a> and Scythopolis,<a id="FNanchor_794" href="#Footnote_794" class="fnanchor">[794]</a> official factories for the weaving -of cloth and linen. The military workshops were under the -direction of the Master of the Offices, the arts of peace under -that of the Count of the Sacred Largesses. Public manufacturers -or traders were incorporated in a college or guild -controlled by the latter Count, the privileges of which were -limited to some five or six hundred members.<a id="FNanchor_795" href="#Footnote_795" class="fnanchor">[795]</a> Among the -staple productions of the Empire we find that Miletus<a id="FNanchor_796" href="#Footnote_796" class="fnanchor">[796]</a> and -Laodicea<a id="FNanchor_797" href="#Footnote_797" class="fnanchor">[797]</a> were famous for woollen fabrics, Sardes<a id="FNanchor_798" href="#Footnote_798" class="fnanchor">[798]</a> especially -for carpets, Cos<a id="FNanchor_799" href="#Footnote_799" class="fnanchor">[799]</a> for cotton materials, Tyre<a id="FNanchor_800" href="#Footnote_800" class="fnanchor">[800]</a> and Berytus<a id="FNanchor_801" href="#Footnote_801" class="fnanchor">[801]</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_192"> 192</span> -for silks, Attica<a id="FNanchor_802" href="#Footnote_802" class="fnanchor">[802]</a> and Samos<a id="FNanchor_803" href="#Footnote_803" class="fnanchor">[803]</a> for pottery, Sidon<a id="FNanchor_804" href="#Footnote_804" class="fnanchor">[804]</a> for glass, -Cibyra<a id="FNanchor_805" href="#Footnote_805" class="fnanchor">[805]</a> for chased iron, Thessaly<a id="FNanchor_806" href="#Footnote_806" class="fnanchor">[806]</a> for cabinet furniture, -Pergamus<a id="FNanchor_807" href="#Footnote_807" class="fnanchor">[807]</a> for parchment, and Alexandria<a id="FNanchor_808" href="#Footnote_808" class="fnanchor">[808]</a> for paper. The -fields of Elis were given over to the cultivation of flax, -and all the women at Patrae were engaged in spinning -and weaving it.<a id="FNanchor_809" href="#Footnote_809" class="fnanchor">[809]</a> Hierapolis<a id="FNanchor_810" href="#Footnote_810" class="fnanchor">[810]</a> in Phrygia was noted for its -vegetable dyes; and Hierapolis<a id="FNanchor_811" href="#Footnote_811" class="fnanchor">[811]</a> in Syria was the great -rendezvous for the hunters of the desert, who captured wild -animals for the man and beast fights of the public shows. -Slave dealers, held to be an infamous class, infested the verge -of the Empire along the Danube, but at this date Romans -and barbarians mutually enslaved each other.<a id="FNanchor_812" href="#Footnote_812" class="fnanchor">[812]</a> On this -frontier, also, consignments of amber and furs were received -from the shores of the Baltic and the Far North.<a id="FNanchor_813" href="#Footnote_813" class="fnanchor">[813]</a> With -respect to articles of diet, almost every district produced wine, -but Lesbian and Pramnian were most esteemed.<a id="FNanchor_814" href="#Footnote_814" class="fnanchor">[814]</a> A wide -tract at Cyrene was reserved for the growth of a savoury pot-herb, -hence called the Land of Silphium.<a id="FNanchor_815" href="#Footnote_815" class="fnanchor">[815]</a> Egypt was the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_193"> 193</span> -granary of the whole Orient.<a id="FNanchor_816" href="#Footnote_816" class="fnanchor">[816]</a> Dardania and Dalmatia were -rich in cheese,<a id="FNanchor_817" href="#Footnote_817" class="fnanchor">[817]</a> Rhodes<a id="FNanchor_818" href="#Footnote_818" class="fnanchor">[818]</a> exported raisins and figs, Phoenicia<a id="FNanchor_819" href="#Footnote_819" class="fnanchor">[819]</a> -dates, and the capital itself had a large trade in preserved -tunnies.<a id="FNanchor_820" href="#Footnote_820" class="fnanchor">[820]</a></p> - -<p>China was always topographically unknown to the ancients, -and about the sixth century only did they begin to discern -clearly that an ocean existed beyond it.<a id="FNanchor_821" href="#Footnote_821" class="fnanchor">[821]</a> The country was -regarded as unapproachable by the Greek and Roman merchants,<a id="FNanchor_822" href="#Footnote_822" class="fnanchor">[822]</a> -but nevertheless became recognized at a very early -period as the source of silk. Fully four hundred years before -the Christian era the cocoons were carried westward, and the -art of unwinding them was discovered by Pamphile of Cos, -one of the women engaged in weaving the diaphanous textiles -for which that island was celebrated.<a id="FNanchor_823" href="#Footnote_823" class="fnanchor">[823]</a> Owing to the comparative -vicinity of the Persian and Chinese frontiers, the -silk exported by the Celestial Empire always tended to -accumulate in Persia, so that the merchants of that nation<span class="pagenum" id="Page_194"> 194</span> -enjoyed almost a monopoly of the trade.<a id="FNanchor_824" href="#Footnote_824" class="fnanchor">[824]</a> Hence Byzantine -commerce suffered severely during a Persian war, and strenuous -efforts would be made to supply the deficiency of silk -by stimulating its importation along the circuitous routes. -Such attempts, however, invariably proved ineffective<a id="FNanchor_825" href="#Footnote_825" class="fnanchor">[825]</a> until -the invention of the compass and the discovery of the south-east -passage opened the navigation of the globe between the -nations of the East and West.</p> - -<p>IV. In general condition the Byzantine people exhibit, -almost uniformly in every age, a picture of oppressed -humanity, devoid of either spirit or cohesion to nerve them -for a struggle to be free. With the experience of a thousand -years, the wisdom of Roman statesmen and jurists failed to -evolve a political system which could insure stability to -the throne or prosperity to the nation. Seditious in the -cities, abject in the country, ill-disciplined in the camp, unfaithful -in office, the subjects of the Empire never rose in -the social scale, but languished through many centuries to -extinction, the common grave of Grecian culture and Roman -prowess.</p> - -<p>In the rural districts almost all the inhabitants, except the -actual landowners, were in a state of virtual slavery. The -labourers who tilled the soil were usually attached, with -their offspring, to each particular estate in the condition of -slaves or serfs. They could neither quit the land of their own -free will, nor could they be alienated from it by the owner, -but, if the demesne were sold, they were forced to pass with -it to the new master.<a id="FNanchor_826" href="#Footnote_826" class="fnanchor">[826]</a> The position of a serf was nominally<span class="pagenum" id="Page_195"> 195</span> -superior to that of a slave, but the distinction was so little -practical that the lawyers of the period were unable to discriminate -the difference.<a id="FNanchor_827" href="#Footnote_827" class="fnanchor">[827]</a> Any freeman who settled in a -neighbourhood to work for hire on an estate lost his liberty -and became a serf bound to the soil, unless he migrated again -before the expiration of thirty years.<a id="FNanchor_828" href="#Footnote_828" class="fnanchor">[828]</a> The use and possession -of arms was interdicted to private persons throughout the -Empire, and only such small knives as were useless for -weapons of war were allowed to be exposed for sale.<a id="FNanchor_829" href="#Footnote_829" class="fnanchor">[829]</a></p> - -<p>In every department of the State the same principle of -hereditary bondage was applied to the lower grades of the -service, and even in some cases to officials of considerable -rank. Here, however, a release was conceded to those who -could provide an acceptable substitute, a condition but rarely -possible to fulfil.<a id="FNanchor_830" href="#Footnote_830" class="fnanchor">[830]</a> Armourers, mintmen, weavers, dyers, -purple-gatherers, miners, and muleteers, in government employ<a id="FNanchor_831" href="#Footnote_831" class="fnanchor">[831]</a> -could neither resign their posts nor even intermarry<a id="FNanchor_832" href="#Footnote_832" class="fnanchor">[832]</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_196"> 196</span> -with associates on a different staff, or the general public, unless -under restrictions which were almost prohibitive. Within the -same category were ruled the masters or owners of freight-ships,<a id="FNanchor_833" href="#Footnote_833" class="fnanchor">[833]</a> -chartered to convey the annones and tributes, of which -the Alexandrian corn-fleet<a id="FNanchor_834" href="#Footnote_834" class="fnanchor">[834]</a> constituted the main section. -Those addicted to this vocation in the public interest were -necessarily men of some private means, as they were obliged -to build and maintain the vessels at their own expense; but -they were rewarded by liberal allowances, and were almost -exempt in respect of the laws affecting the persons and -property of ordinary citizens. The lot of this class of the -community appears to have been tolerable, and was even, -perhaps, desirable,<a id="FNanchor_835" href="#Footnote_835" class="fnanchor">[835]</a> but that of the Decurions, the members -of the local senates, was absolutely unbearable.<a id="FNanchor_836" href="#Footnote_836" class="fnanchor">[836]</a> In relation -to their fellow townsmen their duties do not seem to have -been onerous, but as collectors of the revenue they were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_197"> 197</span> -made responsible for the full precept levied four-monthly on -each district, and had to make good any deficiency from -their own resources.<a id="FNanchor_837" href="#Footnote_837" class="fnanchor">[837]</a> As natives of the locality to which their -activities were constrained, their intimate knowledge of the -inhabitants was invaluable to the government in its inquisitorial -and compulsive efforts to gather in the imposts; and, -subordinated to the Imperial officials resident in, or on special -missions to, the provinces, they became consequently the -prime object of their assaults when dealing with the defaulting -tributaries. In view of such hardships, municipal dignities -and immunities were illusory; and, as the local senates were -very numerous, there were few families among the middle -classes, from whom those bodies were regularly replenished, -whose members did not live in dread of a hereditary obligation -to become a Decurion. In every ordinary sphere of exertion, -not excepting the Court, the Church, or the army, men, long -embarked on their career, were liable to receive a mandate -enjoining them to return to their native town or village in -order to spend the rest of their lives in the management of -local affairs.<a id="FNanchor_838" href="#Footnote_838" class="fnanchor">[838]</a> Occupation of the highest offices of State, or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_198"> 198</span> -many years’ service in some official post, could alone free -them from the municipal bond.<a id="FNanchor_839" href="#Footnote_839" class="fnanchor">[839]</a></p> - -<p>Life under accustomed conditions, though with restricted -liberty, may be supportable or even pleasant, but the Byzantine -subject could seldom realize the extent of his obligations -or foresee to what exactions he might have to submit. He -might review with satisfaction a series of admirable laws -which seemed to promise him tranquillity and freedom from -oppression, but experience soon taught him that it was against -the interest of the authorities to administer them with equity. -By an ineradicable tradition, dating from the first centuries of -the expansion of the Empire, it was presumed that the control -of a province offered a fair field to a placeman for enriching -himself.<a id="FNanchor_840" href="#Footnote_840" class="fnanchor">[840]</a> Hence the prevalence of a universal corruption -and a guilty collusion between the Rector and all the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_199"> 199</span> -lesser officials, who afforded him essential aid in his devices -for despoiling the provincials.<a id="FNanchor_841" href="#Footnote_841" class="fnanchor">[841]</a> While the fisc never scrupled -to aggravate the prescribed imposts by superindictions,<a id="FNanchor_842" href="#Footnote_842" class="fnanchor">[842]</a> its -agents were insatiate in their efforts at harvesting for themselves. -The tyranny of the first emperors was local and -transient, but under the rule of the Byzantine princes the -vitals of the whole Empire were persistently sapped. In the -<i>adaeratio</i> of the annones a value was set upon the produce -far above the market price;<a id="FNanchor_843" href="#Footnote_843" class="fnanchor">[843]</a> taxes paid were redemanded, -and receipts in proper form repudiated because the <i>tabellio</i> -who had signed them, purposely removed, was not present to -acknowledge his signature;<a id="FNanchor_844" href="#Footnote_844" class="fnanchor">[844]</a> unexpected local rates were -levied, to which the assent of the Decurions was forced, with -the avowed object of executing public works which were -never undertaken;<a id="FNanchor_845" href="#Footnote_845" class="fnanchor">[845]</a> sales of property at a vile estimate were -pressed on owners who dared not provoke the officials by a -refusal;<a id="FNanchor_846" href="#Footnote_846" class="fnanchor">[846]</a> decisions in the law courts were ruled by bribery, -and suitors were overawed into not appealing against unjust -judgements;<a id="FNanchor_847" href="#Footnote_847" class="fnanchor">[847]</a> forfeitures of estates to the crown were proclaimed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_200"> 200</span> -under pretence of lapse of ownership or questionable -right of inheritance, and their release had to be negotiated -for the payment of a sufficient ransom;<a id="FNanchor_848" href="#Footnote_848" class="fnanchor">[848]</a> even special -grants from the Imperial treasury for reinstatement of fortifications -or other purposes were sometimes embezzled without -apprehension of more serious trouble, if detected, than -disgorgement.<a id="FNanchor_849" href="#Footnote_849" class="fnanchor">[849]</a> In all these cases the excess extorted was -appropriated by the rapacious officials. Such were the hardships -inflicted systematically on the small proprietors who, -if unable to pay or considered to be recalcitrant, were not -seldom subjected to bodily tortures. For hours together -they were suspended by the thumbs,<a id="FNanchor_850" href="#Footnote_850" class="fnanchor">[850]</a> or had to undergo the -application of finger-crushers or foot-racks,<a id="FNanchor_851" href="#Footnote_851" class="fnanchor">[851]</a> or were beaten -on the nape of the neck with cords loaded with lead.<a id="FNanchor_852" href="#Footnote_852" class="fnanchor">[852]</a> -Nevertheless, remainders accumulated constantly, and a remission -of hopeless arrears for a decade or more was often made -the instance of Imperial indulgence. But the old vouchers -were habitually secreted and preserved by the collectors so -that the ignorant rustics might be harassed persistently for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_201"> 201</span> -debts which they no longer owed.<a id="FNanchor_853" href="#Footnote_853" class="fnanchor">[853]</a> The existence of such -frauds was patent even to the exalted perceptions of the -Court; and hence Anastasius, in order to render his abolition -of the chrysargyron effective, resorted to an artifice -which appealed to the avarice of his financial delegates -throughout the country.<a id="FNanchor_854" href="#Footnote_854" class="fnanchor">[854]</a> But an emperor, however well-intentioned, -could rarely attempt to lighten the burdens of -even the humblest of his subjects. His immediate ministers -had sold the chief posts in the provinces<a id="FNanchor_855" href="#Footnote_855" class="fnanchor">[855]</a> and were under a -tacit convention to shield their nominees unless in the case -of some rash and flagrant delinquent who abandoned all -discretion. The public good was ignored in practice; to -keep the treasury full was the simple and narrow policy of -the Byzantine financier, who never fostered any enlightened -measure for making the Empire rich.<a id="FNanchor_856" href="#Footnote_856" class="fnanchor">[856]</a> Zeno essayed to -remedy the widespread evil of venality, but his effort was -futile; although his constitution was re-enacted more than -once and permanently adorned the statute-book.<a id="FNanchor_857" href="#Footnote_857" class="fnanchor">[857]</a> According<span class="pagenum" id="Page_202"> 202</span> -to this legislator every governor was bound to abide within -his province in some public and accessible place for fifty -days after the expiration of his term of office. Thus detained -within the reach of his late constituents when divested of -his authority, it was hoped that they would be emboldened -to come forward and call him to account for his misdeeds. -The reiteration of the law at no great intervals of time sufficiently -proves that it was promulgated only to be disregarded.<a id="FNanchor_858" href="#Footnote_858" class="fnanchor">[858]</a></p> - -<p>Without legitimate protectors from whom they might seek -redress, the wretched tributaries either tried to match their -oppressors in craft, or yielded abjectly to all their demands. -Some parted with whatever they possessed, and finally sold -their sons and daughters into slavery or prostitution;<a id="FNanchor_859" href="#Footnote_859" class="fnanchor">[859]</a> others -posted their holdings against the visits of the surveyors with -notices designating them as the property of some influential -neighbour.<a id="FNanchor_860" href="#Footnote_860" class="fnanchor">[860]</a> Such local magnates, who maintained, perhaps, -a guard of Isaurian bandits, were wont to bid defiance to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_203"> 203</span> -the law as well as to the lawlessness of the Rector and his -satellites.<a id="FNanchor_861" href="#Footnote_861" class="fnanchor">[861]</a> To their protection, in many instances, the lesser -owners were impelled to consign themselves unconditionally, -hoping to find with them a haven of refuge against merciless -exaction. The patron implored readily accepted the trust, -but the suppliant soon discovered that his condition was -assimilated to that of a serf.<a id="FNanchor_862" href="#Footnote_862" class="fnanchor">[862]</a> The web of social order was -strained or ruptured in every grade of life; traders joined -the ranks of the clergy in order to abuse the facilities for -commerce conceded to ministers of religion;<a id="FNanchor_863" href="#Footnote_863" class="fnanchor">[863]</a> the proceedings -of the Irenarchs among the rustic population were so -vexatious, that they were accounted disturbers, instead of -guardians of the peace,<a id="FNanchor_864" href="#Footnote_864" class="fnanchor">[864]</a> and the simple pastor had to be -denied the use of a horse, lest it should enable him to rob -with too much security on the public highways.<a id="FNanchor_865" href="#Footnote_865" class="fnanchor">[865]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_204"> 204</span></p> - - -<h3 id="section_II_1">II. <span class="smcap">Educational</span></h3> - -<p>Superstition flourishes because knowledge is still the -luxury of the few. By education alone can we hope to attain -to the extinction of that phase of mind termed belief, or -faith, which has always been inculcated as a virtue or a duty -by the priest, and condemned as a vice of the intellect by -the philosopher. In every age, the ability to discern the lines -of demarcation which separate the known from the unknown -is the initial stage of advancement; and in the training of -youth, the prime object of the educator should be to confer -this power on every individual; for in the uninformed minds -of a great majority of mankind, fact and fancy are for the -most part inextricably entangled. The efforts of authority -to dispel or perpetuate error are most potent when acting on -the impressionable faculties of early life. In a sane and progressive -world the first conception to be engrafted in the -expanding mind should be that knowledge has no foothold -beyond the causeways pushed by science into the ocean of -the unknown.<a id="FNanchor_866" href="#Footnote_866" class="fnanchor">[866]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_205"> 205</span></p> - -<p>I do not design to produce under this heading a lengthy -disquisition on paedagogics among the Byzantines, but -merely to indicate, by some broad lines, upon what stock of -common knowledge the foundations of civilization rested in -this age. The student of early Roman history will scarcely -need to be reminded that the virtues of the Republic were -not derived from the schools of art or philosophy; or that -the aesthetic tastes of those blunt citizens only developed in -proportion as they found themselves lords over the culture -as well as over the country of the Greeks.<a id="FNanchor_867" href="#Footnote_867" class="fnanchor">[867]</a> Towards the -middle of the second century <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, Greek professors of literature -and eloquence began to establish themselves at Rome, -where they held their ground for some decades on a very -precarious footing, owing to the strong disfavour with which -they were regarded by those who considered the preservation -of ancient manners as the salvation of the state.<a id="FNanchor_868" href="#Footnote_868" class="fnanchor">[868]</a> Gradually, -however, the new discipline prevailed; eminent teachers -were accorded recognition by the government, and before -the end of the first century <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>, the privilege of maintaining -at the public expense a faculty of professors to impart higher -instruction to the rising generation, was granted to every -town of any magnitude throughout the Empire.<a id="FNanchor_869" href="#Footnote_869" class="fnanchor">[869]</a> To facilitate,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_206"> 206</span> -therefore, the prosecution of <i>liberal studies</i>, for such they -were officially named, suitable buildings were erected in -every populous centre. Architecturally, a state school comprised -a handsome hall or lecture theatre, with class-rooms -attached, the whole being surrounded essentially by a portico.<a id="FNanchor_870" href="#Footnote_870" class="fnanchor">[870]</a> -The extent and decorative elaboration of these edifices -depended doubtless on their local or general importance. -The greater institutions, as denoted by their being the resort -of a large concourse of students, were liberally provided with -the adornments of painting and statuary.<a id="FNanchor_871" href="#Footnote_871" class="fnanchor">[871]</a> Objective instruction<span class="pagenum" id="Page_207"> 207</span> -was given by means of tabular expositions of the subjects -taught affixed to the walls of the colonnades, among which -maps conveying not only geographical, but also historical -information, were particularly conspicuous.<a id="FNanchor_872" href="#Footnote_872" class="fnanchor">[872]</a> Until the barbarian -invasion of Greece by Alaric at the close of the fourth -century, Athens maintained an easy pre-eminence as a centre -of polite learning, and bestowed the greatest prestige on -those who passed through her schools.<a id="FNanchor_873" href="#Footnote_873" class="fnanchor">[873]</a> The most pronounced -effort for the advancement of higher education in -the East at this epoch was the definite constitution of the -schools of Constantinople in an Auditorum on the Capitol,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_208"> 208</span> -almost as the counterpart of a modern University, by Theodosius -II, in 425. The teaching staff of this college consisted, -under their official titles, of three Orators and ten Grammarians -for the Latin language; of five Sophists and ten -Grammarians for the Greek tongue; of one Philosopher; and -of two Jurists, thirty-one members in all.<a id="FNanchor_874" href="#Footnote_874" class="fnanchor">[874]</a> To insure the -success of this foundation, the decree for its establishment -was accompanied by an injunction against the public lecturing -of professors other than those appointed to hold forth -within its walls.<a id="FNanchor_875" href="#Footnote_875" class="fnanchor">[875]</a> A body of scriveners, technically named -antiquarians, was also maintained for the multiplication of -copies of manuscripts in the public libraries of the capital, -which were rich in literature.<a id="FNanchor_876" href="#Footnote_876" class="fnanchor">[876]</a></p> - -<p>In addition to these teachers, who were settled in various -localities, the itinerant professor, who travelled from place -to place delivering public harangues and taking pupils for -a short course of instruction, was a feature in the life of the -period. With considerable vanity they distinguished themselves -by wearing a long beard, carrying a staff, and enfolding -themselves in a cloak of an unusual tint.<a id="FNanchor_877" href="#Footnote_877" class="fnanchor">[877]</a> Rhetoricians -affected a garb of scarlet or white, philosophers of gray, and -physicians of blue.<a id="FNanchor_878" href="#Footnote_878" class="fnanchor">[878]</a> When addressing an audience, they -usually presented themselves crowned with flowers, reeking<span class="pagenum" id="Page_209"> 209</span> -with perfumes, and displaying a gold ring of remarkable -size.<a id="FNanchor_879" href="#Footnote_879" class="fnanchor">[879]</a> The advent of these self-ordained instructors of the -public into a provincial town was often the occasion of much -local enthusiasm, and a throng of citizens advanced to meet -them for some distance, in order to conduct them to their -lodgings.<a id="FNanchor_880" href="#Footnote_880" class="fnanchor">[880]</a> All professors, whether in the pay of the state or -otherwise, enjoyed a complete immunity from the civil duties -and imposts enforced on ordinary individuals, thus presenting -the singular contrast of being licensed to live in a condition -of ideal freedom under a political system which -restricted personal liberty at every turn.<a id="FNanchor_881" href="#Footnote_881" class="fnanchor">[881]</a> Such material -advantages inevitably became liable to abuse through imposture, -and the country was permeated by charlatans in -the guise of philosophers, who coveted distinction and -emolument at the easy price of a merely personal assertion -of competence.<a id="FNanchor_882" href="#Footnote_882" class="fnanchor">[882]</a> In the fourth century this evil was scarcely -checked by Imperial enactments which required that professors<span class="pagenum" id="Page_210"> 210</span> -of every grade should procure credentials as to character -and attainments from the Curia of their native place.<a id="FNanchor_883" href="#Footnote_883" class="fnanchor">[883]</a> -The cost of education is a somewhat obscure subject, but we -are justified in assuming that all the state seminaries were -open gratuitously to the youth of the district; and we know -that even private teachers of eminence were accustomed to -remit the fees to students who were unable to pay.<a id="FNanchor_884" href="#Footnote_884" class="fnanchor">[884]</a></p> - -<p>The ancients, like the moderns, assigned certain courses -of instruction to pupils according to their age and the estimated -development of their intelligence. As with us, the -recipient of a full liberal education passed through three -stages, adapted respectively to the capacity of the child, the -boy, and the youth, which may be discussed under the headings -of Elementary, Intermediate, and Final. To these must -necessarily be added, in the case of those destined for a -special vocation, a fourth stage, viz., the Professional. Their -conception, however, of the periods of early life was more -defined, and differed somewhat from our own, the first terminating<span class="pagenum" id="Page_211"> 211</span> -at twelve, the second at fourteen, the third at -twenty, and the fourth at twenty-five years of age.<a id="FNanchor_885" href="#Footnote_885" class="fnanchor">[885]</a> Primary -education began at from five to seven, and the pupils were -usually sent to a day-school in the charge of a slave, named -a paedagogue. There they were taught to read, write, and to -count; and suitable pieces were given to them to learn by -rote. A wooden tablet faced with wax, upon which they -scratched with a style, took the place of the modern slate or -copy-book. Calculation was restricted to some simple operations -of mental arithmetic, owing to the cumbersome method -of figuring employed by the ancients, which did not lend -itself easily to the manipulation of written numbers.<a id="FNanchor_886" href="#Footnote_886" class="fnanchor">[886]</a> The -schoolmasters who presided over such preparatory establishments<span class="pagenum" id="Page_212"> 212</span> -did not rank as professors, and were not accorded any -privileges beyond those of ordinary citizens.<a id="FNanchor_887" href="#Footnote_887" class="fnanchor">[887]</a></p> - -<p>II. At twelve the work of mental cultivation commenced -seriously, and the pupil entered on the study of the <i>seven -liberal arts</i>, viz., grammar, dialectic, rhetoric, geometry, -arithmetic, astronomy, and music.<a id="FNanchor_888" href="#Footnote_888" class="fnanchor">[888]</a> These subjects were -taken in two stages, which in the West were beginning to be -called the <i>Trivium</i> and <i>Quadrivium</i>.<a id="FNanchor_889" href="#Footnote_889" class="fnanchor">[889]</a> Two years were devoted -to the <i>Trivium</i>, the scope of which may be apprehended -from a brief summary. 1. The grammar of the -period dealt with the eight parts of speech in a sufficiently -exhaustive manner; conveyed some notions, often crude -and erroneous, as to the derivation of words; and, in the -absence of precise anatomical or acoustic science, attempted -in a primitive fashion a classification of the letters and a -physiology of vocalization. The construction of sentences -was analyzed with considerable minuteness; and passages -selected from eminent writers were set for the student to -parse with an exactitude seldom called for at the present<span class="pagenum" id="Page_213"> 213</span> -day.<a id="FNanchor_890" href="#Footnote_890" class="fnanchor">[890]</a> The laws of poetical metre were taught as a leading -branch of the subject; and a familiarity with literature was -promoted by reading the best authors, especially Homer.<a id="FNanchor_891" href="#Footnote_891" class="fnanchor">[891]</a> -The copious Latin grammarian Priscian flourished at Constantinople -under Anastasius, and his monumental work in -eighteen books is still extant.<a id="FNanchor_892" href="#Footnote_892" class="fnanchor">[892]</a></p> - -<p>2. In the province of dialectics it was sought to instill the -art of reasoning correctly into the mind of the pupil. Thus -he was introduced to the elementary principles of logic; the -categories, or the modes of regarding and classifying phenomena, -were explained to him; and he was exercised in -the practice of accurate deduction according to the various -forms of the syllogism.</p> - -<p>3. Without a practical acquaintance with the art of rhetoric -it was considered that no one could pretend to occupy any -desirable position in the civil service of the Empire.<a id="FNanchor_893" href="#Footnote_893" class="fnanchor">[893]</a> This -course was the extension and application of the two previous -ones of grammar and logic, upon which it was based. The -rules of composition and the arts of argument, which the -ingenuity of the Greeks had unravelled and defined under a -hundred apposite names, were exemplified to the student,<a id="FNanchor_894" href="#Footnote_894" class="fnanchor">[894]</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_214"> 214</span> -who wrote extracts to dictation chosen from various illustrative -authors. The sophist or rhetorician addressed his class -on some stated theme, and spoke alternately on both sides -of the question. The management of the voice and the use -of appropriate gesture were systematically taught.<a id="FNanchor_895" href="#Footnote_895" class="fnanchor">[895]</a> Finally -the pupils were set to compose speeches of their own and -to debate among themselves on suitable subjects.<a id="FNanchor_896" href="#Footnote_896" class="fnanchor">[896]</a></p> - -<p>III. The four divisions of the <i>Quadrivium</i> were grouped -together as the mathematical arts; and six years were allotted -to their study. 1. In geometry the discipline did not include -the learning of theorems and problems as set forth in the -Elements of Euclid, but merely an acquaintance with the -definitions and with the ordinary plane and solid figures.<a id="FNanchor_897" href="#Footnote_897" class="fnanchor">[897]</a> -The teaching in this section, however, was mainly of geography.<a id="FNanchor_898" href="#Footnote_898" class="fnanchor">[898]</a> -It was asserted doubtfully that the earth was a -globe and that there was an inferior hemisphere of which -nothing certain could be predicated.<a id="FNanchor_899" href="#Footnote_899" class="fnanchor">[899]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_215"> 215</span></p> - -<p>2. Arithmetic was not practised methodically by the -setting of sums to be worked out by the pupils, but consisted -chiefly in demonstrating the more obvious properties -of numbers, such as odd, even, prime, perfect, etc., together -with many fanciful absurdities.<a id="FNanchor_900" href="#Footnote_900" class="fnanchor">[900]</a> Operations with figures -were indicated verbally in a disconnected manner; multiplication -tables to be learnt by heart had not been invented; -the higher rules and decimal fractions were unknown.</p> - -<p>3. Systematic astronomy at this period and for long after, -as is well known, was conceived of on false principles which, -whilst admitting of the correct solution of some problems, -such as the prediction of eclipses, left the vastness of the -universe and its physical constitution totally unapprehended. -All the heavenly bodies were regarded as mathematically, if -not teleologically disposed about the earth, to which as a -centre even the fixed stars, at varying and immeasurable -distances as they are, were constrained fantastically by a revolving -sphere of crystal.<a id="FNanchor_901" href="#Footnote_901" class="fnanchor">[901]</a> The reasoning, however, by which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_216"> 216</span> -these views were upheld was not sufficiently convincing to -gain universal acceptance; and the outlines of the science -communicated to students generally received some modifications -from the minds of individual teachers.<a id="FNanchor_902" href="#Footnote_902" class="fnanchor">[902]</a> Much of the -course was taken up with treating of the constellations and -the zodiac, not without a tincture of astrology, and some -primitive observations on meteorology were included.<a id="FNanchor_903" href="#Footnote_903" class="fnanchor">[903]</a></p> - -<p>4. Music as known to us is virtually a modern creation; -and that of the Greeks would doubtless impress us as a wild -and disorderly performance, adapted only to the ears of -some semi-barbaric people of the East. Their most extended -scale did not range beyond eighteen notes;<a id="FNanchor_904" href="#Footnote_904" class="fnanchor">[904]</a> in order to -obtain variety their only resource was a shift of key, that is, -a change of pitch, or the adoption of a different mode, that -is, of a gamut in which the semitones assumed novel positions; -and their harmony was restricted to the consonance of octaves. -Time was not measured according to the modern -method, but there was a rhythm fixed in relation to the -various metres of poetic verse. Their usual instruments -were the pipe or flute, the lyre, a simple form of organ,<a id="FNanchor_905" href="#Footnote_905" class="fnanchor">[905]</a> and, -of course, the human voice. Practically, therefore, their -music consisted of melody of a declamatory or recitatival<span class="pagenum" id="Page_217"> 217</span> -type, to which a peculiar character was sometimes given by -the use of quarter tones; and choral singing was purely -symphonic. But the vibrational numbers of the scale had -been discovered by Pythagoras when making experiments -with strings; and each of the eighteen notes and fifteen -modes had received a descriptive name. Hence the limited -scope of the art did not prevent the theory of music from -ultimately becoming elaborated with a complexity not unworthy -of the native subtlety of the Greeks.<a id="FNanchor_906" href="#Footnote_906" class="fnanchor">[906]</a> In practice the -musical training of pupils consisted in their learning to sing -to the lyre.<a id="FNanchor_907" href="#Footnote_907" class="fnanchor">[907]</a></p> - -<p>Such in brief were the component parts of a liberal education, -with which, however, under the name of philosophy, it -was considered essential that a complement of ethical teaching -should be conjoined. This complement was digested -into three branches, under which were discussed the duty of -the individual to himself, to the household, and to the community -at large or to the state.<a id="FNanchor_908" href="#Footnote_908" class="fnanchor">[908]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_218"> 218</span></p> - -<p>IV. It now remains for us to glance at the more protracted -training of those who had resolved to devote their -lives to some particular sphere of activity. Aspirants for the -position of professor of the liberal arts, or who wished to -utilize their acquirements in a political career, would continue -and extend their studies on the lines above indicated; -but those who intended to follow the professions of law or -physic, or engage in practice of art proper, had to direct -their energies into new channels.</p> - -<p>1. As the administration of the Empire was almost -monopolized by the members of the legal profession, it may -be inferred that the throng of youths intent on becoming -lawyers fully equalled in number the students of every other -calling. Hence we find that not only were schools of law -established in every city of importance, notably Constantinople, -Alexandria, and Caesarea, but that a provincial town -of minor rank obtained a unique celebrity through the teaching -of jurisprudence. Berytus, on the Syrian coast, in the -province of Phoenicia, with an academic history of several -centuries<a id="FNanchor_909" href="#Footnote_909" class="fnanchor">[909]</a> at this date, had attained to that position; and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_219"> 219</span> -was habitually spoken of as the “mother” and “nurse of -the laws.”<a id="FNanchor_910" href="#Footnote_910" class="fnanchor">[910]</a> Four jurists of eminence, double the number -allotted to any other school, under the title of Antecessors, -lectured in the auditorium;<a id="FNanchor_911" href="#Footnote_911" class="fnanchor">[911]</a> and a progressive course of -study was arranged to extend over five years. In each successive -year the candidate assumed a distinctive designation -which marked his seniority or denoted the branch of law on -which he was engaged.<a id="FNanchor_912" href="#Footnote_912" class="fnanchor">[912]</a> Before the sixth century the legal -archives of the Empire had been swollen to such proportions -that it had become an almost impossible task to thread the -maze of their innumerable enactments. During the lapse of a -thousand years the constitutions of the emperors had been engrafted -on the legislation of the Republic, and the complexity -of the resultant growth was capable of bewildering the most -acute of legal minds. On three occasions, beginning from -the time of Constantine, attempts had been made to separate -and classify the effective laws;<a id="FNanchor_913" href="#Footnote_913" class="fnanchor">[913]</a> and the Code of Theodosius -II, published in 438, the only official one, was at<span class="pagenum" id="Page_220"> 220</span> -present in force. But this work, executed in a narrow spirit -of piety which decreed that only the enactments of Christian -emperors should be included, was universally recognized as -both redundant and insufficient. A still wider entanglement -existed in the literature which had accumulated around the -interpretation and application of the statutes; during the -administration of justice a myriad of perplexing points had -arisen to exercise the keenest forensic judgement in order to -arrive at equitable decisions; and it was estimated that two -thousand treatises, emanating from nearly forty authors, contained -in scattered passages matter essential to a correct apprehension -of the principles and practice of the law.<a id="FNanchor_914" href="#Footnote_914" class="fnanchor">[914]</a> Such -was the arduous prospect before a legal student who desired -to win a position of repute in his profession.<a id="FNanchor_915" href="#Footnote_915" class="fnanchor">[915]</a></p> - -<p>2. As Berytus had become famous for its law school, so -Alexandria, and even some centuries earlier, had gained a -noted pre-eminence as a centre of medical education;<a id="FNanchor_916" href="#Footnote_916" class="fnanchor">[916]</a> but -with respect to the course of study and the methods of instruction<span class="pagenum" id="Page_221"> 221</span> -no details have come down to us. We have seen -that the regulations for the establishment of the auditorium -at Constantinople did not provide for a chair of physic, -whence it may be inferred that it was left entirely to those -who had attained to the position of senior or arch-physician -to organize the teaching and training of pupils. The public -medical officers, who attended the poor at their own homes -or in the <i>nosocomia</i> or hospitals existing at this date,<a id="FNanchor_917" href="#Footnote_917" class="fnanchor">[917]</a> would -doubtless have excellent opportunities for forming classes -and rendering students familiar with the aspect and treatment -of disease. The medical and surgical science of -antiquity had come to a standstill by the end of the second -century, when the indefatigable Galen composed his great -repertory of the knowledge of his own times. That knowledge -comprised almost all the details of macroscopic anatomy, -but had advanced but a little way towards solving the physiological -problems as to the working of the vital machine. -The gross absurdities of the preceding centuries had, however, -been finally disposed of, such as that fluids passed -down the windpipe into the lungs,<a id="FNanchor_918" href="#Footnote_918" class="fnanchor">[918]</a> or that the arteries contained -air.<a id="FNanchor_919" href="#Footnote_919" class="fnanchor">[919]</a> Ordinary operations were performed freely; and -the surgeon was conscious that it was more creditable to -save a limb than to amputate it.<a id="FNanchor_920" href="#Footnote_920" class="fnanchor">[920]</a> Three centuries before -the Christian era Theophrastus had laid the foundations of -systematic botany, as had his master Aristotle those of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_222"> 222</span> -zoology and comparative anatomy.<a id="FNanchor_921" href="#Footnote_921" class="fnanchor">[921]</a> The resources of therapeutics -were extensive and varied, but the action of drugs -was not well understood. Remedies were compounded not -only from the vegetable kingdom, but also with animal substances<a id="FNanchor_922" href="#Footnote_922" class="fnanchor">[922]</a> -to an extent which seems likely to be equalled by -the more precise medication with the principles of living -tissues gaining ground at the present day. Knowledge of -minerals, however, was too deficient for such bodies to take -a prominent place in pharmacology.<a id="FNanchor_923" href="#Footnote_923" class="fnanchor">[923]</a></p> - -<p>3. The arts of Greece, after having flourished in perfection -from the time of Pericles to that of Alexander in the various -departments of architecture, sculpture, painting, and literature, -remained dormant for some centuries until the establishment -of universal peace under the dominion of Rome -provided a new theatre for their exercise. Fostered in the -Augustan age by the indolence and luxury of the Imperial -city, which offered the prospect of fortune to every artist of -ambition and talent, they were communicated to the Latins, -who strove earnestly to imitate and equal their masters. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_223"> 223</span> -exotic art bloomed on the foreign soil to which it had been -transplanted; and the Italians, if they never displayed -creative genius or originality of conception, at least learned -to reproduce with consummate skill and novelty of investment -the emanations of Hellenic inspiration. But the -elements of permanency were wanting to such factitious -aptitudes, as they were in fact to the fabric of the Empire -itself; and the wave of political stability was closely followed -in its rise and fall by the advance or decline of the arts. -After the reign of Augustus the tide of prosperity ebbed for -about half a century until it reached its lowest level during -the Civil Wars which heralded the settlement of Vespasian -on the throne. It rose again, and for more than fifty years -maintained an active flow during the reigns of Trajan and -Hadrian, subsequent to which its course is marked by a -gently descending line, under the benign rule of the -Antonines, until it sinks somewhat abruptly in the temporary -dissolution of the Empire, which preceded the triumph of -Severus. Thenceforward, but two centuries from its foundation,<a id="FNanchor_924" href="#Footnote_924" class="fnanchor">[924]</a> -the sovereignty of Rome entered on shoals and quicksands, -calamity succeeded calamity, and a position of stable -equilibrium was never afterwards regained; but in the -vicissitudes of fortune before the final catastrophe, an illusive -glow appeared to signalize more than once a return of the -supremacy of the Caesars.<a id="FNanchor_925" href="#Footnote_925" class="fnanchor">[925]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_224"> 224</span></p> - -<p>By the time of Constantine the neglect and degradation -of art had become so pronounced that artists could scarcely -be found competent to execute, even in an inferior style, -any monumental record of the events of the age; or for the -construction of the public buildings so lavishly planned by -that monarch in his attempted renovation of the Empire.<a id="FNanchor_926" href="#Footnote_926" class="fnanchor">[926]</a> -To meet the difficulty he promulgated decrees, which were -kept in force and multiplied by his successors, with the view -of stimulating his subjects to devote themselves to arts and -the allied handicrafts. Immunity from all civil burdens -was guaranteed; and salaries, with the free occupation of -suitable premises in public places, were offered to those who -would undertake to teach.<a id="FNanchor_927" href="#Footnote_927" class="fnanchor">[927]</a> These measures undoubtedly -tended to the elevation of taste and the maintenance of -civilization, although they could not infuse a new genius -into the people of a decadent age.</p> - -<p>At the opening of the sixth century Constantinople was -the focus of civilization not only in the East, but also with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_225"> 225</span> -respect to those western countries which had until lately been -united as members of the same political system. The -suzerainty of the eastern Emperor was still tacitly allowed, -or, at least, upheld; and the prestige of his capital was felt -actively throughout the ruder West as a refining influence -which only waned after the period of the Renaissance. The -main characteristic of art at this epoch is an unskilled imitation -of ancient models; and the conventional style regarded -as typically Byzantine, which at one time prevailed so widely -in Europe, was not to become apparent for many centuries -to come.<a id="FNanchor_928" href="#Footnote_928" class="fnanchor">[928]</a> But by the fifth century certain modifications of -design, betraying the infiltration of Oriental tastes, also began -to be observable.<a id="FNanchor_929" href="#Footnote_929" class="fnanchor">[929]</a></p> - -<p><i>a.</i> Architecture at Constantinople remained essentially -Greek, or, at least, Graeco-Roman; and the constant demand -for new buildings, especially churches, ordained that -it should still be zealously studied. In the provinces, however, -particularly on the Asiatic side, some transitional examples -would have enabled an observer to forecast already -an era of cupolar construction.<a id="FNanchor_930" href="#Footnote_930" class="fnanchor">[930]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_226"> 226</span></p> - -<p><i>b.</i> On the other hand, statuary almost threatened to become -a lost art. The devotion to athletic contests, which -prevailed among the Greeks, caused them to lay great stress -on physical culture; and at the public games, as well as in -the preparatory gymnasia, they were constantly familiarized -with the aspect of the human figure undraped in every phase -of action and repose.<a id="FNanchor_931" href="#Footnote_931" class="fnanchor">[931]</a> The eye of the artist thus acquired a -precision which enabled him to execute works in marble -with a perfection unapproached in any later age. To the -anthropomorphic spirit of polytheism it was necessary that -the images of the gods should be multiplied in temples and -even in public places; and the Greeks essayed to express -the ideal beauty of their divinities under those corporeal -forms which appeared most exquisite to the human senses. -Received as being of both sexes and as fulfilling the conception -of faultless excellence in a variety of spheres, a -boundless field lay open before the artist in which to represent -them according to their diverse attributes of sovereignty, -of intellect, or of grace.<a id="FNanchor_932" href="#Footnote_932" class="fnanchor">[932]</a> But the traditions of Hebrew<span class="pagenum" id="Page_227"> 227</span> -monotheism sternly forbid any material presentation of the -Deity, and sculpture in the round was almost abolished at -the advent of Christianity. In one minor department, however, -that of ivory carving, a school of artists was constantly -exercised in order to provide the annual batch of consular -diptychs, which it was customary to distribute throughout -the provinces every new year.<a id="FNanchor_933" href="#Footnote_933" class="fnanchor">[933]</a> On each set of these plates, -figured in low relief, appeared generally duplicate likenesses -of the consul of the day, clad in his state robes and surrounded -by subsidiary designs. The style of these productions, -perfunctorily executed it may be, suggests that the -average artist of the period was incapable of portraiture or -of tracing correctly the lines of any living form.<a id="FNanchor_934" href="#Footnote_934" class="fnanchor">[934]</a></p> - -<p><i>c.</i> Less unfortunate with reference to religion were the -pictorial arts at this date. The decoration of churches, in -brilliant colour and appropriate iconography, was gradually -carried to a degree of elaboration which has never since been -surpassed. The intrinsic nature of popular devotion insensibly -established the convention that images in the flat did -not contravene the divine prohibitions; and ecclesiastical -prejudice yielded to expediency. On the iconostasis and -around the walls of the sacred edifice, in proximity to the -worshippers, Christ, the Virgin, the Apostles, and the Saints, -with many a scene of Gospel history, were depicted in glowing -tints on a blue or a golden ground. On every available -space of the ceiling similar subjects, but of larger dimensions, -were executed in a brilliant glass mosaic, and the -mass of colour overhead completed the gorgeous effect of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_228"> 228</span> -the interior.<a id="FNanchor_935" href="#Footnote_935" class="fnanchor">[935]</a> Accordantly it was considered that reverence -for the holy scriptures was fittingly shown by the reproduction -of copies in the most costly form; and hence the -painting of manuscripts in miniature revived and endured -as one of the staple industries of the age. But in all these -cases defective drawing and perspective are often painfully -conspicuous, and a meretricious display of colour seems -to be regarded by the artist as the highest expression of his -skill.<a id="FNanchor_936" href="#Footnote_936" class="fnanchor">[936]</a></p> - -<p><i>d.</i> By the end of the fifth century we are on the verge of -that new era in literature, introduced by the Byzantines, -when to make a transcript of some previous writer was to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_229"> 229</span> -become an author.<a id="FNanchor_937" href="#Footnote_937" class="fnanchor">[937]</a> In other branches of art from time to -time some obvious merit becomes visible on the surface, but -in the domain of poetry, during nearly fourteen centuries -previous to the fall of the Empire, a single name only, that -of Claudian, survives to remind us that both Greeks and -Latins once possessed the faculty of expressing themselves -in verse with nobility of thought and felicity of diction. -Poetasters existed in abundance, but without exception their -compositions exemplify the futility of striving after an object -which in that age had resolved itself into the unattainable. -The usefulness of prose as a medium of information, however -low may be its literary level, often compensates us for -lack of talent in an author; and the bald chronicler, who -plagiarized his predecessors in the same field and presented -their work as his own, is sometimes as welcome to the investigator -as a writer of more ambitious aims. In these barren -centuries, however, history and theology are occasionally -illustrated by some work of original power.</p> - -<p>In the foregoing paragraphs I have dealt with education -in relation only to the male sex, and it remains for me to -say a few words respecting the mental training of the female. -In keeping with the rule as to their social seclusion, the -instruction of girls was conducted in the privacy of the family -circle. There they received, in addition to the usual rudiments, -a certain tincture of polite learning, which implied -the methodical reading of Homer and a limited acquaintance -with some of the other Greek poets and the dramatists.<a id="FNanchor_938" href="#Footnote_938" class="fnanchor">[938]</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_230"> 230</span> -Music, as being an elegant accomplishment, was also taught -to them.<a id="FNanchor_939" href="#Footnote_939" class="fnanchor">[939]</a> They were not, however, debarred from extending -the scope of their studies, and instances of learned ladies are -not altogether wanting to this age, for example, the Empress -Athenais or Eudocia<a id="FNanchor_940" href="#Footnote_940" class="fnanchor">[940]</a> and the celebrated Hypatia.<a id="FNanchor_941" href="#Footnote_941" class="fnanchor">[941]</a></p> - -<p>A glance at the slight structure of knowledge, the leading -lines of which I have just lightly traced, may enable the -modern reader to appreciate the conditions of intellectual life -among the ancients, and to perceive within how narrow an<span class="pagenum" id="Page_231"> 231</span> -area was confined the exercise of their reasoning faculties. -Viewed in comparison with the vast body of contemporary -science, all the information acquired by the Greeks must -appear as an inconsiderable residue scarcely capable of conveying -a perceptible tinge to the whole mass. For fully -eighteen hundred years, from the age of Aristotle to that of -Columbus and Copernicus, no advance was made in the -elucidation of natural phenomena or even towards exploring -the surface of the globe. The same globe has been surveyed -and delineated in its widest extent by the industry of our -cartographers, has been seamed with a labyrinth of railways -for the conveyance of substance, and invested in a network -of wire for the transmission of thought. In the universe of -suns our solar system appears to us as a minute and isolated -disc, the earth a speck within that disc; to the ancients the -revelations of telescopic astronomy were undreamt of, and -the world they inhabited (all but a tithe of which was concealed -from them, and whose form they only mistily realized) -seemed to them to be the heart of the universe, of which the -rest of the celestial bodies were assumed to be merely subordinate -appendages. Geological investigation has penetrated -the past history of the earth through a million of centuries to -those primeval times when meteorological conditions first -favoured the existence of organic life; the people of antiquity -were blinded by unfounded legends which antedated the -origin of things to a few thousand years before their own age. -Spectroscopic observation has assimilated the composition -of the most distant stars to that of our own planet. Chemical -analysis has achieved the dissolution of the numberless -varieties of matter presented to our notice, and proved them -to arise merely from diverse combinations of a few simple -elements; and electrical research has almost visually approached<span class="pagenum" id="Page_232"> 232</span> -that primordial substance in which is conceived to -exist the ultimate unity of all things.<a id="FNanchor_942" href="#Footnote_942" class="fnanchor">[942]</a> Synthetical chemistry -has acquired the skill to control the inherent affinities of -nature, and to compel her energies to the production of -myriads of hitherto unknown compounds.<a id="FNanchor_943" href="#Footnote_943" class="fnanchor">[943]</a> By the aid of the -microscope we can survey the activities of those otherwise -invisible protoplasmic cells which lie at the foundation of -every vital process; and the possibility is foreshadowed that, -in the alliance of biology and chemistry, we may one day -succeed in crossing the bridge which links the organic to the -inorganic world and command the beginnings of life.<a id="FNanchor_944" href="#Footnote_944" class="fnanchor">[944]</a> In all -these departments of objective knowledge the speculations -and researches of the Greek philosophers had not even broken -the ground. For these primitive observers, without history -and without science, the world was a thing of yesterday, a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_233"> 233</span> -novel appearance of which almost anything might be affirmed -or denied. Magnetism was known merely as an interesting -property of the lodestone; electricity, as yet unnamed, had -barely arrested attention as a peculiarity of amber, when -excited by friction, to attract light substances. Nor had the -mechanical arts been developed so as to admit of any practical -application and stimulate the industries of civilization. -Although automatic toys were sometimes constructed with -considerable ingenuity,<a id="FNanchor_945" href="#Footnote_945" class="fnanchor">[945]</a> the simplest labour-saving machine -was as yet uninvented.<a id="FNanchor_946" href="#Footnote_946" class="fnanchor">[946]</a> In the early centuries of our era -knowledge had become stagnant, and further progress was -not conceived of. One half of the world lived on frivolity; -the individuality of the other half was sunk in metaphysical -illusion. The people of this age contemplated nature without -comprehending her operations; her forces were displayed -before their eyes, but it never entered into their heads to -master them and make them subservient to the needs of -human life; they moved within a narrow cage unconscious -of the barriers which confined them, without a thought of -emerging to the freedom of the beyond; and an ordinary -citizen of the present day is in the possession of information -which would surprise and instruct the greatest sage of ancient -Greece.</p> - - -<h3 id="section_III_1">III. <span class="smcap">Religious.</span></h3> - -<p>The increase of knowledge in the nineteenth century has -stripped every shred of supernaturalism from our conception -of popular religions. The studies and inventions of modern<span class="pagenum" id="Page_234"> 234</span> -science have illuminated every corner of the universe; and -our discovery of the origins has cleared the greatest stumbling-block -from the path of philosophy and removed the last prop -which sustained the fabric of organized superstition. The -world will one day have to face the truth about religion; and -it may then become necessary to restrain by legal enactment -those who would draw away the masses to some old historical, -or to some new-born superstition.<a id="FNanchor_947" href="#Footnote_947" class="fnanchor">[947]</a></p> - -<p>In primitive times the curiosity and impatience of mankind -demanded an immediate explanation of the activities of -nature; and by a simple analogy they soon conceived the -existence of a demiurge or maker of worlds who, in his loftier -sphere, disposed of the materials of the universe by methods -comparable to those of their own constructive operations.<a id="FNanchor_948" href="#Footnote_948" class="fnanchor">[948]</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_235"> 235</span> -Or, perchance, by even less speculative reasoning they were -led to accept the phenomenal world as the result of a perpetual -generation and growth which accorded closely with -their everyday experience of nature; whilst a divinity of some -kind seemed to lurk in every obscurity and all visible objects -to be instinct with a life and intelligence of their own.<a id="FNanchor_949" href="#Footnote_949" class="fnanchor">[949]</a> In -either case they believed themselves to be in the presence of -beings of superior attributes whom it was desirable or necessary -to conciliate by some form of address adapted to gain -their favour or to avert their enmity. Hence worship, the -parent of some system of ritual likely to become more elaborate -in the lapse of time; and the ultimate establishment of -a priestly caste who would soon profess to an intercourse -with the unseen not vouchsafed to ordinary mortals. Gradually -the first vague notions of a celestial hierarchy grew more -realistic by imaginative or expedient accretions; and in a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_236"> 236</span> -later age the sense of a less ignorant community would not -be revolted by incredible details as to the personal intervention -of divinities in the history of their progenitors when such -events were relegated to a dimly realized past. But, although -a belief in revelation as seen through the mists of antiquity -prevails readily at all times among the unthinking masses, a -spirit of scepticism and inquiry arises with the advent of -civilization and increases concurrently with the vigour of its -growth. Then the national mythology is submitted to the -test of a dispassionate logic, and its crude constituents become -more and more rejected by the sagacity of a cultured class. -They, however, always hitherto an inconsiderable minority, -feel constrained to an indulgence more or less qualified of -the superstitions of the vulgar for fear of disturbing the -political harmony of the state.</p> - -<p>The early Greek philosophers awoke into life to find -themselves endowed with vast intelligence in a world of -which they knew nothing. No record of the past, no forecast -of the future disturbed the serenity of their intellectual -horizon. In a more aesthetic environment they renewed -the impulse to interpret nature with a finer sense of congruity -than was possessed by their rude ancestors, but their -methods were identical, and they believed they could advance -beyond the bounds of experience by the exercise -of a vivid imagination. The coarse myths of polytheism -were thrust aside, and the void was filled with fantastic -cosmogonies, some of which included, whilst others -dispensed with, the agency of a Deity.<a id="FNanchor_950" href="#Footnote_950" class="fnanchor">[950]</a> The truth and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_237"> 237</span> -finality of such speculations was shortly assumed, and schools -of philosophy, representing every variety of doctrine, were -formed, except that in which it was foreseen that knowledge -would be attained only by the long and laborious path of -experimental investigation. But whilst disciples were attracted -to different sects by the personal influence of a -teacher, by the novelty of his tenets, or by their own mental -bias, the general sense of the community remained unconvinced; -and the independent thinkers of the next generation -perceived the futility of inquiries which evolved nothing -coherent and revealed no new facts. Scientific research, for -the deliberate striving after deeper insight ranked as such -in the unpractised mind of the period, was discredited, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_238"> 238</span> -an impression that the limits of human knowledge had -already been reached began to prevail universally. A reign -of scepticism was inaugurated, the evidence of the senses -in respect even of the most patent facts was doubted, and -the study of nature was virtually abandoned.<a id="FNanchor_951" href="#Footnote_951" class="fnanchor">[951]</a> Then philosophy -became synonymous with ethics, but by ethics was -understood merely the rule of expediency in public life, a -subject which was debated with much sophistry. The inspiration -of Socrates impelled him to combat this tendency, -to search earnestly after truth, and to inculcate an elevated -sense of duty. His mind was pervaded by an intense philanthropy -which affected his associates so profoundly that -his teaching did not lose its influence for centuries after his -death. From the time of Socrates the fruits of experience -began to be gathered, and new schools of philosophy were -organized on the sounder basis of divulging to their votaries -how to make the best use of their lives. The views entertained -on this question were as various as the divergences -of human temperament, and adapted to countenance the -serious or the frivolous proclivities of mankind.<a id="FNanchor_952" href="#Footnote_952" class="fnanchor">[952]</a> A theological -or cosmical theory was a usual part of the equipment<span class="pagenum" id="Page_239"> 239</span> -of these schools, but in outward demeanour they conformed, -more or less strictly, with the religion of the state. The -intellectual movement among the Greeks culminated after -about two centuries of activity in the career of Aristotle, -who undertook to sift, to harmonize, and to codify all the -knowledge of his age.<a id="FNanchor_953" href="#Footnote_953" class="fnanchor">[953]</a> A great work had been accomplished; -all that wild outgrowth with which savage intellection -is wont to encumber the domain of reason had been -swept away, and the ground had been subjected to an -orderly, though unproductive planting. The conception that -nature would yield a harvest as the reward of rational study -had been awakened, but the efforts lapsed because the -method had yet to be discovered of fertilizing the vacant -soil.<a id="FNanchor_954" href="#Footnote_954" class="fnanchor">[954]</a></p> - -<p>The conception of social ethics or of mutual obligation -among the members of a community appears to have been -one of those influences which presided at the birth of civilization, -and to have attained theoretical perfection far back -in the prehistoric past; whilst the perpetual conflict between<span class="pagenum" id="Page_240"> 240</span> -duty and individual advantage has always inhibited altruism -from being accepted as an invariable guide to conduct -without the artificial support of penal law. In Homer and -Hesiod we find almost every rule for living uprightly adequately -expressed. A man should honour his parents, -love and be generous to his friends, be a good neighbour, -and succour strangers and suppliants. He should be truthful, -honest, continent, and industrious; and should consider -sloth to be a disgrace.<a id="FNanchor_955" href="#Footnote_955" class="fnanchor">[955]</a> In the next age Hellenic -refinement could add little more than fuller expression to -these simple precepts. But from Pythagoras to Socrates, -from Aristotle to Cicero, from Seneca to Marcus Aurelius, -a constant emission of ethical doctrine was maintained. -Amid the wealth of disquisition, innumerable striking aphorisms -might be selected, but only a few such can be recorded -here: We should scan the actions of each day before -resigning ourselves to sleep;<a id="FNanchor_956" href="#Footnote_956" class="fnanchor">[956]</a> We have contracted with the -government under which we live to submit ourselves to its -laws, even should they condemn us to death unjustly;<a id="FNanchor_957" href="#Footnote_957" class="fnanchor">[957]</a> We -should pity the man who inflicts an injury more than him -who suffers it, for the one is harmed only in his body, the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_241"> 241</span> -other in his more precious soul;<a id="FNanchor_958" href="#Footnote_958" class="fnanchor">[958]</a> Do not unto others what -it angers you to suffer yourself;<a id="FNanchor_959" href="#Footnote_959" class="fnanchor">[959]</a> Even should we be able -to conceal our conduct from gods and men, we are not the -less bound to act uprightly;<a id="FNanchor_960" href="#Footnote_960" class="fnanchor">[960]</a> The judge, as well as the -criminal, is on his trial that he may deliver just decisions;<a id="FNanchor_961" href="#Footnote_961" class="fnanchor">[961]</a> -Do not revile the malefactor, but commiserate him as one -who knows not right from wrong;<a id="FNanchor_962" href="#Footnote_962" class="fnanchor">[962]</a> Blame none, for men -only do evil involuntarily.<a id="FNanchor_963" href="#Footnote_963" class="fnanchor">[963]</a> By the first century slaves had -begun to be considered in a more humane light; and -masters were enjoined to look on them as humble friends, as -brothers with whom it was no disgrace to sit at meat.<a id="FNanchor_964" href="#Footnote_964" class="fnanchor">[964]</a> The -iniquity of the gladiatorial shows was beginning to be felt -in the time of Cicero,<a id="FNanchor_965" href="#Footnote_965" class="fnanchor">[965]</a> and they were denounced in no -measured terms by Seneca.<a id="FNanchor_966" href="#Footnote_966" class="fnanchor">[966]</a> Such exhibitions had never -been proper to the Greek communities and, when an attempt -was made to introduce them at Athens in the second -century, the cynic philosopher Demonax restrained his -fellow citizens by declaring that before doing so they should<span class="pagenum" id="Page_242"> 242</span> -first demolish the altar of Pity.<a id="FNanchor_967" href="#Footnote_967" class="fnanchor">[967]</a> The exposure of new-born -infants was one of the besetting sins of antiquity, and the -practice was universal among the Latins and Greeks.<a id="FNanchor_968" href="#Footnote_968" class="fnanchor">[968]</a> The -inhumanity of it was, however, perceived early in our era; -yet not until the reign of Severus do we find a legal pronouncement -against it.<a id="FNanchor_969" href="#Footnote_969" class="fnanchor">[969]</a> Constantine discountenanced it, -but no comprehensive enactment for its suppression was -promulgated till the end of the fourth century.<a id="FNanchor_970" href="#Footnote_970" class="fnanchor">[970]</a> Charity -towards the needy was a recognized duty from the earliest -times, and Homer voices the general sentiment when he -writes that strangers and the poor are to be treated as -emissaries from the gods.<a id="FNanchor_971" href="#Footnote_971" class="fnanchor">[971]</a> At Athens, in its palmy days, -an allowance was made to indigent citizens;<a id="FNanchor_972" href="#Footnote_972" class="fnanchor">[972]</a> and the lavish -system of outdoor relief denoted by the trite phrase, <i>Panem -et circenses</i>, as introduced by the Caesars, threatened to -pauperize the urban population of the Empire.<a id="FNanchor_973" href="#Footnote_973" class="fnanchor">[973]</a> The origin -of charitable asylums is not well ascertained, but there is -evidence that in the first century at least the foundation of -such institutions was already being promoted by the rulers -of the state.<a id="FNanchor_974" href="#Footnote_974" class="fnanchor">[974]</a> The Roman Empire entered the Christian<span class="pagenum" id="Page_243"> 243</span> -era equipped with a civilization scarcely at all inferior to -that of the present day in relation to art, literature, and -social ethics, but a sustaining principle, which could endow -the splendid fabric with quality of permanency, was wanting. -It was vulnerable within and without; and two powerful -enemies, superstition and the barbarian, were awaiting -the opportune moment to prey upon it. The dissolution -commenced within; ignorance of natural science allowed -the first to work havoc in its vital parts; the barbarian -assaulted the infected mass from without, and the ruin became -complete.</p> - -<p>The political unification of the most civilized portion of -the globe was begun by the conquests of Alexander and completed -by those of Rome. Sociological homogeneity was attendant -on centralization of government. From Britain to -North Africa and from Spain to Asia Minor thought flowed -through the same channels. Rome and Greece dominated -the world between them; while the former assumed the -physical control of the nations, the latter held their mental -faculties in subjection. Progressively, however, influences -began to permeate the Empire which were foreign to both -Latins and Hellenes. East and west confronted each other -on the Asiatic frontier; Egyptians and Jews were commingled -with the Latin and Greek races in the great mart of Alexandria. -Oriental mysticism became rife, and gods of every -nationality were received into the bosom of Rome.<a id="FNanchor_975" href="#Footnote_975" class="fnanchor">[975]</a> In the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_244"> 244</span> -first century of the Christian era the times were ripe for new -religious beliefs. By the expansion of the Roman dominions -the classes had become cosmopolitan, and a wide experience -of men and manners had dissipated the rustic simplicity of -the Republic. The society of the Empire was enlightened -by the speculations of Greek philosophy; it became versed -in metaphysical discussion, and soon conceived an irreverence -for the divinities of a ruder age.<a id="FNanchor_976" href="#Footnote_976" class="fnanchor">[976]</a> Everywhere the same level of -mental apprehension was ultimately reached. Then the inanity -of earthly existence began to be acutely felt. The thoughtful -looked through the void and saw nowhere for the mind to -rest. Zeal for public distinction had been suppressed by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_245"> 245</span> -military despotism, and the pride which animates the strenuous -virtues of a rising commonwealth was extinct. Levity -pervaded the aimless crowd who lived only for the diversion -of the hour. Nature had been interrogated repeatedly with -an invariably negative result; her secret, if she possessed one, -seemed to be impenetrable and destined to remain for ever -unknown. No discovery in science had opened up the vista -of a path which led through inexhaustible fields of knowledge. -The psychical unrest longed for new ideals and was -willing to be appeased by the slightest semblance of a revelation. -Religion-making became a craft which was followed -by more than one practitioner in all the chief cities of the -Empire. A host of charlatans arose and made many victims by -pretending to theurgic powers.<a id="FNanchor_977" href="#Footnote_977" class="fnanchor">[977]</a> Agitated by vague impulses -the social units drifted with indeterminable currents, for more -than a century before the heterogeneous elements which -were in commotion showed a tendency to group themselves -under any concrete forms. At length the appearances of a -settlement became visible, and three distinct forms emerged -successively from the previously existing chaos, each of -which claimed to have sounded the abysmal depths and to -have brought to the surface the inestimable balm which was -to salve the bruised souls of humanity. But they beheld -each other with horror and contempt, and a contest was -initiated between them on the theatre of the Empire for the -spiritual dominion of mankind.</p> - -<p>I. In the year 28 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>, the fifteenth of the reign of Tiberius, -Pontius Pilate was governor of Judaea, the subordinate officer<span class="pagenum" id="Page_246"> 246</span> -of Aelius Lamia, the Imperial legate of Syria.<a id="FNanchor_978" href="#Footnote_978" class="fnanchor">[978]</a> At that point -of time a man, previously unknown among the Jews, assumed -the rôle of a public teacher of religion and ethics and devoted -himself to an itinerant mission throughout the cities and districts -of Palestine. He seemed to be about thirty years old -and it was soon realized that he was a certain Jesus who had -hitherto worked as a carpenter, his father’s trade, in his -native village of Nazareth. He preached a reformation of -manners among the people generally, and rebuked with a -penetrating bitterness the pride and hypocrisy of the chief -men of his own race. At the outset of his career he summoned -to his assistance twelve men of the same humble -rank as himself and enjoined them to follow his example. -He did not confine himself to hortatory discourses, but -proved on numerous occasions that he had the gift of working -miracles. At his command the sick were healed and -even the dead returned to life. Those who were possessed -with devils he immediately released from their baleful thraldom.<a id="FNanchor_979" href="#Footnote_979" class="fnanchor">[979]</a> -The laws of nature appeared to be subject to his will -and were reversed whenever he thought fit to exert his power -over them. Finally he declared himself to be the Messiah -or Christ, a more than mortal being whom the Jews expected -to rescue them from their political abasement and raise -them to a position of national supremacy. Israel as a body -rejected his claims with scorn and derision; his ministry of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_247"> 247</span> -peace afforded no prospect of the rehabilitation they aspired -to.<a id="FNanchor_980" href="#Footnote_980" class="fnanchor">[980]</a> He met them in the temple at Jerusalem and they demanded -of him a sign that he was an emissary sent from -heaven. In reply he assailed them with vituperation and -hurried from the precincts. Amongst his own following he -explained himself; his design had been entirely misconceived; -he was the son of Jehovah and his kingdom was not of this -world. He had been sent to reconcile his own nation to his -father, the ruler of the universe, whom they had offended by -their moral laxity and corruption. He would shortly depart -from the earth, but he would soon return with all the powers -of heaven to judge the inhabitants of this lower sphere. -Then the just would be received into a state of bliss without -end, whilst the wicked should be consigned to everlasting -torment. He persisted in his didactic work, which tended to -make the chief priests and elders odious in the eyes of the -people, until they determined to compass his destruction. -Ultimately he was seized and brought before the Roman -governor as a mover of sedition, but Pilate was unconcerned -and wished to release him. His accusers insisted, he yielded -and, after suffering every indignity, Jesus was crucified between -two thieves on mount Calvary during the Paschal -festival of <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 29, under the consulship of the two Gemini.<a id="FNanchor_981" href="#Footnote_981" class="fnanchor">[981]</a> -But his disciples had been forewarned by their master that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_248"> 248</span> -his death in the guise of a malefactor was preordained as an -atonement to effect the redemption of the world from sin. -Had it been otherwise legions of angels would descend to -discomfort his impious antagonists. At the same time he -predicted that he would rise from the dead on the third day -after the burial of his body. This promise was fulfilled, his -sepulchre was found empty, and Jesus appeared again to his -disciples. He discoursed with them for forty days, constituted -them apostles to preach his Gospel not only to the -Jews, but also to the Gentiles, and in their presence ascended -into the heavens until the clouds received him out of their -sight.</p> - -<p>Such was the astounding relation elicited with some difficulty -from a sect of new religionists called Christians, who, -as early as the reign of Nero, were sufficiently numerous at -Rome to have incurred the hatred of the populace through -their austere disposition and their stern abjuration of the -national gods.<a id="FNanchor_982" href="#Footnote_982" class="fnanchor">[982]</a> In the year 64 the city was devastated by -an appalling conflagration of which the insensate emperor -was himself accused, but he shifted the odium to the already -discredited recusants, and condemned many of them to perish<span class="pagenum" id="Page_249"> 249</span> -in the flames by a peculiarly atrocious method.<a id="FNanchor_983" href="#Footnote_983" class="fnanchor">[983]</a> Nevertheless -the Christians maintained their ground and thirty years -later were regarded with hostility by the tyrant Domitian as -a body of proselytizing Jews in the capital.<a id="FNanchor_984" href="#Footnote_984" class="fnanchor">[984]</a> At the dawn of -the second century the younger Pliny found them so numerous -in his province of Bithynia as almost to have subverted -the established religion. In great concern he wrote to the -Emperor Trajan questioning whether he should proceed to -extremities in his efforts to suppress them. This epistle is -extant, and through it some details were first made public as -to their tenets and mode of worship. Before daybreak on a -certain day they met and recited an address to Christ as to -a god; bound themselves by oath to commit no crime against -society, and partook together of a common meal. The cultured -Roman, imbued with literature and philosophy, estimated -the Christian belief as a depraved and extravagant -superstition, the eradication of which was dictated by state -policy, but his master counselled him to disregard it unless -popular animosity should in particular instances compel him -to drag its devotees from their obscurity.<a id="FNanchor_985" href="#Footnote_985" class="fnanchor">[985]</a> The Christian -missionaries pursued their labours unremittingly and were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_250"> 250</span> -especially active among the proletariat, from whom during -the first centuries their converts were almost exclusively -drawn.<a id="FNanchor_986" href="#Footnote_986" class="fnanchor">[986]</a> Throughout the length and breadth of the Empire -they persistently undermined the existing order of things by -teaching doctrines which were at variance with the received -conception of Roman citizenship. Not only did they revile -the pagan deities, whom they classed as demons instead of -gods, and shun their festivals,<a id="FNanchor_987" href="#Footnote_987" class="fnanchor">[987]</a> but they evinced an utter -aversion for military service.<a id="FNanchor_988" href="#Footnote_988" class="fnanchor">[988]</a> The polytheists were incensed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_251"> 251</span> -at the pretensions of a deity who would not share the theocracy, -but claimed to oust all other divinities from their -seats and occupy the celestial throne alone,<a id="FNanchor_989" href="#Footnote_989" class="fnanchor">[989]</a> whilst statesmen -became alarmed at the prospect of political defection, and -began to second the vulgar prejudice by systematic efforts -at exterminating the spreading sect. The benignant Marcus -Aurelius was induced to believe that the Christians were a -danger to the state and he issued a decree (<i>c.</i> 177) that they -should be sought out and put to death unless willing to -abandon their faith.<a id="FNanchor_990" href="#Footnote_990" class="fnanchor">[990]</a> This was the first decided persecution, -but, although many perished, it proved ineffective, as no -means available were strong enough to extinguish the flames -of fanaticism. On the contrary, those who stood firm before -the tribunals and were allowed to escape with their lives -ranked afterwards as “Confessors,” a title more glorious in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_252"> 252</span> -the eyes of their fellows than any temporal dignity; whilst -constancy to the death became the essential qualification of -Martyrs or witnesses to the truth, Saints who were admitted -forthwith among the heavenly host as mediators between -God and man.<a id="FNanchor_991" href="#Footnote_991" class="fnanchor">[991]</a> As soon as the repressive measures were -relaxed all the weaker brethren, who had abjured in the face -of danger, prayed for readmission to the conventicles, and -were usually received after the infliction of a term of penance. -Once and again during the next century and a half widespread -persecution was had recourse to by Decius and by Diocletian, -but the Christians throve and prospered in the intervals -despite of fitful and local hostility.<a id="FNanchor_992" href="#Footnote_992" class="fnanchor">[992]</a> The memorable battle -of the Milvian bridge in 312 proved to be a turning-point -in the history of Rome and of Christianity; and the state -religion of the ancient world was involved in the fall of the -dissolute Maxentius. The victorious Constantine, as sole -Emperor of the West, immediately concerted a measure with -his colleague of the East, Licinius, for the establishment -of religious toleration throughout their dominions.<a id="FNanchor_993" href="#Footnote_993" class="fnanchor">[993]</a> Thenceforward<span class="pagenum" id="Page_253"> 253</span> -Christianity was free to expand in obedience to the -charge she had received at her origin and to apply herself to -the task of supplanting every other belief.</p> - -<p>The acceptance of all religions is pressed by an appeal to -the supernatural sub-structure on which they profess to be -based; and this claim is substantiated by the presentment of -some miraculous circumstances from which they are asserted -to have derived their birth. Evidential obscurity has always -been the soul of such pretensions; and the truth of the most -improbable occurrences has been resolutely maintained because -assured witnesses could not be produced in order to -prove a negative. But the time for historical discussion or -sifting of evidence in relation to such matters has long gone -by; and in the twentieth century the philosopher is enabled -without examination to dismiss with a smile the mere suggestion -that such events have occurred.<a id="FNanchor_994" href="#Footnote_994" class="fnanchor">[994]</a> That any narrative, -which in its essential statements consists largely of the -marvellous, should be rejected as false in its entirety has -almost risen to the dignity of a canon of historical criticism. -The principle, however, has often been unduly strained in -its application; and no judicious investigator would refuse -to allow that a slender thread of fact may sometimes be -extricated from a mass of incredible legend. The awe-inspiring -life of Jesus emanates from authors of unascertainable<span class="pagenum" id="Page_254"> 254</span> -date and repute. No neutral scribe, no adverse critic, -has furnished us with any personal impressions of his career -bearing the intrinsic marks of truth and simplicity. Nor can -it be affirmed that any character fairly discernible on the -stage of history ever knew an apostle. The Twelve who are -credited with having disseminated the faith of the Gospel -from east to west lie buried in a more than prehistoric -obscurity, the writings ascribed to them doubted, denied, or -clearly disproved.<a id="FNanchor_995" href="#Footnote_995" class="fnanchor">[995]</a> It can scarcely be a matter of surprise, -therefore, if some serious scholars of modern times have -committed themselves to an absolute denial that the nominal -founder of Christianity has had any real existence.<a id="FNanchor_996" href="#Footnote_996" class="fnanchor">[996]</a> Yet the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_255"> 255</span> -cause of mysticism was well served by the impenetrable -cloud which hung over the mundane activity of Jesus. No -common inquiry enabled the diligent adversaries of Christianity<span class="pagenum" id="Page_256"> 256</span> -to strip the veil from the idealized figure, and expose -its features to the gaze of vulgar observation. The philosophic -critic was reduced to mere expressions of incredulity;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_257"> 257</span> -and the despair of historians became the firmest pillar of -belief in the church.<a id="FNanchor_997" href="#Footnote_997" class="fnanchor">[997]</a></p> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_258"> 258</span></p> - - -<p>II. In an idle hour Plato applied himself to shadowing -forth a theological doctrine which should account for the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_259"> 259</span> -origin and guidance of the objective universe.<a id="FNanchor_998" href="#Footnote_998" class="fnanchor">[998]</a> A supreme<span class="pagenum" id="Page_260"> 260</span> -god, the One or the Good,<a id="FNanchor_999" href="#Footnote_999" class="fnanchor">[999]</a> at a certain moment conceived -a creative design and fashioned the material world out of -pre-existing elements.<a id="FNanchor_1000" href="#Footnote_1000" class="fnanchor">[1000]</a> This task completed, he created intellect -and soul; and by combining the two together produced -living intelligence.<a id="FNanchor_1001" href="#Footnote_1001" class="fnanchor">[1001]</a> He was now provided with all the requisite -ingredients for peopling the world he had made; and his -next step was to form a primal race of spiritual beings or -daemons whom he endowed with immortality. From these -by generation issued the whole progeny of gods worshipped -by the Greeks, for whom their pedigrees and actions were -recorded by Orpheus, Homer, and Hesiod. Among the -divine existences were also to be reckoned the stars. At -this stage the creative work of the One came to an end. -He addressed the daemons and said: “You have observed -my method of procedure when engaged in moulding yourselves. -Follow my example and set about the production of -mortal natures to inhabit the air, the water, and the earth.” -They obeyed his behests, and the whole animal kingdom -was the result of their labours. But the grosser matter with -which mortal souls are weighed down is the essence of -evil, and the just man will, therefore, desire to escape from -the body in order to be free from its impure passions.<a id="FNanchor_1002" href="#Footnote_1002" class="fnanchor">[1002]</a> -For the Creator had appointed that each soul should be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_261"> 261</span> -associated with a particular star, to whose blissful abode it -might return as the reward of a life well spent on earth. -The unrighteous soul, however, must first be chastened by -an ordeal of transmigration through descending grades -of lower animal natures, the least abased being that of a -woman.</p> - -<p>This cosmological phantasy of Plato was destined, after -lying dormant for more than five centuries, to breathe a new -spirit into the almost inanimate body of polytheism. The -higher social caste, still adhering languidly to the old belief, -counted among them many elevated minds devoted to the -traditions of the past, who apprehended with dismay the -dissolution of all they prized in the ebbing tide of Paganism. -The effete superstition could only be sustained by some process -of depuration capable of reconciling it with the more -refined perceptions of the age. The required influence was -at hand. From Alexandria, where an international fusion of -philosophies and religions had been in progress almost since -the foundation of the city, a new dispensation proceeded -before the middle of the third century. In that capital, the -Greek was penetrated by the spirit of Oriental mysticism, -and the Jew was fascinated by the intellectual ascendancy -of the schools of Athens. The ancient rivalry of sects had -almost died out, and a later generation of inquirers adopted -freely whatever they could assimilate from various systems -of philosophy.<a id="FNanchor_1003" href="#Footnote_1003" class="fnanchor">[1003]</a> After passing tentatively through several -stages from the first years of our era, a theological doctrine -under the name of Platonism was elaborated by the Egyptian,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_262"> 262</span> -Plotinus,<a id="FNanchor_1004" href="#Footnote_1004" class="fnanchor">[1004]</a> with sufficient completeness to be presented to -the devout polytheist as a rule of life. In general conception, -the new faith did not differ essentially from the scheme advanced -by the founder of the Academy, but, with its deficiencies -supplied from exotic sources, it was propounded -solemnly as a theosophy which revealed the whole purport -of human existence. As a practical religion, this revival, -Neoplatonism by name, enjoined a purity of life which should -free the soul from defilement by contact with the world, and -allow it to coalesce with the divine potential whence it had -emanated.<a id="FNanchor_1005" href="#Footnote_1005" class="fnanchor">[1005]</a> The crowning allurement of the system was that -this blissful conjunction might be attained by the fervid -votary even during life. Those who had subjugated all their -natural, and, therefore, evil passions, might rise by contemplation -to an ecstatic union with the Deity, the transcendant<span class="pagenum" id="Page_263"> 263</span> -One; or, to express it irreverently in modern language, might -acquire the faculty of passing into a hypnotic trance.<a id="FNanchor_1006" href="#Footnote_1006" class="fnanchor">[1006]</a> As -soon as Plotinus had perfected his invention, he proceeded -to Rome (<i>c.</i> 244), with the view of professing his doctrine -to the mystically inclined on the most extended theatre -in the Empire. Here his success was very considerable, -and he gained numerous adherents, especially as he -conceded that all forms of Pagan worship availed as a real -approach to the Deity and enshrined germs of truth derived -from some primitive revelation. He became influential -at Court and was about to organize a Utopian community -on the lines of Plato’s ideal republic under the auspices -of Gallienus when the fall of that Emperor frustrated his -design.</p> - -<p>Plotinus died in 270, leaving many disciples to continue -the work of his school, the foremost of whom was Porphyry, -known as a keen assailant of Christianity.<a id="FNanchor_1007" href="#Footnote_1007" class="fnanchor">[1007]</a> To him succeeded<span class="pagenum" id="Page_264"> 264</span> -the Syrian, Iamblichus, a contemporary of Constantine, who -gave the final form to Neoplatonism and adapted it for widest -acceptance. The religion of Plotinus was an ineffable creed -which avowedly excluded vulgar participation, and was -addressed only to cultured aspirants;<a id="FNanchor_1008" href="#Footnote_1008" class="fnanchor">[1008]</a> but a descent was -made by his successors who, with the object of amplifying -their influence, embraced gradually all the crass superstitions -of the multitude. A mystical signification was read into the -sacred books of the Greeks, as the poems of Orpheus, -Homer, and Hesiod may appropriately be termed, by an -allegorical interpretation of every phrase or incident in the -text. All trivial circumstances or immoral pictures were thus -disclosed to be fraught with spiritual or ethical meaning for -the pious reader.<a id="FNanchor_1009" href="#Footnote_1009" class="fnanchor">[1009]</a> The endless procession of invisible beings -with which Eastern fancy had peopled space, angels, demons, -archons, and demigods, were accepted by the latter school -and associated to the theocracy as mediators who could be -summoned and suborned to human purposes by magic rites,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_265"> 265</span> -incantations, and sacrifices.<a id="FNanchor_1010" href="#Footnote_1010" class="fnanchor">[1010]</a> By the time this stage had been -reached, Neoplatonism appeared to be fully equipped for -satisfying the occult proclivities of all classes, and asserting -its right to become the prevailing religion of the state.</p> - -<p>III. The most distinctive and irrepressible theological -principle which entered Western civilization from the East, -was the dualistic conception of nature inherent in the old -Babylonian religions. The seers of that ancient people could -not resolve the problem as to the providential government -of the world, without postulating a perpetual strife between -two opposed powers, who were engaged in determining the -course of events. The spectacle of suffering humanity enforced -the belief that a potent spirit of evil shared the control -of the existing order of things to an equal extent with the -benign Deity from whom all blessings flowed. The eastern -provinces of the Empire became saturated with these views, -and the prime mover in diffusing them was said to be that -Simon Magus who, although he makes but a brief and insignificant -appearance in Gospel history, occupies a very -considerable space in extra-biblical literature.<a id="FNanchor_1011" href="#Footnote_1011" class="fnanchor">[1011]</a> Under the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_266"> 266</span> -name of Gnostics, recipients of a special enlightenment or -<i>gnosis</i>, his reputed progeny swarmed about the early Christian -Church, whose presence seemed to rouse them into vitality; -for, in the doctrine of redemption by Jesus, they found, as -they imagined, the key to much that was unexplained in -their own system.<a id="FNanchor_1012" href="#Footnote_1012" class="fnanchor">[1012]</a> Diversity in the apprehension of detail<span class="pagenum" id="Page_267"> 267</span> -was an innate characteristic of the Gnostic brood; whence it -followed that they became apparent in small sects only, -computed at some scores, and, though numerous, never -attained the weight of union as a religious body. Gradually -they were dissolved by the preponderance of the Catholic -Church, which absorbed their members and proscribed their -peculiar tenets.<a id="FNanchor_1013" href="#Footnote_1013" class="fnanchor">[1013]</a></p> - -<p>There was, however, one form of dualism which arose -beyond the borders of the Empire, and, from its centre in -Persia, spread with great rapidity eastwards to the frontiers -of China, and westwards as far as the Atlantic ocean. This -international faith, for such it became in less than a century, -was called Manichaeism from its founder Mani, of whom -little certain is known; but he was probably a native of -Ecbatana, the Median capital.<a id="FNanchor_1014" href="#Footnote_1014" class="fnanchor">[1014]</a> As the prophet of a new -dispensation, Mani belongs to the second class of makers of -religion, that is, he did not claim to be himself a god, but -only an apostle commissioned by the Deity. His life extended<span class="pagenum" id="Page_268"> 268</span> -to upwards of sixty years, and he was countenanced -by more than one of the Sassanian kings. At length, however, -he fell a victim to the jealousy of the Magi, the exponents -of the established belief of Zarathushtra, at whose -instigation he was crucified and flayed by Bahram I. In the -system of Mani the fundamental conception is the antithesis -of light and darkness, by which the opposition between good -and evil is vividly denoted; and the present world originates -in the accident of a war breaking out between the respective -powers. Satan, the Prince of Darkness, discovers by chance -the kingdom of light, the existence of which was previously -unknown to him, and, with his army of demons, makes an -incursion into it. The God of Light, sustained by his pure -spirits, engages and defeats him, but during the campaign a -commingling has occurred of elements of the two realms. -The contest now resolves into the efforts of the Deity to regain, -and of Satan to retain, the portions of light which were -lost in the darkness. The first step is the formation by the -former of this world, but the latter creates man as a secure -receptacle for the light he had acquired. Hence this creature -is animated by two souls, an evil one as well as a soul of -light; and Satan enslaves him by exciting his bad passions.<a id="FNanchor_1015" href="#Footnote_1015" class="fnanchor">[1015]</a> -The process of restoring the light goes on continually, and -the sun and moon are great reservoirs into which it is poured -by the active agents of the superior Deity. The human race -is placed in possession of the clue to paradise by having this -gnosis imparted to it. A rigid asceticism must be practised -according to prescribed rules. There were, however, two -ranks of Manichaeans, the Elect and the Auditors. The -earnest votaries joined the first, and on them celibacy and a -vegetarian diet were imposed. Membership of the second<span class="pagenum" id="Page_269"> 269</span> -was adapted to the masses, from whom only moderate abstinence -was required. They ministered religiously to the -Elect, whom they thus enlisted as redeemers on their behalf, -so that with the addition of a term of purgatory after death, -they also became fitted for paradise. Mani utilized some of -the ideas of Christianity in order to connect his religion -practically with mankind, but his transferences are rather -imitations than acceptances of anything really Christian. -Thus he acknowledged a Jesus Christ, who abides in the -son, as the “primal man” or first-born of the Deity.<a id="FNanchor_1016" href="#Footnote_1016" class="fnanchor">[1016]</a> He -had visited the earth as a prophet, and from him Mani had -received his apostolic mission, whence he usurped the title -of the Paraclete, whose advent was promised in the Gospels. -He also instructed twelve disciples to preach his doctrine. -The success and prevalence of Manichaeism was at one time -very great, for it arose as the revivifying force of more than -one aspect of dualism in the East and West. It fostered the -time-honoured traditions of the inhabitants of the Euphrates -valley, and drew to itself the disintegrating coteries of -Gnostics within the Roman Empire. A Manichaean popedom -was established, which had its seat for several centuries -in Babylon. As early as 287 Diocletian denounced the propagation -of the religion as a capital offence, on the grounds -that the “execrable customs and cruel laws” of the Persians -might thereby gain a footing among his “mild and peaceful” -subjects.<a id="FNanchor_1017" href="#Footnote_1017" class="fnanchor">[1017]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_270"> 270</span></p> - -<p>From the foregoing summary it will be seen that in the -first years of the fourth century polytheism, as resuscitated -by Neoplatonism, held the field against its rivals with the -support and approval of the government. We cannot attempt -here to fathom the motives, so prolific as a literary theme, -which induced Constantine first to favour Christianity, then -to embrace it for himself and his family, and finally to raise -it into the safe position of being the only religion recognized -by the state. In the blank outlook of the times some definite -belief was a necessity, and, whether from policy or conviction, -he steered his course in the direction where the tide -seemed to set most strongly. Pure Neoplatonism was congenial -only to persons of a meditative temperament; to the -sober-minded it was artificial and unconvincing. Its loftier -heights were inaccessible to the masses, and in its later -development it threatened to make common cause with the -jugglers and charlatans who risked a conflict with the law.<a id="FNanchor_1018" href="#Footnote_1018" class="fnanchor">[1018]</a> -Manichaeism had only begun to rear its head, and at the -best contained much that was fantastic and incomprehensible -to a non-Semitic people.<a id="FNanchor_1019" href="#Footnote_1019" class="fnanchor">[1019]</a> Christianity was simple, positive,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_271"> 271</span> -socialistic, a leveller of class distinctions, for the slave as well -as for the free man, and absolutely intolerant of every other -religion. Its emissaries believed implicitly in their mission, -and worked incessantly among the lower stratum of the -population, to whom they delivered the message of their -Gospel in clear and precise terms. By their vehement assertion -there was no escape from, and no alternative to the -acceptance of their creed. The Day of Judgment was at -hand; at any moment Jesus might return to inaugurate a -golden age of one thousand years upon the earth; and all -those who had been regenerated by baptism would participate -in His glory.<a id="FNanchor_1020" href="#Footnote_1020" class="fnanchor">[1020]</a> The primitive church was communistic in -principle, and exceptional solicitude was shown in the administration -of charity to its indigent members. Liberality -in this sense was doubtless the means of winning over many -converts, for its bounty was not withheld from the poor on -account of any difference in religion.<a id="FNanchor_1021" href="#Footnote_1021" class="fnanchor">[1021]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_272"> 272</span></p> - -<p>The Christian Church from its inception gradually unfolded -itself as an anarchical association, consisting of -affiliated branches scattered throughout the Empire. At first -all members possessed equal rank, and the status of each -one as a presbyter or propagandist was limited only by his -natural capacity for the work. Enthusiasm prevailed in the -secret assemblies, and the excitable, whether male or female, -relieved themselves by impassioned utterances which were accepted -by the listeners as prophetic inspiration.<a id="FNanchor_1022" href="#Footnote_1022" class="fnanchor">[1022]</a> Subsequent -history relates the development of a hierarchy with the consequent -formation of two parties in the Church, clergy and -laity, and the ultimate suppression of all spiritual assumption -by the latter.<a id="FNanchor_1023" href="#Footnote_1023" class="fnanchor">[1023]</a> Rites and ceremonies of increasing complexity -were instituted, rules of discipline were elaborated, and -proselytes were no longer admitted hastily to the congregations, -but were previously relegated for a course of instruction -to the class of <i>catechumens</i> or probationers. About the end -of the second century Christianity assumed some importance -in the eyes of the educated and wealthy,<a id="FNanchor_1024" href="#Footnote_1024" class="fnanchor">[1024]</a> so that its doctrines -began to be scrutinized in the spirit of Greek philosophy. -A catechetical school was founded at Alexandria (<i>c.</i> 170) for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_273"> 273</span> -the training of converts of higher mental capacity; and -learned teachers, notably Clement and Origen, essayed to -prove that the new religion could be substantiated theologically -by reference to Plato and Aristotle.<a id="FNanchor_1025" href="#Footnote_1025" class="fnanchor">[1025]</a> At the same time -the Church began to discard the policy of stealthiness under -which it had grown up, and to indulge the expansive vigour -which pervaded its constitution. Soon the conventicles ceased -to meet under the cloak of secrecy; and by a few decades -public edifices were erected with an architectural ostentation -and a treasure of ornaments rubric which roused the indignation -of those who frequented the Pagan temples in the -vicinity.<a id="FNanchor_1026" href="#Footnote_1026" class="fnanchor">[1026]</a> From that moment the encroaching temper of -Christianity and its uncompromising antagonism to polytheism -became manifest to the government, and zealous -officials prepared themselves for a determined effort to overthrow -the upstart power which was undermining the old<span class="pagenum" id="Page_274"> 274</span> -order of society.<a id="FNanchor_1027" href="#Footnote_1027" class="fnanchor">[1027]</a> The futile struggle of Paganism against -Christianity was terminated by Theodosius the Great, who -promulgated edicts both in the East and in the West for the -abolition of the pristine religion of the Empire.<a id="FNanchor_1028" href="#Footnote_1028" class="fnanchor">[1028]</a> During -more than half a century previously the battle between the -two faiths had been open and violent; and the mild Christians -of earlier times often appeared in the light of ruthless fanatics -more conspicuously than had their heathen adversaries in -the heat of a legalized persecution.<a id="FNanchor_1029" href="#Footnote_1029" class="fnanchor">[1029]</a> The Church triumphant -now entered on its career of quasi-political predominance; -wealth and honours were showered on those who attained -to its highest offices; and the precepts of the poor carpenter, -whose constant theme was humility, were inculcated by a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_275"> 275</span> -succession of haughty prelates who equalled the magnificence -and exceeded the arrogance of kings.<a id="FNanchor_1030" href="#Footnote_1030" class="fnanchor">[1030]</a></p> - -<p>From the day of its birth almost to the present hour the -Church has been agitated by internal dissensions generated -by the efforts of reason to understand and to define those -inscrutable mysteries, to a belief in which every supernatural -religion must owe its existence. The primitive religion of -the ancients was a natural growth, accepted insensibly during -a state of savagery and maintained politically long after it -had been repudiated by philosophy, but Christianity was -offered to a world already advanced in civilization, and had -to pass through a process of intellectual digestion before it -could take its place as an unassailable national belief. The -Church, before it stands clearly revealed in the light of -history, had been inspired with the conception of a Trinity -by a contemplation of the Platonic philosophy; and the -problem as to how this doctrine could be expounded as not -inconsistent with monotheism occasioned the first of those -great councils called Oecumenical. It met in 325 at Nicaea<span class="pagenum" id="Page_276"> 276</span> -of Bithynia, and there formulated the Nicene creed, which -branded as heretics the presbyter Arius and his supporters -for asserting that the Word, the Son, the man Jesus, had not -eternally existed as of one substance with the Father, but had -been created out of nothing at some date of an inconceivably -remote past. Under the emperors who succeeded Constantine, -however, the Arians returned to power in the East, and -for long oppressed their opponents, the Catholics, until they -were finally reduced to impotence by the orthodox Theodosius -I.<a id="FNanchor_1031" href="#Footnote_1031" class="fnanchor">[1031]</a> But centuries were yet to elapse before the Church -could desist from weaving those subtleties of dogma as to the -inexpressible nature of the Godhead, in the study of which -later theologians discover an exercise for their memory rather -than for their understanding.<a id="FNanchor_1032" href="#Footnote_1032" class="fnanchor">[1032]</a> Numerous other councils were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_277"> 277</span> -convened before the opening of the sixth century, but of -these only three were allowed to rank as Oecumenical, that -of Constantinople in 381, that of Ephesus in 431, and that -of Chalcedon in 451. The first of these did little more than -to confirm the decisions of Nicaea, but it won from Theodosius -a tacit permission to proceed to extremities against -Paganism.<a id="FNanchor_1033" href="#Footnote_1033" class="fnanchor">[1033]</a> The second anathematized the heresy of Nestorius, -Patriarch of the Eastern capital, who wished to deprive -the Virgin Mary of the title of Theotokos, or Mother of God. -The bishops who assembled at the Asiatic suburb of Chalcedon, -under the supervision of the Emperor Marcian, were -less successful in producing concord in the Church than -those who composed any of the previous councils; and their -resolutions were debated for long afterwards by dissentient<span class="pagenum" id="Page_278"> 278</span> -ecclesiastics throughout the East. On this occasion the -orthodox party delivered their last word as the mystic junction -of the divine and human in the Incarnate Christ, and -repudiated for ever the error of the Monophysites that the -Saviour was animated only by a celestial essence.<a id="FNanchor_1034" href="#Footnote_1034" class="fnanchor">[1034]</a> This was -the first instance in which the new Rome triumphed over her -great rival in the East, Alexandria, which had previously -trampled on her Patriarchs, Chrysostom, Nestorius, Flavian; -as the doctrine of the one nature was peculiarly dear to the -Egyptian Church. But the spiritual peace of the Asiatic and -African provinces had been too rudely disturbed for an immediate -settlement to ensue; and more than thirty years -later the Emperor Zeno was forced to issue a <i>Henoticon</i>, or -Act of Union, in which he sought to induce unanimity among -the prelates of his dominions by effacing the harsher expressions -of the Chalcedonian canons.<a id="FNanchor_1035" href="#Footnote_1035" class="fnanchor">[1035]</a> The measure, however, -was ineffectual; the conflict of doctrine could not be quelled; -and even Anastasius was branded as a heretic by the Byzantines -for not adopting a hostile attitude towards the Monophysites.<a id="FNanchor_1036" href="#Footnote_1036" class="fnanchor">[1036]</a> -The state of religious parties under that Emperor -may be summarized briefly as follows: Europe was firmly -attached to the Council of Chalcedon, Egypt was bitterly -opposed to it, whilst in Asia its adversaries and adherents -were almost equally divided. Of Arians there were not a few,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_279"> 279</span> -but they were everywhere severely repressed. Nevertheless, -in the capital itself a handsome church was reserved for those -addicted to that heresy, St. Mocius in the Exokionion. But -this was an indulgence conceded exclusively to the Gothic -soldiery, all bigoted Arians, with whose faith no emperor ever -dared to tamper.<a id="FNanchor_1037" href="#Footnote_1037" class="fnanchor">[1037]</a> At the same time polytheism appeared to -be extinct; the Pagan temples were everywhere evacuated, -and for the most part purposely ruined.<a id="FNanchor_1038" href="#Footnote_1038" class="fnanchor">[1038]</a> After the murder of -Hypatia the Neoplatonists deserted Alexandria and betook -themselves to Athens, where they were disregarded as a -merely philosophical association without the privilege of -public worship.<a id="FNanchor_1039" href="#Footnote_1039" class="fnanchor">[1039]</a> Manichaeans were numerous within the -Empire, but could only exist in secret as a proscribed sect -subject to severe penalties, confiscation, loss of civil rights, -and relegation to the mines, if convicted.<a id="FNanchor_1040" href="#Footnote_1040" class="fnanchor">[1040]</a> Relics of minor<span class="pagenum" id="Page_280"> 280</span> -denominations, more or less obscure and impotent, need not -be more particularly alluded to in this place.</p> - -<p>Nothing in this age accelerated the social descent towards -barbarism so much as the illusion that bliss in a future state -was most positively assured to those Christians who denied -themselves every natural gratification whilst on earth. By the -end of the fourth century the passion for the mortification of -the flesh had risen to such a height that almost one half of -the population of the Empire, male and female, had abandoned -civilized life and devoted themselves to celibacy and -ascetic practices.<a id="FNanchor_1041" href="#Footnote_1041" class="fnanchor">[1041]</a> By choice, and even by legal prescription,<a id="FNanchor_1042" href="#Footnote_1042" class="fnanchor">[1042]</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_281"> 281</span> -they sought desert places and vast solitudes to pass their -lives in sordid discomfort, at one time grazing like wild -beasts, at another immured in noisome cells too narrow to -admit of any restful position of the body or limbs.<a id="FNanchor_1043" href="#Footnote_1043" class="fnanchor">[1043]</a> Some -joined the class of stylites, or pillar saints, who lived in the -air at a considerable altitude from the ground on the bare -top of a slender column.<a id="FNanchor_1044" href="#Footnote_1044" class="fnanchor">[1044]</a> Such were the anchorites or hermits, -who arose first in order of time and claimed for their -founder an illiterate though well-born youth of Alexandria,<a id="FNanchor_1045" href="#Footnote_1045" class="fnanchor">[1045]</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_282"> 282</span> -Anthony, the subject of familiar legends. A little later, however, -Pachomius,<a id="FNanchor_1046" href="#Footnote_1046" class="fnanchor">[1046]</a> also an Egyptian, instituted the coenobites, -or gregarious fraternity of ascetics, whose assemblage of cells, -called a <i>laura</i>, was generally disposed in a circle around their -common chapel and refectory. The extensive waste lands of -Egypt greatly favoured the development of monachism; and -within half a century the isle of Tabenna in the Nile, the -Nitrian mountain, and the wilderness of Sketis, became -densely populated with these fanatic recluses.<a id="FNanchor_1047" href="#Footnote_1047" class="fnanchor">[1047]</a> From Egypt -the mania for leading a monastic life spread in all directions, -and religious houses, on the initiative of Basil, began to invade -the towns and suburban districts.<a id="FNanchor_1048" href="#Footnote_1048" class="fnanchor">[1048]</a> One of the most remarkable -of these foundations was the monastery of Studius, -erected at Constantinople (in 460) for the <i>Acoemeti</i>, or -sleepless monks, whose devotional vigils were ceaseless both -night and day.<a id="FNanchor_1049" href="#Footnote_1049" class="fnanchor">[1049]</a> After the promotion of Christianity to be the -state religion, one emperor only, the ordinarily ineffective<span class="pagenum" id="Page_283"> 283</span> -Valens, assumed a hostile attitude towards the monks.<a id="FNanchor_1050" href="#Footnote_1050" class="fnanchor">[1050]</a> He -denounced them as slothful renegades from their social duties -and dispatched companies of soldiers to expel them from -their retreats and reclaim them for civil and military life. A -considerable number were massacred for attempting resistance -to the decree; but under the successors of Valens -monachism flourished as before with the Imperial countenance -and the popular regard.<a id="FNanchor_1051" href="#Footnote_1051" class="fnanchor">[1051]</a></p> - -<p>The supersession of dogmatic religions founded on prehistoric -mythologies by the success of modern research, -confers the right of free speculation on contemporary philosophers, -and urges them to construct, from the ample -materials at their command, an intellectual theory of the -universe. In proportion as experimental physics teaches us -to apprehend more profoundly the constitution of matter, -reason advances impulsively from the outposts of knowledge to -suspend itself over the abyss in those dimly-lighted regions -where science and mysticism seem to hold each other by -the hand. The atomic conception of nature, first broached -as a phantasy by the Greeks, derives an actuality from the -growth of chemical and electrical discoveries at the present -day, which goes far to establish it as an immediate, if not -the ultimate, explanation of phenomena. Our mind has thus -been prepared to realize the vision of swarms of atoms in -the possession of limitless space, each one of which is instinct -in the prime degree with all the attributes of life: with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_284"> 284</span> -consciousness, will, motion, the bias of habit, and an unquenchable -desire for association and aggregation.<a id="FNanchor_1052" href="#Footnote_1052" class="fnanchor">[1052]</a> They -become conjoined, numerically and morphologically, in progressive -grades of complexity, originating by one kind of -alliance the chemical elements which constitute the organic -world, and by another the vital elements, which form the -protoplasmic basis of animal and plant life.<a id="FNanchor_1053" href="#Footnote_1053" class="fnanchor">[1053]</a> The organic -kingdom rests upon the inorganic, and preys upon it, evolving<span class="pagenum" id="Page_285"> 285</span> -itself throughout endless time into more highly differentiated -forms by its incessant appetite for material acquisition and -sensuous stimulation in its environment.<a id="FNanchor_1054" href="#Footnote_1054" class="fnanchor">[1054]</a></p> - -<p>Whilst the records of ages assiduously collated from every -quarter of the globe exhibit the irrepressible folly of undisciplined -human thought and the immeasurable credulity -of ignorance, the boundless expansion of our intellectual -horizon compels us to reject as irrational, the belief in an -almighty and intelligent Father, who regards with equanimity -the disruption of worlds, but is capable of being delighted -by a choir of fulsome praise emanating from their ephemeral -inhabitants.<a id="FNanchor_1055" href="#Footnote_1055" class="fnanchor">[1055]</a> From the earliest times the infertile efforts to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_286"> 286</span> -approach and win the favour of such a being have constituted -the heaviest drag on civilization and progress; and, as man -rises in the sphere of rationality, the highest lesson he can -learn is to discard definitively all such dreams. He must -convince himself that there is nothing divine, nothing supernatural, -no providence but his own, that prayer is futile, piety -impossible; and the sage may postulate that humanity is -God until some higher divinity be discovered. The mythological -terrors of antiquity are effete in the world of to-day, -and any citizen who has learned to live uprightly should be -above all religion, and free from the bondage of every superstition. -By self-reliance and his own exertions alone can -man be led upwards; his advancement depends on the extent -to which he can penetrate the mystery of, and subdue -the forces which surround him; and to preach the dominion -of man over nature is the work of the modern prophet or -apostle.<a id="FNanchor_1056" href="#Footnote_1056" class="fnanchor">[1056]</a> By a retrospect of the past he is justified in cherishing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_287"> 287</span> -the hope of a brighter future for his descendants; no -obstacle appears in view to bar their journey along the upward -path; the illimitable capacity of protoplasm for physiological -elevation may triumph over the universal cycle of -birth, maturity, and decay; and in humanity as it exists we -may see the progenitors of an infinitely superior, perhaps of -an immortal race, the ultimate expression and end of evolution -and generation.<a id="FNanchor_1057" href="#Footnote_1057" class="fnanchor">[1057]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_288"> 288</span></p> - -<p>The student of European civilization cannot fail to wonder -what sociological manifestation would have taken the place -of Christianity had that religion never seen the light, or -failed to win a predominant position in the Graeco-Roman -world. Was the disintegration of the Empire, he must ask, -and the retreat of its inhabitants almost to the threshold of -barbarism a result of the prevalence of the Gospel creed? -or was the new faith merely a fortuitous phenomenon which -became conspicuous on the surface of an uncontrollable -social cataclysm? No decision could be accepted as incontestable -when dealing with such far-reaching questions, but -with the wisdom which follows the event we may recognize<span class="pagenum" id="Page_289"> 289</span> -that contingencies not very remote might have altered -materially the course of history. The dissolution of powerful -political organizations was no new feature in the ancient -world; in Egypt, in Asia, dynasties with their dominions -had periodically collapsed, but in Europe the Roman -supremacy was the first to consolidate the principal countries -into a compact and homogeneous state. Civil wars, however, -had been waged on several occasions; princes unfit to -reign had been the cause of serious administrative perturbation. -Did these vicissitudes, we may inquire, herald the -break-up of the Empire, unassailable as it was by any -civilized adversary? Had the national genius and vigour so -declined that armies could not be recruited to repeat the -successes of Marius, of Trajan, of Diocletian, against hordes -of barbarians ill-disciplined and ill-armed? The proposition -cannot be entertained; the individuals were as capable as -ever, but the purview of life had changed. Religious dissension -had engendered personal rancour, neighbour distrusted -neighbour, and the name of Roman no longer denoted a -community with kindred feelings and aspirations. The Persian -and the Teuton beyond the border were not more hostile -to the subjects of the Empire than were they among -themselves when viewed as separate groups of Pagans, of -Manichaeans, of Arians, and of Catholics. This disseverance -was not, however, quite permanent; after a couple of generations -had passed away a partial reunion was effected by the -submission of all classes to Christianity; and strife was -limited to controversies between differing sects of the same -church. But in the process mankind were led to break with -all past traditions; the world became effete in their eyes; -and to be released from it in order to gain admission to the -celestial sphere was preached as the sole object of human<span class="pagenum" id="Page_290"> 290</span> -existence. Civilization succumbed to the despotic influence -of religion, a new field of effort was opened to the race of -mortals, and all the genius of the age was exhausted in the -attempt to advance the pseudo-science of theology. That -genius was as brilliant as any which has hitherto been seen -upon the earth. The administrative and literary powers of -a Tertullian, an Origen, a Cyprian, a Eusebius, an Athanasius, -of the Gregories, of Basil, Ambrose, Augustine, Chrysostom, -and many others might have raised the Empire -above the level of the most glorious period of the past. It -is scarcely an exaggeration to say that these ecclesiastics -founded a dominion which surpassed that of Rome in its -widest extent; but it was a dominion over men’s minds -which precipitated material progress into a gulf out of which -it was not to rise again for more than a thousand years. -Their success was facilitated by the confirmation of despotism -and the abolition of free institutions under the first Caesars; -but without Christianity there would probably have been no -exacerbation of religious fervour more intense than was involved -in Neoplatonism. That new departure in polytheism -was not likely to have caused a serious drain upon the -energies of the state. Julian, its most impassioned votary, -was not less imbued with the spirit of a conqueror than were -Alexander and Trajan.<a id="FNanchor_1058" href="#Footnote_1058" class="fnanchor">[1058]</a> Neoplatonism, and especially Manichaeism,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_291"> 291</span> -borrowed Christian elements and might not have -aspired to more than a passive influence but for their rivalry -with that religion. From these considerations we may draw -the inference that only for the Palestinian capture of the -psychical yearnings of the age history might never have had -to record the lapse of social Europe into the slough of -mediaevalism; and the experience of a terrestrial hierarch -who should give laws to kings and incite the masses to rebel -against their political rulers would have been lost to Western -civilization. That the Empire would have subsisted until -modern times is inconceivable; the tendency to disruption -of the vast fabric soon became apparent, and its unity was -only restored by reconquest on several occasions; notably by -Severus, by Constantine, by Theodosius. Under Diocletian -it was virtually transformed into a number of federated -states; and by the sixth or seventh century a somewhat -similar partition might have become definite and permanent. -With the maintenance of sociological institutions at the -original level, barbarism would have been repelled and -civilization would have penetrated more rapidly the forests -of Scythia and Germany. The spirit of scientific inquiry -which was manifest in Strabo, in Pliny, in Ptolemy, in Galen, -might have been fostered and extended; and many a leading -mind, whose vigour was absorbed by the arid waste of -theology, might have taken up the work of Aristotle and -carried his researches into the heart of contemporary science.<a id="FNanchor_1059" href="#Footnote_1059" class="fnanchor">[1059]</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_292"> 292</span> -The condition of the proletariat was not elevated by the -diffusion of the Gospel after their wholesale acceptance of it -had been assured by coercion. Whatever ethical purity may -have adorned the lives of the first converts, Christianity as -an established religion was not less of a grovelling superstition -than Paganism in its worst forms. The worship of -martyrs, of saints, the factitious miracles wrought at their -graves, the veneration of their relics and images, were but a -travesty of polytheism under another name without the -saving graces of the old belief.<a id="FNanchor_1060" href="#Footnote_1060" class="fnanchor">[1060]</a> A large section of the community -were encouraged to fritter away their lives in the -sloth of the cloister; and the ecclesiastical murder, disguised -under the charge of heresy, of opponents who dared to think -and speak became a social terror in grim contrast with the -easy tolerance of Pagan times.<a id="FNanchor_1061" href="#Footnote_1061" class="fnanchor">[1061]</a> At length the night of superstition<span class="pagenum" id="Page_293"> 293</span> -began to wane and the unexpected advent of a -brighter era was announced by a great social upheaval. -Again the tide of cosmopolitanism began to flow between -the Atlantic and the Euphrates, and a new unification of the -detached fragments of the Roman Empire was brought -about. Amid the turmoil of two centuries of barren Crusades<a id="FNanchor_1062" href="#Footnote_1062" class="fnanchor">[1062]</a> -the active intercourse of numerous peoples taught Europe -to think and judge; and she began to appraise the harvest -which had been reaped during so long a period of blind devotion -to a creed. The result of the scrutiny was disheartening; -the store of gold was found to have turned to dross; -and, while one type of man struggled to break the chains<span class="pagenum" id="Page_294"> 294</span> -which bound them in spiritual subjection, another bent -their minds to discover whether through nature and art they -could not reach some goal worthy of human ambition. The -Renaissance and the Reformation were almost contemporary -movements.<a id="FNanchor_1063" href="#Footnote_1063" class="fnanchor">[1063]</a> From that period to the present, more than -five centuries, the history of the world has been one of continued -advancement. Since Dante composed his great poem -and Copernicus elaborated his theory of the heavens, the -well of literature has not run dry nor has the lamp of science -been extinguished. Yet in all these years while the rising -light has been breaking continuously over the mountain tops -the spacious valleys beneath have lain buried in the gloom -of unenlightened ages. The peace of society has never -ceased to be disturbed by the discord of religious factions; -and the task of a modern statesman is still to reconcile conflicting -prejudices in a world of ignorance and folly.<a id="FNanchor_1064" href="#Footnote_1064" class="fnanchor">[1064]</a></p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_295"> 295</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III<br /> - -<small>BIRTH AND FORTUNES OF THE ELDER JUSTIN: THE ORIGINS -OF JUSTINIAN</small></h2></div> - - -<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">The</span> function of a government is to administer the -affairs of mankind in accordance with the spirit of -the age. Not from the political arena, but from the laboratory -emanates that expansion of knowledge which surely, -though fitfully, changes the aspect and methods of civilization -both in peace and war. An impulse which controls the -passions of millions may originate with some obscure investigator -who reveals a more immediate means to individual -or national advantage; and the executive of government is -called on to create legislative facilities for the utilization of -the new discovery. During the modern period such influences -have been continuous and paramount. In the course of -a single century a transformation of the world has been -achieved by fruitful research, greater than in all previously -recorded time. The Georgian era contrasts less strongly -with the times of Aristotle and Cicero than with the present -day; and the rapid progress of the nineteenth century almost -throws the age of Johnson and Gibbon into the shadow of -mediaevalism.</p> - -<p>Far back in the prehistoric past a bridge was thrown across -the chasm which separates savage from civilized life by the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_296"> 296</span> -discovery of a process for the smelting of metallic ore; and -the birth of all the arts may be dated from the time when -some primitive race passed from the age of stone into that -of bronze or iron. To the ancient world that first step in -science must have appeared also to be the last; and ages -rolled away during which man learned no more than to employ -effectively the materials thus acquired. If the expectation -that diligent research may be rewarded by some signal -increase of knowledge be excluded from the sphere of human -activity, individual aspirations must be restricted to whatever -is social and national; and those desirous of distinction -have no choice but to devote themselves to art or politics. -Within these channels were confined the energies of the -people of antiquity; in some states the leading characteristic -was civic adornment; in others the cultivation of martial -efficiency; to rise to despotic power was the usual ambition -of a democratic statesman; to attain to an imperial -position that of a flourishing state. Wars of aggression were -constantly undertaken, and defensive wars uniformly became -so whenever superiority was manifested. Such conflicts in -the past have had no permanent influence on the advancement -of mankind; and from time to time have been equally -conducive to the spread of civilization or barbarism. During -the classical period the arts and learning of Athens were attendant -on the success of the Grecian or the Roman arms; -in the Middle Ages the Goth, the Hun, the Saracen, and -the Tartar closed in on the Roman Empire and nullified the -work of those enlightened nations. At the present day the -advance of civilization, though independent of conquest, is -often hastened by aggression;<a id="FNanchor_1065" href="#Footnote_1065" class="fnanchor">[1065]</a> and there seems no likelihood<span class="pagenum" id="Page_297"> 297</span> -that it will ever again recede from a territory where it -has once been established. At all times scarcity of the -necessaries of life, real or conventional, tends to initiate a -contest; nor is it possible to foresee an age when, in the absence -of a struggle for existence, the world will subside into -a condition of perpetual peace.</p> - -<p>In the sixth century, among the Byzantines, the public -mind was still oppressed with a sense of the supreme importance -of religion. That orthodox Christianity must prevail -remained the passion of the day; and in the view of -each dissentient sect their creed alone was orthodox. Hence -government became an instrument of hierarchy, politics -synonymous with sectarianism, and the chief business of the -state was to eradicate heresy. Mediaevalism was created by -this spirit; in the East the Emperor became a pope;<a id="FNanchor_1066" href="#Footnote_1066" class="fnanchor">[1066]</a> in the -West the Pope was to become a sovereign. The conception -of being ruled from the steps of an altar was foreign to the -genius of classical antiquity, and Christianity almost effected -a reversal of the political spirit of the ancient world.</p> - -<p>In the midsummer of 518 occurred the death of Anastasius,<a id="FNanchor_1067" href="#Footnote_1067" class="fnanchor">[1067]</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_298"> 298</span> -one of the few capable and moderate Emperors whom -the Byzantines produced. Although imbued with a heresy -by his mother,<a id="FNanchor_1068" href="#Footnote_1068" class="fnanchor">[1068]</a> and zealous for its acceptance,<a id="FNanchor_1069" href="#Footnote_1069" class="fnanchor">[1069]</a> he refrained -from persecution, and declared that he would not shed a -drop of blood to effect the removal of his ecclesiastical opponents.<a id="FNanchor_1070" href="#Footnote_1070" class="fnanchor">[1070]</a> -All his efforts were conciliatory, and he would -have obliterated disunion in the Church if his influence -could have induced fanaticism to accord in the Henoticon -of Zeno.<a id="FNanchor_1071" href="#Footnote_1071" class="fnanchor">[1071]</a> He dealt impartially with the Demes, but inclined -slightly to one faction, the Green, in formal compliance -with traditional usage in the Circus.<a id="FNanchor_1072" href="#Footnote_1072" class="fnanchor">[1072]</a> He relieved oppressive<span class="pagenum" id="Page_299"> 299</span> -taxation,<a id="FNanchor_1073" href="#Footnote_1073" class="fnanchor">[1073]</a> restrained extravagance, and, though practising -thrift,<a id="FNanchor_1074" href="#Footnote_1074" class="fnanchor">[1074]</a> responded liberally to every genuine application.<a id="FNanchor_1075" href="#Footnote_1075" class="fnanchor">[1075]</a> -His administration was much admired by those who were -free from sectarian prejudice;<a id="FNanchor_1076" href="#Footnote_1076" class="fnanchor">[1076]</a> and even the bigoted adherents -of the Chalcedonian synod cannot avoid being eulogistic -when recounting some of his measures.<a id="FNanchor_1077" href="#Footnote_1077" class="fnanchor">[1077]</a></p> - -<p>Within the Byzantine province of Dardania, to the south -of modern Servia, was situated the municipal town of Scupi,<a id="FNanchor_1078" href="#Footnote_1078" class="fnanchor">[1078]</a> -in a plain almost contained by a mountainous amphitheatre, -consisting of the Scardus chain, and its connections with the -greater ranges of Pindus and Haemus.<a id="FNanchor_1079" href="#Footnote_1079" class="fnanchor">[1079]</a> Among its dependent -villages, lying along the banks of the Axius or Vardar, the -river of the plain, were the hamlets of Bederiana and Tauresium.<a id="FNanchor_1080" href="#Footnote_1080" class="fnanchor">[1080]</a> -Under Roman rule the language and manners of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_300"> 300</span> -Latium became indigenous to this region; and, although the -barbarians in their periodical inroads poured through the -passes of Scardus on the north-west to spread themselves -over Thrace and Macedonia,<a id="FNanchor_1081" href="#Footnote_1081" class="fnanchor">[1081]</a> the Latinized stock still maintained -its ground in the fifth century.<a id="FNanchor_1082" href="#Footnote_1082" class="fnanchor">[1082]</a> Throughout the -Empire it was a usual practice for sons of the free peasantry -to abandon agricultural penury, and, without a change of -clothing, provided only with a wallet containing a few days -provisions, to betake themselves on foot to the capital, in -the hope of chancing on better fortune.<a id="FNanchor_1083" href="#Footnote_1083" class="fnanchor">[1083]</a> About the year -470, when Leo the Thracian occupied the throne, a young -herdsman of Bederiana, bearing the classical name of Justin, -resolved on this enterprise, and arrived at Constantinople -with two companions whose lot had been similar to his -own.<a id="FNanchor_1084" href="#Footnote_1084" class="fnanchor">[1084]</a> There they presented themselves for enlistment in the -army, and, as the three youths were distinguished by a fine -physique, they were gladly accepted, and enrolled among -the palace guards.<a id="FNanchor_1085" href="#Footnote_1085" class="fnanchor">[1085]</a> Two of them are lost to our view for -ever afterwards in the obscurity of a private soldier’s life,<a id="FNanchor_1086" href="#Footnote_1086" class="fnanchor">[1086]</a> -but Justin, though wholly illiterate, entered on a successful -military career. At the end of a score of years he reappears -under Anastasius, with the rank of a general, and intrusted<span class="pagenum" id="Page_301"> 301</span> -with a subordinate command in the Isaurian war.<a id="FNanchor_1087" href="#Footnote_1087" class="fnanchor">[1087]</a> A decade -later he is again heard of among those who prosecuted the -siege of Amida, which led to its recovery from the Persians;<a id="FNanchor_1088" href="#Footnote_1088" class="fnanchor">[1088]</a> -and before the death of the Emperor he becomes conspicuous -at head-quarters, with the dignities of a Patrician, a -Senator, and of Commander of the household troops.<a id="FNanchor_1089" href="#Footnote_1089" class="fnanchor">[1089]</a> While -holding this office he was also deputed to a command at -sea, and took an active part in repelling the naval attack of -Vitalian.<a id="FNanchor_1090" href="#Footnote_1090" class="fnanchor">[1090]</a></p> - -<p>During the vicissitudes of his life in the camp, Justin remained -unmarried and childless, but he became the purchaser -of a barbarian captive, named Lupicina, whom he -retained as a concubine, and never afterwards repudiated.<a id="FNanchor_1091" href="#Footnote_1091" class="fnanchor">[1091]</a> -While, however, he was rising to a position of importance -and affluence, he was not unmindful of those relatives from -whom he had separated at his native place. At Tauresium -dwelt a sister,<a id="FNanchor_1092" href="#Footnote_1092" class="fnanchor">[1092]</a> the wife of one Sabbatius,<a id="FNanchor_1093" href="#Footnote_1093" class="fnanchor">[1093]</a> and the mother -of two children, a son and a daughter.<a id="FNanchor_1094" href="#Footnote_1094" class="fnanchor">[1094]</a> As soon as young -Sabbatius,<a id="FNanchor_1095" href="#Footnote_1095" class="fnanchor">[1095]</a> for the nephew of Justin bore his father’s name, -had arrived at a suitable age, he was invited to the capital by -his uncle, who became his guardian, and had him educated<span class="pagenum" id="Page_302"> 302</span> -in a manner befitting a youth of high rank.<a id="FNanchor_1096" href="#Footnote_1096" class="fnanchor">[1096]</a> On the completion -of his studies, it was natural that Sabbatius should -be claimed for military service, wherein his guardian’s influence -was centred, and he was drafted forthwith into the -ranks of the Candidati or bodyguards of the Emperor.<a id="FNanchor_1097" href="#Footnote_1097" class="fnanchor">[1097]</a> -Finally Justin legally adopted Sabbatius;<a id="FNanchor_1098" href="#Footnote_1098" class="fnanchor">[1098]</a> and in token of -the fact the latter assumed the derivative name of Justinian.<a id="FNanchor_1099" href="#Footnote_1099" class="fnanchor">[1099]</a></p> - -<p>On the death of Anastasius, as at his accession, the Grand -Chamberlain appeared to be master of the situation.<a id="FNanchor_1100" href="#Footnote_1100" class="fnanchor">[1100]</a> But -the chief eunuch of the day, Amantius, was less influential -than his predecessor, Urbicius, who, with the Empress -Ariadne as an ally, had invested the popular silentiary with -the purple; and the means he devised to ensure the acceptance -of his candidate were the actual cause of his rejection. -He decided to bribe the palace guards to proclaim his -favourite, Count Theocritus, and placed a large sum of -money in the hands of Justin for that purpose; but the procedure -only served to render those soldiers conscious of their -power to elect an emperor, and they immediately acclaimed -their own commandant as the fittest occupant of the throne.<a id="FNanchor_1101" href="#Footnote_1101" class="fnanchor">[1101]</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_303"> 303</span> -The venerable Justin, for he was now long past three score, -did not decline; the Senate bowed to the nomination of the -guards, and the former herdsman took his place in line with -the successors of Augustus.<a id="FNanchor_1102" href="#Footnote_1102" class="fnanchor">[1102]</a></p> - -<p>The Emperor Justin was a rude soldier, devoid of administrative -capacity except in relation to military affairs, -and so illiterate that he could only append his sign-manual -to a document by passing his pen through the openings in a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_304"> 304</span> -plate perforated so as to indicate the first four letters of his -name.<a id="FNanchor_1103" href="#Footnote_1103" class="fnanchor">[1103]</a> After his coronation he married Lupicina; and the -populace, while accepting her as his consort, renamed her -Euphemia.<a id="FNanchor_1104" href="#Footnote_1104" class="fnanchor">[1104]</a> On his accession Justin promoted his nephew -to the rank of Patrician<a id="FNanchor_1105" href="#Footnote_1105" class="fnanchor">[1105]</a> and Nobilissimus;<a id="FNanchor_1106" href="#Footnote_1106" class="fnanchor">[1106]</a> and Justinian -became so closely associated with his uncle that he was -generally regarded as the predominant partner in ruling the -state.<a id="FNanchor_1107" href="#Footnote_1107" class="fnanchor">[1107]</a> But the Emperor was jealous of his authority, and -when the Senate petitioned that the younger man should be -formally recognized as his colleague, he grasped his robe and -answered, “Be on your guard against any young man having -the right to wear this garment.”<a id="FNanchor_1108" href="#Footnote_1108" class="fnanchor">[1108]</a> Owing to the suddenness -of their elevation both princes were ignorant of the routine -of government, a circumstance which rendered the position -of Proclus, the Quaestor or private adviser of the crown, -peculiarly influential during this reign.<a id="FNanchor_1109" href="#Footnote_1109" class="fnanchor">[1109]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_305"> 305</span></p> - -<p>The first act of Justin, who adhered to the orthodox creed, -was to reverse the temporizing religious policy of Anastasius; -and he at once prepared an edict to render the Council of -Chalcedon compulsory in all the churches. Amantius, -Theocritus, and their party saw in this measure an opportunity -of disputing the unforeseen succession, the overthrow -of which they were eager to accomplish. A conspiracy was -hastily organized, and the malcontents assembled in one of -the principal churches, where they entered on a public denunciation -of the new dynasty. The movement, however, -was ill supported, and Justin with military promptness seized -the chiefs of the opposition, executed several, including the -eunuch and his satellite, and banished the others to some<span class="pagenum" id="Page_306"> 306</span> -distant part.<a id="FNanchor_1110" href="#Footnote_1110" class="fnanchor">[1110]</a> The edict was then issued and a ruthless persecution -instituted against all recalcitrants throughout the -Asiatic provinces, where ecclesiastics of every grade professing -the monophysite heresy were put to death in great -numbers.<a id="FNanchor_1111" href="#Footnote_1111" class="fnanchor">[1111]</a> At the same time the Emperor recalled those -extremists whom Anastasius had been unable to mollify and -restored them to their former or to similar appointments.<a id="FNanchor_1112" href="#Footnote_1112" class="fnanchor">[1112]</a> -One danger still remained which might at any moment subvert -the newly erected throne; the powerful Vitalian was at -large, apparently, if not in reality, master of the forces in -Thrace and Illyria. Emissaries were therefore dispatched to -him with an invitation to reside at Constantinople as the -chief military supporter of the government.<a id="FNanchor_1113" href="#Footnote_1113" class="fnanchor">[1113]</a> He accepted -the proposals, stipulating that an assurance of good faith -should previously be given with religious formalities. The -parties met in the church of St. Euphemia, at Chalcedon,<a id="FNanchor_1114" href="#Footnote_1114" class="fnanchor">[1114]</a> -and there Justin, Justinian, and Vitalian pledged themselves<span class="pagenum" id="Page_307"> 307</span> -to each other with solemn oaths while they partook of the -Christian sacraments.<a id="FNanchor_1115" href="#Footnote_1115" class="fnanchor">[1115]</a> The rebel general was, however, too -weighty a personage to subside into the position of a tame -subordinate, and his masterful presence threatened to nullify -the authority of the Emperor and his nephew.<a id="FNanchor_1116" href="#Footnote_1116" class="fnanchor">[1116]</a> His ascendancy -was endured for more than a twelvemonth, and the -consulship of 520 was conceded to him. But while he celebrated -the games in the Hippodrome popular enthusiasm in -his favour rose to a dangerous height.<a id="FNanchor_1117" href="#Footnote_1117" class="fnanchor">[1117]</a> The Court became -alarmed, and a hasty resolution was arrived at to do away -with him. In the interval of the display he repaired to the -palace with two of his lieutenants to be entertained at a -collation, and on entering the banqueting hall they were -attacked by a company of Justinian’s satellites,<a id="FNanchor_1118" href="#Footnote_1118" class="fnanchor">[1118]</a> and Vitalian -fell pierced with a multitude of wounds.<a id="FNanchor_1119" href="#Footnote_1119" class="fnanchor">[1119]</a> Shortly afterwards -Justinian succeeded to his place and was created a Master -of Soldiers, with the virtual rank of commander-in-chief of -the Imperial forces.<a id="FNanchor_1120" href="#Footnote_1120" class="fnanchor">[1120]</a> The next year he was raised to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_308"> 308</span> -consulship<a id="FNanchor_1121" href="#Footnote_1121" class="fnanchor">[1121]</a> and, in order to consolidate his popularity, he -determined to signalize the occasion by those lavish festivities -which were recorded from time to time among the wonders -of the age. But times had changed since the Roman public -might be edified or disgraced by those spectacles in which -human and animal combatants fought to the death, in mimic -land and sea warfare or hunting encounters, to the number -of many thousands; and the chronicler, in referring to a -half-hundred of lions and pards, evolutions of mail-clad -horses, and an increased largess of scattered coin, in addition -to the usual races, bear-baiting, and theatrical shows, thinks -he indicates sufficiently how far the Consul of the day surpassed -the ordinary expectations of the Byzantine populace.<a id="FNanchor_1122" href="#Footnote_1122" class="fnanchor">[1122]</a> -Having finally won over the capital by these gratifications,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_309"> 309</span> -Justinian in his military capacity departed on a tour for the -inspection of garrisons and fortresses throughout the East.<a id="FNanchor_1123" href="#Footnote_1123" class="fnanchor">[1123]</a> -During this period he made the palace of Hormisdas his -official residence.<a id="FNanchor_1124" href="#Footnote_1124" class="fnanchor">[1124]</a></p> - -<p>The reign of Justin was uneventful politically, the age of -the Autocrator and his incapacity for state affairs precluding -the initiation of any reforms of importance; whilst, although -the foreign relations of the Empire were often in a state of -tension, no considerable hostilities were undertaken.<a id="FNanchor_1125" href="#Footnote_1125" class="fnanchor">[1125]</a> At -home official activity was chiefly engrossed with the planning -of police precautions for the repression of sedition. During -three or four years all the chief cities were agitated by the -turbulence of the Blue faction, which sought to suppress -their rivals of the Green by stoning, assassination, and -wrecking of their dwellings. At length, in 523, the rioters -were subdued by the appointment of special Praefects, whose -severity of character did not shrink from making the culprits -pay the extreme penalty of the law.<a id="FNanchor_1126" href="#Footnote_1126" class="fnanchor">[1126]</a> With its neighbours of -the East and West the Empire might have existed at this<span class="pagenum" id="Page_310"> 310</span> -period on terms of perfect amity but for the disturbing influence -of religion. Incensed at Justin’s oppressive treatment -of the Arians, Theodoric, the Gothic king, declared that he -would exterminate the Catholics in Italy<a id="FNanchor_1127" href="#Footnote_1127" class="fnanchor">[1127]</a> if freedom of -belief were not granted to his co-religionists; and he compelled -Pope John I to lead an embassy to Constantinople -with the object of pleading the cause of those heretics at the -Byzantine court. John, the first of his line to visit New Rome, -was received with enthusiasm by the orthodox Emperor;<a id="FNanchor_1128" href="#Footnote_1128" class="fnanchor">[1128]</a> -but, if the head of the Western Church urged his appeal with -sincerity, Justin at least proved obdurate, and no concession -to the Arians could be extorted from his bigotry. -The Pope returned to Ravenna, the regal seat of the barbarian -king, to expiate his abortive mission by being incarcerated -for the last few months of his life; and the death of -Theodoric shortly afterwards, before he had time to execute -his threats, saved Italy from becoming the scene of brutal -reprisals.<a id="FNanchor_1129" href="#Footnote_1129" class="fnanchor">[1129]</a></p> - -<p>The interspace between the Caspian Sea and the Euxine, -the modern Transcaucasia, was inhabited by semi-savage -races, over whom Rome and Persia preferred almost equal -claims to suzerainty. A perpetual source of friction between -the two powers in this region arose from the necessity of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_311"> 311</span> -guarding the Caspian Gates,<a id="FNanchor_1130" href="#Footnote_1130" class="fnanchor">[1130]</a> now the Pass of Darial,<a id="FNanchor_1131" href="#Footnote_1131" class="fnanchor">[1131]</a> a -practicable gorge through the Caucasus, often traversed by -the Scythian hordes when carrying their devastations to the -south. Alexander is said to have blocked the entry with an -iron barrier,<a id="FNanchor_1132" href="#Footnote_1132" class="fnanchor">[1132]</a> and subsequently the pass was kept by the -Romans until the Sassanian dynasty became predominant -in those parts. The utility to both nations, however, of maintaining -the defence, caused the Persians, after the collapse -of Julian’s expedition, to demand that the Romans should -share the expense.<a id="FNanchor_1133" href="#Footnote_1133" class="fnanchor">[1133]</a> Theodosius I bought off the claims, but -by the time of Anastasius a Hunnish king, in friendly league -with that emperor, had obtained possession of the forts.<a id="FNanchor_1134" href="#Footnote_1134" class="fnanchor">[1134]</a> -On his death they passed to the Persians, with the consent -of Anastasius, who engaged vaguely to contribute annually.<a id="FNanchor_1135" href="#Footnote_1135" class="fnanchor">[1135]</a> -Justin tried to evade this payment, but the Persian monarch -declined to be put off, and, as often as the Emperor fell into -arrears, proceeded to recover the amount by distraint.<a id="FNanchor_1136" href="#Footnote_1136" class="fnanchor">[1136]</a> His -chosen bailiff, whenever he put in an execution, was a ferocious -sheik of the Saracens, named Alamundar,<a id="FNanchor_1137" href="#Footnote_1137" class="fnanchor">[1137]</a> who raided<span class="pagenum" id="Page_312"> 312</span> -Syria up to the walls of Antioch, massacring the population -indiscriminately, and holding captives of substance against -their being replevied by the Romans.<a id="FNanchor_1138" href="#Footnote_1138" class="fnanchor">[1138]</a> On one occasion he -burst into the city of Emesa, and finding there four hundred -virgins congregated in a church, he sacrificed them all on -the same day to Al Uzzâ, the Arabian Venus.<a id="FNanchor_1139" href="#Footnote_1139" class="fnanchor">[1139]</a></p> - -<p>In two states of the Caucasian region, both under kingly -rule, Christianity had gained a footing about the time of -Constantine.<a id="FNanchor_1140" href="#Footnote_1140" class="fnanchor">[1140]</a> Lazica, previously Colchis, the subject of -heroic legends, and now Mingrelia, occupied the coast of the -Black Sea north and south of the river Phasis. On its eastern -border, watered by the Cyrus, lay Iberia, at present known -as Georgia.<a id="FNanchor_1141" href="#Footnote_1141" class="fnanchor">[1141]</a> In 522 the young king of the Lazi, alarmed lest -the Persian religion should be forced on him, fled to Constantinople, -and prayed for Christian baptism under the -immediate countenance of the Emperor. Justin assented,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_313"> 313</span> -and not only sustained him at the sacred font, but afterwards -united him to a Roman wife, the daughter of one of the -patricians of his court. Before his departure Tzathus was -formally invested with ornaments and robes of state, expressly -designed to denote the closeness of his relationship -to Justin and to Rome.<a id="FNanchor_1142" href="#Footnote_1142" class="fnanchor">[1142]</a> A letter of remonstrance against -surreptitiously tampering with the allegiance of Persian -subjects soon resulted from these proceedings; but Justin -denied their political significance, and dwelt with fanatical -insistence on the exigences of the faith, and the urgency of -resisting heathen error.<a id="FNanchor_1143" href="#Footnote_1143" class="fnanchor">[1143]</a> The throne of Persia was still occupied -by Cavades,<a id="FNanchor_1144" href="#Footnote_1144" class="fnanchor">[1144]</a> and that monarch now began to think -seriously of going to war with Rome. On reviewing his resources -he decided to enlist the Hunnish tribes, who dwelt -beyond the Caucasus, as allies against the Empire. One of -the most powerful chiefs agreed to his proposals, and met -him by prearrangement with a large following of his nation, -but during the conference messengers arrived who protested -that a short time previously the Hun had been induced by -a large subsidy to pledge his support to the Byzantines. -“We are at peace,” said Justin, “and should not allow ourselves -to be duped by these dogs.” In reply to an amicable -inquiry the barbarian boasted shamelessly of the circumstance, -whereupon Cavades, convinced of his treachery, at -once ordered him to be cut down by his guards. Forthwith -a night attack was secretly planned against his forces, who, -without becoming aware of the author of the calamity, were -dispersed and slain to the number of many thousands.<a id="FNanchor_1145" href="#Footnote_1145" class="fnanchor">[1145]</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_314"> 314</span> -More friendly counsels now began to prevail with the Persian, -as it occurred to him that he might compose his differences -with the Emperor to his own advantage. He was extremely -anxious to secure the succession to his favourite son -Chosroes,<a id="FNanchor_1146" href="#Footnote_1146" class="fnanchor">[1146]</a> to the exclusion of his two elder brothers. There -was reason to fear, however, that on his decease, by the intervention -of the Court or the populace, one of the senior -princes might be raised to the throne. Cavades, therefore, -proposed to Justin that he should adopt Chosroes, considering -that no party would have the temerity to dispute -the tiara with a ward of the Empire. Justin and Justinian -were elated at the prospect of exercising a controlling influence -in Persian affairs, but the Quaestor Proclus quickly -intervened, and by specious arguments, led them to see the -matter in a totally different light. The adoption of the -Sassanian prince, he urged with heat, would convey to him a -title to inherit the crown of the Empire, Justinian might be -ousted from the succession, and Justin would live in dread -of being the last of the Roman emperors.<a id="FNanchor_1147" href="#Footnote_1147" class="fnanchor">[1147]</a> An evasive -course was resolved on, and a commission was dispatched -to meet the Persian delegates in the vicinity of Nisibis. -Chosroes himself advanced to the Tigris in the expectation -of being escorted to Constantinople by the Roman envoys. -The representatives of the two nations met without cordiality, -and the Persians, contrary to their instructions, began -by taunting the Byzantines with having usurped their rights<span class="pagenum" id="Page_315"> 315</span> -in Lazica. The Romans then announced that the Emperor -could not adopt a foreigner with legal formalities, but only -by an act of arms, such as was customary among barbarians. -The suggestion was taken as a deliberate insult by the -Persians; the colloquy came to an end abruptly, and -Chosroes returned to his father, vowing vengeance against -the Romans.<a id="FNanchor_1148" href="#Footnote_1148" class="fnanchor">[1148]</a></p> - -<p>It was now evident that war at no distant date could -scarcely be averted, but a further embroilment with respect -to religion provoked overt hostilities, which rendered a positive -conflict inevitable. Having experienced that defection -to Rome was a natural sequence of Christianity being promulgated -in his dependencies, Cavades determined to enforce -Magism among the Iberians. But, at the first intimation, -the king of that people made an earnest appeal to Justin, -and prepared to take up arms in defence of his faith. The -Emperor responded by sending two of his generals,<a id="FNanchor_1149" href="#Footnote_1149" class="fnanchor">[1149]</a> provided -with a large sum of money, to levy auxiliaries for the -Iberians, among the Huns who inhabited the northern shores -of the Euxine.<a id="FNanchor_1150" href="#Footnote_1150" class="fnanchor">[1150]</a> Such was the practical overture to a war -with Persia, which was to last for several years, without any -appreciable gain to either side. During the reign of Justin, -however, hostilities were carried on in a desultory manner, -and no battle of any magnitude was fought. Military detachments -were told off to ravage Persian territory to the -north, in the vicinity of the frontier. They were opposed by -similar bands of the enemy, and from time to time indecisive<span class="pagenum" id="Page_316"> 316</span> -skirmishes took place. As to Iberia, that country was -abandoned for the time being, the forces raised being insufficient -to withstand the Persian host, and the king with -all the native magnates retreated into Lazica by a narrow -pass, called the Iberian Gates, which was then fortified by -a Byzantine garrison.<a id="FNanchor_1151" href="#Footnote_1151" class="fnanchor">[1151]</a> During these operations the first mention -occurs of some names which became associated later -on with the most notable events in the annals of the age. -An advance into Persarmenia was conducted by two young -officers, specially deputed by Justinian, named Sittas and -Belisarius. After the lapse of a few months (in 527) the -latter was transferred to a more important command at -Daras. There, among the civil members of his staff, he -received the future historian Procopius as his legal adviser -or assessor.<a id="FNanchor_1152" href="#Footnote_1152" class="fnanchor">[1152]</a> About the same time occurred the death -of Justin, whose reign lasted for nine years and a few -weeks.</p> - -<p>If the sea of politics remained comparatively unruffled in -Justin’s time, nature made amends for the lack of excitement -by showing herself physically in her most active mode. His -reign opened with the appearance of a remarkable comet, -the most dreaded portent of impending disaster.<a id="FNanchor_1153" href="#Footnote_1153" class="fnanchor">[1153]</a> Nor were -the forebodings belied, as the provinces on both continents<span class="pagenum" id="Page_317"> 317</span> -were afflicted progressively with violent earthquakes, intensified -by volcanic phenomena.<a id="FNanchor_1154" href="#Footnote_1154" class="fnanchor">[1154]</a> In Europe, Dyrrachium, -the birthplace of Anastasius, recently adorned by him at -great cost, was overthrown; and Corinth shortly after experienced -a similar fate. In Asia, Anazarbus, the capital of -Cilicia, suffered; the central half of Pompeiopolis sunk into -the earth;<a id="FNanchor_1155" href="#Footnote_1155" class="fnanchor">[1155]</a> and Edessa was ruined by a flood of the river -Scirtus.<a id="FNanchor_1156" href="#Footnote_1156" class="fnanchor">[1156]</a> The withdrawal of large sums from the Imperial -treasury was entailed by the restoration of these cities. This -series of calamities culminated in the almost total destruction -of Antioch, where the seismological disturbances persisted -for more than a year, the eighth of Justin’s reign, and upwards -of a quarter of a million of the inhabitants perished.<a id="FNanchor_1157" href="#Footnote_1157" class="fnanchor">[1157]</a> The -ground was rifted in all directions with great gaps which -ejected flames; the houses caught fire or collapsed with their -occupants into the yawning chasms; and a hill of considerable -size, overhanging the city, was shattered with such violence -that the streets and buildings in that quarter lay buried<span class="pagenum" id="Page_318"> 318</span> -beneath a uniform surface formed by the debris.<a id="FNanchor_1158" href="#Footnote_1158" class="fnanchor">[1158]</a> The preliminary -shocks were generally disregarded, and the climax, -which occurred during the dinner hour,<a id="FNanchor_1159" href="#Footnote_1159" class="fnanchor">[1159]</a> was so sudden and -widespread, that the bulk of the population was overwhelmed -before they had a chance to escape. Then only the residue -of the citizens made a rush for the open country, carrying -with them whatever valuables they could seize on in their -hasty flight. As soon, however, as they had arrived at a safe -distance, they found themselves beset by bands of rustics, -who had gathered together from every side in order to -plunder the fugitives. Conspicuous among the despoilers -was a certain Thomas, a man with the rank of a silentiary, -and wealthy enough to keep a private guard. Posting himself -daily in a convenient position, he directed his retainers in -the operation of stripping systematically all who came in -their way. It is satisfactory to learn from the contemporary -historian that all these wretches were soon overtaken by a -miserable death, as the penalty of their inhumanity; but as -we are assured that, without legal intervention, their retribution -emanated from an indignant providence, which had impelled, -or, at least, lain dormant during the catastrophe, we -must conclude that the Nemesis was desiderated rather -than real. The assertion, however, need not be questioned -that the said Thomas died suddenly, to the great joy of the -survivors, on the fourth day of his nefarious enterprise. -Great consolation was also derived from the preternatural -appearance of a cross in the clouds; and all burst into tears -and supplications at this signal proof of the compassion felt -for them by a beneficent Deity. In two or three weeks after -the crisis, nature assumed her wonted quiescence, and the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_319"> 319</span> -deserted city began to be re-peopled by the returning inhabitants. -The work of restoration at once commenced; and -it is recorded that many persons were then rescued by being -dug out of the ruins, under which they had been buried; -among them numbers of women, who in the meantime had -passed safely through the pangs of childbirth.<a id="FNanchor_1160" href="#Footnote_1160" class="fnanchor">[1160]</a> As soon as -the news of the downfall of Antioch was carried to Constantinople, -the capital was thrown into a state of consternation, -and all public festivities for the season of Whitsuntide, which -was at hand, were renounced. The Emperor, discarding all -regal pomp, debased himself in sackcloth and ashes,<a id="FNanchor_1161" href="#Footnote_1161" class="fnanchor">[1161]</a> and -led a suppliant procession of the Senate, wearing mourning -garments, to the church of St. John at the Hebdomon. -Commissioners were immediately dispatched with ample -funds for reparation, and the ruined city again became visible -on the face of the earth with a rapidity which, in the words -of a writer of the period, gave the impression that it had reappeared -suddenly out of the infernal regions.<a id="FNanchor_1162" href="#Footnote_1162" class="fnanchor">[1162]</a> But the -earthquakes continued and ultimately, as a safeguard against -further visitations of the kind, Antioch was demised to the -special care of the Deity by being renamed Theopolis, or -the City of God.<a id="FNanchor_1163" href="#Footnote_1163" class="fnanchor">[1163]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_320"> 320</span></p> - -<p>The desultory war with Persia was maintained all the time -under the chief command of Licelarius, a Thracian. But that -general, while pushing hostilities over the border into the -vicinity of Nisibis, managed so unskilfully that his whole -forces were seized with a panic and fled back to Roman territory -without ever having sighted an enemy. As an immediate -result Licelarius was disgraced and Belisarius promoted to -fill his place. The youth, as he must be called, fulfilled the -expectations he inspired and thenceforward entered on that -career of achievement which was to render him the military -hero of his age.</p> - -<p>On the 1st of April, 527, Justin formally associated his -nephew to the throne, with the rank of Augustus. He lived -exactly four months afterwards,<a id="FNanchor_1164" href="#Footnote_1164" class="fnanchor">[1164]</a> and on the 1st of August in -the same year the sole reign of Justinian began.<a id="FNanchor_1165" href="#Footnote_1165" class="fnanchor">[1165]</a></p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_321"> 321</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV<br /> - -<small>PRE-IMPERIAL CAREER OF THEODORA: THE CONSORT OF -JUSTINIAN</small></h2></div> - - -<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">The</span> influence of women in antiquity varied extremely -according to circumstances of time and place. During -the mythical age they are celebrated as the heroines of many -a legend; and in the epics of Homer the free woman seems -to live on terms of equality with her male relations.<a id="FNanchor_1166" href="#Footnote_1166" class="fnanchor">[1166]</a> Down -to the historical period the same consideration was continued -to them at Sparta, where the mental and physical integrity -of the females was cultivated as essential to the designed -superiority of the race;<a id="FNanchor_1167" href="#Footnote_1167" class="fnanchor">[1167]</a> but among the Athenians we find<span class="pagenum" id="Page_322"> 322</span> -the women of the community ignored as factors in the state -to such an extent, that they rank little higher than domesticated -animals.<a id="FNanchor_1168" href="#Footnote_1168" class="fnanchor">[1168]</a> In neither of these states, however, were -they ever invested with any political office; and their power -could only be felt indirectly by the executive as the result -of their activity as wives and mothers in the family circle.<a id="FNanchor_1169" href="#Footnote_1169" class="fnanchor">[1169]</a> -But outside Greece, in those wider territories more or less -permeated by Hellenes, women sometimes attained to a full -share of government, inherited or assumed a sovereignty on -the death of their husbands, commanded armies, and even -appeared in martial attire at the head of their troops. Two -Ionian princesses, both of whom bore the name of Artemisia, -reigned in Caria: the elder distinguished herself at sea as -an ally of Xerxes in the naval battle of Salamis (480 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>);<a id="FNanchor_1170" href="#Footnote_1170" class="fnanchor">[1170]</a> -her successor erected the magnificent monument at Halicarnassus -in memory of her husband Mausolus, hence called -the Mausoleum, which was admired as one of the seven -wonders of the world.<a id="FNanchor_1171" href="#Footnote_1171" class="fnanchor">[1171]</a> Cynane, a daughter of Philip of -Macedon, led an expedition into Illyria, and is said to have<span class="pagenum" id="Page_323"> 323</span> -killed the queen of that country, in an engagement which -ensued, with her own hand.<a id="FNanchor_1172" href="#Footnote_1172" class="fnanchor">[1172]</a> This lady had applied herself -vigorously to military exercises, and similarly trained up her -daughter Eurydice in the school of arms. As the wife of the -imbecile Arrhidaeus, one of the successors of Alexander, -Eurydice advanced into Asia to meet Olympias, the mother -of that monarch, in a contest which was to decide the fate -of Macedonia. While the young queen, as we are told, displayed -herself with all the attributes of a female warrior, the -dowager chose to accompany her forces with a train of -attendants, who seemed rather to be acting their part in a -Bacchanalian procession.<a id="FNanchor_1173" href="#Footnote_1173" class="fnanchor">[1173]</a> This war, however, proved ultimately -fatal to all three women, who were merely moved as -puppets by the firmer hands of Alexander’s generals in their -rivalry for shares at the dissolution of his empire.<a id="FNanchor_1174" href="#Footnote_1174" class="fnanchor">[1174]</a> After -the partition of the extensive dominions of Alexander among -his numerous heirs, the number of Grecian women who enjoyed, -or were allied to, sovereign power, was proportionately -increased; and the names of many princesses of varied distinction -in that age have been recorded historically, and -even perpetuated popularly to the present day by towns -designated in their honour, and spread over the three continents.<a id="FNanchor_1175" href="#Footnote_1175" class="fnanchor">[1175]</a> -While some of these ladies won an unusual share -of marital respect and affection, not only by the graces of -their person, but by their capacity for taking part in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_324"> 324</span> -councils of state,<a id="FNanchor_1176" href="#Footnote_1176" class="fnanchor">[1176]</a> there were not a few who signalized themselves -by a cruelty or criminality hardly exceeded by the -male tyrants of that semi-lawless and contentious epoch. -Two Egyptian princesses, sisters named Cleopatra, were ambitious -of occupying the thrones of Egypt and Syria, respectively, -to the exclusion of their own sons. The Syrian -queen, having murdered one of her sons, was obliged to -accept his brother as a colleague, but being unable to nullify -his authority, resolved to make away with him also. On his -return from military drill one day, she presented him with a -poisoned cup, which, however, he declined to empty, having -had an intimation of her design, and bade her swallow the -draught herself. She refused, while denying her guilt, but -he insisted that in no other way could she clear herself, and -she thus fell a victim to her intended treachery.<a id="FNanchor_1177" href="#Footnote_1177" class="fnanchor">[1177]</a> Her sister, -who reigned in Egypt, under almost similar circumstances -was not more fortunate; for, having expelled one of her -sons and committed various cruelties, she raised another to -a partnership in the kingdom. Finding still that her ascendancy -could not be maintained, she planned to assassinate -him, but, being forestalled, perished herself in the attempt.<a id="FNanchor_1178" href="#Footnote_1178" class="fnanchor">[1178]</a> -Precocious in guilt, but, perhaps, more excusable, was the -Cyrenean princess Berenice, who caused her intended husband -to be murdered in the arms of her own mother, as the -penalty of his having slighted her for this adulterous intercourse.<a id="FNanchor_1179" href="#Footnote_1179" class="fnanchor">[1179]</a> -Her name has been preserved to us in the nomenclature<span class="pagenum" id="Page_325"> 325</span> -of science, and through an astronomical compliment -a cluster of stars is still distinguished as the Coma Berenices.<a id="FNanchor_1180" href="#Footnote_1180" class="fnanchor">[1180]</a> -From these few examples the reader may derive -some notion of the social relations of the ruling families in -that extended Greek realm which came into being as the -result of the conquests of Alexander. One by one the separate -autonomies succumbed to the force of the Latin arms, -and before the beginning of the Christian era all of them -which lay to the west of the Euphrates had become merged -in the provincial system of the Roman Empire.</p> - -<p>When we turn our attention to the Roman Republic, we -find that the females, although in law subjected absolutely to -the will of their male relatives,<a id="FNanchor_1181" href="#Footnote_1181" class="fnanchor">[1181]</a> were virtually as influential -in the state as were the women at Sparta. From Cloelia<a id="FNanchor_1182" href="#Footnote_1182" class="fnanchor">[1182]</a> to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_326"> 326</span> -Portia<a id="FNanchor_1183" href="#Footnote_1183" class="fnanchor">[1183]</a> the maidens and matrons of that community displayed -the spirit and resolution which we should assume to -be characteristic of the wives and sisters of the men who -made themselves gradually the masters of the earth. Nor -were they backward in applying themselves to intellectual -pursuits when the rusticity of the Republic began to be -dissipated by the infiltration of Hellenic culture; and by -their assiduous studies in philosophy, geometry, literature, -and music, they kept pace determinedly with the mental -development of the sterner sex.<a id="FNanchor_1184" href="#Footnote_1184" class="fnanchor">[1184]</a> With the establishment of -the Empire, a greatly enhanced authority became the permanent -endowment of a limited class. It followed naturally -that the female connections of the emperors and their chief -ministers could aspire to participate in the despotic government, -but the throne itself always remained debarred to -women, and to the last days of the Empire the Romans -never acquiesced in a female reign. When Agrippina, presuming -on her power over a son whom her intrigues had<span class="pagenum" id="Page_327"> 327</span> -raised to the throne, pressed forward amid general amazement -to preside as of equal authority with him at a reception -of ambassadors, the philosopher Seneca hastily impelled -the young Emperor to arrest his mother with a respectful -greeting, and thus, in the words of Tacitus, “under the -semblance of filial devotion the impending disgrace was -obviated.”<a id="FNanchor_1185" href="#Footnote_1185" class="fnanchor">[1185]</a> Yet, in several instances, as the guardian of an -immature heir to the crown, or as the associate of an incapable -husband or brother, a woman was able to retain for a -considerable time all the attributes of monarchy. The Syrian -Soaemias, the equal in profligacy of her son Elagabalus, -assumed the reigns of government, and took her seat in the -Senate, which then beheld for the first time a female assisting -at its deliberations.<a id="FNanchor_1186" href="#Footnote_1186" class="fnanchor">[1186]</a> Her career speedily terminated in -disaster,<a id="FNanchor_1187" href="#Footnote_1187" class="fnanchor">[1187]</a> but during the break-up of the Western Empire, -two centuries later, no opposition was offered to the predominance -of her sex by a dejected people. The Empress -Placidia Galla, after enduring many misfortunes, exercised -a regency scarcely distinguishable from absolutism for more -than a decade, in the name of her son Valentinian III.<a id="FNanchor_1188" href="#Footnote_1188" class="fnanchor">[1188]</a> In<span class="pagenum" id="Page_328"> 328</span> -the East the rule of Pulcheria, as the adviser of her brother -Theodosius II, and afterwards of her nominal husband -Marcian, extended almost to half a century.<a id="FNanchor_1189" href="#Footnote_1189" class="fnanchor">[1189]</a> The importance -of an Augusta in disposing of the crown on the decease -of her husband has been indicated in the description of the -elevation of Anastasius;<a id="FNanchor_1190" href="#Footnote_1190" class="fnanchor">[1190]</a> and the official who records the -election of Justin, ascribes the turbulence of the populace -on that occasion to the absence of control by a princess of -that rank.<a id="FNanchor_1191" href="#Footnote_1191" class="fnanchor">[1191]</a> But the power of a dowager empress was most -signally exemplified in the case of Verina, widow of Leo I, -who, in her dissatisfaction with the policy of her son-in-law -Zeno, succeeded in provoking a revolution, placed the chief -of her party on the throne for more than a twelvemonth, and -continued to involve the Empire in bloodshed for a series -of years.<a id="FNanchor_1192" href="#Footnote_1192" class="fnanchor">[1192]</a> Below the Imperial dignity the feminine element -was perpetually active and widely exerted, especially throughout -the provinces. The wives of legates, of proconsuls or -governors, accompanied their husbands on their missions to -distant parts, and were often responsible, both in peace and -war, for the complexion assumed by the local administration.<a id="FNanchor_1193" href="#Footnote_1193" class="fnanchor">[1193]</a> -They displayed themselves ostentatiously in public, -addressed themselves authoritatively to the army, and instigated -measures of finance, to such an extent that they -were sometimes regarded as the moving spirit in whatever<span class="pagenum" id="Page_329"> 329</span> -was transacted.<a id="FNanchor_1194" href="#Footnote_1194" class="fnanchor">[1194]</a> Agrippina shared the hardships of Germanicus -in his campaign against the Germans, opposed -herself to the disorder of the troops when retreating through -fear of the enemy, preserved the bridge over the Rhine, -which in their panic they were about to demolish, and, combining -the duties of a general with those of the intendant -of an ambulance, restored confidence to the legions.<a id="FNanchor_1195" href="#Footnote_1195" class="fnanchor">[1195]</a> Yet -Germanicus, in his Asiatic command, fell a victim to the -machinations of Plancina, the wife of a colleague; and -Agrippina strove ineffectively to withstand the malignant -arts of another woman.<a id="FNanchor_1196" href="#Footnote_1196" class="fnanchor">[1196]</a> In some instances oppression of -the provincials was clearly traceable to female arrogance -and intrigue; and at length it was seriously proposed in the -Senate that no official should be accompanied by his consort, -when deputed to the government of a province. The -motion was hotly debated, but was ultimately lost through -the vehemency of opposition.<a id="FNanchor_1197" href="#Footnote_1197" class="fnanchor">[1197]</a></p> - -<p>Nothing in antiquity is more remarkable than the diversity -of sentiment as to prostitution among the Greeks. Considering -the deification of amorous passion and fecundity expressed -by polytheism in the cult of Aphrodite, and the -ethics of social order which instilled a reverence for chastity, -the popular mind continually wavered as to whether the -<i>hetaira</i> or courtesan should be contemned as an outcast, or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_330"> 330</span> -adored as the priestess of a goddess. Among the Semites -who dwelt along the Oriental borders of the Grecian dominions -an act of prostitution at the temple of the goddess of -concupiscence was enjoined on every woman at least once in -her life as a religious rite;<a id="FNanchor_1198" href="#Footnote_1198" class="fnanchor">[1198]</a> but the nicer ethical discrimination -of the Greeks debarred this custom from ever establishing -itself in Hellenic religion. At Corinth, however, one of -the most distinguished art centres of Greece, it obtained a -footing in a modified form; and in that city a thousand -female slaves sacred to Aphrodite were maintained as public -courtesans attached to her temple.<a id="FNanchor_1199" href="#Footnote_1199" class="fnanchor">[1199]</a> At Athens, Solon regarded -the state regulation of prostitution as an essential safeguard -to public morality, whence he constituted a number of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_331"> 331</span> -brothels under definite rules throughout the town, thus providing, -in his opinion, an outlet for irrepressible passions -which might otherwise be manifested in a more unseemly -manner.<a id="FNanchor_1200" href="#Footnote_1200" class="fnanchor">[1200]</a> As in all ages there were two grades of females -who led a life of incontinence for the sake of gain; and of -these the higher class, the hetairas, filled a place not devoid -of a certain distinction in most of the Grecian cities. This -class relied not on their personal attractions only, but also -on their mental accomplishments, aspiring to become the -intellectual companions of their lovers by applying themselves -to the study of literature and philosophy.<a id="FNanchor_1201" href="#Footnote_1201" class="fnanchor">[1201]</a> Hence they -ranked as the best educated women of the community, and -exerted more influence in the state than the usually dull and -secluded housewives. The majority and the most noted of -such courtesans flourished, of course, in Athenian society, -the ascendancy of the women which obtained at Sparta being -altogether adverse to their pretensions. Thus it happened -that the hetairas of Athens were generally regarded as persons -of some consequence; and several writers of the period -thought it no unworthy task to compose their biographies, as -might be done at the present day in the case of eminent -women.<a id="FNanchor_1202" href="#Footnote_1202" class="fnanchor">[1202]</a> To the connection of Aspasia with Pericles and her<span class="pagenum" id="Page_332"> 332</span> -position as the leader of Athenian society during his tenure -of power, an important page is devoted in all histories of -Greece; and it appears that even matrons were permitted to -frequent her salon in order to improve themselves mentally -by listening to the elevated discourses held there.<a id="FNanchor_1203" href="#Footnote_1203" class="fnanchor">[1203]</a> Socrates -visited Theodote for the purpose of augmenting his sociological -insight, and Xenophon has included an account of -his debate with her in his memoirs of that father of philosophers.<a id="FNanchor_1204" href="#Footnote_1204" class="fnanchor">[1204]</a> -Leontium was a conspicuous figure in the garden -of Epicurus, where he convened his disciples; and she -penned a treatise against the Peripatetics, which deserved -the commendation of Cicero.<a id="FNanchor_1205" href="#Footnote_1205" class="fnanchor">[1205]</a> Scarcely, indeed, can a man -of note in this age, whether potentate, orator, philosopher, -or poet, be found whose name does not occur in anecdote<span class="pagenum" id="Page_333"> 333</span> -or more serious record as the associate of some hetaira. It -follows that courtesans should appear not rarely as the -mothers of persons of distinction. Themistocles, the younger -Pericles, Timotheus, and Nicomachus, the son of Aristotle, -are mentioned in this connection;<a id="FNanchor_1206" href="#Footnote_1206" class="fnanchor">[1206]</a> and more than one -sovereign prince is allowed to have been the offspring of -some hetaira, namely, Arrhidaeus, king of Macedonia, alluded -to above, and Philetaerus, the founder of the kingdom of -Pergamus.<a id="FNanchor_1207" href="#Footnote_1207" class="fnanchor">[1207]</a> Many of these hetairas realized wealth, and -some had the faculty of keeping it; nor were they disinclined -to spend it patriotically if an opportunity offered. Lamia -erected a splendid portico at Sicyon;<a id="FNanchor_1208" href="#Footnote_1208" class="fnanchor">[1208]</a> and Phryne proposed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_334"> 334</span> -to rebuild the walls of Thebes, which had been levelled by -Alexander, provided that the fact should be commemorated -by a suitable inscription. The Thebans, however, were too -proud to owe the restoration of their town to such a source.<a id="FNanchor_1209" href="#Footnote_1209" class="fnanchor">[1209]</a> -As the result of their notoriety and the consideration accorded -to them, some courtesans won the distinction of living -in metal or marble; and it was remarked that, whilst no wife -had been honoured by a public monument, the memory of -hetairas had often been perpetuated by the statuary.<a id="FNanchor_1210" href="#Footnote_1210" class="fnanchor">[1210]</a> The -reasons, however, why courtesans happened to be thus distinguished -were in many instances totally dissimilar: some for -actual merit, others merely through the caprice of passionate -lovers, challenged the popular eye from a pedestal. Leaena -was represented at Athens under the form of a tongueless -lioness, because she preferred to die by the torture rather than -disclose the conspiracy of Harmodius and Aristogeiton -against the tyrants of the day.<a id="FNanchor_1211" href="#Footnote_1211" class="fnanchor">[1211]</a> Even at Sparta the image of -Cottina was a familiar object, standing beside a brazen cow -which she had consecrated to Athena.<a id="FNanchor_1212" href="#Footnote_1212" class="fnanchor">[1212]</a> A sculptured tomb -to Lais was set up at Corinth,<a id="FNanchor_1213" href="#Footnote_1213" class="fnanchor">[1213]</a> and a golden statue of Phryne -was dedicated at Delphi,<a id="FNanchor_1214" href="#Footnote_1214" class="fnanchor">[1214]</a> to express the admiration of their<span class="pagenum" id="Page_335"> 335</span> -townsmen for their pre-eminence as venal beauties. A magnificent -cenotaph on the Sacred Way from Athens to Eleusis -surprised a wayfarer into the belief that he was approaching -the tomb of some great general or statesman; it was no -more than the fantasy of Harpalus, an extravagant viceroy -of Alexander’s, constructed in glorification of his deceased -mistress, Pythionice.<a id="FNanchor_1215" href="#Footnote_1215" class="fnanchor">[1215]</a> At Abydos, a temple to Aphrodite, -styled the Prostitute, recorded the patriotic treachery of a -band of loose women, which conduced to the slaughter of an -alien garrison;<a id="FNanchor_1216" href="#Footnote_1216" class="fnanchor">[1216]</a> but when the degradation of Greece was -already far advanced, both Athens and Thebes descended -to flatter Demetrius Poliorcetes by rearing fanes in honour -of his favourite concubine, Lamia.<a id="FNanchor_1217" href="#Footnote_1217" class="fnanchor">[1217]</a></p> - -<p>In the earlier centuries of the Republic the strict censorship -upheld at Rome kept the city purged of dissoluteness; -and prostitution, regularly supervised and licensed,<a id="FNanchor_1218" href="#Footnote_1218" class="fnanchor">[1218]</a> was reduced -to the inevitable minimum; but in proportion as -Hellenic manners permeated the community, the courtesan -established herself on the same footing as in Greece. We -are told that a fortune gained by her harlotry was willed to -Sulla by Nicopolis;<a id="FNanchor_1219" href="#Footnote_1219" class="fnanchor">[1219]</a> and the relations of Flora with the -great Pompey are given in detail by Plutarch. Captivated -by the beauty of the latter, Caecilius Metellus included her -portrait among the adornments of the temple of Castor and -Pollux.<a id="FNanchor_1220" href="#Footnote_1220" class="fnanchor">[1220]</a> Precia, a notorious strumpet, won the devotion of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_336"> 336</span> -Cethegus, one of the abettors of Sulla, and the heritor of a -large share of his power. At Rome he carried all before him -for some years, whilst he surrendered himself absolutely to -the caprices of his mistress. The provinces were distributed -to her nominees; and the command against Mithridates, in -which Lucullus acquired such extensive territories for the -Republic, was obtained by courting her favour by costly -presents and blandishments.<a id="FNanchor_1221" href="#Footnote_1221" class="fnanchor">[1221]</a> It is needless to inquire how -far illicit sexual connections were politically operative during -the rule of insensate emperors, for in these times every excess -had its parallel;<a id="FNanchor_1222" href="#Footnote_1222" class="fnanchor">[1222]</a> but it may be noted that the stern and -sordid Vespasian abandoned the patronage of the Empire -to a mistress, into whose lap riches were poured by governors, -generals, and pontiffs, in the form of bribes for securing -coveted appointments.<a id="FNanchor_1223" href="#Footnote_1223" class="fnanchor">[1223]</a> Concurrently with the decline of -the Empire, municipal institutions decayed, especially in the -West, and the sense of public decency became blunted. -When Theodosius visited Rome in 389, he found prostitution -in league with crime and administrative measures more -offensive than the moral laxity they were intended to correct.<a id="FNanchor_1224" href="#Footnote_1224" class="fnanchor">[1224]</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_337"> 337</span> -Nor was the balance of public morality redressed until -Europe had passed through mediaevalism, and advanced for -two or three centuries into the modern period.<a id="FNanchor_1225" href="#Footnote_1225" class="fnanchor">[1225]</a></p> - -<p>During the greater part of the reign of Justinian the -fortunes of the Empire were influenced to an unusual extent -by two women, the Empress Theodora and Antonina, the -wife of Belisarius, whom chance had raised from a base -origin to the highest rank in the state. In the early years<span class="pagenum" id="Page_338"> 338</span> -of the reign of Anastasius, a man named Acacius filled the -post of bear-keeper to the Green faction. Dying somewhat -unexpectedly, he left his wife and three daughters, Comito, -Theodora, and Anastasia, totally unprovided for. The eldest -child was but seven years old, and the widow immediately -attempted to provide for the future by uniting herself with -the man who was expected to become her late husband’s -successor. Another candidate, however, presented himself, -and by bribing the master of the shows, whose decision was -final, despoiled them of the situation. The family was now -destitute, but the mother resolved on a last effort to enlist -the sympathy of the faction. Binding the heads and hands -of her little girls with wreaths of flowers, according to ancient -custom, she displayed herself with them in the crowded -Hippodrome in the posture of suppliants. These tactics -proved successful, for, although the Greens rejected her -prayer, it happened that the Blue faction were at the moment -in want of a bear-keeper, and they at once preferred the stepfather -to the vacant place. In course of time the daughters -developed into handsome young women, and one by one -were consigned to the theatre, as the sphere most congenial -to the associations in which they had been reared. The -eldest, Comito, was the first to make her appearance, and -she soon became a person of some consequence, if not as -an actress, at least as a hetaira, a career indissolubly linked -with that of a female performer on the stage. At the same -time her younger sister Theodora became a familiar object -to the public. Dressed in a short tunic, such as was worn -by young slaves, she was always to be seen in the wake of -Comito, bearing on her shoulder the folding seat<a id="FNanchor_1226" href="#Footnote_1226" class="fnanchor">[1226]</a> without<span class="pagenum" id="Page_339"> 339</span> -which no one of any pretensions could stir abroad. Thrown -into the haunts of vice thus prematurely, she became initiated -objectively, before she attained the age of womanhood, -in all the excesses of lasciviousness.<a id="FNanchor_1227" href="#Footnote_1227" class="fnanchor">[1227]</a> In her turn, as -soon as she was old enough, she was pushed to the front to -play a part upon the scene, where she soon captivated the -audience by her special gifts. Theodora was short of stature, -of slight physique and pale,<a id="FNanchor_1228" href="#Footnote_1228" class="fnanchor">[1228]</a> whence she became possessed -with the procacity and insistence peculiar to those who fear -to be slighted on account of some physical defect. Her -accomplishments included neither singing nor dancing, but -she proved herself to be a burlesque comédienne of singular -aptitudes. She was quick-witted and full of repartee, and her -air in coming on the stage was at once provocative of mirth. -She excelled particularly in the comic piteousness with which -she resented a mock chastisement delivered, according to a -trick of the day, on her puffed-out cheeks, which seemed to -resound with the severity of the infliction.<a id="FNanchor_1229" href="#Footnote_1229" class="fnanchor">[1229]</a> But she was far -from trusting to merely histrionic art to gain the notoriety -she craved for, and she applied herself sedulously to charm -that considerable section of humanity for whom the salt of -life is indecency. On the scene, or at private reunions, she<span class="pagenum" id="Page_340"> 340</span> -distinguished herself by her impudicity above any of her -companions. Her ingenuity was inexhaustible in inventing -occasions for the exposition of her nudities, and in sexual -vice she became a mistress of everything fantastic and unnatural. -She dispensed with drapery as far as was permissible -by law, and one of her favourite devices was to -prostrate herself on the stage, with grains of corn distributed -about her person, so that a number of geese, in searching -for their food, might throw her scanty clothing into obscene -disorder.<a id="FNanchor_1230" href="#Footnote_1230" class="fnanchor">[1230]</a> At orgies of the dissolute she was the life and -soul of the festivities; and she assumed the rôle of instructress -in depravity among her compeers of the theatre.<a id="FNanchor_1231" href="#Footnote_1231" class="fnanchor">[1231]</a> Yet<span class="pagenum" id="Page_341"> 341</span> -with respect to the latter, she also achieved a reputation for -being quarrelsome and spiteful beyond the usual measure of -her tribe. By her habitual and flagrant excesses, she became -universally known in the capital, and she was shunned by all -worthy citizens to such an extent, that they shrunk from -being sullied by her touch, should they chance to meet her -in the street.<a id="FNanchor_1232" href="#Footnote_1232" class="fnanchor">[1232]</a> If a merchant encountered her in the morning -he was as much scared at the sight as at that of a bird of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_342"> 342</span> -ill-omen.<a id="FNanchor_1233" href="#Footnote_1233" class="fnanchor">[1233]</a> Animated by a genius so restless and aspiring, it -is evident that such a woman needed only transference to a -field of higher potential, to become one of the most notable -characters of the age. Such a place had been prepared for -her by fate, and she was destined to renew on the throne -of the Empire the triumphs she had won on the boards of -the theatre.<a id="FNanchor_1234" href="#Footnote_1234" class="fnanchor">[1234]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_343"> 343</span></p> - -<p>By a mischance, which she had always practised every -expedient to avert,<a id="FNanchor_1235" href="#Footnote_1235" class="fnanchor">[1235]</a> Theodora became the mother of a son -while at Constantinople. His father christened him John -and, fearing that the repugnance evinced towards the boy -by his mother might endanger his life, he carried him off -into Arabia, the province of his permanent residence.<a id="FNanchor_1236" href="#Footnote_1236" class="fnanchor">[1236]</a> Soon -afterwards Theodora was induced to quit the capital by a -Tyrian named Hecebolus, who was proceeding to North -Africa to occupy the seat of government in the Pentapolis. -In a short time, however, she alienated this lover by her -petulant temper until, provoked by her insolence, he expelled -her from his establishment without making any provision -for her future. This consummation was assuredly a valuable -lesson by which she did not fail to profit at a later date. -Devoid of resources, she betook herself from Cyrene to -Alexandria, where she attempted to live by prostitution; but -in a strange city, without the entry of a congenial circle, she -discovered that her talents or her attractions were unavailing -to procure a livelihood. From city to city of the East she -proceeded, repeating always the same experience in a state -of incurable distress.<a id="FNanchor_1237" href="#Footnote_1237" class="fnanchor">[1237]</a> She directed her steps constantly -northwards in her wanderings, keeping her mind fixed on -the capital, to which she longed to return, and at length she -found herself on the southern shores of the Euxine, within -the limits of Paphlagonia.<a id="FNanchor_1238" href="#Footnote_1238" class="fnanchor">[1238]</a> In that austere province, where<span class="pagenum" id="Page_344"> 344</span> -the circus and the theatre were eschewed, and fornication -and adultery were looked on as the most abominable crimes,<a id="FNanchor_1239" href="#Footnote_1239" class="fnanchor">[1239]</a> -it is possible that she may have been affected by the puritanism -of the inhabitants, certain that she must have felt -chastened by the trials she had undergone. It is probable -also that she remained there for some time in the receipt of -hospitality, whilst being exhorted and encouraged to live a -life of continence. Ultimately, however, she found means to -regain Constantinople, where she arrived in a sober frame of -mind and with the resolution not to relapse into her former -habits. She sought out a humble tenement in a portico near -the district of Hormisdas,<a id="FNanchor_1240" href="#Footnote_1240" class="fnanchor">[1240]</a> where she resigned herself to earn a modest living -by feminine industry.<a id="FNanchor_1241" href="#Footnote_1241" class="fnanchor">[1241]</a> A veil of obscurity hangs over the circumstances -which preceded the social elevation of Theodora, -which can only be partly dissipated by surmise. It appears -that after the accession of Justin she was discovered by Justinian -sitting demurely at her spinning-wheel, and that he was -fascinated by her at once with a force which he was unable -to resist.<a id="FNanchor_1242" href="#Footnote_1242" class="fnanchor">[1242]</a> It is allowed that she was not devoid of beauty,<a id="FNanchor_1243" href="#Footnote_1243" class="fnanchor">[1243]</a> -but if she captivated him by that quality, it was one which -she possessed in common with a thousand others of her class. -Rather must we conclude that she won her dominion over -him by her distinction of mind and character, by her wit,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_345"> 345</span> -vivacity, insight, and social address.<a id="FNanchor_1244" href="#Footnote_1244" class="fnanchor">[1244]</a> He was now verging -on his fortieth year, and, as we shall recognize more fully -hereafter, must always have been of a staid disposition, as -free as possible from the wildness of youth. How far he was -acquainted with her past is altogether unknown; if her -travels had extended to a few years her former intimates -might now for the most part be scattered, her person might -be half forgotten, and her meretricious enormities but faintly -remembered. Her scenic extravagances may never have -been witnessed by Justinian, but it is certain that before -long her former mode of life was at least partially revealed -to him. Their intercourse soon ripened into familiarity; he -made her his mistress, but without concealment, and with -the fixed intention of marrying her; and as the first step -towards that end he raised her to the rank of a patrician.<a id="FNanchor_1245" href="#Footnote_1245" class="fnanchor">[1245]</a> -Theodora was now removed from her sordid surroundings -and housed in a style suitable to her enhanced fortunes.<a id="FNanchor_1246" href="#Footnote_1246" class="fnanchor">[1246]</a> -At the same time her sisters, Comito and Anastasia, were -rescued from their degrading vocation and maintained in a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_346"> 346</span> -manner befitting their semi-royal relationship.<a id="FNanchor_1247" href="#Footnote_1247" class="fnanchor">[1247]</a> Her influence -with Justinian became unbounded, and, as the favourite of -the virtual master of the Empire, she was courted by all -aspirants to the emoluments of state.<a id="FNanchor_1248" href="#Footnote_1248" class="fnanchor">[1248]</a> Her age was now -more mature; she had been taught discretion and self-restraint -in the school of adversity, and she was wise enough -for the future not to hazard her ascendancy by yielding intemperately -to her passions. Her physical mould was not -that of a sensual woman, her amazing immorality resulted -merely from an inordinate desire to outrun all competition -in the career on which she had been launched, and we may -believe that, after every incentive to sexual excess had been -removed from her path, she found no difficulty in leading a -life of the strictest chastity. Her energies were now directed -into other channels; she did not deny herself the indulgence -of using the exceptional power with which she was invested -to gratify her ambition to the full; she accumulated wealth -by every means possible to an official of the highest authority, -and she seldom allowed the machinery of government to -escape altogether from her control.</p> - -<p>Two obstacles stood in the way of Justinian when he proposed -to make Theodora his wife. In the first place he was -confronted by the old law of Constantine which aimed at -preserving the aristocratic families of the Empire free from -any taint in their blood. It was enacted thereby that no -woman of vicious life, actress or courtesan, or even of lowly -birth, could become the legal spouse of a man who had -attained to the rank of Clarissimus or Senator, the third<span class="pagenum" id="Page_347"> 347</span> -grade of nobility.<a id="FNanchor_1249" href="#Footnote_1249" class="fnanchor">[1249]</a> To abrogate this statute was therefore a -necessity before he could carry out his design, but he easily -prevailed on Justin to give the Imperial sanction to a Constitution -which recites at length the expediency of granting -to such women, who have repented and abjured their errors, -an equality of civil privileges with their unblemished sisters.<a id="FNanchor_1250" href="#Footnote_1250" class="fnanchor">[1250]</a> -A further impediment arose from the opposition of the -Empress Euphemia, who withstood the marriage with an -obstinacy which neither argument nor entreaty could overcome.<a id="FNanchor_1251" href="#Footnote_1251" class="fnanchor">[1251]</a> -Although her relationship to Justin had until recently -been abased, the quondam slave had never deviated from -the path of virtue and had imbibed all the prejudices of -the strictest matron against women who made a traffic of -their persons. A critical delay thus became inevitable, but -Theodora passed through it triumphantly, and in 524, by -the death of Euphemia, Justinian was freed from all restraint. -Their nuptials were then celebrated with official acquiescence -and without even popular protest. The Church, the Senate, -and the Army at once accepted the former actress as their -mistress, and the populace, who had contemplated her extravagances -on the theatre, now implored her protection with -outstretched hands.<a id="FNanchor_1252" href="#Footnote_1252" class="fnanchor">[1252]</a> The crown with the title of Augusta<span class="pagenum" id="Page_348"> 348</span> -was bestowed on her by Justinian at the time of his own -coronation;<a id="FNanchor_1253" href="#Footnote_1253" class="fnanchor">[1253]</a> and she acquired an authority in the Empire -almost superior to that of her husband. After her elevation -Theodora became a zealous churchwoman, and extended -her protection far and wide to ecclesiastics and monks who -had fallen into distress or disrepute through being worsted -in the theological feuds which were characteristic of the age. -But she was always bitterly hostile to those who opposed -her particular religious views or political plans, and proceeded -to the last extremity to subject them to her will.<a id="FNanchor_1254" href="#Footnote_1254" class="fnanchor">[1254]</a></p> - -<p>Antonina sprang from the same coterie as Theodora, but -her birth was more disreputable. Her father was a charioteer -of the Circus at Thessalonica, and her mother a stage-strumpet.<a id="FNanchor_1255" href="#Footnote_1255" class="fnanchor">[1255]</a> -The two women were not, however, companions, perhaps -not even acquainted, as the wife of Belisarius was -almost a score of years senior to the Empress, and she also -exceeded the age of her husband by an even greater amount. -It appears, therefore, that whilst Justinian was probably -twenty years older than Theodora, Belisarius was at least as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_349"> 349</span> -much junior to Antonina. The latter was, in fact, the mother -of several illegitimate children before being married, and a -son of hers named Photius, not more than eight or ten years -junior to his stepfather, is an observable figure in the historic -panorama.<a id="FNanchor_1256" href="#Footnote_1256" class="fnanchor">[1256]</a> We have no details as to the career of Antonina -previous to her becoming involved in the current of political -affairs, nor can we regret the loss of another story of moral -obliquity, but there is evidence to prove that she was a -woman of a totally different stamp from the Empress, one -disposed by natural propensity to debauchery, and at no -time inclined to deny herself the pleasures of incontinency. -At the outset of Justinian’s reign Theodora regarded her -with the greatest aversion, but whether because the character -of Antonina was at variance with her own or that she -loathed the presence of one too well informed as to her own -antecedents cannot now be determined. In the political -vortex they were unavoidably thrown much together, and it -will often be necessary to inquire as to how far the course of -history may have been modified by their respective activities -and temperaments.<a id="FNanchor_1257" href="#Footnote_1257" class="fnanchor">[1257]</a></p> - - -<p class="center">END OF VOL. I.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_351"> 351</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="INDEX">INDEX</h2> -</div> - -<div class="index"> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst">Acoemeti, sleepless monks, <a href='#Page_282'>282</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Acrobats, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Actresses, at Constantinople, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">marriage with, forbidden to senators, etc., <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>, <a href='#Page_346'>346</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Adule, port of Axume or Abyssinia, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Adultery, punishment of, at Rome, <a href='#Page_336'>336</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Agathias, on military decline, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">epigram by, <a href='#Page_341'>341</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Agentes-in-rebus, Imperial messengers, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Agrippina, mother of Nero, her arrogance, <a href='#Page_326'>326</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Agrippina, wife of Germanicus, her courage, etc., <a href='#Page_329'>329</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Aimoin on marriages of Justinian and Belisarius, <a href='#Page_348'>348</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Alamundar, Arab sheik, his enormities, <a href='#Page_312'>312</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Alemannus, his notes on secret history of Procopius, <a href='#Page_320'>320</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Allegories of Neoplatonists, <a href='#Page_264'>264</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Amantius, chief eunuch, his plots and execution by Justin, <a href='#Page_302'>302</a>, <a href='#Page_305'>305</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Amida, siege of, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ammianus, on Papal luxury, <a href='#Page_275'>275</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ambrose, St., opposes Theodosius I, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Anastasia, sister of Theodora, <a href='#Page_338'>338</a>, <a href='#Page_345'>345</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Anastasius, Emperor, his coronation, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">wars, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">character, <a href='#Page_298'>298</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Anemodulion or Wind-slave, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Animals, draught, humane treatment of, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Anthology, Greek, obscenity of, <a href='#Page_341'>341</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Antioch, earthquake at, <a href='#Page_317'>317</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Antipodes, Church against, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a>, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Antonina, wife of Belisarius, her origin, etc., <a href='#Page_348'>348</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Apostles, Twelve, Church of, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">credibility of statements as to, <a href='#Page_254'>254</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">authenticity of epistles by, <i>ib.</i></li> - -<li class="indx">Apollonius Tyaneus, at Constantinople, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">character of, <a href='#Page_245'>245</a>, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Apparitors, officers of provincial judges, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Arches, triumphal, at Constantinople, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Arians, at Nice, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Gothic, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>, <a href='#Page_279'>279</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Aristippus, his Cyrenean philosophy, <a href='#Page_239'>239</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_352"> 352</span></li> - -<li class="indx">Aristotle, his scientific work, <a href='#Page_239'>239</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on slavery, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on women, <a href='#Page_322'>322</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on abortion, <a href='#Page_343'>343</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Army, Byzantine, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>, <i>sqq.</i></li> - -<li class="indx">Artemisia I and II, queens of Caria, <a href='#Page_322'>322</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Art-schools, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Aspirate, abuse of, at Rome, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Athenais or Eudocia, Empress, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>, <a href='#Page_230'>230</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Atomic theory of Epicurus, etc., <a href='#Page_284'>284</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Augustine, St., his early life, <a href='#Page_207'>207</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on prostitution, <a href='#Page_331'>331</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Aurelius, Marcus, his ethics, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">persecutes Christians, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Bakeries, public, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">at Rome, kidnapping for, <a href='#Page_337'>337</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Banduri, anon. Patria of, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Baptism, early form of, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Basil the Great, founder of monasteries, etc., <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>, <a href='#Page_282'>282</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Baths, public, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">mixing of sexes in, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#Page_340'>340</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Beazley, on early trade, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Beylié on Byzantine houses, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Belisarius, first appearance as a general, <a href='#Page_316'>316</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">marriage of, <a href='#Page_348'>348</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bema or chancel in Greek church, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Berenice, queen, her crime, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">her fate, <a href='#Page_325'>325</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Berytus, seat of law-school, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bigg on Platonists at Alexandria, <a href='#Page_262'>262</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Blachernae, region and palace of, at Constantinople, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Blemmyes or Nubians, emerald mines worked by, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Blues and Greens, factions of Circus, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>, <a href='#Page_298'>298</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Books at Constantinople, public, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">private, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bosphorus, Thracian, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bryce on life of Justinian by Theophilus or Bogomil, <a href='#Page_320'>320</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Buckler, elevation of emperor on, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bury on Byzantine economics, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Byzantium, foundation of, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">vocal walls of, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">character of inhabitants of, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Byzantinische Zeitschrift</i>, <a href='#Page_361'>361</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Byzas, founder of Byzantium, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Caecina, his motion against wives of provincial governors, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Caenis, concubine of Vespasian, <a href='#Page_336'>336</a>, <a href='#Page_346'>346</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Candidates, Imperial guards, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cassius, Dion, on old Byzantium, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on Vespasian’s parsimony, <a href='#Page_336'>336</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cavades or Kavádh, king of Persia, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>, <a href='#Page_313'>313</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cethegus and Precia, <a href='#Page_335'>335</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ceylon, ancient trade at, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Chain of Golden Horn, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Chalcedon, foundation of, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">council of, <a href='#Page_277'>277</a>, <i>sqq.</i></li> - -<li class="indx">Chalke, palace at Constantinople, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Charity, public, at Constantinople, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">China and silk trade, <a href='#Page_193'>193</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Chosroes or Nushirvan, prince of Persia, <a href='#Page_314'>314</a>. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_353"> 353</span></li> - -<li class="indx">Chrysargyron, tax on petty trade, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">abolition of, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Chrysoceras or Golden Horn, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Chrysopolis or Scutari, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a> (map).</li> - -<li class="indx">Chrysostom on luxury of Byzantines, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a>, <i>sqq.</i>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on immorality of, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Churches, Greek, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">conduct in, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Circus or Hippodrome, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>, <i>sqq.</i></li> - -<li class="indx">Cisterns at Constantinople, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>, <i>sqq.</i></li> - -<li class="indx">Cleopatra, sister queens so named, their crimes, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Clergy, trade duty free to, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>, <a href='#Page_293'>293</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Codicils or Imperial commissions, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Codinus on antiquities of Constantinople, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, etc.</li> - -<li class="indx">Coinage of Byzantium and Constantinople, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Colchis or Lazica, relations of Empire with, <a href='#Page_312'>312</a>, <a href='#Page_316'>316</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Columns at Constantinople, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Coma Berenices, <a href='#Page_325'>325</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Comito, sister of Theodora, <a href='#Page_338'>338</a>, <a href='#Page_345'>345</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Consistorium, Imperial council, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Constantine the Great founds Constantinople, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">establishes Christianity, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>, <a href='#Page_270'>270</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Consul, installation of, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cornelia, wife of Pompey, her learning, etc., <a href='#Page_326'>326</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cosmas Indicopleustes, his travels, etc., <a href='#Page_182'>182</a>, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a>, etc.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cost of commodities, etc., <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of slaves, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Costume at Constantinople, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>, <i>sqq.</i></li> - -<li class="indx">Councils, Oecumenical, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a>, <i>sqq.</i></li> - -<li class="indx">Creeds, Christian, elaboration of, <a href='#Page_275'>275</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Crescent, chosen emblem of Byzantines, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cresollius on sophists and voice culture, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Crowns, Byzantine, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Crusades, effects of, <a href='#Page_293'>293</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cyclobion, a fort at Constantinople, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cynane, daughter of Philip of Macedon, her warlike exploits, <a href='#Page_322'>322</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cynic philosophers, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a>, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Daphne, palace at Constantinople, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dardania, site of Taor and Bader, <a href='#Page_299'>299</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Débidour, his defence of Theodora, <a href='#Page_342'>342</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Decurions in local government, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">captains of silentiaries, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Demes, factions of Circus, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>, <a href='#Page_298'>298</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Diehl, his work on Justinian, v, <a href='#Page_345'>345</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dion Cassius. <i>See</i> Cassius.</li> - -<li class="indx">Diptychs, consular, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dome or cupola, introduction of, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ducange on Christian Constantinople <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, etc.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Earthquakes in Eastern Empire, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_317'>317</a>. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_354"> 354</span></li> - -<li class="indx">Emperor, Byzantine, dress of, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">portraits of, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Epicurus, his philosophy, <a href='#Page_239'>239</a>, <a href='#Page_284'>284</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">and Leontium, <a href='#Page_332'>332</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Eucharist, early method of administering, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Eugenius, tower and gate of, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Eunuchs, origin of, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in Byzantine Empire, <i>ib.</i></li> - -<li class="indx">Euphemia, Empress, her change of name, <a href='#Page_301'>301</a>, <a href='#Page_304'>304</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">opposes Justinian’s marriage, <a href='#Page_347'>347</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Euripus of Circus, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Eurydice, daughter of Cynane, her war against Olympias, <a href='#Page_323'>323</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Eusebius, his “Church History,” <a href='#Page_290'>290</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Evagrius on abolition of chrysargyron, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on monks, <a href='#Page_281'>281</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Evans on Illyrian antiquities, <a href='#Page_299'>299</a>, <a href='#Page_300'>300</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Evolution, nature and prospects of, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a>, <i>sqq.</i></li> - -<li class="indx">Exokionion, region of Constantinople, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Exposure of infants, <a href='#Page_242'>242</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">prohibited at Thebes, <i>ib.</i></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Filelfo of Ancona, his letters on later Byzantine manners, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on preservation of classical Greek, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Financial officials, bureaucrats, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">surveyors and assessors, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>, <i>sqq.</i>;</li> -<li class="isub1">collectors, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>, <i>sqq.</i></li> - -<li class="indx">Fish, plenty of, at Constantinople, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">miraculous creation of, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Foederati, foreign mercenaries, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Follis, coin and sum, uncertainty about, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>, <i>sqq.</i></li> - -<li class="indx">Forum, of Constantine, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Imperial or Augusteum, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Strategium, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of Theodosius I or Taurus, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>, <i>sqq.</i>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Amastrianum, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of Arcadius, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of Honorius, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fountains, sacred, at Constantinople, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Galen, his works, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gallienus, his connection with Byzantium, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Galton on Inquisition, <a href='#Page_293'>293</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gates of Constantinople, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Caspian or Caucasian, Golden, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gieseler, Church History of, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a>, etc.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gladiators, abolition of, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Godefroy (or Godfrey), Theodosian code by, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a>, <i>et passim</i>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Golden Gate of Constantinople, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Golden Horn or Chrysoceras, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gospels, credibility of, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Governors of provinces, Rectors or judges, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Greek churches, decoration of, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Greek learning, introduction of, at Rome, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>, <i>sqq.</i></li> - -<li class="indx">Greens and Blues, factions of Circus, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>, <a href='#Page_298'>298</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gregory of Nazianzus on military dragons, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>; -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_355"> 355</span></li> - -<li class="isub1">on furore at Circus, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on theatre, <a href='#Page_339'>339</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gregory of Nyssa on female education, <a href='#Page_229'>229</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on popular theology, <a href='#Page_280'>280</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Grosvenor on antiquities of Constantinople, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>, etc.</li> - -<li class="indx">Guards, Imperial, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">private, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gyllius on antiquities of Constantinople, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, etc.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Halicarnassus, mausoleum at, <a href='#Page_322'>322</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Harbours of Byzantium, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of Constantinople, <i>ib.</i>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of Theodosius, or Eleutherium, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of Julian, <i>ib.</i>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of Bucoleon, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of Neorion or Golden Horn, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hardouin, Cardinal, on forgery of ecclesiastical works, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a>, <a href='#Page_282'>282</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Harpalus, his monuments to a hetaira, <a href='#Page_335'>335</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hebdomon, a suburb seven miles from Milion, <a href='#Page_319'>319</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hefner-Alteneck on costume, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on family of Theodora, <a href='#Page_342'>342</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hetairas or courtesans, their manners, etc., <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a>, <i>sqq.</i></li> - -<li class="indx">Hierocles against Christians, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hills, seven, of Constantinople, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of Rome, <i>ib.</i></li> - -<li class="indx">Hippalus, a navigator, discovers the monsoons, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hippodrome or Circus, description of, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">exhibitions in, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">records kept under, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hodgkin on silentiaries, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hormisdas, palace of, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">occupied by Justinian, <a href='#Page_309'>309</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Huns, Attila and, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Persia and, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Romans and, <a href='#Page_313'>313</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hymn-singing in church, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in open air, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hypatia, her murder, etc., <a href='#Page_207'>207</a>, <a href='#Page_230'>230</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Iamblichus, his philosophy, <a href='#Page_264'>264</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Iberia or Georgia, relations of Empire with, <a href='#Page_315'>315</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Iconostasis, image-screen in Greek church, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Infant exposure, <a href='#Page_242'>242</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ink, Imperial purple, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Inquisition, effects of, in Spain, <a href='#Page_293'>293</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Inscriptions on gates of Constantinople, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on codicils, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">solution of, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Irenarchs or rural police, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Irene, church of, at Constantinople, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Isambert, his work on Justinian, v, <a href='#Page_308'>308</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Isaurians, character of, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">war with, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Isidore of Seville, his “Etymologies,” <a href='#Page_212'>212</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on eunuchs, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on astronomy, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Isocrates, his ethics, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Jerome on female education, <a href='#Page_230'>230</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Jesus, life of, <a href='#Page_245'>245</a>, <i>sqq.</i>;</li> -<li class="isub1">its credibility, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">John of Antioch on military decline, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on Justin, <a href='#Page_301'>301</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">John of Ephesus on Theodora, <a href='#Page_345'>345</a>. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_356"> 356</span></li> - -<li class="indx">John Lydus on Circus, <a href='#Page_63'>63</a>, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on Anastasius, <a href='#Page_299'>299</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Julian, Emperor, his character, etc., <a href='#Page_271'>271</a>, <a href='#Page_280'>280</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Justin, Emperor, his birth and success, <a href='#Page_300'>300</a>, <i>sqq.</i>;</li> -<li class="isub1">his accession to the throne, <a href='#Page_302'>302</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Justinian, Emperor, birth, education, and adoption by Justin, <a href='#Page_301'>301</a>, <i>sqq.</i>;</li> -<li class="isub1">his consulship and diptychs, <a href='#Page_308'>308</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">his marriage, <a href='#Page_344'>344</a>, <i>sqq.</i></li> - -<li class="indx">Juvenal on unbelief at Rome, <a href='#Page_244'>244</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on Messalina, <a href='#Page_342'>342</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Kathisma, Imperial seat in Circus, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Khosr, Chosroes, or Nushirvan, prince of Persia, <a href='#Page_314'>314</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Kobad, Cavades, or Kavádh, king of Persia, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>, <i>sqq.</i>, <a href='#Page_313'>313</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Kondakoff on Byzantine art, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Lais, a courtesan, her tomb, <a href='#Page_334'>334</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lamia, a courtesan, a temple to, <a href='#Page_335'>335</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Latin language, use of in East, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Law, intricacies of, etc., <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>, <i>sqq.</i></li> - -<li class="indx">Law schools at Berytus, etc., <a href='#Page_218'>218</a>, <i>sqq.</i></li> - -<li class="indx">Law students, grades of, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">ill conduct of, <a href='#Page_207'>207</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lazica or Colchis, relations of Empire with, <a href='#Page_312'>312</a>, <a href='#Page_316'>316</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Leaena, a courtesan, her monument, <a href='#Page_334'>334</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Leontium, a courtesan, and Epicurus, <a href='#Page_332'>332</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">her writings, <i>ib.</i></li> - -<li class="indx">Lethaby and Swainson on St. Sophia, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Libanius, sophist, method of training scholars, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on decurions, <a href='#Page_197'>197</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Libraries, public, at Constantinople, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Long wall of Anastasius, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lucian on sham philosophers, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on manners of hetairas, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ludewig, his work on Justinian, v;</li> -<li class="isub1">on Theodora, <a href='#Page_342'>342</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Luitprand on gymnastics, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on reclining at meals, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lupanars or brothels, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lupicina, later Empress Euphemia, <a href='#Page_301'>301</a>, <a href='#Page_304'>304</a>, <a href='#Page_347'>347</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Magnaura, Imperial reception hall, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Man and beast fights in Circus, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Manganon of Circus, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">an arsenal, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mani and Manichaeans, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a>, <i>sqq.</i>;</li> -<li class="isub1">laws against, <a href='#Page_269'>269</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mansions for relays of post horses, etc., <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Marble tower at Constantinople, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Marinus, a painter, illustrates life of Justin, <a href='#Page_304'>304</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Marinus, Praetorian Praefect, his extortions, <a href='#Page_299'>299</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Marrast on Byzantine gardens, etc., <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on popular theology, <a href='#Page_280'>280</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, <a href='#Page_322'>322</a>. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_357"> 357</span></li> - -<li class="indx">Megara, a colony of Byzantium, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">character of inhabitants of, <i>ib.</i></li> - -<li class="indx">Menken, A. I., actress, her career, etc., <a href='#Page_340'>340</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Messalina, Empress, wife of Claudius, her debauchery, <a href='#Page_342'>342</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Milion, official milestone at Constantinople, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Moat at Constantinople, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Monasteries, origin of, <a href='#Page_280'>280</a>, <i>sqq.</i></li> - -<li class="indx">Money of Byzantium, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of Constantinople, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Monks, origin of, <a href='#Page_280'>280</a>, <i>sqq.</i>;</li> -<li class="isub1">acoemeti or sleepless, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>, <a href='#Page_282'>282</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Monophysites at Chalcedon, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">persecution of, <a href='#Page_306'>306</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Monsoons, discovery of, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Montez, Lola, actress, her career, <a href='#Page_333'>333</a>, <a href='#Page_340'>340</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mordtmann on antiquities of Constantinople, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <i>et passim</i>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mosheim, Church history of, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mythology, comparative, <a href='#Page_235'>235</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Narthex, vestibule of Greek church, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Neander, Church history of, <a href='#Page_252'>252</a>, <a href='#Page_282'>282</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Neoplatonists, philosophy of, <a href='#Page_261'>261</a>, <i>sqq.</i></li> - -<li class="indx">Nicopolis, a courtesan, leaves her fortune to Sulla, <a href='#Page_335'>335</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Nöldeke, history of Persians and Arabians by, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Notitia, official guide to civil and military service of Empire, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>, <i>et passim</i>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Nude model, facilities for studying in Greece, <a href='#Page_226'>226</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Nushirvan or Chosroes, prince of Persia, <a href='#Page_314'>314</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Obelisk in Hippodrome, <a href='#Page_63'>63</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Olympias, mother of Alexander, her war, etc., <a href='#Page_323'>323</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Oman on art of war, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Pachomius, founder of monasteries, <a href='#Page_282'>282</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Paederasty, prevalence of, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Palace, Imperial, of Constantinople, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>, <i>sqq.</i></li> - -<li class="indx">Panaetius, a Stoic philosopher, his ethics, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Paspates on antiquities of Constantinople, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>, etc.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pavement, the, at Constantinople, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pearl, Cora, a courtesan, her career, etc., <a href='#Page_332'>332</a>, <a href='#Page_334'>334</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pericles and Aspasia, <a href='#Page_331'>331</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Peripatetic philosophers, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Phila, wife of Demetrius Poliorcetes, her character and temple, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Photius, son of Antonina, <a href='#Page_348'>348</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Physicians, public, at Constantinople, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Placidia Galla, Empress, her sovereignty, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_327'>327</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Plagiarism, habitual, of Byzantine writers, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Plancina and Germanicus, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Plato on education, <a href='#Page_217'>217</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on cosmogony, <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>, <i>sqq.</i></li> - -<li class="indx">Pliny on early Christians, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Plotinus, founder of Neoplatonism, <a href='#Page_261'>261</a>, <i>sqq.</i></li> - -<li class="indx">Poll tax, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_358"> 358</span></li> - -<li class="indx">Polybius on unbelief at Rome, <a href='#Page_244'>244</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pompeius, nephew of Anastasius, <a href='#Page_305'>305</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pompey the Great, his wife, <a href='#Page_326'>326</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">his pillar at Constantinople, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Popes, ostentation of, <a href='#Page_275'>275</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Population of Constantinople, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Porch, Royal, at Constantinople, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Porphyry, a Neoplatonist, his philosophy, <a href='#Page_263'>263</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Portia, wife of Brutus, wounds herself, <a href='#Page_326'>326</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Posts, public, of Empire, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Praetorium, government house in provinces, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Precia, a courtesan, rules Cethegus and Rome, <a href='#Page_335'>335</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Primitive races, extinction of, by civilization, <a href='#Page_296'>296</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Priscian on grammar, etc., <a href='#Page_213'>213</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">a centenarian, <i>ib.</i></li> - -<li class="indx">Processions, Imperial, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_319'>319</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Procopius first appears in history, <a href='#Page_316'>316</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">his “Secret History,” <a href='#Page_339'>339</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Professors officially appointed, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>, <i>sqq.</i>;</li> -<li class="isub1">salaries of, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Prostitution, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a>, <i>sqq.</i>, <a href='#Page_337'>337</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Prostration before emperor, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Public shows, expenses of, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Purple, imperial, laws as to, <a href='#Page_191'>191</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Puteoli, hydraulic cement of, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pythagoras, philosopher, on numbers, <a href='#Page_215'>215</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on music, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pythionice, a courtesan, her monuments, <a href='#Page_335'>335</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Quintilian on education, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Rabutaux on mediaeval prostitution, <a href='#Page_337'>337</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rectors or provincial governors, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">extortions of, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Reformation, the, <a href='#Page_294'>294</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Renaissance, the, <a href='#Page_294'>294</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rhetoricians or sophists, their teaching, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>, <a href='#Page_212'>212</a>, <i>sqq.</i>;</li> -<li class="isub1">affectation of, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Roads, Roman, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Roi des Ribauds</i>, intendant of palace courtesans, <a href='#Page_337'>337</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rome, fall of, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Salaries of professors, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Salonina, wife of Caecina, her arrogant display, <a href='#Page_328'>328</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sampson, hospital of, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Scamander river, anecdote of, <a href='#Page_330'>330</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Schools of art, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Semantron, call to church, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Senate-houses, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Senate of Constantinople, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Constantine and, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Julian and, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Serpent column in Hippodrome, origin of, <a href='#Page_63'>63</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">destruction of, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Seven hills at Constantinople, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">at Rome, <i>ib.</i></li> - -<li class="indx">Seven towers at Constantinople, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Severus, Emperor, at Byzantium, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ships, capacity of ancient, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a>, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Siedeliba or Ceylon, trade at, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sigma or crescent at Constantinople, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_359"> 359</span></li> - -<li class="indx">Silk, mercantile routes from China for, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>, <a href='#Page_193'>193</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Silphium, a pot-herb, land of, <a href='#Page_192'>192</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Slave of Winds or Anemodulion, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Soaemias, mother of Elagabalus, her character and conduct, <a href='#Page_327'>327</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Socrates, Church historian, <a href='#Page_290'>290</a>, etc.</li> - -<li class="indx">Socrates, philosopher, his ethics, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a>, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">visits Theodote, <a href='#Page_332'>332</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sophists or rhetoricians, their teaching, <a href='#Page_212'>212</a>, <i>sqq.</i>;</li> -<li class="isub1">affectation, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Spiritualism, ancient and modern, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>, <i>sqq.</i>, <a href='#Page_263'>263</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">St. Sophia, old church of, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Statues, public, multitude of, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Steps, public rations served from, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Stoics, their ethics, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a>, <a href='#Page_264'>264</a>, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Streets at Constantinople, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Strzygowski, his researches on the Golden Gate, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>, <a href='#Page_362'>362</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on cisterns, <a href='#Page_362'>362</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Studius, monastery of, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>, <a href='#Page_280'>280</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Stylites or pillar-saints, <a href='#Page_281'>281</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Suburbs of Constantinople, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sycae, now Galata, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Tabari, translation of, by Nöldeke, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">by Zotenberg, <i>ib.</i></li> - -<li class="indx">Taurus, square of, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Taxes, ways of levying, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <i>sqq.</i></li> - -<li class="indx">Theocritus aspires to purple, <a href='#Page_302'>302</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">executed by Justin, <a href='#Page_306'>306</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Theodora, origin and career of, <a href='#Page_337'>337</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">her reformation, <a href='#Page_344'>344</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">marriage, etc., <a href='#Page_347'>347</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Theodoric the Goth, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>, <a href='#Page_310'>310</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Theodosius I, his laws against Pagans, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a>, <a href='#Page_277'>277</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Theodote, a courtesan, Socrates visits, <a href='#Page_332'>332</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Theodotus, P. U., opposes Justinian, <a href='#Page_309'>309</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Thomas, a silentiary, plunders fugitives at Antioch, <a href='#Page_318'>318</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Throne, Byzantine, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Titles of honour, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Torture, taxes enforced by, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Towers at Constantinople, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Trade routes, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a>, <i>sqq.</i></li> - -<li class="indx">Trajan, Emperor, and Christians, <a href='#Page_250'>250</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Treasury, Imperial, etc., <a href='#Page_161'>161</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tzykanisterion or palace garden, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">University or Auditorium of Constantinople, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>, <a href='#Page_207'>207</a>, <i>sqq.</i></li> - -<li class="indx">Urbicius, chief eunuch, nominates Anastasius for throne, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Vandals in Spain and Africa, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Van Millingen on Golden Gate, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on Bucoleon harbour, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Verina, Empress, wife of Leo I, provokes a revolution against Zeno, <a href='#Page_328'>328</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Vespasian and Caenis, <a href='#Page_336'>336</a>, <a href='#Page_346'>346</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Vigilantia, mother of Justinian, <a href='#Page_347'>347</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">sister of, <a href='#Page_301'>301</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Vigilantius against relic worship, etc., <a href='#Page_292'>292</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Vistilia, a noble lady, applies for <i>licentia stupri</i>, <a href='#Page_336'>336</a>. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_360"> 360</span></li> - -<li class="indx">Vitalian, a general, his revolt, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">consulship and murder of, <a href='#Page_306'>306</a>, <i>sqq.</i></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Wall, Long, of Anastasius, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Walls of Byzantium, vocal, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of Constantinople, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <i>sqq.</i></li> - -<li class="indx">Water, public supply of, at Constantinople, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Women at Athens, <a href='#Page_321'>321</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">at Sparta, <i>ib.</i>;</li> -<li class="isub1">towns named in honour of, <a href='#Page_323'>323</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Wood for fuel, brought from Euxine, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Xenophanes, the Eleatic, his philosophy, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a>, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Xerolophos, or dry-hill, at Constantinople, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Xylocercus Gate, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Youth, dissoluteness of, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">education of, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a>, <i>sqq.</i>;</li> -<li class="isub1">legal, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">for art, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Zachariah of Mytilene, translated by Hamilton and Brooks, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a>, <a href='#Page_312'>312</a>, etc.</li> - -<li class="indx">Zeno, Eleatic philosopher, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Zeno, Emperor, his Henoticon, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">death of, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Zeno, Stoic philosopher, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Zeugma, a quarter of Constantinople, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Zeuxippus, baths of, at Constantinople, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Zoroaster or Zarathushtra, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Zotenberg, translation of Tabari by, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>.</li> -</ul> -</div> - -<h3 id="ERRATA">ERRATA</h3> - -<p>P. 11, peninsula; p. 17, n. 1, Frising.; p. 24, note, Beylié; p. 55, -n. 3, Lethaby; p. 118, n. 4, Lactant., i, 20; p. 158, n. 3, Berg-; p. -188, herd; p. 225, n. 1, cadavérique; p. 256, note, und.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_361"> 361</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="ADDITIONS">ADDITIONS</h2> -</div> - - -<p>P. 20, n. 1. The date of the dialogue Philopatris has been the subject -of much argument, notably in <i>Byzant. Zeitschrift</i>, vols. v and vi, 1896-7. -It has been placed under Carus, Julian, Heraclius, and John Zimisces. The -matter is unintelligible unless at an early period of Christianity, and I -should be inclined to maintain that interpolations in one or two places -by late copyists (see <a href="#Page_256">p. 256</a>) have given it a false semblance of recency.</p> - -<p>P. 24, note. John Malala was unknown to Ducange (not having been -published till 1691), and hence has been neglected to a great extent by -later writers on Byzantine antiquities. He is the earliest authority for -much of what is to be found in the later chronographers. According to -Conybeare the Paschal Chronicle did not copy Malala, but an original -common to both; <i>Byzant. Zeitsch.</i>, 1902.</p> - -<p>P. 33. There is no record of the building of the Golden Gate, but -John Malala (p. 360), says that Theodosius II gilded it, whence the -name. Most probably this statement includes the erection of the monument. -I am now satisfied that the Golden Gate had no direct connection -with Theodosius the Great, but was raised by his grandson to commemorate -the overthrow of the usurper John by his generals Aspar and -Ardaburius at Ravenna in 425. This is the “tyrant” alluded to (“post -fata tyranni”), who had supplanted the infant Valentinian III in the -West, afterwards the husband of Eudoxia, daughter of Theodosius II. -The victory caused the greatest excitement at CP., of which Socrates -(vii, 23) gives a striking account. They were all sitting in the Hippodrome -when the news arrived, whereupon the Emperor, with the whole -audience, rose up, abandoned the games, marched through the streets -singing enthusiastically, and the rest of the day was spent in the -churches giving utterance to fervid prayers. It is inconceivable that so -tame a couplet could have been composed to celebrate the martial deeds -of Theodosius I. The clash of arms would have been heard in any inscription -designed to record the achievements of an Emperor who won -battles in the field by his own tactics and strategy. But in a generally -quiet reign, with the palace under the rule of the women, any decided -success would be magnified and the weakling Theodosius II would -naturally be associated with the prestige of his grandfather, whose name -he bore. The case is one on all fours with that of the great statue in -Taurus (erected after a minor Persian war), so skilfully allocated by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_362"> 362</span> -Déthier (see <a href="#Page_72">p. 72</a>) and the boastful inscription on it (Gk. Anthol. Plan., -iv, 65). The inscription on the Golden Gate was not sculptured, but -was composed of metal letters fastened to the stone by rivets. Many of -these holes can still be located on the decayed surface. These were first -observed by Strzygowski in 1893, and by joining them judiciously the -form of the letters originally attached could be made out. The lines ran -across the top of the gate, the first verse of the couplet being on the left -side, the second on the right. See the monograph by S. on the Golden -Gate, Jahrb. d. Kaiser. Deutsche Archæol. Instit., 1893, viii, 1. But the -origin of the old Golden Gate in the Constantinian wall remains unsolved; -for surmises see Van Millingen.</p> - -<p>P. 31. It is highly improbable that the wall of Theodosius ever ran -through to the Golden Horn, as, in order to do so, it would have had -to cut the parish or region of Blachernae in two. It must have pulled -up therefore at the previously existing wall which surrounded that part; -see the Notitia, reg. xiv. Hence there must always have been a projecting -portion of the fortifications at this end.</p> - -<p>P. 37. Van Millingen decides to identify the palace of Bucoleon with -that of Hormisdas, as hitherto the building on the wall has been popularly -named. This identification now seems to me quite tenable. Both the -Anon. and Codinus (pp. 45, 87) mention, in somewhat different terms, -the locality of H., and connect it with Port Julian, evidently to the -west of the existing ruin. I am satisfied that the latter is really the -Bucoleon built by Theodosius II, and that the Hormisdas, which must -have been altogether reconstructed by Justinian (Procop., Aedific., i, -10), has quite disappeared. Theodosius could not by any sort of implication -be said to have built a house of Hormisdas, who was dead long -before he was born. Later this palace (Hormisdas) was diverted to -ecclesiastical purposes, became, in fact, a sort of Church House, where -meetings were held, and also a hostelry for members of the priesthood -when visiting the capital; see pp. 669, <i>sqq.</i> In the latter connection it is -often mentioned by John of Ephesus in the work already referred to (p. -345, n. 2).</p> - -<p>P. 74. The identification of the <i>Bin bir derek</i> with the cistern of -Philoxenus is a mere surmise—a monogram on the columns is said to -stand for Εὖγε φιλόξενε! The researches of Forscheimer (and Strzygowski) -give a more likely elucidation which, with the <i>Yeri Baian Seraï</i>, a -much larger cistern still full of water, will be considered later on. See -p. 539 and cf. Lethaby and S., p. 248.</p> - -<p>Pp. 78, 319. There were three localities at CP. which might conceivably<span class="pagenum" id="Page_363"> 363</span> -have been called Hebdomon by the inhabitants: 1. The seventh -of the fourteen parishes of the city as described in the Notitia; 2. The -camping ground near Blachernae of the seventh regiment of Gothic -mercenaries; 3. A kind of Field of Mars for reviewing the troops situated -seven miles from the Milion on the shore of the Propontis. When -processions to the Hebdomon are mentioned, it is always the last place -which is meant, and there the church of St. John was founded. I do -not know whether there is any literary reference to either of the first -two localities under that name, but much confusion has been occasioned -by the contradictory views of various writers, especially Gyllius and -Ducange; see Mordtmann, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 29.</p> - -<p>P. 100. The actual sums which it appears that scholars accept as obligatory -on three praetors to spend annually for the public shows are -respectively £150,000, £120,000, and £90,000, in all £360,000! Under -these circumstances it was scarcely worth while for Olympiodorus to -mention such a trifle as the 1,200 lb. of gold (£48,000), expended by -Probus in his praetorship, unless it was to show how beggarly he was -in comparison with his predecessors in office, the least of whom had to -disburse under legal compulsion nearly double that amount. It is -strange that none of Gibbon’s editors has noticed that his “ridiculous -four or five pounds” is in reality £57 5<i>s.</i>, at his own estimate of the -value of the <i>follis</i> (.548<i>d.</i>), viz., 1∕ 2025 of the silver <i>follis</i> or purse, which -he makes equal to £6; iii, p. 293 (Bury). I have read somewhere that -Sir Isaac Newton could not work the simple rules of arithmetic.</p> - -<p>Pp. 252, 274. The evidence for Galerius’s edict of toleration and -Constantine’s Edict of Milan (313) is the same, viz., Lactantius and -Eusebius. There is no good reason to doubt the latter. The attitude of -Galerius towards Christianity was mere toleration after failure to suppress; -Constantine’s that of favour and adoption. Every one knew that -Galerius would spring again if he got the chance. If C. took up -Christianity as one of his religions <i>c.</i> 312, he would naturally, after his -victory, issue a manifesto to define his personal policy and inclinations. -Too much stress is often laid on the light doubts of recent investigators.</p> - -<p>P. 294, n. 2. Since this section on religion was written, two movements -on the lines indicated have come to the surface, one a petition by -university teachers for more freedom in dealing with the mythological -texts in relation to students, the other a similar petition by ministers of -the establishment, for the same freedom, with respect to the public. -Both failed, but doubtless the tide of rationalism will rise again and -again until the desired emancipation be achieved. These are symptoms<span class="pagenum" id="Page_364"> 364</span> -of a readjustment of popular religious beliefs at no distant date, perhaps -within a generation or two, a consummation I had not anticipated as -likely to occur for centuries to come. But, as the chick emerges suddenly -from the egg which immediately before was to all appearances physically -unaltered, so sociological revolutions, long brooding beneath the surface, -are sometimes fully achieved in a moment of time.</p> - -<p>Pp. 345, 348. Were we without the Anecdotes of Procopius we should -still know practically all that he has revealed about Theodora. 1. That -she was a prostitute, John of Ephesus, Aimoin. 2. That she was in a -very lowly condition before her marriage, Codinus. 3. That she was vindictive -and cruel when on the throne, Liber Pontificalis, Vigilius. All -this evidence is adverted to circumstantially in its proper setting throughout -the work.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>⁂ For <span class="smcap">Corrigenda et Addenda</span> to the whole work see end of -Vol. II.</p> - - -<p class="center"><span class="fs2">CHISWICK PRESS: PRINTED BY CHARLES WHITTINGHAM AND CO. -TOOKS COURT, CHANCERY LANE, LONDON.</span></p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="FOOTNOTES">FOOTNOTES</h2> -</div> - -<div class="footnotes"> -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[1]</a> To these must now be added Diehl’s beautifully illustrated work, -<i>Justinien et la civilization Byzantine au VI<sup>e</sup> siècle</i>, Paris, 1901. The -leading motive is that of art, and it is replete with interesting details, -but the conception is too narrow to allow of its fully representing the -age to a modern reader.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">[2]</a> Radium was unknown in 1901 when the above was written.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">[3]</a> In presenting this history to the modern reader I shall not imitate -the example of those mediaeval stage-managers, who, in order to indicate -the scenery of the play, were content to exhibit a placard such as -“This is a street,” “This is a wood,” etc. On the contrary, on each -occasion that the scene shifts in this drama of real life, I shall describe -the locality of the events at a length proportionate to their importance.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="label">[4]</a> Schliemann found neolithic remains at Hissarlik, not far off (Ilios, -p. 236, 1880).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="label">[5]</a> In the sixteenth century, as we are told by Gyllius (Top. CP., iv, -11), the Greeks of Stamboul were utterly oblivious of the history of their -country and of the suggestiveness of the remains which lay around them. -But an awakening has now taken place and the modern Greeks are -among the most ardent in the pursuit of archaeological knowledge. -They have even revived the language of Attica for literary purposes, and -it may be said that an Athenian of the age of Pericles could read with -facility the works now issued from the Greek press of Athens or of Constantinople—a -unique example, I should think, in the history of philology. -Through Paspates (Βυζαντινὰ Ανάκτορα, pp. 95, 140), we are -made aware of the difficulties the topographical student has to encounter -in the Ottoman capital, where an intruding Giaour is sure to be assailed -in the more sequestered Turkish quarters with abuse and missiles on the -part of men, women, and children.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6" class="label">[6]</a> Alluded to by both Homer and Hesiod (Odyss., xii, 69; Theog., -992). It was one of those unknown countries which, as Plutarch remarks -(Theseus, 1), were looked on as a fitting scene for mythical events.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_7" href="#FNanchor_7" class="label">[7]</a> Pindar, Pythia, iv, 362; P. Mela, i, 19, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_8" href="#FNanchor_8" class="label">[8]</a> Of these Sinope claimed to be the eldest, and honoured the Argonauts -as its founders (Strabo, xii, 3).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_9" href="#FNanchor_9" class="label">[9]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, vii, 6.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_10" href="#FNanchor_10" class="label">[10]</a> Herodotus, iv, 144.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_11" href="#FNanchor_11" class="label">[11]</a> Pliny, Hist. Nat., iv, 18 [11]. Ausonius compares Lygos to the -Byrsa of Carthage (De Clar. Urb., 2).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_12" href="#FNanchor_12" class="label">[12]</a> Not a Greek name; most likely that of a local chief.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_13" href="#FNanchor_13" class="label">[13]</a> According to the Chronicon of Eusebius, Chalcedon was founded -in Olymp. 26, 4, and Byzantium in Olymp. 30, 2, or 673, 659 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> In -modern works of reference the dates 684, 667 seem to be most generally -accepted. I pass over the legends associated with this foundation—the -divine birth of Byzas; the oracle telling the emigrants to build opposite -the city of the blind; another, which led the Argives (who were also -concerned in the early history of Byzantium) to choose the confluence of -the Cydarus and Barbyses, at the extremity of the Golden Horn, whence -they were directed to the right spot by birds, who flew away with parts -of their sacrifice—inventions or hearsay of later times, when the real -circumstances were forgotten (see Strabo, vii, 6; Hesychius Miles, De -Orig. CP., and others), all authors of comparatively late date. Herodotus -(iv, 144), the nearest to the events (<i>c.</i> 450 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>), makes the plain -statement that the Persian general Megabyzus said the Chalcedonians -must have been blind when they overlooked the site of Byzantium.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_14" href="#FNanchor_14" class="label">[14]</a> The remains of a “cyclopean” wall (Paspates, Βυζαντινὰ Ανάκτορα, -p. 24), built with blocks of stone (some ten feet long?) probably belonged -to old Byzantium, respecting which it is only certainly known that it -stood at the north-east extremity of the promontory (Zosimus, ii, 30; -Codinus, p. 24; with Mordtmann’s Map, etc.). It can scarcely be -doubted that the site of the Hippodrome was outside the original walls, -and thus we have a limit on the land side. It may be assumed that the -so-called first hill formed an acropolis, round which there was an external -wall inclosing the main part of the town (Xenophon, Anabasis, -vii, 1, etc.). Doubtless the citadel covered no great area, and the city -walls were kept close to the water for as long a distance as possible to -limit the extent of investment in a siege.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_15" href="#FNanchor_15" class="label">[15]</a> Polybius, iv, 38, 45, etc. It was abolished after a war with Rhodes, -219 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_16" href="#FNanchor_16" class="label">[16]</a> Tacitus, Annal., xii, 63, and commentators. Strabo, ii, 6; Pliny, -Hist. Nat., ix, 20 [15]. They are mostly tunny fish, a large kind of -mackerel. In the time of Gyllius, women and children caught them -simply by letting down baskets into the water (De Top. CP. pref.; -so also Busbecq). Grosvenor, a resident, mentions that seventy sorts -of fish are found in the sea about the city (Constantinople, 1895, ii, -p. 576.)</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_17" href="#FNanchor_17" class="label">[17]</a> Strabo proves that the gulf was called the Horn, Pliny that the -Horn was Golden (the promontory in his view), Dionysius Byzant. -(Gyllius, De Bosp. Thrac., i, 5), that in the second century the inlet -was named Golden Horn. Hesychius (<i>loc. cit.</i>) and Procopius (De -Aedific., i, 5) say that Ceras was from Ceroessa, mother of Byzas.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_18" href="#FNanchor_18" class="label">[18]</a> Dionys. Byz. in Gyllius, De Top. CP., i, 2. The statement is -vague and can only be accepted with some modification in view of other -descriptions.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_19" href="#FNanchor_19" class="label">[19]</a> Livy, xxxii, 33.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_20" href="#FNanchor_20" class="label">[20]</a> Phylarchus in Athenaeus, vi, 101.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_21" href="#FNanchor_21" class="label">[21]</a> See Müller’s Dorians, ii, 177.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_22" href="#FNanchor_22" class="label">[22]</a> Hesychius, <i>loc. cit.</i>; Diodorus Sic., xvi, 77, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_23" href="#FNanchor_23" class="label">[23]</a> Polybius, iv, 46, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_24" href="#FNanchor_24" class="label">[24]</a> Cicero, Orat. de Prov. Consular., 3.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_25" href="#FNanchor_25" class="label">[25]</a> Tacitus, <i>loc. cit.</i>; Pliny, Epist. to Trajan, 52.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_26" href="#FNanchor_26" class="label">[26]</a> Suetonius, Vespasian, 8.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_27" href="#FNanchor_27" class="label">[27]</a> Dion Cassius, 10, 14. I have combined and condensed the separate -passages dealing with the subject.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_28" href="#FNanchor_28" class="label">[28]</a> Herodian, iii, 1; Pausanias, iv, 31. Walls of this kind were built -without cement, so that the joinings were hardly perceptible.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_29" href="#FNanchor_29" class="label">[29]</a> At an earlier period it seems that there was only one harbour (Xenophon, -Anabasis, vii, 1; Plutarch, Alcibiades, 31).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_30" href="#FNanchor_30" class="label">[30]</a> A not uncommon acoustic phenomenon, such as occurs in the so-called -“Ear [prison] of Dionysius” at Syracuse, etc. It can be credited -without seeking for a mythical explanation.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_31" href="#FNanchor_31" class="label">[31]</a> Suidas, <i>sb.</i> Severus; Herodian, iii, 7.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_32" href="#FNanchor_32" class="label">[32]</a> The general details are from Dion Cassius, lxxiv, 12-14.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_33" href="#FNanchor_33" class="label">[33]</a> Suidas, <i>loc. cit.</i>; Jn. Malala, xii, p. 291; Chron. Paschale, i, p. 495.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_34" href="#FNanchor_34" class="label">[34]</a> Eustathius <i>ad</i> Dionys., Perieg. 804; Codinus, p. 13.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_35" href="#FNanchor_35" class="label">[35]</a> Hist. August. Caracalla, 1. He is represented as a boy interceding -with his father.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_36" href="#FNanchor_36" class="label">[36]</a> Hist. August. Gallienus, 6, 13, etc.; Claudius, 9; Zosimus, i, -34, etc.; Aurelius Victor, De Caesar., xxxiii, etc. There is much to -support the views in the text, which reconcile the somewhat discrepant -statements of Dion and Herodian with those of later writers. The Goths -seem to have been in possession of Byzantium—therefore it was unfortified -(Zosimus, i, 34; Syncellus, i, p. 717). More than a century later, -Fritigern was “at peace with stone walls” (Ammianus, xxxi, 6). I -apply the description of Zosimus (ii, 30) to this wall of Gallienus (so to -call it), which probably included a larger area, taking in the Hippodrome -and other buildings of Severus.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_37" href="#FNanchor_37" class="label">[37]</a> The tops of the various hills can now be distinguished by the presence -of the following well-known buildings: 1. St. Sophia; 2. Burnt -Pillar; 3. Seraskier’s Tower; 4. Mosque of Mohammed II; 5. Mosque -of Selim; 6. Mosque of Mihrimah (Gate of Adrianople); 7. Seven -Towers (south-west extremity). The highest point in the city is the summit -of the sixth hill, 291 ft. (Grosvenor).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_38" href="#FNanchor_38" class="label">[38]</a> The last reach of the Barbyses runs through a Turkish pleasure -ground and is well known locally as the “Sweet Waters of Europe.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_39" href="#FNanchor_39" class="label">[39]</a> Procopius, De Aedific., i, 11.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_40" href="#FNanchor_40" class="label">[40]</a> Notwithstanding the southerliness of these regions, natives of the -Levant have always been well acquainted with frost and snow. Thus -wintry weather is a favourite theme with Homer:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse">ἤματι χειμερίῳ. ..</div> - <div class="verse">κοιμήσας δ’ ἁνέμους χέει ἔμπεδον, ὄφρα καλύψῃ</div> - <div class="verse">ὑψηλῶν ὀρέων κορυφὰς καὶ πρώονας ἄκρους,</div> - <div class="verse">καὶ πεδία λωτεῦντα καὶ ἀνδρῶν πίονα ἔργα,</div> - <div class="verse">καί τ’ ἐφ’ ἁλὸς πολιῆς κέχυται λιμέσιν τε καὶ ακταῖς,</div> - <div class="verse">κῦμα δέ μιν προσπλάζον ἐρύκεται· ἄλλα τε πάντα</div> - <div class="verse">εἰλύαται καθύπερθ’ ὅτ ἐπιβρίση Διὸς ὔμβρας.</div> - <div class="verse indent20"><i>Iliad</i>, xii, 279, κ.τ.λ.</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_41" href="#FNanchor_41" class="label">[41]</a> His reasons for this step can only be surmised. A political motive -is scarcely suggested. A second capital cannot have been required to -maintain what Rome had conquered, and was soon made an excuse for -dissolving the unity of the Empire. His nascent zeal for Christianity, -by which he incurred unpopularity at pagan Rome, has been supposed -to have prejudiced him against the old capital, and moved him to build -another in which the new religion should reign supreme, but these -opinions emanate only from writers actuated more or less by bigotry. -Although he virtually presided at the Council of Nice and accepted -baptism on his death-bed, that he was ever a Christian by conviction is -altogether doubtful. For a <i>résumé</i> see Boissier, Revue des Deux -Mondes, July, 1886; also Burchardt’s Constantine.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_42" href="#FNanchor_42" class="label">[42]</a> For the founding of Constantinople see Gyllius (De Topogr. -CP., i, 3), but especially Ducange (CP. Christiana, i, p. 23 <i>et seq.</i>), -who has brought together a large number of passages from early and -late writers. According to a nameless author (Muller, Frag. Hist., -iv, p. 199), Constantine was at one time in the habit of exclaiming: “My -Rome is Sardica.” He was born and bred in the East, and hence all -his tastes would naturally lead him to settle on that side of the Empire.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_43" href="#FNanchor_43" class="label">[43]</a> It may have been earlier. Petavius (in Ducange) fixes this date, -Baronius makes it 325 (<i>c.</i> 95).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_44" href="#FNanchor_44" class="label">[44]</a> Plutarch, De Defect. Orac. He explains it by the death of the -daemons who managed them. These semi-divinities, though long-lived, -were not immortal.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_45" href="#FNanchor_45" class="label">[45]</a> See Ducange, <i>loc. cit.</i>, p. 24.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_46" href="#FNanchor_46" class="label">[46]</a> Philostorgius, ii, 9. Copied or repeated with embellishment, but not -corroborated, by later writers, as Nicephorus Cal., viii, 4; Anon. -(Banduri), p. 15; Codinus, p. 75. Eusebius is silent where we should -expect him to be explicit. The allusion in Cod. Theod., XIII, v, 7, -seems to be merely a pious expression.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_47" href="#FNanchor_47" class="label">[47]</a> The result of Diocletian’s persecution must have shown every penetrating -spirit that Christianity had “come to stay”: the numerous converts -of the better classes were nearly all fanatics compared with Pagans -of the same class, who were languid and indifferent about religion. He -indulged both parties from time to time.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_48" href="#FNanchor_48" class="label">[48]</a> Zosimus, ii, 30, Anon. Patria (Banduri, p. 4), and indications -in Notitia Utriusque Imperii, etc., in which the length of Constantine’s -city is put down at 14,705 Roman feet. From Un Kapani on the -Golden Horn (near old bridge) it swept round the mosque of Mohammed -II, passed that of Exi Mermer, and turned south-east so as to -strike the sea near Et Jemes, north-east of Sand-gate. I am describing -the imaginary line drawn by Mordtmann (Esquisses topogr. de CP., -1891), who has given us a critical map without a scale to measure it by. -It was not finished till after Constantine’s death, Julian, Orat., i, p. 41, -1696.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_49" href="#FNanchor_49" class="label">[49]</a> Anon. (Banduri) and Codinus <i>passim</i>; Eusebius, Vit. Constant., -iii, 54, etc.; Jerome, Chron., viii, p. 678 (Migne).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_50" href="#FNanchor_50" class="label">[50]</a> Zosimus, ii, 31.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_51" href="#FNanchor_51" class="label">[51]</a> Or Florentia (blooming). Jn. Malala, xiii, p. 320, etc. Everything -was done in imitation of Rome, which, as John Lydus tells us (De -Mens., iv, 50), had three names, mystic, sacerdotal, and political—Amor, -Flora, Rome.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_52" href="#FNanchor_52" class="label">[52]</a> Cedrenus, i, p. 495; Zonaras, xiii, 3. Eusebius knows nothing of -it. See Ducange’s collection of authorities (CP. Christ., i, p. 24), all -late, <i>e.g.</i>, Phrantzes, iii, 6.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_53" href="#FNanchor_53" class="label">[53]</a> Anon. (Banduri), p. 5; Codinus, p. 20. The stories of these writers -do not deserve much credit. Glycas, however, accepts the tale and is a -sounder authority, iv, p. 463. “It is well known that the flower of your -nobility was translated to the royal city of the East,” said Frederic -Barbarossa, addressing the Roman Senate in 1155 (Otto Frising. -Muratori, Rer. Ital. Script., vi, 721).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_54" href="#FNanchor_54" class="label">[54]</a> Eunapius in Aedesius. Burchardt jeers at C. and his new citizens.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_55" href="#FNanchor_55" class="label">[55]</a> Idatius, Descript. Consul. (Migne, S. L., li, 908). The accepted -date.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_56" href="#FNanchor_56" class="label">[56]</a> Jn. Lydus, De Mensibus, iv, 2. “A bloodless sacrifice” (Jn. -Malala, p. 320). According to later writers (Anon., Banduri, etc.) -the “Kyrie Eleison” was sung, a statement we can easily disbelieve.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_57" href="#FNanchor_57" class="label">[57]</a> Jn. Malala, xiii, p. 321; Chron. Paschal., i, p. 529.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_58" href="#FNanchor_58" class="label">[58]</a> Anon. (Banduri), p. 4. <i>Ibid.</i> (Papias), p. 84.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_59" href="#FNanchor_59" class="label">[59]</a> In cloaks and Byzantine buskins, “chlaenis et campagis” (Κάμπαγος -or κομβαῶν). For the latter see Daremberg and Saglio, Dict. Antiq., -<i>sb. voc.</i> They covered the toe and heel, leaving the instep bare to the -ground.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_60" href="#FNanchor_60" class="label">[60]</a> Jn. Malala and Chron. Paschal., <i>loc. cit.</i>, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_61" href="#FNanchor_61" class="label">[61]</a> M. Glycas, iv, p. 463. Eusebius does not describe the founding of -CP., doubtless because he saw nothing in it pertinent to Christian piety, -of which only he professes to treat (τὰ πρὸς τὸν θεοφιλῆ), Vit. Const., -i, 11.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_62" href="#FNanchor_62" class="label">[62]</a> The name occurs in Cod. Theod. from 323 onwards, but also as -a palpable error at an earlier date. See Haenel’s Chronological -Index. It is thought coins stamped CP. were issued as early as 325 -(Smith, Dict. Christ. Biog., i, p. 631). Had Constantine fixed on any -other place it is probable that “New Rome” would have passed into -currency as easily as “New York.” But the Greeks did not call their -city Constantinople till later centuries. Thus with Procopius, the chief -writer of the sixth century, it is always still Byzantium.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_63" href="#FNanchor_63" class="label">[63]</a> Socrates, i, 16; Sozomen, ii, 3; Cod. Theod., XIV, xiii, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_64" href="#FNanchor_64" class="label">[64]</a> Socrates, <i>loc. cit.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_65" href="#FNanchor_65" class="label">[65]</a> Anon. Valesii, 30.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_66" href="#FNanchor_66" class="label">[66]</a> The last Roman emperor, in name only, Romulus Augustulus, -abdicated in 476, but long before that date the Empire had been -gradually falling to pieces. In 410 Alaric sacked Rome; by 419 the -Goths had settled in the south of France and the Vandals had appropriated -Spain; in 439 Genseric took possession of Africa; in 446 Britain -was abandoned; in 455 Rome was again sacked (by Genseric), etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_67" href="#FNanchor_67" class="label">[67]</a> Ciampini (De Sacr. Aedific., a C. Mag., etc., Rome, 1693), -enumerates twenty-seven. Eusebius says many (Vit. C., iii, 48). It -is curious, however, that the dialogue Philopatris (in Lucian) gives -an impression that in or after 363 (Gesner’s date, formerly accepted) -churches were so few and inconspicuous that the bulk of the population -knew nothing about them. The Notitia, again, half a century -later, reckons only fourteen within the city proper, including Sycae -(Galata). Probably, therefore, these twenty-seven churches attributed -to Constantine are mostly suppositious, for even in the reign of Arcadius -it would seem that there were not many more than half that -number.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_68" href="#FNanchor_68" class="label">[68]</a> Socrates, i, 16. Two only, as if Constantine had built no more.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_69" href="#FNanchor_69" class="label">[69]</a> Chron. Paschal., i, p. 531.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_70" href="#FNanchor_70" class="label">[70]</a> Eusebius, iv, 58. <i>Op. cit.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_71" href="#FNanchor_71" class="label">[71]</a> Anon. (Banduri), p. 45; Codinus, p. 72.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_72" href="#FNanchor_72" class="label">[72]</a> Hesychius, <i>op. cit.</i>, 15 (Codinus, p. 6).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_73" href="#FNanchor_73" class="label">[73]</a> Cicero (Orat. De Prov. Consul., 4) says that Byzantium was -“refertissimam atque ornatissimam signis,” a statement which doubtless -applies chiefly to works of art preserved in temples. The buildings -would remain and be restored, notwithstanding the many vicissitudes -through which the town passed. The Anon. (Banduri, p. 2) says that -ruins of a temple of Zeus, columns and arches, were still seen on the -Acropolis (first hill) in the twelfth century.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_74" href="#FNanchor_74" class="label">[74]</a> Eunapius, <i>loc. cit.</i>, Themistius, Orats., Paris, 1684, pp. 182, 223, -“equal to Rome”; Sozomen, “more populous than Rome”; Novel -lxxx forbids the crowding of provincials to CP.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_75" href="#FNanchor_75" class="label">[75]</a> Cod. Theod., XV, i. 51; Socrates, vii, 1, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_76" href="#FNanchor_76" class="label">[76]</a> Marcellinus, Chron. (Migne, li, 927). See also Evagrius, i, 17, -and Ducange, <i>op. cit.</i>, i, p. 38.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_77" href="#FNanchor_77" class="label">[77]</a> Priscus, Hist. Goth., p. 168. In 433.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_78" href="#FNanchor_78" class="label">[78]</a> The work of Cyrus is not precisely defined by the Byzantine -historians, but Déthier (Der Bosph. u. CP., 1873, pp. 12, 50) and -Mordtmann (<i>op. cit.</i>, p. 11) take this view. The words of one inscription, -“he built a wall to a wall” (ἐδείματο τείχεϊ τεῖχος), support the -theory. The walls of Theodosius were afterwards called the “new -walls” (Cod. Just., I, ii, 18; Novel lix, 5, etc.).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_79" href="#FNanchor_79" class="label">[79]</a> On the Porta Rhegii or Melandesia, about halfway across. See -Paspates (Βυζαντιναὶ Μελέται, pp. 47, 50). They are preserved in the -Anthol. Graec. (Planudes), iv. 28. The gate called Xylocercus, with -its inscription, has disappeared.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_80" href="#FNanchor_80" class="label">[80]</a> Marcellinus, <i>loc. cit.</i>; Zonaras, xiii, 22; Nicephorus Cal., xiv, 1, -confuses the work of the two men. The Anon. Patria (Banduri), -p. 20, says that the two factions of the circus, each containing eight -thousand men, were employed on the work. Beginning at either -end, they met centrally at a gate hence called “of many men” (Polyandra). -Mordtmann (<i>op. cit.</i>, p. 28) wholly rejects this tale, as it does -not fit in with some of his identifications. It would, however, be well -suited to the P. Rhegii, where the existing inscriptions are found. Some -local knowledge must be conceded to an author of the twelfth century, -who probably lived on the spot. Wall-building was a <i>duty</i> of the factions.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_81" href="#FNanchor_81" class="label">[81]</a> Dionysius caused the Syracusans to build the wall of Epipolae, of -about the same length, in twenty days (Diod. Sic., xiv, 18). The Peloponnesians -built a wall across the isthmus against Xerxes in a short time -(Herodotus, viii, 71, etc.). There was much extemporary wall-building -at Syracuse during the siege by Nicias (Thucydides, vi, 97, etc.). The -wall of Crassus against Spartacus was nearly forty miles long (Plutarch, -Crassus). Except the first, however, these were more or less temporary -structures. Very substantial extempore walls are frequently -mentioned by both Greek and Latin historians as having been erected -during sieges, etc. See especially Caesar (i, 8) and Thucydides (iii, 21, -Siege of Plataea).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_82" href="#FNanchor_82" class="label">[82]</a> The earliest and most reliable source is the Notitia Dignitatis -utriusque Imperii, etc., which dates from the time of Arcadius. To -this work is prefixed a short description of Rome and CP., which -enumerates the chief buildings, the number of streets, etc., in each -division of those cities. Next we have the Aedificia of Procopius, -the matter of which, however, does not come within the scope of the -present chapter. A gap of six centuries now occurs, which can only -be filled by allusions to be found in general and church historians, -patristic literature, etc. We then come to a considerable work, the -Anonymous, edited by A. Banduri (Venice, 1729), a medley of semi-historical -and topographical information, often erroneous, ascribed -to the twelfth century. A second edition of this work, introduced by -the Byzantine fragment of Hesychius of Miletus, passes under the name -of Geo. Codinus, who wrote about 1460. Here we draw the line between -mediaeval and modern authors, and we have next the Topography of -CP., by P. Gyllius, a Frenchman, who wrote on the spot about a -century after the Turkish conquest. His Thracian Bosphorus, which preserves much of the lost Dionysius of Byzantium, is also valuable. -Later still comes the monumental CP. Christiana of Ducange (Paris, -1680), a mine of research, by one of those almost mediaeval scholars, -who spent their lives in a library. Of contemporary treatises, which are -numerous and bulky, I will only mention the following, from which I -have derived most assistance: J. Labarte, Le Palais Impériale de -CP., Paris, 1871; A. G. Paspates, Βυζαντιναὶ Μελέται, CP., 1877, -and Βυζαντινα Ανάκτορα, Athens, 1885; W. Mordtmann, Esquisses -topographiques de CP., Lille, 1891. Among books intended less for -the archaeologist than for popular perusal, the only one worthy of -special mention is Constantinople, Lond., 1895, by E. A. Grosvenor, a -fine work, admirably illustrated, but the author relies too implicitly on -Paspates, and he has emasculated his book for literary purposes by -omitting references to authorities. The book also contains several -absurd mistakes, <i>e.g.</i>, “The careful historian who ... wrote under -the name of Anonymos,” etc., p. 313. To the above must now be added -the important, Byzantine CP., the Walls, by Van Millingen, Lond., -1899, a sound and critical work. Another beautiful work has also been -recently issued, viz., Beylié, L’Habitation byzantine, Grenoble, 1902. -A wealth of authentic illustrations renders it extremely valuable for the -study of the subject. This chapter was begun in 1896, and in the meantime -scholars have not been idle. As the Bonn Codinus gives inter-textually -all the passages of the anonymous Patria which differ, as well -as an appendix of anonymous archaeological tracts, I shall in future, for -the sake of brevity, refer to the whole as Codinus simply in that edition.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_83" href="#FNanchor_83" class="label">[83]</a> That is the pierced dome elevated to a great height on pendentives. -The splendid dome of the Pantheon dates, of course, from Hadrian, but -the invention of the modern cupola may fairly be assigned to the -Byzantines. The conception, however, had to be completed by raising -it still higher on a <i>tour de dome</i>, the first example of which is St. Augustine’s, -Rome (1483); see Agincourt, Hist. of Art, i, 67.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_84" href="#FNanchor_84" class="label">[84]</a> Procopius, De Aedific., i, 3; Nicephorus Cal., xv, 25.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_85" href="#FNanchor_85" class="label">[85]</a> Κυκλόβιον or στρογγύλον; Procopius, <i>ibid.</i>, iv, 8. Theophanes, an. -6165, p. 541, etc. Possibly it looked like the tomb of Caecilia Metella -or a Martello Tower and was the prototype of the castle shown on the -old maps as the “Grand Turk’s Treasure-house,” built in 1458 by -Mohammed II within his fortress of the Seven Towers; Map by -Caedicius, CP., 1889; Ducas, p. 317; Laonicus, x, p. 529. Most likely, -however, it was a wall uniting five towers in a round. The Cyclobion is -attributed to Zeno, about 480; Byzantios, Κωνσταντινούπολις, i, 312; -Grosvenor, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 596.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_86" href="#FNanchor_86" class="label">[86]</a> Grosvenor calls the existing road the remains of Justinian’s “once -well-paved triumphal way,” I have found no corroboration of this assertion. -From Constant. Porph. (De Cer. Aul. Byz., i, 18, 96, etc.), I conclude -there was no continuous road here for many centuries afterwards. -Paspates (<i>op. cit.</i>, p. 13) thinks the last passage alludes to it as πλακωτῆ, -but this is evidently the highway to Rhegium, etc. (Procop., De Aedific., -iv, 8).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_87" href="#FNanchor_87" class="label">[87]</a> Cod. VIII, x, 10; Procopius, De Bel. Pers., i, 25; Cinnamus, ii, 14; -Anthol. (Planudes), iv, 15, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_88" href="#FNanchor_88" class="label">[88]</a> This fount is still extant and accessible beneath the Greek church of -Baloukli (Grosvenor, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 485, etc.).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_89" href="#FNanchor_89" class="label">[89]</a> Gyllius (Dionys. Byz.), De Bosp. Thrac., ii, 2; De Topog. CP., iv, 5.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_90" href="#FNanchor_90" class="label">[90]</a> Suidas, <i>sub</i> Anast. Mordtmann (<i>op. cit.</i>, p. 33), thinks the ruins -existing at Tekfur Serai may represent the original Palace of Blachernae, -the basement, at least. It is commonly called the palace of Constantine, -etc., but Van Millingen proves it to be a late erection.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_91" href="#FNanchor_91" class="label">[91]</a> Zonaras, xiii, 24; Codin., p. 95, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_92" href="#FNanchor_92" class="label">[92]</a> Const. Porph., De Cer. Aul. Byz., ii, 12. Still frequented (Paspates, -<i>op. cit.</i>, p. 390, etc.).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_93" href="#FNanchor_93" class="label">[93]</a> To “a man’s height” (Paspates).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_94" href="#FNanchor_94" class="label">[94]</a> Paspates has all the credit of solving the problem of this moat (<i>op. -cit.</i>, p. 7, etc.). It has been maintained that it was a dry moat, owing to -the physical impossibility of the sea flowing into it. The words of -Chrysoloras (Migne, Ser. Grk., vol. 156, etc.) are alone sufficient to -dispose of this error.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_95" href="#FNanchor_95" class="label">[95]</a> This space seems to have been called the παρατείχιον; Const. -Porph., <i>loc. cit.</i>; or rather, perhaps, the πρωτείχισμα; see the Anon., -Στρατηγική (Koechly, etc.), 12 (<i>c.</i> 550). Paspates calls it the προτείχιον, -“because,” says he, “I have found no name for it in the Byzantine -historians.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_96" href="#FNanchor_96" class="label">[96]</a> Ducas, 39, etc.; Paspates, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 6. It is, however, the usual -word for the walls of a city. Μεσοτείχιον and σταύρωμα are more -definite; Critobulos, i, 60. Paspates states that the ground here has -been raised six feet above its ancient level.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_97" href="#FNanchor_97" class="label">[97]</a> Déthier, Nouv. recherch. à CP., 1867, p. 20; cf. Vegetius, iv, 1, -2, 3, etc. These walls have much similarity to the <i>agger</i> of Servius -Tullius, but in the latter case the great wall forms the inner boundary -of the trench and the lesser wall, retaining the excavated earth, was -about fifty feet behind in the city. See Middleton’s Ancient Rome, -etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_98" href="#FNanchor_98" class="label">[98]</a> Paspates, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 17.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_99" href="#FNanchor_99" class="label">[99]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, Grosvenor, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 584.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_100" href="#FNanchor_100" class="label">[100]</a> Paspates, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 10. See also Texier and Pullan, Architect. -Byzant., Lond., 1864, pp. 24, 56, for diagrams illustrating walls of the -period. Some, unlike the wall of CP., had continuous galleries in the -interior. The towers were also used for quartering soldiers when troops -were massed in the vicinity of the city (Cod. Theod., VII, viii, 13). -There were about one hundred and two of the great, and ninety of the -small ones. Owners of land through which the new wall passed had -also reversionary rights to make use of the towers (<i>Ibid.</i>, XV, i, 51).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_101" href="#FNanchor_101" class="label">[101]</a> The Roman plan of filling an outer shell with rubble and concrete -was adopted (Grosvenor, <i>loc. cit.</i>). At present the walls appear as a -heterogeneous mass of stone and brick, showing that they have been -repaired hurriedly numbers of times. But little is left of the fifth century -structure. Some parts, better preserved, exhibit alternate courses of -stone and brick, a favourite style of building with the Byzantines, but -not dating further back than the seventh century (Texier and Pullan, -<i>op. cit.</i>, p. 165).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_102" href="#FNanchor_102" class="label">[102]</a> Paspates (<i>op. cit.</i>, p. 14), to whom much more than to historical -indications we are indebted for our knowledge of these walls.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_103" href="#FNanchor_103" class="label">[103]</a> Those who have a topographical acquaintance with Stamboul are -aware that at about three-quarters of a mile from the Golden Horn the -wall turns abruptly to the west and makes a circuit as if to include a -supplementary area of ground. It is well understood that this part, which -is single for the most part and without a moat, but by compensation on -a still more colossal scale, is the work of later emperors—Heraclius, Leo -Armenius, Manuel Comnenus, and Isaac Angelus (600 to 1200). All -traces of the wall of Theodosius, which ran inside, have disappeared, -according to Paspates, but Mordtmann thinks he can recognize certain -ruined portions (<i>op. cit.</i>, p. 11 and Map).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_104" href="#FNanchor_104" class="label">[104]</a> Or from Charisius, one of the masters of the works (Codin., p. 110).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_105" href="#FNanchor_105" class="label">[105]</a> It appears that Anthemius in 413 (Cod. Theod., XV, i, 51) only -raised the great wall, and that in 447, when fifty-seven towers collapsed -(Marcellin. Com., <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 447; Chron. Pasch., 447, 450 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>), Cyrus repaired -the damage and added the lesser wall (Theophanes, an. 5937; -Cedrenus, i, p. 598, and the words ἐδείματο τείχεϊ τεῖχος of the inscription). -Cedrenus states virtually that he demolished the wall and replaced -it by three others, alluding perhaps to the moat, but Cedrenus is often -wrong. All seven (or nine) chronographists relate more or less exactly -that Cyrus gained such popularity by his works that the public acclamations -offended the Emperor, who forced the tonsure on him and sent him -to Smyrna as bishop in the hope that the turbulent populace, who had -already killed four of their bishops, would speedily add him to the -number. By his ready wit, however, he diverted their evil designs and -won their respect. Zonaras, xiii, 22, and Nicephorus Cal., xiv, 1, have -an incorrect idea of the wall-building. According to the latter, Anthemius -was the man of speed. Malala mentions Cyrus, but not the wall.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_106" href="#FNanchor_106" class="label">[106]</a> The Greek verses are given in the Anthology (Planudes, iv, 28). -The Latin I may reproduce here:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse">Theudosii jussis gemino nec mense peracto</div> - <div class="verse">Constantinus ovans haec moenia firma locavit.</div> - <div class="verse">Tam cito tam stabilem Pallas vix conderet arcem.</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>This epigram and its companion in Greek are still legible on the stone -of the Rhegium Gate (now of Melandesia). See Paspates, <i>op. cit.</i>, -pp. 47, 50. The Porta Xylocerci has practically disappeared.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_107" href="#FNanchor_107" class="label">[107]</a> Mordtmann’s exposition of these gates is the most convincing (<i>op. -cit.</i>, p. 16, etc.). I have omitted the Gate of the Seven Towers as it has -always been claimed as a Turkish innovation, a view, however, which -he rejects. In any case it was but a postern—there may have been others -such in the extinct section of the wall.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_108" href="#FNanchor_108" class="label">[108]</a> That is an S, which at this period was formed roughly like our C.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_109" href="#FNanchor_109" class="label">[109]</a> Cedrenus, ii, p. 173; or a personification of the city; Codin., p. 47.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_110" href="#FNanchor_110" class="label">[110]</a> Zonaras, xv, 4.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_111" href="#FNanchor_111" class="label">[111]</a> A fragment still exists on the northern tower. See Grosvenor, <i>op. -cit.</i>, p. 591.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_112" href="#FNanchor_112" class="label">[112]</a> Chrysoloras, <i>loc. cit.</i>, Gyllius, De Top. CP., iv, 9.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_113" href="#FNanchor_113" class="label">[113]</a> <i>Ibid.</i> Gyllius would seem to have been inside when making these -observations, but that would be within the fortress of Yedi Koulé, -rigorously guarded at that time. Doubtless the city side was adorned, -but no description of the gate as a whole is left to us. The ornaments -are only mentioned incidentally when recording damage done by earthquakes -(in their frequency often the best friends of the modern archaeologist) -and their arrangement can only be guessed at. Most likely they -were of gilded bronze, a common kind of statue among the Byzantines. -See Codinus, <i>passim</i>. The idea that the Golden Gate opened into a -fortress should be abandoned. The conception of the Seven Towers -seems to have originated with the Palaeologi in 1390, but Bajazet ordered -the demolition of the unfinished works (Ducas, 13), and it was left to -the Turkish conqueror to carry out the idea in 1458. See p. <a href="#Page_26">26</a>. I may -remark here that Mordtmann’s map has not been brought up to date as -regards his own text.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_114" href="#FNanchor_114" class="label">[114]</a> Cedrenus, i, p. 675.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_115" href="#FNanchor_115" class="label">[115]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, i, p. 567; Codin., pp. 26, 47; said to have been brought -from the temple of Mars at Athens.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_116" href="#FNanchor_116" class="label">[116]</a> The first Golden Gate was erected, or rather transformed, by Theodosius -I, as the following epigram, inscribed on the gate, shows (Corp. -Inscript. Lat., Berlin, 1873, No. 735):</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse">Haec loca Theudosius decorat post fata tyranni,</div> - <div class="verse">Aurea secla gerit, qui portam construit auro.</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>It was, of course, in the wall of Constantine (Codin., p. 122) and seems -to have remained to a late date—Map of Buondelmonte, Ducange, CP. -Christ., etc. For a probable representation see Banduri, Imp. Orient., ii, -pl. xi. But Van Millingen (<i>op. cit.</i>), having found traces of the inscription -on the remaining structure, considers there never was any other. -In that case it was at first a triumphal arch outside the walls.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_117" href="#FNanchor_117" class="label">[117]</a> The remarkable structure known as the Marble Tower, rising from -the waters of the Marmora to the height of a hundred feet, near the -junction of the sea-and land-wall is of later date, but its founder is unknown -and it has no clear history in Byzantine times. See Mordtmann, -<i>op. cit.</i>, p. 13.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_118" href="#FNanchor_118" class="label">[118]</a> Glycas, iv; Codin., p. 128. A legend, perhaps, owing to <i>débris</i> of -walls ruined by earthquakes collecting there in the course of centuries.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_119" href="#FNanchor_119" class="label">[119]</a> See Mordtmann, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 60; Codin., p. 109.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_120" href="#FNanchor_120" class="label">[120]</a> Codin., p. 101. Great hulks of timber were built to float obelisks -and marble columns over the Mediterranean; Ammianus, xvii, 4.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_121" href="#FNanchor_121" class="label">[121]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 102.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_122" href="#FNanchor_122" class="label">[122]</a> Codin., pp. 49, 104.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_123" href="#FNanchor_123" class="label">[123]</a> Notitia, Reg. 12.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_124" href="#FNanchor_124" class="label">[124]</a> Codin., <i>loc. cit.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_125" href="#FNanchor_125" class="label">[125]</a> Gyllius, De Top. CP., iv, 8.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_126" href="#FNanchor_126" class="label">[126]</a> Mordtmann, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 59.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_127" href="#FNanchor_127" class="label">[127]</a> Zosimus, iii, 11; Codin., p. 87.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_128" href="#FNanchor_128" class="label">[128]</a> Notitia, Reg. 3. We hear of a trumpet-tower (βύκινον, Codin., -p. 86; βύκανον, Nicetas Chon., p. 733) by this harbour fitted with a -“siren” formed of brass pipes, whose mouths protruding outside resounded -when they caught the wind blowing off the sea. Ducange, i, -p. 13, thinks a later fable has risen out of the vocal towers of Byzantium. -“Sic nugas nugantur Graeculi nugigeruli,” says Banduri (ii, p. 487). -There was certainly a watch-tower here, but of origin and date unknown. -Mordtmann, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 55.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_129" href="#FNanchor_129" class="label">[129]</a> Codin., <i>loc. cit.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_130" href="#FNanchor_130" class="label">[130]</a> Marcel. Com., an. 409.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_131" href="#FNanchor_131" class="label">[131]</a> Suidas, <i>sb.</i>, Anast. In a later age this port was enlarged and defended -by an iron grill. Anton. Novog. in Mordtmann, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 55.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_132" href="#FNanchor_132" class="label">[132]</a> About fifty feet above it; for a photograph of the existing ruins see -Grosvenor, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 388. Also Van Millingen’s work and others.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_133" href="#FNanchor_133" class="label">[133]</a> William of Tyre, xx, 25.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_134" href="#FNanchor_134" class="label">[134]</a> Anna Comn., iii, 1.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_135" href="#FNanchor_135" class="label">[135]</a> Zonaras, xv, 25, etc.; Const. Porph., i, 19, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_136" href="#FNanchor_136" class="label">[136]</a> Codin., p. 100, says the palace was founded by Theodosius II. The -group was probably ravished from some classic site at an early period -when the mania for decorating CP. was still rife. The existence of the -harbour at this date may be darkly inferred from Socrates, ii, 16; -Sozomen, iii, 9; Procopius, De Bel. Pers., i, 24; Theophanes, an. 6003. -Τὰς πύλας τοῦ βασιλείου πανταχόθεν ἀπέκλεισεν, καἱ πλοῖα εἰς τὸ φυγεῖν, -τῷ παλατίῳ παρέστησεν; Theodore Lect., ii, 26. All these passages -prove the existence of a harbour approachable only from the palace, -which probably was then, or afterwards became, the Boukoleon. Van -Millingen (<i>op. cit.</i>) gives good reasons for placing the Boukoleon on this -site, the only likely one (see Appendix). The name Boukoleon is not -found in literature before 800; Theoph., Cont., i, 11. From <i>ibid.</i>, vi, -15, it may be inferred that the main group of statuary had long been in -position.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_137" href="#FNanchor_137" class="label">[137]</a> For his story see Zosimus, ii, 27; Ammianus, xvi, 10. He was a -Christian who escaped from prison to the court of Constantine; see -Appendix.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_138" href="#FNanchor_138" class="label">[138]</a> Nicephorus Cal., xiv, 2, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_139" href="#FNanchor_139" class="label">[139]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, Niceph. Greg., iv, 2, etc.; Codin., De Offic. CP., 12.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_140" href="#FNanchor_140" class="label">[140]</a> Ἡ Ὁδηγός. The place was called Ὁδηγήτρια; Codin., p. 80.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_141" href="#FNanchor_141" class="label">[141]</a> <i>Ibid.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_142" href="#FNanchor_142" class="label">[142]</a> Or a monastery for blind monks, perhaps; Niceph. Greg., xi, 9, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_143" href="#FNanchor_143" class="label">[143]</a> Probably the Master of the Infantry under Theodosius I; Zosimus, -iv, 45, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_144" href="#FNanchor_144" class="label">[144]</a> It is said that those going from Byzantium to Chalcedon, at the -mouth of the Bosphorus on the Asiatic side, were obliged to start from -here and make a peculiar circuit to avoid adverse currents. See Gyllius, -<i>op. cit.</i>, iii, 1.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_145" href="#FNanchor_145" class="label">[145]</a> That is, the fig-region, Codin. (Hesych.), p. 6. Now Galata and -Pera.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_146" href="#FNanchor_146" class="label">[146]</a> The Constantinopolitans generally confounded this name with the -legendary Phosphoros (see <a href="#Page_5">p. 5</a>), and the geographical Bosporos. The -Notitia (Reg. 5) proves its real form and significance; also Evagrius, -ii, 13.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_147" href="#FNanchor_147" class="label">[147]</a> Codin., pp. 52, 60, 188. This ox was believed to bellow once a -year to warn the city of the advent of some calamity (<i>ibid.</i>, p. 60).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_148" href="#FNanchor_148" class="label">[148]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 113. The wall here formed another Sigma to surround the -inner sweep of the port. These two harbours we may suppose to be -those of Byzantium as known to Dion Cassius (see <a href="#Page_7">p. 7</a>).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_149" href="#FNanchor_149" class="label">[149]</a> A patrician, who came from Rome with Constantine and took a -share in adorning the city (Glycas, iv, p. 463), or another, who lived -under Theodosius I (Codin., p. 77).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_150" href="#FNanchor_150" class="label">[150]</a> Codin., p. 114; Cedrenus, ii, p. 80; Leo Diac., p. 78. This tower -was standing up to 1817; see Κωνσταντινιαδε, Venice, 1824, p. 14, by -Constantius, Archbishop of CP. This appears to be the first attempt by -a modern Greek to investigate the antiquities of CP. He had to disguise -himself as a dervish to explore Stamboul, for which he was banished to -the Prince’s Islands, and his book was publicly burnt.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_151" href="#FNanchor_151" class="label">[151]</a> Leo Diac. (<i>loc. cit.</i>) explains how the chain was supported at intervals -on piles. It seems to have been first used in 717 by Leo Isaurus; -Theophanes, i, p. 609; Manuel Comn. even drew a chain across the -Bosphorus from CP. to the tower called Arcula (Maiden’s T., etc.), -which he constructed for the purpose (Nicetas Chon., vii, 3).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_152" href="#FNanchor_152" class="label">[152]</a> Theophanes, an. 6024; Codin., p. 93. The “junction,” that of the -mules to the vehicle containing the relics of St. Stephen newly arrived -from Alexandria!</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_153" href="#FNanchor_153" class="label">[153]</a> Xenophon notices the plenty of timber on these coasts (Anab., vi, 2).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_154" href="#FNanchor_154" class="label">[154]</a> Strabo, vii, 6; Gyllius, <i>op. cit.</i>, iii, 9.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_155" href="#FNanchor_155" class="label">[155]</a> Zosimus, ii, 35. This circumstance, and the fact that almost all the -towers along here bear the name of Theophilus (Paspates, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 4), -suggest that this side was not walled till the ninth century. Chron. -Paschal. (an. 439) doubtless refers only to the completion of the wall on -the Propontis. Grosvenor (p. 570) adopts this view, but as usual without -giving reasons or references. He is wrong in saying that the chain -was first broken in 1203 by the Crusaders; it was broken in 823 (Cedrenus, -p. 80; Zonaras, xv, 23). I do not credit the statement of Sidonius -Ap. (Laus Anthemii) that houses were raised in the Propontis on -foundations formed of hydraulic cement from Puteoli. In any case, such -could have been obtained much nearer, viz., across the water at Cyzicus -(Pliny, Hist. Nat., xxxv, 47). The Bp. of Clermont never visited CP.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_156" href="#FNanchor_156" class="label">[156]</a> Notitia, Reg. 14. There was a populous suburb at Blachernae, -which had walls of its own before Theodosius included it within the city -proper.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_157" href="#FNanchor_157" class="label">[157]</a> Codin., pp. 30, 120; Suidas, <i>sb.</i> Mamante (St. Mamas, however, -appears to have been outside the walls; Theophanes, an. 6304, etc.); -Glycas, iv. Versions of the same story, probably. Gyllius’ memory fails -him on this occasion.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_158" href="#FNanchor_158" class="label">[158]</a> Ἀργυρολίμνη; see Paspates, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 68.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_159" href="#FNanchor_159" class="label">[159]</a> Chrysoloras, <i>loc. cit.</i> The Notitia enumerates fifty-two, which we -may understand to be pairs, before the enlargement by Theodosius.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_160" href="#FNanchor_160" class="label">[160]</a> Codin., p. 22. In this account the patricians, who accompanied -Constantine, are represented as undertaking many of the public buildings -at their own expense. See also Nonius Marc. (in Pancirolo ad Notit.). -In this case a testator wills that a portico with silver and marble statues -be erected in his native town.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_161" href="#FNanchor_161" class="label">[161]</a> Cod. Theod., XV, i, 44; iv; vii, 12, etc., with Godfrey’s commentary. -The imperial portraits were painted in white on a blue ground; Chrysostom, -1 Cor., x, 1 (in Migne, iii, 247). “The countenance of the -Emperor must be set up in courts, market-places, assemblies, theatres, -and wherever business is transacted, that he may safeguard the proceedings”; -Severianus, De Mund. Creat., vi, 5 (apud. Chrysost., Migne, -vi, 489).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_162" href="#FNanchor_162" class="label">[162]</a> Cod. Theod., <i>loc. cit.</i>; Philostorgius, ii, 17.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_163" href="#FNanchor_163" class="label">[163]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, IX, xliv; Institut., i, 8. On proof the master could be compelled -to sell the slave on the chance of his acquiring more congenial -service, but the privilege was often abused.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_164" href="#FNanchor_164" class="label">[164]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, XV, vii, 12.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_165" href="#FNanchor_165" class="label">[165]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, XV, i, 52.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_166" href="#FNanchor_166" class="label">[166]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, 53; Vitruvius, v, 11, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_167" href="#FNanchor_167" class="label">[167]</a> Cod., VIII, x, 12. A Greek Constitution of Zeno of considerable -length, and uniquely instructive on some points. These οἰκήματα were -limited to six feet of length and seven of height.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_168" href="#FNanchor_168" class="label">[168]</a> Novel cxxxvi; Plato, Apol., 17, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_169" href="#FNanchor_169" class="label">[169]</a> Whence called <i>emboliariae</i> (ἰμβολος being Byzantine for portico). -So say Alemannus <i>ad</i> Procop. (Hist. Arcan., p. 381) and his copyist -Byzantios (<i>op. cit.</i>, i, p. 113), but Pliny seems to use the word for an -actress in interludes (H. N., vii, 49), an occupation not, however, very -different.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_170" href="#FNanchor_170" class="label">[170]</a> Theophanes, Cont., p. 417. In the severe winter of 933, Romanus -Lecapenus blocked the interspaces and fitted them with windows and -doors.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_171" href="#FNanchor_171" class="label">[171]</a> They are, in fact, called the “narrows” in the Greek στενωποί.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_172" href="#FNanchor_172" class="label">[172]</a> Παρακύπτικος, Cod., <i>loc. cit.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_173" href="#FNanchor_173" class="label">[173]</a> Texier and Pullan, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 4; Agincourt, Hist. of Art, i, pl. 25. -Mica or talc (<i>lapis specularis</i>) was commonly used at Rome for windows -(Pliny, H. N., xxxvi, 45). Gibbon rather carelessly says that Firmus -(<i>c.</i> 272) had glass windows; they were vitreous squares for wall decoration -(Hist. August., <i>sb.</i> Firmo). Half a century later Lactantius is clear -enough—“fenestras lucente vitro aut speculari lapide obductas” (De -Opif. Dei, 8). Pliny tells us that clear glass was most expensive, and, -six centuries later, Isidore of Seville makes the same remark (Hist. -Nat., xxxvi, 67; Etymologies, xvi, 16).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_174" href="#FNanchor_174" class="label">[174]</a> The climate of the East requires that windows shall generally be -kept open; even shutters are often dispensed with.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_175" href="#FNanchor_175" class="label">[175]</a> See Cod. Theod., XV, i, De Op. Pub., <i>passim</i>. This legislation -was initiated by Leo Thrax, probably after the great fire of 469 (Jn. -Malala; Chron. Pasch., etc.).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_176" href="#FNanchor_176" class="label">[176]</a> Zosimus, ii, 35.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_177" href="#FNanchor_177" class="label">[177]</a> Cod., <i>loc. cit.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_178" href="#FNanchor_178" class="label">[178]</a> Agathias, v, 3.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_179" href="#FNanchor_179" class="label">[179]</a> A century earlier there were 322 according to the Notitia.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_180" href="#FNanchor_180" class="label">[180]</a> Zeno, Cod., <i>loc. cit.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_181" href="#FNanchor_181" class="label">[181]</a> We know little of the <i>insulae</i> or συνοικίαι of CP., but we can conceive -of no other kind of private house requiring such an elevation. -Besides, <i>insulae</i> are the subject of an argument in Cod., VIII, xxxviii, -15 (enacted at CP. about this time).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_182" href="#FNanchor_182" class="label">[182]</a> Chrysostom, In Psal. xlviii, 8 (Migne, v, 510); Agathias, <i>loc. cit.</i>; -Texier and Pullan, <i>loc. cit.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_183" href="#FNanchor_183" class="label">[183]</a> Niceph. Greg., viii, 5. Merely a tradition in his time; it is commonly -called the column of Theodosius. Grosvenor absurdly places on -it an equestrian statue of Theodosius I, with an epigram which belongs -to another place; <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 386; see <i>infra.</i> Founded on a rock, it has -withstood the commotions of seventeen centuries.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_184" href="#FNanchor_184" class="label">[184]</a> Hist. August., <i>sb.</i> Gallieno. Much more likely than Claudius II; -everything points to its being a local civic memorial. “Pugnatum est -circa Pontum, et a Byzantiis ducibus victi sunt barbari. Veneriano item -duce, navali bello Gothi superati sunt, tum ipse militari periit morte” -(<i>c.</i> 266).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_185" href="#FNanchor_185" class="label">[185]</a> “Fortunae reduci ob devictos Gothos.” The Goths had been in -possession of Byzantium and the adjacent country on both sides of the -water; G. Syncell., i, p. 717, etc.; Zosimus, i, 34, etc. There was a -temple to Gallienus at Byzantium; Codinus, p. 179. He was evidently -popular here.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_186" href="#FNanchor_186" class="label">[186]</a> Jn. Lydus, De Mens., iii, 48.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_187" href="#FNanchor_187" class="label">[187]</a> Codin., p. 74; Glycas, iv, p. 468.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_188" href="#FNanchor_188" class="label">[188]</a> <i>Ibid.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_189" href="#FNanchor_189" class="label">[189]</a> Codin., p. 31; Notitia, Reg. 2.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_190" href="#FNanchor_190" class="label">[190]</a> Zosimus, ii, 31.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_191" href="#FNanchor_191" class="label">[191]</a> Jn. Lydus, De Mens., iv, 86; Codinus, pp. 15, 28.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_192" href="#FNanchor_192" class="label">[192]</a> See the plates in Banduri, <i>op. cit.</i>, ii; repeated in Agincourt on a -small scale, <i>op. cit.</i>, ii, 11; i, 27. Déthier (<i>op. cit.</i>) throws some doubt -on the accuracy of these delineations, the foundation of which the reader -can see for himself in Agincourt without resorting to the athleticism imposed -on himself by Déthier. The Erechtheum shows that the design -could be varied, the Pantheon that the dome was in use long before this -date; see Texier and Pullan, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_193" href="#FNanchor_193" class="label">[193]</a> Leo Gram., p. 126, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_194" href="#FNanchor_194" class="label">[194]</a> Codin., p. 60; Theophanes, i, p. 439.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_195" href="#FNanchor_195" class="label">[195]</a> His architect was named Aetherius; Cedrenus, i, p. 563. Probably -a short but wide colonnade flanked by double ranges of pillars; Anthol. -(Plan.), iv. 23.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_196" href="#FNanchor_196" class="label">[196]</a> Several names are given to these palatines or palace guards, but it -is not always certain which are collective and which special. Procopius -mentions the above; the Scholars were originally Armenians (Anecdot. -24, 26, etc.). Four distinct bodies can be collected from Const. Porph. -De Cer. Aul. Codinus (p. 18) attributes the founding of their quarters -to Constantine; see Cod. Theod., VI, and Cod., XII. All the household -troops were termed Domestics, horse and foot; Notit. Dig.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_197" href="#FNanchor_197" class="label">[197]</a> See Const. Porph., De Cer. Aul., <i>passim</i>, with Reiske’s note on -the Candidati.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_198" href="#FNanchor_198" class="label">[198]</a> Codin., p. 18; Chron. Pasch. (an. 532) calls them porticoes.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_199" href="#FNanchor_199" class="label">[199]</a> See an illustration in Gori, Thesaur. Vet. Diptych.; reduced in -Agincourt, <i>op. cit.</i>, ii, 12, also another in Montfaucon containing a female -figure supposed to be the Empress Placidia Galla; III, i, p. 46 (but -Gori makes it a male figure!). The <i>kiborion</i> (a cup), also called <i>kamelaukion</i> -(literally a sort of head covering), was sometimes fixed, in which -case the columns might be of marble. Silver pillars are mentioned in -Const. Porph., <i>op. cit.</i>, i, 1; cf. Texier and Pullan, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 135, a -cut of an elaborate silver <i>kiborion</i>. From Gori it may be seen that the -design of these state chairs is almost always that of a seat supported at -each of the front corners by a lion’s head and claw, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_200" href="#FNanchor_200" class="label">[200]</a> Built by Constantine; Codin., p. 18.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_201" href="#FNanchor_201" class="label">[201]</a> Another foundation of Constantine, clearly enough from Chron. -Pasch. (an. 328, p. 528), as Labarte remarks (<i>op. cit.</i>, p. 137).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_202" href="#FNanchor_202" class="label">[202]</a> Codin., p. 100; it had been brought from Rome. I prefer this indigenous -explanation to the surmise of Reiske (Const. Porph., <i>op. cit.</i>, -ii, p. 49), that it was here that the victors in the games received their -crowns of laurel (Δάφνη):</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse">Nay, lady, sit; if I but wave this wand,</div> - <div class="verse">Your nerves are all bound up in alabaster,</div> - <div class="verse">And you a statue, or, as Daphne was,</div> - <div class="verse">Root-bound that fled Apollo.</div> - <div class="verse indent20"><span class="smcap">Milton’s</span> Comus.</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_203" href="#FNanchor_203" class="label">[203]</a> Codin., p. 101; the most likely position, as a surmise.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_204" href="#FNanchor_204" class="label">[204]</a> Jn. Malala, xvi; Zonaras, xiv, 3, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_205" href="#FNanchor_205" class="label">[205]</a> Procopius, De Bel. Pers., ii, 21, etc. “Three decurions marshalled -the thirty brilliantly armed Silentiaries who paced backwards and -forwards before the purple veil guarding the slumber of the sovereign”; -Hodgkin, Cassiodorus, p. 88.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_206" href="#FNanchor_206" class="label">[206]</a> Codin., p. 101; see the plans of Labarte and Paspates.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_207" href="#FNanchor_207" class="label">[207]</a> Built by Constantine according to Codinus (p. 19) as emended by -Lambecius. The original palace extended eastward to the district called -Τόποι (<i>ibid.</i>, p. 79), on the shore near the Bucoleon.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_208" href="#FNanchor_208" class="label">[208]</a> The conception of the sanctity of the Emperor’s person, which -originated in the adulation of the proconsuls of the eastern provinces by -the Orientals and in the subservience of the Senate to Augustus, attained -its height under Diocletian (<i>c.</i> 300), who first introduced at Court the -Oriental forms of adoration and prostration (Eutropius, ix, etc.). It was -probably even increased under the Christian emperors, and Theodosius I -was enabled to promulgate a law that merely to doubt the correctness -of the Emperor’s opinion or judgement constituted a sacrilege (Cod., IX, -xxix, 3, etc.).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_209" href="#FNanchor_209" class="label">[209]</a> Cod. Theod., VI, viii; Cod., XII, v.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_210" href="#FNanchor_210" class="label">[210]</a> Theophanes, Cont., iv, 35; cf. Symeon, Mag., p. 681, where the -invention is ascribed to Bp. Leo of Thessalonica under Theophilus. -The stations by which an inroad of the Saracens was reported <i>c. 800</i> -are here given. Its use for signalling at this date cannot be asserted -definitely, but it was a relic of old Byzantium erected as a nautical light-house; -Ammianus, xxii, 8.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_211" href="#FNanchor_211" class="label">[211]</a> Codin., p. 81; the particular area to which this name was applied -seems to have been a polo ground; Theoph., Cont., v, 86, and Reiske’s -note to Const. Porph., ii, p. 362. It was encompassed by flower gardens.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_212" href="#FNanchor_212" class="label">[212]</a> Marrast has given us his notion of these gardens at some length: -“Entre des haies de phyllyrea taillées de façon de figurer des lettres -grecques et orientales, des sentiers dallés de marbre aboutissaient à un -phialée entourée de douze dragons de bronze.... Une eau parfumée -en jaillissait et ruisselait par dessus les branches des palmiers et des -cedres dorés jusqu’à hauteur d’homme. Des paons de la Chine, des -faisans et des ibis, volaient en liberté dans les arbres ou s’abattaient sur -le sol, semé d’un sable d’or apporté d’Asie à grands frais.” La vie -byzantine au VI<sup>e</sup> siècle, Paris, 1881, p. 67.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_213" href="#FNanchor_213" class="label">[213]</a> Labarte gives these walls, towers, etc. Doubtless the palace was -well protected from the first, but did not assume the appearance of an -actual fortress till the tenth century under Nicephorus Phocas; Leo -Diac., iv, 6.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_214" href="#FNanchor_214" class="label">[214]</a> Codin., p. 95 (?); Const. Porph., i, 21, etc. Probably a structure -like the elevated portico at Antioch mentioned by Theodoret, iv, 26.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_215" href="#FNanchor_215" class="label">[215]</a> Luitprand, Antapodosis, i, 6. A legend of a later age, no doubt, -which may be quietly interred with Constantine’s gift to Pope Sylvester. -We hear nothing of it in connection with Arcadius, Theodosius II, etc., -and it is only foreshadowed in 797 by a late writer (Cedrenus, ii, p. 27), -who would assume anything. The epithet became fashionable in the -tenth century. One writer thinks the name arose from a ceremonial gift -of purple robes to the wives of the court dignitaries at the beginning of -each winter by the empress; Theoph., Cont., iii, 44.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_216" href="#FNanchor_216" class="label">[216]</a> Anna Comn., vii, 2.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_217" href="#FNanchor_217" class="label">[217]</a> The archaeological student may refer to the elaborate reconstructions -by Labarte and Paspates of the palace as it existed in the tenth century. -Their conceptions differ considerably, the former writer being generally -in close accord with the literary indications. Paspates is too Procrustean -in his methods, and unduly desirous of identifying every recoverable -fragment of masonry. Their works are based almost entirely on the Book -of Ceremonies of Constantine VII, but even if such a manual existed for -the date under consideration the historical reader would soon tire of an -exposition setting forth the order and decoration of a hundred chambers.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_218" href="#FNanchor_218" class="label">[218]</a> Codin., pp. 16, 130.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_219" href="#FNanchor_219" class="label">[219]</a> This name is understood to refer, not to a female saint, but to the -Holy Wisdom ( Ἅγια Σοφία), the Λόγος, the Word, <i>i.e.</i>, Christ; Procopius, -De Bel. Vand., i, 6, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_220" href="#FNanchor_220" class="label">[220]</a> Lethaby and Swainson give good reasons for supposing that this -early church opened to the east; St. Sophia, etc., Lond., 1894, p. 17. -It was burnt in the time of Chrysostom, but apparently repaired without -alteration of design.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_221" href="#FNanchor_221" class="label">[221]</a> Ambo, plainly from ἀναβαίνω, to ascend, not, as some imagine, -from the double approach; Reiske, Const. Porph., ii, p. 112; Letheby -and S., <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 53.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_222" href="#FNanchor_222" class="label">[222]</a> The gift of Pulcheria, presented as a token of the perpetual virginity -to which she devoted herself and her sisters; Sozomen, ix, 1; Glycas, -iv, p. 495. The Emperor used to sit in the <i>Bema</i>, but St. Ambrose vindicated -its sanctity to the priestly caste by expelling Theodosius I; -Sozomen, vii, 25, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_223" href="#FNanchor_223" class="label">[223]</a> Socrates, vi, 5; Sozomen, viii, 5.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_224" href="#FNanchor_224" class="label">[224]</a> Codin., pp. 16, 64. There is no systematic description of this church, -but the numerous references to it and an examination of ecclesiastical -remains of the period show clearly enough what it was; see Texier and -Fullan, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 134, etc.; Agincourt, <i>op. cit.</i>, i, pl. iv, xvi; Eusebius, -Vit. Const., iv, 46, etc. It may have been founded by Constantine, but -was certainly dedicated by his son Constantius in 360; Socrates, ii, 16.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_225" href="#FNanchor_225" class="label">[225]</a> <i>Ibid.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_226" href="#FNanchor_226" class="label">[226]</a> Procopius, De Aedific., i, 2, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_227" href="#FNanchor_227" class="label">[227]</a> Codin., p. 83; cf. Mordtmann, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 4.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_228" href="#FNanchor_228" class="label">[228]</a> We know little of the Magnaura or Great Hall (<i>magna aula</i>) at this -date, but its existence is certain; Chron. Paschal., an. 532. Codinus -says it was built by Constantine (p. 19).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_229" href="#FNanchor_229" class="label">[229]</a> Theophanes, Cont., v, 92, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_230" href="#FNanchor_230" class="label">[230]</a> Const. Porph., ii, 15. The author professes to draw his precepts -from the ancients, but his “antiquity” sometimes does not extend backwards -for more than half a century.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_231" href="#FNanchor_231" class="label">[231]</a> Codin., pp. 14, 36; Zonaras, xiv, 6, etc. Zeuxippus is either a -cognomen of Zeus or of the sun, or the name of a king of Megara; -Chron. Paschal., an. 197, etc.; Jn. Lydus, De Magist., iii, 70.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_232" href="#FNanchor_232" class="label">[232]</a> Sozomen, iii, 9.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_233" href="#FNanchor_233" class="label">[233]</a> Anthology (Planudes), v.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_234" href="#FNanchor_234" class="label">[234]</a> Cedrenus, i, p. 648; cf. Anthol. (Plan.), v, 61.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_235" href="#FNanchor_235" class="label">[235]</a> The vast baths of the Empire, as is well known, were evolved into -a kind of polytechnic institutes for study and recreation.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_236" href="#FNanchor_236" class="label">[236]</a> Chron. Pasch., an. 450. Artificial lighting was first introduced by -Alex. Severus; Hist. August.; Cod. Theod., XV, i, 52; Cod., XI, i, 1, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_237" href="#FNanchor_237" class="label">[237]</a> Cedrenus, i, p. 648.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_238" href="#FNanchor_238" class="label">[238]</a> Codin., p. 83; cf. Mordtmann, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 66.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_239" href="#FNanchor_239" class="label">[239]</a> Zosimus, iii, 11. It contained 120,000 volumes, the pride of the -library being a copy of Homer inscribed on the intestine of a serpent -120 feet long. The building, however, was gutted by fire in the reign of -Zeno; Zonaras, xiv, 2, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_240" href="#FNanchor_240" class="label">[240]</a> Suidas, <i>sb.</i> Menandro; Agathias, iii, 1; Procop., De Aedific., i, 11.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_241" href="#FNanchor_241" class="label">[241]</a> Zonaras, xiv, 6; Marcellinus, Com., an. 390, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_242" href="#FNanchor_242" class="label">[242]</a> Socrates, vi, 18; Theophanes, an. 398; Sozomen (viii, 20) says -merely an inaugural festival. The pedestal, with a bilingual inscription, -was uncovered of late years, precisely where we should expect it to have -stood, and yet Paspates (Βυζαντινὰ Ανάκτορα, p. 95) in his map removes -it a quarter of a mile southwards to meet his reconstructive views, cf. -Mordtmann, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 64.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_243" href="#FNanchor_243" class="label">[243]</a> Codin., p. 35.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_244" href="#FNanchor_244" class="label">[244]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 19. There is now an Ottoman fountain on the same site. -In the case of doubtful identifications, I usually adopt the conclusions of -Mordtmann (<i>op. cit.</i>, p. 64).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_245" href="#FNanchor_245" class="label">[245]</a> <i>Milliarium Aureum</i> (Notitia, Reg. 4). In imitation of that set up -by Augustus in the Roman Forum; Tacitus, Hist., i, 27, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_246" href="#FNanchor_246" class="label">[246]</a> Cedrenus, i, p. 564; Codin., pp. 28, 35, 168, etc. Byzantios and -Paspates speak of an upper storey supported by seven pillars, on the -strength of some remains unearthed in 1848, but the situation does not -seem to apply to this monument as at present located; see also Grosvenor -(<i>op. cit.</i>, p. 298) for an illustration of the figures.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_247" href="#FNanchor_247" class="label">[247]</a> Codin., p. 40. Removed to Hippodrome, perhaps, at this date. In -any case the scrappy and contradictory records only allow of a tentative -restoration of the Milion. Close by was the death-place of Arius, in respect -of whom, with Sabellius and other heretics, Theodosius I set up a -sculptured tablet devoting the spot to public defilement with excrement, -etc. (<i>ibid.</i>). Such were the manners and fanaticism of the age.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_248" href="#FNanchor_248" class="label">[248]</a> Zosimus, iii, 11.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_249" href="#FNanchor_249" class="label">[249]</a> Gyllius, De Topog. CP., ii, 13.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_250" href="#FNanchor_250" class="label">[250]</a> The method of construction can be seen in the sketch of the ruins -(<i>c. 1350</i>) brought to light by Panvinius (De Ludis Circens., Verona, -1600) and reproduced by Banduri and Montfaucon. As to whether the -intercolumnar spaces were adorned with statues we have no information. -The wealth of such works of art at Constantinople would render it extremely -likely. Cassiodorus says the statues at Rome were as numerous -as the living inhabitants (Var. Ep., xv, 7). We know from existing coins -that the Coliseum was so ornamented (see Maffei, Degl’ Amfitheatri, -Verona, 1728; Panvinius, <i>op. cit.</i>, etc.). High up there appears to have -been a range of balconies all round (Cod. Theod., XV, i, 45).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_251" href="#FNanchor_251" class="label">[251]</a> They were of wood till 498, when they were burnt, but what time -restored in marble is unknown; Chron. Pasch., an. 498; Buondelmonte, -Descript. Urb. CP., 1423.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_252" href="#FNanchor_252" class="label">[252]</a> Codin., p. 14, etc. These substructions still exist; Grosvenor, <i>op. -cit.</i>, p. 303.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_253" href="#FNanchor_253" class="label">[253]</a> Const. Porph., <i>op. cit.</i>, ii, 20; Nicetas Chon., De Man. Com., iii, -5. Eight, or perhaps twelve, open-barred gates separated the Manganon -(more often in the plural, Mangana) from the arena; see the remains in -the engraving of Panvinius.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_254" href="#FNanchor_254" class="label">[254]</a> Const. Porph., i, 68, 92, etc.; Agincourt, <i>op. cit.</i>, ii, pl. 10. The -latter gives copies of bas-reliefs in which the Emperor is shown sitting in -his place in the Circus (see below). Procopius calls it simply the throne; -De Bel. Pers., i, 24; cf. Jn. Malala, p. 320; Chron. Pasch., an. 498. -Originally, it appears, merely the seat or throne, but afterwards the -whole tribunal or edifice.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_255" href="#FNanchor_255" class="label">[255]</a> Const. Porph., i, 9, 92. It was also called the Pi (Π) from its shape; -<i>ibid.</i>, i, 69.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_256" href="#FNanchor_256" class="label">[256]</a> Named the Cochlea or snail-shell; it seems to have been a favourite -gangway for assassinating obnoxious courtiers; Jn. Malala, p. 344; -Chron. Pasch., an. 380; Theophanes, an. 5969; Codin., p. 112, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_257" href="#FNanchor_257" class="label">[257]</a> Const. Porph., i, 68; cf. Procop., De Bel. Pers., i, 24.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_258" href="#FNanchor_258" class="label">[258]</a> Const. Porph., i, 63; Codin., p. 100. The Circus, begun by Severus, -was finished by Constantine; Codin., pp. 14, 19; see Ducange, -<i>sb. nom.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_259" href="#FNanchor_259" class="label">[259]</a> Euripus (Εὔριπος). I. The narrow strait at Chalcis, said to ebb and -flow seven times a day; Strabo, x, 2; Suidas, <i>sb. v.</i> II. Tr. Any artificial -ornamental pool or channel, partic. if oblong; see refs. in Latin -Dicts., esp. Lewis and S. III. A canal round the area of the Roman -Circus, to shield the spectators from the attack of infuriated beasts; devised -apparently by Tarquinius Priscus; Dionysius Hal., iii, 68; rather -by Julius Caesar, and abolished by Nero; Pliny, H. N., viii, 7, etc. -IV. Restored by, or in existence under, Elagabalus as a pool in the -centre; Hist. Aug., 23; so Cassiodorus, Var. Ep., iii, 51; Jn. Malala, -vii, p. 175 (whence Chron. Pasch., Olymp., vii, p. 208; Cedrenus, i, -p. 258); Lyons and Barcelona mosaics (see Daremberg and S. Dict. -Antiq.). V. The name tr. to whole Spine by Byzantines; Jn. Lydus, -De Mens., i, 12, Εὔριπος ὠνομάσθη ἡ μέσον τοῦ ἱπποδρόμου κρηπίς; -Const. Porph., <i>op. cit.</i>, pp. 338, 345; Cedrenus, ii, p. 343, etc. Labarte -seems strangely to have missed all but one of the numerous allusions to -the Euripus; <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 53. This note is necessary, as no one seems to -have caught the later application of the name.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_260" href="#FNanchor_260" class="label">[260]</a> This monument still exists; see Agincourt, <i>loc. cit.</i>, for reproduction -of the sculptures, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_261" href="#FNanchor_261" class="label">[261]</a> Notitia, Col. Civ. This name was not bestowed on it by Gyllius, -as Labarte thinks (p. 50). It remains in position in a dilapidated condition; -see Grosvenor, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 320, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_262" href="#FNanchor_262" class="label">[262]</a> Also in evidence at the present day; see Grosvenor’s photographs -of the three, pp. 320, 380. It is mentioned by Herodotus (ix, 80); and -by Pausanias (x, 13), who says the golden tripod was made away with -before his time. Some of the Byzantines, however, seem to aver that -Constantine had regained possession of that memorial; Eusebius, Vit. -Const., iii, 54; Codin., p. 55; Zosimus, ii, 31, etc. It appears that the -defacement of this monument was carried out methodically during a -nocturnal incantation under Michael III, <i>c. 835</i>. At the dead of night -“three strong men,” each armed with a sledge-hammer, stood over it -(Ἐν τοῖς εἰς τὸν εὔριπον (see <a href="#Page_62">p. 62</a>) τοῦ ἱπποδρομίου χαλκοῖς ἀνδριᾶσιν -ἐλέγετό τις εἶναι ἀνδριὰς τρισὶ διαμορφούμενος κεφαλαῖς) prepared to knock -off the respective heads on the signal being given by an unfrocked abbot. -The hammers fell, two of the heads rolled to the ground, but the third -was only partly severed, the lower jaw, of course, remaining; Theoph., -Cont., p. 650; Cedrenus, ii, p. 145. On the capture of the city in 1453 -the fragment left was demolished by Mahomet II with a stroke of his -battle-axe to prove the strength of his arm on what was reputed to be a -talisman of the Greeks; Thévenot, Voyage au Levant, etc., 1664, i, 17, -“la maschoire d’embas.” So history, as it seems, has given itself the -trouble to account for the mutilation of this antique. I must note, however, -that neither Buondelmonte, Gyllius, Busbecq, Thévenot, nor Spon, -has described the damages it had sustained at the time they are supposed -to have contemplated the relic. See also Grosvenor, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 381, -whose account is scarcely intelligible and is not based on references to -any authorities.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_263" href="#FNanchor_263" class="label">[263]</a> Nicetas Chon., De Signis CP. This figure appears to be delineated -in the plate of Panvinius, which, however, is not very reliable, as both -the Colossus and the Serpent-pillar are absent from it.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_264" href="#FNanchor_264" class="label">[264]</a> Codin., p. 124. Probably, and supplanted at a later date by one of -Irene Attica. This is the literal Euripus.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_265" href="#FNanchor_265" class="label">[265]</a> Theophanes, an. 699. That the Empress sat in this lodge to view -the races (Buondelmonte) is beyond all credence, nor is there any authority -for placing it to one side among the public seats (Grosvenor’s -diagram), where her presence would be equally absurd. Her bust may -have appeared in it beside that of her husband. It is clearly indicated in -its true place on the engineering sculptures of the Theodosian column -(see above).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_266" href="#FNanchor_266" class="label">[266]</a> Nicetas Chon., De Alexio, iii, 4; De Signis; Codin., p. 39. First -at Tarentum; Plutarch, in Fabius Max., etc. To the knee it measured -the height of an ordinary man.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_267" href="#FNanchor_267" class="label">[267]</a> Nicetas Chon., De Signis; also celebrated by Christodorus, Anthology, -<i>loc. cit.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_268" href="#FNanchor_268" class="label">[268]</a> The eggs in honour of Castor and Pollux; Tertullian, De Spectaculis, -8:</p> - -<p> -Κάστορά θ’ ἱππόδαμον καὶ πὺξ ἀγαθὸν Πολυδεύκεα.<br /> -<br /> -Iliad, iii.<br /> -</p> - -<p>The dolphins probably referred to Neptune, to whom the horse was -sacred.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_269" href="#FNanchor_269" class="label">[269]</a> See Lyons and Barcelona mosaics as referred to above.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_270" href="#FNanchor_270" class="label">[270]</a> See the coins, etc., in Panvinius, which show that these cones with -their stands were about fifteen to twenty feet high. Sometimes they -rested on the ends of the Spina, at others on separate foundations three -or four feet off it.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_271" href="#FNanchor_271" class="label">[271]</a> Nicetas Chon., De Man. Comn., iii, 5; Codin., pp. 53, 192. They -were brought to Venice by the Crusaders in 1204, and now stand before -the cathedral of St. Mark; Buondelmonte, <i>loc. cit.</i> A much longer -pedigree is given by some accounts (Byzantios, <i>op. cit.</i>, i, p. 234), from -Corinth to Rome by Mummius, and thence to CP. by Constantine. -They even had a journey to Paris under Napoleon.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_272" href="#FNanchor_272" class="label">[272]</a> Grosvenor, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 351. Some remains of it are still visible.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_273" href="#FNanchor_273" class="label">[273]</a> Codin., p. 54.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_274" href="#FNanchor_274" class="label">[274]</a> Nicetas Chon., <i>loc. cit.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_275" href="#FNanchor_275" class="label">[275]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, Codin., p. 54.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_276" href="#FNanchor_276" class="label">[276]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 31.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_277" href="#FNanchor_277" class="label">[277]</a> Nicetas Chon., De Signis: Καλοῦμαι Νίκων καὶ ὁ ὅνος Νίκανδρος, -κ.τ.λ. Cf. Plutarch, Antony.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_278" href="#FNanchor_278" class="label">[278]</a> <i>Ibid.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_279" href="#FNanchor_279" class="label">[279]</a> <i>Ibid.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_280" href="#FNanchor_280" class="label">[280]</a> Codin., p. 53.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_281" href="#FNanchor_281" class="label">[281]</a> Jerome, Chronicon, an. 325. CP. “dedicatur pene omnium urbium -nuditate.” This Saint, however, is somewhat given to hyperbole.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_282" href="#FNanchor_282" class="label">[282]</a> See the various illustrations in Panvinius.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_283" href="#FNanchor_283" class="label">[283]</a> We hear nothing of <i>vomitoria</i>, approaches beneath the seats to the -various positions, nor do we know how the large space under the incline -of benches was occupied. At Rome, in the Circus Maximus, there were -“dark archways” in this situation, which were let out to brothel-keepers; -Hist. August. <i>sb.</i> Heliogabalo, 26, etc. In the time of Valens, -however, a record office was established here; Jn. Lydus, De Magistr., -iii, 19.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_284" href="#FNanchor_284" class="label">[284]</a> Procopius, De Bel. Pers., i, 24.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_285" href="#FNanchor_285" class="label">[285]</a> Ducange, <i>op. cit.</i>, i, p. 104; a collection of instances.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_286" href="#FNanchor_286" class="label">[286]</a> Const. Porph., <i>loc. cit.</i> At Rome such awnings were decorated to -resemble the sky with stars, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_287" href="#FNanchor_287" class="label">[287]</a> Codin., pp. 20, 22; part previously by Severus; Zosimus, ii, 30.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_288" href="#FNanchor_288" class="label">[288]</a> Codin., p. 39.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_289" href="#FNanchor_289" class="label">[289]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 37.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_290" href="#FNanchor_290" class="label">[290]</a> Cedrenus, p. 564.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_291" href="#FNanchor_291" class="label">[291]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 616; Zonaras, xiv, 2.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_292" href="#FNanchor_292" class="label">[292]</a> Resembling, if not the prototype of, the Venus dei Medici; see -Lucian, Amores.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_293" href="#FNanchor_293" class="label">[293]</a> See Pausanias, v, 12.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_294" href="#FNanchor_294" class="label">[294]</a> Cedrenus, <i>loc. cit.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_295" href="#FNanchor_295" class="label">[295]</a> Theophanes, an. 6024.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_296" href="#FNanchor_296" class="label">[296]</a> Zosimus, ii, 30; Codin., p. 41. Said to have been designed to the -size and shape of Constantine’s tent, which was pitched here when he -took Byzantium from Licinius.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_297" href="#FNanchor_297" class="label">[297]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>; Jn. Malala, p. 320; Zonaras, xiii, 3, etc. Really a statue of -Apollo taken from Heliopolis in Phrygia and refurbished.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_298" href="#FNanchor_298" class="label">[298]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>; Cedrenus, i, p. 565. The blending of Paganism and Christianity -is an interesting phase in the evolution of Constantine’s theology. The -crosses of the two thieves were also reputed to have been stowed here -till removed to a safer place by Theodosius I; also a part of the true -cross; Socrates, i, 17; Codin., p. 30. Curiously enough, this Forum has -been confounded with the Augusteum both by Labarte and Paspates, a -mistake almost incredible in the latter, a resident, considering that the -pillar of Constantine still exists in a scarred and mutilated condition; -hence known as the “Burnt Pillar,” and called by the Turks “Djemberli -Tash,” or Hooped Stone; see Grosvenor, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 374, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_299" href="#FNanchor_299" class="label">[299]</a> Jn. Malala, <i>loc. cit.</i>; Codin., pp. 44, 180.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_300" href="#FNanchor_300" class="label">[300]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, pp. 28, 68; Cedrenus, ii, p. 564.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_301" href="#FNanchor_301" class="label">[301]</a> Notitia, Reg. 6; Cedrenus, i, p. 565. It had been burnt down -previous to this date, but seems to have been restored.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_302" href="#FNanchor_302" class="label">[302]</a> Codin., p. 48.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_303" href="#FNanchor_303" class="label">[303]</a> Notitia, Reg. 5; Gyllius, De Top. CP., iii, 1.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_304" href="#FNanchor_304" class="label">[304]</a> Socrates, i, 16.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_305" href="#FNanchor_305" class="label">[305]</a> Codin., p. 48.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_306" href="#FNanchor_306" class="label">[306]</a> Jn. Malala, p. 292.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_307" href="#FNanchor_307" class="label">[307]</a> Codin., p. 76.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_308" href="#FNanchor_308" class="label">[308]</a> Codin., pp. 41, 170. It fell into decay and was, perhaps, removed -before this date; cf. Mordtmann, p. 69; one of the Gorgons was dug up -in 1870.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_309" href="#FNanchor_309" class="label">[309]</a> Codin., p. 40.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_310" href="#FNanchor_310" class="label">[310]</a> See Mordtmann, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 69, and Map.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_311" href="#FNanchor_311" class="label">[311]</a> Evidenced by the discovery of a swarm of leaden <i>bullae</i>, or seals for -official documents, about 1877; <i>ibid.</i>, p. 70. But in the sixth century the -legal records from the time of Valens were kept in the basement of the -Hippodrome; Jn. Lydus, De Magistr., iii, 19.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_312" href="#FNanchor_312" class="label">[312]</a> Cod. Theod., XIV, ix, 3, with Godfrey’s commentary. The Turkish -Seraskierat has taken the place of Taurus.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_313" href="#FNanchor_313" class="label">[313]</a> Cedrenus, i, p. 566; Codin., p. 42, etc. The chronographists think -it particularly necessary to mention that this pillar was pervious by means -of a winding stair. In a later age, when the inscriptions on the base became -illegible, they were supposed to be prophecies of the future conquest -of Constantinople by the Russians.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_314" href="#FNanchor_314" class="label">[314]</a> Marcell., Com., an. 480, 506; Zonaras, xiv, 4.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_315" href="#FNanchor_315" class="label">[315]</a> Déthier, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 14; he discovered a few letters of the epigram -(Anthology, Plan., iv, 4) on a fragment of an arch; cf. Cedrenus, i, -p. 566.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_316" href="#FNanchor_316" class="label">[316]</a> The favourite Byzantine appellation for Joshua the son of Nun.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_317" href="#FNanchor_317" class="label">[317]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>; Nicetas Chon., De Signis, 4.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_318" href="#FNanchor_318" class="label">[318]</a> Codin., p. 42.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_319" href="#FNanchor_319" class="label">[319]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 124.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_320" href="#FNanchor_320" class="label">[320]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, pp. 42, 74; see Anthology (Plan.), iv, 22, for two epigrams -which give some idea of the scope of these <i>Xenodochia</i>.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_321" href="#FNanchor_321" class="label">[321]</a> Notitia, Reg. 10.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_322" href="#FNanchor_322" class="label">[322]</a> Cedrenus, i, p. 610; Zonaras, xiv, 1; sufficiently corroborated by -Cod., VIII, xii, 21, and not a mere assumption arising out of the similarity -of νυμφαῖον to νύμφη, a bride, as argued by some commentators. -Fountains were sacred to the Nymphs; see Ducange, CP. Christ, <i>sb. voc.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_323" href="#FNanchor_323" class="label">[323]</a> See the title <i>De Aqueductu</i> in both Codes and Godfrey’s commentary.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_324" href="#FNanchor_324" class="label">[324]</a> This aqueduct seems to have been built originally by Hadrian, restored -by Valens, who used for the purpose the walls of Chalcedon as a -punishment for that town having taken the part of the usurper Procopius, -and again restored by Theodosius I. Hence it is denoted by the -names of each of these emperors at different times; Socrates, iv, 8; -Zonaras, xiii, 16; and the Codes, <i>loc. cit.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_325" href="#FNanchor_325" class="label">[325]</a> Chrysoloras, <i>loc. cit.</i>, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_326" href="#FNanchor_326" class="label">[326]</a> Codin., p. 14.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_327" href="#FNanchor_327" class="label">[327]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 21; Byzantios, <i>op. cit.</i>, i, p. 262. Still existing in a dry -state, and occupied by silk weavers. Most probably the name arises -from its having been founded by a patrician Philoxenus; the Turks call -it <i>Bin ber derek</i>, meaning 1,001 columns; see Grosvenor, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 366.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_328" href="#FNanchor_328" class="label">[328]</a> Cod., XI, xlii, 7: “It would be execrable,” remarks Theodosius II, -“if the houses of this benign city had to pay for their water.” By a -constitution of Zeno every new patrician was to pay 100 lb. of gold towards -the maintenance of the aqueducts; Cod., XLI, iii, 3.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_329" href="#FNanchor_329" class="label">[329]</a> Codin., p. 9.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_330" href="#FNanchor_330" class="label">[330]</a> Forty of these at Rome; Notitia (Romae), Col. Civ.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_331" href="#FNanchor_331" class="label">[331]</a> Codin., p. 50; cf. Cedrenus, ii, p. 107. “Hypnotic suggestion” -might account for some displays of this kind, and create a popular belief -in the test, which in most instances, however, would be more likely to -prove a convenient method of varnishing a sullied reputation. Near the -Neorium was a shelter called the Cornuted Porch, in which St. Andrew, -the apostle assigned by tradition to these regions, was supposed to have -taught. It took its name from a four-horned statue in the vicinity, which -had the credit of evincing its disapproval of an incontinent wife by turning -three times round on its pedestal if such a one were brought into -its presence; Codin., p. 119.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_332" href="#FNanchor_332" class="label">[332]</a> Cedrenus (i, p. 565) attributes it to Theodosius I, Codinus (p. 108) -to Leo Isaurus; Nicetas Chon. (De Signis) laments its destruction without -mentioning the founder.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_333" href="#FNanchor_333" class="label">[333]</a> Legendary apparently. They really met in Pannonia; Julian, Orat.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_334" href="#FNanchor_334" class="label">[334]</a> Codin., pp. 43, 44, 182, 188. The Philadelphium was considered to -be the μεσόμφαλος or middle of the city. The numerous crosses set up -by Constantine are supposed to refer to the cross which he is said to -have seen in the sky near Rome before his victory over Maxentius—a -fiction, or an afterthought, but whose?</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_335" href="#FNanchor_335" class="label">[335]</a> Codin., pp. 45, 65.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_336" href="#FNanchor_336" class="label">[336]</a> Cedrenus, i, p. 566.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_337" href="#FNanchor_337" class="label">[337]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>; Anna Comn., xii, 6.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_338" href="#FNanchor_338" class="label">[338]</a> Codin., p. 45. Unless the course of the brook has altered, the -Amastrianum should be more to the south or west than shown on -Mordtmann’s map.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_339" href="#FNanchor_339" class="label">[339]</a> Codin., pp. 45, 172; forming some kind of boundary or inclosure -perhaps.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_340" href="#FNanchor_340" class="label">[340]</a> Cedrenus, i, p. 566.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_341" href="#FNanchor_341" class="label">[341]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>; Codin., pp. 44, 173.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_342" href="#FNanchor_342" class="label">[342]</a> Theophanes, an. 5895, etc.; cf. Chron. Paschal., an. 421.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_343" href="#FNanchor_343" class="label">[343]</a> Cedrenus, i, p. 567.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_344" href="#FNanchor_344" class="label">[344]</a> Zonaras, xiii, 20; the base still remains in <i>Avret Bazaar</i>; the pillar -was still intact in the time of Gyllius, who ascended it; <i>op. cit.</i>, iv, 7. -The sketches supposed to have been taken of the figures on the spiral -and published by Banduri and Agincourt have already been alluded to; -see <a href="#Page_49">p. 49</a>.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_345" href="#FNanchor_345" class="label">[345]</a> Notitia, Reg. 12, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_346" href="#FNanchor_346" class="label">[346]</a> Buondelmonte’s map; a “very handsome gate”; Codin., p. 122. -I have noted Van Millingen’s opinion that this was not the original -“Golden Gate”; see <a href="#Page_34">p. 34</a>. But its mention in Notitia, Reg. 12, seems -fatal to his view.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_347" href="#FNanchor_347" class="label">[347]</a> Codin., p. 46.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_348" href="#FNanchor_348" class="label">[348]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, pp. 102, 121; see Paspates for an illustration of the structure -still on this site; Βυζαντιναὶ Μελεταί, p. 343.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_349" href="#FNanchor_349" class="label">[349]</a> Codin., p. 72; the Arians, chiefly Goths, were hence called Exokionites; -Jn. Malala, p. 325; Chron. Pasch., an. 485.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_350" href="#FNanchor_350" class="label">[350]</a> Codinus, p. 47.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_351" href="#FNanchor_351" class="label">[351]</a> <i>Ibid.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_352" href="#FNanchor_352" class="label">[352]</a> Gregory Nazianz., De Somn. Anast., ix.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_353" href="#FNanchor_353" class="label">[353]</a> Eusebius, Vit. Constant., iv, 58, <i>et seq.</i>; a later hand has evidently -embellished this description.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_354" href="#FNanchor_354" class="label">[354]</a> Const. Porph., De Cer. Aul. Byz., ii, 43; Codin., p. 203.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_355" href="#FNanchor_355" class="label">[355]</a> Corp. Inscript. Lat., Berlin, 1873, no. 738; still existing and called -by the Turks the “Girls’ Pillar,” from two angels bearing up a shield -figured on the pedestal; see Grosvenor, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 385; there is an engraving -of it in Miss Pardoe’s “Bosphorus,” etc. The “girls” are -utilized by Texier and P. in their frontispiece.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_356" href="#FNanchor_356" class="label">[356]</a> Notitia, Reg. 13; Procopius, De Bel. Pers., ii, 23, etc. Perhaps not -walled till later; Jn. Malala, xiii, p. 430.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_357" href="#FNanchor_357" class="label">[357]</a> Suetonius, in Augusto, 30.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_358" href="#FNanchor_358" class="label">[358]</a> Notitia, Reg. 1, with Pancirolus’s notes; Pand., I, xv; cf. Gallus by -Becker-Göll, Sc. i, note 1.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_359" href="#FNanchor_359" class="label">[359]</a> Ammianus, xiv, 1, with note by Valesius.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_360" href="#FNanchor_360" class="label">[360]</a> Cod. Theod., XIV, xvii; Suidas <i>sb.</i> Παλατῖνοι; we do not know the -exact form of these <i>Gradus</i>, but only that they were high, the design -being doubtless such as would prevent a crush. This state-feeding of the -people was begun at Rome by Julius Caesar, and of course imitated by -Constantine; Socrates, ii, 13, etc. The tickets were checked by a brass -plate for each person fixed at the Step; Cod. Theod., XIV, xvii, 5.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_361" href="#FNanchor_361" class="label">[361]</a> Cod. Theod., IV, v, 7; always with Godfrey’s commentary; Eunapius, -Vit. Aedesii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_362" href="#FNanchor_362" class="label">[362]</a> Notitia, Urb. CP., <i>passim</i>.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_363" href="#FNanchor_363" class="label">[363]</a> See Cod., I, iii, 32, 35, 42, 46, etc. Cf. Schlumberger’s work on the -Byzantine <i>bullae</i>.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_364" href="#FNanchor_364" class="label">[364]</a> Cod. Theod., XIII, iii, 8; Cod., X, lii, 9.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_365" href="#FNanchor_365" class="label">[365]</a> Codin., p. 22; cf. Pandect., XLIII, xxiii, 1. It appears probable -that neither middens nor cesspools existed within the walls.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_366" href="#FNanchor_366" class="label">[366]</a> See Minucius, Octavius, 10.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_367" href="#FNanchor_367" class="label">[367]</a> Paspates, Βυζαντιναὶ Μελεταί, p. 381, etc. There were, perhaps, -over one hundred churches and monasteries in Constantinople at this -time, but the Notitia, a century earlier, reckons only fourteen churches; -see Ducange’s list.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_368" href="#FNanchor_368" class="label">[368]</a> Western scholars since the Renaissance have fallen into the habit of -applying the diminutive <i>Graeculi</i> to the Byzantines, thereby distinguishing -them from the <i>Graeci</i>, their pre-eminent ancestors, who established -the fame of the Dorians and Ionians. The Romans, after their conquest of -the country, began to apply it to all Greeks. Cicero, De Orat., i, 22, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_369" href="#FNanchor_369" class="label">[369]</a> Suidas, <i>sb. nom.</i>; Tertullian, Apologia, 39; Athenaeus, xiii, 25. -There was, however, a minor school of philosophy at Megara.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_370" href="#FNanchor_370" class="label">[370]</a> Aristotle, Politica, iv, 4. As late as the sixteenth century the -housewives residing next the water habitually took the fish by simple -devices, which are described by Gyllius; De Top. CP. Praef.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_371" href="#FNanchor_371" class="label">[371]</a> See the statements by Theopompus, Phylarchus, etc., in Müller, -Fragm. Hist. Graec., i, pp. 287, 336; ii, p. 154; iv, p. 377. Having -obtained an ascendancy over the frugal and industrious Chalcedonians -they are said to have corrupted them by their vices; cf. Müller’s Dorians, -ii, pp. 177, 418, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_372" href="#FNanchor_372" class="label">[372]</a> Sextus Empir., Adversus Rhetor., 39. A demagogue, being asked -what laws were in force, replied, “Anything I like”—a frivolous or a -pregnant answer?</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_373" href="#FNanchor_373" class="label">[373]</a> Aristotle in the doubtful Economica (ii, 4) describes some of their -makeshifts to maintain the exchequer. According to Cicero (De Prov. -Consular.) the city was full of art treasures, an evidence, perhaps, of -wasteful extravagance.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_374" href="#FNanchor_374" class="label">[374]</a> See p. <a href="#Page_17">17</a>. His daily grant of 80,000 measures of wheat, together -with the other allowances, to those who were served at the Steps, would -seem to indicate as many families, but there is no doubt that the distribution -was at first indiscriminate, and many were supplied who could -afford to keep up considerable establishments. Constantius reduced the -amount by one half; Socrates, ii, 13; Sozomen, iii, 7. Heraclius -abolished the free doles altogether; Chron. Paschal., an. 618.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_375" href="#FNanchor_375" class="label">[375]</a> “Matronae nostrae, ne adulteris quidem plus sui in cubiculo, quam -in publico ostendant”; see Seneca, De Beneficiis, vii, 9; cf. Horace, -Sat., I, ii, 102:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent4">Cois tibi paene videre est</div> - <div class="verse">Ut nudam, etc.</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - - - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_376" href="#FNanchor_376" class="label">[376]</a> By a law of Honorius the Romans were forbidden to wear long hair -(in 416), or garments of fur (in 397), such being characteristic of the -Goths who were then devastating Italy; Cod. Theod., XIV, x, 4, 3, 2.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_377" href="#FNanchor_377" class="label">[377]</a> See the lowest bas-reliefs on the Theodosian obelisk (Banduri, ii, -p. 499; Agincourt, ii, pi. x); Cod. Theod., XIV, x, 1; Hefner-Altenek, -Trachten des Mittelalters, pl. 91, 92.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_378" href="#FNanchor_378" class="label">[378]</a> Chrysostom, the pulpit declaimer against the abuses of his time, was -so enraged at seeing the young men delicately picking their steps for -fear of spoiling their fine shoes that he exclaims: “If you cannot bear -to use them for their proper purpose, why not hang them about your neck -or stick them on your head!”; In Matt. Hom. xlix, 4 (in Migne, vii, -501).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_379" href="#FNanchor_379" class="label">[379]</a> “You bore the lobes of your ears,” says Chrysostom, “and fasten -in them enough gold to feed ten thousand poor persons”; In Matt. Hom. -lxxxix, 4 (in Migne, vii, 786); cf. Sozomen, viii, 23.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_380" href="#FNanchor_380" class="label">[380]</a> Chrysostom, In Ps. xlviii, 3 (in Migne, v, 515); Sozomen, <i>loc. cit.</i>, -etc. Women’s girdles were worn under the breasts.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_381" href="#FNanchor_381" class="label">[381]</a> See Bingham’s Christian Antiquities, vii, 1, and Racinet, Costume -historique, iii, pl. 21. Read Lucian’s Cynicus for a defence of a somewhat -similar life on a different plane.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_382" href="#FNanchor_382" class="label">[382]</a> Chrysostom, In Epist. Tim. II, viii, 2 (in Migne, xi, 541). Even -these he rates for coquetry; cf. Bingham, <i>op. cit.</i>, vii, 4, etc. See also -Viollet-le-Duc (Dict. du mobil. fr., i, pl. 1) for a coloured figure which, -though of the thirteenth century, corresponds very closely with Chrysostom’s -description. Formal costume, however, of the present day, -political, legal, ecclesiastical, is for the most part merely a survival of -the ordinary dress of past ages.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_383" href="#FNanchor_383" class="label">[383]</a> Basil Presbyt. ad Gregor. Naz., Steliteut. Const. Porph., <i>op. cit.</i>, -ii, 52, p. 753, with Reiske’s notes, p. 460.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_384" href="#FNanchor_384" class="label">[384]</a> Cod. Theod., XV, vii, 11, 12; Cod., I, iv, 4(5); actresses (<i>mimae</i> = <i>meretrices</i>, -no doubt) are forbidden to use this and other styles of dress -which might bring women of repute into ridicule.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_385" href="#FNanchor_385" class="label">[385]</a> Cod. Theod., XIV, xii; Chrysostom, De Perf. Carit., 6 (in Migne, -vi, 286).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_386" href="#FNanchor_386" class="label">[386]</a> Chrysostom, <i>loc. cit.</i> (in Migne, v, 515).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_387" href="#FNanchor_387" class="label">[387]</a> A <i>quadriga</i>.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_388" href="#FNanchor_388" class="label">[388]</a> Chrysostom, In Epist. ad Cor. Hom. xi, 5 (in Migne, x, 353). -“Do not be afraid,” says the Saint, “you are not among wild beasts; -no one will bite you. You do not mind the contact of your horse, but a -man must be driven a thousand miles away from you.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_389" href="#FNanchor_389" class="label">[389]</a> Cod. Theod., XV, xiii, and Godefroy <i>ad loc.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_390" href="#FNanchor_390" class="label">[390]</a> Chrysostom, In Epist. I ad Thess., v, Hom. xi, 2 (in Migne, xi, 465).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_391" href="#FNanchor_391" class="label">[391]</a> The laws and restrictions relating to the use of purple and the collection -of the <i>murex</i>, which was allowed only to certain families or -guilds, are contained in Cod. Theod., X, xx, xxi; Cod., XI, viii, ix. -Julius Caesar first assumed a full purple toga (Cicero, Philip, ii, 34, probably -from); Nero first made a sweeping enactment against the use of -the colour (Suetonius, in Nero, 32; cf. Julius, 43). Women, however, -were generally permitted some latitude and not obliged to banish it altogether -from their dress.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_392" href="#FNanchor_392" class="label">[392]</a> The globe as a symbol of the universal sway of Rome came into use -at or about the end of the Republic. It was not merely ideographic, but -was sometimes exhibited in bulk, and hollow globes have been found -with three chambers in which are contained samples of earth from the -three continents; see Sabatier, Mon. Byzant., Paris, 1862, p. 33. The -cross came in under the Christian emperors, and is said to be first seen -on a small coin of Jovian (363); <i>ibid.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_393" href="#FNanchor_393" class="label">[393]</a> Cod., XII, iii, 5; Inst. i, 12. “Imperatoris autem celsitudinem -non valere eum quem sibi patrem elegerit,” etc. This new order of -patricians seems to have been instituted by Constantine, their title -being coined directly from <i>pater</i>; Zosimus, ii, 40; cf. Cedrenus, i, -p. 573. They were not lineally connected with the patrician caste of -ancient Rome (see Reiske, <i>ad</i> Const. Porph., <i>sb. voc.</i>), but were turned -out of the Imperial workshop as peers are created by an English -premier; see Leo Gram., p. 301.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_394" href="#FNanchor_394" class="label">[394]</a> These crowns have given rise to much discussion, for a clue to which -see Ludewig, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 658. Probably most emperors designed a new -crown.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_395" href="#FNanchor_395" class="label">[395]</a> Some of the large coloured stones worn by the ancients were not -very valuable according to modern ideas, <i>i.e.</i>, cairngorms, topazes, -agates, etc.; see Pliny, H. N., xxxvii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_396" href="#FNanchor_396" class="label">[396]</a> Ἡ πατρικία ζωστὴ: Codin., pp. 108, 125; cf. Reiske, <i>op. cit.</i>, <i>sb. voc.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_397" href="#FNanchor_397" class="label">[397]</a> It would be tedious, if not impossible, to put into words the -details of these costumes. They are represented in the great mosaics of -S. Vitale at Ravenna, dating from the sixth century. They have been -beautifully restored in colour by Heffner-Altenek, <i>op. cit.</i>—too well -perhaps. There are also full-sized paper casts at South Kensington. -There are many engravings of the same, but in all of them the details -have been partly omitted, partly misrepresented. The device on the -tables of the Emperor’s robe consists of green ducks (!) in red circles; that -on the Empress’s skirt of <i>magi</i> in short tunics and Phrygian caps, -bearing presents. The men’s shoes, or rather slippers, are fitted with -toe and heel pieces only, and are held on by latchets. The ladies’ shoes -are red, and have nearly the modern shape, but are not laced at the -division. Their gowns and shawls are of all colours, and much resemble -diagonal printed calico, but in such cases it is the richness of the fabric -which tells. The materials for illustrating the costume of this period -are very scanty; we have neither the countless sculptures, wall-paintings, -fictile vases, etc., of earlier times, nor the wealth of illuminated -MSS., which teach so much objectively respecting the later Middle -Ages.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_398" href="#FNanchor_398" class="label">[398]</a> The <i>Curopalates</i> at this date probably, a place not beneath the first -prince of the blood.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_399" href="#FNanchor_399" class="label">[399]</a> The Byzantine logothetes are first mentioned by Procopius, De Bel. -Goth., iii, 1, etc. At this date they were the Imperial accountants.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_400" href="#FNanchor_400" class="label">[400]</a> Procopius, Anecd. 30. Hence it appears that the abject prostration -introduced by Diocletian was abandoned by his successors; see <a href="#Page_52">p. 52</a>.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_401" href="#FNanchor_401" class="label">[401]</a> Magister Scriniorum; Notitia, Or., xvii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_402" href="#FNanchor_402" class="label">[402]</a> Cod., I, xxiii, 6; a law of Leo Macella in 470.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_403" href="#FNanchor_403" class="label">[403]</a> Cryptograms to modern readers if we are to follow the perplexities -of Pancirolus and Böcking, who, misled by the nonsense of Cedrenus as -to CONOB (i, p. 563), cannot realize the obvious as it lies before their -eyes. Godefroy expanded the legends to their full complement with no -difficulty; that of the Spectabiles is FeLiciter INTer ALLectos COMites -ORDinis PRimi; Cod. Theod., VI, xiii; cf. Böcking’s Notitia, F. ii, -pp. 283, 515, 528.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_404" href="#FNanchor_404" class="label">[404]</a> As the illustrations of the Notitia are not accompanied by any explanation, -considerable uncertainty prevails in respect of their point and -intention; it appears almost incontestable, however, that the coloured -figures were depicted in the codicils as they are seen in the MSS. of the -work; otherwise only verbal descriptions of the insignia would be given; -cf. Novel xxv, <i>et seq.</i>; Const. Porph., ii, 52.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_405" href="#FNanchor_405" class="label">[405]</a> Cod. Theod., VI, xxii; a title omitted from the Code.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_406" href="#FNanchor_406" class="label">[406]</a> <i>Principes Officii</i> and <i>Cornicularii</i>; Notitia, <i>passim</i>; Cod., XII, -liii, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_407" href="#FNanchor_407" class="label">[407]</a> Const. Porph., ii, 1, 2; cf. Valesius ad Ammianum, xxii, 7. These -early visitations were habitual in the Roman republic, as when the whole -Senate waited on the newly-elected consuls on the Calends of January; -Dion Cass., lviii, 5, etc.; and especially in the regular matutinal calls -of clients on their patrons <i>re</i> the <i>sportula</i>; cf. Sidonius Ap. Epist., i, 2. -His description of the routine of a court <i>c. 450</i> corresponds closely with -the above. It must have been copied from Rome.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_408" href="#FNanchor_408" class="label">[408]</a> Chrysostom, De Perf. Carit., 6 (in Migne, vi, 286); Theophanes, -an. 6094, 6291, etc.; cf. Suetonius, in Nero, 25, etc.; Ducange, <i>sb. eq. alb.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_409" href="#FNanchor_409" class="label">[409]</a> These state carriages, open and closed, painted in gaudy colours, -with gilded pilasters, mouldings, and various figures in relief, resembled -certain vehicles used in the last century and some circus cars of the -present day; see Banduri, ii, pl. 4, <i>sup. cit.</i>; the work of Panvinius on -Triumphs, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_410" href="#FNanchor_410" class="label">[410]</a> Const. Porph., i, 1, and Append., p. 498, with Reiske’s Notes; -Dion Cass., lxiii, 4; lxxiv, 1, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_411" href="#FNanchor_411" class="label">[411]</a> Theophanes, an. 6019, 6050, etc.; Menologium Graec., i, p. 67; -Cedrenus, i, p. 599; ii, p. 536.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_412" href="#FNanchor_412" class="label">[412]</a> Theophanes, an. 6030, 6042, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_413" href="#FNanchor_413" class="label">[413]</a> See Reiske <i>ad</i> Const. Porph., p. 434, <i>et seq.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_414" href="#FNanchor_414" class="label">[414]</a> See Zosimus, ii, 39; Alemannus ad Procop., iii, p. 390; Ducange, -<i>sb. voc.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_415" href="#FNanchor_415" class="label">[415]</a> See Godfrey’s Notitia Dignitatum, <i>ad calc.</i> Cod. Theod.; Selden’s -Titles of Honour, p. 886; the epilogues to the Novels, etc. Minor -dignities, entitled <i>Perfectissimi</i>, <i>Egregii</i>, are also mentioned, but are -obsolete at this date; <i>Superillustres</i> were not unknown; see Ducange, -<i>sb. voc.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_416" href="#FNanchor_416" class="label">[416]</a> Const. Porph., i, 68; see Labarte, <i>op. cit.</i>, pp. 16, 140, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_417" href="#FNanchor_417" class="label">[417]</a> Const. Porph., i, 92, with Reiske’s Notes.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_418" href="#FNanchor_418" class="label">[418]</a> Const. Porph., i, 68, <i>et seq.</i> This open-air hymn-singing was an -early feature in Byzantine life; Socrates, vii, 23; Jn. Lydus, De Magistr., -iii, 76. Later, at least, each Deme used an organ as well; Const. -Porph., <i>loc. cit.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_419" href="#FNanchor_419" class="label">[419]</a> Procopius, De Bel. Pers., i, 25.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_420" href="#FNanchor_420" class="label">[420]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, 24.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_421" href="#FNanchor_421" class="label">[421]</a> Doubtless according to Cod. Theod., XIV, ii; Cod., XI, xiv-xvii. -These Corporations had certain privileges and immunities, such as exemption -from military conscription, but they were bound to defend the -walls on occasion; Novel, Theod. (Valent. I), xl. Naturally, therefore, -after the earthquake of 447 they were sent by Theod. II to rebuild the -walls (see <a href="#Page_22">p. 22</a>), and also in other emergencies they were sent to guard -the Long Walls; Theophanes, an. 6051, 6076. Of course, in view of -such appointed work, they had some military training. Building of forts -was a regular part of a soldier’s duties; Cod. Theod., XV, i, 13, and -Godfrey, <i>ad loc.</i> The Demes were probably a later expression of the -parties in the old Greek democracies, who associated themselves with -the colours of the Roman Circus, when imported into the East, as the -most effective outlet for their political feelings.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_422" href="#FNanchor_422" class="label">[422]</a> These four colours, which date from the first century of the Empire, -are supposed to represent the seasons of the year (Tertullian, De Spectaculis, -9); or the different hues of the sea and land (blue and green); -see Chron. Pasch., Olymp., vii, p. 205; Alemannus, <i>ad</i> Procop., p. 372; -Banduri, <i>op. cit.</i>, ii, p. 376, etc. Originally there were but two divisions. -The leading and subsidiary colours are said to distinguish urban from -suburban members of the factions; cf. Jn. Lydus, De Mens., iv, 25.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_423" href="#FNanchor_423" class="label">[423]</a> Const. Porph., i, 6, with Reiske’s Notes.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_424" href="#FNanchor_424" class="label">[424]</a> Procopius, <i>loc. cit.</i>, ii, 11.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_425" href="#FNanchor_425" class="label">[425]</a> Jn. Malala, xiv, p. 351.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_426" href="#FNanchor_426" class="label">[426]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, xvii, p. 416; cf. Procopius, De Bel. Pers., ii, 11.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_427" href="#FNanchor_427" class="label">[427]</a> Chrysostom, De Anna, iv, 1 (in Migne, iv, 660); an almost identical -passage; Gregory Naz., Laus Basil., 15.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_428" href="#FNanchor_428" class="label">[428]</a> The Decennalia represented the ten years for which Augustus originally -“accepted” the supreme power; the Quinquennalia are said to have -been instituted by Nero, but may have become obsolete at this date; see -the Classical Dicts. There were also Tricennalia.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_429" href="#FNanchor_429" class="label">[429]</a> Novel cv; Const. Porph., <i>loc. cit.</i>, Codin., p. 17; Procop., De Bel. -Vand., ii, 9, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_430" href="#FNanchor_430" class="label">[430]</a> Cod. Theod., VI, iv, 5, 26, etc. By a law of 384, eight praetors -were appointed to spend between them 3,150 lb. of silver, equal to -about £10,000 at that date, a credible sum; but the common belief that -three annual praetors used to be enjoined to disburse more than a quarter -of a million sterling in games is, I make no doubt, rank nonsense. Large -amounts were, no doubt, expended by some praetors (Maximus, <i>c. 400-420</i>, -<i>for his sons’</i> 4,000 lb. of gold, over £150,000, yet, only half the sum; -Olympiodorus, p. 470), but these were intended to be great historic -occasions, and are recorded as such, bearing doubtless the same relation -to routine celebrations as the late Queen’s Jubilees did to the Lord Mayor’s -shows, on which a few thousands are annually squandered. Maximus -was then bidding for the purple, in which he was afterwards buried. -The question turns on the enigma of the word <i>follis</i>, which in some -positions has never been solved. But Cod. Theod., XII, i, 159, makes -it as clear as daylight that 25,000 <i>folles</i> in <i>ibid.</i>, VI, iv, 5, means just -about fifty guineas of our money (he had also to scatter £125 in silver as -largess), a sum exactly suited to <i>ibid.</i>, VII, xx, 3, by which the same -amount is granted to a superannuated soldier to stock a little farm. The -first law publishes the munificence of the Emperor in presenting the sum -of 600 <i>solidi</i> (£335) to the people of Antioch that they may not run -short of cash for, and so be depressed at the time of, the public games. -And so the colossal sum doubted by Gibbon, accepted by Milman, advocated -by Smith, and asserted by Bury may be dissipated like a puff of -smoke in the wind. The office of <i>praetor ludorum</i> seems to have been -falling into abeyance at this time.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_431" href="#FNanchor_431" class="label">[431]</a> Jn. Lydus, De Mens., i, 12. Twenty-four races were the full number, -but they were gradually reduced to eight; Const. Porph., i, 68, p. 307.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_432" href="#FNanchor_432" class="label">[432]</a> Anastasius put a stop to this part of the performance—for the time; -Procop. Gaz. Panegyr., 15, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_433" href="#FNanchor_433" class="label">[433]</a> H. A. Charisius, 19, etc. A favourite exhibition was that of a man -balancing on his forehead a pole up which two urchins ran and postured -at the top; Chrysostom, Ad Pop. Ant., xix, 4 (De Stat.; in Migne, ii, -195). Luitprand (Legatio, etc.) six centuries later was entertained with -the same spectacle, an instance of the changeless nature of these times -over long periods.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_434" href="#FNanchor_434" class="label">[434]</a> Novel cv; Socrates, vii, 22; Cod. Theod., XV, xi, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_435" href="#FNanchor_435" class="label">[435]</a> Aulus Gell., iii, 10, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_436" href="#FNanchor_436" class="label">[436]</a> Sueton., Nero, 22; Novel cv, 1, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_437" href="#FNanchor_437" class="label">[437]</a> Chrysostom, In Illud, Vidi Dominum, etc. (in Migne, vi, 113); -Ad Pop. Ant., xv, 4 (in Migne, ii, 158); In Illud, Pater Meus, etc., -Hom. ix, 1 (in Migne, xii, 512); a particular instance of a youth killed -in the chariot race the day before his intended wedding.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_438" href="#FNanchor_438" class="label">[438]</a> Chrysostom, In Illud, Vidi Dominum, etc., Hom. iii, 2 (in Migne, -vi, 113); In Genes. Hom. v, 6 (in Migne, iv, 54).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_439" href="#FNanchor_439" class="label">[439]</a> Const. Porph., <i>op. cit.</i>, i, 69; Theophanes, an. 5969, etc. The -winners usually received about two or three pounds in money, also a -laurel crown and a cloak of a peculiar pattern (Pellenian, perhaps; -Strabo, VIII, vii, 5); Chrysostom, In Matth. Hom. liv, 6 (in Migne, -vii, 539); but under some of the insensate emperors immense prizes, -small fortunes in fact, were often given; see Reiske’s Notes, <i>ad op. cit.</i>, -p. 325. I have not met in Byzantine history with any allusion to the -seven circuits of the races (except Jn. Lydus, De Mens., i, 12), the eggs -or the dolphins; these are assumed from the Latin writers of old Rome -and from the sculptured marbles. It appears from Cod. Theod. (XV, -ix, etc.), that the successful horses, when past their prime, were carefully -nurtured through their old age by the state. The choicest breeds of these -animals came from Spain and Cappadocia; Claudian, De Equis Hon., -etc. All the technical details of the Roman Circus will be found in the -Dicts. of Clas. Antiqs., especially Daremberg and Saglio’s; see also -Rambaud, De Byzant. Hip., Paris, 1870.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_440" href="#FNanchor_440" class="label">[440]</a> Of epilepsy (Evagrius, etc.). This is not a fatal disease, and hence -a fiction arose that he had been buried alive in a fit. A sentry on guard -at the sepulchre heard moanings for two days, and at length a voice, -“Have pity, and let me out!” “But there is another emperor.” “Never -mind; take me to a monastery.” His wife, however, would not disturb -the <i>status quo</i>; but ultimately an inspection was made, when he was -found to have eaten his arms and boots; Cedrenus, Zonaras, Glycas, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_441" href="#FNanchor_441" class="label">[441]</a> Theoph., an. 5983; Cedrenus, i, p. 626, etc. He was a Manichaean -according to Evagrius, iii, 32; cf. Theoph., an. 5999.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_442" href="#FNanchor_442" class="label">[442]</a> Julian seems to have been the first Roman emperor who was hoisted -on a buckler and crowned with a necklet; Ammianus, xx, 4. By -Jn. Lydus, however, the use of the collar instead of a diadem would -appear to be a vestige of some archaic custom traceable back to Augustus -or, perhaps, even to the times of Manlius Torquatus; De Magistr., ii, 3. -The Germans originated the custom of elevating a new ruler on a shield; -Tacitus, Hist., iv, 15.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_443" href="#FNanchor_443" class="label">[443]</a> See the full details of this election and coronation in Const. Porph., -<i>op. cit.</i>, i, 92. It is to be noted that twelve chapters of this work (i, 84-95) -are extracted bodily from Petrus Magister, a writer of the sixth century.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_444" href="#FNanchor_444" class="label">[444]</a> Jn. Malala, xvi, p. 394; Chron. Pasch., an. 498.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_445" href="#FNanchor_445" class="label">[445]</a> Sc., “Holy God, Holy Mighty, Holy Immortal, pity us!” said to -have been the song of the angels as heard by a boy who was drawn up to -heaven and let down again in the reign of the younger Theodosius; -Menologion Graec., i, p. 67, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_446" href="#FNanchor_446" class="label">[446]</a> Evagrius, iii, 32; Jn. Malala, xvi, p. 407; Theoph., an. 6005, etc. -The date is uncertain; as recounted by some of the chronographists only -518 would suit the incident. As soon as the government felt again on a -stable footing numerous executions were decreed.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_447" href="#FNanchor_447" class="label">[447]</a> In 425 theatres and other amusements were forbidden on Sundays; -Cod. Theod., XV, v, 5. In the time of Chrysostom people coming -out of church were liable to encounter bands of roisterers leaving the -theatre.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_448" href="#FNanchor_448" class="label">[448]</a> Procopius, Anecdot., ix; Chrysostom, In Coloss., iii, Hom. ix -(in Migne, xi, 362), “Satanical Songs” is his favourite expression; -also “diabolical display”; In Act. Apost. Hom. xlii, 4 (in Migne, -ix, 301); “naked limbs” of actresses; In Epist. I Thess., iv, -Hom. v, 4 (in Migne, xi, 428); cf. Ammianus, xiv, 6; Lucian, De -Saltatione.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_449" href="#FNanchor_449" class="label">[449]</a> By a sumptuary law, however, the most precious gems and the -richest fabrics were forbidden to the stage (Cod. Theod., XV, vii, 11); -but the restriction seems to have been relaxed, as this law has been -omitted from the Code. The intention was to prevent mummers from -bringing into disrepute the adornments of the higher social sphere.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_450" href="#FNanchor_450" class="label">[450]</a> Chrysostom, In Matth. Hom. vii, 5 (in Migne, vii, 79); cf. Cod., -V, xxii, 9. A trick, doubtless, to evade the law, which forbade absolute -nakedness on the stage; Procop., Anecdot., ix.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_451" href="#FNanchor_451" class="label">[451]</a> Cod. Theod., XV, vii, 12, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_452" href="#FNanchor_452" class="label">[452]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, 5.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_453" href="#FNanchor_453" class="label">[453]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, 6; Cod., XI, xl, 3.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_454" href="#FNanchor_454" class="label">[454]</a> Cod. Theod., XV, vi, 8, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_455" href="#FNanchor_455" class="label">[455]</a> The immorality of the stage is the constant theme of Chrysostom. -The fact that he draws no ethical illustrations from the drama seems to -prove that no plays were exhibited in which virtue and vice were represented -as receiving their due award. Fornication and adultery were the -staple allurements of the stage; Act. Apost. Hom. xlii, 3 (in Migne, ix, -301). From the culminating scene of “The Ass” in the versions both -of Apuleius and of Lucian it would seem that practical acts of fornication -were possible incidents in public performances. It must be remembered, -however, that women did not frequent the Greek or, at least, the -Byzantine theatre. Sathas labours vainly to prove the existence of a -legitimate Byzantine drama; Ἱστορ. δοκ. περὶ τ. θεάτρ. καὶ τ. μουσικ. τ. -Βυζαντίων, Ven., 1878; cf. Krumbacher, Byzant. Literaturgesch., -Munich, 1897, p. 644, <i>et seq.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_456" href="#FNanchor_456" class="label">[456]</a> Haenel, Cod. Theod., IV, vi, 3; Cod., V, xxvii, 1. By the first -draft, due to Constantine, the prohibition might apply to any poor but -virtuous girl. This defect was remedied by Pulcheria; Nov. Mart. iv. -Here we may discern a result of Athenais, the dowerless but well -educated Athenian girl being chosen (by Pulcheria) for her brother’s -consort; or, perhaps, of her own union with Martian, at first a private -soldier.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_457" href="#FNanchor_457" class="label">[457]</a> Called <i>trabea</i> or <i>toga palmata</i>; Claudian, Cons. Olyb. et Prob., 178; -Cassiodorus, Var. Ep., vi, 1.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_458" href="#FNanchor_458" class="label">[458]</a> <i>Ibid.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_459" href="#FNanchor_459" class="label">[459]</a> Ammianus, xxii, 7. Julian, when at CP., in his enthusiasm for -democratic institutions, followed the consul on foot, but, forgetting himself, -he performed the act of emancipation, an inadvertence for which he -at once fined himself 10 lb. of gold (£400).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_460" href="#FNanchor_460" class="label">[460]</a> Procopius, De Bel. Pers., i, 25; Jn. Lydus, De Magistr., ii, -8, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_461" href="#FNanchor_461" class="label">[461]</a> Even under the barbarian kings in Italy, Odovacar the Herule and -Theodoric the Goth, a consul was appointed annually at Rome in accordance -with the arrangement made when Constantine decreed that the -metropolitan honours should be divided between the old and the new -capital.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_462" href="#FNanchor_462" class="label">[462]</a> Nov. cv, 1, where they are enumerated. The regular cost of the -display was 2,000 lb. of gold (£80,000), which, with the exception -of a small amount by the consul himself, came from the Imperial treasury; -Procopius, Anecdot., 26; cf. Jn. Lydus, <i>loc. cit.</i> Hence it appears -that even the consulship need not be held by a millionaire; see -p. 100.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_463" href="#FNanchor_463" class="label">[463]</a> Cod. Theod., XV, v, 2. No lower dignitary was allowed to distribute -anything more precious than silver.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_464" href="#FNanchor_464" class="label">[464]</a> Cod. Theod., VIII, xi; Cod., XII, lxiv.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_465" href="#FNanchor_465" class="label">[465]</a> Cod. Theod., XV, ix. Numbers of these diptychs are still preserved. -There is a specimen at South Kensington of those of Anastasius Sabinianus, -Com. Domest., who was consul in 518. Each plate was usually -about twelve by six inches, and they were hinged so as to close up -together. The designs on each face were practically duplicates. Generally -as to the position of consuls at this time see Godefroy ad Cod. -Theod., VI, vi, and the numerous cross references he has supplied.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_466" href="#FNanchor_466" class="label">[466]</a> Constantine instituted a regular observance of Sunday as the Dominica -or Lord’s Day in 321; Cod. Theod., III, viii, with Godfrey’s Com.; -Cod., III, xii, 3. Towards the end of the ninth century, however, Leo -Sapiens prohibited even farmers from working on Sundays; Novel. -Leo. VI, liv. Daily service was only instituted about 1050 by Constant. -Monom.; Cedrenus, ii, p. 609.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_467" href="#FNanchor_467" class="label">[467]</a> See Ducange, <i>sb.</i> Σήμαντρον; Reiske’s Notes, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 235. The -instrument is still in use in the Greek Church, but literary notices of it -seem to be unknown before the seventh century.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_468" href="#FNanchor_468" class="label">[468]</a> Chrysostom, Habentes eundem, etc., 11 (in Migne, iii, 299).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_469" href="#FNanchor_469" class="label">[469]</a> <i>Ibid.</i> The well-known palindrome, ΝΙΨΟΝΑΝΟΜΗΜΑΤΑΜΗΜΟΝΑΝΟΨΙΝ -(Wash away your sins not only your face), was at one time -inscribed on the basin in front of St. Sophia; Texier and Pullan, <i>op. cit.</i>, -p. 10. This composition is, however, attributed to Leo Sap.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_470" href="#FNanchor_470" class="label">[470]</a> Sozomen, vii, 16; Gieseler, Eccles. Hist., i, 71, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_471" href="#FNanchor_471" class="label">[471]</a> Procopius, De Aedific., i, 1, p. 178; Paul Silent., 389, 541. At this -time, however, men and women seem to have been in view of each other -in the nave as well, though separated by a wooden partition; Chrysostom, -In Matth. Hom. lxxiii, 3 (in Migne, vii, 677), but in earlier times they -were allowed to mix indiscriminately; <i>ibid.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_472" href="#FNanchor_472" class="label">[472]</a> Socrates, vi, 8, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_473" href="#FNanchor_473" class="label">[473]</a> Sozomen, viii, 5; not invariably perhaps. Part of the present description -applies, of course, to St. Sophia.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_474" href="#FNanchor_474" class="label">[474]</a> Cantacuzenus, i, 41; this could easily be done, as the clerical staff -of each church was very numerous—over five hundred in St. Sophia; -Novel iii, 1.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_475" href="#FNanchor_475" class="label">[475]</a> Chrysostom, In Epist. I Tim., ii, Hom. viii, 1 (in Migne, xi, 541); -In Psal. xlviii, 5 (in Migne, vi, 507).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_476" href="#FNanchor_476" class="label">[476]</a> Chrysostom, De Virgin., 61 (in Migne, i, 581).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_477" href="#FNanchor_477" class="label">[477]</a> Chrysostom, In Matth. Hom. lxxiii, 3 (in Migne, vii, 677). “In the -temple of God,” says he, “you commit fornication and adultery at the -very time you are admonished against such sins.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_478" href="#FNanchor_478" class="label">[478]</a> Chrysostom, In Epist. I Tim., ii, Hom. viii, 9 (in Migne, xi, 543).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_479" href="#FNanchor_479" class="label">[479]</a> Chrysostom, Epist. ad Innocent., Bishop of Rome, 3 (in Migne, iii, -533). He here describes how the women had to fly naked from the -Baptistery during the riots connected with his deposition from the see of -Constantinople. It must be noted, however, that the severe modesty of -modern times had scarcely been developed amid the simplicity of the -ancient world, as it has not among some fairly civilized peoples even at -the present day.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_480" href="#FNanchor_480" class="label">[480]</a> I had almost said <i>piety</i>, one of the words destined, with the extinction -of the thing, to become obsolete in the future, or to be applied to some -other mental conception.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_481" href="#FNanchor_481" class="label">[481]</a> Chrysostom, In Matth. Hom. xvii, 2 (in Migne, vii, 256). He inveighs -against the farce of ascetics taking virgins to live with them, who -are supposed to remain intact; cf. De Virginitate (in Migne, i, 533); -also Cod. Theod., XVI, ii, 20, to which Godefroy supplies practical -illustrations.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_482" href="#FNanchor_482" class="label">[482]</a> Chrysostom, In Epist. ad Coloss., iii, Hom. vii, 5 (in Migne, xi, -350); in Matth. Hom. lxxxiii, 4 (in Migne, vii, 750). Or even of more -costly materials, gold, crystal; Plutarch, Adv. Stoic., 22; Clement Alex. -Paedag., ii, 3. The notion of unparalleled luxury has been associated with -the Theodosian age, but without sufficient reason. It was rather the age -of a man of genius who denounced it persistently and strenuously, and -whose diatribes have come down to us in great bulk, viz., Chrysostom. -The period of greatest extravagance was, in fact, during the last century -of the Republic and the first of the Empire, and the names of Crassus, -Lucullus, Nero, Vitellius, etc., are specially connected with it.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_483" href="#FNanchor_483" class="label">[483]</a> Chrysostom, In Epist. ad Coloss., i, Hom. 4 (in Migne, xi, 304).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_484" href="#FNanchor_484" class="label">[484]</a> As late as the tenth century, according to Luitprand, Antapodosis, -vi, 8. In the Vienna Genesis (<i>c. 400</i>) a miniature shows banqueters reclining -at a table of this sort. I will not attempt to enlarge on the courses -at table and the multifarious viands that were consumed, as there are but -few hints on this subject. We may opine, however, that gastronomics -indulged themselves very similarly to what is represented in the pages of -Petronius and Athenaeus, etc., cf. Ammianus, xvi, 5; xxviii, 4.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_485" href="#FNanchor_485" class="label">[485]</a> Chrysostom, In Psalm xlviii, 8 (in Migne, v, 510). Most of the -eunuchs were of the nation of the Abasgi, who dwelt between the Caspian -and Euxine; Procopius, De Bel. Goth., iv, 3.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_486" href="#FNanchor_486" class="label">[486]</a> Chrysostom, In Epist. ad Corinth. Hom. xl, 5 (in Migne, x, 353); -In Matth. Hom. lxiii, 4 (in Migne, vii, 608).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_487" href="#FNanchor_487" class="label">[487]</a> See below.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_488" href="#FNanchor_488" class="label">[488]</a> Constantine enacted that families—husbands and wives, parents and -children, brothers and sisters—should not be separated; Cod. Theod., -II, xxv, 1; cf. XVI, v, 40, etc. But there was little practical philanthropy -in the world until the Middle Ages had long been left behind. -Thus by the Assize of Jerusalem, promulgated by Crusaders in the -twelfth century, a war-horse was valued at three slaves! Tolerance, the -toning-down of fanaticism, doubt as to whether religious beliefs are really -of any validity, appears to be the foster-mother of humane sentiment. A -slave could be trained to any trade, art, or profession, and their price -varied accordingly. Thus common slaves were worth about £12, -eunuchs £30; before ten years of age, half-price. Physicians sold for -£35, and skilled artificers for £40; Cod., VII, vii. The modern reader -will smile at the naïveté of Aristotle when he states that some nations are -intended by Nature for slavery, but, as they do not see it, war must be -made to reduce them to their proper level; Politics, i, 8.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_489" href="#FNanchor_489" class="label">[489]</a> The following directions of a mother to her daughter how to shine -as a society <i>hetaira</i> emanate from a Greek of the second century: “Dress -yourself with taste, carry yourself stylishly, and be courteous to every one. -Never break into a guffaw, as you often do, but smile sweetly and seductively. -Do not throw yourself at a man’s head, but behave with tact, -cultivate sincerity, and maintain an amiable reserve. If you are asked to -dinner be careful not to drink too much; do not grab the viands that are -offered to you, but help yourself gracefully with the tips of your fingers. -Masticate your food noiselessly, and avoid grinding your jaws loudly -whilst eating. Sip your wine delicately, and do not gulp down anything -you drink. Above all things do not talk too much, addressing the whole -company, but pay attention chiefly to your own friends. By acting in this -way you will be most likely to excite love and admiration”; adapted -from Lucian, Dial. Meretr., vi.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_490" href="#FNanchor_490" class="label">[490]</a> Chrysostom, In Matth. Hom. xxx, 5 (in Migne, vii, 368); In -I: Tim., i, 3 (in Migne, xi, 524); In Epist. ad Hebr., xxix, 3 (in Migne, -xii, 206). “A country wench,” says he, “is stronger than our city men.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_491" href="#FNanchor_491" class="label">[491]</a> Chrysostom, De non Iterat. Conj., 4 (in Migne, i, 618). At all times -there were ladies of such lubricity as to court the opportunity of bathing -before men in the public baths; prohibited by Marcus (Hist. Aug., 23), -this commerce of the sexes was encouraged by Elagabalus, and again -forbidden by Alexander (Hist. Aug., 24, 34). Hadrian, however, seems -to have been the first to declare against this promiscuous bathing (Hist. -Aug., 18): “Olim viri foeminaeque mixtim lavabant, nullo pudore -nuditatis,” says Casaubon, commenting on the passage; cf. Aulus Gell., -x, 3; Cod. Theod., IX, iii, 3; Cod., V, xvii, 11; Novel, xxii, 16, etc. -Clement Alex. (<i>c. 200</i>) complains that ladies were to be seen in the baths -at Alexandria like slaves exposed for sale; Paedag., iii, 5. Far different -was the conduct of the Byzantine matrons a thousand years later; they -then fell into the ways of Oriental exclusiveness as seen amongst the -dominant Turks; see Filelfo, Epistolae, ix, Sphortiae Sec., 1451. A -native of Ancona, who lived at CP. for several years in the half century -preceding the capture of the city.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_492" href="#FNanchor_492" class="label">[492]</a> Chrysostom, In Epist. ad Ephes., iv, Hom. xv, 3 (in Migne, xi, -109). The cries of the girl, often tied to a bedpost, might even be heard -in the street, and if she stripped herself in a public bath the weals on her -back were sometimes the subject of public remark. Whilst counselling -mercy he considers that the whipping is generally deserved.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_493" href="#FNanchor_493" class="label">[493]</a> Chrysostom, Quales duc. sint Uxores, 7 (in Migne, iii, 236); In -Epist. I ad Corinth., Hom. xii, 5 (in Migne, x, 103).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_494" href="#FNanchor_494" class="label">[494]</a> Fifteen for males and thirteen for females were the marriageable -ages as legally recognized; Leo, Novel., lxxiv.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_495" href="#FNanchor_495" class="label">[495]</a> Chrysostom, Quales duc. sint Uxores, 5 (in Migne, iii, 233); -γραΐδια μυθεύοντα, κ. τ. λ.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_496" href="#FNanchor_496" class="label">[496]</a> Even Arcadius had to be content with a portrait and a verbal description -of the charms of Eudoxia, the daughter of a subject and a townsman; -Zosimus, v, 3.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_497" href="#FNanchor_497" class="label">[497]</a> The early Christians gradually inclined to the custom of asking a -formal benediction from the clergy as an essential part of the marriage -ceremony, but about the time of Chrysostom the practice began to be -disregarded. With the disuse also of pagan rites it began to be doubted -whether nuptials could be legal unless accompanied at least by an orgiastic -festival. To dispel this misgiving Theodosius II in 428 decreed -that no sort of formal contract was required, but merely fair evidence -that the parties had agreed to enter the connubial state; Cod. Theod., -III, vii, 3. The Christian rite was not made compulsory till the end of -the ninth century; Leo Sap. Novel., lxxxix.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_498" href="#FNanchor_498" class="label">[498]</a> Chrysostom, In Matth. Hom. xxxvii, 5 (in Migne, vii, 425); -In Act. Apost., xlii, 3 (in Migne, ix, 300); In Epist. I ad Corinth, -Hom. xii, 5 (in Migne, x, 102), etc. His favourite theme for objurgation. -He complains especially: “And worse, virgins are present at these -orgies, having laid aside all shame; to do honour to the bride? rather -disgrace,” etc. These must be <i>ancillae</i>, or girls of a lower class, as it is -evident from the above account that young ladies of any family could not -be seen even at church by intending suitors; possibly they were kept -closely veiled. On this point see further Puech’s Chrysostom, Paris, -1891, p. 133. An introduction of this kind had always been considered -necessary, as is shown by the equitation of the phallus (Mutinus) imposed -on Roman brides the first night. These old customs were a constant -mark for gibe among the early Christian Fathers; Lactantius, Div. Inst., -l, 20; Augustine, De Civ. Dei, iv, 11; Arnobius, iv, <i>et passim</i>, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_499" href="#FNanchor_499" class="label">[499]</a> Chrysostom, In Joann. Hom. xxxii, 3 (in Migne, vii, 186).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_500" href="#FNanchor_500" class="label">[500]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, In Epist. ad Corinth. Hom. xii, 7 (in Migne, x, 105).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_501" href="#FNanchor_501" class="label">[501]</a> Chrysostom, In Epist. ad Corinth. Hom. xii, 7 (in Migne, x, -105).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_502" href="#FNanchor_502" class="label">[502]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, In Matth. Hom. lxxii, 2 (in Migne, vii, 669); Ad Pop. -Antioch., xix, 4 (in Migne, ii, 196).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_503" href="#FNanchor_503" class="label">[503]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, Ad Illum. Catech., ii, 5 (in Migne, ii, 240).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_504" href="#FNanchor_504" class="label">[504]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, In Epist. I ad Corinth., xii, 7 (in Migne, x, 105).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_505" href="#FNanchor_505" class="label">[505]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, De Consol. Mort. 6 (in Migne, vi, 303).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_506" href="#FNanchor_506" class="label">[506]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, Expos. in Psalm cxi, 4 (in Migne, v, 297), etc. He often -protests against this form of luxury. At Rome especially, when the -ownership of these costly piles had passed into oblivion, it was the habit -of builders to pillage them in order to use their architectural adornments -and materials for new erections; Cod. Theod., IX, xvii. Apparently the -sepulchres were sometimes violated for the supply of false relics.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_507" href="#FNanchor_507" class="label">[507]</a> Chrysostom. Habentes autem eumdem, etc. Hom. ii, 9 (in Migne, -iii, 284).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_508" href="#FNanchor_508" class="label">[508]</a> See Plato’s Phaedrus, Symposium, etc.; Plutarch, Pelopidas, 19. -A modern Democritus might smile at the conclusion of Lucian that, -whilst the commerce of the sexes is necessary for the propagation of the -race, paederasty is the ideal sphere for the love of philosophers; Amores. -According to Aristotle, Minos introduced the practice into Crete as an -antidote against over-population; Politics, ii, 10; vii, 16. In this respect -the Greeks, perhaps, corrupted on the one hand and on the other -Romans and Persians alike; Herodotus, i, 135. It was indigenous, -however, among the Etruscans; Athenaeus, xii, 14, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_509" href="#FNanchor_509" class="label">[509]</a> The shadowy Scantinian law was enacted against it, but remained -a dead letter; Cicero, Ad Famil., viii, 12, 14, etc.; cf. Plutarch, Marcellus, -2.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_510" href="#FNanchor_510" class="label">[510]</a> I have not, however, fallen in with any account of the dedication of -a temple to <i>Amor Virilis</i>. Such a shrine would have been quite worthy -of Nero or Elagabalus, indeed of Hadrian.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_511" href="#FNanchor_511" class="label">[511]</a> Suetonius, Nero, 28; Hist. Aug. Hadrian, 14; Heliogabalus, 6, 15, -etc.; Statius, Silvae, iii, 4, etc. The adulation of this vice pervaded even -the golden age of Latin poetry:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse">But Virgil’s songs are pure except that horrid one</div> - <div class="verse">Beginning with “Formosum pastor Corydon.”</div> - <div class="verse indent20">Byron, Don Juan, i, 42.</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>For the estimation in which paederasty was held in Crete see Strabo, X, -iv, 21; Athenaeus, xi, 20. Old men even wore a robe of “honour” to -indicate that in youth they had been chosen to act the part of a pathic. -The epigram on Julius Caesar is well known—“omnium mulierum vir, -omnium virorum mulier”; Suetonius, in Vit. 52. Anastasius, who seems -to have been somewhat of a purist for his time, abolished a theatrical -spectacle addressed particularly to the paederasts, against which Chrysostom -had vainly launched his declamations; In Psalm xli, 2 (in Migne, -v, 157). “Boys, assuming the dress and manners of women, with a -mincing gait and erotic gestures, ravished the senses of the observers so -that men raged against each other in their impassioned fury. This stain -on our manners you obliterated,” etc.; Procopius, Gaz. Panegyr., 16. -The saint is much warmer and more analytical in his invective.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_512" href="#FNanchor_512" class="label">[512]</a> Hist. Aug. Alexander, 24.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_513" href="#FNanchor_513" class="label">[513]</a> Tertullian, De Monogam., 12; Lactantius, Divin. Instit., v, 9; -Salvian, De Gubern. Dei, vii, 17, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_514" href="#FNanchor_514" class="label">[514]</a> Cod. Theod., IX, vii, with Godefroy’s duplex commentary. The -peculiar wording of the law of Constantius almost suggests that it was -enacted in a spirit of mocking complacency; <i>ibid.</i>, Cod., IX, ix, 31.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_515" href="#FNanchor_515" class="label">[515]</a> Chrysostom, Adv. Op. Vit. Mon., 8 (in Migne, i, 361). There was -probably a stronger tincture of Greek manners at Antioch, of Roman at -Constantinople, but the difference does not seem to have been material. -We here take leave of Chrysostom. The saint fumes so much that we -must generally suspect him of exaggeration, but doubtless this was the -style which drew large crowds of auditors and won him popularity.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_516" href="#FNanchor_516" class="label">[516]</a> Procopius, Anecdot., 9, 11; Novel., lxxvii, etc. The first glimpse of -Byzantine sociology is due to Montfaucon, who, at the end of his edition -of Chrysostom brought together a selection of the most striking passages -he had met with. These excerpts were the germ and foundation of a -larger and more systematized work by P. Mueller, Bishop of Zealand; -De Luxu, Moribus, etc., Aevi Theod., 1794. An article in the Quarterly -Review, vol. lxxviii, deals briefly with the same materials. I have derived -assistance from all three, but, as a rule, my instances are taken -directly from the text of Chrysostom.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_517" href="#FNanchor_517" class="label">[517]</a> Twelve ounces, rather less than the English ounce. The difficulty in -obtaining a just equivalent for ancient money in modern values is almost -insuperable. After various researches I have decided, as the safest -approximation, to reckon the <i>solidus</i> at 11<i>s.</i> 2<i>d.</i> and the lb. Byz. of -gold at £40.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_518" href="#FNanchor_518" class="label">[518]</a> This appears to have been merely a “coin of account,” but there -were at one time large silver coins, value, perhaps, about six shillings, -also pieces of alloyed silver. For some reason all these were called in -and made obsolete at the beginning of the fifth century; Cod. Theod., -IX, xxi, xxii, xxiii. No silver coins larger than a shilling seem to -have been preserved to our time.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_519" href="#FNanchor_519" class="label">[519]</a> As the price of copper was fixed at 25 lb. for a <i>solidus</i>, these coins -might have been very bulky; “dumps,” as such are called by English -sailors abroad, above an ounce in weight, but nothing near so heavy -has come down to us; Cod. Theod., XI, xxi.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_520" href="#FNanchor_520" class="label">[520]</a> Other emperors, however, struck single <i>nummia</i>, and these may -have remained in use. They are known to collectors and weigh 5 grs. -and upwards.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_521" href="#FNanchor_521" class="label">[521]</a> See the specimens figured by Ducange, CP. Christ., or in other -works on numismatics.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_522" href="#FNanchor_522" class="label">[522]</a> The Macedonian kings in the fifth century <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> were the first -princes to put their names and portraits on their coinage, but the -practice did not become common till after Alexander the Great; cf. -Procopius, De Bel. Goth., iii, 33. Very large gold medals were minted -by most of the Roman emperors, weighing even one or two lb. Hist. -Aug., Alexander, 39. This imposing coinage appears to have been -used for paying subsidies or tribute to barbarian nations. They were -carried slung over the backs of horses in those leathern bags, which we -see in the Notitia among the insignia of the Counts of the Treasury; -Cod., XII, li, 12; Paulus Diac., De Gest. Langob., iii, 13.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_523" href="#FNanchor_523" class="label">[523]</a> The value of money in relation to the necessaries of life, always a -shifting quantity, was not very different in these ages to what it is at -present. To give a few examples: bread was about the same price, -common shoes cost 1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> to 5<i>s.</i> a pair; a workman, according to skill, -earned 1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> to 4<i>s.</i> a day; see Dureau de la Malle, Econ. polit. des -Romains, Paris, 1840; also Waddington’s Edict of Diocletian; an -ordinary horse fetched £10 or £12; Cod. Theod., XI, i, 29, etc. On -the Byzantine coinage see Sabatier, Monnaies Byzant., etc., Paris, 1862, -i, p. 25, <i>et seq.</i> An imperfect, but so far the only comprehensive work; -cf. Finlay, Hist. Greece, i, p. 432, <i>et seq.</i> Mommsen’s work also gives -some space to the subject. False coining and money-clipping were of -course prevalent in this age and punishable capitally, but there was also -a class of magnates who arrogated to themselves the right of coining, a -privilege conceded in earlier times, and who maintained private mints -for the purpose. In spite of legal enactments some of them persisted in -the practice, and their penalty was to be aggregated with all their -apparatus and operatives to the Imperial mints, there to exert their skill -indefinitely for the government; Cod. Theod., IX, xxi, xxii. Their lot -suggests the Miltonic fate of Mulciber:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent24">Nor aught availed him now</div> - <div class="verse">To have built in heaven high towers; nor did he ’scape</div> - <div class="verse">By all his engines, but was headlong sent</div> - <div class="verse">With his industrious crew to build in hell.</div> - <div class="verse indent20">Paradise Lost, I.</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_524" href="#FNanchor_524" class="label">[524]</a> In 1885, a “guess” census taken by the Turkish authorities put -it at 873,565, but the modern city is much shrunk within the ancient -walls; Grosvenor, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 8.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_525" href="#FNanchor_525" class="label">[525]</a> The Avars, during an incursion made in 616, carried off 270,000 captives -of both sexes from the vicinity of the city; Nicephorus CP., p. 16.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_526" href="#FNanchor_526" class="label">[526]</a> The largest reservoir, now called the “Bendt of Belgrade,” about -ten miles N.W. of CP. is more than a mile long. The water is conveyed, -as a rule, through subterranean pipes, and there is no visible aqueduct -within six miles of the city. The so-called “Long Aqueduct” is about -three-quarters of a mile in length.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_527" href="#FNanchor_527" class="label">[527]</a> Evagrius, iii, 38; Procopius, De Aedific., iv, 9; Chron. Paschal., -an. 512, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_528" href="#FNanchor_528" class="label">[528]</a> In modern Hindostan somewhat of a parallel might be traced, but -very imperfectly. After the third century Gothic must also have become -a familiar language at CP.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_529" href="#FNanchor_529" class="label">[529]</a> The partial survival of the Latin language in the East during these -centuries is proved, not merely by the body of law, inscriptions, numismatics, -etc., but by the fact that some authors who must have expected -to be read generally at Constantinople, chose to write in that tongue, -especially Ammianus (“Graecus et miles,” his own words), Marcellinus -Comes, and Corippus.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_530" href="#FNanchor_530" class="label">[530]</a> This vulgar dialect has probably never been committed to writing. -Specimens crop up occasionally, particularly in Jn. Malala, also in Theophanes, -i, p. 283 (De Boor). See Krumbacher, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 770, <i>et seq.</i> -The cultured Greeks, however, even to the end of the Empire, always -held fast to the language of literary Hellas in her prime; see Filelfo, <i>loc. cit.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_531" href="#FNanchor_531" class="label">[531]</a> It is worthy of remark that assumption of the aspirate was in the -period of best Latinity a vulgar fault decried by Romans of refined -speech:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse">Chommoda dicebat, si quando commoda vellet</div> - <div class="verse indent2">Dicere, et hinsidias Arrius insidias....</div> - <div class="verse">Ionios fluctus, post quam illuc Arrius isset,</div> - <div class="verse indent2">Jam non Ionios esse, sed Hionios.</div> - <div class="verse indent20">Catullus, lxxxii.</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - - - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_532" href="#FNanchor_532" class="label">[532]</a> Jn. Lydus, De Magistr., iii, 27, 68.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_533" href="#FNanchor_533" class="label">[533]</a> In the absence of full contemporary evidence for a complete picture -of Byzantine life at the point of time dealt with, it has often been necessary -to have recourse to writers both of earlier and later date; an -exigency, however, almost confined to Chrysostom and Constantine -Porphyrogennetos. In taking this liberty I have exercised great caution -so as to avoid anachronisms; and if such exist I may fairly hope them -to be of a kind which will not easily be detected. I have always tried to -obtain some presumptive proof in previous or subsequent periods that -the scene as represented may be shifted backwards and forwards through -the centuries without marring its truth as a picture of the times. In these -unprogressive ages, wherever civilization was maintained, it often had -practically the same aspect even for thousands of years.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_534" href="#FNanchor_534" class="label">[534]</a> It is generally conceded that iconoclastic zeal in respect of primitive -Roman history, under the impulse given by Lewis and Niebuhr, has been -carried too far. Even now archaeological researches with the spade on -the site of the Forum, etc., are producing confirmation of some traditional -beliefs already proclaimed as mythical by too astute critics; see Lanciani, -<i>The Athenaeum</i>, 1899. In any case the legends and hearsay as to their origin, current -among various races, have a psychological interest, and may afford valuable -indications as to national proclivities, which must rescue them from -the neglect of every judicious historian.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_535" href="#FNanchor_535" class="label">[535]</a> Livy, iv, 52, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_536" href="#FNanchor_536" class="label">[536]</a> The favourite title of Augustus was <i>Princeps</i> or “First citizen,” but -the more martial emperors, such as Galba and Trajan, preferred the -military <i>Imperator</i>, which after their time became distinctive of the -monarch. By the end of the third century, under the administration of -Aurelian and Diocletian, the emperor became an undisguised despot, and -henceforward was regarded as the <i>Dominus</i>, a term which originally expressed -the relation between a master and his slaves; see Jn. Lydus, De -Magistr., i, 5; the series of coins in Cohen’s Numismatics of the -Empire, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_537" href="#FNanchor_537" class="label">[537]</a> Strabo says it was full of Tarsians and Alexandrians; xiv, 5. Athenaeus -calls it “an epitome of the world”; i, 17; cf. Tacitus, Ann., xv, 44; -“The city which attracts and applauds all things villainous and -shameful.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_538" href="#FNanchor_538" class="label">[538]</a> Tiberius made an end of the <i>comitia</i> or popular elections, and after -his time the offices of state were conferred in the Senate, a body which -in its elements was constituted at the fiat of the emperor; Tacitus, -Ann., i, 15, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_539" href="#FNanchor_539" class="label">[539]</a> Under Diocletian (<i>c.</i> 300) the legislative individualism of the -emperor attained maturity; see Muirhead, Private Law of Rome, Edin., -1899, P. 353.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_540" href="#FNanchor_540" class="label">[540]</a> The choice of Galba by the soldiers in Spain (68 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>) first “revealed -the political secret that emperors could be created elsewhere than -at Rome”; Tacitus, Hist., i, 4. Trajan, if actually a Spaniard, was the -first emperor of foreign extraction.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_541" href="#FNanchor_541" class="label">[541]</a> In the quadripartite allotment by Diocletian, he himself fixed his -residence at Nicomedia, his associate Augustus chose Milan, whilst the -scarcely subordinated Caesars, Galerius and Constantius, made Sirmium -and Treves their respective stations; Aurelius Vict., Diocletian.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_542" href="#FNanchor_542" class="label">[542]</a> Arcadius, as the elder, reigned in the East, a proof that it was esteemed -to be the most brilliant position. The Notitia also, a contemporary -work, places the East first as the superior dominion. No doubt -the new tyrants found themselves in an uncongenial atmosphere at Rome, -and the sterner stuff of the Western nations would not tolerate their -sublime affectations. They could stand the follies of Nero, but not the -vain-glory of Constantine, who soon fled from the covert sneers of the -capital and merely paid it a couple of perfunctory visits afterwards. It is -significant that the forms of adoration are omitted from the Notitia of -the West; cf., however, Cassiodorus, Var. Ep., xii, 18, 20.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_543" href="#FNanchor_543" class="label">[543]</a> About a year, but sometimes prolonged; he could be indicted afterwards -for misconduct, unless like Sulla, Caesar, etc., and the aspirants -to the purple later, he found himself strong enough to seize on the -supremacy.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_544" href="#FNanchor_544" class="label">[544]</a> See Mommsen, Das röm. Militärwesen, etc. Hermes, xxiv, 1889.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_545" href="#FNanchor_545" class="label">[545]</a> Aurelius Vict., Diocletian, etc. After Elagabalus Aurelian was the -pioneer in this departure, but in their case it seems to have been not a -policy so much as a love of pompous display. It is worth noting that -these emperors were men of low origin; Aurelian was a peasant, Diocletian -the son of a slave. Yet Aurelian would not let his wife wear silk; -Hist. Aug. Aurelian, 45.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_546" href="#FNanchor_546" class="label">[546]</a> The brood of eunuchs (bed-keepers) flows to us from prehistoric -times. Ammianus (xiv, 6) attributes the invention to Semiramis, whose -date, if any, is about 2000 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> They appear to be engendered naturally -by polygamy. Isidore of Seville characterizes them as follows: “Horum -quidam coeunt, sed tamen virtus in semine nulla est. Liquorem enim -habent, et emittunt, sed ad gignendum inanem et invalidum”; Etymolog., -x, <i>sb. voc.</i> Hence the demand for such an enactment as that of -Leo, Novel., xcviii, against their marrying, which, however, would be -unnecessary in the case of the καρξιμάδες.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_547" href="#FNanchor_547" class="label">[547]</a> The names of Eusebius, Eutropius, Chrysaphius, etc., are well -known as despots of the Court and Empire. “Apud quem [si vere dici -debeat] Constantius multum potuit,” is the sarcasm of Ammianus on the -masterful favourite Eutropius; xviii, 4. Ultimately members of the royal -family were castrated to allow of their being intrusted with the office of -Chamberlain, practically the premiership, whilst unfitting them to usurp -the throne; see Schlumberger, L’épopée byzant. au dix. siècle, 1896, p. 6.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_548" href="#FNanchor_548" class="label">[548]</a> See Const. Porph., <i>passim.</i> The emperor cannot even uncover his -head without the castrates closing round him to intercept the gaze of -rude mankind; Reiske, ii, p. 259.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_549" href="#FNanchor_549" class="label">[549]</a> The use of numerical affixes to the names of monarchs did not exist -among the ancients, and hence many cruxes arise for antiquarians to -distinguish those of the same name. Popularly they were often differentiated -by nicknames. Thus we read of Artaxerxes the Longhanded, -Ptolemy the Bloated, the Flute-player; Charles the Bald, the Fat; Philip -the Fair, Frederic Barbarossa, etc. The grandson of the last, Frederic II, -seems to have been the first who assumed a number as part of his regal -title; see Ludewig, Vita Justin., VIII, viii, 53.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_550" href="#FNanchor_550" class="label">[550]</a> -CP. fell to Mahomet II in 1453, and the kingdom of Trebizond, -a fragment which still existed under a Comnenian dynasty, in -1461. Bosnia, Herzegovina, Roumania, Armenia proper, -Georgia, and the lower part of Mesopotamia did not, however, belong to -the Eastern Empire, but there was suzerainty over most of the adjacent -territory except Persia.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_551" href="#FNanchor_551" class="label">[551]</a> The town itself was in the hands of the Bulgarians till 504, when it -was won by Theodoric for Italy; Cassiodorus, Chron.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_552" href="#FNanchor_552" class="label">[552]</a> This frontier was delimited by Diocletian, <i>c. 295</i>; Eutropius, ix; -Procopius, De Bel. Pers., i, 19.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_553" href="#FNanchor_553" class="label">[553]</a> At this time Western Armenia, about one-third of the whole, was -called Roman, the rest Persian. It was divided at the end of the fourth -century, but no taxes were collected there by the Byzantines; see below.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_554" href="#FNanchor_554" class="label">[554]</a> Neither the north-eastern nor the north-western boundaries can now -be precisely defined. According to Theodoret, the north-eastern verge -of the Empire was Pityus, about seventy miles farther north; Hist. -Eccles., v, 34. After the reign of Trajan the Euxine was virtually a -Roman lake, and a garrisoned fort was kept at Sebastopol, considerably -north of the Phasis, Bosphorus (Crimea) under its Greek kings being -still allowed a nominal autonomy; Arrian, Periplus Pont. Euxin. After -250, however, under Gallienus, etc., these regions were overrun by the -Goths. In 275 Trajan’s great province of Dacia was abandoned by -Aurelian, but he preserved the remembrance of it by forming a small -province with the same name south of the Danube; Hist. Aug., Aurelian, -39, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_555" href="#FNanchor_555" class="label">[555]</a> This geographical sketch is based chiefly on the Notitia, the Synecdemus -of Hierocles, and Spruner’s maps.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_556" href="#FNanchor_556" class="label">[556]</a> Less than the present population of England, which has barely a -tenth of the area of the Empire.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_557" href="#FNanchor_557" class="label">[557]</a> To take a few instances: Thessalonica and Hadrianople, former -population not less than 300,000 each, now about 70,000 each; Antioch, -formerly 500,000 (Chrysostom mentions 200,000, doubtless only freemen), -now 7,500; Alexandria, formerly 750,000, now again growing -into prosperity, 230,000; on the other hand, Ephesus, Palmyra, Baalbec, -etc., once great cities, have entirely disappeared. Nor have any modern -towns sprung up to replace those mentioned; Cairo alone, with its -371,000, is an apparent exception, but it is almost on the site of Memphis, -still a busy town in the sixth century. For these and many similar -examples the modern gazetteers, etc., are a sufficient reference. Taking -all things into consideration, to give a hundred millions to the countries -forming the Eastern Empire, in their palmy days, might not be an overestimate; -and even then the density of population would be only about -one-third of what it is in England at the present day.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_558" href="#FNanchor_558" class="label">[558]</a> Institut. Just., Prooem., etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_559" href="#FNanchor_559" class="label">[559]</a> Here, however, seems to have been the tract first known to the -Greeks as Asia, but the name was extended to the whole continent fully -ten centuries before this time.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_560" href="#FNanchor_560" class="label">[560]</a> Hierocles, <i>op. cit.</i> By the Notitia the civil and military government -of Isauria and Arabia are in each case vested in the same person.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_561" href="#FNanchor_561" class="label">[561]</a> Now the Dobrudscha.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_562" href="#FNanchor_562" class="label">[562]</a></p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse">The birds their choir apply; airs, vernal airs,</div> - <div class="verse">Breathing the smell of field and grove, attune</div> - <div class="verse">The trembling leaves, while universal Pan,</div> - <div class="verse">Knit with the Graces and the Hours in dance,</div> - <div class="verse">Led on the eternal Spring.</div> - <div class="verse indent20">Paradise Lost, IV.</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - - - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_563" href="#FNanchor_563" class="label">[563]</a> Including the small province of that name.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_564" href="#FNanchor_564" class="label">[564]</a> On the roll of precedence the Vicars and Proconsuls were Spectabiles, -the ordinary governors Clarissimi. The intendant of the Long Walls -was also called a Vicar; Novel., viii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_565" href="#FNanchor_565" class="label">[565]</a> See the Notitia.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_566" href="#FNanchor_566" class="label">[566]</a> The independence of proconsular Asia has already been mentioned.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_567" href="#FNanchor_567" class="label">[567]</a> “Yielding only to the sceptre”; Jn. Lydus, De Magistr., ii, 5. On -the roll of precedence, however, he came after consuls and patricians, -but he was usually an ex-consul and patrician as well; see Godefroy <i>ad</i> -Cod. Theod., VI, vi.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_568" href="#FNanchor_568" class="label">[568]</a> The most noted of these roads, the Via Appia, ran from Rome to -Brindisi. It was about fifteen feet wide, with raised footpaths proportionately -narrow. The only road in the Eastern Empire with a special name -was the Via Egnatia, leading from the coast of the Adriatic through -Thessalonica to Cypsela (Ipsala, about forty miles north of Gallipoli). -The Antonine Itinerary shows the distance between most of the towns -and ports in the Empire (<i>c. 300</i>). The Tabula Peutingeriana is a sort of -panoramic chart on which towns, roads, mountains, forests, etc., are -marked without any approach to delineating the outline of the countries, -except in the vicinity of the Bosphorus and CP. (third century, but -brought up to a later date; about 15 feet × 1). There is a photographic -reproduction, Vienna, 1888. Strabo (IV, iii, 8) notes how careless the -Greeks were, as compared with the Romans, in the matter of public -works of ordinary utility.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_569" href="#FNanchor_569" class="label">[569]</a> Cod. Theod., XV, iii. By the absence of this title from the Code -and from Procopius (De Bel. Goth., i, 14; De Aedific., iv, 8; v, 5) we -can discern that the roads in the East were generally in bad condition. -No rubbish or filth or obstructive matter of any kind was allowed to be -discharged into the roads or rivers. All roads or canals, that is, by-paths, -were to be maintained in their primary condition, whether paved or -unpaved; Pand., XLIII, x-xv. Soldiers were enjoined not to shock the -public decency by bathing shamelessly in the rivers; Cod. Theod., VII, -i; 13.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_570" href="#FNanchor_570" class="label">[570]</a> The modern caravanserai, a great square building with open central -court and chambers on two floors (see Texier and Pullan, <i>op. cit.</i>, -p. 142, for a description and plans of one attributed to the times of the -Empire), is supposed to represent not only these mansions, but even the -pattern of the original Persian <i>angari</i> of the classic period. Travellers -could stop at them gratuitously and obtain provender, etc. Cicero, -Atticus, v, 16, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_571" href="#FNanchor_571" class="label">[571]</a> About forty animals were kept at each station; Procopius, Anecd., 30.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_572" href="#FNanchor_572" class="label">[572]</a> Cod. Theod., VIII, v, 28, etc. 22½ lb. avd. seems absurdly little -for a horse to carry; a parhippus, an extra-strong horse, was kept, and -might take 100 lb. (75 avd.), but even that is only half the weight of an -average man; Cassiodorous, Var. Epist., iv, 47; v, 5. C. remarks, -however, that it is absurd to load an animal who has to travel at a high -speed. I think, therefore, that the load is in addition to a rider (<i>hippocomus</i>).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_573" href="#FNanchor_573" class="label">[573]</a> Cod. Theod., VIII, v, 2.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_574" href="#FNanchor_574" class="label">[574]</a> The Jerusalem Itinerary (<i>c.</i> 350) shows the mansions and mutations -from Bordeaux to J., etc. The former seem to have been in or near large -towns, the latter by the wayside.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_575" href="#FNanchor_575" class="label">[575]</a> Cod. Theod., VIII, v, with Godefroy’s paratitlon.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_576" href="#FNanchor_576" class="label">[576]</a> Cod. Theod., VI, xxvii; called <i>Agentes in rebus</i>.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_577" href="#FNanchor_577" class="label">[577]</a> They appear to have originated in the <i>Frumentarii</i> (corn-collectors), -who were sent into the provinces to purvey for the wants of the capital. -Encouraged on their return to tattle about what they had seen, signs of -disaffection, etc., their secondary vocation became paramount; and under -Diocletian they were reconstituted with a more consonant title, whilst -their license was restrained; Aurelius Vict., Diocletian; Hist. Aug. -Commodus, 4, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_578" href="#FNanchor_578" class="label">[578]</a> Libanius, Epitaph. Juliani (R., I, p. 568); cf. Xenophon, Cyropaedia, -viii, 2. The Persian king was the original begetter of “eyes and -ears” of this description; Herodotus, i, 114.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_579" href="#FNanchor_579" class="label">[579]</a> Liban., Adv. eos qui suam Docendi Rat., etc. At this time they were -generally called <i>Veredarii</i>, <i>veredus</i> being the name of the post-horses -they always rode; Procopius, De Bel. Vand., i, 16; De Bel. Pers., -ii, 20.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_580" href="#FNanchor_580" class="label">[580]</a> Vetus Glossarium, <i>sb. Vered. eq.</i> (Godefroy <i>ad</i> Cod. Theod., VI, -xxix, 1).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_581" href="#FNanchor_581" class="label">[581]</a> <i>Curiosi</i>; Cod. Theod., VI, xxix.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_582" href="#FNanchor_582" class="label">[582]</a> <i>Irenarchi</i>; <i>ibid.</i>, XII, xiv; Cod., X, lxxv.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_583" href="#FNanchor_583" class="label">[583]</a> In no instance better exemplified than in that of Anastasius.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_584" href="#FNanchor_584" class="label">[584]</a> Galba, Pertinax, Alexander, Probus, Maurice, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_585" href="#FNanchor_585" class="label">[585]</a> See their insignia and appointments in the Notitia; there was a -separate set for the East and West even after the extinction of the Roman -dynasty of the latter division.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_586" href="#FNanchor_586" class="label">[586]</a> Or more briefly, Masters of Soldiers, of Troops, or of the Forces; -in the Notitia the five military magnates are placed before the Counts of -the Treasury.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_587" href="#FNanchor_587" class="label">[587]</a> <i>In praesenti</i>, in the Presence; to be with the Emperor travelling was -to be <i>in sacro Comitatu</i>; to send anything to Court was to send it <i>ad -Comitatum</i>, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_588" href="#FNanchor_588" class="label">[588]</a> For the probable daily order of the Consistorium see <a href="#Page_92">p. 92</a>; Cod. -Theod., XI, xxxix, 5, 8; the materials at this date are too scanty to fill -an objective picture; cf. Schiller, Gesch. d. röm. Kaiserzeit, Gotha, -1887, ii, p. 66.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_589" href="#FNanchor_589" class="label">[589]</a> Cod. Theod., VI, xii, and Godefroy <i>ad loc.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_590" href="#FNanchor_590" class="label">[590]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, I, i, ii, with Godefroy’s paratitla.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_591" href="#FNanchor_591" class="label">[591]</a> They had much the force of a decree nisi, to be made absolute only -in the quarter where all the circumstances were known. The Codes are -full of warnings against acting too hastily on the Emperor’s rescript; -thus Constantine says, “Contra jus Rescripta non valeant,” but his son -on the same page, “Multabuntur Judices qui Rescripta contempserint.” -They had to steer between Scylla and Charybdis; in most cases, however, -an easy task enough in Byzantine administration; Cod. Theod., -I, i, 1, 5.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_592" href="#FNanchor_592" class="label">[592]</a> Julian, in his zeal for constitutional government, tried to make it a -real power in the state, but his effort was quietly ignored after his -short career by his successors; Zosimus, iii, 11.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_593" href="#FNanchor_593" class="label">[593]</a> In theory the Consul (Cod. Theod., VI, vi), but practically the -P.U.; <i>ibid.</i>, ii, and Godefroy’s paratitlon; cf. Cassiodorus, Var. Epist., -i, 42, 43, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_594" href="#FNanchor_594" class="label">[594]</a> Cod. Theod., VI, xxiii, 1; XII, i, 122; IX, ii, 1, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_595" href="#FNanchor_595" class="label">[595]</a> Ammianus, xxviii, 1; Cod., I, xiv. Thus even Theodosius based -himself on a decree of the Senate before embarking on the war with -Maximus; Zosimus, v, 43, 44.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_596" href="#FNanchor_596" class="label">[596]</a> When there was no emperor in the East, after the death of Valens, -Julius, the Master of the Forces, applied for sanction to the Senate -before ordering the massacre of all the Gothic youth detained as hostages -throughout Asia; Zosimus, iv, 26.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_597" href="#FNanchor_597" class="label">[597]</a> As in the case of Anastasius himself; Marcellinus Com., an. 515, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_598" href="#FNanchor_598" class="label">[598]</a> Ammianus, xxviii, 1; Procopius, De Bel. Goth., iii, 32.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_599" href="#FNanchor_599" class="label">[599]</a> Cod. Theod., VI, ii, 4; XV, ix; Cod., I, xiv. Leo Sap. at last -abolished the Senatusconsulta; Nov. Leo., lxxviii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_600" href="#FNanchor_600" class="label">[600]</a> References to, and a <i>résumé</i> of, modern authorities who have tried -to work out the political significance of the Senate at this epoch will be -found in Schiller, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 31. I may add that fifty members formed a -quorum (Cod. Theod., VI, iv, 9), but a couple of thousand may have -borne the title of Senator; Themistius, xxxiv, p. 456 (Dind.). Many -of these, however, had merely the “naked” honour by purchase (Cod. -Theod., XII, i, 48, <i>et passim</i>), or received it on being superannuated -from the public service, but the potential Senators inherited the office -or assimilated it naturally on account of their rank. Many of the titular -Senators lived on their estates in the provinces; Cod. Theod., VI, ii, 2; -cf. Cassiodorus, Var. Epist., iii, 6, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_601" href="#FNanchor_601" class="label">[601]</a> Cod. Theod., XII, i; Godefroy reckons seventy-nine Curiae in the -Eastern Empire, but there must have been many more not definitely indicated; -paratitlon <i>ad loc.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_602" href="#FNanchor_602" class="label">[602]</a> Cod. Theod., I, xxix.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_603" href="#FNanchor_603" class="label">[603]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, XII, i, 151; Novel., xv; see Savigny, Hist. Roman Law, I, -ii. They seem to have been created by Valentinian I; Cod., I, -lv, 1, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_604" href="#FNanchor_604" class="label">[604]</a> Cod. Theod., I, vii, 3; the first book contains most of Haenel’s -additions, and his numbers often differ from Godefroy’s, to which I -always refer on account of the commentary.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_605" href="#FNanchor_605" class="label">[605]</a> Jn. Lydus, De Magistr., iii, 37; cf. Cassiodorus, Var. Ep., xi, 6. -<i>Cancellarius</i>, from the <i>cancelli</i> or grille, within which they sat or stood.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_606" href="#FNanchor_606" class="label">[606]</a> Plutarch, Cato Min., 23, etc.; cf. Savigny, <i>loc. cit.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_607" href="#FNanchor_607" class="label">[607]</a> Generally about 400 in number; the Count of the East was allowed -600; Cod., XII, lvi, lvii, etc. A sort of constabulary lower in rank -than ordinary soldiers; Cod., XII, lviii, 12, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_608" href="#FNanchor_608" class="label">[608]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, I, xii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_609" href="#FNanchor_609" class="label">[609]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, IV, xvii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_610" href="#FNanchor_610" class="label">[610]</a> Cod. Theod., I, vii, 2; Cod., III, iii. Notwithstanding a long article -by Bethmann-Hollweg (Civilprozessen, Bonn, 1864, iii, p. 116), nothing -is known as to how they held their court, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_611" href="#FNanchor_611" class="label">[611]</a> Cod. Theod., XI, xxx.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_612" href="#FNanchor_612" class="label">[612]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, I, v.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_613" href="#FNanchor_613" class="label">[613]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, I, vii, 5, 6.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_614" href="#FNanchor_614" class="label">[614]</a> Thus the first, the fifteenth, indiction were the first and last years -of the round of fifteen. This method of reckoning mostly superseded all -other dates, both in speaking and writing. The first Indiction is usually -calculated from 1st September, 312. Fundamentally, indiction means -rating or assessment.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_615" href="#FNanchor_615" class="label">[615]</a> Hyginus, de Limitibus, etc., is our chief source of knowledge as to -Roman land-surveying. Permanent maps were engraved on brass plates -and copies were made on linen, etc. See Godefroy <i>ad</i> Cod. Theod., -XI, xxvii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_616" href="#FNanchor_616" class="label">[616]</a> Pand., L, xv, 4; Cod. Theod., IX, xlii, 7; Cod., IX, xlix, 7.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_617" href="#FNanchor_617" class="label">[617]</a> From a Syriac MS. in the British Museum, it appears that to every -<i>caput</i> or <i>jugum</i> of 1,000 solidi (£560) were reckoned 5 <i>jugera</i> (about ⅝ -acre) of vineyard, 20, 40, or 60 of arable land, according to quality, -250 olive trees, 1st cl., and 450 2nd cl.; see Mommsen on this document, -Hermes, iii, 1868, p. 429; cf. Nov. Majorian, i. The amount -exacted for each head varied with time and place. When Julian was in -Gaul (<i>c. 356</i>), the inhabitants were paying 25 solidi (£14) <i>per caput</i> or -<i>jugum</i>, which he managed to reduce to 7 solidi (£4); Ammianus, xvi, 5.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_618" href="#FNanchor_618" class="label">[618]</a> Cod. Theod., XI, i, 10; XIII, xi, 12; Cod., XI, lviii, etc. Deserted -lands were mostly near the borders, from which the occupiers had -been driven by hostile incursions. Barren lands presumably were put -in the worst class.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_619" href="#FNanchor_619" class="label">[619]</a> The duties of these officials are nowhere precisely defined, and a -consistent account must be presumed from the scattered indications contained -in the Codes, Cassiodorus, etc.; see Cod. Theod., XIII, xi; Cod., -XI, lvii, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_620" href="#FNanchor_620" class="label">[620]</a> Cod. Theod., XIII, x, 5; xi, 4, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_621" href="#FNanchor_621" class="label">[621]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, XIII, x, 8.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_622" href="#FNanchor_622" class="label">[622]</a> For this assessment the adult age was in general 18, but in Syria, -males 14, females 12; Pand., L, xv, 3.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_623" href="#FNanchor_623" class="label">[623]</a> “Capitatio humana atque animalium”; Cod. Theod., XI, xx, 6; -cf. Cedrenus, i, p. 627; Zonaras, xiv, 3; Glykas, iv, p. 493, etc. Owing -to the use in the Codes of the words <i>caput</i> and <i>capitatio</i> with respect to -both land-tax and poll-tax, these were generally confounded together, -till Savigny made the distinction clear in his monograph, Ueber d. röm. -Steuerverfassung, pub. 1823 in the Transact. of the Berlin Acad. of -Science. The poll-tax is usually distinguished as <i>plebeia capitatio</i>. The epigram -of Sidonius Ap. is always quoted, and has often misled the expositors -of the Codes, in this connection. To the Emperor Majorian he says:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse">Geryones nos esse puta, monstrumque tributum,</div> - <div class="verse indent2">Hic capita, ut vivam, tu mihi tolle tria.</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>The taxes must have been again very high for him to anticipate so much -relief from the remission of only three heads (<i>c.</i> 460).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_624" href="#FNanchor_624" class="label">[624]</a> Cod. Theod., XI, i, 14; “quantulacumque terrarum possessio.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_625" href="#FNanchor_625" class="label">[625]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, XIII, x, 2.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_626" href="#FNanchor_626" class="label">[626]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, XIII, x, 4, 6.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_627" href="#FNanchor_627" class="label">[627]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, XIII, iii, iv. A list of thirty-five handicrafts exempted is -given, including professionals, such as physicians, painters, architects, -and geometers. I find no relief, however, in the case of lawyers.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_628" href="#FNanchor_628" class="label">[628]</a> Cod. Theod., IV, xii; Godefroy could only recover one Constitution -of this title, but Haenel has been able to collect nine; thirteen are contained -in the corresponding title of the Code, IV, lxi. On imported -eunuchs ⅛ was paid; Cod., IV, xlii, 2.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_629" href="#FNanchor_629" class="label">[629]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, X, xix, 3, 12.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_630" href="#FNanchor_630" class="label">[630]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, IV, xii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_631" href="#FNanchor_631" class="label">[631]</a> Cod., IV, lxiii, 2; “subtili auferatur ingenio.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_632" href="#FNanchor_632" class="label">[632]</a> Cod. Theod., XIII, i; Cod., XI, i. Evagrius (iii, 39), one of the -nearest in time, is most copious on the subject of this tax. Cedrenus, -Glykas, Zonaras (“an annual tribute!”) evidently confused it with the -poll-tax, but their remarks show that every animal useful to the farmer -returned something to the revenue; a horse or an ox one shilling, an ass -or a dog fourpence, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_633" href="#FNanchor_633" class="label">[633]</a> Evagrius alone mentions these; cf. Hist. August. Alexander, 34.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_634" href="#FNanchor_634" class="label">[634]</a> According to an old Biblical commentator, it was called the <i>penalizing -gold</i>, “the price of sorrow,” as we might say (aurum poenosum or -pannosum, the <i>gold of rags</i>, levied even on beggars); see Valesius ad -Evagr. <i>loc. cit.</i>; Quaest. Vet. et Nov. Test. 75, <i>ad calc.</i> St. August, -(in Migne, iii, 2269). He also is thinking of a poll-tax, <i>didrachma</i>, -less than two shillings a head. The Theodosian Code in twenty-one -Constitutions is clear and precise as to the incidence of the chrysargyron, -and nothing can be interjected extraneous to the definitions there constituted. -The quadriennial contribution of Edessa was 140 lb. of gold -(£5,600); Joshua Stylites (Wright), Camb. 1882, 31.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_635" href="#FNanchor_635" class="label">[635]</a> Zosimus, ii, 38. He is severe on Constantine for inflicting it, but -there must have been something like it before; see Godefroy <i>ad</i> Cod. -Theod., XIII, i, 1.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_636" href="#FNanchor_636" class="label">[636]</a> Cod. Theod., XVI, ii, 8, 14, 15; XIII, i, 11, etc.; VII, xx, 3, 9, -etc. (also some Court officers; XI, xii, 3); XIII, iv; i, 10.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_637" href="#FNanchor_637" class="label">[637]</a> It is the signal action of Anastasius respecting it which has caused -so much notice to be taken of the impost; see esp. Procopius, Gaz. -Panegyric., 13. One Timotheus of Gaza is said to have aimed a tragedy -at the harshness of it; Cedrenus; Suidas, <i>sb.</i> Timoth. By Code, -XI, i, 1, it seems that traces of it remained permanently. Evagrius -alludes vaguely to some compensating financial measures of Anastasius; -iii, 42; cf. Jn. Malala, p. 394.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_638" href="#FNanchor_638" class="label">[638]</a> This was the regular procedure when state debtors were officially -forgiven—a ceremonial burning of the accounts; Cod. Theod., XI, -xxviii, 2, 3, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_639" href="#FNanchor_639" class="label">[639]</a> Cod. Theod., VI, ii, 1, 4, 13, etc. The idea of abolishing these -senatorial taxes was entertained in the time of Arcadius, but the scheme -fell through; Cod., XII, ii. Senatorial estates were kept distinct from -all others during peraequation at the quindecennial survey; Cod. Theod., -VI, iii, 2, 3.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_640" href="#FNanchor_640" class="label">[640]</a> Cod. Theod., VI, xxiv, 8, 9; XIII, iii, 15, 17, etc., see Godefroy’s -paratitlon to VI, ii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_641" href="#FNanchor_641" class="label">[641]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, VI, ii, 5, 9; VII, xxiv, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_642" href="#FNanchor_642" class="label">[642]</a> Cod., XII, iii, 3.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_643" href="#FNanchor_643" class="label">[643]</a> Cod. Theod., VII, xxiii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_644" href="#FNanchor_644" class="label">[644]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, XII, xiii, and Godefroy’s commentaries. Cod., X, lxxiv.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_645" href="#FNanchor_645" class="label">[645]</a> Cod. Theod., VI, xxx, 2; Nov., xxx, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_646" href="#FNanchor_646" class="label">[646]</a> Cod. Theod., X, vi; XV, x, and Godefroy <i>ad loc.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_647" href="#FNanchor_647" class="label">[647]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, X, xix; Cod., XI, vi; see Dureau de la Malle (<i>op. cit.</i>, iv, -17), who summarizes with refs. our scanty information on the subject. -It seems that the ancient methods of working the ore were very defective, -and the <i>scoriae</i> of the famous silver mines at Laurium have been treated -for the third time in recent years with good results; see Cordella, Berg u. -hüttenmän. Zeitung, xlii, 1883, p. 21; Strabo, IX, 1.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_648" href="#FNanchor_648" class="label">[648]</a> Cod. Theod., I, v, 1, etc. Chrysostom alludes to the severity of the -miner’s existence; Stagirium, 13; Mart. Aegypt., 2 (in Migne, i, 490; -ii, 697). During the Gothic revolt of 376 the Thracian miners joined -the insurgents; Ammianus, xxxi, 6.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_649" href="#FNanchor_649" class="label">[649]</a> Cod. Theod., XI, i, 1, 34; v, 3, 4; xvi, 8, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_650" href="#FNanchor_650" class="label">[650]</a> Cod. Theod., XI, i, 15, 16; xxv; XII, vi, 15, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_651" href="#FNanchor_651" class="label">[651]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, XII, vi, 2, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_652" href="#FNanchor_652" class="label">[652]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, XI, vii, 14, 16, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_653" href="#FNanchor_653" class="label">[653]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, XI, vii, 1, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_654" href="#FNanchor_654" class="label">[654]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, XI, vii, 10, 13; VIII, viii, 1, 3; this privilege was extended -to the Jews’ Sabbath; II, viii, 3.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_655" href="#FNanchor_655" class="label">[655]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, XI, vii, 16, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_656" href="#FNanchor_656" class="label">[656]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, XI, i, 34, 35; xxii, 4, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_657" href="#FNanchor_657" class="label">[657]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, XI, vii, 3, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_658" href="#FNanchor_658" class="label">[658]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, X, xvii; XI, ix; that is by auction.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_659" href="#FNanchor_659" class="label">[659]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, [?] xxviii; cf. Cassiodorus, Var. Epist., xi, 7.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_660" href="#FNanchor_660" class="label">[660]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, XI, vii, 2, 6, etc., cf. Cassiodorus, <i>op. cit.</i>, iv, 14.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_661" href="#FNanchor_661" class="label">[661]</a> Cod. Theod., XI, i, 9, 21; XII, vi, 19, and Godefroy <i>ad loc.</i>; <i>ibid.</i>, -XII, vii, 2, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_662" href="#FNanchor_662" class="label">[662]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, XII, vi, 19, 21, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_663" href="#FNanchor_663" class="label">[663]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, XI, vii, 1; XIII, x, 1, etc. The demand notes had to be -signed by the Rector; XI, i, 3.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_664" href="#FNanchor_664" class="label">[664]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, XI, i, 19; xxvi, 2; XII, vi, 18, 23, 27. The Defender of the -City was generally present to act as referee on these occasions. A single -annone was valued at 4 <i>sol.</i> (£2 5<i>s.</i>) per annum; Novel., Theod., xxiii. -It appears that the precious metals were accepted by weight only to -guard against adulteration, clipping, etc. Thus, in 321, Constantine enacted -that 7 <i>sol.</i> should be paid for an ounce by tale instead of six, indicating -⅐ alloy in his own gold coin at that period; see Dureau de la -Malle, <i>op. cit.</i>, i, 10; Cod. Theod., XII, vii, 1; cf. vi, 13.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_665" href="#FNanchor_665" class="label">[665]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, VII, vi; xxiii; XI, i, 9; cf. Cassiodorus, <i>op. cit.</i>, xi, 39. -When it was found that sheep and oxen fell into poor condition after -being driven a long way the estimated price was exacted instead.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_666" href="#FNanchor_666" class="label">[666]</a> Cod. Theod., I, xv; one law only in Godefroy, 17 in Haenel.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_667" href="#FNanchor_667" class="label">[667]</a> Cod. Theod., VIII, v, 13, 18; X, xx, 4, 11, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_668" href="#FNanchor_668" class="label">[668]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, XIII, v, 28; ix; Cod., XI, iii, 2, etc. In an emergency any -one possessing a ship of sufficient size was liable to be impressed. The -prescribed least capacity seems to have been about ten measured tons -according to the modern system (100 cub. ft. per ton register), that is, -cargo space for 2,000 <i>modii</i>, about 650 cub. ft.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_669" href="#FNanchor_669" class="label">[669]</a> There were three grand treasuries at CP., viz., that of the Praefect -of the East, of the Count Sacrarum Largitionum, and of the Count Rerum -Privatarum (his local agents were called <i>Rationales</i>, but seem from the -Notitia to have become extinct in the East), but the Praefect was the -chief minister of finance and ruled both the returns and the disbursements; -see Godefroy’s Notitia, <i>ad calc.</i>; Cod. Theod.; Jn. Lydus, De -Magistr., ii, 27; Cassiodorus, Var. Epist., vi, 3, etc. The Rectors and -the Curiae could levy local rates for public works, to which purpose a -third of the revenue from the customs in each district and from national -estates (mostly property of abolished temples) was regularly devoted; -see Cod. Theod., XV, i, with Godefroy’s paratitlon and commentaries. -The Emperor indulged his fancy in building out of the public funds or -granted sums in the form of largess, as when Anastasius bestowed a considerable -amount on the island of Rhodes to repair the damage done by -an earthquake; Jn. Malala, xvi. There were some small taxes I have -not noticed, such as the <i>siliquaticum</i>, pay for the army, by which each -party to a sale gave a ½ <i>siliqua</i> (3<i>d.</i>). This was devised by Valentinian III -(Novel., Theodos., xlviii; Do. Valent., xviii) and existed in the time -of Cassiodorus (<i>op. cit.</i>, iv, 19, etc.), but does not seem to have been -adopted in the East.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_670" href="#FNanchor_670" class="label">[670]</a> Antioch also had an allowance of free provisions, but there is no precise -evidence in this case.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_671" href="#FNanchor_671" class="label">[671]</a> Cod. Theod., VIII, iv, 6; XI, i, 11, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_672" href="#FNanchor_672" class="label">[672]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, XI, xxvi.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_673" href="#FNanchor_673" class="label">[673]</a> Considerable obscurity envelops the office of <i>protostasia</i>. I conjecture -it to have been a supervision imposed on local nobles, chiefly -residential Senators, who had to serve for two years; Cod. Theod., XI, -xxiii. In theory all the superior offices had to be vacated on the expiration -of a year, but they were often prolonged. Thus a trustworthy and -efficient <i>Susceptor</i> retained his post for five years; <i>ibid.</i>, XII, vi, 24. -The latter were mostly elected by the Curiae, who were liable for their -defalcations; <i>ibid.</i>, 1, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_674" href="#FNanchor_674" class="label">[674]</a> Cod. Theod., VIII, viii; x; XI, vii, 17, etc. These palatine -emissaries, coming as <i>Compulsors</i> or otherwise, were detested by the -Rectors, etc., who could scarcely show them the deference due to their -brevet-rank, which was high: doubtless they gave themselves airs; -<i>ibid.</i>, VI, xxiv, 4; xxvi, 5, etc. They were entitled to be greeted with -a kiss and to sit with the Judge on his bench.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_675" href="#FNanchor_675" class="label">[675]</a> 320,000 lb. of gold; Procopius, Anecdot., 19. In the time of Pompey -it was thought a considerable achievement when that general raised the -income of the Republic to the trifling sum, according to modern ideas, -of £3,500,000; Plutarch, Pompey, 45. On the other hand we have -the statement of Vespasian, a century later, that he needed close on -£400,000,000 to keep the Empire on its legs, a sum almost equal to -the requirements of modern Europe, but the scope of his remark is not -plain; Suetonius, Vespas., 16. Antoninus Pius, again, with the finances -of the whole Empire under his hand during his reign of twenty-three -years saved £22,000,000, nearly the same amount per annum as -Anastasius for a similar extent of territory; Dion Cass., lxxiii, 8. -Such small savings by the most thrifty emperors do not argue a large -income. In our own best years a surplus may reach about five per cent. -of the receipts. This gives us grounds for a guess that the revenue of -Rome after Augustus was something like £20,000,000.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_676" href="#FNanchor_676" class="label">[676]</a> See p. <a href="#Page_131">131</a> for the names of those hordes who shared the Western -Empire between them. Overflow of population and pressure by the -most powerful nomads, the Huns and Alani, were the general causes -which precipitated the barbarian hosts on the Empire.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_677" href="#FNanchor_677" class="label">[677]</a> About this time the Bulgarians made their first appearance on the -Danube as the foes of civilization. They were lured into a treaty by -Zeno; Müller, Fr. Hist. Graec., iv, p. 619 (Jn. Antioch.); cf. Zonaras, -xiv, 3, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_678" href="#FNanchor_678" class="label">[678]</a> See p. <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_679" href="#FNanchor_679" class="label">[679]</a> The capitation tax was remitted in Thrace; Cod., XI, li. In fact, -hardly any taxes were drawn from that Diocese, for, as Anastasius -himself remarks, the inhabitants were ruined by barbarian irruptions; -<i>ibid.</i>, X, xxvii, 2. How irrepressible were the wild tribes across the -Danube can best be appreciated by a perusal of Ammianus, xxxi, etc., -and Jordanes <i>passim</i>.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_680" href="#FNanchor_680" class="label">[680]</a> The new Persian Empire which dissolved the Parthian sovereignty -was founded, <i>c. 218</i>, by Ardashir (Artaxerxes); see Agathias, ii, -26, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_681" href="#FNanchor_681" class="label">[681]</a> See Godefroy <i>ad</i> Cod. Theod., VII, xiv, xv, xvii; Hist. Aug. -Hadrian, 11, 12; Probus, 13, 14; Ammianus, xxviii, 2, etc. The -walls of Hadrian and Antonine in North Britain are well known, and -have been exhaustively described. The camps are represented as military -cities. See Bruce’s Handbook to the Roman Wall, 1885, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_682" href="#FNanchor_682" class="label">[682]</a> Cod. Theod., VII, xv, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_683" href="#FNanchor_683" class="label">[683]</a> Arrian, Peripl. Pont. Eux. This force was reduced by Constantine; -Zosimus, ii, 34.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_684" href="#FNanchor_684" class="label">[684]</a> In the Notitia Or., there are two Counts and thirteen Dukes. All -of the latter, however, were Counts of the First Order, as evidenced by -their insignia. In rank they were <i>Spectabiles</i>, that is, a step higher than -the Rectors and ordinary Senators.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_685" href="#FNanchor_685" class="label">[685]</a> Evidently from the Notitia.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_686" href="#FNanchor_686" class="label">[686]</a> See Godefroy <i>ad</i> Cod. Theod., VII, i, 18; Mommsen, <i>op. cit.</i>, -Hermes, 1889. In Agathias (v, 13) we have the vague statement that -the whole forces of the Empire amounted to 645,000 men at the period -of highest military efficiency. More than half of these would be assigned -to the East. But John of Antioch, in making a similar statement, seems -to have the Eastern Empire only in his mind; Müller, Fr. Hist. Graec., -iv, p. 622.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_687" href="#FNanchor_687" class="label">[687]</a> See p. <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_688" href="#FNanchor_688" class="label">[688]</a> Procopius, Anecdot., 24, 26; Agathias, v, 15.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_689" href="#FNanchor_689" class="label">[689]</a> See Godefroy <i>ad</i> Cod. Theod., VI, xxiv; XIV, xvii, 8, 9, 10. On -the Candidati see Reiske <i>ad</i> Const. Porph., p. 77. In the field they -seem to have been the closest bodyguard of the Emperor, as were the -eunuchs on civil occasions; Ammianus, xxxi, 13.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_690" href="#FNanchor_690" class="label">[690]</a> See the Notitia and Mommsen, <i>op. cit.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_691" href="#FNanchor_691" class="label">[691]</a> These are all given in the Notitia, some copies of which are -coloured.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_692" href="#FNanchor_692" class="label">[692]</a> The general appearance was probably: “The tuft of the helmet, the -lance pennon, and the surcoat were all of a fixed colour for each band;” -Oman, Art of War, p. 186.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_693" href="#FNanchor_693" class="label">[693]</a> For the ensign see Ammianus, xvi, 10; Vegetius, ii, 7, 13, 14, etc.; -Cod., I, xxvii, 1 (8); Jn. Lydus, De Magistr., i, 46; Maurice, Strategikon, -ii, 9, 13, 14, 19; Cedrenus, i, p. 298. The dragons were hollow so -as to become inflated with the wind; Gregory Naz., Adv. Julian, i, 66.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_694" href="#FNanchor_694" class="label">[694]</a> The cavalry with mail-clad horses were called <i>cataphractarii</i> or -<i>clibanarii</i>; Ammianus, xvi, 10; Cod. Theod., XIV, xxvii, 9.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_695" href="#FNanchor_695" class="label">[695]</a> Ammianus, xx, 11; xxix, 5; Procopius, De Bel. Pers., i, 1; Maurice, -<i>op. cit.</i>, XII, viii, 2, 4, 11, etc. There were fifteen factories for the -forging of arms; Notitia; see below.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_696" href="#FNanchor_696" class="label">[696]</a> Vegetius, i, 4, 5, 6; Cod. Theod., VII, xiii, 3; xx, 12, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_697" href="#FNanchor_697" class="label">[697]</a> Cod. Theod., VII, xiii, 8; Pand., XLIX, xvi, 11, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_698" href="#FNanchor_698" class="label">[698]</a> Vegetius, i, 7; Cod. Theod., VII, xiii, etc.; eighteen was the usual -age for the recruit, 5 ft. 8 in. the height. They were branded in a conspicuous -part of the body; Cod. Theod., X, xxi, 4, and Godefroy -<i>ad loc.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_699" href="#FNanchor_699" class="label">[699]</a> Provided they were physically fit; Cod. Theod., VII, xxii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_700" href="#FNanchor_700" class="label">[700]</a> Ammianus, xxi, 6; Cod. Theod., VII, xiii. An officer called a -<i>temonarius</i> collected the quittance money for the recruits, which varied -from £14 to £20 apiece.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_701" href="#FNanchor_701" class="label">[701]</a> Ammianus, xvii, 13; xix, 11; xxviii, 5, etc.; Zosimus, iv, 12, etc. -Barbarians of this class were called <i>Dedititii</i>.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_702" href="#FNanchor_702" class="label">[702]</a> Cod. Theod., VII, xiii, 16, and Godefroy <i>ad loc.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_703" href="#FNanchor_703" class="label">[703]</a> Jordanes, De Reb. Get., 21, 28. The enlistment of barbarians -seems to have reached its height under Justin II, when Tiberius led -150,000 mercenaries against the Persians (<i>c.</i> 576); Evagrius, v, 14; cf. -Theophanes, an. 6072, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_704" href="#FNanchor_704" class="label">[704]</a> Godefroy <i>ad</i> Cod. Theod., VII, xvii; Vegetius, v (the Liburnian -galleys); Marcellinus Com., an. 508 (“centum armatis navibus totidemque -dromonibus.” By “armed ships” I presume he means bulky transports -laden with soldiers and munitions of war); Procopius, De Bel. Vand., -i, 11, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_705" href="#FNanchor_705" class="label">[705]</a> Cod. Theod., VII, xx.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_706" href="#FNanchor_706" class="label">[706]</a> Evidently from Agathias, v, 15, and the following.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_707" href="#FNanchor_707" class="label">[707]</a> Rescript of Anastasius, Mommsen, <i>op. cit.</i>, pp. 199, 256.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_708" href="#FNanchor_708" class="label">[708]</a> The <i>Limitanei</i> and <i>Comitatenses</i> are mentioned in the Code (I, -xxvii, 2 (8), etc.), but the Palatine troops do not occur by name in the -literature of the sixth century (?).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_709" href="#FNanchor_709" class="label">[709]</a> The term was used long before the word legion dropped out; Cod. -Theod., VII, i, 18, etc. By the Greeks the <i>Numeri</i> were called the -<i>Catalogues</i>; Procopius, <i>passim</i> (also in previous use).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_710" href="#FNanchor_710" class="label">[710]</a> Cod. Theod., [?] vii, 16, 17, etc.; Procopius, De Bel. Goth., iii, 39; -iv, 26. Applicants of all soils were on occasion attracted by the offer -of a bounty called <i>pulveraticum</i>.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_711" href="#FNanchor_711" class="label">[711]</a> Cod., XII, xxxiv, 6, 7.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_712" href="#FNanchor_712" class="label">[712]</a> Olympiodorus, p. 450; Novel., Theod., xx; Procopius, De Bel. -Vand., i, 11; De Bel. Goth., iv, 5, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_713" href="#FNanchor_713" class="label">[713]</a> Cod., IV, lxv, 35; Novel., cxvii, 11; cf. Benjamin, Berlin -Dissert., 1892.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_714" href="#FNanchor_714" class="label">[714]</a> Procopius, De Bel. Vand., i, 2, 3; Agathias, ii, 7, 9, etc. There -were no true allies of the Empire at this time, although all those who -fought for her may not have been technically <i>Foederati</i>; cf. Mommsen, -<i>op. cit.</i>, pp. 217, 272.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_715" href="#FNanchor_715" class="label">[715]</a> The name defines them as “biscuit-eaters,” in allusion to their -being maintained at the table of their lord.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_716" href="#FNanchor_716" class="label">[716]</a> Benjamin’s essay is written to oppose this view which is favoured -by Mommsen; <i>op. cit.</i>, in both cases.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_717" href="#FNanchor_717" class="label">[717]</a> Procopius, De Bel. Vand., ii, 18.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_718" href="#FNanchor_718" class="label">[718]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, De Bel. Pers., i, 25; De Bel. Goth., iii, 1, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_719" href="#FNanchor_719" class="label">[719]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, De Bel. Vand., i, 17; ii, 19, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_720" href="#FNanchor_720" class="label">[720]</a> Cod., IX, xii, 10.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_721" href="#FNanchor_721" class="label">[721]</a> Ammianus, xiv, 2; xxvii, 9, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_722" href="#FNanchor_722" class="label">[722]</a> Cassiodorus, Var. Epist., v, 16, 17. An order for 1,000 <i>dromons</i> -was executed for Theodoric in an incredibly short time. “Renuntias -completum quod vix credi potest inchoatum.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_723" href="#FNanchor_723" class="label">[723]</a> The general character given to Byzantine soldiers is exceptionally -bad: “The vile and contemptible military class”; Isidore Pelus., Epist., -i, 390: “as free from crime as you might say the sea is free from waves”; -Chrysostom, In Matth. Hom. LXI, 2 (in Migne, vii, 590). These, of -course, are priests, but cf. Ammianus, xxii, 4; Zosimus, ii, 34, etc. -Thus a century earlier the army had already fallen into a wretched condition; -see also Synesius, De Regno.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_724" href="#FNanchor_724" class="label">[724]</a> Maurice, <i>op. cit.</i>, XII, viii, 16.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_725" href="#FNanchor_725" class="label">[725]</a> From the anonymous Strategike it would seem that the phalanx was -restored on occasion during the sixth century (Köchly and Rüslow).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_726" href="#FNanchor_726" class="label">[726]</a> See Arrian’s Tactica <i>v.</i> Alanos. For an interesting exposition of the -vicissitudes of warfare by means of cavalry, infantry, and missiles pure, -see Oman’s Art of War, but the author’s selection of the battle of -Adrianople (378) as marking a sharp turn in the evolution of Roman -cavalry is quite arbitrary and could not be historically maintained. -That disaster made no demonstrable difference in the constitution of the -armies of the Empire. The forces of Rome were consumed to a greater -extent at the battle of Mursa less than thirty years previously (351), when -the army of the victor contained, perhaps, 40,000 cavalry, half of the -whole amount; Julian, Orat. I, ii (p. 98, etc., Hertlein); Zonaras, xiii, -8, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_727" href="#FNanchor_727" class="label">[727]</a> Constantine, according to Zosimus (ii, 33), first appointed a Magister -Equitum in the new sense; cf. Cod. Theod., XI, i, 1 (315).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_728" href="#FNanchor_728" class="label">[728]</a> Notitia Or.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_729" href="#FNanchor_729" class="label">[729]</a> Procopius, De Bel. Pers., i, 13, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_730" href="#FNanchor_730" class="label">[730]</a> Procop., De Bel. Pers., i, 13, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_731" href="#FNanchor_731" class="label">[731]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, De Bel. Vand., i, 19.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_732" href="#FNanchor_732" class="label">[732]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, Anecdot., 24; Agathias, v, 15. Under Leo Macella the -Scholars consisted of selected Armenians, but Zeno introduced a rabble -of Isaurians, his own countrymen; these, of course, were chased by -Anastasius; Theodore Lect., ii, 9, etc. Leo also levied the Excubitors to -be a genuine fighting corps of the Domestics; Jn. Lydus, De Magist., i, 16.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_733" href="#FNanchor_733" class="label">[733]</a> Longinus, brother of Zeno, expected to succeed him, but he was -seized promptly, shaved, and banished as a presbyter to Alexandria; -Theophanes, an. 5984, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_734" href="#FNanchor_734" class="label">[734]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, an. 5985. To his power among the Isaurians Zeno owed his -elevation, being taken up by Leo as a counterpoise to Aspar and his -Goths, the authors of his own fortune, of whom he was in danger of -becoming the tool; Candidus, Excerpt., p. 473, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_735" href="#FNanchor_735" class="label">[735]</a> Marcellinus Com., an. 498.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_736" href="#FNanchor_736" class="label">[736]</a> This was the end of the war according to Theophanes (an. 5988), -who gives it only three years; cf. Jn. Malala, xvi.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_737" href="#FNanchor_737" class="label">[737]</a> These brigands had been subsidized to the amount of 5,000 lb. of -gold annually (Jn. Antioch., Müller, v, p. 30, says only 1,500 lb.), which -was henceforth saved to the treasury; Evagrius, iii, 35. All the most -troublesome characters were captured and settled permanently in Thrace; -Procopius, Gaz. Paneg., 10. For a monograph on this war see Brooks, -Eng. Hist. Rev., 1893.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_738" href="#FNanchor_738" class="label">[738]</a> Kavádh in recent transliteration. Persian history has been greatly -advanced by modern Orientalists; see especially Nöldeke, Geschichte -der Perser, Leyden, 1887. But the history of Tabari is absurdly wrong -in nearly all statements respecting the Romans and the translations of -Nöldeke and Zotenberg vary so much that we often seem to be reading -different works.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_739" href="#FNanchor_739" class="label">[739]</a> Theodore Lect., ii; Procopius, De Bel. Pers., i, 7, <i>et seq.</i>; De -Aedific., iii, 2, <i>et seq.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_740" href="#FNanchor_740" class="label">[740]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>; De Bel. Pers., ii, 3.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_741" href="#FNanchor_741" class="label">[741]</a> Procopius, De Bel. Pers., i, 7; cf. his parallel story of Attila and -the storks at Aquileia; De Bel. Vand., i, 4 (copied, perhaps, by Jordanes). -While such anecdotes may enliven the page of history, their effectivity -must always be accepted with suspicion.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_742" href="#FNanchor_742" class="label">[742]</a> If the statements of Zacharias Myt. and Michael Melit. can be accepted, -the town must have been very populous, as the number of citizens -slain is put by them at eighty thousand.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_743" href="#FNanchor_743" class="label">[743]</a> The Nephthalites or White Huns who occupied Bactria, previously -the seat of a powerful Greek kingdom under a dynasty of Alexander’s -successors.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_744" href="#FNanchor_744" class="label">[744]</a> Ammianus, xxv, 7.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_745" href="#FNanchor_745" class="label">[745]</a> Procopius, De Aedific., ii, 1; cf. Jn. Malala, xvi, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_746" href="#FNanchor_746" class="label">[746]</a> Jordanes, 58. I am putting it, perhaps, too mildly in the text if -Theodoric, who was a vassal of the Empire, knew beforehand of the -course taken by his general. Sabinianus was chiefly supported by -Bulgarians in consequence of Zeno’s treaty with them; cf. Ennodius, -Panegyr. Theodor. Petza had only 2,000 foot and 500 horse.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_747" href="#FNanchor_747" class="label">[747]</a> Marcellinus Com., an. 505; Ennodius, <i>loc. cit.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_748" href="#FNanchor_748" class="label">[748]</a> Marcellinus Com., an. 508. Doubtless this was the event which -caused Theodoric to build a large fleet; Cassiodorus, Var. Epist., v, -15, 16.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_749" href="#FNanchor_749" class="label">[749]</a> Cassiodorus, Var. Epist., i, 1, might apply here; in any case the -sentiments of Theodoric are clearly expressed by Jordanes, 59; cf. 57.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_750" href="#FNanchor_750" class="label">[750]</a> Jn. Antioch. and Jn. Malala, Hermes, vi (Mommsen), pp. 344, 389.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_751" href="#FNanchor_751" class="label">[751]</a> Marcellinus Com., an. 514; Jn. Malala, xvi; Theophanes, an. -6005, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_752" href="#FNanchor_752" class="label">[752]</a> Marcellinus Com., an. 514; Theophanes, an. 6005. The texts -merely imply, perhaps, that they deserted to Vitalian. Hypatius, the -Byzantine general, and nephew to Anastasius, was taken prisoner, -deliberately given up in fact. A second engagement, however, under -Cyril, was undoubtedly bloody; Jn. Malala, xvi.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_753" href="#FNanchor_753" class="label">[753]</a> Jn. Malala, xvi; Zonaras (xiv, 3) says the fleet was inflamed by -burning (concave) mirrors.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_754" href="#FNanchor_754" class="label">[754]</a> As a ransom for their captives; Marcellinus Com., an. 515; -Theophanes, an. 6006. The Senate negotiated for Anastasius.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_755" href="#FNanchor_755" class="label">[755]</a> Marcellinus Com., an. 515.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_756" href="#FNanchor_756" class="label">[756]</a> See, besides the above authorities, the correspondence between -Emperor and Pope (in Migne, S.L., lxiii, also Concil. and Baronius).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_757" href="#FNanchor_757" class="label">[757]</a> Theophanes, an. 6006; Cedrenus, i, p. 632.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_758" href="#FNanchor_758" class="label">[758]</a> All the chronographists relate the vision of Anastasius, to whom, -just before his death, a figure with a book appeared, saying: “For -your insatiable avarice I erase fourteen years.” Every one must regret -the inherent defect of character which deprived us of a centenarian -emperor.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_759" href="#FNanchor_759" class="label">[759]</a> That of Anastasius is the last life written by Tillemont, which, as -usual, he has illustrated by his wide erudition in ecclesiastical literature. -But the infantile credulity of the man in theological matters abates much -of the critical value of his work. Thus he gravely questions if the action -of the Deity was correct when, for the benefit of the Persian king, he -allowed a Christian bishop to release a treasure guarded by demons -whom the Magi had failed to exorcise. He believes implicitly that an -orthodox bishop emerged from the flames intact so as to convince an -Arian congener of his error, etc. Rose’s thesis (Halle, 1886) on these -wars is of some value.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_760" href="#FNanchor_760" class="label">[760]</a> Strabo, II, i, 30, etc.; Pliny, Hist. Nat., ii, 112. The earth was -thought to be about 9,000 miles long and half that width, north to -south.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_761" href="#FNanchor_761" class="label">[761]</a> Cosmas Indicopleustes, a merchant who eventually turned monk, in -his Christian Topography is our chief authority for popular cosmogony -and trade in the sixth century (in Migne, S.G.). The theories of philosophers -jar with his Biblical convictions and excite his antagonism. He -writes to prove that the world is flat, that the sun rounds a great -mountain in the north to cause night, etc. Being something of a draughtsman -he explains his views by cosmographical diagrams, and figures many -objects seen in his travels. There is an annotated translation by -McCrindle, Lond., 1899 (Hakluyt Soc.).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_762" href="#FNanchor_762" class="label">[762]</a> Diodorus, Sic., v, 19, 22, etc. For tin to the Scilly Is., etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_763" href="#FNanchor_763" class="label">[763]</a> Phoenician trade is summarized with considerable detail by Ezekiel, -xxvii; cf. Genesis, xxxvii, 25. But a couple of centuries earlier the -race was well known to Homer, who often adverts to their skill in -manufactures, as also to their knavery and chicanery:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse">Αὐτὴ δ’ ἐς θάλαμον κατεβήσατο κηώεντα,</div> - <div class="verse">Ἔνθ’ ἔσαν οἱ πέπλοι παμποίκιλοι, ἔργα γυναικῶν</div> - <div class="verse">Σιδονίων. κ.τ.λ.</div> - <div class="verse indent20">Iliad, vi, 288.</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse">Ἔνθα δὲ Φοίνικες ναυσίκλυτοι ἤλυθον ἄνδρες</div> - <div class="verse">Τρῶκται, μυρί’ ἄγοντες ἀθύρματα νηῒ μελαίνῃ ...</div> - <div class="verse">Τὴν δ’ ἄρα Φοίνικες πολυπαίπαλοι ἠπερόπευον. κ.τ.λ.</div> - <div class="verse indent20">Odyssey, xv, 415.</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>The recently discovered ruins in Mashonaland (Rhodesia) prove, perhaps, -that their unrecorded expeditions reached to S. Africa; see works -by Bent, Neal and Hall, Keane, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_764" href="#FNanchor_764" class="label">[764]</a> 326 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> In Arrian’s Indica, 18, <i>et seq.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_765" href="#FNanchor_765" class="label">[765]</a> Strabo, XVII, i, 13.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_766" href="#FNanchor_766" class="label">[766]</a> Pliny, Hist. Nat., vi, 26; Pseud-Arrian, Peripl. Mar. Erythr., 57. -For a discussion as to the date of Hippalus see Vincent, Commerce of -the Ancients, ii, p. 47, etc. The S.W. monsoon blows from April to -October, the N.E. in the interval.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_767" href="#FNanchor_767" class="label">[767]</a> Very small, however, according to modern ideas; Pliny (<i>op. cit.</i>, -vi, 24) gives them 3,000 <i>amphorae</i>, not more than 40 or 50 tons register. -Arrian (<i>op. cit.</i>, 19) marks the distinction between “long, narrow -war-galleys and round, capacious trading ships.” A few great ships—floating -palaces rather—were built by the Ptolemies and Hiero of Syracuse, -but they were never seriously employed in navigation; Athenaeus, -v, 36, <i>et seq.</i> Yet ships of at least 250 tons register were in common use -by 170; Pand., L, v, 3.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_768" href="#FNanchor_768" class="label">[768]</a> Pliny, <i>op. cit.</i>, vi, 26, <i>et seq.</i>; Pseud-Arrian, <i>op. cit.</i>, 57. The vessels -had to be armed lest they should fall in with pirates. “The merchant -floating down the stream; the caravan crossing the desert, mounting -the defile, looking out upon the sea and its harbours; the ferry passing -the river; the mariners in their little ship—they are real figures, yet they -are nameless, all but a few; they suffer and they succumb without ever -finding a voice for their story. On the desert, perhaps, a cloud of robber -horse burst upon them; on the river the boat sinks, overladen; in the -mountain passes they drop with cold; in the dirty lanes of the mart they -die of disease. Commerce is not organized, safeguarded, universalized, -as at present, but, such as it is, it reaches wide, and its life is never -quite extinct.” Beazley, Dawn of Modern Geography, i, p. 177.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_769" href="#FNanchor_769" class="label">[769]</a> Pliny, <i>op. cit.</i>, vi, 19. He remarks that Pompey, during the Mithridatic -war, first made the existence of this trade known to the Romans; -cf. Strabo, XI, ii, 16; the geographer notes that Dioscurias, about 50 -miles north of Phasis, was a great barbarian mart frequented by 70, or -even, as some said, by 300 different nations; see also Ammianus, -xxiii, 6.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_770" href="#FNanchor_770" class="label">[770]</a> Cosmas, <i>op. cit.</i>, ii; cf. Procopius, De Bel. Pers., i, 20.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_771" href="#FNanchor_771" class="label">[771]</a> So called from a sophist who was murdered there; Libanius, -Epist., 20. Previously Nicephorium.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_772" href="#FNanchor_772" class="label">[772]</a> Cod. Theod., VII, xvi, 2, 3, and Godfrey <i>ad loc.</i>; Cod., IV, -lxiii, 4.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_773" href="#FNanchor_773" class="label">[773]</a> The inhabitants were a mixed race, containing Semitic and Hellenic -elements, etc. Greek inscriptions were common there; Cosmas, <i>op. cit.</i>, -ii; cf. Philostorgius, iii, 6, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_774" href="#FNanchor_774" class="label">[774]</a> For the transport of an army to the opposite coast the king was able -to collect 120 Roman, Persian, and native vessels; Act. Sanct. (Boll.), -lviii, p. 747 (not 1,300 as Finlay, i, p. 264, which comes from adding -a cipher to the figures in Surius).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_775" href="#FNanchor_775" class="label">[775]</a> Called Taprobane by the Greek and Roman writers. It was distinguished -by the possession of an immense lustrous jewel (ruby perhaps) -which scintillated from the top of a temple; Cosmas, <i>op. cit.</i>, xi.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_776" href="#FNanchor_776" class="label">[776]</a> The junks from Annam, as it appears, ploughed round the Malay -peninsula to Galle; Hirth, China and the Roman Orient, 1885, p. 178. -The Cingalese took no active part in the trade!; Tennant, Ceylon, i, -p. 568 (<i>ibid.</i>).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_777" href="#FNanchor_777" class="label">[777]</a> Cosmas, <i>op. cit.</i>, xi. His own trade seems to have lain chiefly between -Adule and Malabar. In this age all the southern regions eastward -of the Nile were commonly referred to as India; and that river was often -named as the boundary between Africa and Asia. Hence the Nile was -said to rise in India; Procopius, De Aedific., vi, 1, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_778" href="#FNanchor_778" class="label">[778]</a> Now Somaliland.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_779" href="#FNanchor_779" class="label">[779]</a> Cosmas, <i>op. cit.</i>, xi; cf. Strabo, XVI, iv, 14. When Nonnosus went -to Axume, <i>c.</i> 330, he saw 5,000 elephants grazing in a vast plain; Excerpt., -p. 480.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_780" href="#FNanchor_780" class="label">[780]</a> Cosmas, <i>op. cit.</i>, ii. This kind of wordless barter was also the mode -of trading with the Serae or Chinese on the higher reaches of the Brahmaputra (?); -Pliny, Hist. Nat., vi, 24; Ammianus, xxiii, 6; cf. Herodotus, -iv, 196.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_781" href="#FNanchor_781" class="label">[781]</a> Pliny, <i>op. cit.</i>, xii, 30. This district was also called the land of -Frankincense; cf. Strabo, XVI, iv, 25; Pseud-Arrian, <i>op. cit.</i>, 29. -There was also a port called Arabia Felix on or near the site of modern -Aden.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_782" href="#FNanchor_782" class="label">[782]</a> Cosmas, <i>op. cit.</i>, xi. White slaves, especially beautiful females for -concubinage, were among the most important exports to India; Pseud-Arrian, -<i>op. cit.</i>, 49. One Eudoxus tried to reach that country by rounding -West Africa with a cargo of choir girls, physicians, and artisans, but -twice failed; Strabo, II, iii, 4. In the time of Pliny the Empire was -drained by the East yearly to the amount of £800,000 in specie; Hist. -Nat., xii, 41. Statues and paintings were also exported from the Empire; -Strabo, XVI, iv, 26; Pseud-Arrian, <i>op. cit.</i>, 48; Philostratus, Vit. Apol., -v, 20. The import of precious stones, etc., may be conceived from the -statement that Lollia Paulina appeared in the theatre wearing emeralds -and pearls to the value of £304,000; Pliny, <i>op. cit.</i>, ix, 58.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_783" href="#FNanchor_783" class="label">[783]</a> Cosmas, <i>op. cit.</i>, ii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_784" href="#FNanchor_784" class="label">[784]</a> Malchus, p. 234; Theophanes, an. 5990. The island was taken by -the Scenite (tent-dwelling) Arabs under Theodosius II, but was recovered -by Anastasius.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_785" href="#FNanchor_785" class="label">[785]</a> <i>Ibid.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_786" href="#FNanchor_786" class="label">[786]</a> Antoninus Martyr, Perambulatio, etc., 38, 41 (trans. in Pal. Pilgr. -Text Soc., ii). The martyr, however, is a liar, as he professes to have -produced wine from water at Cana, unless some brother monk in copying -has been anxious to enhance his reputation. Clysma is now Suez.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_787" href="#FNanchor_787" class="label">[787]</a> Rhinocolura, near Gaza, was the depôt for this trade in the time of -Strabo (XVI, iv, 24).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_788" href="#FNanchor_788" class="label">[788]</a> Strabo, XVII, i, 45; Pliny, Hist. Nat., vi, 26; Pseud-Arrian, <i>op. -cit., passim</i>. Cosmas does not mention Berenice, but it was flourishing -in the time of Procopius (De Aedific., vi, 2).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_789" href="#FNanchor_789" class="label">[789]</a> Strabo, XVII, i, 45; Pliny, <i>op. cit.</i>, vi, 26.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_790" href="#FNanchor_790" class="label">[790]</a> Strabo, XVI, iv, 24; XVII, iv, 10, <i>et seq.</i> There was a canal from -the Red Sea to the Nile, but it silted up too rapidly to be permanently -used. In Roman times Trajan last reopened it; see Lethaby and S., <i>op. -cit.</i>, p. 236, for monographs on this subject.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_791" href="#FNanchor_791" class="label">[791]</a> Notitia Or., X, XII; Cod. Theod., X, xx, xxi, xxii, and Godefroy’s -commentaries; Cod., XI, viii, ix, x.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_792" href="#FNanchor_792" class="label">[792]</a> Strabo, XVI, iv, 24; Pliny, <i>op. cit.</i>, v, 16. There were different -shades of purple and only the imperial shade was prohibited; Pliny, <i>op. -cit.</i>, xxi, 22. The murex was gathered in several other places, especially -Laconia, where it was inferior only to that of Tyre; Pausanias, iii, 21, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_793" href="#FNanchor_793" class="label">[793]</a> Sozomen, v, 15. Much money was also coined at Cyzicus.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_794" href="#FNanchor_794" class="label">[794]</a> Cod. Theod., X, xx, 8.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_795" href="#FNanchor_795" class="label">[795]</a> Cod., IV, lxxxiii, 6. This doubtless applied only to great houses, -not to petty retail dealers and shopkeepers (to the ἔμπορος not the -κάπηλος); the number seems too large to understand it of the capital -alone.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_796" href="#FNanchor_796" class="label">[796]</a> Pliny, <i>op. cit.</i>, viii, 73; Athenaeus, i, 50; xv, 17, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_797" href="#FNanchor_797" class="label">[797]</a> Strabo, XII, viii, 16; Pliny, <i>op. cit.</i>, 73, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_798" href="#FNanchor_798" class="label">[798]</a> Athenaeus, ii, 30; vi, 67.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_799" href="#FNanchor_799" class="label">[799]</a> Pliny, <i>op. cit.</i>, xi, 27, etc. It is a question whether the transparent -Coan fabrics were of silk, linen, or cotton, or a mixture.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_800" href="#FNanchor_800" class="label">[800]</a> Procopius, Anecdot., 25.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_801" href="#FNanchor_801" class="label">[801]</a> <i>Ibid.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_802" href="#FNanchor_802" class="label">[802]</a> Athenaeus, i, 50.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_803" href="#FNanchor_803" class="label">[803]</a> Pliny, <i>op. cit.</i>, xxxv, 46.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_804" href="#FNanchor_804" class="label">[804]</a> Strabo, XVI, ii, 25; Pliny, <i>op. cit.</i>, xxxvi, 65. False stones were -plentifully manufactured; <i>ibid.</i>, xxxvii, 78, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_805" href="#FNanchor_805" class="label">[805]</a> Strabo, XIII, iv, 17.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_806" href="#FNanchor_806" class="label">[806]</a> Athenaeus, i, 50; xiii, 24.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_807" href="#FNanchor_807" class="label">[807]</a> Pliny, <i>op. cit.</i>, xiii, 21.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_808" href="#FNanchor_808" class="label">[808]</a> Strabo, XVII, i, 15; Pliny, <i>op. cit.</i>, xiii, 22; Hist. August. Firmus, -etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_809" href="#FNanchor_809" class="label">[809]</a> Pausanias, v, 5; vii, 21.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_810" href="#FNanchor_810" class="label">[810]</a> Strabo, XIII, iv, 14.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_811" href="#FNanchor_811" class="label">[811]</a> Cod. Theod., XV, xi; Cod., XI, xliv. Indigenously called Mabog. -It was a mart of venal beauty as well as of beasts; Lucian, De Syria Dea.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_812" href="#FNanchor_812" class="label">[812]</a> Ammianus, xxix, 4; Procopius, Anecdot. 21.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_813" href="#FNanchor_813" class="label">[813]</a> Pliny, <i>op. cit.</i>, iv, 27; xxxvii, 11.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_814" href="#FNanchor_814" class="label">[814]</a> Pliny, <i>op. cit.</i>, xiv, <i>passim</i>; Athenaeus, i, 52, 55; x, <i>passim</i>.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_815" href="#FNanchor_815" class="label">[815]</a> Strabo, XVII, iii, 23; Pliny, xxiv, 48; measuring more than 100 -by 30 miles. What silphium really was is now indeterminate, but it was -economically akin to garlic and asafoetida. It seems to have been indispensable -in ordinary cooking.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_816" href="#FNanchor_816" class="label">[816]</a> Totius Orb. Descript. (Müller, Geog. Graec. Min., Paris, 1861) -36; Procopius, De Aedific., v, 1.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_817" href="#FNanchor_817" class="label">[817]</a> Tot. Orb. Descr., 51, 53. This tract from a Greek original (<i>c.</i> 350) -summarizes the productions of the whole Empire, and for the most part -confirms the continuance of the industries adverted to by the earlier and -more copious writers.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_818" href="#FNanchor_818" class="label">[818]</a> Athenaeus, i, 49.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_819" href="#FNanchor_819" class="label">[819]</a> <i>Ibid.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_820" href="#FNanchor_820" class="label">[820]</a> Strabo, VII, vi, 2; Pliny, ix, 17, <i>et seq.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_821" href="#FNanchor_821" class="label">[821]</a> Cosmas, <i>op. cit.</i>, ii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_822" href="#FNanchor_822" class="label">[822]</a> Several “embassies” from Rome are mentioned in the Chinese -annals, but nothing seems to have been known of them in the West. -Stray merchants sometimes penetrated very far; Strabo, XV, i, 4. At -first Rome is disguised as <i>Ta-thsin</i>, but later (643) the Byzantine power -figures as <i>Fou-lin</i>; see Pauthier, Relat. polit. de la Chine avec les -puiss. occid., 1859; cf. Hirth, <i>op. cit.</i>, who was without books to pursue -the inquiry; Florus, iv, 12, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_823" href="#FNanchor_823" class="label">[823]</a> Aristotle, Hist. Animal., v, 19; Pliny, <i>op. cit.</i>, xi, 26; Pausanias, -vi, 26.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_824" href="#FNanchor_824" class="label">[824]</a> Cosmas, <i>op. cit.</i>, ii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_825" href="#FNanchor_825" class="label">[825]</a> Procopius, De Bel. Pers., i, 30.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_826" href="#FNanchor_826" class="label">[826]</a> A serf was called <i>colonus</i>, <i>inquilinus</i>, or <i>adscriptus glebae</i>, terms -fairly synonymous; Cod., XI, xlvii, 13. Godefroy’s paratitlon to Cod. -Theod., V, ix, x, is an epitome of everything relating to the serfs of -antiquity; cf. Savigny, Römische Colonat u.s.w. Berlin Acad., 1822-3. -The name of modern works on slavery and serfdom is legion.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_827" href="#FNanchor_827" class="label">[827]</a> Cod., XI, xlvii, 21.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_828" href="#FNanchor_828" class="label">[828]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, 18, 23.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_829" href="#FNanchor_829" class="label">[829]</a> Cod. Theod., X, xv, and Godefroy <i>ad loc.</i>; Pand., XLVII, vi; -Novel., xvii, 17; lxxxv, 4, etc. This general disarmament of the -industrial classes often left them defenceless against the barbarian raiders, -as is instanced practically by Synesius, Epist. 107. Yet in an age of non-explosives -peasants armed only with agricultural implements could -become terrible, as was shown in Paphlagonia (359), when the incensed -Novatian sectaries routed the legionaries sent against them with their -hatchets, reaping-hooks, etc.; Socrates, ii, 30; Sozomen, iv, 21.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_830" href="#FNanchor_830" class="label">[830]</a> Cod. Theod., X, xx, 16.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_831" href="#FNanchor_831" class="label">[831]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, X, xx, xxi, xxii; Cod., XI, viii, ix, x. To be a public baker -(<i>manceps</i>) was a particular sort of punishment; Cod. Theod., XIV, -lii, 22, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_832" href="#FNanchor_832" class="label">[832]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, X, xx, 3, 5, 10, 15. Male and female alike, as well as their -offspring, became bound to the sodality into which they married. -The <i>addicti</i> were branded on the arm like recruits; <i>ibid.</i>, X, xxi, 4; -cf. IX, xl, 2; Cod., XI, ix, 2. Scarcely less stringent were the rules by -which even the private guilds or colleges were governed. All the trades -were incorporated in such associations under an official charter; Cod. -Theod., XIV, ii-viii. But the note of personal liberty had already been -sounded, and the more coercive restrictions were omitted from the later -Code; cf. Choisy, L’art de batir chez les Byzantins, Paris, 1883, p. 200, -etc. (Mommsen’s pioneer work on guilds is well known).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_833" href="#FNanchor_833" class="label">[833]</a> Cod. Theod., XIII, v, vi, ix; Cod., X, ii, etc. (and Godefroy).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_834" href="#FNanchor_834" class="label">[834]</a> Procopius, De Aedfiic., v, 1.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_835" href="#FNanchor_835" class="label">[835]</a> Although their property was held in lien by the state as security for -the maintenance of ships, it appears that they could grow rich through -the facilities they enjoyed for private commerce and possess an independent -fortune; Cod. Theod., XIII, vi; cf. Pand., L, iv, 5. Hence -some joined voluntarily.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_836" href="#FNanchor_836" class="label">[836]</a> Cod. Theod., XII, i. This title, the longest of all (192 laws), -provides us with a plummet with which we may sound the depths of -their misery, and exemplifies their eagerness to escape to any other -mode of existence as well as the stringency with which they were -reclaimed.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_837" href="#FNanchor_837" class="label">[837]</a> Hence their property was always in chancery, as we may say, and -the Curia to which they belonged was their reversionary heir, necessarily -to a fourth; Cod., X, xxxiv. In the Code the laws relating -to them are reduced to about seventy; X, xxxi, <i>et seq.</i> Their duties -and liabilities are indexed in Godefroy’s paratitlon. Libanius had seen -people of substance reduced to beggary by these obligations; Epitaph. -Juliani (R., I., p. 571). Majorian (457-61) attempted reforms in the West.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_838" href="#FNanchor_838" class="label">[838]</a> See Libanius, Epist., 248, 339, 825, 1079, 1143, etc. The sophist -had much interest owing to the number of pupils he had trained to -succeed in advocacy, etc., and could often beg off one old disciple by -appealing to another. A Rector’s nod in such cases was more potent -than an Imperial rescript; Cod. Theod., XII, i, 17; <i>ibid.</i>, 1, notwithstanding. -Zeno enacted that even some Illustrious officials should not -be exempt after vacating their office; Cod., X, xxxi, 64, 65.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_839" href="#FNanchor_839" class="label">[839]</a> Fathers of a dozen children were released or not called upon; Cod. -Theod., XII, i, 55; Cod., X, xxxi, 24. Otherwise disease or decrepit -old age seem to have the only effective claims for relief, apart from -interest, bribery, etc. The general result of this political economy was -that the Empire resembled a great factory, in which each one had -a special place, and was excluded from everywhere else. “In England -a resident of Leeds is at home in Manchester, and has judicially the -same position as a citizen of Manchester, whereas in the Roman Empire -a citizen of Thessalonica was an alien in Dyrrachium; a citizen of -Corinth an alien in Patras”; Bury, Later Rom. Emp., i, p. 38.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_840" href="#FNanchor_840" class="label">[840]</a> The Verrine sequence of Cicero’s speeches remains a picture up to -this date of the usual tyranny of a Roman governor. Few went to the -provinces with any other idea but that of rapine. “Cessent jam nunc -rapaces officialium manus,” says Constantine, “cessent inquam: nam -si moniti non cessaverint, gladiis praecidentur,” etc.; Cod. Theod., -I, vii, 1. The revolution of two centuries brings no improvement: -“Confluunt huc (Constantinople) omnes ingemiscentes, sacerdotes, et -curiales, et officiales, et possessores, et populi, et agricolae, judicum -furta merito et injustitias accusantes,” etc.; Novel., viii, Pro. For this -law, ineffective as ever, all are enjoined to return thanks to God! a vain -parade of legislation.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_841" href="#FNanchor_841" class="label">[841]</a> Cod. Theod., X, xxiv; XII, ix; Salvian, De Gubern. Dei, v, 4, -<i>et passim</i>. Titles x, xi, xii, xiii, xiv (of X) deal with the self-seekers -who, in the guise of delators or informers, infested the Court in unsettled -times and tried to oust people from their possessions by accusing -them of treason; cf. Ammianus, xix, 12, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_842" href="#FNanchor_842" class="label">[842]</a> Cod. Theod., XI, vi; Ammianus, xvii, 3; Salvian, <i>op. cit.</i>, v, 7, -etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_843" href="#FNanchor_843" class="label">[843]</a> So Verres, ii, 38, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_844" href="#FNanchor_844" class="label">[844]</a> Cod. Theod., XII, vi, 27, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_845" href="#FNanchor_845" class="label">[845]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, XI, vi, viii; XV, i; and Godefroy’s commentaries. The -Defenders of the Cities seem to have been in general too cowed to -exercise their prerogative or were gained over.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_846" href="#FNanchor_846" class="label">[846]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, VIII, xv. In this, as in other instances, I refer to the laws -against the offences which were committed in disregard of them. -Godefroy usually supplies exemplifications.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_847" href="#FNanchor_847" class="label">[847]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, XI, xxx, 4; xxxiv.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_848" href="#FNanchor_848" class="label">[848]</a> Cod. Theod., X, ix, 1, and Godefroy <i>ad loc.</i>; cf. <i>ibid.</i>, i, 2; Novel. -xvii, 15; Agathias, v, 4. They even attempted to invalidate Imperial -grants. Notices on purple cloth were suspended to denote confiscation of -estates to the crown.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_849" href="#FNanchor_849" class="label">[849]</a> Cassiodorus, Var. Epist., v, 34; ix, 14, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_850" href="#FNanchor_850" class="label">[850]</a> Palladius, Vit. Paphnutii; Hist. Lausiaca, 63 (not by Jerome, as -Godefroy <i>ad</i> Cod. Theod., III, iii).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_851" href="#FNanchor_851" class="label">[851]</a> Synesius, Epist., 79, 96, etc. These may have been isolated devices -of Andronicus at Ptolemais. One of his subordinates used to seize -objects of art <i>à la</i> Verres. Yet these men were only reached by the -happy thought of excommunicating them. In this the great Athanasius -had set the example.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_852" href="#FNanchor_852" class="label">[852]</a> Cod. Theod., IX, xxxv, and Godefroy. This was the regular method -of scourging, but illegal as a means of enforcing payment of taxes; -<i>ibid.</i>, XI, vii, 7. The Egyptians were particularly obstinate, and even -proud to show the weals they had suffered sooner than pay; Ammianus, -xxii, 6, 16.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_853" href="#FNanchor_853" class="label">[853]</a> Cod. Theod., XI, xxviii, 10, 14; cf. vii, 20.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_854" href="#FNanchor_854" class="label">[854]</a> Evagrius, iii, 39. He pretended to have made a sad mistake, and -spread a report that he would promptly reimpose it were he not without -documentary evidence to enable the books to be reopened. Enticed by -this ruse the knavish collectors brought in the accounts they had kept -back and a second conflagration was made with them.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_855" href="#FNanchor_855" class="label">[855]</a> Under Arcadius the traffic was barefaced by Eutropius, and probably -little less so in the succeeding reign by Chrysaphius:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse">Vestibulo pretiis distinguit regula gentes.</div> - <div class="verse">Tot Galatae, tot Pontus, eat, tot Lydia nummis.</div> - <div class="verse">Si Lyciam tenuisse velis, tot millia ponas, etc.</div> - <div class="verse indent20">Claudian, In Eutropium, i, 202.</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>Afterwards it was more underhand; see Novel. viii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_856" href="#FNanchor_856" class="label">[856]</a> As Bury well observes; Gibbon, v, p. 533.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_857" href="#FNanchor_857" class="label">[857]</a> Cod., I, xlviii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_858" href="#FNanchor_858" class="label">[858]</a> Novel. viii; xcv; clxi.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_859" href="#FNanchor_859" class="label">[859]</a> Cod. Theod., III, iii; V, viii; XI, xxvii, and Godefroy’s illustrations. -Sold in this way, Roman citizens were not held in perpetual -bondage, but regained their liberty after serving for a term; cf. Cassiodorus, -Var. Ep., viii, 33. Constantine was shocked to find that deaths from -starvation were frequent in his dominions, and so advertised a measure -of outdoor relief, which Rectors were instructed to exhibit conspicuously -in all parts; cf. Lactantius, Divin. Inst., vi, 20. The same Constantine -is the author of an extravagant law by which lovers who elope together -are subjected to capital (?) punishment without any suffrance of accommodation, -whilst even persons who may have counselled them to the -step are condemned to perish by having molten lead poured down their -throats. By such frantic whims could legislation be travestied in those -days; Cod. Theod., IX, xxiv.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_860" href="#FNanchor_860" class="label">[860]</a> Cod. Theod., II, xiv; Cod., II, xvi; Augustine, Enarr. in Psalm. -XXI, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_861" href="#FNanchor_861" class="label">[861]</a> Cod., IX, xii, 10. See Priscus for a general outline of some of the -grievances dealt with in this article; Hist. Goth. Excerpt., p. 190; cf. -Nov. xxxiii, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_862" href="#FNanchor_862" class="label">[862]</a> Cod. Theod., XI, xxiv; Cod., XI, liii; cf. liv. Libanius in the -East and Salvian in the West, at the distance of nearly a century, complain -in analogous terms of the manner in which the wealthy residents -turned the tribulations of their poorer neighbours to their own profit; De -Prostasiis (ii, p. 493 R.); De Gubern. Dei, v, 8, 9; cf. Nov. xxxiii, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_863" href="#FNanchor_863" class="label">[863]</a> Cod. Theod., XIII, i, 16; XVI, ii, 10, etc. “Distincta enim -stipendia sunt religionis et calliditatis” is the caustic taunt put into the -mouth of Arcadius. The concessions were withdrawn by Valentinian III -(Novel. II, xii), ineffectively we may safely assume from Nov. xliii; -1,100 duty-free shops at CP. belonging to St. Sophia alone.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_864" href="#FNanchor_864" class="label">[864]</a> Cod. Theod., XII, xiv.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_865" href="#FNanchor_865" class="label">[865]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, IX, xxx, 2, 5; xxxi. A further hardship was the quartering -of soldiers on private persons, but this, of course, was only local and -temporary. The Goths and other barbarians were especially harsh and -grasping among those who had to receive them when in transit through -the country; see Jos. Stylites, <i>op. cit.</i>, 86. Generally the military were -arrogant towards, and contemned the civil population; Zosimus, ii, 34.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_866" href="#FNanchor_866" class="label">[866]</a> There seems to be no good reason why children should not now be -taught from a primer of scientific cosmology, and have a catechism of -ethics as well to the exclusion of everything mythological. The human -brain is a weak organ of mind, and requires, above all things, a tonic -treatment. Nothing can be more enfeebling than any teaching which -causes children to imagine that they are surrounded by unseen intelligences -having the power to affect them for good or evil. In most -instances, a mind so subdued never recovers its resiliency; liberty of -thought is always hampered by dread of the invisible; and many of our -greatest men have been unable in after life to free themselves from this -fatuity. There should, however, be places of public assembly where -people could resort for ethical direction and encouragement, without the -lessons taught being vitiated or nullified by being made to depend on -mythology. But the objectionable name “agnostic” should be discarded, -as if to be properly educated were to belong to a peculiar sect. It suggests -a country in which a special designation has to be given to all who -are neither diseased nor deformed.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_867" href="#FNanchor_867" class="label">[867]</a> Even Cicero affects to think it <i>infra dig.</i> for him to show any correct -knowledge of the most famous Greek sculptors; Verres, II, iv.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_868" href="#FNanchor_868" class="label">[868]</a> Suetonius, De Ill. Gram., 2; De Clar. Rhet., 1; Aul. Gell., xv, -11. Crates Mallotes has the credit of being the first Greek Grammarian -who taught at Rome, <i>c. 157</i> <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> The Rhetoricians had migrated earlier, -and in 161 a SC. was launched against them, and again a few years -later.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_869" href="#FNanchor_869" class="label">[869]</a> When the system was fully organized under Ant. Pius (138-161), -the largest communities were allowed ten Physicians, five Rhetoricians -(or Sophists), and three Grammarians; the smallest recognized under -the scheme, five Physicians, three Rhetoricians, and three Grammarians; -Pand., XXVII, i, 6; Hist. August. Ant. Pius, 11. Antonius Musa, physician -to Augustus, seems to have been the first learned man to whom -public honours were decreed at Rome, viz., a statue of brass on the -recovery of the Emperor, 23 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>; Suetonius, August., 59, 81. He was -even the cause of privileges being conferred on his profession generally; -Dion Cass., liii, 30. Vespasian was the first to give regular salaries to -Rhetoricians; he also gave handsome presents to poets, artists, and -architects, and granted relief from public burdens to physicians and -philosophers; Suetonius in Vita, 18; Pand., L, iv, 18(30). But the -idea of remitting their taxes to learned men was old; Diogenes Laert., -Pyrrho, 5. That of selling philosophers for slaves when they could not -pay them, was also old; <i>ibid.</i>, Xenocrates; Bion. Hadrian, called -<i>Graeculus</i> from his pedantry, also did much for the cause of learning; -Hist. August. in Vita, 1, 17, and commentators. The Athenaeum at -Rome was his foundation, an educational college of which no details are -known; Aurel. Victor, in Vita. Alexander Sev. went further than any -of his predecessors in granting an allowance to poor students; Hist. -August. in Vita, 44.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_870" href="#FNanchor_870" class="label">[870]</a> Cod. Theod., XV, i, 53, and Godefroy <i>ad loc.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_871" href="#FNanchor_871" class="label">[871]</a> Zacharias, De Opific., Mund., 40, <i>et seq.</i> (in Migne, S. G., lxxxv, -1011); See Hasaeus, De Acad. Beryt., etc. Halae Magd., 1716. The -humblest school was adorned with figures of the Muses; Athenaeus, viii, -41; Diogenes Laert., Diog., 6. A lecture hall was generally called a -“Theatre of the Muses”; Himerius, Or., xxii; Themistius, Or., xxi.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_872" href="#FNanchor_872" class="label">[872]</a> Diogenes Laert., Theophrastus, 14; Eumenius, De Schol. Instaur.; -Themistius, Or., xxvi, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_873" href="#FNanchor_873" class="label">[873]</a> Gregory Naz., Laud. Basil, 14, <i>et seq.</i> In Julian, ii; Zosimus, v, 5. -Synesius pictures the schools as deserted when he visited Athens (<i>c. 410</i>); -no philosophers, no painted porches, nothing in evidence but the jars of -honey from Hymettus. Hypatia, in fact, was attracting every one to -Alexandria. After her murder, however, it doubtless began to recuperate -(<i>c.</i> 415). Themistius inveighs against those parents who sent their sons -to a <i>place</i> on account of its repute, instead of looking out for the <i>best -man</i>. He mentions that pupils came to him at CP. from Greece and -Ionia; Or., xxvii; xxiii. The students of this age are described as -extremely fractious. At Athens, a great commotion greeted the arrival -of a freshman, who was put through a rude ordeal until they had passed -him into the public bath, whence he issued again as an accepted comrade; -Gregory Naz., Laud. Basil., 16. There also they fought duels, and -Libanius reprobates their presenting themselves to him slashed with -knives; Epist., 627; Himerius, Or., xxii. Practical jokes amongst -themselves, or played on the professors, were often pushed by the -students to the verge of criminality; Pand. praef., 2(9). At Carthage -St. Augustine found his class for rhetoric so unruly that he threw it up -and migrated to Rome. There, indeed, they were more orderly, but -indulged in the galling practice of flocking in a body to a certain teacher, -whom they suddenly abandoned after a time, forgetting to pay their fees. -Sick of it all, he eagerly closed with an offer of the P. U. to take up a -salaried post at Milan; Confess., v, 8, 12, 13.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_874" href="#FNanchor_874" class="label">[874]</a> Cod. Theod., XIV, ix, 3; Cod., XI, xviii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_875" href="#FNanchor_875" class="label">[875]</a> <i>Ibid.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_876" href="#FNanchor_876" class="label">[876]</a> Cod. Theod., XIV, ix, 2. Constantius seems to have founded the -first great library (<i>c.</i> 351), and another was originated by Julian; Themistius, -Or., iv; see <a href="#Page_88">p. 88</a>. Themistius says that he spent twenty years in -studying the “old treasures” of literature at CP.; Or., xxxiii (p. 359, -Dind.).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_877" href="#FNanchor_877" class="label">[877]</a> Themistius, Or., xxiii; xxviii, etc. Chrysostom, Ad Pop. Ant. Hom. -xvii, 2 (in Migne, ii, 173).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_878" href="#FNanchor_878" class="label">[878]</a> See p. <a href="#Page_58">58</a>; Themistius, Or., xxiv; cf. Cresollius, Theatr. Vet. Rhet., -Paris, 1620, a huge repertory of details relating to this class.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_879" href="#FNanchor_879" class="label">[879]</a> Themistius, Or., xxviii, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_880" href="#FNanchor_880" class="label">[880]</a> Themistius, Or., xiii; Chrysostom, In Epist. ad Ephes. Hom. xxi, -3 (in Migne, xi, 153); Eunapius, Proaeresius. These popular lectures -were often merely colloquial entertainments, such as used to be associated -with the name of Corney Grain, without the music. See the -correspondence of Basil Mag. with Libanius, Epist., 351 (Migne), <i>et seq.</i>, -L.’s most effective piece, a dialogue in which he mimicked the fretfulness -of a morose man.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_881" href="#FNanchor_881" class="label">[881]</a> Cod. Theod., XIII, iii, 1, and Godefroy <i>ad loc.</i> At this time, however, -pagan professors were often much persecuted by Christian fanatics, -and Themistius complains that they were even officially muzzled; Or., -xxvi, and <i>ibid.</i> Professors were naturally the last to become converts. -As to the general esteem in which the class was held, see the poetical -commemoration of the Bordeaux professors by Ausonius. Lucian deals -satirically with philosophers in his Eunuch, De Merc. Cond., Hermotimus, -etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_882" href="#FNanchor_882" class="label">[882]</a> Cod. Theod., XIII, iii, 7, and Godefroy <i>ad loc.</i>; Cod., X, lii, 8; -Themistius, Or., xxi, etc. Chrysostom, <i>loc. cit.</i> (note 4 <i>supra</i>).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_883" href="#FNanchor_883" class="label">[883]</a> Cod. Theod., XIII, iii, 5. A law of Julian to facilitate his ousting -Christian professors, but retained for its literal application.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_884" href="#FNanchor_884" class="label">[884]</a> Themistius fairly covers the ground as to this question; Or., xxi; -xxiii. The inferior teachers were exacting, and even extortionate. They -accused him of requiring a talent (£240?), but he asked nothing at CP. -where he was subsidized; on the contrary, he assisted needy pupils. -Still, he received a great deal of money as presents. At Antioch, where -it was the custom, he took fees like the rest. For more ancient times -and generally, see Cresollius, <i>op. cit.</i>, v, 3, 4, etc. What the government -paid is uncertain. Augustus gave V. Flaccus £800 a year for acting -exclusively as tutor to his nephews; Suetonius, De Ill. Gram., 17. -£1,040 has been conjectured as the salary of Eumenius (600,000 <i>nummi</i>, -<i>op. cit.</i>). In Diocletian’s Act for fixing prices, ordinary schoolmasters -are allowed only about 4<i>s.</i> a month, professors 12<i>s.</i>; for each pupil in a -class, of course. The case of M. Aurelius bestowing £400 per ann. on -the professors at Athens is also to be noted; Dion Cass., lxxxi, 31.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_885" href="#FNanchor_885" class="label">[885]</a> Chrysostom, Genesis, i, Hom. iii, 3 (in Migne, iv, 29); In Epist. -ad Coloss. Hom. iv, 3 (in Migne, xi, 328); Paulus Aegin., i, 14; cf. -Quintilian, i, 1, etc. Youths from the provinces studying at Rome were -packed home again at twenty, but this order seems to have been dropped -later on; Cod. Theod., XIV, ix, 1 (not retained in Code).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_886" href="#FNanchor_886" class="label">[886]</a> On first methods with children, see Quintilian, i; Jerome, Epist., -107; Chrysostom, Ad Pop. Ant. Hom. xvi, 14 (in Migne, ii, 168); -De Mut. Nom. ii, 1 (in Migne, iii, 125); Genesis, i, Hom. iii, 3; -Epist. Coloss. i, Hom. iv, 3 (in Migne, xi, 329), etc. Libanius, In -Chriis (Reiske, ii, p. 868). The first book of Augustine’s Confessions -gives many particulars as to his own bringing up in childhood. Greek -nursemaids were hired at Rome so that young children might learn the -language; Tacitus, De Caus. Cor. Eloq., 29. Wooden or ivory letters -were used as playthings. These schoolmasters are represented as very -harsh instructors, who cowed the spirit of their pupils. The rod was -freely used, and chiefly by the paedagogue. Even scholars of maturer -age were corrected by whipping. Libanius used to “wake up the lazy -ones with a strap, the incorrigible he expelled.” Epist., 1119. Chrysostom -himself accepts as axiomatic that nothing can be done with boys -without beating; Act. Apost. Hom. xlii, 4 (in Migne, ix, 308). -Quintilian and Paul of Aegina, however, advise going on the opposite -tack; <i>loc. cit.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_887" href="#FNanchor_887" class="label">[887]</a> Pand., L, v, 2, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_888" href="#FNanchor_888" class="label">[888]</a> Martianus Capella, an African who lived in the fifth century, is the -author of the only self-contained manual of liberal education which has -come down to us. His treatise seems to contain all the book-work a -student was expected to do while under oral teaching by the professors. -Cassiodorus has left a slight tract, but he recommends other volumes to -supplement his own merely tentative work. Isidore of Seville, a century -later, has also included an epitome of the seven liberal arts in the first -three books of his Etymologies, but his exposition is almost as thin as -that of Cassiodorus. The remaining seventeen books are a sort of encyclopaedic -dictionary with explanatory jottings on almost every subject, -well worth dipping into.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_889" href="#FNanchor_889" class="label">[889]</a> Introduced, perhaps, by Boethius; De Arith., i, 1. Τετρακτὺς is -found in Greek; Anna Comn.; i, pref.; see Ducange, <i>sb. voc.</i> The -latter word is really the original and goes back to Pythagorean times.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_890" href="#FNanchor_890" class="label">[890]</a> See Priscian, Partitiones, xii, Vers. Aen., etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_891" href="#FNanchor_891" class="label">[891]</a> After Rome had produced good writers, such as Virgil, Horace, -Livy, etc., they were added to the course of literature in the West; -Quintilian, i, 8; x.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_892" href="#FNanchor_892" class="label">[892]</a> There is some obscurity about his date, which suggests that he was -a centenarian. Ordericus Vit. says he died in 425; cf. Cassiodorus, De -Orthograph., 12, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_893" href="#FNanchor_893" class="label">[893]</a> “One father,” says Chrysostom, “points out to his son how some -one of low birth by learning eloquence obtained promotion to high office, -won a rich wife, and became possessed of wealth with a fine house, etc., -or how another through a mastery of Latin achieved a great position at -Court”; Adv. Oppug. Vit. Mon., iii, 5 (in Migne, i, 357).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_894" href="#FNanchor_894" class="label">[894]</a> The details of teaching are presented most circumstantially in the -rhetorical catechism of Fortunatianus (<i>c. 450</i>).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_895" href="#FNanchor_895" class="label">[895]</a> Cresollius has brought together an immense amount of information -on this branch of the art in his Vacationes Autumnales, Paris, 1620; -cf. Kayser in his introduction to the lives of Philostratus (Teubner). -Blandness of voice was sedulously pursued by professional sophists, and -<i>plasmata</i>, or emollient medicaments were much resorted to. There was -a <i>phonascus</i>, or voice-trainer, who paid special attention to such matters.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_896" href="#FNanchor_896" class="label">[896]</a> Libanius has outlined very clearly the course of instruction through -which he put his class; Epist., 407.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_897" href="#FNanchor_897" class="label">[897]</a> Nothing could be more meagre than the allusions to this subject; -even the treatise on geometry by Boethius, which seems to have been -the only one current, contains little more than enunciations of propositions.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_898" href="#FNanchor_898" class="label">[898]</a> I have already referred to the geography of this period, see <a href="#Page_182">p. 182</a>.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_899" href="#FNanchor_899" class="label">[899]</a></p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse">Altera pars orbis sub aquis jacet invia nobis,</div> - <div class="verse">Ignotaeque hominum gentes, nec transita regna,</div> - <div class="verse">Commune ex uno lumen ducentia sole, etc.</div> - <div class="verse indent20">Manilius (Weber), i, 375.</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>The Christian fathers ridicule the antipodes severely. “More rational -to say that black was white”; Lactantius, Div. Inst., iii, 24; Epitome, -39. “The earth stands firm on water [going back to Thales] and does -not turn”; Chrysostom, Genesis, Hom. xii, 3, 4 (in Migne, iv, 101); -In Titum Hom. iii, 3 (in Migne, xi, 680); cf. Cosmas Ind., <i>op. cit.</i>, x, -for other theological authorities on cosmology.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_900" href="#FNanchor_900" class="label">[900]</a> Such as that five represents the world, being made up of three and -two, which typify male and female respectively; or that seven equates -Minerva, the virgin, neither contained or containing; and other Pythagorean -notions; see M. Capella, vii, and the arithmetic of Boethius.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_901" href="#FNanchor_901" class="label">[901]</a> Such is the well-known system elaborated by Hipparchus and -Ptolemy, but the Pythagoreans put the sun at the centre, though without -definite reasons and with imaginative details; see Diogenes Laert. -and Delambre’s Hist. Astron. Ant. Although Democritus, Epicurus, -and others held that there were an infinite number of worlds (κόσμοι), -they regarded the objective universe as only one of them, and had no -idea that myriads of systems similar to that in which they lived lay before -their eyes.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_902" href="#FNanchor_902" class="label">[902]</a> Thus M. Capella states that Mercury and Venus revolve round the -sun; and Isidore of Seville says the crystalline sphere runs so fast that -did not the stars retard it by running the opposite way the universe -would fall to pieces; Etymolog., iii, 35.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_903" href="#FNanchor_903" class="label">[903]</a> See Themistius, Or., xxvi (p. 327 Dind.); cf. Boethius (?), De -Discipl. Scholar., iii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_904" href="#FNanchor_904" class="label">[904]</a> Graduated from about A below treble stave to E in fourth space (A -to E″ = La<sub>2</sub> to Mi<sub>4</sub>), but there seems to have been great variety in pitch.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_905" href="#FNanchor_905" class="label">[905]</a> Cassiodorus often alludes to the organ of his time, especially in Exposit. -Psal. CL, where he describes many instruments. See Daremberg -and Saglio, <i>sb. voc.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_906" href="#FNanchor_906" class="label">[906]</a> See M. Capella, ix; Boethius on Music, etc., and Hadow’s Oxford -History of Music, 1901.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_907" href="#FNanchor_907" class="label">[907]</a> See Plato, Protagoras, 43, etc. Even in the time of Homer the -Greek warriors were practical musicians, but the Romans were not so -originally. I can make no definite statement as to how far the Byzantine -upper classes were performers on instruments at this date, but see Jerome, -Ep., 107. Further remarks on Greek education, with references to an -earlier stratum of authors, will be found in Hatch, Hibbert Lectures, -1888, ii, <i>et seq.</i> There is a great compilation by Conringius (De Antiq. -Academ., Helmstadt, 1651), which I have found extremely useful. From -the observations of Chrysostom (see <a href="#Page_118">p. 118</a>), it appears that little advantage -was taken of educational facilities in his day, but it may be -assumed that the foundation of the Auditorium caused mental culture to -be fashionable, at least for a time.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_908" href="#FNanchor_908" class="label">[908]</a> Themistius, Or., xxvi, <i>loc. cit.</i> Theodosius II was the first Christian -emperor who systematically fostered philosophy by creating a faculty at -CP. and extending clearly to philosophers the immunities granted to -other professors; Cod. Theod., XIII, iii, 16; XIV, ix, 3; Cod., X, lii, -14, etc. We are continually reminded that Socrates brought down the -sophists of his time from star-gazing and speculation as to the origin of -things to the ethics of common life. Thence arose a succession of -dialogues in which Utopian republics were discussed, where wives should -be in common so that everybody might be the supposititious brother, -etc., of every one else. A more harmonious community could not be engendered -by such a device; cf. Herodotus, iv, 104.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_909" href="#FNanchor_909" class="label">[909]</a> See the elogium of Berytus in Nonnus, Dionysiacs, xli. From -389, etc., Hasacus (<i>op. cit.</i>) thinks that the school was founded by -Augustus after the battle of Actium, but it is first distinctly noted as -flourishing <i>c. 231</i>; Gregory Thaum., Panegyric. in Origen, 1, 5 (in -Migne, S. G., 1051).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_910" href="#FNanchor_910" class="label">[910]</a> Pand. praef., 2 [7]; Totius Orb. Descript.; Gotlefroy <i>ad</i> Cod. -Theod., XI, i, 19, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_911" href="#FNanchor_911" class="label">[911]</a> Nowhere definitely expressed, but inferred from Pand. praef., 2 -(superscription), with confirmative evidence; see Hasaeus, <i>op. cit.</i>, viii, -2, <i>et seq.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_912" href="#FNanchor_912" class="label">[912]</a> The freshmen rejoiced in the “frivolous and ridiculous cognomen” -of <i>Dupondii</i> (equivalent to “Tuppennies,” apparently); in the second -year they became <i>Edictionaries</i> (students of Hadrian’s Perpetual Edict); -thirdly, <i>Papinianistae</i> (engaged on the works of Papinian); fourthly, -Αύται (when reading Paulus); fifthly, the last year, <i>Prolytae</i> (mainly -given up to reviewing previous studies); Pand. praef., 2. The last two -terms are not explained; the idea is evidently that of being <i>loosed</i> or -dismissed from the courses. Cf. Macarius Aegypt. Hom. xv, 42 (in -Migne, S. G., xxxiv, 604), who presents a different scheme, perhaps, -from the Alexandrian law-school.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_913" href="#FNanchor_913" class="label">[913]</a> The first attempt at consolidating the laws was the Perpetual Edict -of Hadrian, <i>c. 120</i>.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_914" href="#FNanchor_914" class="label">[914]</a> Pand., <i>loc. cit.</i> And many more were probably dragged up in court -from time to time, which it would be the bent of despotism to taboo. -Cod. Theod., I, iv, gives the rule as to deciding knotty points by the -collation of legal experts.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_915" href="#FNanchor_915" class="label">[915]</a> It was specially decreed by Diocletian that students might remain -at B. to the age of twenty-five; Cod., X, xlix, 1. This law could doubtless -be pleaded even against a call to their native Curia. We need not suppose -that the periods allotted to the various branches of education were always -rigidly adhered to in spite of circumstances. Thus Libanius complains -that his pupils used to run off to the study of law before he had -put them through the proper routine of rhetorical training, the moment -they had mastered a little Latin in fact; iii, p. 441-2 (Reiske).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_916" href="#FNanchor_916" class="label">[916]</a> Sufficiat medico ad commendandam artis auctoritatem, si Alexandriae -se dixerit eruditum; Ammianus, xxii, 16. This celebrity was -won <i>c. 300</i> <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> through the distinction acquired by Erasistratus and -Herophilus. See Conringius, <i>op. cit.</i>, i, 26.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_917" href="#FNanchor_917" class="label">[917]</a> Cod., I, ii, 19, 22; this and the next title for charities <i>passim</i>.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_918" href="#FNanchor_918" class="label">[918]</a> Even Plato held this notion (Timaeus, 72), but it was flouted at -once by Chrysippus; Plutarch, De Stoic. Repug., 29.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_919" href="#FNanchor_919" class="label">[919]</a> Galen gives very correct descriptions of the action of the larynx; -Oribasius, xxiv, 9; and tells us how he satisfied himself by various -vivisections that the blood actually flowed in the arteries; An Sanguis -in Arter. Nat. Cont.; De Placit., i, 5; vi, 7, 8, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_920" href="#FNanchor_920" class="label">[920]</a> Themistius, Or., i.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_921" href="#FNanchor_921" class="label">[921]</a> What appears to be an epitome of current knowledge of natural -history and botany is given by Cicero in De Nat. Deor., ii, 47, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_922" href="#FNanchor_922" class="label">[922]</a> See especially Dioscorides, ii. Tinctures and ointments made from -toads, scorpions, bugs, woodlice, centipedes, cockroaches, testes of -stag and horse, etc., were staple preparations. The realistic coloured -illustrations in the great edition published by Lonicerus in 1563 with a -colossal commentary, are worth looking at. The pills of seminal fluid -(<i>à la</i> Brown-Séquard) decried in the <i>Pistis Sophia</i> appear to have been -merely a mystic remedy.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_923" href="#FNanchor_923" class="label">[923]</a> The profession did not yet stand apart from the lay community as -pronouncedly as at present. Thus Celsus, author of a noted medical -treatise, was an amateur, a Roman patrician in fact; and the precious -MS. of Dioscorides, with coloured miniatures, preserved at Vienna, was -executed (<i>c. 500</i>) for a Byzantine princess, Julia Anicia, daughter of -Olybrius, one of the fleeting emperors of the West.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_924" href="#FNanchor_924" class="label">[924]</a> Less than a century previously Plutarch had declared the common -opinion that Fortune, having divested herself of her pinions and winged -shoes, had settled down as a permanent inhabitant of the Palatine Hill; -De Fortuna Rom.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_925" href="#FNanchor_925" class="label">[925]</a> Art in the time of Augustus and Tiberius has to be judged mainly -by the wall-paintings recovered at Rome and Pompeii, many of which -are highly meritorious. For succeeding centuries a series of sculptures -remain which allow us to keep the retreat of art in constant view. The -chief landmarks are: 1. The arch of Titus and the column of Trajan; -2. The Antonine column and the arch of Severus; 3. The arch of Constantine, -remarkable for its crudity and for some spaces being filled by -figures ravished from that of Titus; 4. The Theodosian column at CP.; -though much defaced, the incapacity of the executant is still recognizable. -The reproduction of the Arcadian pillar published by Banduri (see -p. 49) cannot be regarded as a faithful copy, it being evident that the -artist has elevated the bas-reliefs to his own standard. In Agincourt, -<i>op. cit.</i>, and Mau’s Pompeii these subjects are pictorially represented, -as well as in many other works.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_926" href="#FNanchor_926" class="label">[926]</a> Cod. Theod., XIII, iv, 1. Architectis plurimis opus est, sed quia -non sunt, etc. (334). His buildings were so hastily run up that they -soon went to ruin; Zosimus, ii, 32. Hence, perhaps, C.’s opinion that -there were no proper architects.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_927" href="#FNanchor_927" class="label">[927]</a> Cod. Theod., XIII, iv, 1, 4. Few, however, of these regulations, -if any, were new; they were mostly in force before the reign of Commodus; -Pand., L, vi, 9.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_928" href="#FNanchor_928" class="label">[928]</a> In the eleventh century, after a flush of splendour in the already -greatly contracted Empire, owing to the conquests of the Saracens, this -particular form of degeneracy began to be manifested. “Les personnages -sont trop longs, leur bras trop maigres, leur gestes et leur mouvements -plein d’affectation; une rigidité cadavérique est repandue sur l’ensemble”; -Kondakoff, Hist. de l’art byz., Paris, 1886, ii, p. 138.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_929" href="#FNanchor_929" class="label">[929]</a> This was not altogether new to the Greeks; for in the juxtaposition -of Athenian and Assyrian bas-reliefs at the British Museum it can be -seen that even the school of Phidias adhered to some types which had -originated in the East, drawing of horses, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_930" href="#FNanchor_930" class="label">[930]</a> See Lethaby and Swainson for arguments on this head. Certain -churches in the domical style at Antioch, Salonica, etc., are maintained -by some authorities to be anterior to the sixth century; <i>op. cit.</i>, x. -For illustrations see Vogüé, Archit. de la Syrie cent., Paris, 1865-77.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_931" href="#FNanchor_931" class="label">[931]</a> Thus even maidens in a state of nudity engaged publicly in the -athletic games at Sparta and Chios; Plutarch, Lycurgus; Athenaeus, -xiii, 20. The parade of virgins before Zeuxis at Agrigentum in order -that he might select models for his great picture of the birth of Venus, -as related by Pliny, has often been quoted; Hist. Nat., xxxv, 36. Yet -even among the Greeks a squeamish modesty existed in some quarters, -as is evidenced by the famous statue of Venus by Praxiteles having been -rejected by the Coans in favour of a draped one, previous to its being -set up at Cnidus; <i>ibid.</i>, xxxvi, 4; cf. Lucian, Amores.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_932" href="#FNanchor_932" class="label">[932]</a> Thus Shakespeare:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse">See what a grace was seated on this brow:</div> - <div class="verse">Hyperion’s curls; the front of Jove himself;</div> - <div class="verse">An eye like Mars, to threaten and command;</div> - <div class="verse">A station like the herald Mercury,</div> - <div class="verse">New-lighted on a heaven-kissing hill.</div> - <div class="verse indent20">Hamlet, III, 4.</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_933" href="#FNanchor_933" class="label">[933]</a> See p. <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_934" href="#FNanchor_934" class="label">[934]</a> They vary in merit considerably; see some reproductions of the -better ones in Bayet, L’art byz., Paris, 1892, ii, 3, and other similar -works, especially Gori, <i>op. cit.</i> Specimens at South Kensington.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_935" href="#FNanchor_935" class="label">[935]</a> Choricius of Gaza (<i>c.</i> 520) has left us an elaborate description of -such a church interior and also of the frescoes in a palace. The whole -has been republished by Bertrand in his work, Un art crit. dans l’antiq., -Paris, 1882. Modern Greek churches are precisely similar, and those -belonging to the monasteries of Mt. Athos are especially noteworthy; -see Bayet, <i>op. cit.</i>, iv, 2. Two can be inspected in London. That in -Bayswater is a “Kutchuk Aya Sofia.” Walsh’s CP., Lond., 1838, has -a good engraving; ii, p. 31. See also the striking mosaics of St. -George’s, Salonica (Texier and P., <i>op. cit.</i>), the Pompeiesque style of -which suggest an early date in church building—vistas of superimposed -arcades raised on a forest of fantastically graceful, but impossible columns, -architecture run wild in fact.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_936" href="#FNanchor_936" class="label">[936]</a> “Du moment qu’il avait exécuté une composition dans la manière -antique et qu’il y avait mis toute la splendeur de sa palette, il ne se demandait -pas si le dessin de ses personnages était correct ou non, s’ils se -trainaient bien sur leur jambes, s’ils étaient réellement assis sur une -chaise ou un fauteuil, ou simplement appuyés contre ces meubles”; -Kondakoff, <i>op. cit.</i>, i, 108. Of existing MSS. with coloured miniatures, -only some six or eight date back to these early centuries. Labarte’s -Hist. des arts indust., Paris, 1892, with coloured facsimiles is the most -satisfying work in which to study mediaeval art objectively. At South -Kensington a variety of specimens are to be found, including ivories, -enamels, paper casts of mosaics, reproductions of frescoes, etc., many of -which go as far back as the sixth century.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_937" href="#FNanchor_937" class="label">[937]</a> Oribasius, physician to Julian, seems to be the genuine father of -bookmaking, the real prototype of the “scissors and paste” author, but -he foreran the swarming of the brood by a couple of centuries.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_938" href="#FNanchor_938" class="label">[938]</a> Gregory Nys., De Vit. S. Macrinae (in Migne, iii, 960). Whence -it appears that it was unusual for them to be taught to apply themselves -to the distaff or the needle. Maidenhood was mostly passed in luxury -and adornment; Chrysostom, Qual. Duc. Sint Uxores, 9 (in Migne, -iii, 239); in Epist. ad Ephes., iv, Hom. xiii, 3 (in Migne, xi, 97); cf. -Jerome, Epist., 128, 130. The latter sets forth his ideas as to the training -of a girl at some length. As soon as she has imbibed the first rudiments -she is to begin psalm-singing and reading of prophets, apostles, -etc. Later she should proceed to the study of the fathers, especially -Cyprian, Athanasius, and Hilarius. She should spend much time in -church with her parents, and must be guarded circumspectly from the -attentions of the curled youth (<i>cincinatti</i>, <i>calamistrati</i>). She rises betimes -to sing hymns, and employs herself generally in weaving plain -textures. Silks and jewellery are to be rigorously eschewed; and the -saint cannot reconcile himself to the idea of an adult virgin making use -of the bath, as she should blush to see herself naked; Epist., 107. His -remarks, of course, apply directly to life at Rome.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_939" href="#FNanchor_939" class="label">[939]</a> From Jerome’s letter just quoted it appears that it was usual for girls -to play on the lyre, pipe, and organ.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_940" href="#FNanchor_940" class="label">[940]</a> See her life by Gregorovius, 1892. Her cento of Homeric verses -applied to Christ is extant. To her inspiration most probably is due the -foundation of the Auditorium at CP., and the prominence given to -philosophy. Pulcheria was occupied in building churches and in disinterring -the relics of martyrs.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_941" href="#FNanchor_941" class="label">[941]</a> She is best known from the epistles of Synesius. Nothing of hers is -extant. Murdered 415, wife or maid uncertain; see Suidas, <i>sb. nom.</i> -She was scraped to pieces with shells, a mode of official torture peculiar -to the Thebais, which may have been inflicted often on Christian ladies -during Pagan persecutions. In other districts an iron scraper was used; -Eusebius, Hist. Eccles., viii, 9; 3, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_942" href="#FNanchor_942" class="label">[942]</a> I need not refer more particularly to the phenomena of radio-activity -and cathode rays, information concerning which has been exploited by -every popular periodical. The atoms (electrons) which become visible in -the low-pressure tube have been calculated to be of but 1∕800 the magnitude -of the hydrogen atom, and many physicists are inclined to regard -them as the first state of matter on its way to resolution into the formless -protyle or ether.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_943" href="#FNanchor_943" class="label">[943]</a> A great part of modern books on chemistry is now devoted to synthesis. -Not only have such well-known organic substances as indigo, -vanilla, citric acid, etc., been prepared artificially, but also those new -articles of commerce, the aniline dyes, saccharine, etc. Numbers of new -drugs for therapeutic experiment are synthetized annually in the great -German laboratories of Bayer, Merck, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_944" href="#FNanchor_944" class="label">[944]</a> Especially suggestive are the ingenious experiments with ferments, -which tend to show that the anabolic and katabolic activities of living -matter may soon be imitated in the laboratory; see Buchner, Bericht d. -deutsch. chem. Gesel., xxx, xxxi, xxxii; also recent physiological -treatises in which are contained the speculations of Pflüger and others as -to the “biogens” of protoplasm, etc. Most important of all is Loeb’s -discovery of the possibility of chemical fertilization; see Boveri, Das -Problem der Befruchtung, Jena, 1902.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_945" href="#FNanchor_945" class="label">[945]</a> Archytas, with his flying wooden dove, was the most noted mechanician -in this line; A. Gellius, x, 12, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_946" href="#FNanchor_946" class="label">[946]</a> Even windmills were unknown until they were introduced into -Europe by the Saracens in the twelfth century.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_947" href="#FNanchor_947" class="label">[947]</a> It appears that of late years a dearth of candidates for orders in -every religious denomination of Christendom has been experienced, but -this may be due merely to the usual poverty of the career. The Church -should fall to principle not to poverty. And here we may catch a glimpse -of the process by which the various Protestant sects may ultimately die -out naturally: that young men of high character, ambitious of honourable -distinction, will avoid a profession which entails an attitude of disingenuous -reserve towards those whom they are deputed to instruct. -On the other hand it may be foreseen that the Romish and Orthodox -churches, upholding as they do a gross superstition and instituting the -members of their priesthood almost from childhood, will retain their -power over the masses for a much longer period, until at last they -have to face suppression by force. Those who at the present time are -engaged in impressing a belief in obsolete mythologies on the community -should realize that they are doing an evil service to their generation -instead of exerting themselves for the liberation and elevation of thought. -However brilliant their temporary position, they deserve, much more -than the oblivious patriot, to go down</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse">To the vile dust from whence they sprung,</div> - <div class="verse">Unwept, unhonoured, and unsung.</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_948" href="#FNanchor_948" class="label">[948]</a> Grotius has made a large collection of those passages in classical -and other ancient writers, which seem to support the creation-myth of -Genesis; De Veritate Relig. Christ., i, 16. For the Chaldaean or -Babylonian variations, and some earlier associations of Adam, see -King’s Seven Tablets of Creation, Lond., 1903. It appears that the -protoplast in the original account was created by Marduk, the tutelary -deity of Babylonia, out of his own blood, a circumstance which the -“priestly” redactor of Genesis has suppressed, together with many -other interesting details; cf. Radau, Creation Story of Genesis i, -Chicago, 1903. Margoliouth’s attempt to show that Abraham’s Jehovah -was the male moon-god of Ur is interesting; Contemporary Review, -1896.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_949" href="#FNanchor_949" class="label">[949]</a> In this country the subject of comparative mythology and the origin -of theistic notions has been exhaustively treated by Herbert Spencer, -Andrew Lang, J. G. Frazer, and others. Nevertheless, it cannot be -determined whether the fear of ghosts or the innate bent of the human -mind to speculate as to casuality is the germ of religious systems. -Their development has, no doubt, always been much indebted to the -ascendancy to be gained as the reward of successful imposture in such -matters.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_950" href="#FNanchor_950" class="label">[950]</a> Avowed atheists were rare among the Greeks, as there was always -some personal risk in ventilating opinions which clashed with the -popular superstitions. Some, however, incurred the odium of holding -such views. Of these the most noteworthy was Diagoras, who is said -to have impiously chopped up his image of Hercules to boil his turnips; -Athenagoras, Apol., 4. The jaunty impiety of Dionysius, tyrant of -Syracuse (<i>c. 400</i> <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>), was celebrated in antiquity. After pillaging -the temple of the Locrian Proserpine, he sailed back home and, finding -the wind favourable, remarked to his companions, “See what a fine -passage the gods are granting to us sacrilegious reprobates.” He seized -the golden cloak from the shoulders of Jupiter Olympus, observing -that it was “too heavy for summer and too cold for winter, whereas a -woollen one would suit him well for all seasons.” Noticing a gold -beard on Æsculapius at Epidaurus, he removed it, saying, that it was -“improper for him to wear it, since his father, Apollo, was always represented -beardless.” Whenever in the temples he met with statues -proffering, as it were, jewels and plate with their projecting hands, he -took possession of the valuables, asserting that it “would be folly not -to accept the good things offered by the gods.” The pious were aghast -at the example of such a man enjoying a long and prosperous reign and -transmitting the throne to his son; Cicero, De Nat. Deor., iii, 34; -Lactantius, Div. Instit., ii, 4, etc. With a view to such instances, -Plutarch wrote a treatise to prove that “the mills of God grind slow, -but very sure.” Euhemerus and Palaephatus transformed mythology -into history by a rationalizing process, assigning the origin to popular -exaggeration of common occurrences.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_951" href="#FNanchor_951" class="label">[951]</a> A system of verbal trickery originated with the Eleatics, of which -Zeno (<i>c. 400</i> <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>) was the chief exponent. Their catches were generally -ingenious; that disproving the reality of motion is best known—“If -a thing moves, it must do so in the place in which it is, or in a -place in which it is not; but it cannot move in the place in which it is, -and it certainly does not move in a place in which it is not; therefore -there is no motion at all;” Diogenes Laert., Pyrrho, 99, etc. See -Plato’s Euthydemus for a sample of ridiculous word-chopping.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_952" href="#FNanchor_952" class="label">[952]</a> There were six principal sects which achieved a sort of permanency -and retained their vitality for several centuries. They may be characterized -briefly: Academics (Plato), sceptical and respectable; Peripathetics -(Aristotle), inquisitive and progressive; Stoics (Zeno of Citium, -Chrysippus), ethical and intense; Cynics (Antisthenes, Diogenes), -squalid, morose, and sententious; Epicureans, tranquil enjoyment and -indifference; Cyreneans (Aristippus), pure hedonism with discretion. -In general the Epicureans are wrongly associated with the last conception.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_953" href="#FNanchor_953" class="label">[953]</a> Aristotle (<i>c. 350</i> <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>) was the first to perceive the importance of -collecting facts and disposing them into their proper groups. Thus -zoology, botany, anatomy, physiology, mineralogy, astronomy, meteorology, -etc., began to take form in his hands, each being relegated to a -separate compartment for consideration as a concordant whole and to -receive future additions.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_954" href="#FNanchor_954" class="label">[954]</a> Even with his limited outlook Aristotle had sufficient astuteness to -divine that nature might become the “slave of man,” and expresses -himself clearly to that effect; Metaphysics, i, 2. Such a claim may -provoke a smile from the modern who reviews the mild conquests of the -embryo science of his day.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_955" href="#FNanchor_955" class="label">[955]</a> A few of their utterances may be quoted:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse">Ἐχθρὸς γάρ μοι κεῖνος ὁμως Αἰδᾶο πύλησιν,</div> - <div class="verse">Ὅς χ’ ἕτερον μὲν κεύθῃ ἐνὶ φρεσὶν ἄλλο δὲ εἴπῃ.</div> - <div class="verse indent20"><i>Iliad</i>, ix, 312.</div> - <div class="verse">Ἔργον δ’ οὐδὲν ὄνειδος, ἀεργίη δέ τ’ ὄνειδος.</div> - <div class="verse indent20"><i>Op. et Dies</i>, 311.</div> - <div class="verse">Μὴ κακὰ κερδαίνειν, κακὰ κέρδεα ἷσ’ ἄτῃσιν.</div> - <div class="verse indent20"><i>Ibid.</i>, 352.</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_956" href="#FNanchor_956" class="label">[956]</a> From the Golden Verses of Pythagoras; Epictetus, iii, 10.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_957" href="#FNanchor_957" class="label">[957]</a> Hence Socrates would not save his life by flight from Athens after -his condemnation, although his friends had made everything secure for -his escape; see the Crito.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_958" href="#FNanchor_958" class="label">[958]</a> Plato, Gorgias, 55, etc.; Protagoras, 101, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_959" href="#FNanchor_959" class="label">[959]</a> Isocrates, Ad Nicoclem, 61. This maxim, in slightly differing -forms, has been attributed to Confucius and many others. Pythagoras -enjoined his disciples to love a friend as oneself; see Bigg, Christian -Platonists, London, 1886, p. 242. “Love your fellow men from your -heart,” says Marcus Aurelius, viii, 34.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_960" href="#FNanchor_960" class="label">[960]</a> Cicero, De Officiis, iii, 8. In this treatise the author is for the -most part merely voicing the sentiments of the Stoic Panaetius.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_961" href="#FNanchor_961" class="label">[961]</a> Epictetus, ii, 2.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_962" href="#FNanchor_962" class="label">[962]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, i, 18.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_963" href="#FNanchor_963" class="label">[963]</a> Marcus Aurelius, xii, 12.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_964" href="#FNanchor_964" class="label">[964]</a> Seneca, Epist., 47; De Beneficiis, 18, etc. To a master who ill-treats -his servants Epictetus addresses himself: “Slave! can you not -be patient with your brother, the offspring of God and a son of heaven -as much as you are”; i, 13.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_965" href="#FNanchor_965" class="label">[965]</a> Tuscul. Disp., ii, 17.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_966" href="#FNanchor_966" class="label">[966]</a> Epist. 7.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_967" href="#FNanchor_967" class="label">[967]</a> Lucian, Demonax.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_968" href="#FNanchor_968" class="label">[968]</a> It was, however, prohibited early at Thebes; Aelian, Var. Hist., -ii, 7.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_969" href="#FNanchor_969" class="label">[969]</a> Pand., XXV, iii, 4; see Noodt’s Julius Paulus, etc., 1710. Aristotle -upheld the custom without scruple; Politics, viii, 16.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_970" href="#FNanchor_970" class="label">[970]</a> Then Valentinian proscribed it with a penalty, but the legislation -was tentative, and the practice was scarcely suppressed until modern -times; Cod. Theod., V, vii; Cod., VIII, lii, 2; cf. Lactantius, Div. Inst., -vi, 20. It was palliated by the institution of the brephotrophia; see -p. 82.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_971" href="#FNanchor_971" class="label">[971]</a> Odyssey, xx, 55.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_972" href="#FNanchor_972" class="label">[972]</a> See Lysias, Orat., Ὑπερ τοῦ ἀδυνάτου, etc., Plutarch, Aristides -<i>ad fin.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_973" href="#FNanchor_973" class="label">[973]</a> See p. <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_974" href="#FNanchor_974" class="label">[974]</a> Trajan appears to have established orphanages and homes for the -children of needy parents; see Pliny, Panegyric., 27, etc. The fact is -also indicated by coins (ALIMENTA ITALIAE), and a sculptured -slab found in the Roman forum; Cohen, ii, p. 18; Middleton, Rome, -etc., Lond., 1892, p. 346. Faustina, wife of Antoninus Pius, also -busied herself in a similar way, as is evidenced by well-known coins -(PUELLULAE FAUSTINIANAE); Cohen, ii, p. 433.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_975" href="#FNanchor_975" class="label">[975]</a> Isis and Serapis, after a stormy career which lasted more than a -century, became finally seated in the city under Vespasian; see “Isis” -in Smith’s Classical Dictionary and similar works. But the greatest run -was on Mithras, a sun-god extracted from the Persian mythology, who -grew in favour from the time of Pompey until his worship reached even -to the north of Britain. Quite a literature exists under his name at present; -see Cumont, Mysteries of Mithras, Lond., 1903. For the account -of a regular invasion of Syrian deities see Hist. August., Heliogabalus.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_976" href="#FNanchor_976" class="label">[976]</a> Polybius complains of the rising scepticism at Rome in his time; -vi, 56. I need not reproduce the oft-quoted lines of Juvenal (ii, 149), -but the following are not generally brought forward:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse">Sunt, in fortunae qui casibus omnia ponunt,</div> - <div class="verse">Et nullo credant mundum rectore moveri, etc.</div> - <div class="verse indent20">xiii, 86.</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>Such unbelief, however, did not penetrate beyond the upper social -stratum; and even at Athens in the second century those who scouted -the ancient myths were considered to be impious and senseless by the -multitude; see Lucian, Philopseudes, 2, etc. The voluminous dialogues -of Cicero are sufficient to prove how practised the Romans had become -in tearing the old mythology to pieces. But the pretence of piety was -kept up in the highest places. “The soul of Augustus is not in those -stones,” exclaimed Agrippina in a moment of vexation when she found -Tiberius sacrificing to the statues of his predecessor; Tacitus, Ann., -iv, 52.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_977" href="#FNanchor_977" class="label">[977]</a> There were many grades of charlatans from Apollonius of Tyana, -who seems to have been a genuine illusionist or mystic, to Alexander -Abonoteichos, an impudent impostor, and Marcus, an infamous rascal; -Philostratus, Vit. Apol.; Lucian, Pseudomantis; Irenaeus, i, 13.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_978" href="#FNanchor_978" class="label">[978]</a> But he never left Rome and the duties were performed by Pomponius -Flaccus; Tacitus, Ann., ii, 32; vi, 27, etc. Jn. Malala mentions one -Cassius, p. 241.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_979" href="#FNanchor_979" class="label">[979]</a> That is, sufferers from epilepsy, St. Vitus’s dance, mania, etc., -diseases which might be cured by hypnotic suggestion, neuroses of -various kinds. This popular fallacy was not held universally, but was -derided by the more educated, including the medical faculty; see Philostorgius, -viii, 10.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_980" href="#FNanchor_980" class="label">[980]</a> Thus a century later, when a true messianic note was struck, half a -million of Jews rushed frantically to destruction in the wake of Barcochebas, -the leader of their revolt under Hadrian, though not without the -satisfaction of dragging 100,000 Gentiles to their doom at the same time. -Some exegetes are tempted to see in John, v, 4, an allusion to this war, -and hence to find a date for that gospel (the bridge, via Philo Judaeus, -between Judaeism and Hellenism), <i>c.</i> 140.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_981" href="#FNanchor_981" class="label">[981]</a> Rufus (or Fufius) and Rubellius are probably meant; Lactantius, -De Morte Persec., 2. See the differing statements in the Chronicles from -Jn. Malala onwards; also articles on biblical chronology in recent encyclopaedias, -Chron. of Eusebius, Consular Fasti appended to Chron. -Paschal., etc. By the synoptical gospels the ministry of Jesus seems to -have lasted one year only, but two, three, and even four years have been -assumed from the later composition of John, <i>e.g.</i>, in Jerome’s chronicle, -<i>sb.</i> <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 33.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_982" href="#FNanchor_982" class="label">[982]</a> It is, however, improbable that any Christian could have given a -consecutive account of the life of Jesus prior to 120 or thereabouts. The -newly-discovered Apology of Aristides seems to be the earliest evidence -for the existence of gospels. It was presented to Hadrian, perhaps, -<i>c.</i> 125. On the other hand First Clement, moored at 95, but with an -incorrigible tendency to rise to 140, is clearly by a writer who possessed -no biography, but merely Logia of Jesus.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_983" href="#FNanchor_983" class="label">[983]</a> They were coated with inflammable matter, pitch, etc., and used for -torches to illuminate the public gardens at night (Nov., 64); Tacitus, -Ann., xv, 44; Suetonius, Nero, 16, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_984" href="#FNanchor_984" class="label">[984]</a> Dion Cass., lxvii, 14; Eusebius, Hist. Eccles., iii, 18, <i>et seq.</i>; cf. -Lactantius, De Morte Persec., 3; Suetonius, Domitian. Clement, a -cousin of this emperor, appears to have been put to death for being a -Christian, and has been claimed by some as one of the first popes.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_985" href="#FNanchor_985" class="label">[985]</a> Pliny, Epist., x, 97, 98. This correspondence and, indeed, the -whole book which contains it has been stigmatized as a forgery by some -investigators; see Gieseler, Eccles. Hist., i, 33, for refs. The same -suspicion rests, in fact, on every early allusion to the Christians. It certainly -seems strange that they should be such unfamiliar sectaries to -Trajan and Pliny if they were well known at Rome under Nero and -Domitian. Much less can we believe that in the destruction of Jerusalem -Titus was actuated chiefly by a desire to extinguish Christianity, or that -he had weighed the differences in theological standpoint between Jews -and Christians; Sulp. Severus, Hist. Sacr., ii, 30. Such is history “as -she was wrote” at that epoch. The whole evidence that Christians were -popularly known and recognized politically during the first century is -scanty and unsatisfactory. Trajan achieved a great reputation, which -never died out even among the Christians, perhaps on account of the -tolerant attitude attributed to him on this occasion. He was prayed out -of hell by one of the popes along with one or two other noted pagans -whom the Church was anxious to take under its wing.</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse">Quivi era storiata l’alta gloria</div> - <div class="verse">Del roman prince, lo cui gran valore</div> - <div class="verse">Mosse Gregorio alia sua gran vittoria:</div> - <div class="verse">Io dico di Traiano imperadore; etc.</div> - <div class="verse indent20">Dante, Purg., x; Parad., xx.</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_986" href="#FNanchor_986" class="label">[986]</a> Hence the anti-Christian philosopher Celsus (<i>c.</i> 160) exclaims: “You -say that no educated, wise or intellectual person need approach you, but -only those that are ignorant, silly, and childish. In fact you are able to -persuade the vulgar only, slaves, women, and children”; Origen c. -Celsum, iii, 44.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_987" href="#FNanchor_987" class="label">[987]</a> Minucius Felix, Octavius, 12, etc. Their gloomy austerity is strongly -brought out by Tertullian in his tract De Spectaculis.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_988" href="#FNanchor_988" class="label">[988]</a> Tertullian, De Idololatria, 17, <i>et seq.</i>; De Corona Militis, 11; -Origen c. Celsum, viii, 55, 60, <i>et seq.</i> Not only did they refuse the -quasi-divine honours to the Emperor, but they would not even join in -the illumination and floral decoration of their houses required of all loyal -citizens during imperial festivals; Tertullian, De Idololatria, 13, <i>et seq.</i>; -Ad Nationes, i, 17; Theophilus, Autolycus, i, 11, etc. The causes of the -unpopularity of the Christians can be studied very completely with the -aid of Gieseler (Eccles. Hist., i, 41), who has brought together numerous -extracts and references bearing on the subject. As was natural under the -circumstances, atrocious libels began to be spread abroad against them, -such as that they worshipped an ass’s head, that the sacrifice of new-born -infants was a part of their ritual, etc.; Tertullian, Apology, 16; Minucius -Felix, 9, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_989" href="#FNanchor_989" class="label">[989]</a> Origen c. Celsum, viii, the latter half especially. As early as 500 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> -Xenophanes had said “God is the One,” but this was recondite philosophy -which could not penetrate to the masses, and, if preached openly, -would have aroused popular fanaticism; Aristotle, Metaphysics, i, 5.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_990" href="#FNanchor_990" class="label">[990]</a> The prohibitive campaign was almost confined to Lyons and Vienne -in Gaul; Eusebius, Hist. Eccles., v, 1, <i>et seq.</i> The animus against the -Christians was so intense that slaves were even allowed to inform on -their owners, ordinarily a criminal act; Pand., XLVIII, xviii, 1, 18, -etc. The Acts of the Martyrdom of Polycarp (<i>c.</i> 155-161), after holding -their ground so long, are now at last beginning to be classed as spurious; -see Van Manen in Encyclop. Biblica, <i>sb.</i> Old Christ. Literat.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_991" href="#FNanchor_991" class="label">[991]</a> See Tertullian’s Address to the Martyrs; also Cyprian’s restrained -efforts to modify the reverence paid to them; Epist., 22, 83, etc.; cf. -Eusebius, Martyrs of Palestine; Lactantius, De Morte Persec.; Neander, -Church Hist., ii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_992" href="#FNanchor_992" class="label">[992]</a> Ten persecutions were reckoned by those who wished to make up a -mystic number to accord with the ten plagues of Egypt, Revelat., xvii, -etc., but the specification of them does not correspond in different -writers. After a certain date, which cannot be accurately fixed, there -was always local animosity against the sect, the practical issue of which -varied relatively to the temper of the populace and the provincial -governor; see Gieseler, i, 56.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_993" href="#FNanchor_993" class="label">[993]</a> Lactantius, De Morte Persec., 48; Eusebius, Eccles. Hist., x, 5. -Advanced critics, however, are now beginning to doubt the authenticity -of this decree as presented by the Fathers of the Church; see Seeck, -Gesch. d. Untergangs d. antiken Welt, 1895, ii, pp. 457, 460.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_994" href="#FNanchor_994" class="label">[994]</a> At present it appears that some nourish a hope of the reality of -miracles being still believed in by supposing them to have occurred as -an “extension of the natural.” In this way it may become credible that -cartloads of baked bread and cooked fish—vertebrate animals with all -their physiological parts—suddenly sprang into existence out of the air. -A travesty of the ridiculous, not an extension of the natural, is the more -proper description of such assumptions. Natural phenomena, observed, -but so far ill understood, lie in quite a different plane from contradictions -of natural law in which consists the essence of legendary miracles.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_995" href="#FNanchor_995" class="label">[995]</a> The more timorous critics still cling to one or two of the Epistles -grouped together under the name of St. Paul, but the advanced school -has decided to reject them in their entirety; see Van Manen, Encycl. -Biblica, <i>sb.</i> “Paul.” I may exemplify the general discrepancy of views -still prevailing in this field of research by a single illustration: “It has -now been established that the latter (Epistles of Ignatius) are genuine”; -Encycl. Britan., <i>sb.</i> “Gospels” and “Ignatius”: “certainly not by -Ignatius”; Encycl. Biblica, <i>sb.</i> “Old Christ. Lit.” Such opposing -statements will continue to be put forward as long as we have Faculties -of Divinity at Universities filled by scholars who are constrained to treat -historical questions in conformity with the requirements of an established -ministry; and so long shall we be edified by the spectacle of men engaged -in balancing truth and error in such a manner as to pretend not to be -refuting the latter, so that in perusing their treatises we must either -suspect their candour or distrust their judgement. Yet in not a few instances -the men may be observed exulting amid the ruins of the fortress -which they had entered to hold as an invincible garrison.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_996" href="#FNanchor_996" class="label">[996]</a> A. D. Loman decided in 1881 that Jesus had not been a real -personage, but he now thinks he went too far; Encycl. Biblica, <i>sb.</i> -“Resurrection.” Edwin Johnson, author of <i>Antiqua Mater</i>, 1887, has -marshalled the evidence against his existence very fully and fairly, but -in some of his later work he has gone too far, and such exaggerated -scepticism, while it may often amuse, can scarcely succeed in convincing. -Jn. M. Robertson, author of A Short History of Christianity, 1902, and -previous works of some magnitude from similar studies, argues on the -same side. Havet says, “Sa trace dans l’histoire est pour ainsi dire -imperceptible”; Le Christianisme, iii, 1878, p. 493. Bruno Brauer -concludes that “the historic Jesus becomes a phantom which mocks all -the laws of history”; Kritik d. evang. Geschichte, 1842, iii, p. 308; -see also Frazer’s Golden Bough, 1900, iii, p. 186, <i>et seq.</i> Disregarding -the Gospels, a form of narrative which could not be accepted by us as -historical in connection with any other religion, the slight allusions to -Jesus in known writers (Josephus, Tacitus, Suetonius), are evidently -mere hearsay derived from the Christians themselves. Hegesippus, a -lost church historian (<i>c.</i> 170), gives some details as to the death of -“James, the brother of the Lord,” and also states that some poor -labourers of Judaea, for whom a descent from the Holy Family was -claimed, were brought before Domitian and dismissed as of no account; -fragments in Eusebius, Hist. Eccles., iii, 20. Remarkable is the -silence, in his voluminous writings, of Philo Judaeus, a philosophico-theological -Jew of Alexandria, a prominent citizen, and a man of middle -age at the time of the Crucifixion. So close to the scene itself he could -scarcely have failed to have heard of any popular agitation centring -round a Messiah at Jerusalem. When Augustus was told that Herod -had executed two of his sons he observed that “it was better to be -Herod’s pig than his son.” In ignorant repetition at a later date this -remark was construed into an allusion to the slaughter of the innocents; -Macrobius, ii, 4. Several (non-extant) Jewish historians, Justus -Tiberiensis for example, made no mention of Jesus. Still worse is the -case for the Apostles; they are not noticed outside the N. T. unless in -Acts conceded on all hands to be apocryphal. Most singular is it that -no descendants of theirs were ever known. Towards the middle of the -second century when the Christians loom into view as a compact body -of co-religionists we should assuredly expect to find relations of the -Apostles, direct or collateral, moving with extraordinary prestige among -the Saints on earth. But, beyond a vague allusion to two daughters of -Philip (Eusebius, Hist. Eccles., iii, 39), there is no trace of any such -individuals. The descendants of Mahomet alone were numerous a -century after his death, but the Twelve proved as barren of progeny as -if they had never existed. With respect to the canon of the N. T. it is -known that it was formed almost as at present before the third century, -a great many similar works being put aside as apocryphal or unsuitable. -Those selected were altered to some extent to meet the requirements of -doctrine; Origen c. Celsum, ii, 27; Dionysius of Corinth in Eusebius, -<i>op. cit.</i>, iv, 23, etc. They were, in fact, edited from time to time in the -interests of orthodoxy or heresy, interchangeable terms, as is shown by -Origen, Epiphanius, and Jerome; see Nestle’s Textual Criticism, Lond., -1899. Much of the Apocrypha remains to this day, including circumstantial -accounts of the childhood of Jesus; see Clark’s Ante-Nicene -Library, in which Tatian’s Diatessaron (<i>c.</i> 170, an Arabic version only -remains), shows the absence of texts now found in the Gospels, especially -that relating to the Church being founded on a rock (Peter). The striking -likeness between the legend of Buddha (<i>c.</i> 500 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>), and the life of -Jesus has been set forth by several Orientalists; see Seydel, Die Buddha-Legende -und das Leben Jesu, 1884. The resemblance to early Egyptian -folklore may be seen in Griffith’s High Priests of Memphis (story of -Khammuas), 1900 (from recent demotic papyri). Some interesting -questions are raised in Mead’s Did Jesus Live 100 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>? (on Talmudic -legends or libels). It must be borne in mind that scarcely a MS. of a -classical author (excepting some scraps recently recovered in Egypt) -exists, which has not passed the pen of monkish copyists. Hardouin taxes -them with having forged nearly all patristic literature, both Greek and -Latin. They had, he says, suitable materials for various ages, parchments, -inks, etc., and executants who practised various styles of writing. -In recording his conclusions he deprecates the accusation of insanity. -Such is the deliberate verdict of a Roman Cardinal whose learning is -indisputable, and whose discrimination in other matters has not been -impugned; Ad Censur. Vet. Script. Prolegomena, Lond., 1766. At any -rate the acknowledged forgeries make up an enormous bulk, Gospels, -Acts, Epistles, laws, decretals, etc. It seems scarcely possible that the -question as to the existence of Jesus and the Twelve can ever be definitely -disposed of; and it must take its place beside such problems as to -whether there was ever a Siege of Troy, a King Arthur, etc. In the -cases of Pope Joan and William Tell, local and contemporary records -were obtainable sufficiently comprehensive to prove a negative; but no -evidence is likely to come to hand close enough to exclude the credible -details of the Gospel narrative from the possible occurrences at Jerusalem -during the period. The English reader now possesses in the Encyclopaedia -Biblica, a repertory in which Biblical investigations are treated -in a manner as free from bias and obscurantism as is attainable at the -present time. Such a work has long been needed in English literature, -and marks a national advance. But much more remains to be done, and -within a score or two of years we may see such discussions take up a -stable position between the advanced critics who still feel obliged to -entertain some illogical propositions, and the rather wild free-lances -who would dissipate all marvel-tainted evidence by their uncompromising -scepticism, in which they sometimes do more harm than good by -their disregard of critical sanity. By that time a liberal application of -the critic’s broom will have swept many documents now held up to -public respect into the limbo to which they properly belong.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_997" href="#FNanchor_997" class="label">[997]</a> Previous to the overthrow of Biblical and other ancient cosmogonies -by the extension of natural knowledge the historic inquiry as to the -truth of supernatural religion was paramount. As recently as the -fifties of the last century a sceptic, if asked to give reasons for his disbelief, -might have answered that it was due to the absence of witnesses -of known position and integrity to attest the occurrences; and -that if such evidence were forthcoming he should certainly consider that -Christianity rested on foundations which could never be shaken. Let us -see whether it is in our power to prove that if a religion based on -miracles could pass such an ordeal it would not necessarily even then -hold an impregnable position. In 1848 certain phenomena, termed the -“Rochester knockings,” occurring at a place in New England, impelled -a wave of credulity as to spiritual manifestations throughout Christendom, -which has not wholly subsided up to the present date. Prof. Robt. -Hare, an eminent chemist and electrician, was attracted to investigate -the matter with the firm intention of exposing the folly. But he became -convinced instead, and by the aid of a lady who could produce “raps,” -apparently unconnected with her person, he devised a code of signals from -which resulted a couple of bulky volumes devoted by the professor to -explicit details of the doings in, and the beauties of, the spirit-land, the -whole recounted by deceased relations of his own; Spiritualism Scientifically -Demonstrated, New York, 1855. But the spirits did not for long -restrict themselves to merely audible signs; they responded generously -to the attention paid to them and soon began to reveal their hands, -faces, and even their whole persons for physical observation, often -pelting the audience with flowers, presenting them with bouquets, and -showing themselves to be accomplished musicians in the negro mode by -performances on unseen instruments. Although their deeds were never -dark, yet they always insisted on darkness as indispensable for the perpetration -of them. In 1852, after the craze reached England, many men -of academical and scientific repute observed and attested incredible -phenomena, of which Prof. Challis of Cambridge said that, if the statements -had to be rejected, “the possibility of ascertaining facts by -human testimony must be given up.” Mr. A. R. Wallace, the congener -of Darwin, became a convert, and bore witness to the miracles of -Mrs. Guppy, her floral materializations, etc.; Modern Miracles and -Spiritualism, 1874, etc. (I cannot omit to mention that this author, at -one time at least, was an anti-vaccinationist). Sir W. Crookes, the -celebrated scientist, had séances in his own house, where he walked and -talked with a young lady from the Orient, dead a century before, subjected -her to a quasi-medical examination, and possessed himself of a -lock of her hair; Researches on the Phenomena of Spiritualism, 1870. -The professors of Leipzig University received the celebrated medium, -Dr. Slade, in their private study on several occasions, when he satisfied -them of his ability to perform the impossible by producing untieable -knots, passing matter through matter, and causing writing to appear on -slates from invisible correspondents; Transcendental Physics, by Prof. -Zöllner, Lond., 1883. Other observers who upheld the reality of -spiritual achievements are Sir R. Burton, Mr. Cromwell Varley, -F.R.S., Dr. Lockhart Robinson, Lord Lindsay, etc. The list of -veracious witnesses is, in fact, a long one and a weighty. Yet all these -eminent men have been deceived by cunning impostors. See the -Reports of the Societies for Psychical Research, English and American, -which have been issued regularly for nearly twenty years. Hallucinations, -ghost-stories, and hypnosis have been exhaustively investigated, -but no spirits have ventured to materialize themselves whenever conclusive -tests were insisted on. At the most it has been demonstrated -that telepathy, a kind of wireless telegraphy between brain and brain, -may occur under favourable but rare conditions. Whenever trickery -was excluded the pretended mediums were invariably unsuccessful. The -redoubtable Dr. Slade, when he found that dupes failed him, retired -from the profession, and shortly after, on meeting a friend who challenged -him, replied, “you never believed in the old spirits, did you?” -The absurdities which were effective among the credulous when their -superstitions were appealed to were often a ludicrous feature. A stone -picked up by the wayside and ejected adroitly from the medium’s -pocket during a dance is looked upon as a supernatural occurrence. -See Truesdell’s ridiculous exposure of Slade and other charlatans of -that class; Bottom Facts of Spiritualism, N.Y., 1883. The career of an -English impostor has been unveiled throughout by a confederate in -Confessions of a Medium, Lond., 1882. The literature on both sides is -very large and is still accumulating. Several spiritual journals are published -with the support of thousands of believers in Europe and America, -etc. This modern illustration teaches us very conclusively: (1) That had -the Gospels come down to us as the acknowledged writings of some of -the best known and trustworthy men of antiquity, their contents would -still have to be discredited as originating in fraud or illusion: (2) That -devotion to a branch of science, or even to science generally, is not -essentially productive of any critical insight into matters theological or -professedly supernatural: (3) That phenomena of cerebration, normal, -aberrant, and perhaps supranormal (exalted sensitiveness), may easily -be utilized for purposes of imposture; and are a proper subject for -methodized psychical study. Since a contemporary religion, supported -by a mass of direct and definite evidence thus collapses before a strict -scrutiny, we must ask what truth could reside in those generated in the -womb of Oriental mysticism, for which no solid foundations can be perceived? -When we see that even scientists do not always succeed in -persuading themselves that nothing is credible but fact, <i>quod semper, -quod ubique, quod omnibus demonstrabile sit</i>, how little reliance can be -placed on popular reports and unauthentic tracts. Even if we had not -spiritualism to hand, a practically similar lesson might be taught from a -consideration of Shakerism, Mormonism, Harris’s Brotherhood of the -New Life, the Zion Restoration Host, with its reincarnated Elijah, etc. -See Oxley’s Modern Messiahs, 1889, for many interesting details as to -popular illusionists who have assumed the prophet’s mantle.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_998" href="#FNanchor_998" class="label">[998]</a> Timaeus, 9, <i>et seq.</i> Plato is not here inventing, but for the most -part merely co-ordinating previous notions, especially those of the -philosopher whose name is affixed to the dialogue. Reference to some -other dialogues is necessary to complete the picture of his religion and -theology.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_999" href="#FNanchor_999" class="label">[999]</a> Parmenides; Republic, vi, 19; Plotinus, Enneads, vi, 9.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1000" href="#FNanchor_1000" class="label">[1000]</a> That is fire, air, water, and earth; not our chemical elements.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1001" href="#FNanchor_1001" class="label">[1001]</a> The original (?) Trinity here invented consists of: 1. The ποιητής, -πατήρ, or δημιουργός. 2. Νοῦς. 3. Ψυχή. From the spurious Epinomis -Νοῦς may be equaled with Λόγος.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1002" href="#FNanchor_1002" class="label">[1002]</a> Phaedo, 19, 25, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1003" href="#FNanchor_1003" class="label">[1003]</a> Thus the period of eclecticism was entered on, for an account of -which see Zeller’s Eclectics, Lond., 1883. It began about the age of -Cicero, but a definite system did not crystallize out of it till the time I -am treating of.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1004" href="#FNanchor_1004" class="label">[1004]</a> Born at Lycopolis in 205; died in Campania, 270.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1005" href="#FNanchor_1005" class="label">[1005]</a> There was no creed in Neoplatonism, and, therefore, what was -believed has to be deduced from a study of the Enneads of Plotinus, so-called -as consisting of a series of books, six in all, each containing nine -treatises. The logical germ of the conception is that the One emits continually -the Nous or intelligence; and the latter the Soul. The Soul -animates the world, but becomes lost should it allow itself to coalesce -with matter by yielding to sin. The subject has been treated exhaustively -by Vacherot, L’école d’Alexandrie, Paris, 1846; and by Zeller, -Philosophie der Griechen, iii, Leipzig, 1881. Neither of these works -has been translated, but there is an excellent summary by Bigg (Neoplatonism, -Lond., 1892), who has dealt with some phases of the movement -at length in his Christian Platonists of Alexandria, 1886. According -to Bigg’s expression, the Christian Father, Clement Alex. (<i>c.</i> 190), -“separated the thinker from the thought, and thus founded Neoplatonism.” -Numenius, who was, perhaps, a Jew, made some advances in -the definition of the Platonic trinity; and Plotinus was accused of -borrowing from him; see Bigg’s latter work, pp. 64, 250, etc. Ammonius -Saccas, a porter of Alexandria, was the teacher of Plotinus, and is considered -to be the immediate begetter of Neoplatonism.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1006" href="#FNanchor_1006" class="label">[1006]</a> Philo Judaeus (<i>c.</i> 20) is the first known to have taught this doctrine -of ecstasy, but it is not certain that the Neoplatonists utilized his works. -He also was the first to corrupt the rigid monotheism of the Jews by -assuming the Platonic (?) Logos as a necessary mediator between Jehovah -and the world; see Harnack, History of Dogma, Lond., 1892, i, p. 115, -etc.; also Bigg as above, and the Histories of Philosophy by Zeller, -Ueberweg, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1007" href="#FNanchor_1007" class="label">[1007]</a> The details of the life of Plotinus are due to Porphyry, who gives -the most succinct account of his doctrine, and describes his excursions -into the higher sphere by means of self-hypnosis. The whole field of -modern spiritualism seems to have been cultivated by the Neoplatonists, -and, indeed, by other mystics long before; allusions by Plotinus himself -will be found in Enneads, v, 9; vi, 7; iii, 8, etc. Porphyry relates -that during the six years of his intimacy with him, his master attained -to ecstatic union on four occasions. It will be seen, therefore, that -Plotinus was very abstemious in indulging in such a luxury; he would -have much to learn from modern improvements under which Mrs. Piper -and other trance-mediums enter the vacuous realm regularly day by day; -see the Psychical Society’s Reports; cf. Bigg, Christian Platonists, etc., -p. 248; also Myers’ Classical Essays, 1883, p. 83, <i>et seq.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1008" href="#FNanchor_1008" class="label">[1008]</a> “Only the cultured,” he remarks, “can aspire to the summit and -upwards; as for the vulgar crowd, they are bound down to common -necessaries”; Enneads, II, ix, 9.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1009" href="#FNanchor_1009" class="label">[1009]</a> The Stoics began this allegorizing of the ancient books; see Zeller -(Stoics, Epicureans, and Sceptics, Lond., 1892) for an account of their -conceits. Philo Judaeus performed a similar service for the Pentateuch, -of which the Jews do not seem to have believed much literally in his -day; nor, in fact, did the early Christian Fathers; see Origen, Comment. -in Genesim, etc. He notices, amongst other things, the difficulty which -arises from the production of light before the sun was created; Gen., i, -3, 16. Porphyry’s treatise on the Cave of the Nymphs (Odyssey, xiii, -102) remains to show the method of exegesis adopted by the Neoplatonists -in order to demonstrate the divine inspiration of the old Greek -poets. Kingsley’s novel, “Hypatia,” gives a good picture of Neoplatonism -in some of its popular aspects.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1010" href="#FNanchor_1010" class="label">[1010]</a> A treatise emanating from the school of Iamblichus is extant, viz., -The Mysteries of the Egyptians, an exposition supposed to be written -by Abamon in answer to a sceptical letter from Porphyry to Anebo, -assumed characters apparently. It includes a whole system of Neoplatonic -magic and theurgy, and describes the various appearances of daemonic -phantasms with the accuracy of one accustomed to be familiarly -associated with them. Objectively the series descends from the celestial -light which defines the personality of a god to a turbid fire indicative of -the form of a lower daemon, perhaps of malignant propensities. There -is a recent edition of this work in English, probably a venture addressed -to spiritualistic circles.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1011" href="#FNanchor_1011" class="label">[1011]</a> Irenaeus, i, 23; Hippolytus, vi, 7, etc. His contests with St. Peter -were a favourite subject in early Christian literature; see Ordericus -Vitalis (ii, 2), who has extracted some amusing incidents as to their -rivalry at Rome, etc. In the Clementine Homilies and Recognitions, -which form a kind of religious novel, at the time put forward as genuine, -he fills the stage as the villain of the piece, but is considered to be merely -a pseudonym for St. Paul, a name which typified a policy to which the -author of the composition was opposed. See the article on Simon in -any comprehensive encyclopaedia of recent date.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1012" href="#FNanchor_1012" class="label">[1012]</a> Mansel’s Gnostic Heresies (1875) supersedes to a great extent the -larger treatises of Matter and others, as it embodies a discussion of details -more recently derived from Hippolytus, etc. Their sects increased -rapidly in number, from the thirty-seven dealt with by Irenaeus (<i>c.</i> 185), -to the eighty refuted by Epiphanius (<i>c.</i> 350). There were two main -schools of Gnostics, the Syrian and the Alexandrian. The former was -frankly dualistic, but the Egyptian assimilated Buddhistic notions, which -saw in matter the essence of evil; only, however, when vitalized by the -celestial emanations after they had become impoverished, as the result -of their descent to an infinite distance from the throne of light. In -general the attitude of Gnostics towards Christianity was rejection of -the Jewish creator as an evil demiurge, and the acceptance of Jesus as -an emissary from the god of love to rescue the world from sin and darkness. -Their Christology was docetic; that is, the Saviour was merely a -phantom who appeared suddenly on the banks of the Jordan, in the -semblance of a man of mature age. Their greatest leader, though not a -pure Gnostic, was Marcion of Pontus. His bible consisted of the Pauline -Epistles, and a Gospel said to be Luke mutilated, but more justly recognized -as an independent redaction of the primitive tradition. -Marcion’s Jesus said, “I come not to fulfil the law, but to destroy it”; -see Tertullian, Adv. Marcion, iv, 7, 9. The modern Christian might -imagine that his faith is dualistic, owing to the power and prominence -given to the devil, but such a view would be inexpiable heresy. Satan -and his crew are merely rebellious angels, whose relations to Jehovah -are similar to that of sinful men in general, so much so that some of -the Fathers in the early Church held that Christ would descend into -Hell to be crucified there a second time for the salvation of devils; see -Origen, De Principiis, I, vi, 2, 3; Labbe, Concil. (1759), ix, 533, can. -7, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1013" href="#FNanchor_1013" class="label">[1013]</a> Unless it should be maintained that Christianity germinated in -Gnostic soil, the most vigorous growth which overshadowed and in the -end annihilated its weaker associates, a not untenable hypothesis.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1014" href="#FNanchor_1014" class="label">[1014]</a> The two portly folios devoted to the history of Manichaeism -(Amst., 1734), by Beausobre, must now be supplemented by more recent, -though less extensive, works, owing to the activity of modern -scholars among Oriental sources. St. Augustine was a Manichaean for -eight years, and the most reliable details are to be collected from his -writings after he became a Christian, and issued diatribes against his -former teachers. Socrates gives a short life of Mani, fabulous in great -part most likely; i, 22; the latest researches are those of Kessler. The -best summary will be found in Harnack, Hist. of Dogma, iii, p. 317, to -which is appended a bibliography of the subject.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1015" href="#FNanchor_1015" class="label">[1015]</a> An old Persian notion; see Xenophon, Cyropaedia, vi, 1.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1016" href="#FNanchor_1016" class="label">[1016]</a> “Not the devilish Messiah of the Jews, but a contemporaneous -phantom Jesus, who neither suffered nor died”; Harnack, Encycl. Brit., -<i>sb.</i> “Manichaeism.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1017" href="#FNanchor_1017" class="label">[1017]</a> The text of his edict, with references to the sources, is given by -Gieseler, Hist. Eccles., i, 61. The enactment, however, is regarded -with suspicion, and is never mentioned unless accompanied by a query -as to its genuineness. See also Haenel, Cod. Theod., 44*.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1018" href="#FNanchor_1018" class="label">[1018]</a> See the laws against mathematicians, etc., for so were sorcerers and -witches designated at the time, from the Antonines onwards; Cod. -Theod., IX, xvi; Cod., IX, xviii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1019" href="#FNanchor_1019" class="label">[1019]</a> As Harnack remarks (<i>loc. cit.</i>), it commended itself successfully to -the partly Semitic inhabitants of North Africa, among whom was -Augustine. But it permeated Europe as well, and in a more Christianized -form flourished among such comparatively modern sects as the -Cathari, Albigenses, Bogomils, etc. Its fate in these quarters is traced -out by Gieseler and other church historians. But the Manichaean pedigree -of these sects is not now accepted so freely as formerly; see Bury’s -Gibbon, vi, p. 543. At one time all heretics were stigmatized as -Manichaeans in the vituperation of the orthodox, especially when their -views approached the docetism held by all Gnostics, as in the case of -the Monophysites; Labbe, Concil., v, 147, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1020" href="#FNanchor_1020" class="label">[1020]</a> Justin. Apol., i, 11; Eusebius, Hist. Eccles., v, 16; see Gieseler, -<i>op. cit.</i>, i, 41, 48, etc. The belief in the Millennium was, doubtless, the -most potent influence in segregating the first Christians from their fellow -subjects. It was conceived by some that as the world was created in six -days it would last for six thousand years, and the seventh thousand -would be distinguished by the reign of Christ on earth; see the Church -Histories and Harnack’s article “Millennium,” in Encycl. Brit., etc. -As the chronology was uncertain the critical transition might be revealed -at any moment. Christian writers now began to date from the creation -of the world as per Genesis; some made it about 5500 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, so that the -Millennium should have been entered on during the reign of Anastasius. -But according to others it should have begun under Nero or Trajan. -Michael Melit. (Langlois); Jn. Malala, p. 428, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1021" href="#FNanchor_1021" class="label">[1021]</a> See Apostolical Constit., ii, 25; Hatch, Early Church, pp. 40, -69, etc. The Emperor Julian was rather exasperated at finding that the -Christians took the wind out of his sails by their indiscriminate charity, -and so cultivated the good will of all the lower classes; Epist. (frag.), -p. 391 (H). He seems to be addressing some Pagan priest.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1022" href="#FNanchor_1022" class="label">[1022]</a> See The Teaching of the Twelve Apostles, 11, <i>et seq.</i>; Gieseler, -<i>op. cit.</i>, i, 30. It is uncertain whether the first assemblies were convened -after the pattern of the Jewish synagogue or the guild meetings -of the Empire; probably after one or the other according to local -affinity.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1023" href="#FNanchor_1023" class="label">[1023]</a> It may be imagined that this transformation was not effected without -a conflict when parties with opposed views found themselves at the -parting of the ways. This rupture was called Montanism, from Montanus, -a Phrygian who, with two “prophetesses,” proclaimed a renewal of -the original dispensation. The movement spread to the West, where the -celebrated Tertullian became one of its most ardent advocates. See -Gieseler, <i>op. cit.</i>, i, 48, etc., or Harnack in Encycl. Brit., <i>sb. nom.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1024" href="#FNanchor_1024" class="label">[1024]</a> Origen c. Celsum, iii, 9.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1025" href="#FNanchor_1025" class="label">[1025]</a> Some details of the catechetical course are known. The student was -first taken through the “science” of the period until, like Socrates, he -found that he knew nothing. Then the current of Jewish-Christian -legend and mythology was allowed to flow, and everything was lighted up -instantly as by an electric illumination; Gregory Thaumaturgus, Panegyr. -in Origen, 5, <i>et seq.</i> Almost the strongest argument the Fathers found -for the acceptance of their creed was the failure of Greek philosophical -speculation to explain the universe. Many of them dwell at great length -on this subject; see Tatian, Athenagoras, Lactantius, etc. One of the -best summaries of ancient metaphysics is given by Hippolytus in his -first book against heresies. But Clement and Origen were more concerned -to correlate the two, thinking there was something divine in both. -Eusebius is on similar ground in his Praep. Evang., etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1026" href="#FNanchor_1026" class="label">[1026]</a> As late as 160, or so, the Christians were taunted with having no -visible places of worship; Origen c. Celsum, viii, 17, 19, etc.; Minucius -Felix, 10. About a century later the handsome churches began to be -erected; Apostolic Constit., ii, 57; Eusebius, Hist. Eccles., viii, 1; -x, 4, etc. An inventory of the actual contents of a church at Cirta, in -N. Africa, <i>c.</i> 300, is extant; Routh, Reliquiae Sacrae, ii, p. 100.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1027" href="#FNanchor_1027" class="label">[1027]</a> See the account of Hierocles, the hostile proconsul, in Lactantius, -Div. Inst., v, 2; De Morte Persec., 16. He and the Emperor Galerius -appear to have been the prime movers of the Diocletian persecution in -303; cf. Eusebius, <i>op. cit.</i>, viii, 2, etc. After several years, however, -Galerius found the task of stamping out Christianity beyond him, and -issued an edict of toleration. Hence there was really no call for Constantine -to legislate anew. This Hierocles was one of those who set up the -idealized Apollonius of Tyana as an avatar of the Deity, and tried to -exalt him as an object of adoration above Jesus. But the attempt failed; -Apollonius was a real personage with a familiar name; Jesus was a -dream; see the controversial tract of Eusebius against Hierocles.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1028" href="#FNanchor_1028" class="label">[1028]</a> Cod. Theod., XVI, vii, 1; x, 1, 7, etc., and Godefroy <i>ad loc.</i> -About this time (380) Gratian discarded the dignity of Pontifex Maximus, -which the previous Christian emperors had continued to assume; -Zosimus, iv, 36.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1029" href="#FNanchor_1029" class="label">[1029]</a> A civil war was opened throughout the East by many bishops, who -proceeded to demolish the temples at the head of gangs of monks and -other enthusiasts. On both sides infuriated mobs fought zealously for -their religion, and much slaughter resulted. The most violent commotion -was occasioned by the destruction of the great temple of Serapis at -Alexandria (389); see the ecclesiastical historians: Socrates, v, 16; -Sozomen, vii, 15; Theodoret, v, 21, etc. Such doings became official -under Arcadius; Cod. Theod., XVI, x, 16 (399); cf. Gieseler, i, 79.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1030" href="#FNanchor_1030" class="label">[1030]</a> In 367 Damasus and Ursinus fought a battle in one of the Roman -churches for the papal seal; 137 corpses were removed next day from -the pavement of the sacred edifice. “I am not surprised at the contention,” -says Ammianus, “when I consider the splendour of the dignity. -The successful aspirant is enriched by the offerings of matrons, rolls -about in his chariot sumptuously apparelled, and surpasses the profusion -of royalty in his banquets”; xxvii, 3. As the Vicar of God, bishops -professed to stand above temporal princes; Apostol. Constit., ii, 34. -The Bishop of Tripolis declared to the Empress Eusebia (<i>c.</i> 350) that -he would not visit her unless she descended from the throne to meet him, -kissed his hands, and waited his permission to reseat herself after he -had sat down, etc.; Suidas, <i>sb.</i> Λεόντιος. St. Martin of Tours (<i>c.</i> 370) -was waited on at table by the Empress; he handed the cup to his -chaplain, thus giving him precedence over the Emperor; Sulp. Severus, -Vita St. M., 20; Dial., ii, 6. See further Gieseler, <i>op. cit.</i>, i, 91.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1031" href="#FNanchor_1031" class="label">[1031]</a> See the original church historians. Theodoret’s account is the most -definite and satisfactory; i, 2, <i>et seq.</i> Recently Arianism has been treated -by Gwatkin in a separate work. Harnack’s exposition of it is, as usual, -most lucid and interesting; Hist. Dogma, iv. This is the great controversy -in which the celebrated words <i>Homoousios</i> and <i>Homoiousios</i> were -combined to distinguish the contending theories:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse">D’une syllabe impie un saint mot augmenté</div> - <div class="verse">Remplit tous les esprits d’aigreurs si meurtrières,</div> - <div class="verse">Et fit de sang chrétien couler tant de rivières, etc.</div> - <div class="verse indent20">Boileau, Sat. xii.</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p><i>Homoean</i> and <i>Anomoean</i> denote Arian sub-sects who differed more or -less from orthodoxy. In fact, the Arian heresy has never really died -out, and is now represented by Unitarianism.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1032" href="#FNanchor_1032" class="label">[1032]</a> “Tradendi ratio sicca est, memoriaeque potius, quam intelligentiae -accommodata”; Mosheim, Eccles. Hist., IX, ii, 3. The first great -theological debates concerned the mutual relations of the persons of the -Trinity in their celestial abode; and were decided against those who -confounded the persons (Sabellians, Monarchians) or divided the substance -(Arians). Such momentous matters being settled as finally -registered in the so-called Athanasian Creed, the Fathers descended to -earth and busied themselves in analyzing the mystic conjunction of the -Godhead with the flesh, viz., the Incarnation of Jesus. These controversies -were determined by the ejection from the fold of Orthodoxy of -those who maintained the existence of but one nature or one will in the -God-man (Monophysites, Monotheletes), and also of a small party who -propounded the incorruptibility of the body of Jesus (Aphthartodocetae). -The erection of this fabric of dogma was essential to Orthodoxy, the -underlying conception of which was that God became man so that man -might become God; ii Clement, 9; cf. Bigg, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 71. Hence if -the Saviour were made out to be merely a sham human being the whole -scheme of redemption must fall through at once. The last step led them -to consult about the mundane relatives of Jesus, and ended in the dogma -that Mary’s was an asexual birth, the Immaculate Conception, and that, -as she could never have been sullied by any carnal conversation, the -brothers of Jesus, as represented, must merely have been his cousins. -But the Church did not approach some of these latter considerations -till a later age.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1033" href="#FNanchor_1033" class="label">[1033]</a> His laws have already been referred to. For the result as represented -by an educated Pagan, see Libanius, De Templis. This Council -enacted that the Bishop of CP. should hold the next rank to the Roman -Pontiff; Socrates, v, 8 (Concil., can. 3). About this time the title of -Patriarch began to be restricted to the higher bishops; <i>ibid.</i> Constantine’s -pagan temples at CP. were now ruined; Jn. Malala, p. 345.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1034" href="#FNanchor_1034" class="label">[1034]</a> The chief source for the Council of Chalcedon is Evagrius, ii, 1, -<i>et seq.</i> By Canon 21 the equality of the Byzantine Patriarch with the -Pope was affirmed; Labbe, Concil., vii, 369; cf. Cod. Theod., XVI, -ii, 45, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1035" href="#FNanchor_1035" class="label">[1035]</a> Evagrius, iii, 13, <i>et seq.</i> It was composed by Acacius, the Patriarch -of the capital.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1036" href="#FNanchor_1036" class="label">[1036]</a> See pp. 104, 180. To the Monophysites, Anastasius is, of course, -“the pious and orthodox Emperor”: see John of Nikiu (Zotenberg); -Zachariah of Mytilene (Hamilton), etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1037" href="#FNanchor_1037" class="label">[1037]</a> Cod., I, v, 12; Codinus, p. 72; Procopius, De Aedific, i, 4. See -Ducange, CP. Christ., <i>sb. nom.</i>, for a collection of passages relating to -St. Mocius.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1038" href="#FNanchor_1038" class="label">[1038]</a> In 423 Theodosius II considered that Paganism was virtually extinct, -so little in evidence were those who still adhered to the old religion; -Cod. Theod., XVI, x, 22. But subsequent events proved that his confidence -was premature. I have anticipated the use of the word “Pagan” -(<i>paganus</i>, rustic, villager) as a term of reproach to those who had not -been illuminated by Christianity. In this sense it is first found in a law -of Valentinian I: Cod. Theod., XVI, ii, 18 (365). It arose at a time -when the urban population exhibited a sharp contrast to the country -people in the matter of religion. Long after the former had been converted -<i>en masse</i>, polytheism lingered in the rural districts, the scattered -inhabitants of which did not come into touch with the Christian propagandists -and their new creed for a considerable time. Hence the -idea of a country fellow became synonymous with that of a worshipper -of the gods long since despised.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1039" href="#FNanchor_1039" class="label">[1039]</a> The history of their migration and subsequent activity at the local -source of their inspiration will deserve our attention in a future chapter.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1040" href="#FNanchor_1040" class="label">[1040]</a> Valentinian I and the succeeding emperors legislated definitely -against them; Cod. Theod., XVI, v, 3, 18, 40, 43, 59; cf. Cod., I, v. -The whole title against heretics contains sixty-six laws, a monument of -Christian bigotry and intolerance. The novelty of the Christian doctrines -and the constant dissensions of ecclesiastics as to the proper mode -of apprehending them, caused all classes to be infected with a mania for -drawing theological distinctions, <i>ex. gr.</i>, “If you require some small -change, the person you address will begin to argue about ‘begotten and -unbegotten’; should you ask the price of bread you will hear that the -Father is greater and the Son inferior; or in reply to an inquiry whether -your bath is prepared, the attendant will define for your benefit that the -Son was made out of nothing”; Gregory Nys., Orat. De Deitate, etc., -2 (in Migne, i, 557). Yet sometimes a prelate would assume a jocular -tone in the pulpit when speaking on these grave questions. Thus Eudoxius, -Bishop of CP., began his discourse one day with the assertion, -“The Father is impious, but the Son is pious.” The congregation -seemed awe-struck, but he at once continued, “Be not alarmed; the -Son is pious because he worships the Father, but the Father worships -no one”; Socrates, ii, 43. Marrast has devised some scenes to bring -out the absurd way in which theological hair-splitting disturbed everyday -social relations at this period; <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 89.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1041" href="#FNanchor_1041" class="label">[1041]</a> Chrysostom mentions the fact with exultation. Objectors fear that -the race may die out as the result of the widespread celibacy, but the -Saint knows better; the women who remain will be rendered more -fecund by the Deity, and thus the numerical complement of mankind will -be maintained. He also knows that there is a countless host of heaven, -asexual, who are propagated in a passionless manner by divine ordination; -In Epist. Rom. Hom. xiii, 7 (in Migne, ix, 517); De Virginitate, -14, <i>et seq.</i> (in Migne, i, 544); cf. Ambrose, De Virginitate, 3; Rufinus, -Hist. Monach., 7 (in Migne, 413).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1042" href="#FNanchor_1042" class="label">[1042]</a> Monks are enjoined by Theodosius I “deserta loca et vastas solitudines -sequi atque habitare”; Cod. Theod., XVI, iii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1043" href="#FNanchor_1043" class="label">[1043]</a> The literature of early monkish life, descriptive and laudatory, is -very extensive; see Gieseler, Eccles. Hist., i, 95, 96, etc. The most -striking picture will be found in Evagrius, i, 21; iv, 33, etc. He is lost -in admiration of them; they suppressed their natural appetites so rigidly -that they looked like corpses wandering away from their graves. Some -lived in dens and caves where they could neither stand nor lie. Some -dwelt in the open air almost naked, exposed to excessive heat or cold. -Others rejected human food and took to grazing like cattle, shunning -human beings as if they were wild beasts. Both sexes embraced such -lives of unremitting castigation. Some of the males made a practice of -repairing from time to time to the cities in order to demonstrate their -sexual frigidity by bathing in the public baths amongst nude women. -They applied themselves to prayer, of course, until they brought themselves -to the verge of exhaustion; cf. Sozomen, vi, 28, <i>et seq.</i> One -Apelles had a conflict with the devil similar to that related of the English -St. Dunstan.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1044" href="#FNanchor_1044" class="label">[1044]</a> The celebrated Simeon Stylites was the inventor of this sublime -method of serving the Deity. From 420 he lived on columns near -Antioch for thirty-seven years; Evagrius, i, 13; see Gieseler, i, <i>loc. cit.</i>, -for reference to fuller accounts, separate biographies, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1045" href="#FNanchor_1045" class="label">[1045]</a> He was contemporary with Athanasius, who wrote an extant life of -him; see Sozomen, i, 13, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1046" href="#FNanchor_1046" class="label">[1046]</a> Sozomen, iii, 14.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1047" href="#FNanchor_1047" class="label">[1047]</a> Socrates, iv, 23; Sozomen, i, 12, <i>et seq.</i> Previous to Christianity -there were at least two communities of Jewish ascetics in the near East, -the Essenes, who dwelt west of the Dead Sea, and the Therapeutae, who -lived by Lake Moeris, near Alexandria. The first have been described -briefly by Pliny (Hist. Nat., v, 15) and the second by Philo Judaeus in -a separate tract (De Vita Contemplativa) respecting the authorship and -date of which, however, opinion continually fluctuates; I do not know -whether at present it is on the crest of the wave or in the trough of the -sea. These solitaries consisted of males and females, and were recruited -regularly by persons who became sick of the world and determined to -fly far from the madding crowd. About them generally see Neander, -Church Hist., Introd.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1048" href="#FNanchor_1048" class="label">[1048]</a> Socrates, iv, 21; Gregory Nazianz., Laud. Basil (in Migne, ii, -577).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1049" href="#FNanchor_1049" class="label">[1049]</a> Nicephorus, Cal., xv, 23; see <a href="#Page_78">p. 78</a>. Not psalmody, however, says -Card. Hardouin, but restless application to work. Manufacture of -fictitious documents he insinuates, doubtless.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1050" href="#FNanchor_1050" class="label">[1050]</a> Cod., XII, i, 63; Orosius, vii, 33; Jerome, Chron., an. 375; cf. -Socrates, iv, 24.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1051" href="#FNanchor_1051" class="label">[1051]</a> The histories of monachism are numerous and voluminous, especially -those composed some two or three centuries ago. Helyot’s Hist. des -Ordres Mon., Paris, 1714, etc., in 8 vols., may be read for amusement -as well as instruction.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1052" href="#FNanchor_1052" class="label">[1052]</a> Epicurus, the unavowed disciple of Leucippus and Democritus, the -earliest atomists, conceived the coalescence of the particles to result -from their rushing onwards always under the influence of a certain -natural deflection which led to their meeting continually so as to become -conjoined. As an Academic, and, therefore, a sceptic, Carneades could -not accept this or any other theory, but in criticizing its fortuity, he -remarked that it might have been perfected, or, at least, made more -intelligible if Epicurus had conferred some faculty of will or intention -on his atoms; Cicero, De Finibus, i, 6; De Fato, 11. With our increased -knowledge of physics, we may now venture to supply the -deficiency in accordance with the suggestion of Carneades. Not even -in the process of crystallization can the motion of the atoms or molecules -be considered as fortuitous, since they seem to be borne towards each -other under the influence of some irresistible desire. The recent investigators -strongly uphold the vitality of the process.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1053" href="#FNanchor_1053" class="label">[1053]</a> The question of abiogenesis or spontaneous generation, remains still -indeterminate. Substances in transitional stages between the vital and -the non-vital state have not been observed; perhaps because such matter -is too inconspicuous to have been discovered so far and recognized, or, -it may be, that the swarm of germs by descent is now so great, that the -incipiently organic at once becomes their prey, and forms, perhaps, their -constant pabulum. If identical atoms underlie all kinds of matter, and -the recent <i>début</i> of electrons brings the proof appreciably nearer that it -is so, we are still at a loss to explain why they should at one time, by -their association, exhibit vital phenomena, and at another reveal to -us their versatility in aggregating under the species of gold, sulphur, -etc. The statement in the text might run that the chemical compounds -combine with each other in greater complexity to form the elements of -protoplasm.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1054" href="#FNanchor_1054" class="label">[1054]</a> That the effective origin of evolution consists in will capable of -responding to a stimulus, being an essential attribute of matter, is a conclusion -to which we are led necessarily by a consideration of the subject. -When an amoeba protrudes a process, incited from within or without -by some desire, it is already on the way to evolve itself into a higher -form; and when a hygienist essays to preserve or prolong life by his -studies in bacteriology, etc., in his immeasurably higher sphere, he -literally does no more. The earlier evolutionists, Huxley, for example, -were inclined to hold that the potency of cosmic evolution became -evanescent progressively with the elaboration of purposive intelligence -and social institutions, but such a view is manifestly erroneous, and -would not now, I presume, be maintained by any contemporary scientists.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1055" href="#FNanchor_1055" class="label">[1055]</a> Our means of astronomical research are not sufficiently definite to -enable us to explain conclusively the appearance of previously unobserved -stars (<i>e.g.</i> Nova Persei, 1901), but there is good reason to suppose that -these new lights sometimes signal to us the catastrophe of millions of -beings more or less similar to ourselves. We are, however, well acquainted -with the convulsions of nature, which often bring swift destruction to -thousands of those dwelling on this small globe; for instance, the Mont -Pelée eruption of 1903, which claimed some 40,000 victims. It might -indeed be imagined from the occurrence of such disasters that animated -nature is merely a kind of surface disease of the earth, which undergoes -a spontaneous cure from time to time by means of earthquakes, floods, -volcanic action, etc. Certainly, if we are the only result of the activities -of this solar system, there would seem to be much superfluous expenditure -of power and materials. The conception of God, when cleared of -all irrelevancy, is merely that of a perpetual source of energy; and that -we must find in the medium we exist in or nowhere. It is nugatory to -talk of beginnings and endings when dealing with the infinite, unless as -regards phases of phenomena; if there had to be an end of the universe, -there would never have been a beginning.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1056" href="#FNanchor_1056" class="label">[1056]</a> Amongst some follies, the Stoic philosophers, in their pantheistic -conception of nature, reached the highest level which has yet been attained -in the expression of theocratic dogma. With them, the universe -is the very body of the divine essence, and the good and wise man is in -no way inferior to the sublimest manifestation of it. He is rightly called -a god upon earth, and his intellect is an efflux of the Deity. “Back to -the Porch for your ideas of God and nature,” the modern philosopher -may cry to his age. “You are gods yourselves, and nature is your realm -to conquer and hold in subjection.” The religion of the future will be -more akin to Stoicism than to any other doctrine which has been formulated -by thinkers in the past—a high ethical code upheld by a pride of -race and a devotion to the evolution of humanity. The Stoic would not -now be ready to make his own quietus with a bare bodkin should the -currents turn awry. He would stand to his post till the last hour, working -for the advancement of science. “Les stoiciens n’étaient occupés -qu’a travailler au bonheur des hommes, à exercer les devoirs de la -société: il semblait qu’ils regardassant cet esprit sacré qu’ils croyaient -être en eux-mêmes, comme une espèce de providence favorable qui -veillait sur le genre humain”; Montesquieu, Esprit des Lois, xxiv, 10. -See Plutarch, De Stoic. Repug., 13; Adv. Stoicos, 33; Seneca, De -Provid., 1; Epist., cvi; cxvii, etc.; Epictetus, ii, 8, 9; Lactantius, Div. -Inst., i, 5, 27, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1057" href="#FNanchor_1057" class="label">[1057]</a> Accepting the identity of the evolutionary process at all grades of -its prepotency, we may suppose that future advancement will be the -result of deliberate effort; and that the more determinate such effort, -the more rapid must be the progress. While the aptitude of our faculties -must be increased by their being constantly exercised in study and research, -the knowledge attainable by such work may ultimately win for -us some controlling influence over our physiological constitution. The -wild dreams of mediaeval alchemists now seem to us less unreal since -we have had experience of the properties of radium; and the vision of -an <i>elixir vitae</i>, which illuded those investigators, appears more realizable -in the light of recent research. The arrest of senility may come -within the range of the future therapeutist; and a new Demeter may -subject the modern Triptolemus to some alchemical fire, to render him -proof against mortality. Less remotely, the systematic administration of -sexual associations would exert a powerful influence over mental and -bodily development; and it would be physiologically correct if famous -stallions should stand to cover brood mares in the human as well as in -the equine world. The Spartans realized something of this in practice; -Plutarch, Lycurgus. The tendency to equalization of the sexes which -has been growing of late years, is undoubtedly a forward movement on -the path of evolution. The possibility of man in the future being endowed -with greatly increased intellectual power must not be lost sight -of. Exceptional gifts of genius, in some cases uniquely manifested, and -the occurrence of “prodigies,” especially in relation to mathematics, -music, and art, teach that the mental faculties of the human race may -yet be evolved in a much higher degree. The limitations imagined by -Greg, which are, perhaps, generally entertained, must now be contemplated -with suspended judgement: “Two glorious futures lie before -us: the progress of the race here, the progress of the man hereafter. -History indicates that the individual man needs to be translated in order -to excel the past. He appears to have reached his perfection centuries -ago.... What sculptor has surpassed Phidias? What poet has transcended -Homer?” etc.; Enigmas of Life, 1891, p. 177. This is an -evident misconception of the pace at which evolution moves; such short -periods count for nothing. In evolutionary time, Homer and Phidias -are our contemporaries. We know nothing of the final state of such -beings as ourselves after they have passed through some millions of -years, to which most probably the life of this planet must extend. They -may well attain to some condition resembling that of the “gods” of -Epicurus, who existed with a “quasi corpus, quasi sanguis,” etc. The -chemist and biologist have a wide field before them in which they will -yet make many conquests.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1058" href="#FNanchor_1058" class="label">[1058]</a> Compare the account of the soldier Ammianus with those of the -church historians; Socrates, iii; Sozomen, v; Philostorgius (an Arian), -vii; Theodoret, iii, etc. These are honest writers and, although they -often relied on mere hearsay, most of the matter they bring forward is -historical. On the other hand the Church History of Eusebius, who was -infinitely above them in abilities and learning, contains little but popular -report and legend. It is improbable that Julian inflicted any physical -persecution on the Christians, but no doubt his subordinates did so on -the strength of his attitude towards them and he afterwards got all the -credit of it.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1059" href="#FNanchor_1059" class="label">[1059]</a> It is generally suggested that the constant immigration of barbarians -and their wholesale collocation in the army must have gradually undermined -the civilization of the Empire. But a great state is able to digest -an enormous quantity of such accretions; and in the pride of their recent -elevation such new citizens would have become more Roman than -the Romans themselves. The great Transatlantic Republic has been -built up during three centuries by the immigration of alien barbarians. -For a good summary of the peaceful settlement of barbarians in the -Roman territories see Bury, <i>op. cit.</i>, i, p. 31.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1060" href="#FNanchor_1060" class="label">[1060]</a> See Gieseler (<i>op. cit.</i>, i, 99), where the assimilation of heathenism is -well summarized and instanced. Augustine (<i>c.</i> 400) draws a striking -picture of the impostors, who, in the garb of monks, tramped the -country selling sham relics, phylacteries, etc.; De Op. Monach., 28, 31, -etc.; Epist. ad Jan. (118). Jerome, in his diatribe against Vigilantius, -unwittingly makes a display of the gross superstition which that earnest -reformer sought to suppress. Bayle’s article on Vigilantius (Dictionnaire, -etc.) is a full and interesting account of the subject, but there is more -still in Gilly’s V. and his Times, Lond., 1844.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1061" href="#FNanchor_1061" class="label">[1061]</a> The first victims of ecclesiastical rancour were the Priscillianists, -who arose in Spain about 380. They were tainted with Manichaeism, -and two bishops persuaded the tyrant of Gaul, Maximus, to put several -of them to death in 385. Generally the Fathers of the Church were -shocked at this execution, but the utility of subjecting heretics to the -capital penalty was soon perceived and the practice thenceforward became -an intrinsic part of Christian discipline. The result is well known -to students of Church history and the religious wars waged against the -Paulicians, Albigenses, Huguenots, etc., and the horrors of the Inquisition -are familiar subjects in popular literature. During three centuries -in Spain (1471-1781), the first and the last scene of the judicial slaughter -of heretics, nearly 250,000 persons were dealt with by the Inquisitors, -a circumstance which Galton considers to have been equivalent to the -suppression of national genius and to account for “the superstitious -and unintelligent Spanish race of the present day”; see Hereditary -Genius, 1869, p. 359. The same reasoning would, of course, apply to -any process, such as is occurring in Russia at the present day, by which -the more active and effective members of a community are being constantly -weeded out. Paganism was not, of course, absolutely free from -intolerance; and the cases of Socrates, Anaxagoras, etc., will occur to -every one. Even Cleanthes, the Stoic, denounced Aristarchus of Samos -for running counter to the popular religion when he put forth some -astronomical anticipations of the Copernican system; Plutarch, De -Facie in Orbe Lunae, 6. Even Cicero in his “Laws” (ii, 8) decidedly -proscribes nonconformity with the state religion. Polytheism was tolerant -because it was comprehensive and could easily assimilate all kindred -beliefs. Thus a hospitable reception was ensured to any new arrival -who was fairly accredited as a member of the Olympian family.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1062" href="#FNanchor_1062" class="label">[1062]</a> Seven Crusades to Palestine were undertaken between 1096 and -1270. During that period more than 7,000,000 persons are said to have -started from Western Europe on their way to the East. Perhaps the -weeding out of the worst fanatics in this way may have conduced to subsequent -progress.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1063" href="#FNanchor_1063" class="label">[1063]</a> Dante (1265-1321) may be considered as the first prominent figure -of the Renaissance; Wycliffe (1325-84) of the Reformation, but -Arnold of Brescia (<i>c.</i> 1100-55) has some claim to the credit of being -the first Protestant.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1064" href="#FNanchor_1064" class="label">[1064]</a> In the daily press of March 15, 1896, we read the utterance of a -R. C. prelate when speaking of the Anglican clergy: “Do they claim -the power to produce the actual living Jesus Christ by transubstantiation -on the altar, according to the claims of the priesthood of the Eastern and -Western Churches?” Persons who address a public audience in the -Metropolis in this manner are not considered to be insane nor are they -classed as charlatans. Concomitantly with such proceedings we find -that the greatest of English encyclopaedias is published with introductory -articles in which it is allowed that the old religion is now a -mere phantasm on the stage of reality. At the present moment every -form of religious belief rests secure and stable on the broad back of -popular ignorance; and it remains for posterity in ages to come to solve -the problem as to how long humanity will have to wait for the evolution -of that elevation of mind which will decline to pay the tribute of hypocrisy -and reticence for the assurance of a stipend.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1065" href="#FNanchor_1065" class="label">[1065]</a> Sooner or later the progress of colonization is always resisted by the -aborigines, but the numbers of them who fall in war would soon be regenerated -and their gradual extinction is due to the restrictions imposed -on them by civilization or to their becoming addicted to its vices. The -decrease of the U. S. Indians (303,000, 1880; 266,000, 1900; previous -decrease unknown) and of the Maoris (100,000, 1780; 46,000, 1901) is -partly due to conflicts with the whites, but that of the Hawaiians -(200,000, 1780; 31,000, 1900) results solely from the immigration of -higher races. Similarly the Tasmanians have become extinct in the last -half of the nineteenth century. The peaceful pioneer of civilization, -perhaps a missionary, is more deadly to the native races than periodical -invasions by an armed force.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1066" href="#FNanchor_1066" class="label">[1066]</a> The ecclesiastical dictatorship of the Byzantine emperors, for which -the term “Caesarpapism” has been coined, is specially illustrated by -Gfrörer, Byzant. Geschichte, Graz, 1874, ii, 17, <i>et seq.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1067" href="#FNanchor_1067" class="label">[1067]</a> All the chronographers connect his death with a thunderstorm, and -it appears at least probable that he was affected with brontophobia in -his later years. He is even said to have built a chamber to retire into, -for fear of being struck by lightning; Cedrenus, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1068" href="#FNanchor_1068" class="label">[1068]</a> Theodore Lect., ii, 7, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1069" href="#FNanchor_1069" class="label">[1069]</a> It appears that he set up a private chair or stand in one of the -churches, from which he used to address a crowd to gain converts for -his doctrine. He was ejected thence by the same Patriarch, who shortly -afterwards had to crown him; Theophanes, an. 5982; Suidas, <i>sb.</i> -φατρία; see <a href="#Page_104">p. 104</a>.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1070" href="#FNanchor_1070" class="label">[1070]</a> Evagrius, iii, 34.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1071" href="#FNanchor_1071" class="label">[1071]</a> He tried to obtain its acceptance in 496, and again 508; Victor -Ton., an. 496; Theophanes, an. 6001, etc. He even tried to convert -the Pope, Anastasius II; Theodore Lect., ii, 17.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1072" href="#FNanchor_1072" class="label">[1072]</a> He favoured the Reds, a mere appendix of the Greens, and so kept -himself free from any absolute partisanship; Jn. Malala, xvi. Rambaud -(<i>op. cit.</i>, 4, 5) is successful in proving by texts that the Demes did -not represent definitely any political or religious party; and the notion -of comparing them to a sort of popular house, with “supporters of the -government,” and an “opposition” cannot be substantiated. They -were rivals in the games and threefold rivals for the Emperor’s favour, -in the Hippodrome, for interpreting his will to the people, and for -conveying to him the popular sentiment. Thus they had a place in the -administration, but not one that can be paralleled in any modern constitution. -They were practically indifferent to creed or policy. The -numbers recruited under each colour at CP. might be from 900 to 1,500; -Theophylact Sim., viii, 7.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1073" href="#FNanchor_1073" class="label">[1073]</a> See p. <a href="#Page_155">155</a>. But the exactions of Marinus the Syrian, P.P. who -committed the local supervision of the taxes to so-called <i>vindices</i> of his -own creation, instead of to the Decurions, ultimately branded A. with -the opprobrium of being a grasping character: Jn. Lydus, De Magistr., -iii, 36, 46, 49; Evagrius, iii, 42, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1074" href="#FNanchor_1074" class="label">[1074]</a> The large sum he left in the Treasury has already been alluded to; -see <a href="#Page_163">p. 163</a>.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1075" href="#FNanchor_1075" class="label">[1075]</a> The closest personal view of him is to be got from Cyril Scythop., -Vit. S. Saba, 50, <i>et seq.</i> He was surnamed Dicorus (double-pupil), because -his eyes differed in colour.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1076" href="#FNanchor_1076" class="label">[1076]</a> Procopius, De Bel. Pers., i, 10; De Aedific., iii, 2, etc.; Jn. Lydus, -De Magistr., iii, 47, <i>et passim</i>.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1077" href="#FNanchor_1077" class="label">[1077]</a> Especially Evagrius and Cyril Scythop., both of whom condemned -him as a heretic.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1078" href="#FNanchor_1078" class="label">[1078]</a> Marcellinus Com., an. 518. Now Uskiub, a flourishing Turkish -town, nearly on the same site. The whole district has recently been explored -by Evans; Antiquarian Researches in Illyricum, Archaeologia, -xlix, 1885.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1079" href="#FNanchor_1079" class="label">[1079]</a> The Balkans. See generally Tozer’s Travels in the Turkish Highlands, -1869, i, 16, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1080" href="#FNanchor_1080" class="label">[1080]</a> Procopius, De Aedific., iv, 1. It seems that they are still represented -by villages called Taor and Bader; see Tozer, <i>op. cit.</i>, ii. Append.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1081" href="#FNanchor_1081" class="label">[1081]</a> See Tozer’s narrative of his journey through the Pass from Prisrend -to Uskiub; <i>loc. cit.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1082" href="#FNanchor_1082" class="label">[1082]</a> Novel. vii, 1. The extensive remains of the Latin occupation still -to be seen are described by Evans, <i>op. cit.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1083" href="#FNanchor_1083" class="label">[1083]</a> Procopius, De Bel. Vand., ii, 16.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1084" href="#FNanchor_1084" class="label">[1084]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, Anecdot., 6. The names of the other two are given as -Zimarchus and Ditybistus, but I see no reason to call them his brothers -as is sometimes done. Justin was cowherd, or swineherd, or field -labourer according to Zonaras, xiv, 5.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1085" href="#FNanchor_1085" class="label">[1085]</a> Procopius, <i>loc. cit.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1086" href="#FNanchor_1086" class="label">[1086]</a> According to Alemannus (pp. 361, 461), however, Zimarchus as a -centenarian (!) was active in important posts; Theophanes, an. 6054-5. cf. Jn. -Malala, xviii, p. 490</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1087" href="#FNanchor_1087" class="label">[1087]</a> Jn. Antioch. (Müller, Frag. Hist. Graec., v, p. 31); Procopius, -<i>loc. cit.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1088" href="#FNanchor_1088" class="label">[1088]</a> Procopius, De Bel. Pers., i, 8.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1089" href="#FNanchor_1089" class="label">[1089]</a> Theodore Lect., ii, 37; Const. Porph. De Cerim., i, 93, etc. His -title was Count of the Excubitors.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1090" href="#FNanchor_1090" class="label">[1090]</a> Jn. of Antioch., <i>loc. cit.</i>, p. 35.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1091" href="#FNanchor_1091" class="label">[1091]</a> Procopius, Anecdot., 6.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1092" href="#FNanchor_1092" class="label">[1092]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, De Aedific., iv, 1.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1093" href="#FNanchor_1093" class="label">[1093]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, Anecdot., 12; Theophanes, an. 6024. The name seems to have -been common at this epoch; see Socrates, v, 21, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1094" href="#FNanchor_1094" class="label">[1094]</a> The girl’s name was Vigilantia; Procopius, De Bel. Vand., ii, 24, -etc. Probably her mother’s name.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1095" href="#FNanchor_1095" class="label">[1095]</a> Corp. Insc. Lat., v, 8120.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1096" href="#FNanchor_1096" class="label">[1096]</a> Inferred from subsequent history. The point is discussed by Ludewig, -<i>op. cit.</i>, viii, 5; cf. Alemannus, p. 437, <i>et seq.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1097" href="#FNanchor_1097" class="label">[1097]</a> Victor Ton., an. 520; Const. Porph., <i>op. cit.</i>, i, 93.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1098" href="#FNanchor_1098" class="label">[1098]</a> The circumstances and date of the adoption are not recorded, but -that it must have taken place appears evident from Cod., II, ii, 9; -Novel. xxviii, 4, etc. Ludewig argues against it in the face of facts.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1099" href="#FNanchor_1099" class="label">[1099]</a> Almost certainly: the correct form would have been Justinus Sabbatianus, -but the Byzantines were ignorant or varied old rules <i>ad lib.</i> -There seems to have been no classical Justinian, but two of that name -flit across the stage under Honorius; Zosimus, v, 30; vi, 2.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1100" href="#FNanchor_1100" class="label">[1100]</a> See pp. 103, 104.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1101" href="#FNanchor_1101" class="label">[1101]</a> From Chron. Paschal. and Theophanes it might be argued that -there was an interregnum, but the contemporary accounts of Peter -Magister (Const. Porph., <i>loc. cit.</i>) and Cyril Scythop. (<i>op. cit.</i>, 60) prove -that Anastasius died early in the morning on July 9, and that Justin was -elevated on the same day. Some give Justin the credit of having betrayed -the cause of the eunuch by his astuteness, but it appears rather -that his greatness was thrust upon him; Jn. Malala, xvii; Evagrius, iv, -12; Zonaras, xiv, 51, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1102" href="#FNanchor_1102" class="label">[1102]</a> The official record of the election by Peter Magister (<i>loc. supra cit.</i>) -has been preserved. It was Justin’s own duty to announce publicly that -the throne was vacant. The Circus was immediately filled and, as there -was no known claimant to the succession, a wild scene ensued. First -one of Justin’s subordinates was set up on a shield by a company of the -guards, but the Blues, disapproving, made a rush and dispersed the -throng. Then a patrician general was seized on by a body of the -Scholars, but the Excubitors attacked them and were dragging the -unlucky officer away to lynch him when he was rescued by the Candidate -Justinian, who was watching the tumult. Upon this the crowd -scurried round Justinian himself, but he declined the dangerous distinction, -being doubtless aware that a decisive election was maturing behind -the scenes among responsible representatives. Still, however, the -attempts to create an emperor went on, until at last the doors of the -Cathisma were thrown open and Justin appeared, supported by the -Patriarch, the Senate, and the chief military officers. All then perceived -that an emperor had been chosen by legitimate methods, and both -factions with the rest of the populace applauded the new monarch in the -usual way: “Justin Augustus, may you be victorious! Reign as you -have lived!” etc. It will be observed that Justin did not ascend the -throne as the emperor of the Blues or the Greens, but that both Demes -joined in their acquiescence. This apparently was always the case unless -some party usurper, such as Phocas, managed to seize the reins of -power; see Theophanes, an. 6094.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1103" href="#FNanchor_1103" class="label">[1103]</a> Procopius, Anecdot., 6. Nearly all the chronographers note his -illiteracy. A certain Marinus painted in one of the public baths a sequence -of pictures in which he portrayed the career of Justin from his youth -upwards. For this he was taken to task by the Emperor, but he extricated -himself by explaining that his intention was an ethical one, in -order to teach the people that in the Byzantine Empire a man might -raise himself by his talents from the dunghill to the first position in the -state; Zachariah Mytil., viii, 1.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1104" href="#FNanchor_1104" class="label">[1104]</a> Theodore Lect., ii, 37, etc. The name Lupicina was, of course, the -popular sobriquet for a prostitute, being connected with <i>lupa</i>, <i>lupanar</i>, -etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1105" href="#FNanchor_1105" class="label">[1105]</a> Victor Ton., an. 523; Cyril Scythop., <i>op. cit.</i>, 68.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1106" href="#FNanchor_1106" class="label">[1106]</a> Marcellinus Com., an. 527. He also took over his uncle’s post of -Count of the Excubitors; Hormisdas, Epist., 37.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1107" href="#FNanchor_1107" class="label">[1107]</a> Procopius, Anecdot., 6; De Bel. Vand., i, 9; Jn. Lydus, De -Magistr., iii, 51, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1108" href="#FNanchor_1108" class="label">[1108]</a> Zonaras, xiv, 5.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1109" href="#FNanchor_1109" class="label">[1109]</a> Procopius, Anecdot., 6. He was probably the <i>ex officio</i> president -of the Consistorium. It was generally anticipated that Anastasius would -have chosen a successor from one of his three nephews, Hypatius, -Pompeius, and Probus, all of whom he had raised to important positions. -His failure to do so is accounted for seriously by a singular story. Being -undecided as to which of them he should select to inherit the Empire, -he arranged that they should dine together at the Palace on a certain -day in an apartment by themselves. Here he provided three couches, on -which, according to custom, they would take a siesta after the meal. -One of these he designated in his own mind as the Imperial bed, and -kept watch in order to see which of them would occupy it. As it -happened, however, two of the three threw themselves down together -on the same couch, and the significant position remained vacant. Judging -that a higher power had ruled the event, he then prayed that his -successor might be revealed to him as the first person who should enter -to him next morning. This proved to be that very likely officer of his -household, Justin, a result which appears to have satisfied him; Anon. -Vales., 13. Such relations cannot be rejected in this age on the grounds -that so-and-so had too much good sense, etc. On the contrary, they -serve to indicate the mental calibre of the time. The slaughter of -several “Theos” as possible successors by Valens (Ammianus, xxix, 1) -may be remembered, and Zeno is said to have executed an unfortunate -silentiary anent of a silly prediction; Jn. Malala, xv; Theophanes, an. -5982. But Justin and Justinian, being arrested on two occasions, as it -is said, were providentially preserved by visions which enjoined their -release; Procopius, Anecdot., 8; Cedrenus, i, p. 635, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1110" href="#FNanchor_1110" class="label">[1110]</a> Procopius, Anecdot., 6; Jn. Malala, xvii (the fuller transcript by -Mommsen, Hermes, vi, 1885, p. 375); Zachariah Mytil., viii, 1, etc. -The cruel fate of Theocritus is specially indicated by Marcellinus Com., -an. 519. Before the death of Anastasius, Amantius was indulged with -a pre-vision of his destiny, having seen himself in a dream on the point -of being devoured by a great pig, symbolizing, of course, Justin the -swineherd.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1111" href="#FNanchor_1111" class="label">[1111]</a> The massacres of Monophysites in Asia Minor are described at -length with the names of numerous sufferers by Michael Melit. -(Langlois). Among them, two stylites with their pillars were hurled to -the ground.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1112" href="#FNanchor_1112" class="label">[1112]</a> Jn. Malala, xvii, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1113" href="#FNanchor_1113" class="label">[1113]</a> <i>Ibid.</i> It was proposed that he should become one of the two -Masters of the Forces <i>in praesenti</i>.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1114" href="#FNanchor_1114" class="label">[1114]</a> Zachariah Mytil., viii, 2. This was the church in which the great -Council of Chalcedon was held. Evagrius gives a picturesque description -of it.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1115" href="#FNanchor_1115" class="label">[1115]</a> Zachariah Mytil., viii, 2; Procopius, Anecdot., 6. After this -Justinian spoke of him as his “most distinguished brother”; Hormisdas, -Epist., 55.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1116" href="#FNanchor_1116" class="label">[1116]</a> In the government of the Church he showed great activity, traces -of which will be found in Concil. and Baronius, etc., during these -years.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1117" href="#FNanchor_1117" class="label">[1117]</a> Jn. Malala, especially in Hermes, <i>loc. cit.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1118" href="#FNanchor_1118" class="label">[1118]</a> Procopius, <i>loc. cit.</i>; Evagrius, iv, 3; Victor Ton., an. 523. As to -the <i>Delphicum</i>, or banqueting room, see Procopius, De Bel. Vand., -i, 21.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1119" href="#FNanchor_1119" class="label">[1119]</a> Marcellinus Com., an. 520. Theophanes says he was killed in an -<i>émeute</i> by the Byzantines to avenge those who perished through his insurrection -under Anastasius, but this is evidently a report circulated -later on to cover Justinian’s guilt. Zonaras mentions both versions of -the murder.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1120" href="#FNanchor_1120" class="label">[1120]</a> Const. Porph., De Them., i, 12.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1121" href="#FNanchor_1121" class="label">[1121]</a> Memorials of this consulate still exist, and samples of the diptychs -are preserved at Paris and Milan; Corp. Insc. Lat., <i>loc. cit.</i> Unfortunately -they are simple in design and do not attempt a likeness of -Justinian. From them we learn that at this time he had assumed the -names of Flavius Petrus Sabbatius Justinianus; for reproductions see -Molinier, Hist. gen. des Arts, etc., Paris, 1896, and Diehl, <i>op. cit.</i> -Perhaps the later diptych in Gori represents him; see <a href="#Page_50">p. 50</a>. As to the -adulatory attempts to fasten the name of Anicius on Justin and his -nephew in order to connect them with the most distinguished Roman -family of the age, see Ludewig and Isambert (<i>op. cit.</i>), who have discussed -the question at length. Justinian and St. Benedict, a contemporary, -are brought into relationship and presented as scions of the same -race as the existing royal house of Hapsburg.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1122" href="#FNanchor_1122" class="label">[1122]</a> Marcellinus Com., an. 521. Trajan, after his conquest of the -Dacians, exhibited 10,000 gladiators and 11,000 animals in the Colosseum; -Dion Cass., lxviii, 15. Under Claudius I a naval battle for sport -on Lake Fucinus brought 100 ships, manned by 19,000 combatants, -into play; Tacitus, Ann., xii, 56; Dion Cass., lx, 33. Real warfare -among the Grecian states was often on a less extensive scale. Justinian’s -display cost about £150,000, his first considerable draught on the savings -of Anastasius.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1123" href="#FNanchor_1123" class="label">[1123]</a> Const. Porph., De Them., i, 12.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1124" href="#FNanchor_1124" class="label">[1124]</a> Procopius, De Aedific., i, 4; Codinus, p. 87; see <a href="#Page_37">p. 37</a>. cf. Chron. Paschal., an. 605</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1125" href="#FNanchor_1125" class="label">[1125]</a> A history of the reign of Justin is enumerated among the works of -Hesychius of Miletus, but nothing remains to us but the jottings, more -or less brief, of the chroniclers. Nicephorus Callistus (<i>c.</i> 1400) has -rolled into one nearly all previous Church historians.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1126" href="#FNanchor_1126" class="label">[1126]</a> Jn. Malala, xvii; cf. Marcellinus Com., an. 523, etc. Theodotus, -the P.U. of CP. was especially severe in his repressive measures -and went too far in executing a man of rank. On the strength of -a serious illness of Justinian it seems likely that he even aimed at -the purple, but Justinian recovered and immediately brought him -to trial for his excesses. By the influence of Proclus he escaped with -exile; Procopius, Anecdot., 9; Jn. Malala, xvii; cf. Alemannus, p. -368.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1127" href="#FNanchor_1127" class="label">[1127]</a> Paulus Diaconus, Hist. Miscel., xvii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1128" href="#FNanchor_1128" class="label">[1128]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>; Marcellinus Com., an. 525; Theophanes, an. 6016, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1129" href="#FNanchor_1129" class="label">[1129]</a> Paulus Diac., <i>loc. cit.</i>; Anon. Vales., 16. These writers, however, -represent Justin as conceding everything demanded, although the statement -is at variance with the general tenor of their own account, and -there is no trace of a wave of leniency in the literature of the East. That -John got the credit of having betrayed his trust in the interests of -orthodoxy is shown by a spurious letter in which he is seen urging -the Italian bishops from his prison to persecute the Arians; Labbe, -Concil., viii, 605.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1130" href="#FNanchor_1130" class="label">[1130]</a> Pliny (Hist. Nat., vi, 15) adverts to the common error of calling -them Caspian, instead of Caucasian. Properly the Caspian, also Albanian -Gates (now Pass of Derbend), were situated at the abutment of the -Caucasus on the sea of that name. There were other Caspian Gates south -of that sea in Hyrcania.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1131" href="#FNanchor_1131" class="label">[1131]</a> On the Russian military road from Vladikavkaz to Tiflis. It rises -to 8,000 feet.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1132" href="#FNanchor_1132" class="label">[1132]</a> Pliny, Hist. Nat., vi, 12; Procopius, De Bel. Pers., i, 10. An old -way of blocking dangerous passes; Xenophon, Anab., i, 4.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1133" href="#FNanchor_1133" class="label">[1133]</a> Jn. Lydus, De Magistr., iii, 52, <i>et seq.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1134" href="#FNanchor_1134" class="label">[1134]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, Procopius, <i>loc. cit.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1135" href="#FNanchor_1135" class="label">[1135]</a> Jn. Lydus, <i>loc. cit.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1136" href="#FNanchor_1136" class="label">[1136]</a> Zachariah Mytil., viii, 5. Cavades demanded 500 lb. of gold -(£20,000) each year.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1137" href="#FNanchor_1137" class="label">[1137]</a> Al Mundhir (Nöldeke).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1138" href="#FNanchor_1138" class="label">[1138]</a> Zachariah Mytil., <i>loc. cit.</i>; cf. Procopius, De Bel. Pers., i, 17.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1139" href="#FNanchor_1139" class="label">[1139]</a> Zachariah Mytil., <i>loc. cit.</i> This account seems to emanate from a contemporary -native of Syria; cf. Procopius, De Bel. Pers., ii, 28. Al Lât -and Al Uzzâ, names of a lascivious duality, held sway at Mecca till overthrown -by Mahomet. This Arab, like most of his tribe, appears to -have possessed a subtle wit, a circumstance which was utilized for the -invention of a skit pointed at the Monophysites. It was related that -two bishops of that sect, paying him a visit in the hope of converting -him to Christianity, found him apparently in a state of great despair. -On being questioned, Alamundar replied that he was shocked at having -just heard of the death of the archangel Michael. The missionaries assured -him that the death of an angel was an impossibility. “How -then,” exclaimed the Arab, “can you pretend that Christ, being very -God, died on the cross, if he had but one divine nature?” The bishops -retired discomfited; Theodore Lect., ii, 35, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1140" href="#FNanchor_1140" class="label">[1140]</a> Rufinus, x, 10; Socrates, i, 20, etc. A Christian captive, a female, -won over the royal family by miraculous cures, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1141" href="#FNanchor_1141" class="label">[1141]</a> In the classical period Iberia was the usual name for Spain among -the Greeks.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1142" href="#FNanchor_1142" class="label">[1142]</a> Jn. Malala, xvii, etc. The tables (see <a href="#Page_90">p. 90</a>) of his cloak, were -embroidered with the likeness of Justin.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1143" href="#FNanchor_1143" class="label">[1143]</a> Jn. Malala, xvii, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1144" href="#FNanchor_1144" class="label">[1144]</a> See p. <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1145" href="#FNanchor_1145" class="label">[1145]</a> Jn. Malala, <i>loc. cit.</i>, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1146" href="#FNanchor_1146" class="label">[1146]</a> Khosrau (Nöldeke); also called Nushirvan (Anosharwán), as -Zotenberg always names him in his translation of Tabari.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1147" href="#FNanchor_1147" class="label">[1147]</a> Procopius, De Bel. Pers., i, 11. He even tried to make out that it -was a cunningly devised plot to annex the Empire to Persia. The power -of Proclus, who seems to have been an alarmist, is clearly brought out -by this incident.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1148" href="#FNanchor_1148" class="label">[1148]</a> Procopius, <i>loc. cit.</i> Theophanes (followed by Clinton, Fast. Rom.) -places this affair in 521, a date which removes it altogether out of its -setting; 525 is the most likely year.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1149" href="#FNanchor_1149" class="label">[1149]</a> Hypatius and Probus, the nephews of Anastasius.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1150" href="#FNanchor_1150" class="label">[1150]</a> Procopius, De Bel. Pers., i, 12.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1151" href="#FNanchor_1151" class="label">[1151]</a> Procopius, De Bel. Pers., i, 12. As, however, the Roman guard -could only be victualled by the active co-operation of the Lazi, and -after a short time they proved too lazy to bring in provisions to the -fort, it was evacuated and left to the Persians; <i>ibid.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1152" href="#FNanchor_1152" class="label">[1152]</a> <i>Ibid.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1153" href="#FNanchor_1153" class="label">[1153]</a> “Sidus cometes effulsit; de quo vulgi opinio est tanquam mutationem -regnis portendat,” etc.; Tacitus, Ann., xiv, 22; cf. xv, 47. As -Milton expresses it:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent24">Satan stood</div> - <div class="verse">Unterrified, and like a comet burn’d,</div> - <div class="verse">That fires the length of Ophiuchus huge</div> - <div class="verse">In the arctic sky, and from his horrid hair</div> - <div class="verse">Shakes pestilence and war.</div> - <div class="verse indent20">Paradise Lost, ii.</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1154" href="#FNanchor_1154" class="label">[1154]</a> The fullest account of these calamities is given by Jn. Malala, -xvii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1155" href="#FNanchor_1155" class="label">[1155]</a> Cedrenus and Zonaras place it in this reign. Jn. Malala a little -later.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1156" href="#FNanchor_1156" class="label">[1156]</a> This was not the first occurrence of the kind, and all the chronographers -are anxious to record that a slab now came to light with a -punning inscription or prophecy, which may be rendered in English as, -“The river Skip will skip some evil skippings for the townspeople”; -as anxious as they are to note the peregrinations of a Cilician giantess, -over seven feet high, who tramped the Empire, begging a penny at all -the workshops for showing herself. After its restoration Edessa was -called Justinopolis in legal acts.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1157" href="#FNanchor_1157" class="label">[1157]</a> Procopius puts it as high as 300,000; De Bel. Pers., ii, 14.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1158" href="#FNanchor_1158" class="label">[1158]</a> Jn. Lydus, De Magistr., iii, 54.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1159" href="#FNanchor_1159" class="label">[1159]</a> Zachariah Mytil., viii, 4.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1160" href="#FNanchor_1160" class="label">[1160]</a> Nearly all these particulars are due to John Malala, who, from the -amount of detail he supplies about his native city, may be called the -historian of Antioch. From him we learn that the Olympic games continued -to be celebrated at Antioch, but were finally suppressed in 521 -by Justin, for reasons similar to those which about half a century ago -led to the abolition of Donnybrook Fair.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1161" href="#FNanchor_1161" class="label">[1161]</a> Cedrenus, i, p. 641. Perhaps he is only speaking figuratively.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1162" href="#FNanchor_1162" class="label">[1162]</a> Jn. Lydus, <i>loc. cit.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1163" href="#FNanchor_1163" class="label">[1163]</a> Evagrius, iv, 6. Jn. Malala (xviii, p. 443) puts the re-christening -in 528. He adds that Justinian remitted three years’ taxes to several of -the towns then damaged by earthquakes.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1164" href="#FNanchor_1164" class="label">[1164]</a> His death is said to have resulted from the recrudescence of an old -wound in the foot at the age of seventy-five (Jn. Malala) or seventy-seven -(Chron. Paschal.). The higher number is to be preferred, as Procopius -says that at his accession he was τυμβογέρων, that is, an old man “with -one foot in the grave”; Anecdot., 6; cf. Alemannus, p. 385.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1165" href="#FNanchor_1165" class="label">[1165]</a> The age of Justinian is not satisfactorily known, but Cedrenus and -Zonaras give him forty-five years at his coronation. I need only allude -to the reputed life of Justinian by his so-called tutor, Bogomil or Theophilus, -quoted implicitly by Alemannus, a historical puzzle for nearly -three centuries, but at last solved a few years ago; see Bryce, English -Hist. Rev., 1887. It is little more than a MS. leaflet (in the Barberini -library at Rome), and proves to be devoid of any sort of authenticity. -The chief non-corroborated statement is that Justinian spent some time -at Ravenna, as a hostage, with Theodoric the Goth. Justinian himself -was, in fact, a barbarian of some tribe, and the bogus name given him, -<i>Uprauda</i>, seems to have some affinity with “upright” and “Justinian.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1166" href="#FNanchor_1166" class="label">[1166]</a> The characters of Helen, Andromache, and Penelope, as they -appear in the Iliad and Odyssey, have taken a place permanently in -modern literature.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1167" href="#FNanchor_1167" class="label">[1167]</a> See Plutarch’s account of the legislation of Lycurgus. A king of -Sparta was fined by the Ephors for marrying a wife of poor physique -for money, instead of choosing a strapping young lady with a view to -having a vigorous family; <i>ibid.</i>, Agesilaus; Athenaeus, xiii, 20. The -Spartans applauded the adulterous union of Acrotatus and Chelidonis, -because they seemed to be physically well matched for the production -of offspring; Plutarch, Pyrrhus. In fact Lycurgus thought that wives -might properly be lent to suitable mates for breeding purposes. As an -example of noble character in the female, the conduct of Chelonis is -recorded: also the resolution and bravery of the female relatives of -Cleomenes when they all met their death at Alexandria; <i>ibid.</i>, Agis; -Cleomenes.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1168" href="#FNanchor_1168" class="label">[1168]</a> On the Athenian women in general, see Becker-Göll, Charicles, -Excurs.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1169" href="#FNanchor_1169" class="label">[1169]</a> To a female visitor from another country it seemed that the Lacedaemonian -women ruled the men; Plutarch, Lycurgus; cf. Aristotle, -Politics, ii, 9. He makes out that things were muddled at Sparta, owing -to interference by the women.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1170" href="#FNanchor_1170" class="label">[1170]</a> Herodotus, vii, 99; viii, 87, etc. Several of her ruses in war are -mentioned by Polyaenus, Stratagems, viii, 53.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1171" href="#FNanchor_1171" class="label">[1171]</a> Pliny, Hist. Nat., xxxvi, 5, etc. The fragments of it to a large -amount are now in a special room of the British Museum, together with -attempted restorations in the solid and on the flat. It was delightfully -situated on the Bay of Halicarnassus, a sight in itself, and a point of -sight for a splendid prospect of sea, contained in a circuit of rising coast, -covered with specimens of Greek architecture. Herodotus himself hailed -from this town.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1172" href="#FNanchor_1172" class="label">[1172]</a> Polyaenus, Stratagems, viii, 60.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1173" href="#FNanchor_1173" class="label">[1173]</a> Athenaeus, xiii, 10.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1174" href="#FNanchor_1174" class="label">[1174]</a> Diodorus Sic., xix, 52; 11; 51; Justin, xiv, 5, 6, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1175" href="#FNanchor_1175" class="label">[1175]</a> Laodicea in Phrygia (and elsewhere), by Seleucus after his mother -Laodice; Thessalonica by Cassander, and Nice (Nicaea) in Bithynia, -of ecclesiastical fame, by Lysimachus, from their wives. These were -generals and successors of Alexander, <i>c.</i> 320 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1176" href="#FNanchor_1176" class="label">[1176]</a> The most illustrious lady of this age was Phila, wife of Demetrius -Poliorcetes (her third marriage). She acted the part of political adviser -and ambassadress; and was amiable and pacific as well as intellectual; -Plutarch, Demetrius; Diodorus Sic., xx, 93. A flatterer of D. raised a -temple to her, and called it the Philaeum; Athenaeus, vi, 65.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1177" href="#FNanchor_1177" class="label">[1177]</a> Justin, xxxix, 1, 2.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1178" href="#FNanchor_1178" class="label">[1178]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, 4. These queens flourished <i>c.</i> 100 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1179" href="#FNanchor_1179" class="label">[1179]</a> Justin, xxvi, 3. He was called Demetrius the Handsome, son of the -D. above-named, but not by Phila. She stood at the door of the chamber, -while the ministers of her vengeance were operating within, calling -out to them to spare her mother (<i>c.</i> 250 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>). Her own fate was to be -put to death by her son, Ptolemy IV of Egypt, in 221 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1180" href="#FNanchor_1180" class="label">[1180]</a> That is, her hair cut off and suspended in the temple of Aphrodite -to propitiate divine favour for her husband (Ptolemy III), during his -Syrian war, <i>c.</i> 245 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> It became a constellation according to the -adulators of the day, as is shown in the poem of Catullus, a translation -from the Greek of Callimachus.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1181" href="#FNanchor_1181" class="label">[1181]</a> The constitution of the Roman family can be apprehended readily -by running through the consecutive expositions in Muirhead’s Private -Law of Rome, Edin., 1886, pp. 24, 64, 115, 248, 345, 514. In law the -mother and children were practically the slaves of the <i>paterfamilias</i>: he -could divorce his wife at pleasure, and yet 500 years elapsed before a -husband made use of this power, so potent was the high ethical code -which sustained the Republic.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1182" href="#FNanchor_1182" class="label">[1182]</a> The story or legend of Cloelia used to be well known. Being delivered -as a hostage, with a number of other maidens, to Porsena, she -encouraged them to escape, and headed the band in swimming across -the Tiber. But they were all punctiliously returned (<i>c.</i> 508 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>); Livy, -ii, 13; Plutarch, Publicola, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1183" href="#FNanchor_1183" class="label">[1183]</a> Portia, daughter of Cato, and wife of Brutus, the assassin of Caesar, -aspired to be the confidante of her husband, but, distrusting her feminine -nature, she refrained from soliciting him to trust her, until, by stabbing -herself in the thigh, she felt satisfied of possessing sufficient masculine -strength of mind to become the repository of state secrets (44 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>); -Plutarch, Brutus, etc. See Shakespeare’s delineation of her in <i>Julius -Caesar</i>, where she recounts her action to Brutus.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1184" href="#FNanchor_1184" class="label">[1184]</a> The accomplishments of Cornelia, the fifth wife of Pompey, are -given in detail by Plutarch. She was well read in literature, played the -lyre, had made progress in geometry, and fortified herself by the study -of philosophy. Julia, the mother of Mark Antony, is called “a most -learned woman” by Cicero, Catiline, iv, 6. Greek culture was fashionable -at this time among the Romans. But an earlier Cornelia (<i>c.</i> 330 -<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>) became famous in infamy as the centre of a female society for -poisoning men of note; Livy, viii, 18.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1185" href="#FNanchor_1185" class="label">[1185]</a> Tacitus, Ann., xiii, 5.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1186" href="#FNanchor_1186" class="label">[1186]</a> Hist. Aug. Heliogabalus, 2, <i>et seq.</i> She “lived the life of a prostitute,” -and she also instituted a “petty senate” of females, which -prescribed the fashions of the day to women. Manners, dress, jewellery, -style of carriages, choice of draught-animals, horses, asses, or oxen, -etc., were the subject of their jurisdiction.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1187" href="#FNanchor_1187" class="label">[1187]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, 17, <i>et seq.</i> Both were murdered, and their bodies dragged -through the streets by the Praetorian guard, before their reign had -lasted quite four years.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1188" href="#FNanchor_1188" class="label">[1188]</a> She was a daughter of the great Theodosius. The turning-point in -the fall of the Western Empire was the sacking of Rome by Alaric in -410. From about 425 her authority was paramount at Ravenna, the provisional -capital or rather refuge of the mouldering government. Most -information about her is contained in Zosimus, vi, 12, and Procopius, -De Bel. Vand., i, 3, <i>et seq.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1189" href="#FNanchor_1189" class="label">[1189]</a> I have several times had occasion to mention this princess. There -is no consecutive history of this period, but merely scraps to be collected -from brief chronicles, Church historians, and fragments of lost works, -etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1190" href="#FNanchor_1190" class="label">[1190]</a> See pp. 103, 302.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1191" href="#FNanchor_1191" class="label">[1191]</a> Const. Porph., i, 93; see <a href="#Page_303">p. 303</a>.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1192" href="#FNanchor_1192" class="label">[1192]</a> Jn. Malala, xv.; Theophanes, an. 5967, <i>et seq.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1193" href="#FNanchor_1193" class="label">[1193]</a> Tacitus, Ann., iv, 19; the case of Sosia Galla. Cf. the account of -Salonina and her gorgeous appearance, riding in the van of the army -with her husband Caecina; <i>ibid.</i>, Hist., ii, 20.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1194" href="#FNanchor_1194" class="label">[1194]</a> Tacitus, Ann., iii, 33.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1195" href="#FNanchor_1195" class="label">[1195]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, i, 69.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1196" href="#FNanchor_1196" class="label">[1196]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, ii, 55, 74; iii, 17, etc. As she acted with the secret approval -of the Court, she was acquitted at a mock trial (20), but a dozen years -later, on the death of her accessories, she anticipated her fate by suicide; -<i>ibid.</i>, vi, 26.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1197" href="#FNanchor_1197" class="label">[1197]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, iii, 33. Plutarch (De Mul. Virt.), has collected twenty-seven -instances of the notable doings of women, and Polyaenus (Stratagemata, -viii) has repeated most of them, and added almost as many more. The -latter record extends up to about 170.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1198" href="#FNanchor_1198" class="label">[1198]</a> Herodotus, i, 199. This applies to Babylon and Cyprus, but there -were several other places, and the custom was carried by the Semites as -far west as Sicca Veneria, in Numidia, N. Africa; Valerius Max., ii, 6 -(15). See the commentators on the passage of Herodotus; Strabo, XVI, -i, 20, etc. At all times the simplicity of devout females was liable to be -abused, several instances of which are recounted. For example, an -ancient rite ordained that a Phrygian damsel should on the eve of her -marriage bathe in the Scamander, whilst invoking the river-god to accept -her virginity. In this custom on one occasion a youth of the neighbourhood -found his opportunity. Hearing of the nuptials of a young lady -who was socially unapproachable to him, but of whom he had long been -enamoured, he bedizened himself with reeds and water-flowers and -posted himself in a recess to await her coming. On her entering the -water he came forward thus in the guise of the divinity she was supposed -to meet, and the guileless maid permitted him to embrace her without -resistance, devoutly unconscious of anything being wrong. Subsequently, -as she was walking in the bridal procession, her eyes fell upon him -among the spectators, whereupon she made him a profound obeisance -and pointed him out to those who accompanied her as the genius of the -sacred stream; Aeschines, Epist., 10. This was an isolated and comparatively -blameless case, but later on some of the semi-Christian -charlatans managed such matters wholesale; see the account of Marcus -in Irenaeus, i, 13.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1199" href="#FNanchor_1199" class="label">[1199]</a> Strabo, VIII, vi, 20</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1200" href="#FNanchor_1200" class="label">[1200]</a> Athenaeus, xiii, 25. St. Augustine was of the same opinion: -“Aufer meretrices de rebus humanis, turbaveris omnia libidinibus”; De -Ordine, ii, 4 (in Migne, i, 1000).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1201" href="#FNanchor_1201" class="label">[1201]</a> Athenaeus, xiii, 46. Nicarete of Megara is noted as being a disciple -of Stilpo of the same town, a philosopher who achieved a great and -lasting reputation; <i>ibid.</i>, 70; Diogenes Laert. in Vita, “A wife is -legally countenanced in sulking and keeping to the house, but a hetaira -knows that it is only by her social talents that she can attach friends to -herself”; Athenaeus, xiii, 7.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1202" href="#FNanchor_1202" class="label">[1202]</a> The names of these biographers are preserved, viz., Aristophanes -of Byzantium, Apollodorus, Antiphanes, Ammonius, and Gorgias of -Athens, but their works are lost; Athenaeus, xiii, 21, 46. The first-named -composed as many as 135 lives, and Apollodorus exceeded even -this number. The gist of their writings, however, seems to have been -preserved by Athenaeus in his thirteenth book; and among the moderns, -Jacobs has attempted to reconstruct all the principal biographies; -Attische Museum, 1798-1805. The accounts of them are almost wholly -made up of anecdotes as to their witty remarks and rejoinders. But at -least one modern author has written biographies of courtesans; see -Devaux-Mousk, Fleurs du Persil, Paris, 1887 (with portraits and autographs).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1203" href="#FNanchor_1203" class="label">[1203]</a> Plutarch, Pericles, etc. At the same time it was not beneath her to -become a procuress, and it is said that all Greece was supplied with girls -by her agency. It was even maintained that the immediate cause of the -Pelopennesian war was the abduction of one of these girls imported from -Megara; Athenaeus, xiii, 25; Plutarch, <i>loc. cit.</i> Parallels to Aspasia -are not altogether wanting in very recent times. Thus of Cora Pearl -(<i>née</i> Crouch, of Plymouth) we read: “For some time she excited the -greatest interest among all classes of Parisian society, and ladies imitated -her dress and manners”; Dict. Nat. Biog., <i>sb. nom.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1204" href="#FNanchor_1204" class="label">[1204]</a> Memorabilia, iii, 11.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1205" href="#FNanchor_1205" class="label">[1205]</a> Diogenes Laert., Epicurus; Cicero, De Nat. Deor., i, 33; see an -imaginary letter of hers in Alciphron, ii, 2.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1206" href="#FNanchor_1206" class="label">[1206]</a> Athenaeus, xiii, 37, 38, 56. Timotheus, when it was thrown in his -teeth that his mother was a prostitute, replied that he was very much -obliged to her for making him the son of Conon. The son of Pericles by -Aspasia was legitimated and became a general.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1207" href="#FNanchor_1207" class="label">[1207]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, 40, 38. Hieronymus, the last king of Syracuse, is said to -have married a common prostitute, but their issue did not succeed to -any crown; <i>ibid.</i> In modern times the assumption of the premiership -of Bavaria by the notorious Lola Montez (<i>née</i> Gilbert of Limerick) will -be remembered. “She now ruled the kingdom of Bavaria, and, singular -to say, ruled it with wisdom and ability. Her audacity confounded alike -the policy of the Jesuits and of Metternich”; Dict. Nat. Biog., <i>sb. nom.</i> -Her <i>régime</i> did not, however, last more than a year, being unable to -stem the tide of revolution in 1848. More fortunate was the <i>castrato</i> -singer, Farinelli, who retained a position differing little from that of -prime minister under Philip V of Spain and his successor for nearly -twenty-five years. The reign of courtesans in the seventeenth century, -when the aristocratic blood of France and England was enriched by -“legitimated princes” and peers under Louis XIV and Charles II is too -well known to need comment here; but the acquisition of governmental -power at the hands of Louis XV by Jeanne Vaubernier (Countess Du -Barry), a low-class strumpet, doubtless helped decidedly to bring that disgraceful -epoch to a close; see Voltaire’s <i>Louis XIV</i> and <i>Louis XV</i>, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1208" href="#FNanchor_1208" class="label">[1208]</a> Athenaeus, xiii, 38; Alciphron, ii, 1.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1209" href="#FNanchor_1209" class="label">[1209]</a> Athenaeus, xiii, 60. Here, again, a parallel is afforded by Cora Pearl. -During the war of 1870 she transformed her house into an “ambulance,” -where she spent her time and money to the amount of £1,000 in nursing -wounded soldiers. Afterwards she claimed to be reimbursed, but £60 -only was granted to her by the government; see her Mémoires, Paris, -1886. Ultimately she was expelled from Paris.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1210" href="#FNanchor_1210" class="label">[1210]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, xiii, 7, 31.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1211" href="#FNanchor_1211" class="label">[1211]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, xiii, 70; Polyaenus, viii, 45, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1212" href="#FNanchor_1212" class="label">[1212]</a> Athenaeus, xiii, 34.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1213" href="#FNanchor_1213" class="label">[1213]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, xiii, 54. A figurative memorial, a lioness tearing a ram; -Pausanias, ii, 2.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1214" href="#FNanchor_1214" class="label">[1214]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, xiii, 59; Aelian, Var. Hist., ix, 32. Crates, the Cynic, said -that it was an advertisement of the profligacy of Greece.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1215" href="#FNanchor_1215" class="label">[1215]</a> Athenaeus, xiii, 69; and another at Babylon, the seat of his governorship. -Plutarch (Phocion) says it cost about £7,000, and was poor value -for the money, but Pausanias extols it; i, 37.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1216" href="#FNanchor_1216" class="label">[1216]</a> Athenaeus, xiii, 34.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1217" href="#FNanchor_1217" class="label">[1217]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, vi, 62. Plutarch tells us that he fined the Athenians £70,000, -which he handed over to Lamia and the rest of his harem to buy <i>soap</i>!</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1218" href="#FNanchor_1218" class="label">[1218]</a> A <i>licentia stupri</i> was issued to each woman by the <i>aediles</i>; Tacitus, -Ann., ii, 85.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1219" href="#FNanchor_1219" class="label">[1219]</a> Plutarch, Sulla.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1220" href="#FNanchor_1220" class="label">[1220]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, Pompey.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1221" href="#FNanchor_1221" class="label">[1221]</a> Plutarch, Lucullus.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1222" href="#FNanchor_1222" class="label">[1222]</a> In the year 19 Rome was shocked by Vistilia, a married woman of -noble birth, applying for a licence. She was banished, and a law passed -to prevent the repetition of such an occurrence; Tacitus, Ann., ii, 85. -Half a century later probably no notice would have been taken, but -the ethics of the day varied regularly with the character of the reigning -emperor.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1223" href="#FNanchor_1223" class="label">[1223]</a> Dion Cass., lxvi, 14. As a proof of the meanness of Vespasian, -he relates that Titus expostulated with his father on the unseemliness of -maintaining a tax on the collection of urine, whereupon the Emperor, -drawing a handful of gold from his pocket, tendered it to his son, saying, -“Smell, does it stink?” cf. Suetonius, 23.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1224" href="#FNanchor_1224" class="label">[1224]</a> Socrates, v, 18. The punishment of an adultress at this epoch took -the ridiculous form of impounding her in a narrow cabinet next the -street, where she was forced to prostitute herself to all comers. Every -time she received a companion a jingling of little bells was kept up to -publish the circumstance to passers by. At the same period immense -underground bakeries were run by contractors for the supply of the Steps -(see <a href="#Page_81">p. 81</a>), and they hit on a remarkable expedient for procuring slaves -to work in them. Taverns served by prostitutes were set up contiguous -to the vaults; and customers, chiefly strangers, were lured into a compartment, -from which they were suddenly lowered into the cavity -beneath, by a sinking floor. There they ended their days in enforced -labour, being never again allowed to see the light. A bold soldier of -Theodosius, however, being thus entrapped, drew a dagger and fought -his way out. He then laid information, which brought about the destruction -of all such infamous dungeons; <i>ibid.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1225" href="#FNanchor_1225" class="label">[1225]</a> In the Middle Ages the absence of judicious and uniform legislation -is one of the most marked features, and in every province the extremes -of sociological phenomena are commonly to be observed. Side by side -with measures for the total abolition of prostitution we find brothels -tolerated as a regular department of royal palaces. In 1546, for example, -prostitution was suppressed at Strasbourg, and at Toulouse in -1587. On the other hand, from the eleventh century onwards, a community -of courtesans was maintained as part of the establishment of -the kings of France. They were placed in the charge of an officer, -named <i>le Roi des Ribauds</i>. His position, however, was low, and his -right to eat at the same board with the other members of the household -was disputed; see Rabutaux, La Prostitution (<i>au moyen âge</i>), Paris, -1851, ff. 16, 21, 32, 33. Again, it is well authenticated, though almost -incredible, that in the sixteenth century nobles and generals of the south -of Europe kept in the camp elegantly caparisoned goats for amatory -purposes; see Bayle, <i>sb.</i> Bathyllus.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1226" href="#FNanchor_1226" class="label">[1226]</a> See p. <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1227" href="#FNanchor_1227" class="label">[1227]</a> Our knowledge of these facts in detail is due to Procopius (Anecdota -or Hist. Arcana), but sufficient corroboration from other sources is -not wanting. The question as to the authenticity of this work of Procopius -has been finally set at rest by the recent researches of Dahn and -Haury. It is doubtless as true as all history in detail, <i>i.e.</i>, vitiated by -prejudice, ignorance, and mistakes. The life and literary activity of P. -will be noticed later on.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1228" href="#FNanchor_1228" class="label">[1228]</a> Procopius, Anecdot., 10.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1229" href="#FNanchor_1229" class="label">[1229]</a> This was a staple piece of “gag” for centuries, and is another instance -of the uniformity of Byzantine life during long periods; see -Tertullian and Gregory Naz., as quoted by Alemannus, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 380.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1230" href="#FNanchor_1230" class="label">[1230]</a> See Mirecourt (Les Contemporains, Paris, 1855, 78) for an amusing -account (with portrait) of Lola Montez, and her bold procedure -in dispensing with her <i>maillots</i>, “to the delight of the gentlemen of the -orchestra,” when dancing at Paris. Some may still remember the popularity -of “the Menken,” as Mazeppa at Astley’s, the result of her -having been counselled to turn “to account her fine physique”; see -Dic. Nat. Biog., <i>sb. nom.</i>, for her career and distinguished associates. -Her apology, protesting against the performance being denounced as an -exhibition of nakedness, was published, and is extant. This hetaira approached -somewhat to her Greek prototypes, and issued a volume of -poems, which, if not equal to Sappho’s, had a merit of their own. The -same significance cannot, however, be attached to such displays as at -the present day. The indiscriminate bathing was only just passing into -disrepute, and ingenuous exhibitions of that kind were still possible. -See, for instance, Aristaenetus (i, 7), where a “modest” young lady -trips down to the beach, coolly divests herself of her clothing, and asks -a young gentleman, who happens to be reclining there, to keep an eye -on her things while she is in the water. This author, waiting <i>c.</i> 500, -could scarcely have deemed such an incident preposterous in his time. -As to naked women in the theatre, in addition to the notices already -given from Chrysostom, see In Matth. Hom. xix, 4 (in Migne, viii, -120).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1231" href="#FNanchor_1231" class="label">[1231]</a> Her proceedings are described by Procopius, with the openness -and detail which was natural to the age in which he lived. For this, -however, he has been censured, to the damage of his historical credit, -as if he thereby proved himself to be a dissolute person, unusually experienced -in the vices of the times. But the charge is unjust, and might -be urged with greater force against almost all of the Christian fathers -who continually inveigh against abuses of the sexual instinct, in the intricacies -of which they show themselves to be far better versed. Beginning -with the Epistle of Barnabas they never tire of decrying circumstantially -all sexual relations, especially those who “medios viros -lambunt, libidinoso ore inguinibus inhaerescunt”; Minucius Felix, 28; -cf. Arnobius, Adv. Gen., ii; Lactantius, Div. Inst., vi, 23, etc. Their -rigid text is “genitalem corporis partem nulla alia causa nisi efficiendae -sobolis accepimus”; <i>ibid.</i> Nor was it regarded as proper that the knowledge -and discussion of such matters should be ordinarily thrust out of -sight; on the contrary they were included in the category of topics -habitually invested with interest to “society.” Thus the polished Agathias -in an amatory epigram (28), after lamenting the pangs and torments of -love, makes his point with:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse">Πάντ’ ἄρα Διογένης ἔφυγεν τάδε, τὸν δ’ Ὑμέναιον</div> - <div class="verse">ἤειδεν παλάμῃ, Λαΐδος οὐ χατέων.</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>This graphic effusion duly found its place in that book of “elegant extracts,” -compiled for the delectation of the Byzantine drawing-room, the -Greek Anthology, where it remains enshrined amid a crowd of companions, -at least ten times as remote as itself from modern ideas of -decency.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1232" href="#FNanchor_1232" class="label">[1232]</a> One example of her unusual turpitude may be reproduced. After -enlivening a party of ten or more young men for a whole evening, she -“παρὰ τοὺς ἐκείνων οἰκέτας ἰοῦσα τριάκοντα ὄντας ἂν οὕτω τύχοι, ξυνεδυαζετο -μὲν τούτων ἑκάστῳ”; Procopius, Anecdot., 9. Unconsciously -she was emulating the activities of the Empress Messalina five centuries -previously:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent24">Claudius audi</div> - <div class="verse">Quae tulerit: dormire virum cum senserat uxor ...</div> - <div class="verse">Intravit calidum veteri centone lupanar ...</div> - <div class="verse">Excepit blanda intrantes, atque aera poposcit:</div> - <div class="verse">Mox lenone suas jam dimittente puellas,</div> - <div class="verse">Tristis abit; etc.</div> - <div class="verse indent20">Juvenal, Sat. vi, 115, <i>et seq.</i></div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>Pliny discusses her proclivities in the inquiring mood of a physiologist; -Hist. Nat., x, 83.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1233" href="#FNanchor_1233" class="label">[1233]</a> This is in direct opposition to the established views of Byzantine -superstition; see <a href="#Page_119">p. 119</a>.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1234" href="#FNanchor_1234" class="label">[1234]</a> The age of Theodora is nowhere mentioned, but Ludewig and -Isambert favour 497. Nicephorus Cal. (xvi, 39) says that she was born -in Cyprus, an assertion which cannot be contradicted, but which is, on -the whole unlikely, and some of his collateral statements are erroneous. -The following information <i>pour rire</i> has found its way into so considerable -a work as Hefner-Altneck’s Trachten: “Theodora was the -daughter of Acacius, Patriarch of CP., and was trained by her mother (!) -for the theatre, in which she distinguished herself by her art as a pantomimist”; -i, p. 124. The Patriarch Acacius was doubtless a celibate. -The whitewashing of Theodora has, of course, been undertaken, but -late, not till 1731, by Ludewig. She was, in fact, in bad odour with the -Church, and the worst that could be said of her was acceptable. Recently -a further attempt has been made by Débidour (L’Impératrice -Theodora, Paris, 1885, Latin Thesis, 1877), called forth by Sardou’s well-known -play of <i>Theodora</i>, in which she is undoubtedly misrepresented. -A pendant to this <i>brochure</i>, containing all the facts of the defence, will -be found in Eng. Hist. Rev., 1887 (Mallet). Present flatterers were, of -course, ready to swear that she was an Anician! See p. <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1235" href="#FNanchor_1235" class="label">[1235]</a> Procopius, Anecdot., 10, 17. His horror at the practice of abortion -teaches us that a great revulsion of public sentiment must have taken -place since the time of Aristotle, who counsels resorting to it when -over-population is threatened; Politics, vii, 16.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1236" href="#FNanchor_1236" class="label">[1236]</a> Procopius, Anecdot., 17.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1237" href="#FNanchor_1237" class="label">[1237]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, 9.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1238" href="#FNanchor_1238" class="label">[1238]</a> Codinus, p. 104 (Anon. of Banduri). This information dates from -the early part of the eleventh century, but must have been copied from -some earlier document. It is in general agreement with Procopius, -Anecdot., 9.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1239" href="#FNanchor_1239" class="label">[1239]</a> Socrates, iv, 28. The Novation purists made great headway there; -<i>ibid.</i>, ii, 30, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1240" href="#FNanchor_1240" class="label">[1240]</a> Contiguous to the church of St. Panteleemon, which stood on the -Propontis to the east of the Theodosian Port; see Notitia, reg. ix and -Ducange <i>sb. Homonoea</i>. The suburban St. P. is said to be indicated by -ruins still existing at the foot of the “Giant’s Grave,” on the Asiatic -side of the Bosphorus; see Gyllius, De Bosp., iii, 6; Procop., etc., Notitia, reg. ix; Ducange, <i>sb. Homonoea</i>; -Procopius, De Aedific., i, 9.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1241" href="#FNanchor_1241" class="label">[1241]</a> Codinus, <i>loc. cit.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1242" href="#FNanchor_1242" class="label">[1242]</a> Procopius, Anecdot., 9.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1243" href="#FNanchor_1243" class="label">[1243]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, 10. He allows that she was sufficiently well looking, but he -also states that her countenance was disfigured by debauchery; <i>ibid.</i>, 9. -At a later date he praises her beauty as something almost superhuman, -but this was intended for the eyes of the Court; De Aedific., i, 11.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1244" href="#FNanchor_1244" class="label">[1244]</a> In natural gifts she may have had some resemblance to Cleopatra; -see Shakespeare’s presentation of the latter:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse">Age cannot wither her, nor custom stale</div> - <div class="verse">Her infinite variety, etc.</div> - <div class="verse indent20">Act ii, 2.</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1245" href="#FNanchor_1245" class="label">[1245]</a> Procopius, Anecdot., 9; cf. John of Ephesus, Com. de Beat. Orient. -(Van Douven and Land), p. 68, where the words occur, “ad Theodoram -τὴν ἐκ τοῦ πορνείου, quae illo tempore patricia erat.” She is often mentioned -in this work in a laudatory strain, with which this sentence, as -Diehl (<i>op. cit.</i>) forcibly observes, is decidedly incongruous. Probably, -therefore, it has been introduced by a copyist, but of what date I cannot -surmise.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1246" href="#FNanchor_1246" class="label">[1246]</a> Probably she now took up her residence in the palace of Hormisdas; -see pp. <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1247" href="#FNanchor_1247" class="label">[1247]</a> As shown by subsequent events; Theophanes, an. 6019; Victor -Ton., an. 566; Jn. Malala, xviii, p. 430; <i>ib.</i>, an. 6020.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1248" href="#FNanchor_1248" class="label">[1248]</a> Her position was now very similar to that of Caenis under -Vespasian; see <a href="#Page_336">p. 336</a>.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1249" href="#FNanchor_1249" class="label">[1249]</a> See p. <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1250" href="#FNanchor_1250" class="label">[1250]</a> Procopius, Anecdot., 10; the law itself, Cod., V, iv, 23 (De Nuptiis). -This relaxation, however, was quite in accordance with the development -of Christian sentiment. Thus Chrysostom expresses it: “Inflamed by -this fire (Christian repentance) the prostitute becomes holier than -virgins”; In Matth. viii, Hom. vi, 5 (in Migne, vii, 69).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1251" href="#FNanchor_1251" class="label">[1251]</a> Procopius, Anecdot., 9. The spurious life by Theophilus (see <a href="#Page_320">p. 320</a>) -tells us also that Justinian’s mother, her name Biglenitza (Vigilantia), -opposed the marriage, not on account of unchastity, but because Theodora -was too clever and addicted to magic, etc. There is no historical -mention of this Vigilantia.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1252" href="#FNanchor_1252" class="label">[1252]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, 10.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1253" href="#FNanchor_1253" class="label">[1253]</a> Jn. Malala, xvii, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1254" href="#FNanchor_1254" class="label">[1254]</a> According to Michael the Syrian, Jacobite Patriarch of Antioch, -Theodora was the daughter of an “orthodox” (<i>i.e.</i>, Monophysite) priest, -who would not part with his daughter until Justinian had pledged his -word not to coerce her to conform to Chalcedon! See Chabot’s trans. -from the Syriac, 1901, ix, 20. She built St. P. (p. 344) on the site of -her chaste pre-nuptial life.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1255" href="#FNanchor_1255" class="label">[1255]</a> Procopius, Anecdot., 1. Aimoin (Hist. Franc., ii, 5), a western author -of the eleventh century, but in great part fabulous, relates that Belisarius -and Justinian entered a brothel and chose there two prostitutes, Antonina -and <i>Antonia</i>, sisters, whom they subsequently married. If this is not -merely loose hearsay emanating originally from a reader of Procopius, it -shows the sort of stories which were popularly current on the subject. -Although the anecdote is scarcely far-fetched, it is rendered impossible -by the fact that the ages of the two men differed by something like a -score of years.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1256" href="#FNanchor_1256" class="label">[1256]</a> Later we hear from Procopius (De Bel. Goth., i, 5) that in 535 he -had just become old enough to receive a separate command in the army; -which probably indicates that he had then attained to the age of eighteen, -the period when a young Roman was freed from his guardian (<i>curator</i>) -and became <i>sui juris</i>. About nine years earlier (<i>c.</i> 526, De Bel. Pers., i, -12) Belisarius is referred to in very similar terms, so that the relative ages -of these two characters can be determined with tolerable accuracy. -Belisarius was then “πρῶτος ὑπηνήτης.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1257" href="#FNanchor_1257" class="label">[1257]</a> Antonina and her son Photius are personages almost peculiar to -Procopius and do not come to light noticeably in the ordinary chronographers.</p> - -</div> -</div> - - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE AGE OF JUSTINIAN AND THEODORA, VOLUME 1 (OF 2) ***</div> -<div style='text-align:left'> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will -be renamed. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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