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diff --git a/old/65545-0.txt b/old/65545-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 67246f6..0000000 --- a/old/65545-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,5658 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Making of a Man, by James Wideman Lee - - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - - - - -Title: The Making of a Man - - -Author: James Wideman Lee - - - -Release Date: June 7, 2021 [eBook #65545] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - - -***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MAKING OF A MAN*** - - -E-text prepared by MFR and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team -(http://www.pgdp.net) from page images generously made available by -Internet Archive (https://archive.org) - - - -Note: Images of the original pages are available through - Internet Archive. See - https://archive.org/details/makingofman00leej - - - - - -THE MAKING OF A MAN - -by - -REV. J. W. LEE, D. D. - - - - - - -New York -Cassell Publishing Company -104 & 106 Fourth Avenue - -Copyright, 1892, by -Cassell Publishing Company. - -All rights reserved. - -The Mershon Company Press, -Rahway, N. J. - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - PAGE - - INTRODUCTION, 3 - - I. BREAD. - - THE PROVISION FOR THE PHYSICAL NATURE OF MAN, 39 - - II. POWER. - - THE PROVISION FOR THE SOCIAL NATURE OF MAN, 83 - - III. TRUTH. - - THE PROVISION FOR THE INTELLECTUAL NATURE OF MAN, 137 - - IV. RIGHTEOUSNESS. - - THE PROVISION FOR THE MORAL NATURE OF MAN, 203 - - V. BEAUTY. - - THE PROVISION FOR THE ÆSTHETIC NATURE OF MAN, 253 - - VI. LOVE. - - THE PROVISION FOR THE SPIRITUAL NATURE OF MAN, 293 - - VII. IMMORTALITY. - - THE PERMANENCE OF THE COMPLETED LIFE OF MAN, 335 - - - - -_INTRODUCTION._ - - - “My God, I heard this day - That none doth build a stately habitation - But he that means to dwell therein. - What house more stately hath there been, - Or can be, than is Man? to whose creation - All things are in decay. - - “Man is all symmetry - Full of proportions, one limb to another, - And all to all the world besides; - Each part may call the farthest brother, - For head with foot hath private amity, - And both with moons and tides. - - “For us the winds do blow, - The earth doth rest, heaven move, and fountains flow: - Nothing we see but means our good - As our delight or as our treasure, - The whole is either our cupboard of food, - Or cabinet of pleasure. - - “Since then, my God, thou hast - So brave a palace built. Oh, dwell in it, - That it may dwell with thee at last! - Till then afford us so much wit - That as the world serves us, we may serve thee - And both thy servants be.” - - - - - -NATURE AND MAN. - - -The meaning of creation is not understood till dust stands erect in -a living man. That a great purpose was present from the beginning, -directing and controlling, there can be no doubt. It presided over the -first nebulous mist that floated out to take form in the foundations of -the earth. It measured and weighed the matter and force necessary to -form the globe. It determined the elements required to do the work lying -through the years before it. It assigned to them their laws, specific -gravities and affinities, and appointed, beforehand, the combinations and -collocations they were capable of making. - -But not till the atoms throbbed in a human brain and beat in a human -heart, did the purpose, which had through the ages run, stand out, -defined and justified. Then it was that the intention underneath the -drift of the ages spelled itself out in the unity of thought, the freedom -of choice, and the capacity for love, potential in the intellect, will, -and heart of the first man. He was the realization of an ideal, which -gave meaning to the long periods of preparation. As the final expression -of the creative process, he was at once the interpreter and the -interpretation of all that had gone before. - - -I. - -Writers of a certain school have sought to minify man’s place in nature. -They say, as Dr. Joseph Leconte well declares, that he is very closely -connected with, and forms a most insignificant part of, nature—that -he has no kingdom of his own, but belongs to the animal kingdom; that -in the animal kingdom he has no department of his own, but belongs -to the department of the vertebrates—along with birds, reptiles, and -fishes; that in the department of the vertebrates he has no privileged -class of his own, but belongs to the class of the mammals, along with -four-footed beasts; that in the class of mammals he has no titled order -of his own, but belongs to the order of primates, along with monkeys -and baboons. His conscience is but the resultant of fear and instinct, -slowly deposited through the years of his evolution. Its imperiousness -is self-constituted. Its scepter it has usurped, and, from the -exhalations of its own rising cowardice, it has woven the purple robes -which constitute the badge of its authority. His morality consists of -rules imposed by his own prudence, and which have no sanctions beyond -the opinions of his class or tribe. His religion is determined by the -physical conditions which surround his life—his geographical situation, -the nature and configuration of his soil, his climate, and his food. Thus -man is simply a natural product, while the civilization which he has -produced is as much determined by the physical conditions surrounding his -life, as the leaves and dates of the palm are determined by the physical -conditions surrounding that tropical tree. The hopes and the trials, the -courage and the sacrifice of the best men, as well as the ambitions and -motives of the worst, are put on a level with the damps and winds. The -one class is entitled to no more credit for what is noble and heroic, -than is rain for nourishing the crops; while the other deserves no more -rebuke for what is base and ignoble, than the lightning for striking -the Church and killing the people. The love which expresses itself in -monuments to commemorate the deeds of the good and the great, and the -condemnation which lifts itself into jails to confine the criminal and -the outlaw, have, in the last analysis, the same meaning. There is no -sacred significance or obligations rooted in divine sanctions, in either -the monuments or the jails. Both are but fickle phases of the passing -spirit. - -The convictions of Moses, reproducing themselves in the government, laws, -literature, morality, and religion of a great people, conserving them -through the ages as examples of order and health, have no more meaning -than the sap which rises in some monarch of the forest, to express -itself in leaves and fruit. The conceptions of duty, which nerved the -heart and inspired the courage of the Apostle Paul, leading him to plant -churches in Asia Minor, to become the seeds of modern civilization, -were as completely natural as the rising of the waters of some mountain -spring, to flow over silver sands to the sea. The music of Beethoven, -the visions of Raphael, were but as the vapor in the light of the -morning sun, beautiful, perhaps, as the rainbow, but going out with the -setting day. Whatever of emotion or conscience they embodied, signified -no more than the colors of the peach bloom, or the notes of the falling -cascade. However esteemed the valor that risked life to break the reign -of oppression and murder, it was but a varying form of the heartless -ambition that sought in strength to make it prevail. The patriotism of -Leonidas, giving up his life to save his country, and the insane act of -Nero, swathing Christians in tar to light his feast, were forward and -reverse movements of the same human spirit; both natural, and both as -unmoral as the electricity that now strikes to destroy, and now burns the -malaria to save. No difference is made between poison in the fangs of -snakes, and mercy in the hearts of men. - -Back of nature there is no purpose, and in its manifold combinations and -adaptations there is no design. It is only a vast aggregate of unresting -atoms, striking one upon another, and without intention and without -purpose, forming pairs, clusters, and groups, and thus assuming the -shapes we see. Why there happens to be order instead of chaos hangs on -the uncertain turn of luck. - - -II. - -If there is mind in the universe, and if there is purpose in the order -and movements of the earth, then man is the culmination of that purpose, -and with reference to him was the order constituted and the movements -determined. If there is naught but matter and force, and these exist -without any directing or co-ordinating mind, then all things are without -intention and without reason. There is nothing good or bad. Nothing -is right or wrong. All things are reduced to a meaningless level of -indifference. But matter and force bear witness to mind. Matter is here -we know; and matter has not only form, extension, impenetrability, for -its qualities, but indestructibility. Take the matter that enters into -the composition of the earth. The amount of it is fixed and definite. It -may be expressed in pounds weight. Since the beginning, not an atom has -been added to it, or taken from it. Its presence here is to be accounted -for. It either determined its own existence, and the exact amount, in -pounds weight of that existence, or it was determined by some principle -or power outside of itself, or within itself, called mind. If it -determined itself to be, then it is intelligent, for self-determination -and self-action are the essential characteristics of mind. Then -intelligence is retained by being transferred from something called mind -to something called matter. But it has never been claimed that matter is -intelligent. Then it is not self-active or self-determining, and waits on -mind for its existence and its movements. - -Matter as plainly bears testimony of the existence of mind, as to the -existence of itself. It is easier to believe that the earth has taken -the globular form and the circular motion by the determinations of mind, -than to believe that through its own determinations it has assumed a -circumference of twenty-five thousand miles, and the regular task of -wheeling on its axis every twenty-four hours. - -Not only is it impossible to account for the exact amount of matter -making up the earth’s size and weight, without assuming the power of a -co-ordinating, determining mind; but a still greater task is upon us, -to account for the sixty odd original elements, out of which all things -in nature are formed without mind. These elements differ in quantity, -quality, specific gravity, and affinity. What determined their number, -their tendencies, and affinities? Why something more than sixty; no -more, no less? Why so much of some, so little of others? We must either -conclude that they determined themselves—that they held a convention -before they existed, and resolved upon taking form and motion, or else -we must believe that they were determined by some power, other than -themselves—by mind. If by their own motion, oxygen, and iron, and gold -are what they are; then the elements have the power of self-action and -self-determination, and are therefore intelligent. - -The collocations these elements form are more difficult still to be -accounted for without the agency of mind. Figures piled up to the sun -are not able to express the possible combinations they are capable of -assuming. The possible combinations of even twenty-four letters of the -alphabet could not be expressed in literature, filling the world with -books. Much greater must be the number of combinations of the original -elements—the alphabet of creation. It is to be remembered, too, that -they disagree on more of their sides than they agree. They are by no -means equally congenial. Friendships and unions between them are formed -in accordance with the most exact rule and affinity. Does it not seem, -then, that combinations formed by chance would be mutually incompatible, -neutralizing, and destructive? Would they not forever ferment in -ungoverned chaos? Yet we see them dwelling together in the utmost unity, -like seeking like, and in the bonds of law and harmony, uniting in -compound, mineral, vegetable, animal, and the body of man himself. - -Were there as many of the letter _a_, as there are atoms of oxygen; and -as many of the letter _b_, as there are atoms of hydrogen; and were the -letters of the alphabet to be increased in proportion to their use, -until they should equal the atoms of all the elements which enter into -the composition of the globe; how long would it take these letters, -stirred by some force like the winds, to assume the form of such a poem -as Paradise Lost? We cannot believe that all these letters, stirred by an -unseen force through infinite ages, would ever form a sensible verse of -poetry, or a rational verse of prose. It is as difficult to understand -how the letters of the alphabet could ever get into the rhythm of -Paradise Lost, without Milton’s mind, as to understand how unconscious -elements took the form of mountain, sea, grove, and globe; round, -articulate, and law abiding, without a great co-ordinating mind. - -The physical forces and energies bear indubitable testimony to the -existence of mind, not only outside of themselves, but in themselves and -through themselves. We have the force of gravitation, the power which -bodies have of attracting one another in proportion to their mass, and -inversely as the squares of their distance; in other words, that power -which bodies have of getting up mutually aggregative motion, unless -prevented by some other power of an opposite nature. A body suspended in -the air is attracted toward the earth by the force of gravitation. A lump -of sugar held over a cup of tea, attracts into itself the water of the -tea cup. This is done by the force known as capillarity. A piece of iron -left exposed attracts the particles of oxygen in the atmosphere. This -is done by the force known as chemical affinity. Why do bodies attract -one another in proportion to their mass and inversely as the squares of -their distance? Why does a lump of sugar, held close over a cup of water, -attract the particles of water into itself? Why does a piece of iron in -the atmosphere attract to itself the oxygen? We are told it is because -of gravitation, capillarity, and chemical affinity. How happens it that -these forces have methods of action known as gravitation, capillarity, -and chemical affinity? They either determined themselves to have them and -to act in accordance with them, or else some power other than themselves -determined these methods of action for them. - -The truth is, gravitation, capillarity, and chemical affinity are but -terms we use to define the operations of mind. To name a force and to -find the formula in accordance with which it works, is not to determine -the origin of its source. And because we have, by observation and -experiment, found out the methods and the measures of the mind’s working, -is no good reason why we should read mind out of the process altogether. -This is to mistake names for causes; and to suppose when one learns how a -force acts, that he has also learned what it is that acts. - -A contemporary of Shakspere might have observed the poet so closely in -his home at Stratford-upon-Avon, as to be able to give to the world a -detailed and exact account of his habits of thought and hours of study; -but this would not have kept the intelligent part of mankind from -believing that a great mind had embodied itself in the immortal plays of -Shakspere. - -Heat, electricity, light, and magnetism must also be expressions of mind, -for the same reason that matter is an expression of mind. To believe -them self-determined, is to believe them rational and intelligent. This -has never been claimed, hence our only way of accounting for their -existence is to regard them as the determinations of mind. We see them, -day by day, lending themselves to the uses and devices of man’s thought, -and expressions of thought they must be. - - -III. - -This whole subject resolves itself into the question, Which is -fundamental and prior, mind or matter? If mind is fundamental and prior, -then there is design, intention, and purpose in nature. If matter is -first and fundamental, there is no such thing as design, intention, or -purpose anywhere. If mind is first and fundamental, then man is the end -and aim of creation, for in him the mind that formed the earth finds a -companion and an interpreter. If matter is first and fundamental, then -the earth is as much for crocodiles and wolves, as for men, and the -life of a human being is no better than that of a lizard. If matter is -fundamental, it were better to be a crocodile or an elephant than to be -a man, for they have more of the fundamental stuff of the universe in -their bodies; and their brains generate none of that subtle something -called _mind_, which perpetually asks questions that have no answer, and -cherishes beliefs that have no foundation. If matter is fundamental, then -we should trust our faculties, in proportion as they are animal, and deny -them in proportion as they are mental. Then the Neros and the Caligulas -were more rational in their sins, than the Luthers and the Wesleys in -their virtues. By following their lusts, the former found pleasure, of a -low order of course, but in the realm of the real; the latter, following -their convictions, found pleasure, of a higher order it may be, but it -was in a false and unreal domain. It were better to be true to the facts -on the plain of the appetites, than to be the silly victims of fraud on -the plain of the conscience and the affections. But it is impossible that -men have been true as they have been degraded, and false as they have -been pure. The design and purpose which has been apparent in nature, and -which men have felt in conscience approving the right and condemning -the wrong, must be there. To eliminate them, or to reason them away, is -to bring mental confusion, and to take from the conviction and thought, -which have made civilization, the principles on which they reposed, and -by which they were inspired. - - -IV. - -Man has no deeper and surer impression than that the world belongs to him -and was made for him. It is deepened year by year, too, as he sees the -relations he sustains to it increase. No more certainly are the walls, -roof, and floor of a house related to the comfort and protection of the -family, than are the elements, forces, and seasons of nature related to -the well-being and civilization of man. Mountain and sky, meadow and -forest, the past and the present are permeated with the thought, or idea, -of man, whether in the first stages of progress, keeping beasts at bay -with sling or stone, or at a more advanced period, tunneling the rivers -and digging down the mountains. Young or old, child or man, nature stands -ready to serve him. Water from her skies flows through his veins to and -from his beating heart. Trees and shrubs and herbs minister to his -pleasure and his ills. Rocks, and timber, and steel lend themselves to -his service for house, hatchet, or chisel. When he ascends sufficiently -in the grade of civilization to give expression to his conceptions of -beauty, he finds the colors in the ores under his feet to embody his -visions. Would he illuminate his humble home at night, there is the pine -with its light-giving tar. Does he live amid the plains, where the pine -does not grow, there is the ox with his tallow ready to be made into -candles. Does he live on the coast, away from the ox or the pine, there -is the whale with his oil. Does he want a better light than pine, or -tallow, or oil can give, there are the coal beds, with their sunshine -laid up for his use for thousands of ages. Does he wish to turn night -into day, and make his streets glow with the radiance of the stars, -there is electricity to be drawn from its wide, mysterious fields, to -serve his growing desire. Would he cross the sea, the winds lie ready to -fill his canvas and draw him from continent to continent. Are the winds -too slow, there is the heat, stored in the mountains, ready to move his -engine and drive his wheel. Does he wish to make himself ubiquitous, and -send a message across the sea, before a ship could get out of port, there -waits on him again the mysterious lightning. - -Nature teems with elements and forces to wait on man’s every thought, to -gratify his every desire, and to respond to his every aspiration. With -all her wealth she surrounds him, and in ten thousand ways invites him to -use it. The naturalist Guyot said the hand of man prefigures his destiny -as an intelligent worker. So the form of all continents and islands, the -outlines of all seas and coasts, contain the idea of the human family. At -a time, geologically about the same, the surface conditions of the earth -were prepared for the advent of man. The great Himalaya Mountain range -was lifted up to prepare an embosoming plain to serve as a cradle for the -human race. The long chain of mountains running through the whole length -of the North and South American continents was raised to prepare the way -for civilization on this side of the sea. When the ocean beds were dug -out and the waters called off from a part of the earth’s surface; when -the mighty peaks and the majestic turrets of the mountain chains were -lifted into the sky; when the encompassing atmosphere was filled with all -life-replenishing elements and wrapped about all oceans and shores; when -the poisonous forces destructive of man’s life were locked up in soils -and rocks; when the meadows were sown with grasses, and the hospitable -arms of the trees were loaded with fruit, then, upon the earth, adorned -and ready for his coming, man appeared. - - -V. - -Considered as an embodiment of thought, man is the only creature who can -interpret Nature. The ideas and principles that fill his great books -were gathered from a study of her secrets and processes. The first books -on geology, giving the history of the earth, its upheavals, changes, -and transformations, were written in the rocks, sands, coal-beds, and -shells of the primal ages. The first books on chemistry were written in -the shape, sizes, affinities, and specific gravities of the atoms which -enter into the composition of all natural bodies. The first books on -arithmetic, by the knowledge of which man learns to divide and conquer -nature, were written in the qualitative relations and movements of -matter. The first books on astronomy were written in the orbits and -movements of the heavenly bodies. The first books on zoölogy were written -in the structure and habits of the lower animals. The books that fill -our libraries are but transcripts from the original volumes written in -rocks, seas, flowers, and skies. Man is the only being who can read and -transcribe these wonderful volumes. They lie unopened and unknown till -his interest is provoked. Their language carries no meaning till he comes -to find it and to ponder it. The herds that low amid the Alpine echoes -see, as well as the distinguished Tyndall, the great glaciers, as they -press with slow and measured pace down the mountain side; but their -meaning, and the law by which they move, is not known till the man of -science comes. To him, they speak in awful and majestic terms. To the -sheep in the meadow, the grass means nothing but food; to man, however, -every blade has a message, poetic and beautiful. - -Considered as a home, this world was made for man; in a thousand senses, -it was not made for any other creature. It is the home of the oyster, -but its wants are met by a little basin in the sea. It is the home of -the elephant, but a few acres of Asiatic jungle furnish the food and the -conditions necessary to its life. It is the home of the bird, but give it -a tree and a worm, and a small circle of sky to fly around, and it needs -no more. But man needs it all. For his hunger, the foods and the fruits -of its continents, oceans, and skies. For his thirst, the waters of its -thousand rills. For his shelter and protection, all its woods. For his -thought, all its order and law. For his ills, the tender ministry of all -its minerals and plants. He is related to it all, and to be completely -furnished must be able to use it all. - -Considered as a place of discipline, the earth is for man, for he is the -only creature helped and advanced by discipline. The beaver cuts his -tree and builds his dam to-day just as the beaver did in the first year -of his existence. He has had the discipline that comes through work, -but it has not improved him nor elevated him. In order that the bee may -live, he must gather his honey and build his cell. This is discipline. -But he never improves. He never grows in culture or skill. The bee that -built his cell in the trees of paradise, and gathered his honey from the -flowers that grew in the garden of Eden, knew as well how to construct -a cell according to mathematical principles, and to pack it with honey, -as the Italian bee of the nineteenth century, who stores his honey in a -painted gum prepared for him by man. - -Monkeys in South America cross rivers by twisting their tails, thus -making bridges of themselves. This is discipline and exercise of a -complex and marvelous sort, but they devise no new ways of building -bridges. They do not increase in knowledge or skill by their work. -That he may gain the means of subsistence, man is under the necessity -of work too. But his work is to him a means of growth and knowledge. -His work has helped him forward, and secured to him culture and skill. -Suggestions come to him, as he fells the forest, as he plows the field, -as he plants the seed, and as he rows his dug-out. These suggestions he -turns to account. He builds them into better axes for cutting the trees, -into better plow-stocks for breaking the land, and into better boats for -crossing the sea. - -By turning the suggestions he has received into better methods, into -improved tools and machinery, he has come from the dug-out to the ocean -steamer; from the pack-mule to the palace car; from the scythe-blade to -the mower and reaper; from the stone and sling to the improved army gun; -from the spinning-wheel to the cotton-factory; and from the foaming steed -of the flying messenger to the electric telegraph. - -Because of the growth and improvement he has received through work, -the tom-tom has long given place to the piano, and the tent to the -modern home. Through struggle with nature, he has been piqued into a -determination to conquer her, to ferret out her secrets, and master her -processes. - -The forces that oppose him he makes to serve him. The river current, -which forbids him to cross, he utilizes to ferry him over. He sets his -sail in the wind blowing eastward and avails himself of its power to -carry him westward. The waves that rise to engulf him he turns into -steam to outride them. The winds draw his water, the river saws his -plank. The tail of the beaver is adjusted by nature to the mud he needs -to cement his dam; his tooth is already adjusted to the hardness of the -tree, so that he cuts it down by instinct and without thought. The eagle -finds the air already under his wings when he would fly, and his talons -already prepared to hold his food, or to grasp a limb in the forest. The -fish finds itself in the beginning of its existence in an element ready -to respond to its fins, and in the presence of food adapted to its life. -The lower animals find themselves at the start in a world immediately -adjusted to their needs, so that they have only to use their feet, their -teeth, their horns, their claws, their wings, and their fins, to conquer -their enemies and find their food. The animal is wholly governed by -natural law, and hence has no history. He moves on nature’s level, and -is adjusted to her plains, her forests, her seas, and her skies, without -his thought or his device. Man is not related in the same outward, -immediate way to clothing, food, and fuel. His understanding, it is true, -corresponds to the scheme of nature, but he must grow into this by study, -by insight, by hints, by the use of faculties the lower animals do not -possess. As long as he remains on the plain of the tiger and panther, and -emulates their stealthy step to creep upon his prey, or his human foe, -like them, he has no history. - -The savage, perhaps, did master the mystery of the dug-out and the -birch-bark canoe, but he had no place for his archives but a hole in -the ground, and no experience but such as died with him. Man’s history -begins with the attempt to conquer Nature. The contribution that Nature -makes to human civilization is that she sets herself against his inward -energies, as if to call them out. She puts limitations about him, that -he may be prompted to rise above them. The fury and storm of the sea -provokes his ingenuity to express itself in the steamship. The peril to -life and fortune contained in the lightning’s flash, begets the steel rod -that disarms it. The distance between the wheat that grows in one part -of the globe and the need for bread in another, leads to the discovery -of a method of transportation that obliterates it. Civilization is the -expression that man has made of himself in his attempts, through thought -and will, to effect the conquest of Nature. This witnesses to the -peculiar and magnificent place which alone belongs to him in nature. - -It may be true that he has no kingdom of his own, no privileged class of -his own, and no titled order of his own; but it can hardly be disputed -that he has a history of his own. This history, written in the dim -glories of vast empires, in the rush of splendid cities, in the age-long -conflict between good and evil, in the undying creed of martyred faith, -in the hope, fidelity, trial, agony, triumph, and self-sacrifice of the -human race, bears witness to the fact, either that the earth was made for -man, or else that he is the only creature upon it capable of subduing it, -transforming it, recreating it, and appropriating it. If man is only a -natural product, the powers have certainly been engaged in a marvelously -intelligent and complicated sort of conspiracy to advance his interests -and to serve his dominion. - -Nothing but what we have been accustomed to regard as design, intention, -purpose, is sufficient to account for the fact, that the scheme of nature -so completely corresponds to the understanding of man as to make it -possible for him to command and claim all her possessions for his own. - -Men will never accept such a happy coincidence as the work of chance. -They will, by the very structure of their minds, believe that the scheme -and the understanding, which, through the process of struggle and trial, -grows into it, were intended, by the Great Author of both, the one for -the other. - - - - -_BREAD._ - - - “The power that Greece had to throw out light is marvelous, - even now that we have the example of France. Greece did not - colonize without civilizing—an example that more than one - modern nation might follow: to buy and sell is not all. - - “Tyre bought and sold: Berytus bought and sold: Sidon bought - and sold: Sarepta bought and sold. Where are these cities? - Athens taught; and she is to this hour one of the capitals of - human thought. - - “The grass is growing on the six steps of the tribune where - spoke Demosthenes: the Ceramicus is a ravine, half-choked with - the marble dust which was once the palace of Cecrops: the Odeon - of Herod Atticus, at the foot of the Acropolis, is now but a - ruin on which falls at certain hours the imperfect shadow of - the Parthenon: the temple of Theseus belongs to the swallows: - the goats browse on the Pnyx. Still the Greek spirit lives: - still Greece is queen: still Greece is goddess. A counting - house passes away: a school remains.” - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -THE PROVISION FOR THE PHYSICAL NATURE OF MAN. - - -In the form of bread, using the term in a wide generic sense, matter -passes into the service of man on the plane of human life. By regular -steps it is lifted and refined and adjusted to correspondence with human -need and comfort. In its raw and individual state, it is controlled by -physical force. From this crude condition it is carried by chemical -force to the order of the mineral kingdom. From this plane, it passes -up through the agency of vital force to the vegetable kingdom. Through -the power of vital force of a higher kind, it is advanced to the animal -kingdom. Here it is ready for man, and yields itself to the uses of -his life. From the time that vital force enters the realm of nature, a -process of assimilation begins. The plant assimilates the mineral, the -animal assimilates the plant, and man assimilates the animal. Through -regular gradations, matter passes up from the bottom of nature into -the service of man, who stands at the top. With each move upward it -gets associated with force of a higher kind. With each advance its -range gets wider and its movements freer. In the form of bread, it is -sufficiently refined and sublimated to be appropriated and utilized -for food, for shelter, for raiment, by the immortal spirit of man. The -necessity for food, for clothing, for shelter, creates commerce, and -commerce accomplishes results far more important than the production and -distribution of the temporal necessities of human life. It brings men -together; it establishes relations. It is the wonderful institution -which, early in the history of the race, began as a loom to catch up the -separate threads of individual life, to weave them into that marvelous -fabric called humanity. Ends of an infinitely higher order are realized -by the production and exchange of the elements of trade, than the -satisfying of hunger with bread, or the furnishing man with clothing and -shelter. The higher ends are the essential and ordained ends. That we may -understand what an important part the necessity for food has played in -the progress of man, it will be well to consider the significance of the -relations it first helped to establish. - - -I. - -All power whatever, that distinguishes man from the brute, that in any -respect contributes to his commercial, mental, moral, or human value, -is due to union, relation, action and interaction among individuals. -In nature we may find illustrations of this truth. Sound, electricity, -heat, and light, are forms of force which owe their existence to action, -relation, interaction among material particles. They would never arise -in a universe of unrelated elements. Their difference is due, not to the -vibration of different elements, but to different rates of vibration -among the same elements. Consequent upon certain terms of formal and -quiet social intercourse among the molecules, there is sound. When -they intermingle more actively and intimately, there is electricity. -With a slight change in the method, but no decrease in the velocity -with which they move, there is heat. When they go at the top of their -speed, waltzing and swinging corners at an unthinkable rate, there is -light. From varying relations and actions among material particles, we -get the music which charms us, the means of communication which unite -us, the power to do work which serves us, and the beauty which refines -us. The unceasing play of these simple unseen elements made the fame of -Beethoven, who threw their vibrations into symphonies; and of Morse, -who utilized their speed to carry the news; and of Watt, who hitched -their radiations to the flying train; and of Daguerre, who put their -undulations to painting pictures. All forms of physical force may be -traced to the union, relation, and vibration of material particles. -The distance from atoms to men is well-nigh infinite, but the points -of resemblance between the genesis of physical force and the genesis -of social force are sufficiently striking to make it permissible to -trace the analogy between them. By social force is understood all those -forms of energy which men find themselves to possess by virtue of their -relations to one another in organized social life. - -Commerce insures the union, and brings about the relations that make this -force possible. It furnishes the conditions without which it could not be. - -A self-contained, self-included, insulated person does carry within the -depths of his being the organs of the civilized man, but they are as -completely out of sight and out of use as the harvests that sleep within -the kernels of the mummy wheat. If it were possible for an individual to -come to years of maturity, out of relations with his fellows, he would be -more destitute than a brute. Such an one, growing up in the woods or on -an island, with no associates but the squirrels and the birds, would not -have the personal furnishments of the monkey or the fox. - -We can understand, too, by considering what man owes to his relations, -how widely and completely he is separated from the lower animals. A -thousand blackbirds, living together in relation, are not different from -a thousand blackbirds living apart and out of relation. A squirrel gains -no element of squirrelhood by companionship, and loses no element of it -in isolation. He may be taken from his nest as soon as he is born and -never be permitted to see another squirrel, but he will be just as much -of a squirrel, and know as well how to get the meat out of a nut, as if -free in the forests with others of his kind. A mocking bird comes to the -power of song as well in a cage, separated from other birds, as when fed -and trained in the orchard by the mother-bird. The chords in his throat -were set to music, and without teacher or praise, at a certain period of -his growth, his song will ring through the house. - -The difference between a man brought up in some lone woods, out of all -relation with men, and one brought up in a civilized community, is -infinite. The lower animals get all they ever get by birth. No new -gifts or powers come to them through companionship. They go unerringly -to a certain destined end, whether they move in flocks or herds, or -alone as individuals. Men, on the other hand, find themselves by coming -together. Their organs sleep till waked by relation. By birth they can -get nothing but the germs, the mere naked elements of what they are to -become. Birth would be no blessing, but a deepening curse, but for what -comes to the child through relation. Birthright alone is not worth a mess -of pottage. Men often congratulate themselves on what they are pleased -to term their individual rights and personal freedom. While men do have -individual rights and personal freedom, it is always to be remembered -that these belong to them because of the relations woven around them by -the institutions of social life. The civilized man differs more from the -savage, than the savage differs from the highest animal. Yet the lowest -savage is infinitely removed from the highest animal, but solely in the -possession of the germs of the attainments and the accomplishments which -may be provoked and maintained by relation. Society alone furnishes the -soil in which these germs can grow. The savage, alone in the woods, -might secure for himself a covering of skins, but the cloth in which the -civilized man clothes himself is possible only in social relations. - -With the commencement of human relations, the outlines of an absolutely -new world come into view. Dim and vague at the outset, as the relations -are simple and low. But as these increase in number, range, and degree, -not only the outlines, but the far-reaching surface, the mountains, the -rivers, the products, the sky, and the climate of a new world stand out -clear, definite, and unmistakable. This new realm we name _civilization_. -It is super-imposed upon the physical world, but is as distinct from it -as thought from the molecules of the brain. Nature furnishes the basis, -but social relations furnish the conditions of the human energy that has -lifted itself into the mighty edifice we call civilization. - -All genera and species and families and individuals are so many forms -in which the radiant energy of the sun has deposited itself. Playing -with its heat and its light upon soil, sea, and sky, the sun has built -the myriad organic forms we see. So all objects, interests, and laws -embraced within the range of civilization are the forms in which social -force, arising through relations, has deposited itself. Human language -itself is an embodiment of social force. The grammars of different -languages actually advertise the social status and condition of the -peoples who used them. In the Chinese language we have no distinction -as to parts of speech, thus showing that the national consciousness was -arrested at the stage of paternalism in government. The ancient Romans -put enormous stress upon the will. They formulated the laws by which men -are still regulated in civilized social life. A hint of this we get in -the Latin language, by the small use made of the pronoun. Ideas, too, -are expressions of translated social energy. Nothing seems to be more -insulated than the human brain, by the aid of which the mind does its -thinking. Out of sight and out of touch, within the dark depths of its -own mysterious home, it would appear to be shut up to absolute solitude. -Here, at least, we would expect to find individual, independent work. -But not so. No individual brain can think, only as it uses the brains of -others in the process. Homer’s Iliad is a poetic formulation of what all -Greece felt. The elements of myth, thought, passion, which it contains, -were all in the contemporary Greek mind. In committing this poem to -memory, the Greeks were but storing up their own thoughts. - -Hegel, in thinking out his remarkable system of philosophy, used the -brains of all the men who had preceded him in the difficult work of -solving the problems of existence. Darwin saw much in nature, because, -through relation, he was able to look through the eyes of all naturalists. - -All values, whether in soil, waterfalls, precious stones, or money, -are forms of social force. Land in a great city sells for two thousand -dollars a front foot, because millions of people, drawn by the powers of -commerce, have come into fellowship upon it. Robinson Crusoe would have -given all the money he had on the ship for a loaf of bread. The heaps of -gold and silver in Wall Street are so valuable, because seventy millions -of people are circulating around them. - -Moral laws are social products. They are not empirical, but fundamental, -eternal, and essential. They inhere in the constitution of man. But it -is only through relation that man comes to the recognition of them, -as binding for conduct. Light and heat have their laws, definite and -unfailing, but if natural particles never vibrated at a rate sufficient -to create these forces, the laws would not appear. They arise along with -the forces, and the same conditions which give rise to the forces, give -rise to the laws. So moral laws accompany a certain degree of attainment -and culture, only possible through relation. - -Religion itself, the highest and most sacred deposit of human life, is -a product of social force. Whether we regard it as “modes of emotion,” -as Lecky; or the “recognition of all our duties as divine commands,” as -Kant; or as “awe in the presence of the mystery of an inscrutable power -in the universe,” as Spencer; or as “the infinite nature of duty,” as -Mill; or as “the immediate feeling of the dependence of man on God,” as -Schleiermacher, it never arises outside the range of relation. Still, -religion is something constitutional, inalienable, divine; but man would -never be thrilled by its hopes, or soothed by its peace, did he not -stand in vital relation to his fellows. The elements and raw material -of religion are eternally present, but relation calls into exercise the -susceptibilities and faculties which appropriate these elements and raw -material, turning them into hymns, theologies, prayers, sacrifices, -liturgies, and ceremonies. - -Commerce, by bringing men together under the necessities of finding -food, clothing, shelter, enables them to find their intellects and what -they can know, their hearts and what they can love, and their wills and -what they can do. - -Thus we trace the genesis of social force, with the expressions which -it makes of itself, in property, literature, law, art, and religion, -to mutual human relations, for the establishment of which, among men, -Commerce seems to have been ordained. If men could, without trading, have -found the means of subsistence, as do the foxes and the lions; then no -relations in the high sense of the term would have been established among -them; and like the foxes and the lions, they would have remained on the -earth without progress and without history. - -The sun must be making tremendous drafts upon some unseen sources of -power, to be able to make, throughout the solar realm, such ample -expenditures of energy without bankruptcy. - -The location of the vast depositories of power, upon which he draws so -liberally, we are not to inquire here. We do know that the force which -builds the forest, flushes the meadows with green, braids the vines into -festoons, and peoples the plant-world, comes from the sun. Wherever the -materials which keep the sun’s fires burning come from, they must pass -up to that center before they are available for service on this globe. -The stamp and superscription of the sun must be upon them before they -can take the form of grass, or leaf, or bird on the earth. In this sense -stand human relations between the force contained in the individual, -unrelated life, and the force which takes form in the objects of -civilization. The crude and inarticulate force in the individuals of the -tribe, or the nomads who only touch for war or passion, must be refined -through moral, political, and spiritual relations before it is ready to -take the form of poem, anthem, temple, or Plato. - - -II. - -We wish to determine the principle in accordance with which the -production and distribution of food, shelter, and clothing are to be -regulated. These forms of value are embodiments of social energy, -generated through relations formed above nature by intelligence and -volition. In nature, then, we are not to find the law that is to regulate -them. - -Bees build their cells, and birds their nests, and beavers their dams, -not by intelligence and will, called into existence after birth through -companionship, but by what is in-wrought into the very fibers of their -being irrespective of companionship. Birds, bees, and beavers have been -in the world thousands of years, yet the first bird, bee, or beaver -ever created had as much sense as the last. A single bee has as much -sense as all the bees in the world put together. Among all lower animals -each individual inherits the sense of the species. Hence the law “of the -struggle for existence,” resulting in “the survival of the fittest,” -said to be a regulating principle in the plant and animal kingdoms, is -not severe, regarded with reference to the individuals which inhabit -them. But to regard the operations of this law as beneficent upon the -plane of human life, as does Mr. Spencer, is altogether to overlook -the obligations men are under to one another, because of their mutual -relations. The life of each man, it must be remembered, in so far as it -is above that of the unrelated savage, is contained in the life of every -other man. In so far as it is comfortable, intelligent, and free, it has -been brought to him, and made over to him by his fellow-man. The law -which is to determine the regulation of the elements of commerce, which -are but expressions of the energy arising through mutual human relations, -must be as elevated as the relations which commerce begets, and which in -turn make commerce possible. - -We must not go down among the tigers and the hyenas, who owe nothing but -bare birth to companionship, where the principle of “the survival of -the fittest in the struggle for existence” does prevail, to get the law -which is to regulate the production and distribution of products possible -only through companionship. Each individual, be he weak or strong, has -contributed something to the social body. The strength of the one may -have contributed courage, the weakness of the other may have called forth -pity; but both pity and courage are virtues possible only in relation. A -regulating principle that kills off the feeble ones, and drives the weak -ones to the wall, may do for brutes, who owe nothing to relationships; -but not for men, who owe everything to them. The attempt to regulate -forms of value in accordance with the law of “the survival of the fittest -in the struggle for existence” does not have sufficient regard for the -contribution each individual has made, by the very fact of his existence, -to make these values possible. The leading political economists of the -times have come to see that the law of extreme individualism, of “every -man for himself and the devil take the hindmost,” must be substituted by -some more beneficent principle—by some law that pays more respect to the -methods by which values have been created. - -The province of commerce, as an institution, is to bring men together, -not merely that the boundaries of commerce may be extended and its -volume increased, but that men may learn the mutual obligations they -are under to one another, that their sympathy for one another may be -enlarged, and that respect for one another may be engendered. - -It is only in an atmosphere of mutual trust, sympathy, and respect that -men can grow. - -The need for bread, for protection, for raiment, prompts men to the -exchange of products, that each may share into the work of all. But -in the process of exchanging products, relations are established, -through the influence and power of which an order of man comes the mere -material comforts of life cannot supply. The significance of commerce, -then, is not understood, if it is considered simply with reference to -its immediate ends. These ends are met when men are supplied with the -material comforts of life. Ends, however, are mediated through it of -a kind different in order and degree. These we consider the essential -and ultimate ends of the relations which are established through the -exchange of products. What, then, is the ultimate end and object of human -relations? It is man. Man come to himself, conscious of himself, in -possession of himself. It is human life, enriched, perfected, completed. -It is man, strong, free, holy. It is man, not lost in the social texture, -nor swamped in the social organism; but, finding his individuality and -his peculiar, natural, simple self through them. The marvelous fabric -the social loom was set to weaving is man. The highest end of social -relations is a self-conscious, self-determining man, thinking the true, -willing the right, loving the good. These relations constitute the -organism out of which alone he can be born into symmetrical, well rounded -life. - -The lower animals come from natural birth into the world entire and -complete. The young eaglet is correlated to the sky before he leaves the -egg. But man moves on a plane lower than the brutes, if he is not caught -at birth and carried by relation to his proper place. As man is the -highest product of social relations, it follows that the highest product -is the ultimate product. - -An apple tree may be used for fire wood, or sawn into planks, but apples -are the ultimate reasons for the existence of the apple tree. Toward an -apple the germ started when it burst the sod and stood a little sprig -above the ground. Beyond the apple, the tree goes no further. It throws -its roots into the earth and its branches into the atmosphere, and -perpetually acts and reacts upon its environment, but all for the purpose -of turning soil, and sunshine, and rain into apples. - -As we have seen, a part of the social energy arising through mutual -human relations is to be converted into language, values, literature, -morality, and religion, as a part of the capital invested in a sewing -machine factory goes into tools. But man is greater than language, -values, literature, morality, or religion; as the sewing machine is -greater than the tools by which it is made. Human relations create -language, values, art, morality, and religion, that they may be used to -advance and perfect the main work they were ordained to perform, “the -making of a man.” - -When the people of a nation come to regard the elements of wealth, -literature, art, or even religion, as ends to be enjoyed rather than as -means to make man, they have missed the purpose of creation, and wander -amid the mazes of stupidity and blindness. - -As far as outward splendor and wealth were concerned, Babylon had no -rival among the nations of ancient times. She was a vast and rich -empire. She embraced the most fertile portion of the globe. She had a -capital that eclipsed all others in magnificence. Her hanging gardens -were the wonder of the world; but her people stood not upon their -terraces to observe the stars, or to reach a higher civilization through -the realization of the nobler ends of their being. These were used as -places of revelry and sensual enjoyment. Thus the only work of art that -made them famous was used to make them stupid and depraved. Of her wealth -she made an end. Putting no estimate upon men, through the relations of -whom her wealth was created, she found at last that among all her people -she had produced no man amply endowed enough to give permanent mental -setting to her civilization and her faith. Her heart throbs, whatever -they were, got explained in no history, interpreted in no philosophy, -and lived in no life. For knowledge of her, we are dependent upon her -ruins, her pottery, her broken columns. Into oblivion has fallen all that -bejeweled and pampered life that reveled in her palaces and amid her -far-famed hanging gardens. Among none of her luxurious inhabitants did -she develop a man to commit the keeping of her secrets and the record of -her progress. Over her history has settled the stillness of the desert -and the gloom of eternal night. - -On the other hand, how secure is the Greece, that flowered in her great -men! It was in the two centuries between 500 and 300 B. C., when she -emphasized men more than the things they created, that she produced the -men who have been the teachers of the human race. She has been despoiled -of her art treasures, her temples have fallen, her Parthenon is in ruins; -but the two hundred years of her life, which she deposited in her great -men, are immortal. - -No tooth of time, no war’s bloody hand, no devastation of the years, can -take from her the glory which she lifted and locked in the genius of her -generals, her statesmen, her orators, and her philosophers. Epaminondas -and Pericles still fight for her, and guard with sleepless vigilance her -fair name. Plato and Aristotle still interpret her problems of destiny. -Sophocles and Pindar still sing her glory. Herodotus and Thucydides -still keep the record of her victories. Demosthenes and Æschines still -give imperishable expression to her conceptions of form and symmetry. -She deposited her riches in the spirits of her great men, and they are -forever secure. No thief can steal them, no rust can corrupt them. The -unfolding centuries may look in upon them and enjoy them, but they cannot -arrest them. The spirits of great men, like immortal ships, sail the -ocean of time, bearing the treasures of the civilizations which gave them -birth. They outride the fury of all the storms, and will sail on, till - - The stars grow old, - The sun grows cold, - And the leaves of the Judgment book unfold. - -But when Greece came to think more of the results than of the living -men, she lost not only the power to produce the men, but the capacity -to appreciate the results which had been created by them. Thinking more -of the temple than the builder, she soon had no architect to conceive, -and no son to understand the temple. Turning her national power into the -spirits of her living men, she utilized the mountains and the mines in -the service of beauty. But when life got cheaper than art, she no longer -had power to create new art, or to protect from vandalism the old. By -removing the emphasis from men to things, she descended from the Crœsus -to the pauper of civilization. - -As long as Israel expended her national energy in the production of men, -she had Moses, greater than the Tabernacle; David, greater than his harp; -and Isaiah, greater than his song. But when the forms of her worship were -emphasized beyond the spirits of her people she lost the devotion which -created her church and the manhood that guided it. The men who formulated -the laws that made Rome the mistress of the world, grew at a period when -a Roman was the center of interest in the empire. But when her laws were -stressed to the obliteration of her men, she had them still, without -the ability to make more laws, or to execute the ones she had. Religion -in India is emphasized more than character; hence her men are lost in -a wanton and luxurious surrender to a modeless, transcendental, pure -being, and she is practically without a history. - - -III. - -The ultimate reasons, then, for the existence of social relations, -brought about among human beings by exchange of products, is not the -satisfaction of hunger, or the enrichment of individuals in material -wealth, but the making of men. This being so, we are able to determine -the law by which the production and distribution of commercial products -are to be regulated. It must be a law that does not put the emphasis -on the products, but upon the men who are to be elevated through their -exchange. It must not be a law leaning to extreme individualism on the -one side, or to extreme socialism on the other. It must have proper -respect to the individual, and to the social organism to which he is -indebted for whatever of power he possesses. That law has already -been formulated for us. It is this: “Thou shalt love thy neighbor as -thyself.” This is the coordination of self-love and good-will. As has -been well said, this saves for us the strength of private enterprise, -and individual initiative, the vigor of the self-regarding motives; yet -enthrones by their side as co-equal and co-regent powers, the principle -of benevolence, the obligation to promote the common weal. Self-support, -self-help, self-reliance, are still cardinal virtues, but philanthropy is -given co-ordinate authority with them in the commercial world. This is -the law most favorable to the growth of men. - -Under its benign reign, men can come to themselves. Through the operation -of this law, there will be no curtailment of the volume or the extent of -commerce; but the emphasis will be kept in the right place, and men will -not be lost in the process of securing the elements of food and shelter. -Commerce will be the means of mediating to men their higher nature. -Surrounded by conditions engendered by the operation of a law like this, -life will reach through relation higher and higher ranges of hope and -insight. The elements of poems, symphonies, philosophies, temples, and -pictures will flow in the blood. - -The fierce competition we see in the commercial world to-day is the -attempt to re-enact, in business life, the principle of natural -selection, or “the survival of the fittest in the struggle for -existence.” This is the law of the jungle, but not of the social realm. -This is doubtless the law among trees, determining their number, variety, -and structure; for one tree gains nothing from association with other -trees. This law doubtless operates in the sea, among the fish, and in -the sky among the birds, for fish and birds are what they are by birth -and not by association. Mr. Spencer regards the operation of this law -as beneficent. It kills off the unsuccessful members of society, it -drives the weak ones to the wall. Those who survive in the struggle are -the fittest. The Greeks, who put Socrates to death, were, according to -this so-called beneficent principle, the fittest to survive. This law -is regarded as beneficent as it operates among men to control their -products, upon the supposition that man is an animal and a part and -parcel of nature, as are the bears and the wolves. The things which -elevate men and civilize them, however, do not come from nature, but -are engendered through companionship and association. Hence, from the -sense of obligation men are under to one another for the best and -highest things of life, the law is to be deduced which is to regulate -their commerce and to determine the character of their actions. This -law is, “Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself.” Thus business looks -to character. The discipline it insures is worth more than the money it -brings. The highest product of trade is man himself. If in business such -methods are practiced, if such aims are followed as destroy the man, -however great the returns in money, it is a thousand fold worse than a -failure. The man it was designed to make, it has destroyed. - - -IV. - -The disposition to accumulate, which is right and praiseworthy, should -always be modified by right knowledge of the uses of property, and the -methods by which it is amassed. Nothing is more pitiable than for a -person to have more property than he has manhood. This indicates that -the stress has been on the wrong side of the wealth. Such a man is -under the sad necessity of taking his significance from the money he -has accumulated, rather than the noble elements of life he should have -secured in the process of obtaining it. With such a man, the end of -business has been lost. He has consumed the end in the means. Instead of -turning the elements of trade into manhood, manhood has been lost amid -the maze and chaos of things. The order of progress has been violated, -and the man, instead of moving on through business cares to immortal -character, turns back to the earth, and seeks to substitute the tendency -to move from it, by the disposition to settle permanently upon it. The -desire to get rich has grown so abnormal and perverted, that it seeks to -satisfy itself by the abundance of mere things. There are a great number -of mowers and reapers, engines and cotton-gins, hats and shoes, pins and -buttons; but a man has been lost in the making of them. This is more -than all the mowers and reapers, cotton-gins and steam engines, pins and -buttons ever made are worth. It is not mete that men should be sacrificed -to the beauty and perfection of machinery, or to things machinery turns -out. It is not necessary either. What we gain is not worth what we give. -The machinery should be so manipulated as to get the things, and at the -same time secure the perfection of men through the process. It is not -necessary for the painter to lose himself in his art, and sacrifice his -manhood to make his vision glow on the canvas. A proper regard for the -methods and uses of art will result in leaving in the living spirit a -picture more perfect than any painted by the brush. John Bunyan did -not lose his manhood in portraying the history of a human soul in its -attempts to get from earth to heaven. While conducting his pilgrim -safely through the sorrow and temptations of life, to a home in a better -world, he opened the pearly gates to his own soul. His work transfigured -his life, and was the means of sanctifying it. All business and all work -should lift up, and not hold down; it should make free, and not enslave; -it should ennoble and not degrade. It is as honorable to make shoes or -anchors as to paint pictures or write books. The shoemaker should learn -the secret through his work of finding the sandals of manhood for his -own feet. The blacksmith should learn, through the making of anchors for -the great ships, to find the anchor that is to hold his own soul to the -truth, amid the storms of life. - - -V. - -If through trade only the material result is sought, the ends it were -intended to subserve are missed. Its bulk may be large, the machinery -through which it is carried on manifold and complicated, but with the -emphasis on the money side of it, no manhood will be reached through it. -The man side of a button machine is infinitely more important than the -button side. The buttons which fall on one side may conform precisely to -an approved and an exquisite pattern, but if the person who stands on the -other side does not, through the process of making buttons, get a man out -of himself, the whole thing is a disastrous failure. Human spirits are -too valuable to be used up in making buttons. More respect is to be had -to the human side of the loom than to the cloth side. The most beautiful -pattern of silk ever woven loses its power to please the eye when it is -remembered that the soul of a woman has been drawn into its threads and -colors. The sacrifice of individual life is impressive and noble, if the -object for which it is made is worthy. This kind of sacrifice is not the -means of losing life, but of gaining it. But no material result to be -used up in the passing season of fashion is worth such costly sacrifice. - -Through forces we name capillarity, cohesion, and gravitation, matter -accomplishes the purposes of thought. They are but manifestations of the -power of mind working through them, to build up the mineral, vegetable, -and animal kingdoms. They look beyond themselves. They work for higher -ends. Thus all the industries we see in nature look to lifting and -refining matter, and force high enough to serve the uses of human life. -So the industries established on the plane of human life are to elevate -man another step in the scale of being. Through sowing and reaping, -through grinding and sawing, through spinning and weaving, through buying -and selling, through building and furnishing, he is to be carried on in -the march of progress. - -The history of the physical universe culminates in man, finds its -interpreter and its interpretation in him. Never was the thought of him -absent from her movements through Pliocene, Miocene, Eocene, Cretaceous, -Jurassic, Triassic, Carboniferous, Devonian, Silurian, or Cambrian ages. -In all her awful cosmic emotion to reach order and form, it was the -anticipation of man that moved her, for he it is at last that comes of -it. So, through all the course of her tumultuous history, nature was -pregnant with man. The stars which sang together in the early morning of -the world, caught the inspiration which gave melody to their song from -the thought of him. - -Commerce, if it is to be permanent and healthy and progressive, must -fall into line with the purpose nature was put upon its perilous course -to subserve. Her countless forms of industry established by the law -of supply and demand; her cars, rushing hither and thither all round -the world; her great steamships on every sea; her great furnaces, whose -chimneys lift themselves against the sky, must get their meaning and the -reason for their existence from the fact that they are putting in their -contribution to the making of a man. Her wheels are to fly, her spindles -are to whirl, her paddles are to splash, and her hammers are to ring, -making music amid it all, in anticipation of his increasing worth, his -growing thought, his enlarging hope. Her countless wheels of industry -will be throwing out axes, wagons, plow-stocks, hand-saws, and reapers -as they fly; but these will be only so many means used to discipline -the precious life committed for a while to her training. What chemical -affinity did in lifting the original elements to the mineral kingdom, -and what the animal did to lift the plant to the animal kingdom, so the -trades and industries of commerce are to do in lifting human life from -its individual, unrelated state to its social and fraternal state. The -elements of commerce are to be the means to help human character out of -human nature. Two kinds of raw material are to be refined. The iron in -the mountain is to be turned into razor blades and caligraphs; the reeds -in the swamps and the woods in the forests are to be turned into the -notes of organ and piano; and in the process of refining these, man is to -be disciplined in the use of himself, in the possession of himself, and -in the command of himself. - - - - -_POWER._ - - - “Excessive devotion to the material is the evil of our epoch; - hence a certain sluggishness. - - “The great problem is to restore to the human mind something of - the ideal. Whence shall we draw the ideal? Wherever it is to be - found. The poets, the philosophers, the thinkers, are its urns. - - “The ideal is in Æschylus, in Isaiah, in Juvenal, in Alighieri, - in Shakspere. Throw Æschylus, throw Isaiah, throw Juvenal, - throw Dante, throw Shakspere into the deep soul of the human - race. - - “Pour Job, Solomon, Pindar, Ezekiel, Sophocles, Euripides, - Herodotus, Theocritus, Plautus, Lucretius, Virgil, Terence, - Horace, Catulus, Tacitus, Saint Paul, Saint Augustine, - Tertullian, Petrarch, Pascal, Milton, Descartes, Corneille, La - Fontaine, Montesquieu, Diderot, Beaumarchais, Sedaine, André - Chenier, Kant, Schiller—pour all these souls into man.” - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -THE PROVISION FOR THE SOCIAL NATURE OF MAN. - - -I. - -Man has a body and a spirit. By the one, he is individual; by the other, -he is social. As individual, he needs bread; as social, he needs power. -As body, he is born from the loins; as spirit, he is born from the social -organism. In the process of finding food, clothing, shelter, to meet the -needs of himself as individual, he discovers that illimitable social -side of himself the material necessities of life do not supply. Here he -finds power, a more subtle and universal element, ready to serve his -higher need. This is the provision for the social side of man’s nature; -for, as individual, he does not need it, and could not appropriate and -use it if he did. As an individual, he can only avail himself of the use -of power, through the attempt of the social whole of which he forms a -member. In the primitive, unrelated, unorganized state, man is satisfied -if he can secure food to satisfy his hunger, and a cave to shelter him -from the storm. He does not even utilize the winds to draw his boat, -until, through interdependence and mutual relations, he has reached a -high degree of social life. The servants of man, on his individual side, -are the foods of the field, the waters of the spring, the woods of the -forest, the fruits of the orchard, and the wool on the sheep’s back. -The servants of man, on his social side, are the driving power of the -winds, the transporting power of heat, and the thought-defying power of -the lightning. As individual, he is a citizen of the community where he -first sees the light. As social, he is a citizen of the world. Through -his body, he is naturally related to his ancestors; through his spirit, -he is related to the human race. The rude elements of food, clothing, -and shelter, he might secure as individual; but power, which waits to -serve his higher, nobler nature, he can only secure through society. As -individual, he is narrow, meager, local. As social, he is broad, rich, -universal. On his individual side, he is centripetal; on his social side, -centrifugal. Self-centered, self-contained, and self-included, on the -one side; while, upon the other, he is possessed of the conviction that -private right must be subordinated to public good. Tethered to the earth -on the one side, linked with the immensities on the other. On the one -side, his outlook is hard and literal and low; on the other, he seeks, -through intellect, to transcend the infinite in time and space and truth. -On the side of himself, as individual, he knows no right or wrong. On -the side of himself, as social, he recognizes the infinite in duty, and -seeks harmony through the infinite in love. - - -II. - -Yet this limited and unlimited self; transitory, perishable, and finite -on the one side; everlasting, imperishable, and infinite on the other, -are bound together in the same person. The fall of the one is accompanied -by the descent of the other, and the rise of the one is accompanied by -the ascent of the other. Their union involves perpetual conflict, and -there waits on the turn of the battle, the depression of remorse, or the -exultation of triumph. - -On the individual side of himself, man would take up with the present, -the immediate, with that which allures the sense, and, with unholy -incense, regales the imagination. On the social side of himself, he -would despise the immediate, and give the casting vote in favor of the -unbiased, immeasurable good. In such a being as man, conflict were -inevitable. With a horizon measured by the edge of the plain where he -stands on the one side, and a horizon melting into the infinite star -depths on the other, it were but to be expected that a contest would -arise between the larger and the lesser outlook. On the one side, he -would possess the field, concentrate his attention upon its grasses and -its fruits, and lose himself in its products. On the other, he would go -forth to see where the stars are, to consider the sources of their light, -and to travel with them along their silent paths. With a view measured by -the hour that shuts him round on the one side, and with a view measured -by the organic pulsations of the world on the other; the question would -be, whether to give himself to the immediate pleasures of the hour; or to -elongate the pendulum of his timepiece till it should embrace the ages, -and regulate his life by an eternal measure. With appetites on one side, -clamoring for the things in sight, and with conscience on the other, -calling for harmony with things high and remote; the question would be, -whether to give the consent of the will to the demand of the appetites, -or to the appeal of the conscience. - - -III. - -Knowing the side of himself of which a man takes counsel—the individual, -or the social—you are prepared to fix his grade in the scale of being. -The difference between Benedict Arnold and George Washington was just -this: in the case of the one the individual side was dominant; in the -case of the other the social side held sway. This is the difference -between the miser, despised of all, and the philanthropist, honored of -all. This is the difference between the debauche and the saint, between -the man who lives for his God and his race, and the man who pours himself -out on his lust and his passion. If the promptings of the individual -side of man’s nature are to be distrusted and watched, while liberal and -unstinted recognition is to be given to the social side, it is well to -inquire into the meaning and office of this larger fact of his life. - -Let it be granted that on the individual side of himself man has no -kingdom of his own, no department of his own, no privileged class of -his own, and no titled order of his own. Let this side of him be left -to the naturalist, to be classed with the vertebrates, the mammals, or -the primates. But what conclusion are we to reach concerning the social -side of himself, that has found embodiment in that vast and complicated -movement we call civilization? Through this age-long historic process -man has been seeking to realize the capacities of his larger nature. Like -a magnificent temple, civilization has been rising through the centuries. -Its walls have silently come up from the earth, like Solomon’s Temple, -without clink of trowel or sound of hammer. It is built of granite, cut -from the Gethsemanes of history. Leonidas and his brave three hundred at -the pass of Thermopylæ carved some of the blocks of this great edifice, -into whose walls men have gone down as the living stones. The brave -Britons, at the waters of Solway, lifted to place some of the richly -foliaged pillars that stand upon its floors. William the Silent, while -organizing the forces and achieving the victories of the Netherlands, -was at the same time turning some of its arches and resting in place -some of its architraves. The Martyrs, who went to undying fame and -honor through fires of Smithfield, furnish themes for the music which -resounds through its corridors. It is the triumph of the social nature -of man, and stands upon the soil which has been made by the crumbling -dust of all generations of brave men. Its pinnacles and towers pierce -the skies, and declare to the immeasurable heights, the force, the -faith, the sentiment, and the love of man. It defies the elements of -disintegration and change, and around the tops of its lofty pillars there -cluster the buds of eternal spring. The gigantic trunks, whose arched -branches support the roof of this great structure, express themselves in -never withering flowers, and, where the boughs interlace at the summit of -the arches, there comes the light of heaven to color and illumine. Yet -within its doors we are in no forest of stone, where thoughts of men have -been chiseled into semblance with the trees. Its foundations are built -of convictions, its pillars of hope, its vaulting of lofty purpose, -and its windows of faith. Its cement is the blood of suffering, and its -decoration the loves of heroes. It is the edifice man has built in which -to house the social side of his nature. It contains and will conserve all -contributions ever made to human weal. - -In walking the streets of Rome, one has a strange and melancholy sense -of the traditions and memories which cluster about every ruin and every -spot. But around the myriad facts and forces of civilization there hang -associations more pathetic still. Here we walk, not amid the ruins of -the past, but amid the achievements, the victories, and the glories -of the past. Achievements, victories, and glories not associated with -broken columns, defaced monuments and moldering ruins, but with the laws -and institutions of living men. We have here, in ten thousand embodied -forms, the travails of the souls of our fathers. Their spirits live in -the words we use, their consciences bind in the laws we observe, their -visions bless in the pictures we see, and their devotion sanctifies in -the religion we love. All the blood ever shed in sacrifice, all the -eloquence that ever thrilled senates and peoples in defense of the right, -all the protests ever in silence felt or in public uttered against the -wrong, are here held in everlasting form. - -Are we to regard civilization, the manifold and complicated sum in -which man’s social nature has expressed itself, as nothing more than -a natural product? Are we to account for this by the same physical -principles in accordance with which the bee builds his cell, the monkey -hangs his bridge, and the beaver erects his dam? Does this stately -projection of man’s social nature mean no more than some lofty Alpine -Matterhorn, pushed into the heavens by the unconscious fires in the -earth’s bosom? Is this only like some mighty Giants’ Causeway, lifted up -by the same physical forces and by the same natural processes? If this -is so, why is it that when we turn away from civilization as a whole, -to view it in some of its national forms, we see the spiritual ups and -downs of history in such striking contrast with the uniform face which -nature wears? If the radiant civilization of Greece, that filled the -earth with the eloquence of thought and the melody of song, with the -Republic of Plato and the Ethics of Aristotle, that clothed itself in -the Parthenon of Phidias and the Iliad of Homer, was as natural among -the nations as the uprising of Gibraltar among the mountains, why is it -that Gibraltar still stands as the solemn sentinel of the Ocean and the -Sea, while the civilization of Greece is but a memory of the past? The -same sky and earth, and Mar’s Hill are there. Around her classic coast -there still murmurs the same heaving sea. But while ships may still -sail to Gibraltar, never more can they draw up to the Piræus of worthy -representatives of Plato and Aristotle. Not again do men, with noble -brows, deep eyes, and never dying thought, look into the Ægean from that -memorable meeting place of the world’s ships. - -If the history of Israel, from the time of Abraham to the coming of John -the Baptist, was but a natural product, as easy to be accounted for as -the mountains round about Jerusalem; why is it that the mountains still -encompass the holy city; while we find no more men like Moses, David, and -Isaiah to lead, to rule, and to prophesy? There are the same Judean hills -and valleys. There rapidly flows the same historic Jordan. There grow the -same grapes, the figs, and olives. There are the same holy mountains. -There are the same dangerous rocks in the sea at Joppa. The physical -conditions that made the corn and the honey and the cattle are there; and -there still are found the corn, the honey, and the cattle. But no massive -man like Moses ever more climbs Sinai to get law on tables of stone, or -Pisgah, to see the promised land and die. No man after God’s own heart, -like David, any more minds sheep, watches the stars, and writes poetry -there. Never more do we find there a man like Isaiah, struggling on his -knees in prayer that he may rise up to give his people the oracles of -God. A shallow, degenerate and fickle people dwell amid the groves and -the vines where once lived the great race which gave to men their ethics -and the outlines of true religion. - -If the civilization of Rome, that reached such volume and force as to -make her the mistress of the world, was as natural as the rising and -falling of the tides, why is it that Rome is in ruins, while the tides -continue to rise and fall? With no other aid than such as is afforded -by natural law and physical force, we cannot solve this problem. Where -monkeys grew once, monkeys grow to-day; where lions roamed once, lions -roam to-day; where figs grew once, figs grow to-day. The same physical -conditions, the same configuration of soil, the same degree of climate, -produce uniform natural results from age to age. These may be counted -on with the certainty of a coming eclipse, conditioned on varying -conjunctions of the heavenly bodies. But we must pass from the level and -range of soil, sky, climate, and physical conditions, to account for the -fact that a country in one period of its history produces a Pericles, -and, in another, a muddy-headed numskull; in one age an aristocracy of -poets, artists, statesmen, philosophers, and orators; and in another, a -listless swarm of stupid and secular cumberers of the ground. - - -IV. - -The explanation of this question is to be found in the fact that man has -a dual nature, a body and a spirit, by virtue of which he is individual -and social. When the center of gravity is on the social side of human -nature, the fortunes of man go up; when the center of gravity is on the -individual side, the fortunes of man go down. On the individual side, he -is the subject of physical law. On the social side, of moral law. - -That man was intended to express the force of his life through the social -side of himself and in accordance with moral law, instead of through the -individual side of himself and in accordance with physical law, is plain, -from the fact that it is only when he gives social expression to his -life that he reaches any degree of commanding and permanent influence. - -The unrivaled place which the Greece of Pericles holds in history is due -to the fact that he lived at a time when the emphasis was altogether -on the social side of her people. The individual side was completely -subordinated to the life of the whole. It is doubtless true that she -pressed a right to rule too far, and stressed the citizen too much, and -considered the claims of the individual too little. A proper balance is -to be preserved between the individual and the social man. But it is true -that in merging the life of the individual into that of the state, Greece -did prepare a soil compact and rich enough to grow the most ample harvest -of literature, art, poetry, philosophy, and men, the world ever saw. As -soon as the emphasis passed over from the social to the individual side, -the process of pulverization began, and the continuities of thought -and aspiration were broken up. National unity was dissolved, and the -conditions of great men and great results were no longer present. - -The difference between the Greece of 300 B. C. and the Greece of to-day, -is the difference between giving the national life a social and an -individual expression. The Greece of 300 B. C. was a compact whole, made -so by each man putting in his individual life as a contribution to the -life of the state. The Greece of to-day is an aggregate of self-centered -units, held together like so many potatoes in a basket, by outward force -and barriers, rather than by loyalty, patriotism, fidelity, and the -cling of man to man. In the Greece of 300 B. C. each man, while giving -his individual life to his fellows, gathered into his own being all -the life they had to give. Hence in Socrates we had a reproduction of -all Greece. In Homer, all her poetic passion, and expression. In the -orations of Demosthenes, all the aspirations of her heart and all her -love of liberty. In the Greece of to-day, we have not the same intimacy -of companionship, or the same network of relationships. Each man, -thinking more of himself as individual than of himself as social, finds -it no longer possible to make levies on the lives of his fellows, to -think his thought, conceive his temple, deliver his oration, or write his -poem. So it follows, they no longer think great thoughts, conceive great -temples, deliver great orations, or write great poems. Each man, in the -high sense, being a separate sand, they have a social soil as barren as a -desert. - -Rome won her victories, wrote her laws, and laid the foundations of her -world-wide empire, when her people gave social rather than individual -expression to the force of their lives. A typical illustration we -have of this in the fidelity of Regulus. A prisoner at Carthage, he is -permitted to go to Rome to induce his countrymen to make peace with the -Carthaginians. He pledged his word to return if he failed. On reaching -Rome, however, instead of seeking to persuade his people to make peace, -he appealed to them to continue the war. The social side of himself -belonged to Rome; speaking through that, he called upon her to prosecute -the war. The individual side of himself was personal; acting through -that, he went back to Carthage in honor of his pledge, to be cruelly put -to death by his captors. This single incident is sufficient to help us -understand why, from her seven hills, Rome conquered and for a long time -ruled the world. The individual was sunk in the _Roman_. Not, as in the -case of Greece, that his personal identity might be swallowed up in the -mass, but that he might find a personal identity as great as the empire, -of whose social life he was the embodiment. Regulus was an epitome of -Rome. In him was all her indomitable will, her moral sturdiness, her iron -probity. In him she had a son, in the depth of whose spirit all the glory -she had won in war, and all the control she had found in sacrifice, was -safe. Regulus had the advantage of the Carthaginians, in that the larger, -nobler side of himself was safe from their hate. The Roman, the social -Regulus, was as eternal as the majesty, and fame, and mystery of the -Roman empire. - -The doom of Rome, as a nation, was never sealed till the stress was -removed from the social to the individual side of her people. She might -have lived on among the nations, as fixed as her own eternal hills, -if the temptations to self-indulgence and self-gratification had been -resisted. Her downfall was not due to physical causes, but to her sins. -Observance of the moral laws, which made her great, would have kept her -great. When she threw her larger, social self into the fires of her -individual lust and passion, she burned the foundations of her dominion, -and a mighty wreck of shapeless ruins was all that was left of the once -proud mistress of the world. - - -V. - -What is the correlate to the social side of man’s nature? Where is the -domain that matches it? Where is the vast realm, large enough to furnish -sufficient scope for all the possibilities which seem to lie folded -within it? A study of the eye reveals the fact that the light of the -sun is necessary to furnish an element wide and ethereal enough for the -exercise of its functions. By a study of the ear, we learn that it is -related to sound with all its possibilities of harmony. The fin of the -fish is related to the waters of the sea. The bird’s wing is a prophecy -of the sky. The migrating instinct of the wild goose is related to the -South, with its soft skies and balmy air. - -In the calculations of Adams, in England, and of Leverrier, in France, -the perturbations of the planet Uranus were in correspondence with the -planet Neptune. - -On the side of himself as individual, as we have seen, man is related to -the earth with all it contains to satisfy the needs of the body. We wish -also to determine the nature and dimensions of the sphere to which he is -related as social. - -We have seen that, even within national boundaries, human life comes to -be fertile in great men, great deeds, and great art, when the expression -of it is social, rather than individual. With such disposition of her -national life force, Greece reached an unparalleled height of grandeur -and influence. But all outside of Greece were esteemed as barbarians. The -barbarian hordes around her state were like so many walls, which kept -the waves of national life from passing out into any world-wide sea. -The limits were soon reached, then the waves receded, to be thrown back -again in quick succession against the encompassing walls. Was this not in -violation of the law and nature of the expression which the social side -of man, by its very structure, is inclined to give of itself? Is it not, -by its nature, disposed to pass out in accordance with moral laws, which -have no boundaries and limits? And were not the walls they permitted -their hate to build of the barbarians on the outside to arrest the -outward flow of their national life, the evidence of a tacit treaty with -their selfishness? Did these not, after all, bear witness to a hampered -and halted surrender to the nobler side of their nature? Did they not -show that the Greeks were only willing to give social expression to their -national life, as far as the boundary lines of Achai? Too noble to permit -the emphasis to rest on the individual side of her people, as separate -members of the state, she lifted narrowness and selfishness into greater -place by giving them national form. - -Too great of breadth to be individually selfish, she was not great -enough to be nationally unselfish. The individual sides of themselves -her people sacrificed on the altars of the state to her national unity, -she transmuted into contempt and hatred of other nations. Selfishness -only passed from the individual to the state. Retained by the state, it -worked itself back into the individuals again, when the unity of the -state was disintegrated. Do we not have in the limitations which Greece -attempted to put on the expression which the social nature of man would -give of itself, the real secret of their downfall? If, while giving -even limited social expression to her national life, Greece developed a -civilization so rich, how much greater might have been her contribution -to human progress had not the seeds of disintegration been sown among her -people through national enmity and hate. In the two hundred years which -embraced the most fertile portion of her history she laid the foundation -of thought. But it was only through thought that she sought to solve the -problems of life and destiny. - -The social life of the Jews found only limited expression for itself. -It was worked out into religious lines that were unlimited and all -embracing, but this was in spite of their prejudices. - -Their compact social life, the vast depth and vigor of their social -vitality, the tenacity with which they clung together, made it possible -for them to lay the foundation of a religion and an ethics larger than -they dreamed. Their scriptures, their prophets, and their saints were not -possible in a soil less socially rich. - -Their devotion, their loyalty, their voluntary subordination of private -to public interests, their religious fidelity fitted them to become the -children of God. The summit of civilization they reached enabled them -to see and to transcribe the outlines of the kingdom of heaven. They -ascended high enough the mount of being to recognize the laws necessary -to regulate human conduct. But they permitted their narrowness and -prejudice to build of the Gentiles about them, walls to limit the outflow -of their national life. Hate for the unfortunate people without, could -not be without its influence on the lives of those within. - -The selfishness which, as a nation, they cherished toward other people, -reproduced itself at length in their own lives. From the children of God -they descended until they became the children of the devil. The visions -of their nobler men were discounted and despised. The selfishness that -put them against the Gentiles, finally put them against one another; and -while they kept together in a certain sense, in spite of the upper and -nether mill stones of history, it was rather in memory of what they had -been, than of what they were. - -In the civilization of Rome, again, limitations were put on the -expression of the social side of man’s nature. Within the precincts of -Rome, under her eagles and within her roads, there was a sinking of the -individual and an expression of the social side, that has been rarely -equaled in history. It was this merging of the individual units into the -social whole of Rome, that made it possible for her to formulate the -legal measures and provisions which continue to protect human life and -property. But sacrifice, companionship, social cohesion on the inside, -could not, for many centuries, be accompanied with fierce opposition -and cruel hate for others on the outside. It was inevitable that sooner -or later the disposition on the outside would get distributed among the -individuals on the inside. - - -VI. - -The realm, then, to which man on the social side of himself is related, -is larger than that encompassed by any national boundaries. The Greek, -on the social side of himself, was larger than Achai, the Jew than -Palestine, and the Roman than the Empire. The Greek developed thought, -the Jew produced religion, and the Roman formulated law. But the larger -side of man’s nature is not met by thought simply, or by religion simply, -or by law simply, but by the combination of these in right proportions. - -Man, on the social side of himself, is correlated through reciprocal -relations to the human race. To limit the social expression of man’s life -is to contract its nature, and to violate the moral laws in accordance -with which it must act. The understanding cannot rest in unrelated -phenomena. Through science it reduces the forces of nature to one force, -its energies to one energy, and its matter to its constituent elements. -So the social nature must find harmony in the union and cohesion of -scattered, separated human beings. It must have companionship, such as -the relations of all men help to make. It must have a range as wide -as the world. Because of the continuities of life and thought secured -through universal social cohesion, it must be able to pass and repass -through the length and breadth of human life. If man’s social nature is -to find its correlate, the race must be so completely one, so compact -and contiguous in the spirit of fraternity and good will, as to make it -possible for each man to share in the work, thought, and virtue of all -men. Individuals must be gathered into the network of social relations, -so that, instead of separate and isolated units, they shall be known -as farmers, merchants, blacksmiths, mechanics, shoemakers, lawyers, -doctors, editors, and ministers. The calling of each must relate to the -well-being of all. Every man must make for others and receive in return -for the supply of his own wants something of all the others make. Into -the multiplex flow of exchanges the shoemaker may put in simply one pair -of shoes per day, as his personal contribution. To that extent he must -be able to make levies on the contributions of all the rest. No one will -be independent in an unrelated sense. All will be dependent, and each -independent, through dependence on the rest. The race, as civil society, -will be at work under all climes, and on all soils, producing the -infinite variety of goods for the world’s market. By the specialization -and division of labor, we will have great increase of skill and the -multiplication of all products. People will be at work raising coffee -and drugs in Brazil, tea in China, creating a myriad of manufactures -in England, France, and Germany, growing fruits on the Mediterranean -Islands; these then will be gathered by various means of transportation -and loaded on ships and cars, to be carried to every place on earth; that -everyone may have the whole earth to serve him, while on his part he -renders service to all. - - -VII. - -The universal organization of the human race into one social whole has -been the grand, far-off event, toward which the whole creation and the -whole process of history has moved. Toward this the race has been moving -through all the fierce antagonisms and bloody wars of the past. - -Pestilences, which have decimated the ranks of men, and earthquakes, -which have swallowed up great cities, have contributed toward this -consummation. - -The genius of men like Alexander the Great has been used to break up the -narrow and provincial groupings into which men had settled, that a way -might be opened for the distribution of products and the circulation of -ideas. - -In the early history of the race, the process of organization began. -Every great man and every great movement helped toward its enlargement. -Abraham, getting up from Ur of the Chaldees, and moving with his family -and his herds across the plains of Syria, to plant a government in -Palestine, widened its sphere. Phœnicia, the strongest maritime power of -ancient times, while she had no motive but gain for crowding every port -with her ships, and for turning the world into an exchange, did augment -the knowledge of men and increase the relations of men. The Jews, by -their compact, social organization, lifted their national life into a -great civilization. This civilization they sought to make provincial; -they sought to fence themselves off, with all they had accumulated of -devotion and law and literature, from the rest of mankind. But their -social pulverization, due to their sins, helped forward universal -companionship. They moved out into other parts of the world. They -settled along the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea. They went into Asia -Minor and back into Syria. They took up their abode in Alexandria and -along the Mediterranean coast. Wherever they went, they carried their -civilization; their synagogue, in which to teach their knowledge of the -one God; their Moses, to guide by his law their conduct; and their David, -to soothe, with his songs, their sorrow. - -The marvelous productions of Grecian thought and skill were kept, for -a time, from the barbarians. They attempted a monopoly of beauty. But -the breaking up of their Commonwealth hastened the coming of universal -fraternity. They planted their civilization in Asia Minor. They went over -to Syria, down to Alexandria, and around the Mediterranean Sea. Wherever -they went they carried their language and their philosophy. The Romans -broke down the walls between different tribes, and brought them under one -law. They built roads into all parts of the civilized world, and thus -prepared the first great highways of travel. - -Looking from this distance, back upon the movements of these great -peoples, it seems as if they might have been, on set purpose, devising -schemes and laying plans for bringing the world of mankind together. -It really looks as if all peoples above the grade of the savage had -been unconsciously and in spite of themselves working for the unity of -the race. The very walls that have been raised to keep men apart have -been battered down and used to make roads to bring them together. The -mountains, that served as barriers to separate them, have been tunneled -to unite them. The oceans, that seemed absolutely to insure isolation, -are now the favorite means of communication. All inventions and -discoveries have helped to the practical oneness of the race. - -The mariner’s compass, gunpowder, the printing press, the steam engine, -the electric telegraph, the sewing machine, the spectroscope, the -electric light, the telephone, with the phonograph and microphone, have -wrought for this end. The discovery of the sun’s place in the heavens, -and of the shape and movements of the earth; the discovery of America -and of the law of gravitation; the discovery of the circulation of the -blood and of the wonderful remedies in nature which relieve the ills of -the body, have all reduced differences and augmented unity. Theologies, -which have divided men into religious partisans, fomenting strife, -and producing wars; which have separated men into parties bitter and -revengeful; have grown kinder and humaner as the years have passed, and -tend now to unite men, rather than to divide them. Philosophies, which -kept men apart under the heads of nominalist and realist, sensationalist -and idealist, are now deduced from a broader survey of the facts, and -tend to harmony rather than conflict. - -From the beginning nature and human effort have wrought together for -universal good will and social organization. Lapses have been frequent -and the net gain of fraternity small, but from age to age, without -cessation and without intermission, in volume and sweep, it has been -increasing. - - -VIII. - -Because of the limited knowledge men had of the uses of power in the -past, the growth of universal social organization has been slow. Methods -of intercommunication between nations wide apart were meager, hence the -people in one division of the globe could know but little of the people -who lived in another. Any part of the earth not understood was counted -as desert, and any people not known were considered barbarian. But with -the new uses and applications of power, all this is changed. The world -now lies open to all. The antipodes are neighbors. By hitching the -sun’s heat to the flying train, and the canvas to the favoring winds, -and the lightning to human thought, all races on the globe stand face to -face. The world is being encompassed, and no natural obstacles are now -permitted to stand in the way of railway lines, or of submarine cables. -All mountain chains are being tunneled, all chasms spanned, all oceans -traversed, and all straits bridged. The continents of the earth are now -connected by 125,000 miles of submarine electric cable, and countries -are crossed by thousands of miles of railroad lines. With an abiding and -irrepressible, even if unconscious sense, that on the social side of -himself he is related to the whole human race, man has well-nigh subdued -the earth, and removed the obstacles that opposed the realization of his -larger nature. Already great enterprises are being contemplated, which -look to the speedy removal of whatever remaining obstacles there are to -world-wide companionship among men. Some of the great enterprises already -projected which are to help toward universal brotherhood, have been noted -by Mr. Charles Hallock. A railway is to be built from Joppa to Jerusalem -in Palestine, and a bridge across the Straits of Dover near Folkestone. - -The Mombasa and Nyanza Railway in Africa is to connect the Nile with -the interior lakes and with the coast. A railway is to be constructed -across Siberia, from St. Petersburg to Behring Strait. Upon this side a -railway is to be built across Alaska to Behring Strait, while Behring -Strait is to be bridged or ferried. A canal is to be cut across the -Isthmus of Corinth in Greece, to connect the Ægean Sea with the Gulf of -Corinth. There is to be a ship canal around Niagara Falls, and a railroad -from Quebec to Belle Isle in Labrador, with connecting ocean steamship -lines to Medford in Wales. There is to be an ocean cable from Clew Bay, -Ireland, to Greeny Island, Strait of Belle Isle, 1900 miles long. And -a railroad from Winnipeg, Manitoba, to Hudson Bay, and steamship line -thence to Liverpool. - -A railway is contemplated from Winnipeg to the Saskatchewan River, across -the Northwest Territory. A tunnel is to be cut under the Hudson River -at New York, and a tunnel under the St. Clair River, between Sarnia -and Port Huron, Mich. That the Panama and Nicaragua canals have been -projected and partially completed is known the world over. A tunnel is -to be made through the Atlas Mountains in Russia, and the great Northern -Railroad Company is to make one through the Rocky Mountains in Montana, -and another is to be cut through the Sierras from Truckee River, Nevada, -into California. There is to be a canal from Knoxville, Tenn., through -Alabama to the Gulf of Mexico, and one from Chicago to the Mississippi -River, which is to cost $25,000,000. A ship railway 60 miles long is -to be completed from Georgian Bay to Lake Ontario, connecting the -Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River, costing $12,000,000. A canal -is contemplated from Chicago to the Gulf of Mexico, and also a ship -railway around the Dalles of the Columbia River. There is to be a ship -canal across New Jersey to the Atlantic Ocean, 60 miles long, and a ship -railway to connect the Gulf of St Lawrence with the Bay of Fundy, 12 -miles long, to cost $12,000,000. There are to be steam lines from Tampa, -Fla., to all parts of the West Indies, a longitudinal railway through the -axis of North and South America, from Chicago to the Argentine Republic; -steam lines from Vancouver in British Columbia, to Japan and Australia, -and steam lines from New York to the Carribbees and the Windward Islands. -There are to be steam lines from Scotland to the North Cape and the -Antarctic Ocean; stated voyages between Sitka, Alaska, and Point Barrow -in the Arctic Ocean, and steamboat navigation of all the great lakes and -rivers of Siberia, British America, and Central Africa. Ports of entry -are to be established in all countries to furnish terminal facilities for -these far reaching lines of transportation. - -We are to have federation among the nations, as we now have it among the -States of the American Union. The social cohesion, once national, is to -be international. All are to think for each, and each is to think for -all. All are to work for each, and each is to work for all. All are to -plan for the good of each, and each is to plan for the good of all. Thus -the inequalities of life are to be reduced, and the littleness of life -is to be redressed. - -As all the power in the vine and its branches to make grapes is expended -in the rounding and sweetening of each grape, so all the power in the -social whole to make men will be reproduced in each man. All the justice -in the race will regulate each man’s will, all the thought in the race -will replenish each man’s mind, and all the love in the race will feed -each man’s heart. Nothing less than this social whole, in which are -bound together in one organic body the lives, the welfare, and the hopes -of all, is the correlate of the social nature of man. Toward such a -world-wide organism, each living in the whole and the whole living in -each, his social nature reaches out and is never at home until it is -found. Such universal brotherhood would be impossible without power in -all its manifold forms. This serves the social body as bread serves the -individual body. Power, as the servant of the social body, waits on each -man through his relations with the social whole. A city builds gas works -and finds it possible to let down the price in proportion to the number -of those who use it. A railroad company can lower the rate on passengers -and freight in proportion to the number of men who travel and the volume -of freight transported. The price of a newspaper goes up or down as the -number of subscribers increases or diminishes. Mr. Edison expects to get -electricity from the disturbed conditions of the air, without the use of -fuel. This will make the conditions of life easier by one-half; and then, -as the number of people increases who avail themselves of the uses of -power, the conditions of living will still be easier. Not only will the -unity which comes through social organization lower the rate of insurance -and the price of the necessities of life, but this increased force of -the social whole will tend to the moral health of the people in the same -degree. Health in one part of the body will be brought to bear to correct -disease in another part. The conscience of the whole will be turned into -the degraded sections of our great cities, and the sympathy and love of -all will be called out to reclaim them. Starvation in one part of the -globe will be met by the over-supply of bread in another. Oppression -and tyranny in one nation will be opposed by the sense of fairness and -overcome by the love of freedom in all the rest. As climatic conditions -are made friendly to life by the circulation of oceanic and atmospheric -currents, so moral health will be preserved by the circulation of the -currents of conscience and justice. - - -IX. - -The emphasis is to be kept on the social rather than the individual side -of human nature; not that personality may be lost, but that it may be -gained. - -The social mass that constricts and squeezes the single life until the -virility of self-assertion and the right of private initiative are -destroyed, is no improvement on Bedouin isolation. The latter brutalizes -life, while the former eviscerates it. The eye does not lose its capacity -for sight, and its place of peculiar responsibility by being brought -into reciprocal relations along with other organs in the same body. It -would have no meaning and no power of vision apart from relations with -other organs. The ear is not discounted, nor are its wonderful functions -belittled amid the manifold members which work together in the same human -frame. Its position of honor is secured to it by the organic relations -it sustains to the other members. The foot, the hand, and the tongue find -themselves and their uses as they unite together in one living whole. The -lone Bedouin, with no laws and no relations, seems to have all liberty, -but in reality he has none. He is as completely without meaning as -would be the finger separated from the hand. The man of whom nature is -a prophecy is not the being in the woods whose home is a cave and whose -food is wild meat; but it is the man in society, whose home all woods -and metals and stones have helped to build, and whose food all soils and -skies and seas have helped to produce. - -The emphasis is to be kept on the social side of human nature, because it -is through that side of himself that man is to pass into the world-wide -work and the glorious destiny for which he is fitted. Through that side -of himself he moves out into order, and strength, and freedom. All men -whose names are cherished in history, passed into place, influence, and -honor through the social side of human nature. - -In passing through the social side of himself, the life man finds is a -million times larger and richer than the life he loses. That men might -find the life that belonged to them, the only life worth living, the -tendency from the first has been toward the solidarity of the race. The -relations growing out of such solidarity are constitutive of the being of -each man. The important properties of an acid cannot be known, when it is -considered out of relation with an alkali. What a thing is for another, -that it is in itself. So what a man is through relations with others, -that he is in himself. But what he is in himself cannot be known until he -comes into relations with others. - -Solidarity is not to swamp single lives, but single lives are to come -to all that is peculiar and high in themselves through solidarity. The -universe is to preserve relations with each private spirit. By the -organization of men into one social whole, provision is made for each -man to participate in the life of humanity. It is intended that all the -oceans of life shall reach, through their waves, the shores of each man’s -being, and leave deposits of all their wealth in each man’s spirit. When -we speak of the horse, the eagle, the whale, it is understood that we are -using generic terms, and are intended to refer to no particular horse or -eagle or whale. Yet in each horse the species is reproduced, and in each -eagle the species is epitomized, and in each whale the whole whale type -is summarized. This is done in the case of the lower animals, without -their thought or volition. No universal relations are necessary among -whales, for each whale to have within itself all the peculiarities and -furnishments possessed by all whales. The species are to be realized in -each man, too; but this is to be accomplished through social relations -among all men. All the men in the world must touch each man, to call -forth the capacities which lie folded within his life. Humanity, as -parcelled out in nations, generations, epochs, must lift itself into the -being of each man; as the ocean, parcelled out in Atlantics, Pacifics, -Indians, Arctics, Antarctics, lifts itself into each wave. - -Power, parcelled out in gravitation, heat, and electricity surrounding -the globe; advertised in every apple’s fall, declared in every flash from -the clouds, and present in every sunbeam; stands ready to make universal -brotherhood, not simply an ideal, running through the dreams of poets and -prophets, but an actual fact. The recognition of power, as the provision -made for the social nature of man, is enabling us to realize the dreams -of prophets and poets. - - - - -_TRUTH._ - - - “A century is a formula; an epoch is an expressed thought. - One such thought-expressed civilization passes to another. - The centuries are the phrases of civilization; what she says - here she does not repeat there. But these mysterious phrases - are linked together: logic—the logos—is within them, and their - series constitutes progress. In all these, phrase expressions - of a single thought, the divine thought, we are slowly - deciphering the word _fraternity_. - - “All light is at some point condensed into a flame; likewise - every epoch is condensed in a man. The man dead, the epoch is - concluded: God turns over the leaf. Dante dead, a period is - placed at the end of the thirteenth century: John Huss may - come. Shakspere dead, a period is placed at the end of the - sixteenth century. After this part, who contains and epitomizes - all philosophy, may come the philosophers—Pascal, Descartes, - Molière, Le Sage, Montesquieu, Diderot, Beaumarchais.” - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -THE PROVISION FOR THE INTELLECTUAL NATURE OF MAN. - - -Truth and reality stand for the same thing. Reality is truth out of the -mind, and truth is reality in the mind. Reality is objective truth, and -truth is subjective reality. But all reality is in relation to mind; -objective reality to the divine mind, and subjective reality to the -human mind. Objective reality is the realized thought of God; subjective -reality is the realized thought of man. The correspondence of thoughts to -things is called scientific truth. Objective reality is truth, because it -corresponds to the thought of God. Knowledge in the human mind is truth -when it corresponds to objective reality or the expressed thought of -God. When words and conduct correspond to knowledge, we have truth in the -domain of morals. - -In saying that objective reality is the realized thought of God, we -denote its unity. This is not to destroy the particulars of which it is -composed, or to swamp their individuality in an inarticulate mass, but -simply to indicate their oneness. - -When the observer looks out into the universe, which includes and shuts -him round, he is impressed by the infinite varieties and diversities -which everywhere meet his gaze. No two things are alike. No two leaves, -no two drops of water, no two snowflakes, no two apples, no two faces. -Every particular thing seems to be persistently determined to differ, -in some respect at least, from everything else. The history of true -knowledge begins, however, with the observation of resemblance and -similarity—just beneath the surface of difference and variety. The -lightning that appears on the bosom of the cloud, like the writing of -some awful fiend, is seen to be the same with the gentle sparks emitted -when a tag of silken ribbon is drawn briskly between the fingers. The -power that pulls the ball to the ground is seen to be the same as that -which keeps the sun in his place. - -The plant lifts itself up as but a sum of organized varieties; but every -part, corolla, petal, and stamen, is known to be only modified leaf. -Keeping to their silent and lonely rounds since the dawn of time, are the -stars in the heavens, differing in color, orbit, and size, but we now -know that to understand the elements of which they are composed, we have -only to lift our foot and see what the constituent parts of the earth -beneath it are. Were objective reality one amorphous mass, it would not -be intelligible. It is one and many, particular and universal, singular -and manifold, concrete and discrete. All things cohere in a centrality -that includes and commands them. - -So true is it that unity underlies all difference, that no single variety -can be understood, only as it is considered in relation with the whole of -which it forms a part. - -No one could ever get a correct notion of a particular star by directing -his entire attention to the study of that star. To understand it, he -must study it through the system of which it forms a member, and in -connection with all laws and forces related to it. Oxygen separate and -distinct from other elements has no meaning. It gets its definition and -significance from the things to which it is related. What it is for rocks -and water and trees and globes, that it is in itself. But it must be seen -in connection with these before we can know what it is in itself. What -an acid is for an alkali and for other things, that it is in itself. -Alone, out of relation, we could know absolutely nothing of it. Society -is the organism that reveals to each person the nature of his own life. -Out of contact and touch with other human beings, no one would ever know -anything concerning himself. - -Objective reality embraces manifold variety, but it is the unity that -presides over it that makes it intelligible. Difference provokes -questions and unity answers them. - -In calling objective reality truth, we tacitly assume the laws and -relations constitutive of it. We could not speak of the truth of the -globe, had there been no method in its formation, no order in its -development, no system in its parts, and no relations between its -constituent elements. To speak of the truth of it, is to imply the -thought of it, the intelligibility of it. Were it not the expression of -mind, man’s reason could find no truth in it. Scholars have been able, -after long and painstaking study, to understand the meaning of Egyptian -and Assyrian hieroglyphics, but they never could have found thought in -them, had they contained no thought. The original elements which make -up the matter of the globe, have come into such relations with one -another as that they make up the soil, rocks, water, trees, and animals -we see. Thought, then, is the result of the internal relations of the -particles which compose it. These internal relations, too, constitute its -intelligibility. The globe that wheels on its axis is objective. This -may be taken into the mind, and by its synthesizing, organizing activity -converted into a subjective globe. The difference between the objective -and the subjective globe will be, that one will be thought and the other -will be thing. But the same internal relations found in the objective -globe will be preserved in the subjective, and the transcript of the -globe that is held in thought will be truth in exact proportion as it -corresponds to the material globe that rolls out of the mind. That an -objective globe, which is a thing, may become a subjective globe, which -is a thought and not a thing, implies that there is something in common -between thoughts and things; that is, the mind, by its constitution, -is capable of apprehending and taking into itself the constitution and -relations of things. This is its capacity for truth, and shows that truth -is not foreign to it, but one with itself. - -The sides and angles of a right angle triangle have certain relations -to one another. The square described on the hypotenuse of such an angle -is equal to the squares described on the other two sides. This may be -demonstrated on a piece of blank paper, or the mind may conceive a right -angle triangle, and prove the proposition without making any marks at -all. The constitutional relations which were in the nature of a right -angle triangle are the same, whether it be drawn on paper or conceived -by the imagination. The relations of the triangle make it intelligible, -because they constitute its truth. - - -I. - -To truth the intellect is related, as is the eye to light, and the ear -to sound. If the eye were destroyed, the sun would not cease to shine. -His light would still come upon hill and plain to feed the flowers and to -disclose their beauty, but without the organ of vision no creature in the -universe would be able to see the things which his light reveals. The ear -does not create sound. Let it be forever sealed, and the Niagaras would -still continue to fall and the thunders to shake the heavens, but they -would not be heard. The intellect does not create truth, but it is the -only faculty with which man is endowed by which he is able to discover it. - -It was the error of the idealists that they made the order, laws, and -relations of things as so many principles projected out of the observer’s -own mind into the universe about him. What he seemed to see in things, -were but modifications of his own mental states. The only order things -had was in the observer’s own mind. It was regarded not only as the pivot -upon which the universe turned, but also as the creative principle from -which the universe took form. Apparently this was a great gain to mind, -but it was at the expense of any real world for the mind to contemplate. -It seemed to win a victory for the intelligence absolute and entire, -but it was by shutting it up to its own shadowy abstractions, and -abandoning it in a shoreless and bottomless void to its own vain musings. -The personal pronoun _I_ was extended perpendicularly and horizontally, -till topways and sideways the whole of space and time was filled with -it. No solid earth, no burning sun, no rolling orbs were left. A great, -illimitable, irresponsible ego became the sole occupant of all that is. - -This extreme idealism is in direct contrast to the realism of the early -thinkers. They taught that things depended on man neither for their -existence nor their intelligibility. That each thing carried the real -intelligible essence as an ultimate fact in itself. Thought in man was -but the reflection of this intelligible essence in the thing, as the -light in the mirror is but the reflection of the light of the lamp. - -Of the two systems, extreme idealism is preferable to extreme realism. -All mind and no matter, is better than all matter and no mind. Thought -with no place to stand, is better than a place to stand and no thought. -The eye with nothing to see, is better than something to see and no eye. - -The solution which realism gave of the problem of existence, left no -place for mind, the solution which idealism gave of it left no place for -matter. But both the external world, upon which realism was founded, -and the intelligence, upon which idealism was founded, are expressions -of mind. The one as intelligible content, the other as combining active -capacity and the intelligibility of the content, exactly corresponds to -the active grasp of the capacity. - - -II. - -But it must be remembered that the intellect which is the organ of truth, -and objective reality which is abstract truth, do not come together to -form knowledge in any accidental way. - -A basket may be said to have capacity for holding potatoes, and potatoes -may lend themselves as content to fill up the basket. But the union of -potatoes and basket; the one as content, the other as capacity, is only -mechanical. The basket would serve as well to hold onions, or muskadines, -or chinquepins, as potatoes, and the potatoes could be carried as well in -a wooden box or in a tin pan, as in a basket. No necessity inheres in the -nature of a basket to contain potatoes, and no necessity is in the nature -of potatoes to get into a basket. Truth and the intellect, however, are -intended the one for the other. Truth is correlated to the intellect as -the bird’s wing is to the atmosphere. Nothing can take hold of the truth -but the intellect, and nothing can satisfy and furnish the intellect but -truth. - -Abstract truth, or objective reality, is converted by the combining -organizing activity of the mind into knowledge, and when this knowledge -corresponds to the reality it is truth in the realm of thought. - -Before knowledge is possible, then, there must be an intelligence capable -of knowing, and an object capable of being known. - -How the intelligence and the knowable object get together to form -knowledge is the most important question in philosophy. Upon the right -settlement of it, everything depends. This has been the point about which -the battle of thought, in modern times, has been most fiercely waged. If -the mind firmly grasps the meaning of this problem and settles it right, -it is almost sure to think right on other questions. If it is wrong here, -it is sure to be wrong everywhere else. Mistake here is as fatal to the -correct solution of the question we are considering, as would be the -mistake that two and two make five to the correct solution of a sum in -arithmetic. - - -III. - -The distance of a question from ordinary thought does not render it -any the less important, even for ordinary thinking. How the knowing -intelligence and the knowable object get together to form knowledge is -the most important problem to-day before the human mind. If writers -would only take their bearings from the only rational solution that can -be given to it, they would find half the books they are writing on the -inspiration of the Scriptures, the existence of God, the divinity of -Jesus Christ, agnosticism and materialism, unnecessary. - -Agnosticism and materialism pass away with a correct theory of knowing. -Labor and painstaking thought are involved in the task of getting a -right theory of knowledge, but agnosticism and materialism are in line -with ignorance and indolence. - -So, while few men ever ask themselves how the knowing intelligence and -the knowable object get together to form knowledge, millions of men are -affected, even in their practical life, by the answer which is given to -the question. Someone has said that not more than six men in any one age -ever read Plato or understand him. Yet for the six men Plato comes down -through the ages. The six men who understand him translate him into the -vernacular of the one hundred men who live on the next plane of thought -below them. - -The one hundred translate him into the common language of one thousand -below them. These, in turn, translate Plato into the ordinary thought -of the millions below them. So it happens at length that Plato gets so -universally known, that not a laborer in the field but wears his hat -after one style, rather than another, because Plato wrote. - -Doubtless it would have been considered a very unimportant question two -hundred years ago, as to whether heat were an igneous fluid or a mode of -motion. Perhaps not more than two or three men wrestled with the question -for centuries before it was settled. By the masses of the people they -were regarded as wasting their time in vain and idle speculation. By an -experiment made by Count Rumford, it was put beyond the possibility of -doubt that heat was not an igneous fluid, but a mode of motion. Was this -a question that concerned the multitudes, that two or three men spent a -hundred years talking about and torturing their brains to understand? -There is not a single human being in the civilized world to-day whose -interests and welfare have not been touched by the settlement of it. -There are millions of peasants in Russia who never heard of Count -Rumford, or of an igneous fluid, or of caloric, who have this present -year been fed by flour sent them by the western millers and transported -on the strength of the conclusion that heat is not an igneous fluid, -but a mode of motion. Every steam-car that crosses the continent, and -every steamboat that crosses the ocean, moves in the wake of this same -conclusion. At first we see some algebraic formulas, an array of curves -and figures, that practical people said had nothing to do with everyday -life. After a while we see the abstract conclusions reached by aid of the -algebraic signs, and settled by the test of experiment, translated into -steam engines, and transporting even the peasants of India and Mexico -from one end of the country to the other. We see the abstract conclusions -of the few thinkers turned into steam to spin the people’s clothes and -grind the people’s bread. - -In 1632 there was born at Wrington, Somersetshire, England, a boy, -who was educated at the University of Oxford. In the esteem of his -contemporaries he devoted his time to the consideration of subjects of -no practical value. In the course of events he put the results of his -study into a book known as “The Essay on the Human Understanding.” Few -people read it. But the few who did read it started the ideas of it -to circulating. They were translated into French and Latin, and were -soon potent influences in the intellectual life of Europe. Were they -practical and did they concern the ordinary affairs of men? They created -the Encyclopedists of France. These learned men were the authors of the -radical opinions which cut the people from the moorings of traditional -and age-long thought. The fire and the blood of the Revolution were the -legitimate expressions of the speculative essay of John Locke that not -one in ten thousand ever read. The persons whose heads were cut off in -the Reign of Terror must have thought the ideas exceedingly practical -that led to the destruction of social and political institutions, that -took form in a movement which respected neither law nor property nor -life. The speculative opinions of John Locke not only helped to create -the French Revolution, but they led to the idealism of Bishop Berkeley, -and this in turn to the skeptical philosophy of David Hume. The modern -successors of Hume are John Stuart Mill, Herbert Spencer, Leslie -Stephen, Frederic Harrison, and Professor Huxley, whose contributions -have been given to the popular reviews, and which have been read by all -intelligent people. Every man in Europe and America has been influenced -both in conduct and character by the speculative “Essay on the Human -Understanding.” - -Locke’s speculative philosophy passed through Berkeley to Hume, and -through Hume reached Kant, the great German thinker, and resulted in the -“Critique of Pure Reason.” This led to Fichte and Schelling, and finally -to Hegel. This led to Heidelberg and the Tübingen school, to Bauer and -Dewette, to extreme idealism and rationalism, translated into books and -reviews and newspapers, and read by all the people, affecting their -thought and life. - -Even people who never read, who never open a book or a newspaper, have -been influenced by the subtle piece of speculative reasoning given to -the world by the great sensational philosopher of England. The spirit -of utilitarianism and secularism prevalent throughout the world at the -present time is easily traceable to it. - - -IV. - -Before we can possibly know that truth is the provision for the -intellectual nature of man, we must determine whether the knowing -faculties, which he finds himself to possess, are capable of grasping -truth and turning it into knowledge. The fight of skepticism in modern -times has been made upon the knowing faculties. It is useless to -talk about the existence of God, the inspiration of the Scriptures, -the divinity of Christ, or the immortality of the soul, if the human -intellect is, by its limitations, denied the possibility of knowing -anything whatsoever concerning these things. It is a waste of time for me -to attempt to dip water out of the ocean with a bucket with no bottom to -it. What is the relation of the intelligence to the outer world? Does the -outside world create knowledge in the mind by the impressions it makes -upon it, or does the mind bring something to the outside world which -converts this raw material into knowledge? Is knowledge a reflection of -the outer, or a creation of the inner? Does nature work it in us, or is -there some spontaneous, creative, organizing, mental activity within us -that takes the material presented by nature, turning it into a rational -system of knowledge? What is the relation between the being that knows -and the object known? How much of the creative factor of knowledge -does nature supply? How much does man supply? Can a man with deranged -faculties get order out of a rational world? Can a man of sane mind get -order out of an irrational world? If there is to be a rational system of -knowledge built up in the mind, must there not be reason in the thinker -and reason in the outside world, coming into organic relations, the one -with the other? As to how we regard this question will determine how we -regard truth, and whether or not it is possible for us to know it. - - -V. - -The human mind has never been able to resist the conviction that there is -such a thing as truth. Though baffled and defeated a thousand times, in -every age, in its attempt to formulate truth, it has never been able to -consent to give up the search for it. Interest in truth has kept alive -and fostered the belief that the mind has power to understand it. The -mind’s passion for truth has deepened its confidence in the faculties -with which it is ever trying to discover it. The everlasting longing to -know truth has been taken as implicit capacity to find it. Philosophic -systems have been only so many devices and creations of the mind with -which to take hold of truth. The methods proposed, in the first stages -of philosophic thinking, for getting at the truth were crude, as the -first instruments devised for cultivating the soil and getting out of -it what there was in it for food, were crude. Thales, Pythagoras, and -Anaximander first attempted to penetrate objective reality, to know its -cause, to bring its multiplicity to unity, and to reduce its variety -to law. The ever-changing phenomena by which they were surrounded -necessarily eluded the meager theories with which they attempted to -reduce them to order. They prepared the way, however, for systems which -accommodated a greater number of facts. They made possible Plato and -Aristotle, who, with hypotheses more complicated and more consonant -with the reality they sought to grasp, found truth enough to keep the -human race thinking for two thousand years. The blocks of truth they -quarried from the mines of objective reality were used to carry up the -theological and speculative temples of the Middle Ages. - -After the failure of scholasticism, which denotes a period in human -thought rather than a particular system of philosophy, Lord Bacon -proposed the method of material induction to bring the mind into -relations of knowledge with truth. He emphasized the study of the outward -facts, their classification and organization. In his esteem, truth was to -be reached by the consideration of actual, tangible things. Man was the -interpreter of nature, and not necessarily its interpretation. - -Truth in the mind was the image of objective truth. It differed from -truth out of the mind, as the direct from the reflected ray. He failed -from lack of adequate recognition of one of the important factors in the -problem of truth. Descartes’ method was more successful, because larger -and completer recognition was taken of man. - -He began by doubting everything that could be doubted. Heir to the -beliefs of all the ages, he determined to summon these, one by one, -before the bar of reason, and force them to show cause for their -existence. Everyone was to be called into court and put out that could -be doubted. The existence of a God was called up and doubted, condemned, -and put out. The existence of an external world was called up, doubted, -condemned, and put out. In the same summary and shorthand way, man and -mind were doubted and put out. All positive beliefs were doubted. After -his process of elimination, he found himself without God, without man, -without mind, without a permanent external world. All that remained after -emptying himself of all mental furnishments and beliefs was the fact -that he doubted. But he could not doubt without thinking. In the very -act of doubting, he thought. If one thinks, he must think something. -The nearest something to the thinking subject is his own personal being. -So he thought himself and concluded, “I think, therefore, I am.” But he -was not always; he began to be. So he must think of a being that caused -him. The being that caused him must himself be uncaused. Moreover, there -could not be an uncaused cause, without an effect. Creation, then, with -which he stood face to face, was the effect of the great first cause. -Thus Descartes’ method, based upon the thought underlying doubt, led -him, necessarily, to himself, the object of his thought; and to God, -the cause of himself; and to creation, the effect of the great first -cause or God. Through his process of coming at the problem, he was able, -rationally, to believe in the existence of himself, the outer world, -and God, the cause of both. Descartes, as a thinker, was affirmative, -positive, constructive. He only doubted down to the point where he could -doubt no longer, that he might have a sure foundation upon which to -build. His contribution gave fresh courage and inspiration to the human -mind. He failed to determine the boundary line between the self and the -not-self, between mind and matter, between the thinker and the creation -with which he stood face to face. This was the work Spinoza proposed for -himself, and in the celebrated Ethics, published to the world at the -peril of his life and soul, imagined the task mathematically performed. -The two poles of Descartes’ philosophy, the self and the not-self, he -united in Descartes’ cause, and named the whole sum substance. The self -and the not-self reappeared as attributes of substance, which Spinoza -named thought and extension. All the phenomena in the universe, mental -or material, were but modes of the infinite substance. The result of -his thinking was pure pantheism. He reached a sort of mechanical unity, -but he left no place for the affirmation of distinctions. His Ethics was -large enough to accommodate everything, but in such a way as to preserve -the individuality of nothing. A thought is valuable in proportion to its -capacity to take hold of things as they are. The old opinion that heat -was caloric, served as a working hypothesis for the mind a long time. -In the view of those who held it, it was satisfactory and adequate. But -it never really got hold of heat, because it contradicted the nature of -heat. The astronomers thought, for a long time, that they had come into -relations of knowledge with the stars through the Ptolemaic conception -of the heavenly bodies. They were mistaken, however. Their theory did -not fit the real celestial order at all. As a work of genius, Spinoza’s -Ethics is one of the most remarkable productions ever formulated by -the human intellect, but it conducted the mind away from truth, rather -than into relations with it. Locke began his work as a philosopher, as -Descartes began his, by looking into his own mind. Descartes began by -casting out everything that could be doubted. Locke began by making an -inventory of what his mind contained. Descartes wanted to find out how -much he could know, as measured by what remained after throwing out -everything that could be doubted. Locke sought to see how little he could -know, by putting the sensations and impressions he found in his mind on -the witness stand, and getting them to tell how they came to be there, -and where they came from. Descartes began by a study of the intelligence, -the instrument of knowledge. Locke began by a study of the facts which, -by some means or other, had found their way into his intelligence. -Descartes got rid of every belief that could be doubted. Locke ran every -idea out of his mind that had been imported from the outside world, in -order that he might see if the mind had any constitutional power to -produce any. Descartes, having dislodged all inherited beliefs, such as -took for granted the existence of God, man, mind, and outer world, found -some mental laws, capabilities, and tendencies left, which compelled a -man, if he thought at all, to think in a given way; and if he thought on -given lines, to think to a given conclusion. Not being able to get these -laws out of the mind, he called them innate ideas. They were in the mind -by structure and constitution. - -After Locke had carefully examined the contents of his mind, he declared -they were all imported from an outside realm. Nothing he found in the -mind was indigenous to the soil. When all foreign importations were -removed, nothing remained but an empty vessel. The mind was nothing but -a receptacle, into which the senses dumped such objects as they happened -to find lying round loose in the outside world. It had no more power -to understand or turn into thought what was brought in than a piece of -white paper had to read and interpret what was written upon it; or than -a kettle to recognize the liquid making up its contents as water. It is -like a table of wax; any sort of letters may be graven upon it, but the -table cannot read them. - -Locke proposed to find out what the mind could know by counting and -tabulating the things he found in his own intelligence. This is very -much like trying to understand the nature of light, by considering the -blue things and green things and red things the light discloses. All -bodies, it is said, which the light enables us to see, attract each other -in proportion to their mass, and inversely as the squares of their -distance. The law of gravity, which regulates the bodies light reveals -to us, is not the law of light. We can never understand the nature of -light, or the laws of light, by the study of things which light enables -us to see. If all knowledge is but the sum of the impressions which the -external world has made on the mind, then the cause of knowledge is -matter, and knowledge is but the image or reflection of material things. -Knowledge, then, would sustain the same relation to the outside world, -that the shadow of a tree does to the tree. One would come as near -lifting up the tree by its own shadow as lifting up the truth by Locke’s -system of sensational philosophy. - -Impressions are simple, atomic. They come into the mind, one after -another. They cohere in no unity. They are held together by no necessary -relation. They are separate, one from the other. If there is no primary, -innate faculty; no abiding and indwelling mental activity, that lies -behind, and determines and co-ordinates the objects which nature supplies -through the senses, converting them into rational, orderly knowledge, -then we can never get hold of truth. We are shut up to hopeless ignorance. - - -VI. - -Berkeley, in order to escape the materialism to which Locke’s philosophy -led, accepted his theory of knowledge, but destroyed his outward, -material world. In his view, there was no matter, nothing but ideas. -The impressions conveyed through the senses into our minds are but -reflections of the ideas of God. - -In Hume, the empirical theory of knowing found a disciple who did not -hesitate to affirm all that was involved in it. Locke said there was an -outward world, and knowledge was its image. Berkeley said there was no -material world; that knowledge was the reflection of God’s ideas. Hume -said there was neither outer world nor inner; that there was nothing but -impressions, sensations, ideas, in perpetual flow and flux. He claimed -that all ideas which could not be resolved into impressions were false. -He declared we could have no ideas of substance, because, if perceived by -the eye, it must be a color; if by the ear, a sound; if by the palate, -a taste. And because we could not think of substance as a color or a -sound or a taste, we could therefore have no idea of it whatever. Belief -in a permanent external world was rendered irrational by his theory -of knowledge. Nothing is more vital and irrepressible than belief in -one’s own existence, but even this could not be retained in accordance -with the teachings of Hume’s philosophy. “Whence,” says he, “could -the impression of the idea of self be derived? What impression could -create this idea? This question it is impossible to answer without a -manifest contradiction and absurdity, and yet it is a question that must -necessarily be answered. For my part, when I enter most intimately into -what I call myself, I always stumble upon some perception or other; heat -or cold, light or shade, pain or pleasure. I cannot catch myself at any -time without a perception, or observe anything but a perception. When -my perceptions are removed at any time, as by sound sleep, so long am I -insensible of myself, and may be said truly not to exist.” - -The sensational philosophy which promised so much, which appeared so -eminently practical, that took to itself such an air of common sense as -it got about obliterating innate ideas, was seen at length to be utterly -impotent. It corresponded with absolutely nothing in heaven or in earth. -The very impressions it admitted, passed through it like drops of water -out of a fisherman’s net. Where the impressions came from or where they -went to, it furnished no means of knowing. God and world and cause and -law and self might be, but the human mind could never know whether they -were or not. The human observer stood before a procession of images, -sensations, perceptions going by like an unending circus troupe. - -In Hume may be traced the entire breakdown of empirical philosophy as -a method for getting at the truth. He recognized this himself. “When I -turn my eye inward,” he says, “I find nothing but doubt and ignorance.” -“The understanding, when it acts alone, and according to its most general -principles, entirely subverts itself, and leaves not the lowest degree of -evidence in any proposition, either in philosophy or common life.” “We -have, therefore, no choice left, but betwixt a false reason and none at -all.” - - -VII. - -The most remarkable thing in the whole search for truth, is that anybody -after Hume should have attempted to find it with Hume’s principles. Yet -the two best known writers who have lived in England since Hume’s day, -have rested their dogmatic doctrines on the foundations laid by the -sensational philosophers. Hume’s impressions and ideas became John Stuart -Mill’s permanent possibilities of sensation and feeling, and Herbert -Spencer’s vivid and faint manifestations of the unknowable. In our time -Herbert Spencer has undertaken the herculean task of explaining matter -and mind, time and space, society and morals; of showing what they -are and what they are not, by the same principles which Hume himself -demonstrated to be incapable of explaining anything. Spencer’s units of -knowledge are vivid and faint manifestations of the Unknown. How the -unknowable remains unknown, after vividly and faintly manifesting itself, -we are not told. Mr. Spencer’s vivid and faint manifestations of the -unknown are old acquaintances with new names. - -Locke knew them as impressions and sensations. Berkeley recognized them -as ideas of sense and imagination. John Stuart Mill was on speaking -terms with them as permanent possibilities of sensation and feeling. Mr. -Spencer gives them another baptism and another name. He calls them vivid -and faint manifestations of the unknowable. While they have been changed -in name, however, it must not be supposed that they have undergone any -change in nature or character. They stand apart, the one from the other, -just the same as ever. They are just as foreign to the mind, where they -vividly and faintly manifest themselves, as were the impressions of John -Locke. They flare and flicker, rise and fall, like the jack-o’-lantern -lights of legend and tale. One light is not of a piece with any other -light. The lights follow one another in such quick succession, first -vivid, then faint, that one cannot tell from the momentary flames and -flashes what is intended to be advertised. That something is trying, by -various pyrotechnic displays, to get itself revealed seems to be evident. -But there is such hurry on the part of the something that makes the -manifestations, such a disorderly whirl and changing of lights, that the -observer is totally bewildered; and, being under the necessity of making -some account to himself as to their meaning, concludes that they are -vivid and faint illuminations of the unknowable. Hume’s procession of -sensations and ideas has by Spencer been converted into the fire-works -of the unknowable. With Hume’s physiological theory, the mind could know -nothing but its own sensations. Spencer’s vivid and faint manifestations -of the unknowable are equally as incapable of furnishing any rational -basis for belief in mind or matter, law or cause, self or God. To ask the -human mind to believe the encyclopedic, dogmatic system of philosophy he -addressed to it, after insisting that all our knowledge is but the sum -of vivid and faint manifestations of the unknowable, is as irrational as -trying to build a cathedral on a London fog bank. Underneath every one of -Spencer’s general terms, the indestructibility of matter, the continuity -of motion, the persistence of force, there is nothing but sensations, -vivid or faint manifestations of the unknown. - -“The doctrine of the indestructibility of matter,” he says, “has now -become a commonplace.” “Matter never either comes into existence, -or ceases to exist.” How are we to know this, with minds incapable -of any other knowledge except such as is made up of vivid and -faint manifestations of the unknown? Who ever had a sensation or a -manifestation of the indestructibility of matter? This is an idea -involving all past time and all future time, and all the laws and forces -by which matter is regulated and conserved. How could an image of the -indestructibility of matter be photographed on the sensitive plate of -the mind? To do this it would be necessary to compress all past time and -all future time into one moment, and all matter into one single square -inch or square yard of space, so that the impression of it could be -made. To believe in the indestructibility of matter, with Mr. Spencer’s -theory of the mind’s capacity to know, is delirium and insanity. It is -to believe in something that the mind, by its very nature, cannot even -get an impression of. It is believing that the ocean can be carried in -a thimble without any bottom. Any man who should utter this publicly, -and sincerely, would be put in the insane asylum. He says again, “the -very nature of the intelligence negatives the supposition that motion -can be conceived (much less known) either to commence or to cease.” The -nature of the intelligence is such that all the knowledge it possesses -is made up of sensations and manifestations of the unknown. How can the -continuity of motion be conceived? To do this, we must have a conception -of all past time and all future time. It is an idea as transcendent as -the idea of God. - -Mr. Spencer claims that the power the universe manifests to us is utterly -inscrutable; that space and time are wholly incomprehensible; that -matter, in its ultimate nature, is as absolutely incomprehensible as -space and time; that all efforts to understand the essential nature of -motion do but bring us to alternative absurdities of thought; that it is -impossible to form any idea of force in itself, and equally impossible to -comprehend either its mode of exercise or its law of variation; that we -are unable to believe or to conceive that the duration of consciousness -is infinite, and equally unable to know it as finite, or to conceive -it as finite; and that the personality of which we are each conscious, -and of which the existence is to each a fact beyond all others the -most certain, yet is a thing which cannot truthfully be known at all: -knowledge of it is forbidden by the very nature of thought. All this is -perfectly consistent with his theory of knowledge. This is the point to -which David Hume, his master, conducted the human mind in its search -for truth. But Spencer is not logical; he had a theory of being that -contradicted his theory of knowing. So he reasons first one way and then -another. He says, elsewhere in his First Principles, that common sense -asserts the existence of a reality; that objective science proves that -this reality cannot be what we think it; that subjective science shows -why we cannot think of it as it is, and yet are compelled to think of it -as existing; and that in this assertion of a reality utterly inscrutable -in nature, religion finds an assertion essentially coinciding with her -own. That we are compelled to regard every phenomenon as a manifestation -of some power by which we are acted upon. That though omnipresence is -unthinkable, yet as experience discloses no bounds to the diffusion -of phenomena, we are unable to think of limits to the presence of -this power, while the criticisms of science teach us that this power -is incomprehensible. Analyzing the above declarations, we find that -Mr. Spencer knows there is an ultimate reality. Then it has being. It -acts upon us. Then it has the attribute of action. All phenomena are -manifestations of it. Then it has power. All phenomena are manifestations -of an inscrutable power, by which we are acted upon. Then it has causal -energy. We are unable to think of limits to the presence of this power. -Then it is omnipresent. So the unknowable, inscrutable something has -being, power, activity, causal energy, and omnipresence. But how are we -to grasp these universal, transcendental attributes of the unknowable, -with an intelligence incapable of receiving anything but simple, -separate, unrelated, broken impressions and manifestations? It takes as -much mind to believe in the unknowable, with the attributes of power, -activity, being, causal energy, and omnipresence, as to believe in a -self-existent God, with the attributes of power, wisdom, justice, truth, -and love. - -Spencer’s theory of knowing is destructive, while his theory of being is -constructive and transcendental. - - -VIII. - -The intelligence, as the organ of truth, must be large enough to find -truth and contain truth. No sane man would undertake to dig down a -mountain with a toothpick. Mr. Spencer devoted page after page to the -discussion of cause, time, space, force, and ultimate reality, while -holding a theory of knowledge that made the very thought of these -inconceivable. The very things that he labeled as knowable contained a -substrate the mind could never get at. Knowable things, then, could not -be known as they were; hence if they were known at all, must be known -as they were not, which made the mind’s knowledge error. All who accept -Mr. Spencer’s theory of knowledge are shut up to absolute ignorance or -absolute error. If we are to know the truth of reality, of mind, of -external existence, we must have knowing faculties up to the style of the -truth we are to know. If we are to know light, we must have eyes capable -of taking in the light, of analyzing it, and turning it into vision. The -disposition to limit our power to know, by telling us, on the strength -of Mansel and Hamilton and Kant, that all our knowledge is relative, is -innocent enough when stripped of its seeming wisdom. It is true that we -can know no more than our knowing faculties permit us. - -We cannot know more than we can know. We are not absolute and omniscient -as to our capacity to know. All we can see is what we can see with our -eyes. We cannot see with our fingers or with the back of our heads. All -we can hear is what we can hear with our ears. We have no other organs -with which to hear. All sounds that vibrate at the rate of sixteen times -to the second up to thirty-eight thousand times to the second, we can -hear. Whatsoever sounds vibrate at a lower rate than sixteen times to -the second or at a higher rate than thirty-eight thousand times to the -second, we cannot hear, because such sounds are not related to the ear. -But the eye, being adjusted to and related to much finer wave lengths -than the ear, can see waves that vibrate up as high as seven hundred -and twenty-seven trillion times to the second. The eye cannot see waves -shorter than seven hundred and twenty-seven trillion vibrations to the -second, because such waves are not adjusted to the eye. The waves the ear -cannot hear are not sound waves. The waves the eye cannot see are not -light waves. There are no sound waves in the universe the ear cannot -hear, provided they are near enough to come into contact with it. There -are no light waves in the universe that the eye cannot turn into vision, -if they strike the retina. Are we going to fall out with the eye, and -discredit the beauty it does see, because it is not as large as the rim -of immensity, and cannot see everything disclosed by the light of suns -and stars at once? Are we to hold the ear in contempt after it takes in -the harmonies of Beethoven and Mozart, because it cannot hear all the -music the stars are making as they move through the heavens? - -Whatever is real and true the mind can know, because the mind is -correlated to the real and the true. It cannot know what is unreal and -untrue. It cannot know that two and two make five, because that is unreal -and untrue. It cannot know that a crooked line is the shortest distance -between two points, because that is unknowable. It cannot know that it -is more rational to tell a lie than to tell the truth, because that is -unknowable and untrue. There is much that is unknowable, but whatever -is, we may be sure is irrational and unreal. Whatever is true in being, -cause, time, space, mind, matter, force, motion may be known. The finite -mind cannot know it at once, and can never, throughout all infinite time, -directly take it into the intelligence; but it is knowable, because -the underlying, fundamental, prior thing in the universe is mind, the -mind of the absolute and eternal One. All things are set in order and -reason. The external universe is the expression of mind, and is therefore -intelligible. The human intelligence is the expression of the same -mind, and is therefore capable of grasping and turning into thought the -intelligible order without. - -According to the theory of Locke, Berkeley, Hume, Mill, and Spencer, -any knowledge whatsoever is impossible. If the knowing subject and the -knowable object, the two factors of knowledge, can only come together in -a mechanical way, as basket and potatoes, kettle and water, paper and -letters, then the very conditions of knowledge are denied, and we are -shut up to blank, square ignorance. - -Things come together to form knowledge, as things come together to form -a tree, and not as house, calico, pins, lace, shoes, and blankets come -together to form a store. An acorn is a living something. It is not a -tree, but within itself are the germs of a tree. When grown, it may be -said to have forms, as root, trunk, and branches. These were potentially -and ideally contained in the acorn. But their realization and active -expression involved a process, in which the ideal forms, tendencies, and -forces contained in germ in the acorn met and united with the elements -of the outside world. Suppose we consider the acorn the subject, and the -particles in soil and rain and atmosphere capable of making a tree as -the object. What happens when an oak with all its beauty stands out upon -the hillside? This subject and object have come together in unity, in an -organism. Suppose Locke should have undertaken the work of understanding -how a tree came to be, instead of how knowledge came to be. We will say -he began by analyzing a full grown tree. After thorough examination of -its contents, he finds that all the parts of the tree, carbon, water, -etc., are found outside of it in the external world. - -He finds that the tree is composed of various atoms, all of which may -be found in the soil and in the atmosphere. He concludes, then, that -these atoms from soil and atmosphere, began to move up to and down to -the acorn. The acorn, passive meanwhile, lets them fall on it. So, of -their own free will and accord, the atoms kept piling themselves upon -the acorn, until in the process of a hundred years there was a tree. -Now a brick column might be carried up after this fashion, but not a -tree. The prior and fundamental thing in an oak tree is the acorn. It -contains an active, organizing life principle. Falling into the soil, -this folded life power begins to stir. It lays hold upon the elements -about it, digests them, assimilates them, and turns them into an oak. The -mind is to the raw material of knowledge, what the acorn is to the raw -material of oak. Through the senses the raw material is conveyed into -the mind. It is then appropriated, assimilated, digested, and turned -into knowledge. The active, organizing, combining power that turns the -raw material presented by the senses into knowledge, does not come from -the outside world. It is constitutional, fundamental, original. Just as -the organic forces of the plant take up the elements from the outside -environment upon which it subsists, so the synthesizing, living power of -the mind takes the matter of sensation and turns it into the whole called -knowledge. Knowledge is a unifying process. It combines the manifold into -one. It reduces multiplicity to unity. All that is real and all that is -true in the heavens above or in the earth below, in mind or in matter, -in time or in space, in man or in external world, are capable of being -reduced to unity in knowledge. - -Knowledge is the subjective unity in the finite mind that corresponds -to the objective unity that lies within the infinite mind. Nothing less -than a universal synthesis satisfies the finite mind, because it is a -copy of the infinite mind. The finite self-consciousness is a copy of -the infinite self-consciousness. The infinite mind knows all things at -once; the finite mind comes to knowledge through a gradual process. It -can never, through all eternity, know all the infinite mind knows, but it -can eternally advance in knowledge, and comfort itself at every stage of -the process with the thought that nothing in the mind of the infinite and -absolute one is foreign to it, or in contradiction with its capacity to -know. In thinking, the finite mind is at home in its father’s realm, and -because this realm stretches out illimitably every way should not oppress -us or discourage us. For this the finite mind can know, that throughout -the limitless domain of God there is order and truth and reality. - -Thus standing face to face with truth, and being endowed with -intellectual capacities capable of recognizing it, grasping it, in its -unity and in its particulars, it is proper to inquire the object and -the purpose of it. It is the revelation which the infinite mind has made -to the finite. It is the language of God, in which he has embodied his -thought. It is the word of the universal spirit. Man is a spirit, and -he is to grow and come to the full realization of himself by partaking -of the word of God. Truth has been revealed for no other purpose than -to make men. Sir William Hamilton represents truth as game, and the -method of getting truth to a chase. He says the exercise of our powers -involved in the process of getting truth is better than the game we seek. -Lessings says, “If the Almighty, holding in one hand truth, and in the -other search after truth, presented them to me and asked me which I would -choose, with all humility, but without hesitation, I should say, give me -search after truth.” - -Mallbranche says: “If I held truth captive, like a bird in my hand, I -would let it go again, that I might chase and capture it.” Müller says: -“Truth is the property of God alone. Search after truth belongs to man.” -Such sentiments indicate that the men who uttered them had no correct -idea of the real nature of truth, or of man’s intellectual nature, the -necessary food of which is truth. It is true that the search after truth -gives exercise and pleasure to the intellectual faculties, as search -after bread gives exercise and health to the physical powers. But an -eternal search for bread is not sufficient to keep man’s body robust and -strong. The very condition upon which he will be able to keep up the -search for it is, that he regularly and steadily partake of it. A tree, -had it intelligence and emotion, would, doubtless, enjoy wrestling with -the storms, and throwing its roots into the earth and its branches into -the heavens, making levies upon earth and sky for its own nourishment; -but if it did not constantly turn the elements it found into its trunk -and branches, it would not be able to wrestle long with the storms, or -forage long upon the earth and sky. - -To claim that the intellectual faculties are always to search for truth, -and that the search is better than the truth, is tacitly to assume that -truth is not for them; or, if for them, and should ever be found, would -be as useless as a poor, tired, half-dead fox overtaken by the hunters in -the chase. Searching for truth is doing; partaking of truth is being. The -search gives agility and skill; the partaking of truth gives wealth of -character. To hunt game with no other object than that which comes from -the sport of the chase is degrading. To shoot birds only for the purpose -of seeing them fall is mean and wicked. So, to search for truth with no -other purpose than that which comes from the exercise of the search, is -unworthy the intellect that was given, not only to find truth, but to -grow rich and God-like by partaking of the truth. - -Man’s need for bread, we saw, led to the establishment of commerce, and -commerce did far more than secure to man food and clothing and shelter. -It brought men together and discovered themselves to themselves. Power -lent itself to the uses of man’s social nature, awakened and developed -by commerce, and made it possible for men to come into relations with -one another, not simply in states and nations, but on all the earth. The -need for bread helped to the formation of society, the nature of power -and the applications to which it lent itself widened the social domain -into a universal brotherhood, to which man, as a spirit, was correlated. -But many saw bread only in its relations to hunger, and power only in -its relations to wealth and worldly dominion. So, many see in truth no -purpose except the practical and material ends to which it can be put. -In the esteem of the utilitarians, it was well enough that learned men -consecrated their genius and their industry to the study of the subtle -subject of heat. It was well that they discovered the real nature of -heat, and saw that it was not caloric, but a mode of motion. Because -this opened the way for our railroads and steamboats and quick methods -of transportation, which have contributed so much to the world’s wealth. -It was well that the impracticable and theoretical men, who had nothing -better to do, spent ages studying the nature of electricity, and finally -discovered that there were certain metals for which it had affinity, -and that it had speed equal to thought itself. For these studies have -enabled the practical and substantial men to order their corn and meat -by telegraph, and the practical housewives to order their roast beef by -telephone. It is well that people who had no practical turn of mind spent -years in considering the structure of the human frame, and the plants and -minerals capable of ministering to it, for in this way the doctors have -got ideas by which they are enabled to keep us practical men alive, so -that we can trade longer, and build more factories and eat more victuals. - -Now it is true that the knowledge the intelligence comes to by insight -into the relations and nature and truth of things, can be turned to -practical account. But the truth the mind finds by study was not -primarily intended to open the way for steam cars and telegraphs and the -production of wealth. These things are incidental. Truth is the provision -God has made for the intellect. The knowledge of the stars has helped man -to sail the sea and to take his bearings on any part of its surface. But -the practical account to which this knowledge has been turned is not to -be compared, in value, to the effect it was intended to have on the human -mind, strengthening it, ennobling it, and harmonizing it with the divine -mind. - - - - -_RIGHTEOUSNESS._ - - - “While smitten with the fatal wanness of approaching doom, the - flamboyant pleiad of the men of violence descends the steep - slope to the gulf of devouring time: lo! at the other extremity - of space, when the last cloud has but now faded in the deep - sky of the future, azure forevermore, rises resplendent the - sacred galaxy of the true stars—Orpheus, Hermes, Job, Homer, - Æschylus, Isaiah, Ezekiel, Hippocrates, Phidias, Socrates, - Sophocles, Plato, Aristotle, Archimedes, Euclid, Pythagoras, - Lucretius, Plautus, Juvenal, Tacitus, Saint Paul, John of - Patmos, Tertullian, Pelagius, Dante, Gutenberg, Joan of Arc, - Christopher Columbus, Luther, Michael Angelo, Copernicus, - Galileo, Rabelais, Calderon, Cervantes, Shakspere, Rembrandt, - Kepler, Milton, Molière, Newton, Descartes, Kant, Piranesi, - Beccari, Diderot, Beethoven, Fulton, Montgolfier, Washington: - and the marvelous constellations, brighter from moment to - moment, radiant as a tiara of celestial diamonds, shine in the - clear horizon, and, as it rises, blends, with the boundless - dawn of Jesus Christ.” - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -THE PROVISION FOR THE MORAL NATURE OF MAN. - - -Two elements are essential to the process of thinking, the intellect and -the truth. One is within, the other is without. The one is subjective, -the other is objective. Two elements are also essential to the process -of volition, the will and the right. The one within, the other without. -The one subjective, the other objective. Before sight is possible, there -must be an eye and there must be light. The one is within, the other is -without. The one is subjective, the other is objective. Before hearing, -there must be an ear and there must be sound. The one is within, the -other is without. The one is subjective, the other is objective. Before -breathing there must be lungs and there must be atmosphere. The one -is within, the other is without. The one is subjective, the other is -objective. - -No definition of man is large enough to accommodate the facts of his -nature, that does not embrace what he is without as well as what he is -within, what he is objectively as well as what he is subjectively. It -must not only embrace the intellect, but the truth which it thinks; not -only the will, but the right which corresponds to it; not only the eye, -but the light which gives it meaning; not only the ear, but the sound -which matches it; not only the lungs, but the atmosphere to which they -are correlated. Human nature is dually constituted, so that the larger -half of itself is outside of itself. - -Illustrations of the same duality of constitution may be found on a -limited scale in the organic and in the inorganic worlds. The greater -half of the oak is not in the life germ of the acorn, but in the elements -of the soil and the sky which environ it. The larger part of the fish is -in the ocean which surrounds it. Most of the fuel which makes the heat in -the grate is not in the carbon of the coal, but in the oxygen of the air -which fills the room. - - -I. - -The possession of a will and the capacity for choice make man a moral -being. Man’s will is bounded on every side by the laws of God. These laws -are only another name for God’s will. Man is made in God’s image and has -a will, as far as it goes, just like God’s will. - -By choosing to act and to move along the lines of law which gather from -every whither about his will, he finds he can go somewhere, that he can -leave the narrow, provincial, and local neighborhood of ease and sense -and subjection, and find his life in that broad realm of freedom, that -belongs to him as a thinking and willing being. - -At the termini of some railroads there are huge contrivances called -turntables. They are constructed of immense timbers and balanced on -pivots. They are large enough to accommodate the full length of a steam -engine. Iron rails are laid across these tables, of the same size and -the same distance apart as the rails which make up the lines of the main -track. When the train comes in from the far interior, the engine is run -out on one of these tables and turned round, so that the headlight faces -the main track again. Before the engine is ready to leave the short -track, however, the rails on the turntable must exactly correspond to -the rails on the main road. Then the engineer pulls the throttle, and -the great locomotive rolls past the circumference of its pivoted and -temporary resting place into commerce with the railways of the globe. -Imagine railway lines coming together about such a revolving table from -all the earth, so that an engine could pass from this circular platform -toward any quarter of the globe, the only condition being that the short -track on the table correspond to the rails of the long track on which it -was proposed for the engine to run, and you have an illustration, which -in some degree helps us to understand the relation of man’s will to the -laws of God. - -Should the engineer undertake to get the engine from the table without -reference to the lines upon which it was intended to run, we know very -well what the consequences would be. He would not go far, and even -the little distance he should manage to make would be attended with -tremendous bumping and friction. All movement would be in the direction -of chaos and confusion. However great the expenditure of energy, no -point would be reached, and the end of the undertaking would be waste -and failure. If, on the other hand, we should imagine an engine on such -a revolving plane, capable of making fifty miles an hour, with no tracks -leaving it, we know it could not go anywhere, and besides there would be -no reason for its being. It would be without meaning. Before the distance -between one point and another can be passed by a train, two things are -necessary, an engine and a railroad. The one may be called subjective, -the other objective. The one implies the other. They are the necessary -elements of transportation. As long as the train keeps to the iron rails -laid for it, it moves without friction. It is only when the subjective -element jumps the track and essays to determine its own objective -direction, that trouble comes. Then it is that cars are ditched and -people killed or crippled. The laws of God run to and fro throughout the -whole earth. They cross and recross every realm. They pass through every -domain, physical, mental, and moral. They go straight through matter -and straight through mind. They lead under the sea and over the sea and -through the sea. Down through the earth and up through the air they may -be noted, embracing with their invisible tracks every square inch of soil -and sky. They insure the order of the universe, visible and invisible, -tangible and intangible. They reach from globe to globe and make possible -the commerce of the spheres. They run out into the infinitely great and -back into the infinitely small, and bind in unity the atoms and the stars. - -When man, by the aid of his reason, discovers the truth of things, which -is the provision for his intellect, these laws appear as provision for -his will. - -So truth and law, reality and righteousness, expressions of the thought -and will of God, are the everlasting facts to which man is to adjust his -intellect and will, if he is to cross the oceans, travel the continents, -and claim the possessions which in the universe belong to him. If he -misreads the facts, he will of course misread the laws which govern the -facts, and will thus be unable to get facts or laws to serve him. But -clearly seeing the truth of things, he is able to avail himself of the -laws of things. As long as he only saw things in the lump, and looked -upon the world as so much air and earth and fire and water, he missed the -subtle laws which regulate the atomic and molecular structure of bodies, -and failed to make them his servants. When, by the aid of observation -and experiment, he reduced the earth to its ultimate particles and came -to such knowledge of it as corresponded to the facts of it; when he -came to see the laws and drift of things, the tendencies and affinities -of things; he had only to put the productions of his will in line with -the way things were going, to have them serve him. Seeing that forces -have power to do work in proportion to their energy of position, and -applying this insight to the river with forty feet fall, he builds his -mill beside it and thus utilizes it to grind his wheat. Seeing what -soil and sunlight and rain can do when they combine to unwrap the life -in a seed, he commits his wheat to their benevolent tendencies and gets -a harvest of twenty bushels for every one he seems to lose. He studies -fire. He sees it wrap in flame and level in an hour fortunes it took a -lifetime to accumulate. He learns what a furious and awful force it -is. He gets insight into its real nature. He gets knowledge of it that -corresponds to the reality of it. He sees that it is only a flaming and -lurid method of movement. With the truth of it he gets the law of it. -So by the aid of volition, put forth in accordance with intelligence, -he contrives a machine corresponding to the laws of heat, as a mode of -motion. In this way he utilizes the heat that burned up his cities, to -transport him in ease and comfort over the country. He studies the stars -until his knowledge of them corresponds to them as they are; along with -this knowledge, he comes to an understanding of their laws, their uniform -methods of action. Then he builds his great ships and commits them to the -wild and storm-tossed sea, sure that his power to guide them will never -fail as long as law and order remain in the heavens. - -That there is a natural order, with certain inhering laws, men readily -accept. That this order has the consistency of being developed in one -way; that there is a dip to things that must be followed; that there is -a clew, in accordance with which things may be worked; that there is -a trend, drift, and law of things that must be accepted and followed; -all this, men readily assent to. They do not attempt to farm the Sahara -Desert, for they know the conditions of harvests are not there. They do -not put out orange groves in Minnesota, nor plant cotton in Canada, nor -sow rice in British Columbia. They do not expect the soil that spews up -the ice to produce watermelons at the same time. They do not pretend to -navigate ships over the continents, and to lay their railway lines on the -surface of the sea. They fix their telegraph wires to poles by means of -little glass contrivances, and never attempt to send electricity through -the grape vine. Natural laws they know inhere in the facts of nature, -and are not read into earth and rock and river and atmosphere. They know -that necessary laws reside in the facts of condition, and that they must -study these laws to know the line of practical work they require. In -building a house of stone they know it is necessary to defer to the law -of gravity, that this law cannot be ignored or set aside, so they carry -up the edifice in such conformity to rule and line as that the center -of gravity falls in a line inside the base. They might prefer a house -built with reference to a different order of things, one in which the -center of gravity would fall in a line outside the base. But it is very -well understood among men that the law of gravity must be respected. -Even anarchists and nihilists, who seem to have irrepressible antipathy -for all ancient orders and laws and establishments, do condescend -sufficiently to respect the time-honored, even if slightly belated, laws -of gravity. - - -II. - -The time was when men accepted the existence of a moral order with the -same implicit, unquestioned confidence, that all men to-day accept -the existence of a natural order. In Homer’s Themistes we have an -illustration of this confidence. The very word by which the decision of -a judge is described attributes it to Themis, the invisible embodiment -of justice. Thus the judge is but the channel through which the decision -passes from the unseen moral order into the Greek court of justice. The -judge is not respected because he has authority to make the decision, but -because his vocation makes him the vehicle through which the decision of -a higher power is rendered. Moses said to the people of Israel, “Thou -shalt not lie,” “Thou shalt not steal,” “Thou shalt not commit adultery,” -but these were not his words simply, but the words through which a -moral order was interpreted. The solemn and awful import given to these -commands did not arise from the vehicle through which they passed into -the Hebrew social order, but from the fact that they inhered in the very -constitution of man as a social being, and when they were uttered, they -were felt to come from the God who fashioned man’s life and set him in -communities and states. They had the same sort of authority in the moral -realm that the declarations of Newton, concerning the power of gravity, -had in the natural. Newton did not conceive in his own brain the laws of -gravity, he saw them and formulated them. Nor did Moses create the Ten -Commandments, he saw them and interpreted them. The laws of gravity were -transcripts from the will of God concerning matter, the Ten Commandments -were transcripts from the will of God concerning men. When natural -bodies come together, it would be found that they always attracted each -other in proportion to their mass and inversely as the squares of their -distance. When men come together, it would always be found, that if they -were to live together in harmony and health; if they were to advance and -get above the planes of the brutes and the savages; they must abstain -from lying, and stealing, and adultery, and thus be truthful, and honest, -and virtuous. - -The laws of gravity were not arbitrary rules, ordained to oppress suns -and systems without rhyme or reason. Order of some sort had to be -preserved among the millions of blazing, rolling worlds. Nor were the Ten -Commandments arbitrary lines of conduct imposed upon men at the pleasure -of a great, omnipotent tyrant. Men could not live apart, out of touch and -contact with one another. Thus living, they were lower than the beasts -that perish. They could not live together without rules of some sort -to regulate their lives. And laws which looked to the preservation of -truthfulness, honesty, and virtue, were thought better than laws which -looked to the production of lying, dishonesty, and adultery. - -Because of the impetus given to the studies of material science within -recent years, by the discoveries of scholars, the attention of men has -been directed to the objects of the natural world and the laws which -regulate them. Discoveries into the nature of heat, light, etc., has had -the same effect upon the human mind that the discoveries of the gold -fields in the West had upon the people of America in the early days. -People abandoned fields and shops and stores and went in search for -gold. The attention of the civilized world has in this generation been -directed to the consideration of outward facts. There has been promise -here of earthly fortune. Conviction as to the existence of a moral order -with its rewards and penalties is not so deep and abiding as it once was -among English speaking people. But it is well to remember that the moral -laws of the universe have not in the meantime been suspended, because -men have not seen proper to consider them and to act with reference to -them. They are just as real and as unfailing as ever. When accepted and -followed, their presence is seen in health, in political stability, in -intellectual progress. When ignored and forgotten, their presence is seen -in disease, in political corruption, in mental stupidity, in sham and -emptiness. In one way or another they always manage to get in their work. -They never sleep, they never tire, they are eternally present to bless -or to curse, to lift up or to cast down. They get round to every man’s -home, and sooner or later to every man’s life, bearing honor or dishonor, -legitimate reward or righteous infamy. They are not to be bribed, -whitewashed, or bulldozed; they come clean, unvarnished, and unveneered -to posit their labels on every man’s character; and whatever is read on -the label, absolutely defines the content. Irrespective of money, titles, -place, or rank, they come. The president in his seat, the judge on his -bench, the preacher in his pulpit, cannot escape. If the president gets -labeled pigmy, pigmy he is. If the judge gets classified fraud, fraud he -is. If the preacher gets down as trimmer and sham, trimmer and sham he is. - - -III. - -How are we to find moral laws? Just as we find natural laws. When we find -the truth of natural bodies, reason sees the laws which inhere in them, -and prudence dictates such action on our part as these laws require. -When we come to truth, on the moral plane, or to such knowledge of the -facts as corresponds to the truth, reason, unless perverted, sees the -laws that reside in them, and conscience dictates that these laws should -be obeyed. Conscience unerringly and infallibly approves the right. By -the aid of the light which is thrown upon it when the intellect comes -into relations of knowledge with moral truth, it recognizes the laws the -will ought to follow. These laws make up a part of the truth. Before -the right can be recognized, the truth must be seen. When that which -the intelligence takes for truth is not the truth, the conscience will -recognize laws for the will to follow that do not correspond to the laws -of God. It has often happened that what the intelligence took for truth -did not correspond to objective reality, and hence was not the truth; -hence the conscience has often approved and suggested lines of action -that were at variance with that which was essentially and eternally -right. Those who followed the dictates of conscience, however, under -such conditions, did, under the circumstances, right. To have refused to -follow conscience would have increased their confusion. A man in the bog, -with the certainty of death before him, ought to follow the guide that -appears, even though he should not know how to lead him out of the swamp. -Conscience never fails to come as near recognizing the right as the -intellect comes to discovering the truth. When that which the intellect -apprehends as truth corresponds to objective reality, we may be sure that -the laws which inhere in it, and which conscience suggests as the ones -the will ought to follow, correspond to the laws of God. One’s conscience -may lead him wrong, but only when the intellect has led him wrong. St. -Paul’s conscience led him wrong when it impelled him to persecute the -Christians of the early church, but it was because that which he held for -truth did not tally with the outward facts, and hence was not the truth. -Had the supposed truth which he held while persecuting the Christians -been real truth, then in persecuting the Christians he would have done -right. The reversal of conscience resulted from the incoming of new -truth, or such knowledge as was sustained by the outward facts. The -conscience of the Hindoo mother that leads her to throw her child into -the River Ganges is as good as the conscience of the Christian mother -that leads her to carry her child to the Sunday school. The trouble with -the Hindoo mother is not with her conscience, but with her religious -knowledge; it does not correspond to the facts of the order of the moral -and spiritual universe. We are to determine the value of the affirmations -of conscience by determining the value of the knowledge out of which -those affirmations grow. Knowledge is valuable in proportion to its -correspondence with that which is real. As often as the intellect grasps -the truth, the conscience will suggest the right that accompanies it. -There is no truth of a moral nature that has not its attendant right. - - -IV. - -We know the moral truth as we know material truth, through its relations. -Relation makes the difference between chaos and cosmos. To define any -natural object is to place it in its relations. We could not define -oxygen without naming the elements to which it is related. To take it -out of relation is to take from it any meaning. Error is wrong relation. -When the mind assigns a place to an object other than that which really -belongs to it, in the order of which it forms a part, we call this -error. If, seeing the parts of a house scattered over a field by a -storm, we should confound a sleeper with a rafter, we should take it from -its proper place and take away its meaning as a part of the building. All -of our knowledge is of relations and not of sensations, as Hume taught. -Sensations set the mind to classifying and comparing, and the knowledge -it comes to is of relations. Take the sensations the mind has when a -red object is presented to the eye. Does not the mind begin at once to -distinguish this sensation as one of redness from other sensations that -are of different colors? - -Is not its reality as a particular color constituted for us by its -relation to colors, by its place in the scale of colors? If there was but -one color, and that color the one we now know as red, how could we know -it as such? How could we call it red unless to distinguish it from some -other color with which we, for the time being, compared it or contrasted -it? So true is it that reality is constituted for us by the sum of its -relations, that if the relations of things are maintained, no increase -or diminution of the quantity of things related will be detected in our -knowledge of them. If the earth were compressed into a sphere no larger -than a marble, no one could know it if the relations among the objects -which make it up were the same. - -Again, the earth might be enlarged until it should be a billion times -larger than what it is; yet this could not be known as long as men and -gates and spoons and saucers and houses and cuff-buttons were enlarged -in the same proportion. The leaf of a man’s dining table might be ten -miles square, and the ball of butter on his table as big as the Stone -Mountain in Georgia; yet if cook, and cat, and stove, and water-bucket -were increased in the same ratio, he would not recognize any difference. - - -V. - -We enter the world of humanity, which is the realm of morality, through -the family. Here we open our eyes to the light, and here we have the -first intimations of truth, which is provision for the intellect, and of -righteousness, which is provision for the will. The truth of the family -is the sum of the relations which subsist among the members of it. The -family consists, we will say, of father and mother, and children. Here -is a man and a woman, then, bound together by the relation of marriage. -The children are related to the parents as offspring. The children are -related to one another as brothers and sisters. Altogether they are -one and they are many. There is unity and there is difference. In the -relations implied in the names husband and wife, father and mother, -parents and children, brothers and sisters, we have the truth of the -family. We know the family and can only know the family through these -relations. Take the relations away, and you take the family away. There -cannot be a husband without a wife, a father without a mother, parents -without children, and children without a father and a mother. Abiding in -these relations, which make up the truth of the family, wrapt up with -them and growing out of them, are the laws of right which the will is -to obey. The relation of marriage is accompanied by certain obligations -and duties which husband and wife are to observe. These obligations -and duties are divine laws, because marriage is a divine relation. The -relations involved in the term parents, are attended by certain necessary -laws the father and the mother are to observe with reference to children. -The names of child, brother, sister, imply relations that in turn imply -laws the child is to follow with reference to parents, and brothers and -sisters are to regard with reference to one another. These laws, which -grow out of the relations which constitute the family, are not arbitrary, -artificial, or accidental. They have not been formed by the opinions of -men, nor formulated in the legislative assemblies of men. Legislative -bodies have, perhaps, confirmed them and reproduced them in statutes, -but this was not to create, but to transcribe what was already present. -The laws with reference to which the members of a family find themselves -placed are as essential and constitutional as the laws governing natural -objects, which we define when we say bodies attract each other in -proportion to their mass and inversely as the squares of their distance. -These are subtle and invisible principles which cannot be read out of -rocks and logs and moons and suns. Displace rocks and logs and suns and -moons, and the apparent power of these laws would not be seen, but upon -the appearance of the natural objects, they would be immediately grasped -and dominated by the power of the laws. - -We pass from the family into the school. Here again we find laws already -laid for the will to follow. They grow out of the truth, constitutive -of the school, and this truth is made up of the relations subsisting -among the members of the school. There are teachers, whose duty it is to -control and to instruct. There are children, whose duty it is to learn -and obey. The school is an institution, the object of which is to lead -young minds into a knowledge of the earth, its continents, seas, rivers, -and mountains; into a knowledge of language, its structure, uses, and -the meaning of its terms; into a knowledge of humanity, its races, -governments, and religions. If children are to share in the benefits of -the object for which the school is established, they must observe the -laws which inhere in the very constitution of it. - -They must obey the teacher, they must study the books, they must be -polite, forbearing and kind to one another. It often happens that a child -enters the school and refuses to follow the laws that reside in the -structure and purpose of the school. He is willful and conceited, and -thinks his own way better than the necessary and essential way ordained -for him. He has the same sort of experience the engineer has who attempts -to run his engine from the turntable, without reference to the railway -lines laid for it. There is friction and trouble. Various methods of -punishment are resorted to with the view to get his will to move along -the lines laid for it. If rebuke and punishment fail, then he is turned -out, to attempt the stupid and insane experiment of getting himself -through the world without reference to the laws fixed for his will to -obey. Of course he does not go far. He turns up sooner or later in the -jail, the hospital, the penitentiary, or the poorhouse. - -Leaving the school, we find ourselves citizens of the state, members -of society. But we do not go into society like an ax-man in a frontier -forest to clear a place for his house, his fence, and his field. Methods -of conduct are already prescribed, lines of action are already fixed, and -the laws which claim our obedience are already formulated. Society is an -organism of mutually dependent members; the object of it is the equity -of all, the welfare of all, and the liberty of all. Equity, liberty, -welfare do not come by accident. Men cannot reach them out of touch and -contact with one another. They are only possible to men living together, -and only possible in conformity with certain conditions, and in the -observance of certain laws. These laws lie folded in the nature of men as -social beings. They are fundamental, and Aristotle saw them when he said, -“man is by nature a political animal.” The germs of government and law -are in the depths of every man’s being, as the germs of the oak are in -the acorn. Wise men, living in society, have seen the truth of society, -made up of the relations subsisting among people living together. -Accompanying these relations, and counterparts of them, they have -discovered the laws necessary to insure the equity, liberty, and welfare -of all. These laws have been embodied in constitutions, enactments, and -statutes. To carry out these laws and to make them prevail, certain -institutions have been established, a body of men whose duty it is to -execute the laws, a Judiciary, whose duty it is to interpret and expound -the laws, and a legislative body, whose duty it is to repeal old laws -that did not work well, and to frame new laws to meet the exigencies of -new conditions. To protect the rights of all, certain penalties have -been made to accompany the violations of laws. To make these penalties -real, and to inflict them upon the proper parties, courts and jails and -penitentiaries have been established. - -So we see, as the acorn cannot grow without appropriating the elements -already prepared for it in the soil and the sky; and as the carbon cannot -burn without laying hold of the oxygen already existing for it in the -atmosphere of the room; and as the fish cannot swim without utilizing -the water already adjusted to its fins; so man cannot fill out the -possibilities of his being without obeying the laws he finds already -ordained for his will, when he comes into the world. These laws converge -about his will in the home where he first sees the light, and are always -deducible from the particular relations in which, at any time, his moral -life is placed. They are as real as the laws of heat and motion and -gravity. They run out from the home through the school, and from the -school through all the continents of the social realm. They grow out of -the truth of the facts of the family, the school, and society. They are -as fundamental, necessary, and divine as the family, the school, and -society. By observing them, man is able to turn into his character the -tenderness of the home, the learning of the school, and the resources of -society. - - -VI. - -The authority of the laws which govern society is not found in the fact -that the laws have been made by the will of the majority, or the will of -the minority, or by the will of a king, or by the wills of any or all -of the people; but because they are founded in the constitution of human -nature. The basis for the constitution of human nature is the mind of -God, who created man in his own image. Social laws have authority, then, -because they are consonant with the nature of man, and have their source -in the will of God. - -It is easy to show, however, from the records of history, that nations -have often lived under laws imposed upon them that contradicted every -principle of human nature. Men were accustomed once to find the laws -of society as well as the laws of nature, not from the study of men, -or from the study of the objects of nature, but in the depths of their -own imaginations. In former times men met in convention and council and -determined by resolution the shape of the earth and the sun’s method of -movement. They also subjected themselves to the criticism of posterity -by cutting the heads of the people off who did not agree with them. But -it gradually dawned on the human mind that to find out for certain the -shape of the earth it might be well to devote a little study to the earth -itself. Thus it happened that in the course of events men ceased to read -laws into God’s material universe from the boundless realms of their -fancy and conceit, and fell upon the more rational habit of taking the -laws that were already there. Herein is the difference between mediæval -and modern times. - -The disposition to read laws into nature, without reference to the -facts of nature, was in line with the programme to read laws into the -social realm without reference to the facts of human nature. The laws of -astronomy to-day are such as have been found by a study of the stars. The -laws of chemistry are such as have been found by a study of the atomic -structures of bodies. One might fall out now with the celestial laws of -Ptolemy, and head a movement to set them aside. But it is not rational -to fall out with the astronomical laws of Norman Lockyer, for that is to -buck against the sun, and to make faces at the stars. Lockyer’s laws came -straight to him from the skies, and find their value and verification in -the close calculation of every steamer that sails on the wide, restless -sea. The laws of civilized nations to-day are such as have been found -by a study of the facts of human nature. To quarrel with them is to set -one’s self against the way man is built. It would not do to say that the -social laws of civilized peoples to-day are exact transcripts from the -will of God concerning the conduct of social life. Men do not now, and -perhaps will not for a long time, read aright the facts of human nature. -One thing is certain, however: in the making of laws among civilized, -republican peoples, reference is had to the facts of human nature, and -not to the fancy of those who wish to govern. It cannot be disputed that -the right facts are considered from which to make deductions. This means -a complete change of front in the modern world over the ages past. There -are doubtless many minor laws on the statute books of the liberal and -progressive nations of the earth to-day which are not in accordance with -the nature of man; but it seems that any rational person is compelled -to admit that the great legal trunk-lines conform to the essential laws -of human nature. Take the Constitution of the United States. Some one -has said that the apple from which Newton deduced the laws of gravity -was two thousand years falling. He would have been nearer the truth if -he had said six thousand years. The Constitution of the United States -is as clearly a deduction from the facts of human nature, as were the -laws of gravity from a study of falling bodies. The convention that met -in Philadelphia to frame the Constitution of the United States, in 1787, -was called to order on the top of the centuries. The members had such -advantage of position as made it possible for them to look all down the -ages. They were in a position to see all sides of human nature, under all -forms of government. - -In the preamble to the Constitution, they specified certain objects for -which, in their esteem, this government should be formed—union, domestic -tranquillity, justice, liberty, welfare. Any government constituted by -a document like that has for the basis of its existence the facts of -human nature, as really as the law of gravity has for the basis of its -existence the facts of the stars. - - -VII. - -If it is necessary that man grasp the truth of things before he can -determine the laws of things, we cannot fail to see how important it is -that he have a proper theory of knowledge. - -Man’s idea of law will correspond to his theory of knowledge. When the -French people accepted Locke’s theory of knowing they immediately applied -it to the laws, establishments, and institutions of the nation. They -concluded logically, if all knowledge is of sensations, then there can -be no authority for the belief in God, the immortality of the soul, or -the divinity of law. These are universal and transcendent facts, but -the mind has no capacity to know universal or transcendent facts. So -society was to be dissolved into its constituent atoms, in order that -individuals could arrange their lives on a universal, go-as-you-please -principle. All existing laws and institutions were to be obliterated. -Everything that was up was to be put down. There are to-day, scattered -through the civilized states of Europe and in some parts of the United -States, men who want to emancipate the people from the dominion of all -authority. All this grows out of the fashionable and sensational theory -of knowledge taught first by John Locke and David Hume, and within recent -years by John Stuart Mill and Herbert Spencer. Here is the source of -anarchy. There is not an influential anarchist in the world, but is one -upon the basis of the physiological theory of knowledge. There is no -objective reality, but such as is composed of material atoms. These have -got their arrangement and collocations without the agency of any great -co-ordinating mind. They come together in pairs and clusters and groups, -by the aid of no power but such as issues from the unknowable. A man -is no more a criminal for killing people than is the Mississippi River -for overflowing its banks and drowning people. Men are mere products of -nature, and their thoughts are only secretions of the brain. Laws and -institutions are just the brain deposits of animals we call men, as dams -across rivers and cells in gums are the deposits of the brains of beavers -and bees. - -In a document found on the person of a recent anarchist arrested by the -authorities in England, it is asserted that the purpose of the anarchists -is to put down all political, religious, and military authority; to burn -all churches, palaces, soldier-barracks, fortresses, provisions, and to -destroy all that has lived till now by business-work without contributing -to it. From such documents we are to understand that the anarchists take -it for granted that all laws and institutions among civilized peoples -have been imposed arbitrarily by those who govern upon those who are -governed; that the parties to be governed have as much right to ignore -them as the governing parties had to make them; that there is in the -universe no moral order to which the political and social orders among -men correspond; that every man has the privilege of setting up his own -order; that every engineer has the right to ignore the rails laid for the -flanges of his wheels on the long roads leading out from the turntable, -and the inestimable subjective liberty of pulling open the throttle -valve and running out into the country according to his own sweet will. -Suppose all the anarchists in the world should be sent to some great -island so that they could test their own theories, would they not be -under the necessity of founding some sort of a government? They would -have to construct roads, devise ways and means for lights, water, and -for protection against individual violence. Would they not have to bind -themselves together by some kind of social contract, or compact? If a -number of men should unite themselves into a syndicate for the purpose of -building houses without reference to the laws of gravity, if they should -declare it as their set purpose to so build houses as that the center -of gravity should fall in a line outside the base, the whole company -would be tried for lunacy and confined in the insane asylum. So the most -summary and straightforward methods should be adopted for ridding society -of all that class of men who propose to manage human affairs without -reference to the facts of man’s nature and the laws of the universe. It -is a question whether they should be put into an insane asylum or into -a jail, for it is hard to determine which they have the most of: insane -stupidity or insane meanness. - -Society has made great advances, but every increment of progress has been -along the lines of the eternal laws of the universe. Those laws were here -before man appeared upon the stage of action; they will be here when he -is gone. Men may doctor themselves with error about truth, and error -about right, until they come to be great imbeciles; but the truth and the -right will remain clear and immortal for the intellect and the will of -the wise and the good. - - -VIII. - -It is important, as never before, for those who see the truth and -recognize the right to declare the same with all authority. It is said -that the Emperor Henry IV. stood shivering two whole days and nights -in the snows of the courtyard of Canossa Castle, suing piteously for -permission to throw himself, in agonized submission, at the feet of -Hildebrand. That he was shunned by his subjects more absolutely -because of the ban that was upon him than he would have been had he -been afflicted with the smallpox. This incident illustrates for us the -authority wielded by the Church of the Middle Ages. The Church was then -felt to be in touch with tremendous power. Its fulminations carried -terror to the hearts of kings and subjects. What the Church declared -should be done, or should be left undone, the people felt could only be -disregarded at the peril of all hope for time and eternity. It not only -declared the duties men were under the necessity of observing in order to -save their souls, but the kind of thoughts men were under the necessity -of thinking concerning the shape of the earth, the movements of the -stars, and the structure of the human body, in order to save themselves -from the odium of heresy. The Church reigned without a rival in all the -civilized world. She was not expected to give any reason for her actions -or her utterances. When she determined what the order of the solar system -was, the brains of men were compelled, without question, to acquiesce. -Even to doubt was to deny the faith. The Church dictated the policy of -the stars without being at the trouble of studying the stars; and no -other sidereal opinions were tolerated but such as she formulated and -published. - -But the minds of scholars and students, in different parts of Europe, -began to reach other conclusions concerning the nature and order -of things than such as had been ecclesiastically settled for them. -Copernicus saw that the heavenly bodies did not move in accordance with -the teachings of the Church. And when the Venetian scholars looked -through the telescope of Galileo at Padua, and saw Jupiter and his -satellites, a central sun and revolving planets, the authority of the -Church on the subject of astronomy was gone. In this way the Church has -been forced to give up one position after another. The people, seeing she -had no foundation for the opinions she held concerning nature, began to -question the value of her opinions concerning God, and heaven and hell, -and right and wrong. - -Now the Church must regain her note of authority. She must do this by -seeing what the laws are which grow out of the facts of condition. The -laws of the family are to be deduced from the truths of relation which -constitute the family. These will be seen to coincide with the old laws -uttered from Sinai. The laws of society are to be deduced from the truths -of relation which constitute society. These, it will be seen, are summed -up as was said of old in the formula, “Thou shalt love thy neighbor -as thyself.” When men get through framing laws for the regulation of -human conduct, from a study of the facts of human nature, they will -find to their amazement that they have reinstated the Ten Commandments, -and that Sinai is not a burnt out volcano. They will find that the Ten -Commandments are still the foundations of social health, and harmony, -and progress. God wrote them for Moses on tables of stone because he had -already written them in the nature of man. The laws of gravity can no -more be read out of the world of space than the Eternal Decalogue can be -read out of the world of human life. So the man of law should speak with -the same authority as the man of science, without apology and without -misgivings. - - - - -_BEAUTY._ - - - “If the endeavor to analyze the world is a trifle, it is - because the world is such. The sum of things can have no second - intention, nor can it be characterized by any trait that is - not included in itself. Some things are sweet, but what is our - sense which perceives them; some things are good, but what is - our conscience which judges them; some things are true, but - what is our intellect which argues them; some things are deep, - but what is our reason which fathoms them? Everyone who thinks - deeply, must have reflected that, if the purposes and results - of man’s practice are vanity, so also must be those of his - speculation. Goethe said, that there was no refuge from virtues - that were not our own, but in loving them; and Ecclesiastes, - that there was none from the vanity of life, but in fearing and - obeying God. So, also, from the vanity of speculation there - is no refuge but in acquiescing in its relative nature, and - accepting truth for what it is.” - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -THE PROVISION FOR THE ÆSTHETIC NATURE OF MAN. - - -The glory of the mind is the possession of two eyes, the eye of sense -and the eye of reason. Through the one, it looks out upon the world of -matter and fact. Through the other, it beholds the world of idea and -relation. The world of matter and fact, seen through the eye of sense, is -lifted and transfigured and multiplied a thousandfold when contemplated -through the eye of reason. When the literal world is transferred to the -ideal world, it takes on hues and dimensions in accordance with the -universal and illimitable nature of man. The world which the sense sees, -and the world which the reason sees, are both real, and through the mind -commerce is kept up between them. Along this mental highway facts make -a pilgrimage to the holy land of reason; there they are changed into -ideas. Stars are turned into astronomy, atoms into chemistry, rocks into -geology, plants into botany, colors into beauty and sounds into harmony. - -Over the same royal road, ideas pass to the world of sense. There they -are changed again into facts. Ideas of beauty, distilled in the alembic -of the imagination from the seven prismatic colors, are turned into -painting, and Raphael’s “Transfiguration” blesses the world. Ideas of -harmony, formed by the power of the imagination from the notes of the -musical scale, are turned into song, and Handel’s “Messiah” agitates -the thoughts and feelings of men with the melody of the skies. Ideas of -form, deduced from the contemplation of the shapes of things, are turned -into sculpture, and Michael Angelo’s “Moses” augments the world’s fund -of conviction and courage. By changing facts into ideas, the mind gives -us science. By changing ideas back to facts, it gives us art. Without -science, life would be without bread; without art, it would be without -ideals. - -Science ministers to the body, art to the spirit. Men who go from things -to ideas are practical; those who go from ideas back to things are the -seers. Practical men conserve, but never venture. Seers throw the light -of their genius into the dark beyond, disclosing new worlds for men. They -are the leaders, they are in the vanguard of human progress. - -By the possession of two eyes, the eye of sense and the eye of reason, -man is placed into relation with two worlds. - -The world he sees by the eye of sense is meager, limited, -poverty-stricken. There are only a few houses in it, a little clump -of trees, a little patch of meadow, a horizon hounded by the curl of -his cabin smoke. The world he sees by the eye of reason stretches far -down into the twilight of the past, embracing all ages, all stages of -progress, all empires and republics, all literature and peoples. - -Through the eye of sense, he sees a world of hard limitation and fact. -Through the eye of reason, a universe of ideas, visions, relations. -Through the eye of sense, he sees a candle, with its flickering and -passing flame. Through the eye of reason, he sees a kingdom of light, -with truth and beauty, and love billowing away to infinity. - -Through the eye of sense he sees a little mountain spring rise from the -ground, to lose itself in the deepening shadows of the trees. Through the -eye of reason he sees a river, clear as crystal, flowing forever from -under the throne of God. A few violets and buttercups, covering with -their blue and their beauty a little strip of meadow, he sees through -the eye of sense. The hills of day, numberless and immeasurable, covered -with flowers, whose leaves never wither and whose beauty never fades, he -sees through the eye of reason. - -It is the conceit of those whose habit of mind is to look through the -eye of sense alone, that they see more in the actual tangible world than -those who are accustomed to look through the eye of reason as well as -through the eye of sense. There never was a greater mistake. Those who -see most in the world of mountain and sea and sky, are those who look -most through the eye of reason into the world of idea, principle, and -relation. Adams in England, and Leverrier in France, discovered Neptune, -not by sweeping the heavens with their telescopes, but by careful -ciphering in their studies. “Mr. Turner,” said a friend to him one day, -“I never see in nature the glows and colors you put into your pictures.” -“Ah! don’t you wish you could, though,” was the painter’s reply. In an -apple’s fall Newton sees the law of gravitation. Goethe sees in the -sections of a deer’s skull the spinal column modified. Emerson sings: - - “Let me go where’er I will, - I hear a sky-born music still. - ’Tis not in the stars alone, - Nor in the cups of budding flowers, - Nor in the red-breast’s yellow tone, - Nor in the bow that smiles in showers; - But in the mud and scum of things, - There always, always something sings.” - -Humboldt habitually dwelt in the realm of principles and ideas. He spent -only five years in America, and it took twelve quartos, and sixteen -folios, and half a dozen helpers, and many years to put on record what he -saw. - - “The poem hangs on the berry bush, - When comes the poet’s eye, - And the street is one long masquerade - When Shakspere passes by.” - - -I. - -Yet the mind must first see through the eye of sense, before it is -capable of seeing through the eye of reason. The universe, that really -belongs to the mind, the eye of sense never sees, but it sees something -that suggests it. Through the eye of sense man takes in a few colors, but -these suggest to Rubens the magnificent visions which illuminate the art -galleries of Europe. Through the sense man hears a few notes, but these -are taken and multiplied into the symphonies of Beethoven. - -Through the eye of sense, Columbus sees a few pieces of driftwood brought -to the shore by the waves of the ever-restless sea; but these help him, -through the eye of reason, to see a new world with its virgin forests, -its wide-reaching plains and its majestic mountain ranges. Agassiz sees -through the eye of sense an indentation on a rock in the State of Maine. -This gives him a suggestion which helps him to see, through the eye of -reason, the icebergs and the glaciers, which, in the early ages, ground -their way to the south. The man of science sees through the eye of sense, -only a bit of chalk; but from this a suggestion comes to him, which -enables him to see through the eye of reason the oozy bed upon which -the submarine cable rests; and the life that sported in the vast oceans -when the Dover Cliffs were being formed. Through the eye of sense Cuvier -sees an immense tooth, larger than any known at the present. Through the -eye of reason he sees the huge animal in whose jaw it was set. Upon the -comprehensive, active power of reason, man relies to determine for him -the elements good for food, the power which serves his social nature, the -truth which furnishes his intellect, the right which matches his will, -and the beauty which corresponds with his æsthetic nature. - -The universe lends itself in its totality to the scale and the dip of -the particular capacity or power through which man, for the time being, -seeks to appropriate it. It stands before the sense of hunger in terms -of bread. It stands before the social nature in terms of power. It -stands before the intellect in terms of truth. It stands before the -will in terms of law. It stands before the æsthetic nature in terms of -beauty. The person who has related himself to the world through all -the powers of his nature, finds it capable, by turns, of feeding every -faculty with which he is endowed. The universe is now all bread, now all -power, now all truth, now all law, and now all beauty. It will be any -or all of these, according to the side, or sides, of himself through -which he addresses it. One of the great discoveries of modern times is -the correlation of forces. The persistent force may express itself in -heat, or light, or electricity, or magnetism. These are only different -forms of the same thing, and any one may pass to any of the others. In -the world, as a whole, we find the sense of correlation inheres, as it -relates itself to the different faculties man has for taking hold of it. -As the correlate of hunger, it is all bread; as the correlate of the -social nature, it is all power; as the correlate of the intellect, it -is all truth; as the correlate of the will, it is all law, and as the -correlate of the æsthetic sense, it is all beauty. Objective reality is -addressed to the many sides of human life, in order that the whole of it -may be used up for the purpose of making a man. It is all to be drawn -into manhood. As all rivers meet in the ocean, and all colors meet in the -white ray of light; so objective reality, in all that it is for food, for -power, for truth, for right, for beauty; is to meet in human life, for -nutriment, for furnishment, and for the completion of manhood. If you -want to know what the objective self of the fish is, look at the ocean. -If you want to know what the objective self of the eagle is, look at the -sky. If you want to know what the objective self of the elephant is, -look at the Asiatic jungle. If you want to know what the objective self -of man is, look at the conditions of food, power, truth, law, and beauty -which environ him. The fish gets the water, the bird gets the air, and -the elephant gets the jungle; but man, with a nature illimitable, with -capacities inexhaustible, with hunger deep as truth, with aspirations -as wide as right, and with an ideal as unfathomable as beauty, is the -child of the eternal God, and is to get the fullness of his nature in -nothing less than the entire expression which God has made of himself in -objective reality. - - -II. - -All truth, as we have before stated, which man has tried to express, is -but a transcript of divine truth. The truth of astronomy is a transcript -from the reality of the stars. The truth of botany is a transcript -from the reality of plants. The truth of geology is a transcript from -the reality of the earth’s structure. All right, which man has sought -to embody in statutes, in constitutions, in enactments, is but a -transcript from the will of God. So all beauty, which man has attempted -to symbolize, is contained in the nature of things, and has its source -in God. The beauty man has seen has taken in the process of history many -forms. It is seen in architecture, sculpture, poetry, painting, and -music. These are different forms of the same thing. As the persistent -physical force expresses itself in heat, light, electricity, and -magnetism, so genius is the persistent mental force which expresses -itself in art. Sometimes the persistent mental force comes to such unity -and fullness in some massive soul that from him it goes out into all -the fine arts. Michael Angelo was by turns poet, painter, sculptor, and -architect. Had he lived in Germany in the time of Beethoven he would have -added to his other accomplishments that of music. The noblest specimens -of music are only great cathedrals constructed out of sound, as Michael -Angelo’s “Moses” was a great epic poem wrought in stone. - -We wish to consider beauty in its relation to the æsthetic sense, in two -aspects of itself. - -The most important forms of beauty have as the physical conditions of -their existence light and sound, and as the ideal conditions of their -existence space and time. The names man gives to these forms of beauty, -when he expresses them, or re-expresses them, are painting and music. For -no element of man’s nature has more marvelous provision been made than -for the æsthetic element. The objective conditions of the beauty, which -correspond to the subjective æsthetic sense, are contained in sound and -light. Sound and light are the invisible physical forces which play upon -the objects of nature, and call from them the responses of melody and -vision which the æsthetic nature appropriates for ecstasy and delight. - -Capacity for sound is lodged in well-nigh all created objects. Minerals, -woods, gases, and liquids even, contain the notes of the musical scale. -Builders of pianos, harps, put no notes in the elements they use in the -construction of these instruments. They simply comply with conditions -necessary to bring them out. The music we get out of wood and steel and -brass, as we find them arranged in the piano, the organ, the harp, by -striking them at regular intervals, is the melody breathed into them when -they were created. Beethoven, Handel, and Mozart created no music. Their -genius was manifested simply in the power to bring out of forest and mine -and cane-brake what God put into them. - -As to what note a body shall give up under tension and pressure, is owing -to its ultimate structure, and the elements which compose it; and also -the note latent in the object by which it is struck, or pressed. Sing -into a piano and the same notes respond which are used in the execution -of the song. A storm, howling through a forest, makes a loud noise, but -no music. Its notes do not synchronize with those contained in the limbs -and leaves of the trees. But when the low, sad murmur of the evening -winds gently strike the needles of the long-leaf pine there is music. The -notes of the one are related to the notes of the other. - -As all things have capacity for sound, so well-nigh all created things -have capacity for color. The color which an object takes on in the -presence of light is determined also by its ultimate structure and the -elements which constitute it. Nearly every object absorbs a portion of -the light and throws back to the eye of the beholder a portion. Bodies -absorb those rays which are synchronous with their constituent elements. -When the particles which compose a body are not capable of vibrating at -the rate of any portion of the light particles, then they are all thrown -back, and the body is pronounced white. It is to be observed that no body -has color or sound of its own, but only the capacity for these. The note -of a body is discovered by striking it, and its color by stimulating it -with a light ray. - -Another interesting fact is to be noted here—that is the analogy -between sound and light, or music and painting. The difference between -a sound wave and a light wave is only a difference of length. The -principles underlying them are the same, and the methods by which they -are produced are the same. Sound waves, to be heard, must vibrate at -least as often as sixteen beats to the second. Light waves, in order -to pass through the organ of vision, and reach the retina of the eye, -must not vibrate at a less rate than four hundred trillions of times to -the second. The difference between the eye and the ear is, one is more -refined than the other. A painting is a silent piece of music, and a -piece of music is an audible picture. The notes of the musical scale and -the colors of the prismatic scale are analogous. The distance between -C and A of the musical scale is the same as the distance between red -and orange of the prismatic scale. The notes of the one scale may be -translated into the colors of the other. Harmony of colors in a silk -dress, would, if translated into their analogous notes, produce a piece -of music that would be equally as pleasing to the ear as the colors are -to the eye. Painting is only a more refined form of music. This is not -fancy; it is mathematics and science. All things about us are capable -of music, silent or audible. Notes belonging to some part of a great -song are lodged in all created objects. Things are not measured off in -continents, oceans, islands, mountains, forests, and mines only, but also -in octaves. The music of the spheres is no longer a dream of the poets, -but in accordance with exact science. The material system into which we -are born is capable, then, not only of furnishing us food to eat and -clothes to wear, but music and painting for the sense of the beautiful. -A mere utilitarian, bread-and-butter philosophy does not exhaust the -possibilities of even the material world. In its very construction -respect to man’s higher nature was had, as well as to his lower. By -so much as music and harmony of color surpass in their subtlety and -refinement the coarser elements necessary to sustain the lower nature; -by so much has God emphasized the value of the higher nature. Had God -intended his children for no higher plane than that upon which the -animals live, and no greater future for them than that which belongs to -“the beasts that perish,” doubtless the beauty would have been left out. -Men have been told, by one having authority, not to cast their pearls -before swine. The beauty that was flung at the feet of man contained a -message to a side of himself keyed to a radiant and imperishable realm. - -Who does not feel, under the charm of music, or the influence of a great -painting, reasons for high living which no words can express? The tear -which often gathers in the eye of the most abandoned, hardened man, under -the power of song, bespeaks the fact that chords have been touched which -vibrate responsive to no earthly interest or relation. - - -III. - -The melody in sound and the harmony in color are correlated to the -æsthetic nature of man through the ear and the eye. In the ear is found -the musical scale, and in the eye the prismatic scale. - -Notes are in the ear which correspond with the C D E F G A B of the -musical scale, and parts are in the eye which correspond to the red, -orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet of the prismatic scale. -It is only through D in the ear that D out of the ear can be heard, and -it is with C in the ear that C out of the ear is heard. - -If there were no notes in the ear except D, and all other notes in -nature were destroyed, the ear could hear no notes at all. A hears A, -and B hears B, and C hears C. What A hears, B does not hear, and what C -hears, A does not hear. What is true of the ear is true of the eye. The -parts of the eye with which red is seen are not the parts with which -green is seen. Red in the eye sees red out of the eye. Blue in the eye -sees blue out of the eye, and green in the eye sees green out of the eye. -If there was in the prismatic scale located in the eye only the part -with which blue is seen, no color in the world would be visible except -the blue. The notes latent in all natural objects are addressed to the -æsthetic sense, through the corresponding notes latent in the ear; and -the seven colors, capacity for which is latent in all earthly objects, -address themselves to the æsthetic nature through the corresponding -capacities for color contained in the eye. That man is related to -the kingdom of beauty in a sense which marks him off from the animals -below him, is proven by the fact that he can take the elements of this -kingdom into his imagination and send them back to the realms of sense, -in oratorios and paintings. The masters have given all history ideal -and permanent setting by means of sound and light. Man cannot only see -the truth, but repeat it; not only recognize the right, but conform to -it, and not only appreciate beauty, but express it. In this he has the -evidence of his kinship with the author of the true, the good, and the -beautiful. The lower animals, as far as we know, may be thrilled with -that which is beautiful; we do know they never repeat the beautiful. In -the art galleries and conservatories of the world all the past is brought -to life again and stands before the eye and the ear, under the ideal -forms of time and space. Moses is not only immortal in the laws which he -wrote, and in the race which he civilized, but, through Michael Angelo’s -genius, he has been made eternal in the kingdom of beauty. - -Thus, through his æsthetic side, man not only receives, but he gives. -The melody of sound and the harmony of color not only come to him, but -go from him; and from him, too, charged and shot through with all the -suffering, temptation, sin, and sacrifice he has known. - - -IV. - -The empirical philosophy, which reduces knowledge to sensations and -morality to laws imposed by prudence, and man himself to the same -plane of life occupied by the lower animals, invades the domain of -æsthetics, and makes of beauty a mere matter of individual feeling, local -convention, and arbitrary fashion. This philosophy of the dirt denies -to mind any inherent, creative activity, in the region of knowledge, -morals, or art. Now, it is doubtless true, that food and power and beauty -of color and tone are addressed to the lower animals; sufficiently, -at least, for them to get the means of subsistence, and some low sort -of pleasure from them. They do this, however, not by reason, but by -instinct. The bee is determined by its nature to build his cell in -accordance with mathematical principles, and to store it with honey from -the leaves and the flowers. The bee does this as naturally as water runs -down-hill. There is no calculation in it, and the bee does not recognize -itself in the process of this work. - -The bird may be determined in the selection of its mate by brilliant -plumage, or joyous song, but this it does just as a rock turned loose -from the top of a house falls to the ground. The evidence of a combining, -mental activity in man, to which things in the outside world are -addressed, in a peculiar and distinct sense, is found in the fact that -man not only receives the things that come to him, but sends them from -him in the forms of his own thought. - -The bee appropriates the honeydew that covers the surface of the leaves, -stores it in his cell, and eats it in the winter; but who ever knew bees -to plant out trees in order that there might be leaves from which to -secure honeydew? Man finds the bananas that grow in the tropics, and the -berries that grow in the temperate zones, and eats them; but he sees how -bananas and berries grow, and so clears fields and hedges, to insure a -more abundant crop. - -The monkey hears the thunder and sees the lightning as well as the man, -but man investigates the nature of lightning; he sees the principle -underlying its weird movements, the things for which it has affinity. -So he contrives various methods for utilizing it. The mind within him -being the same in kind as the mind which sends the lightning, he sees how -lightning is sent, and sends it. He not only sees thunder-storms, but -how they are made. So the professor creates them in glass jars for the -benefit of his class. - -Nature presents herself to man under uniform methods of action. -Everywhere is regularity and orderliness. He reproduces this order in -political and social life. The laws without him kindle into expression -the moral magazine of volition within him. - -Nature presents herself to man as unity. This implies mind. Unity is -impossible without mind. The mind underneath the unity, without him, -speaks to the mind within him. Then by his own mind he recreates the -universe in literature. - -He hears the cawing of rooks, the cooing of doves, the purling of brooks, -and the roar of tempests. These, with all other sounds in nature, are -caught and combined in the marvelous creation of Mozart and Beethoven. - -Much is said by the learned men who are ever seeking to minify man’s -place in nature, about the reason and memory, and intelligence, and -even conscience of the lower animals. It is almost enough to make one -wish he were a dog or a horse when he reads how much sense and how much -conscience dogs and horses have. Not much weight, however, will ever be -given to these long treatises on the intelligence of the lower animals, -until some bee shall give us a book on mathematics, or until some horse -shall tell through one of our agricultural journals the best time to sow -clover; or some dog shall give us the philosophy of the chase. We see the -capacity of the human mind in Shakspere’s plays. So one picture painted -by a cat, one poem written by a mule, one philosophical dissertation -composed by an owl, or one cocoanut plantation planted by the monkeys, -would establish beyond question that the high claims made for the mental -capabilities of these humble members of the animal creation are justified. - -Man grows wheat by the use of the mind within him, which sees how the -mind without him has made the growth of wheat possible. Man utilizes -power, by the use of the mind within him, which recognizes how power -is produced and controlled by the mind without him. Man sees truth, -because the mind within him is like the mind without him, which expresses -itself in truth. Man sees law, because the mind within him is like the -mind without him which ordained law. So man sees beauty, because the -mind within him is like the mind without him, which expresses itself in -beauty. Food, and truth, and law, and beauty, cannot be reproduced by -man, except by the laws of mind acting in him as the laws of mind do -without him. - - -V. - -What is the use of beauty? Like truth and law, it looks beyond itself. -It is to help realize the purpose for which the earth was created, the -purpose which finds its consummation in a perfect man. - -Beauty comes to man, bearing intimations of his high origin and also -of his glorious destiny. Under the magic spell which beauty throws -around him, he forgets for the time being his limitations, his fears, -his doubts. He is lifted into a realm of universal freedom, where all -difficulties disappear, where all conflicts are eliminated. The æsthetic -nature is not at all seclusive and aristocratic. It receives the melody, -and symmetry, and harmony which reason finds in the tones, and forms, and -colors of the outside world, and turns over to it. These rich gifts are -then shared with all other human powers and faculties. Hunger is served -with food set in painted china. Around the table, where man satisfies -his appetite, pictures are hung, and the beef market and the mill are -built and arranged in accordance with the dictates of symmetry and taste. -The college, where truth is taught, and the courthouse, where law is -administered, are invested with all the beauty of the architect’s genius. -Thus beauty, high, heaven-born, and refreshing, is drawn into all the -relations, and thrown around all the institutions of life. It reduces -friction, redresses littleness, and adds to life good cheer and depth. -It smoothes the rough places, rounds the sharp corners, and hangs the bow -of hope on the dark cloud of coming trial. - -The æsthetic sense, nurtured on beauty, keeps before the minds of men -and nations a proper ideal of life. When the ideal held before the mind -at one period of advancement is reached, the æsthetic sense has already -lifted another and a nobler, as far ahead of the actual as the first. -In presenting to the living spirit ideals always in advance of actual -attainment, the æsthetic nature opens the unending path of progress. It -is incorrect to suppose that the ideal is worked out only in painting, -symphony, or cathedral. Its presence is manifest in the useful, as well -as the fine arts. The ideal often gets itself translated into the heel -of a shoe, into the crown of a hat, into the wheel of a wagon, into the -fence around the field, and into the structure of the mower and the -reaper. It curves in the arches of bridges, echoes in the sound of the -hammer, and breaks over the hills in the whistle of the engine. - -The progress of beauty in modern times has not been in the direction of -form or coloring or symmetry, simply, but toward wider distribution. In -early times, its ministry was to kings and scholars; it has advanced by -expanding. The pyramid of Gizeh, the most expensive monument ever seen, -was reared to perpetuate the memory of a great Egyptian king. A country -was drained of revenue and of life to regale the pride of one man. The -Parthenon ministered to a few great men in Greece. The cathedrals of the -middle ages blest and helped a wider circle. But it was left to the time -which is ours to build churches and chapels, as broad in their aims and -ministry as the life of humanity. The early poetry concerned itself about -the wars of gods and the contentions of kings. But as the sacredness of -human life came to be seen more and more, did it tend to catch within the -sweep of its rhythm the incidents and traditions and loves of the common -people. The ideal in our day is being worked out in fields of waving -grain, into the cattle upon the hills, into the homes of the people. It -is being turned into orchards and vineyards. It is being traced in vines -and flowers over the poor man’s cottage. The ideals were once housed -and confined in the museums; now they are being turned out into the -street. It was once the custom to bring Venus and Diana, by the aid of -the chisel, from rough marble. The tendency now is to put the beauty of -Venus and the enterprise of Diana into the spirits of our women. Sublime -conceptions were once mainly realized in temples and cathedrals, but now -we would see them distributed into dwellings for families, into schools -for children, and into churches for the true worship of God. We would see -them in bridges spanning all the rivers, in mills grinding the people’s -bread, in factories spinning their clothes, and in railroads transporting -their products. We would see them lifted into an asylum for the blind, -a shelter for the orphan, and a home for the aged and infirm. We would -hear them in the whirl of the spindle, in the ring of the hammer, in the -splash of the paddle, and in the sound of the flying train. We would -hear them in the steady march of progress, and in the pulse-beats of -the happy plowman. Beauty is to be used to stimulate human courage, to -embellish human spirit, and to enlarge human thought. Life’s shadows are -to be chased by the light of eternity’s day, and its tumult hushed by -the repose of eternity’s harmony. The æsthetic element in man’s nature -was appointed to receive the beauty provided for it. But it was to be -God’s almoner; having received it, also freely to give it. Thus it was -to be the power whose function should be to put the whole of life into -terms of harmony. Bernard Palissy put his ideal into a white enamel for -his pottery; Columbus worked his ideal into a new world; Morse left his -in the electric telegraph; Cyrus W. Field turned his into the submarine -cable; and Thomas A. Edison has given his to the world in the telephone. -It is not to be inferred, however, that those who work their ideals -out in the useful arts contribute more to the making of men than those -who express their ideals in poetry, painting, sculpture, or music. The -tendency of beauty to get down into the ordinary work and relations of -life is an intimation that all life should be beautiful in itself, and -in all expressions which it makes of itself. The æsthetic sense is the -badge of man’s royalty. A tutor was once employed to teach the son of -a king. The young prince was sometimes disobedient. But in the esteem -of the tutor, it was not quite proper to whip the son of a king with a -common switch. So to the lapel of the boy’s coat the teacher pinned a -piece of purple ribbon. When the young prince manifested a disposition -to defy authority, the instructor pointed with the end of the rod to the -purple ribbon on his coat. This was an appeal to his royal blood. - -Not a flower gathers on the limbs of a rose bush but addresses the high -and purple nature of everyone who beholds it. In Mexico, where the -average of life is so low, the flowers which grow in such profusion are -about all that is left to keep the people reminded that they are the -children of God, the author of all beauty. The highest evidence of the -remaining worth of the Mexican people is found in the fact that they -love flowers with a deep and unfailing passion. - - -VI. - -Beauty is to feed enthusiasm. Tones and colors are to be used to jostle -the elements of mind, and will, and emotion into harmony with the high -and holy life of our Father who art in Heaven. Beauty is to nerve the -soldier for the battle, the martyr for the stake, and the hero for his -work. There is a height of development to which the human spirit aspires, -that the logical understanding is unable to reach. Here, then, where -truth in logical form fails, beauty comes, and helps the human spirit to -disentangle itself from the sphere of contradictions and antagonisms. - -Truth and right command the spirit by an external necessity; beauty -moves it by an internal necessity and starts it to vibrating in the very -centers of its being, in consonance with itself. Beauty lifts it to a -pinnacle where the horizon quadrates with its irrepressible longings; and -where the whole of life is rounded into an orb from which all strife is -eliminated, and all discord extracted. Men seek artificial stimulants and -narcotics, because of the abiding conviction they have, that their lives -were keyed to some ideal realm of unity and freedom. - -What intoxicants do to the detriment of the spirit, beauty accomplishes -to its health and vigor. It is carried by beauty into no land of -vague dream, and unreal delirium, but into a radiant region where the -environing conditions exactly match its undying hopes. - - - - -_LOVE._ - - - “There are indeed men whose souls are like the sea. Those - billows that ebb and flood, that inexorable going and - coming, that noise of all the winds, that blackness and - that translucency, that vegetation peculiar to the deep, - that democracy of clouds in full hurricane, those eagles - flecked with foam, those wonderful star-risings reflected in - mysterious agitation by millions of luminous wavetops, confused - heads of the multitudinous sea—the errant lightnings, which - seem to watch; those prodigious sobbings, those half-seen - monsters, those nights of darkness broken by howlings, those - furies, those frenzies, those torments, those rocks, those - shipwrecks, those fleets crushing each other; then that charm, - that mildness, those festivals, those gay white sails, those - fishing boats, those songs amid the uproar, those shining - ports, those mists rising from the shore; those wraths and - those appeasements, that all in one, the unforeseen amid - the changeless, the vast marvel of inexhaustibly varied - monotony—all this may exist in a mind, and that mind is called - genius, and you have Æschylus, you have Isaiah, you have Dante, - you have Michael Angelo, you have Shakspere.” - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -THE PROVISION FOR THE SPIRITUAL NATURE OF MAN. - - -In speaking of the spiritual nature of man, reference is not had to a -side or faculty or power of himself, but to his real, essential life. Man -is a spirit. All faculties and powers exist for him as such. The hunger, -and the food provided for it, are to serve man as spirit. The social -element, and the power provided for it, are to serve him as spirit. The -intellect and truth, the will and right, the æsthetic sense and beauty, -are all to serve him as spirit. The correlate of man as spirit, on one -side of himself, we have seen to be the life of humanity—the correlate of -man as spirit, on the other side of himself, is the life of God. Man’s -spiritual nature is mediated to him on one side by the family, by the -school, by the institutions of the state, by the establishments of trade, -by the newspaper, by literature, by art, by history. Man’s spiritual -nature is mediated to him on the other side by love, embodied in the one -Mediator between God and man. - -The mud-philosophy of Locke, and Hume, and Mill, and Spencer dissolves -spirit, because it dissolves the idea of a mind, an ego, or an external -world. If the mind can know nothing but a succession of things in time, -if nothing but a constant flow and flux of sensations; of course it -cannot know itself, only as a sensation in the perpetual procession -of sensations always passing by. But how is it possible for the mind -to know a succession of things in time, and a procession of things in -space, unless it is itself out of and apart from the succession and the -procession. One sensation, say of the self, in a flow of sensations, -could not know itself as a part of such a flow, without knowing itself -as related to a before and an after in the process. To know even a -procession of sensations, we must have a spirit that stands still and -does not pass on with the procession. The spirit, then, must be out -of time to know succession, and out of space to know procession, and -self-conscious, so as to distinguish itself from the succession and the -procession. The human spirit is something in the midst of time, yet -passes not with the tides of time. It is to the succession of things -ever passing through it, and to the procession of sensations ever -passing before it, like some mighty Teneriffe with its peak of Teyde in -the midst of the sea, pushing its proud head up 12,000 feet above the -sea, and contrasting with its ever changing waves, the immutability of -eternity. Man, as a spirit, is after God, the most universal of all -facts. He is illimitable in more ways than space, remaining when all the -events of time have passed, and with a nature dipping into the eternal -spirit of God. The respect in which man is made in the image of God, -is, that he is endowed with self-consciousness, and self-determination. -Self-consciousness and self-determination are the universal forms of -spiritual activity. Man, as a self-conscious and self-determining spirit, -is not independent. He must find his true self beyond himself. He is -dependent upon the absolute self-consciousness and self-determination of -God. He is the child of God, and as there cannot be an absolute without -a relative, he is the relativity of the absolute. God’s nature is the -ground of man’s nature, and in God he is mirrored to himself. - -In God man lives and moves and has his being. In finding God, man finds -himself. In the revelation of God is the revelation of man. God is a -spirit and man is a spirit; but man, as a relative spirit, comes to -himself in God, the absolute spirit; as the life-germ of the acorn comes -to itself in the natural conditions of soil and sky which environ it. - - -I. - -As man is essentially spirit, he can never come to unity, only as he -comes to it in himself as a spirit. As long as he abandons himself -to mere bread, or power, or knowledge, or law, or beauty, there is -contradiction. Not in any one of these can he find full-orbed life. -These all bring nutriment to him, as a spirit, from the several spheres -to which they are variously correlated. But provision is made not only -for the sides and faculties of himself, but for the essential nature -of himself. We have seen how hunger was met by bread, the needs of -the social nature by power, intellect by truth, will by law, and the -æsthetic sense by beauty; but here we come to life, and find that love, -timeless and illimitable love, alone corresponds to it. But love can only -find its embodiment and its expression in life. Therefore, love has taken -the form of life to meet the needs of man as a spirit. - -We do not propose to discuss this subject dogmatically. The writer -believes in dogmatism; but in this work the attempt has been to treat -man, and the things provided for him, scientifically. We have taken -nothing for granted, and have intended to say nothing but what was -warranted by the facts. That man is a spirit, and related to an unseen -realm, is attested by the fact that all round this world temples and -mosques, and synagogues and churches lift themselves sublimely, or -modestly, to the sky. That there is something in man that seeks provision -from beyond the range of sense and sight, no one in his senses can deny. -This deep and fundamental and irrepressible need of man’s nature finds -its correlate in love. Speaking out of the depths of his life, it is an -everlasting call for sympathy, for reconciliation, for pardon, for peace. -Love gives sympathy, insures reconciliation, grants pardon, and secures -peace. But love can only come from the unseen and eternal in the form of -life. Let us see how the love expressed in the life and sacrifice and -death of Jesus Christ, as the embodiment of divine love, is set over -against the spiritual nature of man, as its correlate; as completely as -bread is set over against hunger, or the truth against the intellect, or -as beauty is set over against the æsthetic sense. We believe this is so -in the nature of things, and will finally be taught as truth, as absolute -and unfailing as the multiplication table. Men will come to it, after -a while, not only as a dogmatic doctrine taught by the churches, but -also as absolute doctrine, taught by the constitution and needs of human -nature. The time will come when to doubt this will not simply be to write -one’s self down as mean, but as mentally unbalanced. If Jesus Christ, as -love, is the correlate of the spiritual needs of the human race, then his -life is peculiar and unique. It cannot be classed with any other life. -It cannot be measured by any rule used to measure other things or other -lives. We propose to test this life by a principle said, by scientific -men, to have universal application in this time. - - -II. - -The doctrine of the correlation, equivalence, persistence, -transmutability and indestructibility of force, or the conservation of -energy has had vast influence upon the thought and life of our time. -It has furnished a new opening through which to behold the nature of -things. It has given to men a new working hypothesis and richer views and -conceptions of the universe and its author. - -The tremendous advancement made in the material civilization of the -present is due more to this than any other scientific doctrine or -principle. According to Professor Balfour Stewart, there are eight -forms of energy or force. The energy of visible motion, visible energy -of position, heat motion, molecular separation, atomic or chemical -separation, electrical separation, electricity in motion, and radiant -energy. Now taking this earth as a complete whole, containing within -itself all these forms of energy, and so isolated from the rest of the -universe as to receive nothing from it and to add nothing to it, then the -principle of the correlation of forces asserts that the sum of all these -forces is constant. - -“This does not assert that each is constant in itself, or any other of -the forms of force enumerated, for in truth they are always changing -about into each other—now some visible energy being changed into heat -or electricity, and heat or electricity being changed back again into -visible energy; but it only means that the sum of all the energies taken -together is constant. There are eight variable quantities, and it is -only asserted that their sum is constant, not by any means that they are -constant themselves.” - -For the purpose of elucidating our principle in the realm of nature, we -will consider it as it applies to some of the useful forces whose effects -we can measure and whose origin we can trace and determine. - -There is the force of conserved fuel. Away back in the carboniferous -period of the world’s history, there grew immense forests, which in -succeeding ages were turned under the earth, and, in the process of the -years, were changed into coal and oil and gas. These have been treasured -for untold ages in the mountains and in the bowels of the earth. Now they -are brought forth by the applied intelligence of man, to turn his wheel, -draw his car, cook his food, propel his plow, and to light his home and -his street. The force in one ton of coal is capable of accomplishing more -work in a few hours than one man could in a lifetime. All this force, as -well as that contained in the growing forests of to-day, originated in -the sun. - -There is the conserved force of food. This is found primarily in the -grass, the wheat, the rice, the fruit, which grow in our fields and -orchards. The lower animals feed on these, and through the process of -digestion and assimilation, they are transmuted into blood and bone and -muscle—thus furnishing man, who stands at the top and the end of the -creative process, with a more refined higher form of food. But whether -in the shape of grass, rice, wheat, or in the more refined form of -animal flesh, these various elements of food are only so much transmuted -sunshine. Before they ever adorned the surface of our fields, or moved -in the lowing herd over the meadow, they were held in solution in the -sunshine. The food, the fuel, and the animal life of our earth are all -traceable to the sun. - -There is the conserved force of flowing water. This turns the wheel, -spins the thread, gins the cotton, weaves the cloth, and grinds the corn. -All the force that water possesses for the performance of work, comes -from the sun. The warm rays of the sun, coming down on southern seas and -rivers, causes the waters thereof to evaporate, and then it is carried -on the wings of north-bound winds to a colder clime. There the diffused -waters gather themselves into clouds and fall in rain to flow down -the rivers, thus exchanging their energy of position, which they have -obtained from the sun, for the actual energy of the turning wheel. - -There is also the conserved force of moving winds. By the aid of this -ships spread their sails, and pass from continent to continent with the -products of the earth. Again all the force the winds possess for the -accomplishment of work comes from the sun. The rays of the sun come -down with great intensity upon certain parts of the earth and heat the -atmosphere. Into these heated places come the winds from colder regions. -Thus currents and counter-currents are created. By putting the wheel -of the windmill into these currents this force is converted into the -ground wheat and the drawn water. Thus all the different forms of force -displayed in the growing forests, the waving harvest fields, the flying -birds, the lowing herds, the rushing railway train, the whir of the -spindle, the ring of the hammer, and the pulsating blood come directly -from the sun. The force, too, seen in all these physical, vegetable, -animal, commercial realms, is the exact equivalent of what was poured -into them from the sun. The earth contains no other force capital than -what was paid over to it by the sun. It has issued no currency of its -own, not even enough to run a watch, or to send the blood once around the -body, or even to transport a piece of bread to a starving man. All the -force our earth possesses is borrowed, and if we were to cease to borrow, -we would be bankrupt in a single day. We are to remember, too, that by -so much force as the sun has parted with to our earth, and to other -worlds which look to it for supplies, by so much has its own force been -decreased. If we knew how much force the sun had in the beginning, and -would subtract from this amount all that it has given away to the present -time, we might be able to form some estimate of its assets to-day. - -We know not what the sun’s resources are. We know not by what methods -it has been replenishing its supplies of light and heat for ages past; -whether by chemical combination, meteoric impact, or condensation; we -only know by so much as it has in the ages past parted with, by so much -less force it has to-day. That it has been able to supply our world and -others like it, however, with heat and light and physical life for ages, -is not at all strange when we remember what an immense ball of fire the -sun is. It has a diameter of a million miles, in round numbers. Storms, -which travel across our world at the rate of sixty miles an hour, would -move across the surface of the sun at the rate of twenty thousand miles -an hour. The flames of a burning forest, which on our world would rise -one hundred feet in the air, on the sun would rise to the height of two -hundred thousand miles. The sun, too, has enough force on hand to supply -our earth and others with heat for untold ages yet to come, but unless -its supply is replenished, the time will come when it will be bankrupt -and nothing but a burnt out char in the heavens. This is so, because the -sun is the center of that great natural realm, the universal law of which -is the law of exclusiveness. - -In accordance with this law what the sun has in the way of force the -other planets do not have, and what other planets obtain from the sun -that body has forever lost. This is only another name for the law of the -correlation of forces. This law applies not only to the force of the sun, -but to all forces on this earth which come from that body. What one -tree gathers into itself is at the expense of the general fund of force -which goes to make trees. What one bird takes into his body is at the -expense of all force which goes to make birds. What one man takes into -his physical frame is at the expense of the general fund of force which -goes to make human bodies. Whatever amount of force is contained in the -cloud, in conserved water to turn the wheel, or in conserved electricity -to carry the message, is at the expense of the general fund of force. - -According to the doctrine of the correlation of forces, the rising up of -force in one place involves the subsidence of force in another place. The -amount rising up, too, is the exact equivalent of the amount subsiding. -When a rock falls from a church steeple the earth rises as much to meet -the rock, in proportion to its mass, as the rock falls to meet the earth, -in proportion to its mass. When a man shoots a rifle ball from a gun, as -much force goes back against his shoulder as goes out through the muzzle -of the gun. What the gun lacks in velocity it makes up in mass, and what -the ball lacks in mass it makes up in velocity. When a pine tree is cut -down and split into small pieces and put into an engine, just the same -amount of heat is gathered from it that was garnered from the sun in the -fifty years of its growth. This heat is also converted into an equivalent -of steam, and this steam into an equivalent amount of mechanical motion. -The sunshine, the pine tree, the heat, the steam, the mechanical -motion, are only different forms of the same thing. Scientists of the -materialistic school claim that this law holds good not only in the realm -of the natural world, but in the mental and moral, as well. Prof. Thomas -H. Huxley said, in a celebrated address in this country once, that a -speech was only so much transmuted mutton. According to Prof. Alexander -Bain, there are five chief powers, or forces in nature: one mechanical or -molar, the momentum of moving matter; the others, molecular, are embodied -in the molecules, also supposed in motion—these are light, heat, chemical -force, electricity. One member of vital energies, the nerve force, allied -to electricity, fully deserves to rank in the correlation. According to -this same distinguished authority, mind is only a refined and sublimated -form of physical force. In this view the great poems, paintings, and -literature of the world would be only so much transmuted sunshine—a -higher form of the same force we see manifested in the flying railway -train. In the one case the solidified sunshine contained in the coal is -transmuted through the furnace of the engine into mechanical motion; in -the other, the heat contained in food is transmuted through the human -brain into literature and art. Perhaps it might not be at wide variance -from the truth to assume that the force, mental or otherwise, expended -by men who spend their lives under the dominion of the natural law of -exclusiveness, may be accounted for in accordance with the doctrine of -the correlation of forces. Even mind, when earthly and low, is subject to -the bearing of the law of sin and death, which is the scriptural name for -the law of exclusiveness. - - -III. - -It might be plausibly contended that the religious movement of the -prophet Mohammed could be accounted for in accordance with the doctrine -of the correlation of forces. It is to be remembered that the personality -of Mohammed is no more the equivalent of the vast movement which -has existed and exists to-day under his name, than the acorn is the -quantitative equivalent of the immense oak tree which has grown from it. -The acorn, plus all the oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and other -forces of sky and earth which it caught and organized, is the equivalent -of the oak tree. The soil and the sky contain oaks in solution. Through -acorns these are precipitated into trees. - -The mental, political, and social atmosphere of Turkey contained the -Mohammedan movement in solution before Mohammed was born. Through him it -was precipitated into Koran, mosque, prayer, and worship. - -Mohammed relied for success upon the methods with which men ordinarily -succeed. He appealed to men’s love of fame, of pleasure, of conquest, of -power, of riches. He simply organized the latent aspirations, and hopes, -and fears of his countrymen into a great kingdom, essentially secular -and sensual. - -In accordance with the principle of the correlation of forces, it might -be possible to account for the success of Buddha, Confucius, Cæsar, -and Bonaparte. What we wish now, is to apply this doctrine, which the -materialists claim is capable of measuring everything, from an atom to -Milton’s “Paradise Lost,” to the life and work of Christ. Granting, as we -must, that all physical force may be estimated by it, and even that the -work and thought of men, in so far as they live under the natural law of -selfishness or exclusiveness, may be estimated by it. - -What we desire to inquire is, if the life and work of Christ form no -exception to its operation, as ordinarily regarded. Can we, in accordance -with this principle, account for the life and influence of Christ on the -assumption that he was only a man? Has no more force issued from the -person of Christ than subsided when only a man named Jesus was crucified? - -We have seen how the forms of physical force in the shape of fuel, food, -moving waters, and winds may be traced directly to the sun. Let us -also consider some of the forms of spiritual force which are traceable -directly to the life of Christ, and inquire if they may be accounted for -as the force which comes from the sun may be, by the principle of the -convertibility of force. - - -IV. - -There is the conserved spiritual force of Christian literature. This is -stored up in the Bibles of the world, in commentaries upon its text, in -expositions of its principles, in books illustrating its meaning. If all -the Bibles of the world, books written about the Bible—in favor of it or -against it—and all the books which have been inspired by some truth or -precept taught in the Bible, and all the books which owe their existence -directly or indirectly to the Bible, were burned up, Christendom would -be well-nigh without literature. All Bibles and all books and literature -which have grown out of the Bible owe their existence directly to Christ. -They have come as straight from him as the coal in the mountain has -come from the sun. Much force has been expended in the writing of all -these books and in printing them, binding them, circulating them. They -represent millions of dollars, ages of painful, patient thought. Into -them a marvelous amount of force has lifted itself—physical force, money -force, thought force. We are to find its equivalent. All the force that -has arisen in Christian literature has subsided at some point, and the -amount that subsided is the exact equivalent of that which has arisen. It -must be remembered, too, that distinctly Christian literature has not -made its way in the world, as have the writings of Homer and Plato, by -their affinity with man’s fancy. The wonderful interest which has ever -centered around the Bible is totally different in kind and degree from -that which centers around the works of Shakspere. Whatever there is of -literary merit, of philosophic thought, or of poetic depth in the Bible -is incidental. - -There is the conserved spiritual force of Christian art. The masterpieces -in painting, sculpture, music, poetry, and architecture are Christian. -The inspiration which produced Milton’s “Paradise Lost,” Handel’s -“Messiah,” Powers’ “Eve,” and St. Peter’s at Rome, has all come from -Christ. In the conception and production of these an immense amount of -the most subtle, refined force has been expended. - -There is the conserved force of Christian money. This has taken the form -of church buildings, buildings for education, for orphans, for the sick, -for the wretched and the poor. There is not a great city in the world -to-day without a Christian church edifice. They are the expressions of -a great force, of which we are seeking to find the equivalent. They owe -their existence directly to the person of Christ. The millions of money -which have been spent in their erection have been because of love to -him. They are as directly related to him as the oak tree is to the sun. -If all these churches were burned down to-day, men would begin at once -the erection of better ones to take their places. The conserved force of -Christian money, then, which tends to lift itself into church edifices, -is not exhausted in those which already stand upon the earth; but just as -much as has lifted itself into brick and marble, and window, and dome, -and pinnacle is ready to take the same forms if the necessity for them -were laid upon the Christian world. - -There is the conserved force of Christian home life. The force here -referred to is not manifest in the life itself, but in the form which -family life has taken in the Christian world. There is hardly a home -in Christendom to-day, but has been formed directly or indirectly with -reference to Christ. Into those places where character is formed, where -revolutions are started, where Wesleys and Gladstones are developed, -where eternal issues pend, Christ has come quietly and silently to -regulate, to dominate and control. To thus influence, regulate, and -vitally touch homes, to thus determine their form, appointment, and -character, requires a great deal of force. - -There is the conserved force implied in the inception and perpetuation -of the Christian Calendar. Infidels, materialists, and atheists, in -dating their letters, pay tribute to the character of Christ in the fact -that they recognize he has ushered in a new era. Christ has claimed and -held through nearly two thousand years one day out of every week to be -devoted to his service. The day upon which he was born is celebrated in -the hearts of men and in the arts of men. To change the world’s calendar, -to inaugurate and make permanent a new date, to impel the world to set -apart a day for his worship, to furnish the world with new festivals and -holidays, has required, certainly, a vast amount of force. This we are to -trace and determine, and we are also to find its equivalent. - -There is the conserved Christian force implied in the fact that Christ -has won the hearts of men. To win the disinterested love of one man takes -much force, more than most men have. To win the love of a state takes -more. But to win and to hold, through the perturbations and revolutions -of kingdoms and republics, the undying love of the best and purest men -on earth requires an infinite amount of force. This point in Christ’s -character greatly impressed the first Napoleon. Said he, “I know men. -Christ is not a man. I have seen the time when I could inspire thousands -to die for me, but it took the inspiration of my presence and the power -of my word. Since I am away from men, a prisoner on Helena, no one will -die for me. Christ, on the other hand, has been away from the world -nearly two thousand years, and yet there are millions who would die for -him. I tell you, Christ is not a man. I know men.” - - -V. - -It would be impossible to recount all the institutions, books, -civilizations, laws, discoveries, inventions, homes and hearts, into -which the force of Christ’s life has for the past nineteen hundred -years been lifting itself. As the sun expresses itself in the meadow, -and lifts itself into the trees of the forests, so Christ has been -embodying himself in the institutions, homes, and thoughts of men. The -scientists say all force can be accounted for. When force has risen up -at one point it has subsided at another: the amount rising up being -the exact equivalent of that subsiding. Upon this principle we are -seeking to account for all this force that, coming from Christ, has -expressed itself in the domestic, social, political, and ecclesiastical -institutions of men. More has risen than can be computed by human -arithmetic, or compassed by human imagination, or comprehended by human -thought. Where did it come from? Where did it subside? At what point -did it disappear to rise again in such overwhelming volume, and such -sweeping and far-reaching influence? We go back through eighteen hundred -years. We are standing in Jerusalem. We hear conflicting reports of a -strange, daring young man. At length he is pointed out to us. There is -nothing remarkable about his appearance. He is a Jew. He was born among -the poor. He is not noted for culture. He has no social position. He has -no money. He has no political power or prestige. He has no army at his -command. He has no philosophical system. He is connected with no academy. -He is only thirty-three years old. His words are contained in no books. -They are simply in the memory of his disciples. He is misunderstood. His -own disciples do not know what to make of him. Finally he is arrested, -and tried, and condemned, and crucified. He dies between two thieves, -scorned, scoffed, buffeted, and friendless. Keep in mind the principle -we are considering. All force can be measured. No more force rises up -than subsides. Action and reaction are equal. We are seeking to account, -in accordance with this principle, for the vast amount of force Christ -has poured into the institutions and thoughts of humanity. Is this young -man’s life, seemingly so insignificant and weak, the exact equivalent -of all the churches, schools, colleges, arts, literature, homes, -governments, sacrifice, heroism, good works, martyrdom, patience, love, -and hope that have by general consent resulted from his existence in the -world? If so, was he only a man? Multiply thirty-three years by poverty, -toil, contempt, sorrow, and crucifixion, and you have one product. -Multiply nineteen hundred years by millions of churches, schools, and -homes; by millions of books, paintings, and poems; by social position, -wealth, and power; by success, triumph, and conquest; by love, mercy, -and truth; by a hold upon humanity unequaled, and by an influence on -home and thought unrivaled, and you have another product. The question -is: does one of these products seem to be the equivalent of the other? -Does not the outcome surpass by an infinite degree the income? Is not -the evolution out of all proportion to the involution? Has not a great -deal more force risen up than seemingly subsided? Is there not much more -power seemingly on this side the Cross than there was on the other? -Manifestly and clearly Christ’s life and work cannot be accounted for by -the principle of the correlation of forces. - -Mohammed’s success and disciples we can understand. He succeeded by the -ordinary methods by which men succeed. He appealed to men’s love of -fame, conquest, wealth, power, pleasure. He offered men, as a reward for -their fealty to him, a great earthly kingdom, and such a heaven beyond -the grave as would regale the senses, please the fancy, and gratify the -appetites. He simply organized and applied the latent earthly forces -already existing in his countrymen. His success is in line with that -of Cæsar and Bonaparte. The kingdom which he proposed to establish was -merely an earthly, sensual kingdom. His methods were carnal, the motives -to which he appealed were sensual, and the hopes which he inspired were -carnal. Christ, on the other hand, condemned men’s love of conquest, -power, fame, riches, and pleasure. He made the conditions of discipleship -to consist in the denial of self and in the relinquishment of all -earthly hopes, gratifications, and prospects. “If you find your life in -my kingdom,” said he, “you must lose it in this.” He proposed to build -up a kingdom as wide as the world, and as lasting as eternity, without -adopting a single method or utilizing any of the means ordinarily relied -on for success. Not only did he propose a new kingdom, but to populate it -with new men, motives, hopes, conceptions, and opinions. Hence, to come -into his kingdom, men were to be made over. They were to die to self, to -the world, to pleasure. So Christ’s work and influence in the world not -only forms an exception to the principle of the correlation of forces, -but here we have an unparalleled amount of force rising up when, to all -human appearances, none subsided at all. - - -VI. - -A poor young carpenter dies. He goes down in ignominy. Amid the jeers -and contempt of the multitude, he goes down into the grave. But from -that moment, commotion begins. Forgiveness of sin in the name of Christ -is preached; disciples are won; books are written; civilizations are -touched; movements are inaugurated; persecutions, bloody and relentless, -are waged. The fires of hate are kindled; storms from all round the -social, political, and religious sky gather, and howl, and empty their -fury upon the new movement. Nothing impedes it; fire cannot hinder it; -persecution intensifies it; death does not alarm it. Now, we submit, does -not such a movement, starting from such a source, and moving out with -such vigor, and becoming intenser and deeper as it is extended, form a -remarkable and singular exception to the principle we are considering? -Is there any rule among men by which it may be estimated and classified -and labeled? Can any human, or logical, or philosophical formula or -principle measure the multiform and widely diversified facts in this -case? Does it not form an exception to all rules and human methods of -measurements? Do we not augment the difficulties of accounting for the -work of Christ by minifying him, and calling him a mere man? Is not the -easier way to account for Christ’s work, to accord to him all that he -claims for himself and all that his disciples claimed for him. He said, -“All power is given to me in heaven and in earth.” If we accept this as -true, we can account for his work. But in this view, we will see that -his life was divine and one with the Father of us all. Then we will see -that he was the Son of God, the Word made flesh, the incarnation of the -divine mind and wisdom and power. It is impossible to account for the -life and work of Christ by the principles with which physical force and -merely human force and thought are measured. The sun is the center of the -system of nature, a system destined to end. Any system, the center of -which is gradually losing its force, cannot last. Christ is the center of -a spiritual system totally different from the system of nature. By all -the force the sun parts with to the worlds about it, by so much less has -it. It is gradually losing itself, to find itself no more forever. Christ -is pouring his force into the system of which he is the center, but by -such a process he is not losing his force, but increasing it. By losing -himself he finds himself. The universal law of the system of which he is -the center, is the law of communion. The force he gives away comes back -to him augmented by the personality of all who partake of it. Instead of -becoming poorer by giving, he becomes richer. This great truth St. Paul -saw when he said: “All things are yours, whether Paul, or Apollos, or -Cephas, or the world, or life, or death, or things present, or things to -come, all are yours, and ye are Christ’s; and Christ is God’s.” - - -VII. - -One life has appeared among men, then, that was all love. Jesus Christ -is the only original, absolutely unselfish life that has been lived on -earth. The saints have found the secret, and strength, and inspiration of -their unselfishness and love in him. The love which matches and meets the -illimitable nature of the human spirit is embodied in a life that cannot -be measured by the ordinary rules and standards of men. The object of -which hunger is the subject, is bread; the object of which intellect is -the subject, is truth; the object of which will is the subject, is law; -the object of which the æsthetic sense is the subject, is beauty; the -object of which the spiritual nature is the subject, is Jesus Christ. The -spirit of man which has for its correlate in time, the race, has for its -correlate in eternity, the life of one in which is summed up all power, -all truth, all law, all beauty, and all love. As the embodiment of love -the human spirit finds in Christ the climate and the conditions exactly -adapted to its own realization. The plan and pattern, the invisible -framework and ideal of every man’s life is Christian. To be an oak is to -be a perfect acorn, to be an apple is to be a complete flower, to be a -Christian is to be a complete man. - - - - -_IMMORTALITY._ - - - “How does the rivulet find its way? - How does the floweret know its day - And open its cup to catch the ray? - - “I see the germ to the sunlight reach, - And the nestling knows the old bird’s speech. - I do not know who is there to teach. - - “I see the hare through the thicket glide, - And the stars through the trackless spaces ride. - I do not see who is there to guide. - - “He is eyes for all, who is eyes for the mole, - See motion goes to the rightful goal. - O God! I can trust for the human soul.” - - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -THE PERMANENCE OF THE COMPLETED LIFE OF MAN. - - -Back of the movement which began in creation and culminated in man, we -posited the mind of a self-conscious, self-determining, self-active, -personal God. Necessity was upon us to assume a first principle of some -kind, and it seemed proper to have one large enough to account for the -facts we were about to consider. The first principle Thales set up was -water. In water he saw the origin of all and the end of all. But all that -came out of water must, in the end, find its death in water. With nothing -but a vast ocean to start with, we shall find, at the conclusion, nothing -more articulate and rational than an infinite expanse of water to end -with. - -Herbert Spencer, “the heir of all the ages in the foremost files of -time,” took as the starting point of his philosophy the unknowable. In -the selection of a first principle, however, we think Thales, though the -first philosopher who ever lived, had the advantage of him. - -Water is a definite and positive somewhat; the unknowable is an -indefinite and inarticulate vacuity. With water for a first principle, -the prospect is certain destruction in a general deluge. With the -unknowable for a first principle, the prospect is sure imbecility in -universal ignorance. It is better to be drowned in water than to have -the light of intelligence put out in everlasting night. Mr. Spencer’s -unknowable was a convenient receptacle into which to dump difficulties -and troublesome problems; but, as a working hypothesis, it was not -sufficient even to build the universe Mr. Spencer saw. In the process -of constructing his system, Mr. Spencer gave to his unknowable nearly -all the attributes which theologians give to a personal God. As we -have already seen, when Mr. Spencer got through with drawing from his -unknowable all that he had to have to give his system the order and show -of reason, it was found that the unknowable part of the unknowable had -about been scattered in the light of knowledge. For this same unknowable -was found to have Being, Power, Activity, Causal Energy, and Omnipresence -for attributes. Nothing more can come out of a first principle than what -is contained in it. Out of water, nothing but water comes, and out of the -unknowable, nothing but the unknowable comes. One can posit an acorn, -under certain conditions of soil and sky, and get an oak; but the germ of -the oak must be in the acorn, and the nutriment of the oak must be in the -conditions before any oak can come out. It is the old truism, that “out -of nothing, nothing comes.” No one ever attempts to account for anything -without a first principle. The test of the reality and value of a first -principle will be determined solely by its capacity to account for the -facts which come out of it. It is because the unknowable fails to account -for the facts of nature, and for self-consciousness, self-determination, -and self-activity in man, who stands as the complete consummation and -realization of nature, that it is not accepted as an adequate first -principle. - -Matthew Arnold, in order to escape the objections which he had to -taking a self-conscious, self-determining, personal God for a first -principle, substituted “The Stream of Tendency, not ourselves, that -makes for righteousness.” But this sentence, when analyzed, reveals the -fact that Matthew Arnold’s Stream has about the same essential elements -the theologian supposes to reside in God. A stream has a source, a -direction, and an end. Here, then, we have cause, means, and ultimate -object. It is also said that the stream makes for something; here is -self-determination. It is said to make for righteousness; here is the -attribute of Justice, and justice can only be predicated of a person. - -Given nature, with its elements, laws, and unity, and man as the being -in whom the whole of nature is summed up, with self-consciousness, -self-determination, and self-activity; the only first principle -sufficient to account for the facts is a self-conscious, -self-determining, self-active personal God. It is only such a first -principle that is large enough to account for the number, and order, and -drift, and collocations of the facts; and to such a first principle the -number, and order, and drift, and collocations of the facts may be traced. - -If we see red and violet and blue colors appearing in the carpet on -one side of the loom, we are warranted in assuming that red and violet -and blue threads are entering the carpet on the other side of the loom. -Nature is a marvelous loom. At first there are simple elements, then -there are compounds, then there are plants, then there are animals. At -last all the elements, as so many strands, with their manifold hues and -variegated colors, appear in the life of man. Man is the harbor where -all the freight, started on its stormy course at creation, comes to -shore. Its matter takes majestic form in his body, its power lends itself -as wind to his sail, as heat to his engine, as light to his street: -its truth is arranged by the intellect into literature and science: -its law is formulated into statutes, enactments, and constitutions: -its beauty is built into oratorios and spread in radiant visions: its -love is accepted and turned into tenderness, and sacrifice, and hope. -Infinite personality at the beginning, self-conscious, self-determining, -and self-active. Finite personality at the conclusion, self-conscious, -self-determining, and self-active. - -If you call the process evolution, then no more has been evolved than -was involved. If you prefer direct creation, then nothing is seen in the -creature that was not built into him by the Creator. Either way, if a -self-conscious, self-determining, and self-active man appears on one side -of nature, a self-conscious, self-determining, and self-active personal -God is, we may know, on the other. - - -I. - -The importance of a correct first principle, and of a right idea of the -nature of that first principle, cannot be urged too strongly. In the -right solution of the question we are considering, everything depends on -it. If we start with water, as Thales did, we will be forced to conclude -that individual lives, like bubbles, will eventually fall back and mingle -with the waves of the sea. - -If we start with the unknowable, as Spencer did, we shall be led to see -that human spirits will lose themselves at death, as candles lose their -light when the wicks are consumed. - -It is not left us, however, arbitrarily to assume such a first principle -as comports with the particular theory of life it is our purpose to -establish. The first principle that corresponds to reality is already -implicit in the facts, the origin, and purpose, and end of which we -wish to know. The law of gravity is implicit in falling bodies, and in -the revolving stars. The sunbeam is implicit in the growing tree. All -that happens when one posits a first principle that is not implicit in -the facts he is considering, is that his first principle will fail to -account for the facts. Matthew Arnold had a perfect right to assume as -a first principle, “The Stream of Tendency, not ourselves, that makes -for righteousness.” This looked poetic and impersonal, and in his esteem -served him as a working hypothesis. - -It never seemed to occur to him that his principle implied the same -elements and attributes the theologians regarded as uniting in God; -the elements and attributes he was so anxious to get rid of. Herbert -Spencer, with a theory to work out, and a particular system to buttress -and bolster, devised and adopted a first principle that seemed to promise -most to his peculiar views. This he had a right to do. But he had no -right to take as a first principle the unknowable, with which to destroy -the Christian’s God; and just as soon as he had accomplished this to his -entire satisfaction, to turn deliberately and take nearly every attribute -of the Christian’s God to bestow upon his unknowable. It is hardly to be -supposed that Mr. Spencer, with malice aforethought planned the death -of God in order to steal his attributes. The more charitable view is to -suppose that at the outset his intention was to erect an absolutely new -philosophic edifice, upon a new and original foundation. To do this, it -was necessary to clear the ground of everything in sight. So in a high -moment of philosophic self-confidence, he determined on the obliteration -of all previous and time-honored first principles, that he might posit -one of his own making and to his own liking. - -This was the destructive stage of his mental movement, and it did not -occur to him that many of the elements he was clearing away in such -wholesale fashion would be necessary to carry up his new philosophic -temple. When he got through with the period of preparation, he had -nothing to start with but a plain, simple, empty, unknowable. But it -soon became evident that the unknowable must have some content, in order -to support a decent and orderly structure. At this point he took the -attributes of the Christian’s God, Being, Power, Activity, Causal Energy, -Omnipresence, and filled up his empty unknowable with them. Then he -proceeded with his work. - - -II. - -In starting with a self-conscious, self-determining and personal God, -then, as a first principle that accommodates and insures the immortality -of the individual spirit, we are only beginning with what is implicit -in the facts of nature and human life. Let it be clearly apprehended -that the ground of the self-conscious, self-determining, personal God -is thought. That the fundamental and first thing in this universe is -mind. That the being of God is secondary to the mind, or thought of God. -God has being, because he has thought, and not thought, because he has -being. The trouble with the pantheistic system of Spinoza was that he -looked upon God, first as infinite substance or being, while thought was -only one of the modes of this being, and extension was the other. The -root of all doubt and skepticism is to be traced to a confused notion of -the nature of God. Many speak of God as the Supreme Being, and advertise -by their language that in their esteem God is diffused nebulosity, or -universally extended externality. There never was a skeptic in the world -who had come to the rational and tenable position, that God is primarily, -and fundamentally, and essentially thought. We may properly speak of -his being, his wisdom, his justice, his truth, his love; but these are -different determinations of his thought. God’s being is the externality -of his thought. His wisdom is his thought devising means to ends. His -justice is his thought balancing and regulating. His truth is his thought -in realization. His love is his thought in sacrifice. “In the beginning -was the Word.” A word is an expressed thought. “The Word was with God.” -The realized thought or word was with God, the Eternal Thinker, or -Thought. “God said, Let there be light, and there was light.” Light was -thus the expression of thought. Nearly all materialism and pantheism -look upon things as an emanation from something. Vapor emanates from the -surface of a river, and is only the river in diffusion. But the universe -does not emanate from God; it is the direct creation and expression of -his thought. Potentially the universe was always in the thought of God. - - -III. - -We have dwelt at length on the self-consciousness and self-determination -of God, as these unite in him as an absolute personality, for the -reason that the immortality of the human spirit finds its condition -and its security here. If God is a person, and self-conscious, -self-determining, and self-active, man is immortal, for in him the -elements which constitute the essential nature of God appear. Man is -a person and a spirit, made in the likeness and image of God. He is, -therefore, as imperishable and indestructible as God is. He has thought -and is therefore self-conscious; he has a will, and is therefore -self-determining; he has power, and is therefore self-active; he -maintains his identity through change, and is therefore a person. But -the finite person finds his life through the infinite Person. He finds -his knowledge by partaking of truth, the realized thought of God; he -finds his freedom by the observance of law, the expressed will of God; -he finds his peace by partaking of the life that was in Christ, the -manifested love of God. As the fundamental and prior thing in the being -of God is thought, so the fundamental and prior thing in the being of -man is thought. His progress in the practical matters of life will be in -proportion to his thought. His political status will be in proportion -to his thought; his religious attainment will be in proportion to his -thought. Schleiermacher said “Feeling is the source of religion—a feeling -of dependence.” But one cannot have a feeling of dependence without -having the thought of dependence. One cannot feel that he depends unless -he thinks of himself as dependent. Matthew Arnold said that religion -was morality touched by emotion. But there cannot be morality without -the thought of some rule by which conduct ought to be guided. Even the -African savage, who worships a snake, thinks there is something in the -snake entitled to his adoration. Thought is the clearest self-explication -of the human spirit. In thought it comes to itself and knows itself. -Take thought out of the spirit of man, and you take out its essential -nature. Its immortality, even were it possible, would then not be worth -contending for. One had as well be blotted out, as to lose the only -element of his spirit by which he is able to recognize himself as such. -Looking upon thought as the center and kernel of the human spirit, -we see that to deny the immortality of the human spirit is to assume -that thought is destructible; and this is a flat contradiction, for -destruction has no meaning, except in relation to thought. It is of the -very nature of thought to be eternal. No thought ever dies, or can die. -All the determinations of God’s thought are eternal. The mind of God -has within it all determinations of thought; those past, those present, -and those to come. Some of these determinations of the divine thought -have taken the form of objects in the inorganic world, some have taken -the form of objects in the vegetable kingdom, and some have taken the -form of objects in the animal kingdom. The determinations of thought, of -which inorganic things, trees, and animals were the expressions, are all -eternal. - -It is of the nature of the things in which the determinations of thought -took form to change and pass away. But the ideal patterns, of which they -were only the temporary forms, are held in the mind of God forever. The -house which expresses the architect’s ideal may be blown away, or burned -up, but the ideal in the thought of the architect cannot be blown away or -burned up. Now in man the determination of God’s thought is not expressed -in a thing, but in a thought. Man, as God’s child, inherits, or comes -through creation into the possession of thought, of mind, so that he is -able to set up thinking—in his own behalf, and by the self-determining, -self-conscious, and self-active power of his own mind. God as thought is -his own object and his own subject, and man as thought is his own object -and his own subject. God has set him up to housekeeping in the republic -of thought. - -In the changes which take place in material objects, there is -preservation of the species, but the loss of the individual. The object -is an element and not a self. When it changes, it is by something -external to itself, and in changing, realizes its nature. It is -indifferent to change, as there is no central self that retains its -essential identity in the midst of all change. The tree belongs to -a higher order of existence than a rock. It is the expression of -unconscious life. The animal belongs to a still higher plane than the -tree. Besides appropriating food from its environment, as does the tree, -it takes in the images of things, and lives a low order of sentient life. -But in order that animals may take in the images of things through the -senses, the things must be present before them. When the thing is gone, -the image fades. The objects which stand around man in his environment -pass into his consciousness through the senses. But when the environment -changes and the objects are taken away, the impressions made by the -objects remain. In this way man re-creates the universe for his own -thought. The gurgling of brooks, the murmur of the sea, the sighing of -the winds, the cooing of doves, he hears just as the animal does. But -away from brooks, and seas, and winds, and doves, Beethoven throws into -one of his symphonies all the notes that were ever on sea or land. He -has within him the same kind of mind that expressed itself in all the -notes of music, and he not only hears these notes, but he re-combines and -reorganizes them in his great compositions. - - -IV. - -The spirit of man is simple. It is an ultimate and indivisible unity. -Death divides, breaks up, and disintegrates. The nature of the human -spirit is such, however, that it cannot be divided, broken up, or -disintegrated. We see it maintain its identity through the storms and -mutations of eighty years. All things change about it. The very body -that constitutes its temporary abiding place is torn down and rebuilt -many times in the course of a long life. It advances in knowledge and -experience; grows larger and richer in hope and love, but all its -accumulations of thought and increasing wealth of life are stored in the -same self-conscious, self-determining, personal spirit. In the evening of -life the old man sits in the midst of his grandchildren and recounts the -scenes of his boyhood days. All the waves of time contained within the -sweep of three score years and ten have left their labels of drift and -storm on the shores of his life. But they have not worn, or wasted, or -altered his spirit. - -A rock wears away, or is crumbled to dust, when it is a rock no longer. -A tree is cut down and split into cord wood and burned in the engine, -and it is a tree no longer. In the furnace it is turned back into its -original elements. In the fire it is altered or othered. The other of a -tree is oxygen, hydrogen, etc. The bird in the thicket is shot by the -heartless sportsman. It falls to the ground and its little heart ceases -to beat. Soon its body is changed back into earth and air. The other of -a bird is not a bird, but the particles which were organized under the -process of natural law to form its body. The images which fell on its -vision in the grove, faded away when the objects which caused them were -removed. The sounds which came to its ears from here and there in the -forest passed from its sense when the air that caused them ceased to -vibrate. In the bird there was no inner self, abiding, self-conscious, -determining, and active, that was capable of grasping and holding and -recreating the visions and the notes which came to it. It may have -had a sort of sentient consciousness, but it was not much above the -consciousness of the sea, which holds the images of the stars in its -dark blue waves, as long as they stand above it. - -By comparing man with the classes of individuals below him, we may see -the respects in which he rises infinitely above them. And we may see, -too, by this comparison, that immortality is not something to which -man is to come beyond death, but something that he has already in the -very constitution of the personal spirit. The same may be said of man’s -body, that is said of the bodies of trees and birds, its other is the -original elements which compose it. The life in a tree cannot other -itself, because it is not conscious. The life in a bird cannot other -itself because its consciousness is not self-consciousness. But in man’s -body there resides a spirit that can other itself. Man, as a personal -spirit, can project himself out of himself, and reason with himself and -commune with himself. The self he projects out of himself is another -self, but not a different self. The other of man’s spirit, then, is not -something else, but it is the same spirit. Man is subject and object, -active and passive, determiner and determined. Man, as subject, may -externalize himself, and thus make of himself his own object, and by this -self-separation enrich himself and advance within himself. Beethoven, as -a thinking subject, objectified his thought in the symphonies, and thus -regaled and thrilled his own spirit. By putting his own thought into the -form of sound waves, it came back to him in the rain, and storm, and -thunder, and sigh, and murmur of music. As a thinking subject Raphael -objectified his own thought in the transfiguration, and thus had it -come back to him in a vision as immortal as the spirit that created it. -Michael Angelo objectified his own thought in the Last Judgment, and by -this self-separation of his spirit, advertised its indestructibility. -Homer, as a thinking subject, objectified his thought into the Iliad. -This great epic poem has already lived, even on this side of the grave, -where the order is change and decay, nearly three thousand years. Are we -to conclude that a personal spirit that could deposit itself in numbers -never to die, was itself subject to dissolution? This would be to have an -effect greater than the cause. The sunbeam may deposit itself in a tree, -and thus secure to itself life in embodied form for hundreds of years. -But in order that this may be, the sun must send his beams to warm and -nourish the tree all the days of its life. The Iliad has lived, however, -nearly three thousand years, without the daily ministrations of Homer’s -spirit. For a bubble on the sea of life to lift itself into imperishable -form and then fall back to mingle with the waves and the waters, is to -contradict the principle of the correlation of forces, which declares -that action and reaction must always be equal. The expression a spirit -makes of itself cannot be more enduring than the spirit itself. - - “The ship may sink and I may drink - A hasty death in the bitter sea; - But all that I leave in the ocean grave - May be slipped and spared, and no loss to me. - - “What care I, though falls the sky, - And the shriveled earth to a cinder turn? - No fires of doom can ever consume - What never was made nor meant to burn. - - “Let go the breath! There is no death - For the living soul, nor loss nor harm. - Nor of the clod is the life of God; - Let it mount, as it will, from form to form.” - -When a train of cars stops suddenly at the depot, the energy that caused -it to fly along the track is not lost, it is only transformed. When a -tree is cut down, the energy that expressed itself in its trunk and -branches is not lost, it will only take other forms. When a horse dies, -the energy of which its life was the expression is not lost, it is -transformed. When a tree or a horse passes from the living world into the -world of inorganic things, the exact amount of energy in the body of the -living tree or horse takes other forms. The amount on the side of death -is equal to the amount on the side of life. If we consider man only as a -physical organism, the same may be said of him. The amount transformed -into earth and air, will be the equivalent of the organized fund of -bone, and sinew, and muscle, turned over to death. If we thus estimate -man, however, as we do a tree or a horse, have we taken into account the -entire sum of assets that were in his possession during life? What of -his thought, affection, and volition? When Kepler died, what became of -the intelligence that discovered the “Three Laws,” which constitute the -arches of the sublime bridge that spans the vast chasm between Ptolemaic -and modern astronomy? When Laplace died, what became of the spirit that -solved the problems of the Mécanique Céleste, by the aid of which the -irregularities of the heavenly bodies were reduced to order? When Adams -died, what became of the massive spirit that built in the depths of his -own study the planet Neptune, with no other raw material to work from -than the perturbations of Uranus? When Moses died, what became of the -affection that expressed itself in the training and civilization of a -race? When Jesus Christ died, what became of the love that sacrificed -itself for a sinful world? - -When we begin to talk about human life, we find all that has made -civilization is not physical. In the death of human beings, the energies -of thought, and affection, and volition are not represented in the -transformations which take place with reference to their bodies. Yet all -the energies man has put forth that give any evidence of his record on -the earth are such as come from thought, and affection, and volition. As -these energies are not transformed at death, as are the forces of the -body, they must continue. For to suppose they ceased at death would be to -break the law of the correlation and the conservation of forces. If they -are not transformed at death, along with the forces of the body, they -must reside in another than the material world, and must not, therefore, -be subject to its changes. - - -V. - -The personal spirit, by its very nature, and tendencies, and -possibilities, seems to be addressed to another than the tangible, local, -and physical realm in which it finds itself while residing in the body. -An irrepressible and wide-reaching something in the spirit of each man -seems to impel him to triumph over space, and time, and change. In the -accumulation of property, he would own the whole world. A very small -portion of land would be adequate to his physical needs. But he would -add acre to acre, till his private domain compassed the surface of the -whole earth. Alexander, weeping because there was not another world he -could get to conquer, advertises the immensity and illimitability of the -human spirit. By the aid of instruments by which man has augmented and -lengthened his power of vision, he has come upon stars rolling in the -immensity of space to the circle of the thirteenth magnitude. He has not -been content to look upon the stars in the vast depths of space, but he -has photographed them, so as to behold their faces in his study. Back -beyond the dim dawn of time, commensurate with the appearance of human -life on earth, he has gone, to return with the chemical, physical, and -stratigraphical history of the globe. By the aid of steam, he has made -himself a cosmopolite, and through the application of electricity, he has -made himself ubiquitous. Must we not posit a spirit correlated to the -universal to account for this disposition to compass all things, to know -all things, and to be everywhere? The tendency of the human spirit to -compass and possess universality is seen, too, by its capacity to create -language, in which it embodies all things and through which it expresses -its thought of all things. If there had to be separate words for all -individual things any but the most limited knowledge would be impossible, -and such knowledge alone there would be if man was shut up to atomic -sensations for the data of knowledge. But the mind, by its creative, -combining power, and its active spontaneous insight, forms words which -represent not only individual things, but classes and species of things. -Man devises the word _oak_, and lets it stand for all the oaks in the -world. He creates the word _humanity_, and puts into it the whole human -race. He coins the word _vegetable_, and uses it to define the whole -kingdom of plants. Thus he not only goes over the world and sees it -directly, but he produces language manifold and complicated, and elastic -enough to accommodate and contain the world, with all that is in it. This -makes it possible for him to go round the world and see all its wonders, -without leaving the place of his birth. - -He not only builds for himself the universe in language, so that he can -contemplate its moons, and measure its suns, and sail its oceans, and -climb its mountains in the silent precincts of his study, but he avails -himself of sound and light, also, to give expression to universal ideas. -He takes a few notes, and so combines and mixes them as to be able to -touch all the chords of the universal human heart in one song. Michael -Angelo put all the theology of all the books into the Last Judgment. - -Throughout the length and breadth of nature, there is economy of faculty -and resource until we come to man. The fish has not a gill nor a fin too -many, and there is not in the water where he lives any surplus or margin -upon which he does not make levies for his life. - -The wings and tail and bones of the bird are all necessary to his poise -and circle in the sky. The same economy is found in the atmosphere -through which the bird flies. It is none too heavy and none too light. -But when we come to man, we find that margin and surplus is the rule. -He has a surplus of faculty and a surplus of resource, a surplus of -endowment and a surplus of environment. He finds it necessary to make -levies on hardly any of himself to get along in this world, at least as -far as his natural wants are concerned. What would be the use for a -carpenter to have all the tools necessary to build St. Peter’s at Rome, -if his only work was to put up a tent for a week’s camping excursion in -the woods? Why have an engine with a million horse power to run a flutter -mill? - -With the animal there is changing endowment and changing environment. -Limitations are clear and distinct within and without. But with man -there is infinite environment. Within he has a self-determining spirit, -subject and object, bound together in a simple and indissoluble unity. -Surrounding this spirit, infinite in structure and capacity, is infinite -truth, infinite law, and infinite love. Even Herbert Spencer said -“Perfect correspondence would be perfect life. Were there no changes in -the environment but such as the organism had adapted changes to meet, and -were it never to fail in the efficiency with which it met them, there -would be eternal existence, and eternal knowledge.” In the personal -spirit and the elements which surround it, we have the two eternal terms -of eternal correspondence. A self-determining spirit is essentially, -structurally, and constitutionally imperishable. It others itself only -through its own act. And the other of itself is itself. It is its own -subject and its own object. When it goes out of itself, it is itself -that goes out. It is a complete circle, an absolute and indestructible -individuation. It is the final expression of God’s creative power. -Through all the revolutions and mutations of time, this was the destined -goal. The destruction of a human spirit would register the death of -God. It is the direct expression of the spirit of God, and bears his -own likeness and image, and has for the guarantee of its permanence the -person of the eternal God himself. - - -VI. - -Rev. Edward White of England, Dr. E. Petavel of France, and Dr. Lyman -Abbott of America, have denied what Dr. Abbott is pleased to call -facultative immortality. Immortality, in their esteem, is an importation -from without. It is the claim of Locke, and Hume, and Mill, and Spencer, -that knowledge is an importation from the realm of sensation. Their -war was upon the knowing faculties. From the domain of philosophy -the conflict has passed up to the plane of religion, and we now have -the attack made upon the self-determining spirit. In the sensational -philosophy, we have seen all things dissolved. It not only makes it -impossible to rationally believe in God, but also in mind, and self, -and external world. The sensational philosophy got the object of -knowledge by a process that destroyed the subject of knowledge, so this -irrational theory of Dr. Lyman Abbot would secure the object of life by -the destruction of the subject of life. We know that the raw material of -knowledge is found in the objective world, but unless the mind has the -inherent combining, active power to take this raw material and organize -it into an orderly system, then the individual can never know anything. -There being in the mind no master of ceremonies, no director and referee, -the tramp and vagabond sensations may wander in and wander out at their -sweet will. They would come in with their own opinions and go out with -their own opinions. There being no head of the house within, the tramps -could have it all their own way. - -Knowledge, beginning out of the mind, would have its cause and end out of -the mind. Beginning with matter, knowledge could be resolved back into -matter. - -We believe the life in which the human spirit is to realize its nature -fully and harmoniously was embodied in Jesus Christ, who was the word -made flesh. - -But it is because the spirit of man is essentially indestructible, that -it has power to take hold of this life and assimilate it. If it refuses -this divine embodiment of life, it brings disorder, and confusion, and -everlasting sorrow to itself, but not destruction. The self-determining -spirit is in its structure and constitution up to the style of life -offered it in the Son of Man and the Son of God. In finding the life that -was in Christ, it finds its own life, and enters the path of everlasting -progress. - - - -***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MAKING OF A MAN*** - - -******* This file should be named 65545-0.txt or 65545-0.zip ******* - - -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: -http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/6/5/5/4/65545 - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm -concept and trademark. 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