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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..a548413 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #65585 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/65585) diff --git a/old/65585-0.txt b/old/65585-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index a293562..0000000 --- a/old/65585-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,3670 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Brief History of Printing, by Frederick W. -Hamilton - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: A Brief History of Printing - Part II: The Economic History of Printing - -Author: Frederick W. Hamilton - -Release Date: June 10, 2021 [eBook #65585] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -Produced by: Richard Tonsing, Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier, and the Online - Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A BRIEF HISTORY OF PRINTING *** - - - - - A BRIEF HISTORY _of_ PRINTING - - PART II - THE ECONOMIC HISTORY OF PRINTING - -BEING A BRIEF SKETCH OF THE ECONOMIC CONDITIONS OF THE PRINTING INDUSTRY - FROM 1450 TO 1789, INCLUDING GOVERNMENT REGULATIONS, CENSORSHIP, - INTERNAL CONDITIONS _and_ INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS - - - BY - - FREDERICK W. HAMILTON, LL.D. - - EDUCATIONAL DIRECTOR - -[Illustration] - - PUBLISHED BY THE COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION - - UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA - - 1918 - - - - - Copyright, 1918 - United Typothetae of America - Chicago, Ill. - - - Composition and electrotypes contributed by - S. H. Burbank & Co., Inc. - Philadelphia, Pa. - - - - - PREFACE - - -In this volume, as in the preceding, an effort has been made to give the -reader some idea of the actual conditions of the printing industry in -Europe from the time of the invention down to the French Revolution. -Attention has been devoted to the organization and conditions of the -industry, the circumstances under which the work was done, and the -actual life and work of the men who did it. - -The method of treatment chosen has been topical rather than -chronological. It has been thought that a series of pictures of -different aspects of the industry would be of more value than the -ordinary detailed study of periods, of schools, and of the actual work -produced at various times which is rather suited to advanced students -than to beginners. This method of treatment necessarily involves a -certain amount of repetition, but probably less than would be required -if an attempt were made to fit the same information into a chronological -framework. - -To an extent even greater than in the previous volume the writer has -endeavored to reconstruct in part at least the general conditions of the -time. The economic history of printing or, indeed, any history of -printing is a part of the general history of the period. It so happens -that the peculiar conditions of the printing industry had a very marked -effect in the changes which took place in the industrial world in the -sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The attempt is made to show the -working of these influences in the treatment of certain parts of the -subject. The main purpose, however, throughout has been to give the -young printer of today an idea of the work and life of the old printers, -who were very human men, engaged, though under different conditions, in -the same struggle to earn their bread and butter which occupies our -attention today. - - - - - CONTENTS - - - CHAPTER I - GOVERNMENTAL REGULATIONS 7 - - CHAPTER II - PRIVILEGES AND MONOPOLIES 16 - - CHAPTER III - CENSORSHIP 26 - - CHAPTER IV - DEVELOPMENT OF THE IDEA OF COPYRIGHT 34 - - CHAPTER V - TRADE GUILDS AND THE COMING OF THE NEW INDUSTRY 38 - - CHAPTER VI - THE COMMUNITY OF PRINTERS 49 - - CHAPTER VII - HOW THE OLD-TIME PRINTERS WORKED 53 - - CHAPTER VIII - INTERNAL ORGANIZATION OF THE INDUSTRY 58 - - CHAPTER IX - RELATIONS BETWEEN EMPLOYER AND EMPLOYED 72 - - SUPPLEMENTARY READING 79 - - REVIEW QUESTIONS 80 - - - - - CHAPTER I - GOVERNMENTAL REGULATIONS - - -We turn now to a study of the printing industry in some aspects -concerning the industry as a whole, rather than the life and work of the -great printers. A very large part of what follows will be found to deal -with conditions in France. This happens because the study has been far -better worked out for France than for any other country. While much -incidental information is to be obtained from other histories, -Mellotté’s _Histoire Economique de l’Imprimerie_ stands alone as a study -of the printing industry from this point of view. Unfortunately it -concerns only France and ends with the French Revolution of 1789. -Conditions in France, however, were not greatly different from those -existing elsewhere and for that reason the study which follows, based -largely on Mellotté’s work, will give a fairly accurate idea of the -condition of the industry in general. It is to be regretted that -Mellotté’s book has not been translated into the English as it is a mine -of information of great interest and value to all students of the -industry. - -The history of the printing industry is hardly intelligible unless one -begins with a general understanding of the industries of the Middle Ages -and the organization of those who were engaged in them. When Gutenberg -practiced printing there was no such thing in the world as a factory. -Perhaps the nearest approach to one might be found in some royal -arsenal, shipyard, or mint where certain industries were carried on on a -large scale. The day of invention had not yet dawned. Machinery, except -of the most primitive types, did not exist. Consequently, industrial and -social conditions were different in every respect from those which now -prevail. - -The work of the Middle Ages was hand-work carried on by a small group of -workmen living in the household of the master; in other words it was -what we call today household industry. Very often there was no one -engaged in the work except the master and his family. Sometimes he had -an apprentice or two. Master workmen usually employed as many -apprentices as they could use. The apprentices paid for the privilege of -learning the trade. As we shall see presently, the knowledge of a trade -and admission to the ranks of the master workmen was a privilege very -well worth paying for. - -The apprenticeship indenture or agreement was a contract covering a -certain number of years, usually seven. During this period the -apprentice was obliged to work for the master to the best of his -ability, to be careful of the master’s goods, and to be subject in every -way to his personal control, a control which extended to the infliction -of corporal punishment if the apprentice were idle or disobedient. - -The master was bound to teach the apprentice his trade so that if the -apprentice used due diligence he might at the end of his agreement -qualify as a journeyman. He was obliged to furnish him board and lodging -in his own (the master’s) home, to keep him decently clothed and, -especially toward the end of the period, to give him a small wage for -pocket money. We shall look a little closer at this matter of -apprenticeship in a later chapter. - -The masters themselves were organized into guilds. These guilds were a -combination of what we now know as trade unions and employers’ -associations. Everybody connected with the trade in a regular and legal -manner belonged to the guild. In some cases the master workman became so -prosperous that he employed a considerable number of other master -workmen and devoted his time to superintendence, but whether he were in -this way an ancestor of a modern captain of industry or were at the -other end of the scale, an apprentice just under indenture, he was -recognized as part and parcel of the trade guild. If he were not free of -the guild he was not permitted to work at the industry excepting as an -employee. As we shall see, there grew up in this way an intermediate -class of hired workmen who were neither apprentices nor masters. - -The guilds acted very honestly and conscientiously in the interests of -both the public and the trade. While they monopolized the industry, -restricted the number of persons engaged in it, and permitted no outside -competition, they guaranteed the quality of workmanship and product. A -guild member putting inferior goods upon the market or in any way -detracting from the workmanlike standards of the guild was liable to -severe penalties, and as a rule these penalties were conscientiously -inflicted.[1] - -Footnote 1: - - A more detailed account of the guilds will be found in Chapter V. - -The introduction of printing raised new questions. Printing did not fit -into this scheme of things for several reasons. As a newly discovered -art it did not properly belong to any of the known industries, which had -gradually become consolidated into strong guilds. The printers, -therefore, found themselves outside the recognized trade law. - -They were, therefore, taken in hand by the authorities until such time -as their own trade organization developed. Not only was the printing -trade outside the guild organizations, but it was different from them in -several important principles. In the first place, it was from the -beginning a machine occupation; in the second place, it involved -division of labor; and in the third place, it dealt with a product -entirely different from that of the other craftsmen. The dawn of the -printing industry was the dawn of an age of machinery in production. The -product of the printing press was not simply an article of consumption. -There is no comparison between a piece of cloth or a pair of shoes and a -book. The book is a source of information and enlightenment, or the -reverse. It may stir men to the ecstasies of devotion or incite them to -rebellion or unsettle the foundations of their religious faith. It may -serve the highest interests of mankind or it may be in the last degree -dangerous to the church, the state, and the individual. - -Obviously, to the fifteenth century mind everything called for the -regulation of the industry. The fifteenth century, like those which -immediately preceded it, was an age of regulation. The idea of the -freedom of commerce and industry, so dear to the modern political -economist, had not yet been conceived. All industry was subject to the -most minute regulations partly imposed by the state and partly imposed -by the guild. All the concerns of human life were subject to regulation, -including even what people in different ranks of life should eat, drink, -and wear. As there was no trade organization to regulate printing, of -course it became immediately the subject of governmental interest. - -Scarcely had the art of printing appeared when the governmental rights -of regulation were invoked to destroy it, fortunately without success. -Most important inventions deprive certain workmen of their occupation. -The invention of printing was no exception. It necessarily meant the -economic ruin of the copyists and threatened the illuminators. By the -middle of the fifteenth century the copying of books had to a -considerable extent come out of the monasteries and become a regular -occupation. In 1472 there were in France ten thousand of these copyists, -to say nothing of the illuminators. These copyists were organized into -guilds with charter rights and a definite legal position. Seeing their -livelihood threatened, they attempted in every way to prevent the -introduction of printing. They invoked their charter rights and -attempted to protect themselves thereby against the invasion of their -field by the printer. Not only that, but they were probably back of the -popular clamor which raised the accusation of witchcraft against Fust -and drove him out of Paris in 1465. Their opposition, however, was -unsuccessful. A few of them retained their work. For a long time the -manuscript book retained the esteem which is so often felt for hand work -as compared with machine work. Long after the invention of printing -there were many eminent collectors of books who would not have a printed -book in their libraries. To this day there are a few people who live by -engrossing and illuminating, although not generally by the copying of -books. - -An admirable illustration of the beauties and disadvantages of this kind -of work may be found in the Congressional Library at Washington. There -is there displayed in a series of frames a very wonderful engrossed and -illuminated copy of the Constitution of the United States. The text is -beautifully engrossed and the illuminated borders and the illustrations -are in the finest style of modern art. At first sight it is a wonderful -piece of work, but it requires but a slight examination to see that the -text is full of errors. Words are omitted and misspelled so that the -whole thing is practically worthless so far as its content is concerned. - -A few of the copyists became printers. Probably the greater number of -them lost their distinctive occupation and became absorbed in some way -or other into other industries or, if they were too old for this, -suffered the evils incident to permanent loss of occupation. - -The illuminators at first made common cause with the copyists. Before -long, however, they discovered that the copyists were making a hopeless -fight and that their own occupation had a chance of surviving. They, -therefore, for the most part went over to the printers and found -occupation in the new industry, either directly in their old occupations -as illuminators or in slightly modified form as illustrators. Many of -the early books show hand-illuminated capitals and some show illuminated -margins and hand-painted illustrations equal to those of the finest -manuscripts. It was, however, only the more expensive books which were -separately hand-illustrated. The field of book illustration, -substantially as we know it through the medium of pictures mechanically -reproduced, was soon developed and offered a large field for the -exercise of artistic ability and taste. - -The kings and rulers generally favored printing as a means of spreading -intelligence. The fifteenth century kings, unlike some of a little later -period, were believers in education and patrons of learning and the -arts. They had not yet come to see that their thrones, or at least their -prerogatives, might be threatened by learning, and therefore they did -their best to encourage it. Among all these royal patrons of printing, -Francis I of France is the most conspicuous. When he first came to the -throne he was under the influence of those who were hostile to the new -art and attempted to stifle it by stringent legislation. An edict of his -issued in 1534 prohibits printing on pain of hanging for the offender. -Exactly why King Francis took so positive a position is not clear, but -fortunately he very soon changed his mind and repealed the edict. From -this time forward he did everything in his power to encourage printing -and printers, as we have already seen in recounting the history of the -Estienne family. In 1536 he made an arrangement, the first of the kind, -to have a copy of every book that was printed filed in the Royal -Library. In 1538 he favored the printers by granting them an edict of -exemption from service in the City Guard, a service to which residents -generally were liable. - -During King Francis’s reign labor troubles arose in the industry. Enough -references have already been made to show that the strike is by no means -a modern institution and that strikes in printing offices are pretty -nearly as old as the industry. There were strikes, some of them of a -rather serious nature, among the Parisian printers in the reign of King -Francis. As soon, however, as it appeared that they were liable to -injure the industry or interfere seriously with the work of the master -printers the king suppressed them by a heavy-handed use of the royal -authority, insisting that trade disputes must not be allowed to -interfere with the successful prosecution of the industry and that the -journeymen must not be permitted by strikes to put a stop to the -operations of their employers. - -In 1585 King Henry III of France issued an edict relieving printers from -the application of a general edict taxing artisans. This action was -based on the ground that the work of the printer was so far superior in -character to that of other mechanics that the printer was not to be -regarded as a mechanic at all. He was formally recognized as being in a -social class above the members of the trade guilds and almost, if not -quite, in the class of gentlemen. Of course, we are speaking now in -terms of the sixteenth century and not of the twentieth. - -As an incident of this recognized social superiority the printer was -permitted to wear a sword, a right which was denied to artisans -generally. The old prints showing the interiors of print shops almost -invariably show at least one of the workmen wearing a sword, or show a -sword conspicuously displayed standing against a pillar or the wall. The -introduction of the sword into these pictures is deliberately done to -indicate the social pretensions of the printer of this period. It is -worth remembering because although it involves a certain artificial -social distinction which we now consider rather absurd it also involves -certain principles which we should do well not to lose sight of. In -those days printing was regarded as a profession rather than strictly a -trade, and the printer was deeply impressed with the value and -importance of his work, a value and importance which were not only -claimed by him but recognized by his fellow citizens. It was very -strongly felt that a man who made a book was engaged in a much more -important piece of work than a man who made a pair of shoes or forged a -sword. The more of this spirit of self respect, the more of this -recognition of the importance of printing and the printed product we can -recover today, the better off we shall be. - -From the beginning printers were troubled by typographical errors. Some -of the earlier printers, like Caxton and Gehring, had their books -corrected by hand after they were printed. As a rule, however, the -modern practice of more or less careful proof reading preceded -publication. There were constant complaints of inaccuracy, especially on -the part of the cheap printers and the printers of pirated editions. The -influence of the better printers and the insistent demands of the public -finally brought about a reasonable degree of textual accuracy. It is -interesting to note that royal regulation attempted to deal with this -matter as it dealt with so many other things. - -Charles IX of France issued an edict in 1592 the vital portion of which -read as follows: “The said Masters shall furnish copies carefully -edited, corrected, and made clear to the compositors lest through -default of this their labor be hindered.” The principle underlying the -edict was a good one. It is certainly in the interest of all concerned -that compositors should be furnished good copy. There is unfortunately -every reason to believe that the efforts of this royal champion of copy -editing were not attended with very much success. - -In 1618 Louis XII organized the corporation of printers which will be -discussed later. Louis XIV reaffirmed the preceding edicts governing and -regulating the industry, and his great minister Colbert, in 1686, issued -certain new regulations. In these it was provided that every shop should -have a minimum equipment of two presses well provided with type. This -was probably intended to put a stop to the small shops which did poor -work and were very difficult to regulate under the police regulations -which will be later discussed. The number of shops in Paris was fixed by -this edict at 36. Private printing—that is to say, the exercise of the -industry by persons not members of the Community of Printers—was -absolutely forbidden. The quality of the work put out was insisted upon -under severe penalties in case proper standards were not maintained. The -long standing disagreement between booksellers and printers was settled -by a decision that booksellers could not be members of the Community of -Printers, unless they were themselves printers. The bookseller, pure and -simple, who was merely a dealer in books was thus barred out of the -Community. - -Louis XVI, the last king of the old regime, went still further in the -matter of the regulation of journeymen. By his regulations every -journeyman printer was obliged to register with the public authorities, -to take out an identification card, and to have his domicile legally -fixed and registered with the public authorities. He could not obtain -employment without showing his card and could not change his residence -without notifying the public authorities. - -In 1789 came the Revolution which swept away all the edicts regulating -printing. In this ruin royal regulation, trade organization, police -supervision, and every other restraint on the trade went down together. -Printing was unregulated and unlicensed. As an actual result there came -a flood of printing of a very low character both mechanically and -morally. - -Some great houses like that of Didot stood fast by the old standards, -but small printing houses flourished and the unregulated condition of -the trade was in many respects most unfortunate. In the long run, -however, economic laws asserted themselves as they always do. The -establishment of a settled government under Napoleon and the reassertion -of the old laws of libel and the like put a stop to some of the worst -extravagances. At a later period, the growth and development of unions -of the modern type has had its influence everywhere and the industry has -at last come into its own, unhampered by artificial regulations and -unrestrained by ill-advised attempts to prevent abuses which can better -be dealt with by general statutes applying to all industries and by the -operation of economic law. - - - - - CHAPTER II - PRIVILEGES AND MONOPOLIES - - -The governmental regulations just described were similar to those -imposed upon all trades. The product of the printing press, however, was -not like that of other manufacturing establishments. The use of books is -clearly different from the use of ordinary manufactured products. The -modern printing press puts out a flood of material which is temporary in -its nature. Much of it never gets read at all and comparatively little -of it is considered as of permanent value. The early presses, however, -turned out books almost entirely. Practically the whole product was of -permanent value. It could be easily imitated, and in many cases the -imitation could be produced at much less expense than the original as -the imitation involved no labor of editors and compilers. Again, -communication in those days was very difficult and freight rates were -high. If a book could be reprinted freely by anyone who got hold of it, -a book printed in a given place could be sold much cheaper than one -brought from a distance. For example, a Paris printer could not compete -with a Lyons printer in Lyons provided the latter were permitted to -print the same books as the former. - -But there was another far more important difference. The products of the -printing press materially affected the human mind and through it -influenced human action. When men began to read and printed matter began -to be cheap and plenty, the individual in particular and the state at -large entered an entirely new phase of existence. Minds of men might be -filled with information or misinformation, with noble or with base -desires and purposes, with high thoughts or low by the products of the -press. They might be roused to patriotic action or stirred to rebellion. -Their religion might be deepened, altered, or destroyed. Immense and -unimaginable influence might be and, as soon appeared, was exerted by -this new agency. - -These facts gave rise to certain problems peculiar to the industry. What -right had the publisher to control his product and be protected against -a ruinous competition from other printers? Had he any such right at all? -Had the author any right to control the printing, publishing, and sale -of his works? Had he any right to be secured in the receipt of some -remuneration? How could that right be protected? Was the printing press -to be allowed to pour out anything its owners pleased, regardless of its -effect upon citizenship, religion, or morals, or should the product be -controlled so as to secure the helping and not the hurting of mankind? -If it was to be controlled, who was to decide upon the measures and -standards of control, and on what ground? What was helpful and what was -harmful? - -The attempted solution of these problems, of course, grew out of the -accepted commercial usages of the time. Patents and copyrights as we now -know them, regulated by general laws and accessible to all inventors and -authors, were unknown. Their place was taken by monopolies which, as we -shall see, sometimes had much the same effect as a modern patent or -copyright. - -A monopoly, sometimes called a privilege, was a grant to a certain -person of the sole right to sell or to manufacture a certain thing, to -trade in a certain locality, or do something of a similar nature. -Monopolies survive today in certain countries, though mainly as -governmental monopolies; for example, in Italy the sale of matches is a -governmental monopoly. No individual is allowed to sell them except as a -government agent, and the traveler is not allowed to take any across the -frontier, even in his pocket. In Russia the sale of vodka was a -governmental monopoly until the outbreak of the Great War in 1914, when -its sale was prohibited. In the middle ages, however, private monopolies -were very common. It is important to know that these monopolies or -privileges were literally what the latter name indicates. Very often -they were given to royal favorites as a means for their personal -enrichment. They were purely acts of grace and did not imply any -recognition of right on the part of the person to whom they were -granted. - -Those trades which could not obtain the protection of monopoly attempted -to protect themselves when possible by trade secrets. This was a much -more important protection in those days than it would be now. -Combinations and processes, tricks of the trade which had been -discovered experimentally by some clever workman, could hardly be -discovered by his rivals unless they could hit upon the same thing by a -tedious course of experimentation or could in some way secure betrayal -of the secret. Very few trade secrets can be hidden from modern science, -but modern science did not exist in the fifteenth century. The -apprentice was sworn not to betray his master’s secrets, and the -consequences of such betrayal were very serious. As we have already -seen, Gutenberg at first attempted to keep printing a trade secret, but -the obvious impossibility of doing so led to other methods of -protection. - -Fortunately for the new art the great men of the time were interested in -it and, as a rule, it was not difficult to obtain a certain amount of -protection by privilege. Venice was perhaps the most advanced state in -Europe in the middle of the fifteenth century, certainly it was one of -the most advanced. The intelligent business men and astute nobles -trained in public affairs who made up the body of citizens of the -Republic of Venice were not slow in perceiving that a condition had -arisen which must be immediately attended to. The matter was therefore -taken up by the Council of Ten, an executive body which had large -functions in the government of Venice. Their methods of dealing with the -matter may be divided into four heads. - -The first was the monopoly under which only one printer was allowed to -work in a given town. Such a monopoly was granted John of Spire who, in -1469, was given the sole privilege of doing printing in Venice. -Fortunately the unwisdom of this particular method of protection was -soon seen and other printers were allowed in Venice. - -The next was a form of privilege something like the modern copyright. -Under this a publisher or even an author was granted the sole right to -print or cause to be printed a certain book. The first one of these -copyrights was issued to Antonio Sabellico in 1486. Sabellico was the -official historian of Venice and the copyright covered his history. -Unlike modern copyrights, which cover but a single book, these -privileges might cover anything that an author had written or might -write. It is clear that such a blanket copyright in the hands of a -publisher might be used very injuriously, and there is evidence that -they were so used either to extort money or to impede publication. It is -probable that in many cases this form of privilege involved some -arrangement between the author and the printer whereby the author shared -the profits. - -Copyright privileges ran from one to twenty-five years and were -sometimes extended. Not infrequently copyright privileges were issued -with limiting clauses or conditions, such as that the books should be -sold at a “fair price,” that the work copyrighted should be published -within a year, or that a certain number of copies should be printed per -week, and the like. - -The third method of protection was by a privilege like a modern patent, -covering certain processes or certain kinds of printing. For example: -Aldus was granted the sole right to use the italic character, while -others were given the sole right of printing in some foreign language. - -The fourth method was the absolute prohibition of the importation of -books printed outside the territories of the Republic. This was coupled -with the refusal of copyright privileges to all books not printed in -Venice. Of course, in this whole discussion we must understand that -Venice was not the modern city, but the medieval state, which at times -was of considerable extent. - -This system had certain rather serious defects in practice. In the first -place the Council of Ten which issued all these privileges, although -usually an extremely businesslike body, kept no record of its relations -with printers. Probably this was not a serious matter for the first few -years, but the time soon came when no member of the Council could -remember what privileges had been granted either to printers or authors. -Consequently privileges were very liable to duplication and the Council -finally got out of the difficulty by issuing its copyrights with the -proviso “If no previous copyright has been issued.” This was very -comfortable for the Council, but rather uncomfortable for the printer, -because it threw upon him the burden of finding out facts which were -nowhere on record. Again, there was no machinery for the enforcement of -the privileges. While it is probable that legal proceedings could be -instituted under them, some other machinery ought to have been provided -to make them effective. Lastly, and this was, as we shall see, a common -difficulty with all early privileges, they were very narrow in -application. Privileges applied only to the territory of Venice and were -worthless elsewhere. As we have seen in the case of Aldus, the products -of the Venetian press were sold throughout the civilized world, but -outside of their place of production they were unprotected by any -copyright or other defence. In some cases they were excluded by -protective laws similar to those by which Venice attempted to secure her -printers from foreign competition. At a somewhat later period some -difficulty arose because of the claims of the Papal Court to issue -privileges outside of the States of the Church. On the whole, however, -the Venetian system was about the best and the simplest of the early -systems for dealing with the problems of the printing press. - -Turning next to Germany, we find that practically all of the books -printed from 1450 to 1500 were reprints of old books. The literary -pirate made his appearance almost as soon as the printer appeared. We -have already seen that Fust himself was the first of the brood. The fact -is not surprising, however, when we remember the conditions of the time. -The idea of property in a book excepting as one particular object, a -piece of furniture so to speak, never occurred to anybody. Throughout -the entire period of manuscript books it was everywhere held that any -man who had possession of a book, even temporarily, had a right to copy -it. That the owner of the book had any right to control its duplication, -even though he had been at great expense to make a copy, was not -considered worth discussion. If a man could copy a manuscript which had -cost a hundred crowns to make, might he not reprint a book which cost -less than one tenth of that amount? It was held that ownership of a -printed book carried with it the same rights of reproduction which had -from time immemorial been attached to ownership of a written book. - -Men who wrote books wrote for the love of it. There was no such thing as -authorship as a profession and no such thing as the sale of an author’s -work, except so far as the books themselves were concerned. It is true -that certain writers were helped and perhaps supported by wealthy -patrons of literature in the old world or by rich men and politicians -who were willing to pay for verses or pamphlets eulogizing their names -and praising their exploits. Doubtless, there were writers who lived by -their wits in this way, but their case was far different from that of -the modern author who either sells his work to a publisher or makes a -contract for a royalty. If a man was paid for writing a poem in praise -of his patron neither he nor his patron was supposed to control the -poem; in a word, there was no conception of any kind of literary -property, and the printers soon found that there must be property in -books or printing would become impossible. - -Germany, like Venice, undertook to deal with the matter by the privilege -system, although German privileges seem to have been less varied and -more simple than those of the Venetians and to have concerned themselves -more exclusively with the printer, to the neglect of the author. As -elsewhere, a privilege was the sole right to print a work or a series of -works in a given place. The peculiar political condition which existed -in Germany made this a rather difficult matter. Germany in the fifteenth -century consisted geographically of what is now the Empire of Germany, -the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Netherlands, and Switzerland. It was -composed of a great number of states of very different sizes, from a -single city up to a reasonably large country. Each one of these cities -had a large degree of self government. They were all supposed to be -governed by the emperor. He was called the Holy Roman Emperor and was -supposed to be the heir of the old emperors of Rome. He governed largely -through assemblages of the princes, called Diets, which were held -wherever and whenever the emperor called them. There were also certain -imperial courts and governing councils. All this elaborate scheme of -government existed largely on paper. It was not generally strong enough -to govern effectively, but was generally strong enough to keep things -more or less in confusion. - -The power of the emperor depended to a considerable extent upon his -personal character and his private resources. An emperor who happened to -be a strong man, governing a powerful state in the empire from which he -could draw money and military support, could hold the states, which were -liable to be extremely unruly, in their places and could collect the -imperial revenue. A man of weaker personality or without the backing of -such private resources could neither keep the turbulent princes in order -nor collect the revenue. - -The local princes had no sooner begun to issue privileges than the -emperor began to do the same thing. A local privilege was not good -beyond the limits of the small state which issued it. An imperial -privilege was theoretically good throughout the empire, but practically -good only in spots. If it conflicted with a local privilege, or the -local authority happened to be on bad terms with the emperor it would be -worthless. The result of all of this was that at a very early period the -printers of Germany got together and made a sort of “gentleman’s -agreement,” as we say today, to respect each other’s undertakings. This -agreement was practically the best protection of the German book trade -until the development of copyright laws at a very much later period. It -appears to have been relied upon by the printers more than was the -privilege. Privileges were often obtained, partly because it was -desirable to keep on good terms with the local authorities and partly -because of the relation of privilege to censorship, which we shall -discuss later, but it is clear that printing in Germany would have -suffered greatly if it had not been for the existence of the “live and -let live” agreement of the German printers. - -Printers’ privileges covered only old books. New books unless covered by -some author’s privilege were not covered at all, presumably on the -ground that in those days, before author’s rights to compensation were -fully recognized, the expense and risk of producing the classics for a -comparatively small market was greater than that of printing new books, -especially as many of the new books were controversial and the authors -paid the printers. Until about 1800 the printer was a much more -important personage in legislation than the author. There was -practically very little protection of literary rights of authors -excepting what came through privileges, and the printer’s privileges -were considered much more important than the author’s rights. Privileges -covered: - -(a) Public documents, including church books and school books. - -(b) The first printing of books from the body of the world’s literature. - -(c) New books which were first treatments of some specific subject, -generally scientific, technical, or practical. - -The granting of a privilege often carried with it exemption from -taxation. - -Conditions in France were not greatly different from those in Italy and -Germany, although France dealt with the problem by means of privileges -only and had her problem somewhat simplified by unified administration -over a large territory. The first privilege to be issued in France was -granted Antoine Verrard in 1507 for an edition of the Epistles of Paul -with a French commentary. French privileges were sometimes issued to -printers for a single work and sometimes for all the works which they -might print. They ran from two to ten years. They might be general, -covering the whole kingdom, or they might be local, covering a single -province or district. For example, one might have the exclusive -privilege of printing certain books or the books of a certain author for -ten years, or another might have the privilege of printing anything of a -certain sort in the city of Lyons for five years. - -It is understood, of course, that a privilege implied prohibition. If a -man had a privilege for the works of an author throughout France that -meant that no one else in France could print the same books. If he had -the privilege for all that he wanted to print in Lyons it meant that -nobody else in Lyons could print those books, although anybody outside -of Lyons could print them freely. The French law contained one provision -which does not appear elsewhere, namely that licenses could be revoked -before they expired. They were occasionally issued to persons not -residents of France, another provision which appears to have been -peculiar to the French law. A third peculiarity is that privileges were -occasionally given to authors for the control of their works, but -without the right to print them or to sell them. In such a case as that -the printer would have to get another privilege to print and sell the -books. He would have to pay the author for the right to do so. The -question of privilege in France, like the question of censorship, which -we shall soon take up, was greatly complicated by the multiplication of -authorities and consequent conflict and confusion. Privileges might be -issued by the king, by the Parliament of Paris (a misleading name, as -the Parliament of Paris was a judicial and not a legislative body), by -the University of Paris, and by the Provost of Paris. The tendency in -all things French, however, from early in the 15th century to the French -Revolution was toward the concentration of power, so that the right to -issue privileges was gradually concentrated in the hands of the king. - - - - - CHAPTER III - CENSORSHIP - - -To the mind of the fifteenth or sixteenth century man the protection of -church and state and of the public was a very much more important matter -than the protection of the printer or the author, and it was seen that -the printing press might easily distill a venom which would poison the -minds of men and threaten the health of institutions. Measures to -prevent this occurrence went hand in hand with the granting of -privileges. It was only natural that they should do so as they might -well be regarded as conditions upon which the privilege should be -granted, or, as the idea developed, upon which the trade should be -exercised. France early decreed that every piece of printing put out in -the kingdom must be certified as “containing nothing contrary to faith, -good manners, public peace, and the royal authority.” Theoretically, -nothing could be more admirable. Doubtless many of us today would like -to be assured that all printed matter should meet these requirements. It -is obvious, however, that such regulations were liable to work very -badly in practice. What constitutes faith, good manners, public peace, -and the royal authority? These are, to a considerable extent, matters of -opinion. It may happen that the royal authority becomes tyranny and -ought to be opposed rather than supported. In the hands of the -narrow-minded, ignorant, and unscrupulous, censorship laws may easily -open the way to intolerable abuses. As a matter of fact, they have only -too often done so, and it is for that reason that we in the United -States today insist upon freedom of the press. - -Possible injury to the faith was very early perceived by the church. As -guardian of the faith and morals of the people, the church felt -constrained to see that nothing with heretical or immoral tendencies -should be placed in the hands of the faithful. Just as Venice led the -way in laws relating to privilege, so she was prominent in the matter of -censoring books. Usually the body which issued licenses had charge of -the censorship as well. It might not distrust the ecclesiastical -examination and censoring of the books, but it made the censorship -effective by its refusal of privilege. Later, as we shall see, when this -procedure did not prove entirely effective other methods were taken to -punish the printers and the authors of books which were deemed -injurious. The first book which appeared with the approval of the -ecclesiastical authorities was printed in 1480. This approval at first -had nothing to do with the privilege to print, but was rather a -commendation to the attention of the faithful. - -In 1487, however, the Pope (Innocent VIII) issued a bull against -objectionable books. This bull was addressed to the States of the -Church, Italy, Germany, France, Spain, England, and Scotland. As a -result, probably, of this bull, Venice enacted a requirement in 1508 -that the approval of the Church should precede the granting of any -privilege to print. In 1515 the Lateran Council established the -principle of strict censorship. The religious troubles of the sixteenth -century had much to do with the application of this principle. In the -Protestant countries it was applied much less vigorously than in the -Catholic countries. It must not be understood, however, that the -Protestants had any broader or more intelligent views on the subject of -censorship than the Catholics had. They were just as ready to recognize -the principle of censorship and apply it, but the occasions for applying -it were, or seemed to be, less frequent. Venice, although always a -Catholic country, was careful to keep herself as independent of Rome as -possible. The Venetians consequently kept the reins in their own hands -with regard to the censorship of books as well as in other matters, -although they co-operated with the church authorities and offered no -hindrances to the work of the Inquisition. - -In 1503 Venice extended the scope of censorship to cover the literary -quality of books and translations, the political effect of books, and -their effect upon morals. The political and moral censorship appears to -have been less effective than the religious and literary. In 1547 the -Inquisition took charge of the censorship of books and the punishment of -those who offended against the press laws, and continued to exercise -those functions until 1730. It is interesting to note that the greatest -activity of the Inquisition was in the first half century of its work, a -period when religion was still the subject of bitter controversy and -bloody warfare. The Inquisition took cognizance of 132 cases between -1547 and 1600. Between 1600 and 1700, however, it only dealt with 55, -while from 1700 to 1730 it dealt with only four. - -In 1571 Pope Pius V started the Index Expurgatorius. This Index was and -is a list wherein are registered books and other publications which are -condemned by the Commission in charge of it, called the Congregation of -the Index, as being immoral and unsound either in religion or politics. -By this means the church undertakes to protect its members from the -reading of books calculated to injure their morals or to unsettle their -faith. - -Lines of legislation in Venice regarding censorship ran in certain very -definite directions, namely: the legalizing of custom and precedent, -protection of the industry against foreign competition and preservation -of the excellence of the nation’s press, protection of the buyer of -books against poor workmanship and excessive charges (protection of the -author’s right has already been discussed), and the development of a -Bureau to administer the press laws and regulate the industry. In 1549 -the book trade was organized by the creation with definite legal -recognition of the Guild of Printers and Booksellers. It was believed -that the trade could be dealt with better and could do its own work -better if it were organized. - -The purpose of the guild was three-fold: - -1. To protect trade interests—the purpose of trade organizations at all -times. - -2. To assist the state and church in watching the output of the press. - -3. To suppress pernicious books. - -As the years went by the tendency was for the state censorship to relax -and for the church censorship to become more severe. In time the -censorship became very harassing and very troublesome. In 1671, although -the Inquisition had ceased to be very active in dealing with the -enforcement of press censorship laws, the requirements preliminary to -printing a book were so severe that one wonders that printing existed at -all. If a man wanted to print a book in Venice at that time he had to -secure the following: - -1. A testamur (a sort of approval) from the Inquisition. - -2. A testamur from the Ducal Secretary. - -3. A certificate from the University of Padua. - -4. Permission to print from the Council of Ten. - -5. Revision of his work by the superintendent of the press. - -6. Revision of his proofs by the public proof reader. - -7. Collation of the original text with the printed text by the -representative of the University. - -8. A certificate by the Librarian of Saint Marks that a copy of the book -had been deposited in the Library. - -9. Examination by government experts to fix the price. - -Almost every one of these processes had to be paid for. Italy outside -Venice was strongly influenced by Rome and the press was comparatively -strictly controlled by the influence of the church. - -In Germany, on the contrary, the censorship was probably the least -severe of any on the Continent. As already noted, there was -substantially no printing of original work in Germany until 1500 and -consequently no special need of censorship. Shortly afterward Germany -was rent in twain by religious dissensions. It must be remembered that -the Reformation, being very largely a political movement, the difference -between Catholics and Protestants followed geographical lines for the -most part. There were comparatively few Protestants in Catholic -countries or Catholics in Protestant countries. The Protestants seized -upon the printing press as a method of propaganda. They consequently -advocated its freedom and encouraged its use. The Catholics at first -attempted to defend themselves from this attack by the suppression of -printing and the destruction of imported books. After a little time, -however, with greater wisdom, they themselves made use of the printing -press for a counter propaganda. Those who were disturbed by the -censorship in a country in either camp could and did move to one in the -other. In this way unless a man had religious opinions which were -unacceptable anywhere or wished to publish books which were seditious or -immoral it would be entirely easy for him to find a place where he could -be undisturbed and probably encouraged. - -The early assertion of government control in France has already been -described. Francis I, although a good friend of printing, was a loyal -son of the church, and all the more so because of his unfriendly -relations with Henry VIII of England who, for much of his life, was not -on good terms with the church. Francis, therefore, issued edicts in 1521 -enforcing the censorship which was called for by the decree of the -Lateran Council already referred to. - -This censorship was exercised by a considerable number of persons. This -was always a defect in the French press laws and was the cause of a -great deal of difficulty and hardship. At first censorship was exercised -by the bishops, by the Faculty of Theology of the University of Paris, -by the Parliament of Paris, by the Royal Chancellor, by the -Director-General of the Book Trade, and by the Lieutenant of Police. -Tendencies to consolidation, however, soon manifested themselves. The -first important step was the centering of church censorship in the hands -of the Faculty of Theology of the University of Paris to the exclusion -of the bishops generally. - -The tendency to centralize was naturally accompanied by a tendency to -tighten the censorship of the civil authorities, a tendency quite -opposite to that which we observed in Venice. In 1624 a Censor-Royal was -appointed to whom everybody, even the bishops themselves, was obliged to -submit his writing. The numerous civil authorities having charge of -censorship caused confusion for a time, but gradually their powers were -concentrated in the hands of the Director-General of the Book Trade. - -The laws were administered by inspectors of bookselling and enforced by -the police and the civil courts. The laws were very severe. They applied -primarily to the printer and bookseller, probably because he was an -easier person to get at than the author and much more likely to be -financially responsible. The printer was obliged to make public the name -of the author and printer, the place of manufacture, and the place of -sale of every book which he printed. A printer might be prosecuted if an -authorized book turned out to be objectionable. This was a particularly -unjust law because the printer was obliged to take the chance that, -after the book had been duly censored and approved by authority, some -censor, perhaps not the one who had originally approved it, might find -something in it which he considered objectionable. - -The penalties for infraction of the press laws were very severe. They -consisted of the burning of books, confiscation of books, fines, -flogging, imprisonment, banishment, and even burning alive. From 1660 to -1756, 869 authors, printers, and booksellers were sent to the Bastille. -At least one-third of these were printers. - -The press laws in France were more severe than almost anywhere else in -Europe. In practical operation they favored foreign printers at the -expense of the French. Naturally the result of all of this regulation -was that Frenchmen did not print, and the market was supplied from -abroad. If the laws had been strictly enforced printing would apparently -have been driven out of France. There were, however, certain -mitigations. In the first place certain things were exempt from the -operations of the press laws, such as legal documents, police papers, -documents bearing the signatures of advocates, and small publications of -two leaves or less for the spread of news or for other purposes. This -particular exemption was always the cause of a good deal of question and -a good deal of abuse. Again, these laws were largely held in reserve, -that is to say, they made possible the punishment of offending printers, -but in many cases the offender was not proceeded against unless someone -complained. Again, the judges used large discretion in dealing with -cases of infraction of the press laws. In many cases licenses were -issued in a very informal way, so that official responsibility was not -involved; and sometimes a clandestine permission was given, the printer -being assured that although his book could not be approved no action -would be taken against him if he published it. False statements as to -place of printing were used as a means of avoiding responsibility, -sometimes apparently with the connivance of the authorities. The -personal influence of the Chancellor was very great in these cases, and -it was entirely possible for him to protect authors or writers if he -chose to do so. - -By the eighteenth century the condition had become practically -intolerable. There was a great mass of laws on the statute books. -Legislation was confused and contradictory and of the most drastic sort. -The enforcement was sporadic and irregular, depending upon a great many -personal and local considerations. There was no underlying principle to -control either the making or enforcement of the laws. All this, like so -much else that belonged to the life of the old days, was swept away by -the French Revolution. All the laws regarding privilege, censorship, and -the like were annulled in a mass. The press was given absolute freedom -and left without any control whatever. Of course, it abused this freedom -and the condition of things for a while was extremely bad. It finally -readjusted itself, however, and gradually settled down into the -condition which is familiar today. - - - - - CHAPTER IV - DEVELOPMENT OF THE IDEA OF COPYRIGHT - - -As we have already seen, the early printers concerned themselves almost -exclusively with the reprinting of church books and the classics. These -last required for successful performance expert editorial work and proof -reading. The printers engaged competent and sometimes very distinguished -scholars to do this work for them and paid them for their labor. Out of -this practice grew the idea that the author might properly share in the -profits of the original work done by him. If he were paid for preparing -a good text of Virgil, for instance, why could he not be paid for -writing a critical article to be prefixed to the volume, and why not if -he wrote a whole book about Virgil which the publisher desired to -present to the world of scholars? At first there was some objection on -the part of the writers themselves. It was held by many that it was -undignified and improper for a writer to sell his ideas. Such opinions -soon ceased to be common. The race of professional authors living by -their pens came into existence. - -The same questions which arose with regard to the printer’s right to his -work extended to the question of the author’s right. Even before the -author’s pecuniary right in his work was clearly recognized the claim -was asserted that he ought to have control of it. Luther, for example, -strongly asserted this right of control and strenuously objected to -piracy on the ground of his desire to safeguard the correctness of texts -purporting to be written by him. He does not appear to have cared for -the money, as he himself corrected the texts of pirated editions of his -works. He feared, however, that harm might come through typographical -errors or even the deliberate falsification of his writing. This has -always been a real danger, and one of the greatest complaints made by -European authors against American printers previous to the days of -international copyright was on the ground of the incorrectness of the -pirated editions. - -One of the first persons to enjoy anything like copyright protection in -Germany was Albrecht Dürer. The city government of Nuremberg undertook -to protect Dürer and his family in the right to print and publish his -works. It is a curious mark of the undeveloped state of public opinion -regarding these matters at this time that Dürer seems to have been -protected more as an inventor than as an author. The early German -copyrights in many cases seem not only to have prevented others from -reprinting a specified book but also from printing any book on the same -subject. For example, Dürer wrote a book on _Proportion_ which was -published in Paris. Before it was completed another artist named Beham -undertook to publish a book on _Proportion_. Beham was ordered not to -publish his book until after Dürer had completed publication. He -insisted that his work was an absolutely independent one, not in any way -copied from or related to the work of Dürer, but his plea was -disregarded, although, as it afterward turned out, it was quite true -that his work was entirely independent. - -Throughout Europe during the period we have under consideration we find -two ideas gradually clearing themselves from the confused thinking of -the time and coming into recognition. The first is the idea that the -writer of a book has for a time at least property rights in it, and the -other that old books belong to the public. That is the basis of our -modern thinking on the subject. We recognize that any writer may -copyright his work and is entitled to the control of it during the -copyright period, which varies in different countries. When his -copyright has expired any publisher who cares to undertake the venture -as a business proposition may bring out an edition and sell it at -whatever price he chooses. That is the reason why old books are -generally cheaper than new books. An edition of Scott or Dickens is -purely a manufacturing proposition. An edition of Maurice Hewlett is a -very different matter because Mr. Hewlett, or his publisher, holds -copyright on his works and must be paid for the privilege of publishing. - -Another important development in thought was the growth of the idea of -right as distinguished from privilege. A privilege, as the word implies, -is an act of grace. It is a grant of permission to do a thing which one -has no inherent right to do. In England, as we shall later see, when the -idea of copyright came to be seriously considered it was based on the -common law, that is to say, it was recognized that the printer and -author had some rights in the matter. - -As soon as it was seen that the printer and the author had produced -something more than a mere piece of merchandise and that the property -right of the producer inhered in that added element quite as much as in -the piece of merchandise the basis was laid for the common law treatment -of the whole matter. The extension of the conception of property to -cover thoughts as well as things was the basis of the whole matter. - -It was a long time before these ideas emerged on the Continent. It was -well to the end of the 18th century before these matters were clearly -understood and recognized by law. It was not until 1777 that French law -distinctly recognized the difference between old and new books, and the -rights of the author. This was only twelve years before the French -Revolution. At that time all the old laws were swept away and the -extreme regulation of printing in France gave place to no regulation at -all, which for a time made things worse than ever. It was not until into -the nineteenth century that the question of copyright has been -reasonably settled. There is still something to be desired before ideal -conditions are reached. Copyright laws of the various nations differ -greatly, but on the whole they fairly accomplish the desired results -within the national boundaries. - -International copyright rests on the Treaty of Bern in 1887. The United -States was for many years a great offender in the matter of the -recognition of the rights of foreign authors. At the time of the Treaty -of Bern the United States recognized the principle of international -copyright, but we did not have reasonably satisfactory legislation on -the subject until so recently as 1909. In this, as in other matters -which we have been discussing and shall discuss in this volume, very -little reference has been made to England for the reason that a separate -volume will be given to the history of printing in that country. - - - - - CHAPTER V - TRADE GUILDS AND THE COMING OF THE NEW INDUSTRY - - -The outstanding factor in the industrial, social, and economic life of -the Middle Ages is the trade guild. The real life of any people is not -the story of its wars or the record of the doings of its kings and -nobles. It is the life of the people themselves. The moment we try to -study this aspect of these old times we find that in the towns -especially the life of the people centers around their trade guilds. The -guild was an organization of all the workmen in any given trade. It -included the master workman, the journeyman, and the apprentice. It -controlled the whole life of the industry from the buying of materials -to the selling of the finished product, from the indenturing of the -apprentice to the certification of the master workman. Its peculiar -strength lay in the fact that it did not exercise this control in the -interest of either the employer or the employed. It exercised it in the -interest of the industry as a whole. It did not forget the interests of -the public. It did not permit the industry to be practised by the -unauthorized or outsiders. It limited competition. It distributed labor. -It prevented over-production. It assumed great responsibility for its -members and it held them to a very strict accountability. - -Of course, such an organization was possible only under conditions of -production far different from those which now prevail. All work was -hand-work and each hand-worker was supposed to make the whole of the -thing produced. There were no machines of any importance and there was -practically no division of labor. The armorer, for example, made his -helmet, carrying it through every process from the first shaping of the -steel to the attaching of the last plume. The shoemaker selected his -leather and carried it through every process until the shoe was -finished. Men learned trades in those days. They did not learn to tend a -machine. A trade was worth something because the trade organization of -that day made lack of employment impossible for a decent man in ordinary -times. Learning a trade took a long time. As soon as the boy was old -enough to begin to learn he was apprenticed to a master workman, usually -for a term of seven years. Usually he paid something for his -apprenticeship, in some cases a considerable amount. He lived in the -master’s family and was supported by him until he was out of his time. -He then usually worked as a journeyman until he could accumulate the -small capital necessary to set up as an independent master. - -Having been apprenticed under guild regulations to a guild member he -became a member of the guild himself as soon as he qualified as a -journeyman. Meantime he had not only been thoroughly instructed in the -practice of the industry but he had absorbed the craftsman’s spirit and -become imbued with the great principles of guild life. These principles -were five: - -1. General protection of workmen. This has perhaps been sufficiently -described already. - -2. Limitation of competition. This has also been remarked upon. - -3. Perfection of work. The guild always stood behind the quality of the -product made by its members. If goods were not up to standard in quality -it was not only held to be a disgrace to the guild, but the offending -member was liable to severe punishment at the hands of the guild itself. -The guilds maintained their own inspectors. These inspectors visited the -shops and the fairs or occasional markets where goods were sold. If they -found poor work in the shop or if they found that poor work had been put -in the hands of the merchants for sale, they reported it to the guild -officers who immediately dealt with the offending member. - -4. Honesty in business. The guild member not only made his goods but -sold them, generally directly to the public. Sometimes he sold them to -merchants and sometimes he sent them to certain cities where at certain -times markets or fairs were held, there to be sold on commission. More -often, however, he made and sold his own goods in his own shop and lived -in the same building with his family, his apprentices, and sometimes his -journeymen. The guild stood for full weight and measure and for honesty -in all business transactions. It punished faults in these directions as -sternly as in the making of poor goods. - -5. The maintenance of the social order. The guilds were always to be -found arranged on the side of law and order, although that did not -always mean that they were on the side of the king or other constituted -authority in periods of civil disturbance. - -The members of the guilds, all fighting men usually serving under their -own guild banners and their own leaders, were an important part of the -military force of the medieval cities. Although they might and did fight -on one side or the other of some civic quarrel they always stood for -order in the community just as they did for honesty in production and -trade. This, however, is closely connected with the further fact that -the guilds had a distinct religious side. The medieval man was not -perhaps very much more religious than his modern descendant, but he was -religious in a different way and paid much more attention to the forms -of religion. Religious ceremonies formed a part of the regular routine -of guild life and in many cases special churches were closely identified -with certain guilds. Closely connected with the guilds were -organizations known as confraternities. These confraternities were -religious, charitable, and social organizations. Although usually drawn -from members of some particular industry, they did not attempt to -exercise the trade control which was in the hands of the guilds. They -adopted the name of some saint who was chosen as their patron. They had -a solemn feast following attendance at church on his day in the -calendar, and they maintained a fund out of which the needy could be -assisted and the dead buried with due provision of masses for the repose -of his soul in case the family funds were not sufficient. - -You see we are dealing with a time when the lives of men were very -simple, very neighborly, and at least so far as observance goes, very -religious. It is very important that we should have some fairly clear -idea of these times if we are to understand at all how the early -printers lived, what they did, and why they did it. - -The thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries were the golden age -of the guilds. They were at the height of their power and influence at -the period of the invention of printing. The sixteenth, seventeenth, and -eighteenth centuries were a period of decline. At first the decline was -slow. After the sixteenth century, however, the decline was rapid, and -long before the end of the eighteenth century the guilds had lost -practically all of their old-time power and influence. In some portions -of Europe the old guild organization still exists, but its influence is -very slight and its purposes are far different from those of the old -organizations of the Middle Ages. - -This decline was the result of the changing economic conditions. One of -the most important of these was the development of the modern type of -production in factories using costly equipment and employing large -numbers of men. The old type of production required little or no -capital. There was practically no costly machinery. The work was done in -the master workman’s house by himself, his sons, and apprentices. No -expensive outlay for materials or plant was required. The journeyman -required practically no capital for starting in business beyond his -personal strength and skill. - -Printing was the first industry which could not be carried on under the -old conditions. From the beginning the printer must have capital to -supply type, presses, and other equipment, to purchase material, which -was costly, and to maintain himself and those who were working with him -while a long process was being brought to completion and the product -marketed. In order to carry on the business to any advantage a -considerable number of persons must be employed. Under these -circumstances printing was necessarily from the beginning an enterprise -which required the co-operation of capital and labor to an extent -hitherto unknown. - -Another reason for the decline of the guilds may be found in the -increasing power of the government and its progressive control of the -citizen. The control and protection thus exercised by the government -rendered the protection and control exercised by the guild over its -members not only unnecessary but improper. While in some respects -governmental control and the freedom of a well-organized system of -courts did not protect the rights of the individual and insure the -quality of product as effectively as the guilds had done, it was -inevitable that particular regulations should give way to general -regulation and that the individual should not only be taught but -compelled to look to the state rather than to an association of -individuals for the protection of his rights and the definition of his -duties. - -It was probably this more than anything else which brought about an -increasing antagonism between the guilds and the state in every country. -In the years of their growth and power the guilds, as we have seen, had -been the strong supporters of the social order, the pillars of the -state, and the firm reliance of the government, or at any rate of that -party in the government which they supported. When the government became -strong enough to desire to stand alone, the power of the guilds, which -had formerly been useful, became decidedly objectionable, and the entire -influence of the state was more and more directed against them. - -Another important social change was the development of free labor and -free capital, resulting in the separation of industrial classes. Under -the guild system there was no separation between labor and capital, or -between the employers and the employed as classes. The guilds were -associations in which labor and so much capital as there was were -combined in a close organization, while there was neither labor nor -capital in any particular amount outside the guild. With the gradual -change of conditions, growth of population, increase of wealth, and -greater intercourse between communities there grew up on one end of the -social scale groups of laborers who were not members of any guild and on -the other end accumulations of capital which were either in the hands of -men who were neither craftsmen nor guild members or of those who had -larger accumulations than they could use in their own business. This -development of laborers seeking employment and capital seeking -investment was fatal to the guild system when once the progress of -invention made the factory system possible. - -One of the factors which accelerated this movement was a curious -combination of high prices fixed by the economic law of supply and -demand and low wages fixed by the ancient law of custom. It must be -remembered that at this time the science of political economy did not -exist. People did not know the laws which govern business and control -prices and wages. They ignorantly supposed, as some persons still -suppose, that these things may be governed by statute, being entirely -unaware of the fact that they are really the product of causes for the -most part beyond human control. In the early Middle Ages wages and -prices were fixed on a basis of custom. The three centuries which formed -the golden age of the guilds were a period of very slight industrial -changes. There were no great changes in population. There was no -colonizing, with the consequent opening of new markets. There were no -modern inventions. There was no particular change in the amount of gold -and silver in circulation. Consequently the law of supply and demand -made itself felt so little through variations in prices and in wages -that it was entirely neglected. It became the custom to pay a certain -amount for each commodity, and especially to pay a fixed rate of wages -in certain occupations. Nobody thought of paying less or of asking more -than this customary sum. In case anybody did attempt any modification of -this sort he was promptly checked by law. Attempts were also frequently -made to prevent by law variations in prices. - -This condition of things was completely upset by the changes which took -place about the time of the discovery of America. One of the immediate -results of the opening up of the mines and treasure hoards of Mexico and -Central and South America, with the consequent enormous increases in the -amount of gold and silver in circulation, was a rise in general prices -of about 100 per cent or, to put it differently, a cutting in two of the -value of gold and silver. Gold and silver are just like other -commodities. When the amount of gold in a given market is doubled its -value is halved; that is to say, you have to pay twice as much for -whatever you want to buy. - -The opening of new markets and the stimulus given not only to invention -but to production and communication by the intellectual movement and -consequent discoveries and inventions which were going on at this time -upset industrial conditions tremendously. As usual, however, the workmen -were the last to feel this change. Men paid more gold for commodities -because they could not get them at the same old price, but wages for a -long period remained fixed by custom. The laborer, like other people, -had to pay more for what he bought, but unlike other people did not get -any more for what he sold. This condition was made even worse by -ignorant and sometimes disastrous attempts to control by legislation a -situation which nobody understood. Statutes to fix prices and curtail -profits are never enforceable unless backed by a government monopoly of -production. Consequently the extensive legislation for these purposes -was useless. Unfortunately there was also legislation forbidding -combination of workmen, forbidding their passage from place to place in -search of work, and forbidding their asking or receiving more than the -customary rate of wages. Some of this was old legislation revived. Some -of it was new. While not entirely effective, it was much more effective -than the legislation with regard to commodity prices, because in the -nature of things it was much more easily enforceable. - -The natural consequence of these conditions was the disruption of the -old economic order. The employer and employed, who had been associated -together in the old guilds, separated into antagonistic, if not hostile, -camps. Capital and labor instead of co-operating contested for -supremacy. Guilds, if they survived at all, gradually became -associations of masters. We shall see how this worked out in the -development of the Community of Printers. The workmen gathered into -organizations of their own which were the ancestors of the modern labor -unions. The modern industrial system with all its power and with all its -abuses came into existence. - -Printing did not fit into the guild system at all. As has already been -pointed out, the very nature of the industry prevented it. Indeed it was -not legally regarded as an industry or a mechanical occupation until the -great reorganization of the trade in 1618, a date to which we shall have -frequent occasion to refer. At first it was regarded as an art or -profession and those who practiced it were legally recognized as not -being mechanics and not being liable to the laws governing mechanics. -From 1450 to 1618 the printing industry was a sort of industrial outlaw. -It was not under guild control on the one hand and was not amenable to -the general statutes regarding industry on the other. That meant that -the regulations which were at this period so advantageous to the other -industries did not apply to this one, with numerous unfortunate results. - -The industry at first attached itself to the universities. It was -utilized, as we have seen, not for a commercial purpose as now, but for -the production of Bibles, the classics, and other learned books almost -exclusively. As we have also seen, the universities attempted to control -the output of the press until more effective methods of censorship were -devised. - -Previous to the invention of typography there had been a sort of guild -of the makers and sellers of books. In most places this was known as the -Confraternity of St. John the Evangelist, sometimes as the Confraternity -of St. Luke, and in one place at least as the Brothers of the Pen. This -organization continued to exist as an association of printers, but it -did not have the power and standing of the great trade guilds of an -earlier period. Soon after the invention of printing the journeymen and -apprentices formed an association of their own, which very soon -developed into something like a labor union. The result of these -conditions was great disorganization in the trade. Strikes were -frequent. In France particularly the period from 1539 to 1544 was one of -great disorder. Accounts of a series of strikes in the city of Lyons at -this period read almost like the accounts of a serious labor disturbance -of the present time. Shops were picketed. There were parades of -strikers. There were riots by the strikers and their sympathizers, and -an appeal to the town authorities to settle the matter. The settlement -proposed was so unfavorable to the master printers that they threatened -to leave Lyons in a body. This would have been a very serious matter, as -printing was then one of the great industries of the city, and the -disturbance was finally settled by a compromise which granted the -journeymen some of their more important demands and yet left enough to -the masters so that they felt that they could continue in business. The -great grievances complained of were low pay, poor food (the journeymen -were boarded by their employers), too many apprentices, and the -unwillingness of the masters to allow them to work at certain times when -they wanted to work, such as on the eves of Sundays and feast days and -the like, and to abstain from work at certain times when they did not -want to work. - -Attempts were made to stop the disturbances in the trade by the -intervention of the government. This intervention was entirely on the -side of the masters. The journeymen were forbidden to do anything -whatever to injure the masters or to impede their business and they were -denied the limitation of apprentices for which they had asked. Guild -regulations limited the number of apprentices taken in other industries -and it seemed only reasonable to the journeyman that similar regulations -should obtain among the printers, but the royal authority was constantly -exercised against them. This attempted settlement by royal authority was -immediately followed by still more serious strikes. The masters -complained that the agitation was due to the pernicious activity of -labor leaders and invoked the royal edicts. The journeymen alleged -abuses, claimed their rights, and undertook to enforce them by -combination. The royal authority was exercised in the effort to coerce -the journeymen even to the point of threatening by an edict of 1617 that -workmen who interfered with the conduct of their master’s business -should be put to death. This, however, was the last expiring effort of -the old order of things. In the next year, 1618, a royal edict organized -the trade and prescribed the regulations under which it should be -conducted. - -This organization, which we shall proceed to study in detail, was the -basis of the conduct of the printing industry in France until 1789. It -did not bring industrial peace and it did not remedy all existing evils. -As we shall see, the history of printing is a history of industrial -conflict throughout the whole period until 1789. Henceforth, however, -the regulation of the trade, the establishment of a responsible -organization, and the fixing of regulations between masters and men -changed the field of strife. We hear little or nothing more of strikes. -The state was recognized as the source of regulation and as the arbiter -of questions which might arise between the associated employers on one -hand and their partially associated employees on the other. The -industrial struggles hereafter took the form of litigation rather than -of strikes. The outlaw industry at last obtained a recognized, -responsible position in the industrial world. - - - - - CHAPTER VI - THE COMMUNITY OF PRINTERS - - -An unregulated trade, conducted under conditions of absolute freedom -approximating those of the present day, was not only out of place in the -Middle Ages but was practically impossible. We have seen how the attempt -to carry on a trade under such conditions resulted in a state of -intolerable confusion in the printing industry. Accordingly a royal -edict was issued by King Louis XII supplying the needed regulations for -the conduct of the industry according to seventeenth century ideas. - -So far as the industry itself was concerned the important feature of -this edict was the organization of the Community of Printers. This -Community embraced all the printing trades; that is to say, printing, -book binding, type founding, and bookselling. The master workmen -carrying on shops in any of these allied industries were members of the -Community. It differed from the trade guilds in that it was an -organization of employers only. It did not include even the master -workmen who were not employers. - -Certain matters were decided upon by the Community as a whole, but the -work of the Community was carried on for the most part by a sort of -Executive Committee called the Syndics. This Committee consisted of a -chairman, who is usually referred to as the Syndic, and four associates -or assessors. This board was chosen annually. Originally the elections -were held in general assemblages of the industry at which all members of -the Community were entitled to vote. Later the elections were in the -hands of a board consisting of the five syndics for the year, past -members of the board of syndics, and twenty-four electors. Of these -twenty-four, eight were printers, eight booksellers, and eight binders. -The type founders appear never to have been very important members of -the Community and probably soon ceased to be represented among the -syndics. At the time the Community was organized typefounding was not a -separate industry, but was carried on by the printers themselves. - -The duty of the syndics was to act as the corporate representatives of -the industry. They fixed wages and prices. They adjusted disputes -between their fellow-members and acted for the employers in dealing with -the employees. They had powers of visitation and supervision. Through -these they were supposed to exercise a sort of censorship over printing, -to maintain the quality of work done, to see that trade regulations were -enforced and trade agreements carried out; in a word, to exercise the -same minute control over the industry which was exercised by the guilds. - -The new organization was a very great improvement over the former lack -of organization, but it was very far from being completely successful. -Its first effort was to regulate admission to mastership and so to -membership of the Community. The number of shops in Paris in 1618 was -76. By 1686 this number had been reduced to 36 and the process was still -going on. At Troyes in 1700 there were 16 shops and in 1739 only 3. This -limitation was brought about by freezing out the small shops, by strict -regulation of admissions to the Community without which the business -could not be legally carried on, and by the purchase from time to time -of certificates of membership. A certificate of membership in the -Community was a very considerable asset to an individual and on his -death it passed to his heirs. While it could not apparently be sold -outside the family, it had distinct value and could often be purchased -and cancelled by the Community. Except by inheritances membership might -be obtained only through advancement in the trade from apprenticeship -through journeymanship to master workmanship, as we shall see later. The -fees required for membership of the Community and the capital required -for carrying on business were so great that very few attained membership -of the Community in this way. Membership of the Community, however, was -open to the sons of members or to those who might marry the widows of -members, and in a very short time membership became practically limited -to those who obtained it in one or the other of these ways. - -The Community was undoubtedly very useful in giving a corporate center -to the industry and also in giving more support to trade usages, -contracts, and agreements. On the other hand its efficiency was greatly -weakened by the quarrels which immediately broke out between the three -elements of the Community and which lasted until the final break-up of -the old conditions in 1789. The quarrel was mainly between the printers -and the booksellers or publishers. The binders were soon recognized as -forming an independent industry and they were before very long -eliminated from the Community of Printers. They formed a Community of -their own in 1686 and need not be further considered. - -The hostility between the booksellers and the printers began with the -invention of printing. Their interests were so closely related and yet -so antagonistic that an attempt to combine them in one Community while -at the same time keeping their functions separate resulted in constant -quarrels and in a weakening of the influence of the Community itself. - -The booksellers, for instance, were lax in their supervision and control -in matters where the printers were directly concerned, while the -printers were equally negligent of the interests of the booksellers. The -printers naturally desired to restrict the number of printers but they -were glad to see the number of booksellers competing for the privilege -of handling their output increased indefinitely. The booksellers, being -fewer in number and probably richer, were more united and more -aggressive than the printers. They attempted to get control of -manuscripts so that the printers could not produce anything without -first paying toll to the owners of the manuscripts. We must always -remember that at this period the great mass of commercial and periodical -printing which supports the industry today was not in existence, and -that printing was practically confined to books and official documents. -The booksellers also wanted to print for themselves; that is to say, to -hire journeymen printers and so make themselves independent of the -master printers. By their resistence to the closing of the mastership -and by the cultivation of competition they did their best to lower the -prices of printing. In a word, they endeavored to subjugate the printers -entirely. In this they did not succeed, but they kept the quarrel alive, -very much to the detriment of the industry, until the end of the old -industrial order. - - - - - CHAPTER VII - HOW THE OLD-TIME PRINTERS WORKED - - -Before considering the organization of a shop and the conditions under -which the work was done, it is worth while to look into a printing -establishment of the sixteenth, seventeenth, or eighteenth century and -see how the work itself was carried on. This general view of an old-time -printing plant will be made fairly full even at the cost of some -repetition of facts already stated elsewhere on account of the -importance of presenting here as complete a picture as possible of the -life and labor of printers in the centuries under discussion. - -Originally the printer did everything except to make his paper and his -presses. He designed and cast his type, he made his ink, he edited his -manuscript, printed his books, bound them, and, for a time, sold them. -We have just considered his relations to the bookseller. He got rid of -his type casting about one hundred years after the invention. The type -foundry of Guillaume Le Bé, established about 1551, seems to have been -the beginning of type founding as a separate industry, although in later -years some very large establishments maintained type foundries and even -paper mills as incidents of the business; but the printer from this time -on began to get his type outside. - -Bookbinding came to be regarded as a separate industry at about the same -time. - -Ink making was done by the printer until comparatively recently. The ink -balls which were used for distributing the ink on types were made by the -printers themselves until the ink ball was superseded by the roller with -the coming in of modern presses. Even then rollers were made in the -shops for a long time, and indeed the practice is hardly now entirely -discontinued. - -The early paper was hand-made and was thick, with a rough, furrowed -surface. It was grayish or yellowish in color and was very strongly -water-marked. It was very costly, but very durable. It was heavy and -hard to handle, especially as it was handled without mechanical -appliances. - -The early types were irregular in face and body as the natural result of -being cast in hand moulds from hand cut dies. The early types were cast -on large bodies and were used without leads. The point system, which -reduced type to uniformity and did away with the annoying irregularity -in size of the old types, did not come into existence until the middle -of the eighteenth century, three hundred years after the invention of -printing. Of course, all composition throughout this period was done by -hand. Women were employed as compositors as early as 1500, but they -apparently disappeared from the industry before long, as we find no -evidence of their presence after the reorganization of 1618 or for some -time before that. - -The press was substantially the old screw press of Gutenberg in which -the platen was forced down onto the bed by the direct pressure of a -screw. A few improvements had been made. A sliding bed was introduced in -1500. A copper screw (more effective and durable than the old wooden -screw), tympan, and frisket were added in 1550, and the so-called Dutch -press, which did away with the necessity of raising the platen by a -reverse motion of the screw by substituting leverage for it, was -introduced in 1620. These were the only improvements of any note which -were made before the introduction of the Stanhope press about 1800. Of -course, the presses were worked by hand power and it will be seen that -the setting up of the screw or the throwing of a lever with sufficient -force to insure a good impression was an extremely laborious task. It -was sometimes dangerous, as the screw bar or lever was liable to break -when the workman’s weight and strength were thrown upon it, resulting in -serious injuries. - -The ink was good—well-aged linseed oil, boiled until viscous when cool, -and mixed in a mortar with resin black. It was mixed in the proportion -of thirty-two ounces of oil to five ounces of black. Of course, it was -variable, its quality depending upon the quality of the ingredients and -the care exercised in preparation. It was spread on the type by means of -balls of leather stuffed with wool and firmly attached to wooden -handles. One of these balls was taken in each hand, a small portion of -ink was spread evenly over the balls by rubbing them together, and the -ink ball was then passed over the type so as to distribute the ink as -evenly as possible. - -Composition was done by the full page. This was a fairly reasonable -method of reckoning, as the kinds of printing were not varied as they -are now. Compositors worked “on honor” and were paid by time. Payment by -ems is a very late advance, not having been adopted until about 1775. - -Imposition was done practically as now. - -The pressman’s day began by the preparation, through softening and -cleaning, of the balls which were to be used on the day’s run, and the -mixing of the amount of ink considered necessary for the day’s work. -Make-ready, adjustment of margins, register, and the like had to be -attended to before the impressions could be taken. Meanwhile the paper -had been dampened. The old screw press could not print on dry paper. -Paper came from the mill in “hands” or packages of twenty-five sheets, -folded once and laid inside each other as note paper is now sold by the -stationer. A “hand” was dipped in a tub of water. It was then taken out -and the sheets were placed flat under weights to squeeze out the -superfluous water and keep the sheets in shape. After the water had been -squeezed out the sheets were re-folded into “hands” and sent to the -pressroom to be placed upon the press while still damp. - -Two men worked together on the press, one inking the type and the other -making the impression. They worked turn and turn about in hour shifts so -that the more and less laborious work was equally distributed. - -Two-color work was done by taking two impressions from one form. The -parts which were intended to be printed in red were set in higher type -than the rest and a perforated frisket was used. The red ink impression -was taken first. The type for red ink was then removed and slugs were -put in, making the form type high throughout. From this form the -impression was taken in black ink. As might be supposed, the register -was almost always imperfect. - -The printed leaves while still damp were piled under weights to remove -the counter impression of the type which naturally struck through the -damp paper. - -The printing was done with the paper sufficiently damp to make this -simple process of removal fairly successful. Later the printed sheets -were pressed between heated plates of metal, giving a very smooth and -glossy surface to the page. - -The pressman was paid by time like the compositor, but he was expected -to accomplish a given amount of work in a day. In Paris, about 1575, he -was expected to print 2650 sheets, while at Lyons the day’s work was -held to be 3350. All folding, of course, was done by hand with no -further assistance than that of the bone or wooden folding stick. The -first sheet from the press was taken as a sample or proof. Proving, as -distinguished from printing, was then unknown. - -Proofreading was done practically as now and the proof marks were -substantially the same. Two corrections per page must be made by the -compositor without extra compensation. Other corrections were apparently -not made by the original compositor, but by other workmen who were -employed as piece workers on that particular occupation for the time -being. The printer appears to have ordinarily managed to get these -corrections charged to the author. - -There was a rude system of cost finding and estimating in force. In -making a price on a job the printer charged first for the paper. Whether -or not he took a profit here is uncertain, but he probably did when he -thought he could get it. The paper did not enter any further into his -computation. He next estimated the cost of the labor. He then figured 50 -per cent of the labor cost as overhead, including such minor items as -ink and other special materials which might be needed on that particular -job before it got to the customer. He then added another 25 per cent of -the labor cost, which was supposed to be profit, and upon that basis he -made up his price. Presumably there were price cutters and more or less -unsuccessful guessers in those days as there are now, but the method -just outlined was supposed to be that by which printers generally -reached their figures. The financial success of the printer depended, of -course, on operation. He might so conduct his work that the 50 per cent -overhead might leave a considerable margin to be added to the 25 per -cent profit or, on the other hand, he might so bungle it as to eat up -the 25 per cent and more too. - - - - - CHAPTER VIII - INTERNAL ORGANIZATION OF THE INDUSTRY - - -The workers in the industry were divided into four clearly defined -classes, namely apprentices, laborers, journeymen, and masters. In this, -as in most respects in this volume, the study is based largely on -conditions prevailing in France for the reason that we have much more -abundant material from French sources than elsewhere. The conditions in -France, however, were probably substantially the same as those which -existed elsewhere, so that by studying conditions in France we get a -very fair idea of those which generally prevailed at this period. - - - _Apprentices_ - -The apprentices, as now, were the boys and young men learning the -industry under an apprenticeship agreement. The age of apprentices -varied considerably. They were not often received under seventeen or -above twenty-four. Perhaps the majority of them were received at the age -of nineteen or twenty. - -The printer’s apprentice was probably a little older as a rule than the -apprentice in other industries because he had to have a much more -extensive previous education. It was not only necessary that he should -be well versed in his own language and in the essentials of ordinary -education, but it was necessary that he should also be able to read and -write both Latin and Greek. While it is true that after a few years many -books were printed in the native tongue of the printers, it must not be -forgotten that the printing of this period was almost entirely book -printing and to a very great extent the printing of books of what we -should call today religion and serious literature. Latin was the -universal language of the Catholic Church as it is today. It was also -the language of learned men everywhere. No scholar thought of writing a -serious work in English, French, or German. He might translate one into -the vernacular or he might, especially after the beginning of the -religious controversies, write a controversial book in his native -language, but for the most part serious writing was done in Latin. There -was a considerable amount of printing of Greek classics in the original, -although there was not much use of Greek for original composition. Under -these circumstances it is clear that the knowledge of these tongues was -very important. The enforcement, however, of the strict requirements of -this period was a cause of many disputes in the industry. The employers -then as now were ready to hire cheap help for cheap jobs, and they were -given to taking on apprentices far beyond the requirements of recruiting -the industry because they could get a good deal of work out of them -which otherwise must be given to higher priced men. In many cases they -were willing to take on apprentices who did not understand Greek or even -Latin. The result was injury to the industry itself and to the interests -of the workmen, as is always the case when employers take on improperly -trained apprentices who are incapable of development into the highest -efficiency. We shall meet these half-trained apprentices a little later. - -Further requirements were that the apprentice should be of good life and -manners and that he should be a Catholic and a native of France and -unmarried. - -An apprenticeship agreement was a formal contract. Originally this was a -verbal contract only, a sort of “gentlemen’s agreement.” After the -reorganization of 1618 it was a written contract drawn up by a notary. -The period of apprenticeship varied somewhat, especially before 1618. In -general, however, it was four years. The condition of the contract was -that the apprentice should pay a specified sum to the master for the -privilege of learning the trade and that he should agree to serve his -master with care and diligence for a period of four years and not -neglect his master’s interests nor spoil his master’s goods. In return -the master was bound to teach him the trade of printing so that at the -end of his time he would be qualified as a journeyman. In addition the -master was bound to furnish the apprentice lodging, food, clothing in -specified quantity, and sometimes a very small amount of money. - -The apprentice lived in the master’s house and ate either at the -master’s table or at the table set for the journeymen, who also received -their food from the master. If the apprentice absented himself for any -reason from his work his absence must be atoned for by double time added -to the period of apprenticeship. If his absences were repeated he was -liable to be discharged. In this case the master was held to be the -sufferer, the contract of apprenticeship was cancelled, and the entire -amount paid in by the apprentice as a premium was forfeited to the -master. It frequently happened that apprentices desired to be relieved -of their contracts before the expiration of their time. Sometimes it -happened that they changed their minds about becoming printers, more -often, probably, they sought short cuts into the industry. It has always -been the misfortune of printing that a very imperfect knowledge of it -has a comparatively higher market value than an equally imperfect -knowledge of other industries, while the period of apprenticeship -required for full learning of the trade is long and wearisome. The -apprentices were often tempted by offers of occupation as laborers or -even as journeymen in some of the poorer shops which were willing to -evade regulations. The habit of canceling indentures before their -expiration for a money consideration thus grew up to the serious -detriment of the industry. - -The printers made profit by taking the premium from the apprentice and -then selling him his freedom before his indenture had expired. The -injury to the industry and to the well-trained workman of this -competition of half-trained, incompetent workmen is perfectly clear. - -The masters, of course, complained that the apprentices were idle, -wasteful, and unteachable, and probably some of them were. Boys and -young men were good, bad, and indifferent in the Middle Ages just as -they are now. The apprentices complained on the other hand that they -were overworked, underfed, and personally abused in many instances. -Doubtless these complaints were often well founded because grownup men -were good, bad, and indifferent in the Middle Ages very much as they are -now. - -At best the work of the apprentice was very hard. Living as he did in -the master’s house and working in the shop as a beginner, he was a cross -between a domestic servant, an errand boy, and a learner in the -industry. The master’s wife might call upon him to wash the kitchen -floor. The foreman might send him out with a package of proofs. The -workmen might send him out for a bottle of wine or a pot of beer, or he -might be set to work on one of the legitimate tasks of his -apprenticeship only to be called away at almost any time by some such -personal demand as those just indicated. His hours, like those of -everybody else in the trade, were very long. He was expected to keep the -shop clean and in order, to clean the type and the presses, to mix ink, -to dampen paper, and if he were strong and well grown he might even be -put to working on the press. These and a thousand other things, many of -them unknown to modern shops, were required of him besides the work at -the case and elsewhere which gave him his real knowledge of the trade. - -The question of the number of apprentices was a burning one. Previous to -1618 it was one of the great causes of strikes and labor disputes. The -masters at that time desired to increase the number of apprentices -indefinitely, to which the journeymen objected on account of the injury -to their interests by having too many workmen, especially cheap ones. -The journeymen succeeded in securing a royal edict which limited the -number of apprentices to be employed in any establishment to two for -each press, one on composition and the other on presswork. The shop -conditions which have been already described show that this taking of -the press as a unit was fairly equitable. In the absence of machine work -both composition and presswork were slow, and had a more nearly equal -rate of speed than now. After 1618 the masters attempted to enforce the -limitation of apprentices as against each other. They feared the -competition of the man who succeeded in getting into his shop a supply -of cheap help which enabled him to cut prices, consequently the -journeymen no longer appear as parties to this dispute. - -During the whole period there were complaints that the apprenticeship -regulations were not enforced and that some of the masters insisted upon -taking more than the proper number of apprentices and taking them with -less than the proper qualifications. This seems to have been a very real -difficulty and one which was never entirely overcome. The temptation to -obtain cheap labor, regardless of the welfare of either the apprentice -or the industry, was too great, and many printers found it impossible to -resist it, especially as during the latter part of this period the -conditions in the industry became very bad and it was almost impossible -to make any money at it. - -Throughout this period, especially after 1618, all regulations as to -apprenticeship were relaxed in favor of the sons of masters and other -persons whom the masters desired particularly to favor. One of the most -significant and far-reaching of the regulations of the printing trade -was that which admitted the sons of masters directly to membership -without any previous training. We shall discuss this a little more fully -later. - - - _Laborers_ - -The class of workmen called laborers constituted a source of one of the -greatest difficulties and abuses in the industry, especially during the -seventeenth century. - -At this period there were no restrictions on their employment, or at -least none that were successfully enforced. After that period they were -less freely employed. They were ignorant or unskilled workmen incapable -of becoming journeymen. It was into this class that the apprentices -dropped who were employed without sufficient previous education, more -especially those who were ignorant in Greek and Latin. The class was -further made up of apprentices who had not finished their time, workmen -who proved incompetent to hold journeymen’s positions, and men who could -do rough work but had never been apprentices. Obviously there was a good -deal of work which these men could do. Part of it was work which would -otherwise be done by apprentices, part work which would otherwise be -done by journeymen. The unrestricted hiring of these men limited the -number of journeymen’s positions, reduced wages, lowered standards, and -was in every way detrimental to the industry. - - - _Journeymen_ - -In the printing industry the journeyman was not the same as the master. -In other industries after the apprentice had finished his time and -qualified by submitting a piece of work of approved standard, he became -a master workman. He was made free of the guild and ordinarily set up in -business for himself. Theoretically a somewhat similar condition -prevailed in the printing trade. Before the reorganization of 1618 and -the consequent restriction of mastership the apprentice became a master -workman when he had completed his time, and was at liberty to set up for -himself if he so desired. - -After the reorganization the apprentice after having finished his time -became a journeyman in the shop to which he had been apprenticed. -Originally he was restricted to that shop. He was then required to serve -as a journeyman from two to four years. At the expiration of that period -he passed a theoretical and practical examination. This covered his -proficiency in the languages and other academic subjects required and -the submission of a piece of completed work. He was also obliged to -submit a certificate of character covering the requirements of -apprenticeship and testifying as to his conduct while an apprentice. - -The question of his admission to the Community was then voted upon by -the syndics, and if he was found qualified and admitted he was formally -received into the Community at a public meeting at which were present -the syndics and the elders of the Community. He was then sworn in as a -member of the Community by the Lieutenant-General of Police. Before -being sworn in, however, he was required to pay certain fees. Originally -these fees were small, but they afterward became very large. - -As a matter of fact, very few journeymen became masters. The heavy fees -in themselves were almost prohibitive, but the greatest obstacle was the -difficulty about raising the necessary capital. No other business at -that time required so heavy an outlay for equipment, material, and labor -before any return whatever could be realized. The equipment was very -expensive and there were no small jobs such as are found in modern -commercial offices, especially those of the less pretentious type, to -keep the plant going. The printer was obliged to go to the entire -expense for material and labor involved in getting out an edition of a -book before he could begin to get any returns from it. Sometimes he knew -where he could sell the book (Caxton seems to have been particularly -successful in this regard), but more often he did not know. There is in -existence a letter written by Sweynheym and Pannartz to the Pope asking -him for assistance. They set forth their case by saying that they have -sunk a great deal of money in procuring equipment and printing books -which have sold slowly. They complain that they have a large house full -of books but with nothing in it to eat, and beg that he will either -assist them in the sale of their books or tide them over until they can -find a market. - -These conditions tended to keep the journeymen permanently in that -position and to confine the masters to those who came into the business -by inheritance or marriage. The printing industry has thus the -unfortunate prominence of being the leading influence in breaking up the -old unities of industry and bringing about the modern industrial system. -It was the first industry in which there was developed a distinct class -of masters who were not and never had been workmen, and in which the -workman could become a master only under unusual circumstances. The -sharp division of industry into employers and employed with antagonistic -interests and divergent aims begins here. - -The hours of labor in the printing industry were very long. Throughout -France they averaged about fourteen hours a day, and similar conditions -appear to have prevailed elsewhere. As already indicated, a certain -amount of product, particularly on the press, was considered to be a -fair day’s work. In 1572 the 3350 sheets per day required of a pressman -at Lyons compelled him to work from two o’clock in the morning to eight -or nine in the evening without leaving the shop. This appears from -evidence submitted in litigation. Printers were boarded and generally -lodged by their employers. Plantin’s establishment, still in existence -in Amsterdam, shows living quarters for all of the workmen who were -employed in the plant. They were given their meals in the shop and were -permitted to send the apprentices out for wine or beer, which they drank -in considerable quantities. The men themselves objected to going out for -their food, although they often complained of the quality of that -furnished. Their objection was based upon the fact that they so depended -upon each other for their work that if men went out, especially if they -overstayed their time, they would be likely to hold up each other’s work -and make it impossible to complete the required task of the day even in -the very liberal time allowance which was then regarded as reasonable. - -It is not to be wondered at that the long hours, close confinement, and -hard work encouraged the drinking habits which were proverbial among -printers. The natural result of so much drinking was a good deal of -disorder and violence, especially on holidays. There is no reason to -suppose, however, that printers as a class were worse than other workmen -of their day and generation. They were much superior in education and -they were recognized as being of higher social condition. They were -exempt from many of the legal requirements upon journeymen in other -trades, and their industry was more than once recognized by royal edict -as being an art or profession and not a mechanical trade. The printers -were very proud of this social distinction and, as has been already -stated, emphasized their claim to it by wearing swords, which in those -days was the mark of the gentleman or professional man. - -The hard work and long hours had two compensations; one partial, the -other very real. The first, which printing shared with other industries, -was the great number of holidays. The shops did not work on Sundays or -feast days. Under modern conditions there are slightly more than 300 -working days in the year, taking out Sundays and holidays and making no -allowance for illness or voluntary absence. In the period with which we -are dealing there were only from 230 to 240 working days in the year; -that is to say, there were 60 or 70 more holidays than we now have. -Probably shorter hours and more days of work would have been better for -all concerned. The other compensation was the very high rate of wages. -To state the printer’s wages of that time in terms of money would carry -very little information, partly because of the difference in coinage and -partly because of the difference in the purchasing power of money. The -really enlightening fact is that the wages of a printer were from two to -three times those of journeymen in the other skilled trades. Actual -wages were fixed by the operation of the law of supply and demand and by -the skill of the individual workman. There was what we should call today -a “scale” fixed either by custom or by law. The scale, however, instead -of being a minimum, as now, was a maximum, the variations being below -instead of above it. - -Unfortunately there was a great deal of unemployment, owing to the -prevalence of a form of work which will be presently described. This -unemployment was not only a serious evil in itself, but it led to -competition among workmen, who were often willing to work for less than -the going rate rather than to go idle. Another tendency toward the -lowering of wages was the competition in the book trade caused by -literary piracy and the work of printers from the smaller towns or even -outside countries who could do work cheaper than it could be done in the -larger cities. For example, in the absence of copyright a printer might -go to the expense of getting out an edition of an important work only to -have a rival buy one of his copies and throw into the market an edition -at a price based on the cost of manufacture only, while it is obvious -that even if the competition were based on the cost of manufacture the -printer from Lyons could undersell the printer from Paris because his -presses turned out 700 more sheets a day, an advantage of 25 per cent. - -All this competition had a tendency to reduce selling prices and to -drive down the workman’s pay. It was for these reasons that the -employers were so anxious to use laborers instead of journeymen, and -apprentices instead of either. All these depressing tendencies had full -sway under the curiously inverted scale system which made the scale a -maximum instead of a minimum. - -Journeymen were divided into two classes, day workers and piece workers. -The day worker was engaged under an annual contract which covered his -salary, his board, and usually his lodging. In the printing trade these -contracts were written after 1618. In the other industries they were not -written, although verbal contracts were common to all industries. - -In some cases these bargains were collective; that is to say, they were -made between the Community and the journeymen’s organization soon to be -described. Wherever possible, however, the masters prevented the -organization of the journeymen and compelled the men to resort to -individual bargaining. - -The piece workers were men who were engaged for some particular contract -or job which the master had in hand. Whenever an important piece of work -was undertaken a number of extra men, depending upon the equipment and -the time in which it was desired to do the job, were employed. Day -workers and men employed for another job were supposed not to be put on -and no additional men were to be employed for it, unless some of the -original group dropped out. The men were supposed to know how long the -job would last and were supposed not to be discharged without eight -days’ notice. These men were paid by the day and were fed and sometimes -lodged like the day workmen. - -The workmen constantly complained that in practice they were greatly -abused under this system. They claimed that they were discharged without -notice, that day men were put to work on their jobs, and that additional -men were hired, shortening the period of their occupation. This -manipulation of the job was a frequent device of the masters in order to -finish a piece of work before a holiday, especially when a Sunday and a -holiday and even two holidays came together, as was not infrequently the -case with the great number of holidays then observed. By hurrying up the -job and finishing it before the holiday the master could avoid feeding -the men over the holiday. Under ordinary circumstances he was supposed -to feed his men, whether day workers or piece workers, throughout the -period of their employment, whether or not he paid them on holidays. The -result of this system was that a very large proportion, probably a large -majority, of the printers had no regular employment, working only at -such job work as they could from time to time pick up. - -The journeymen were graded as first- and second-class workmen and -foremen. The first-class workman was a sort of assistant foreman. He was -employed upon the more difficult work or aided the foreman in the -discharge of his duties. The second-class was the ordinary workman, -comparable today to a man who would be earning the union scale with very -little prospect of ever getting any more. - -The two departments of composition and presswork were recognized then as -now. Just as at present, there was keen rivalry between compositors and -pressmen, each claiming that his was the superior art and required the -greater skill. - -In the composing room there were three subdivisions—compositors, -stone-hands and make-up men, and distributors. These last appear to have -been employed on that particular work exclusively. There were no -divisions in the press room. As has been pointed out, two men were -employed on the press, one on the ink balls and the other on the lever, -but these were not separate occupations as the two men exchanged -positions every hour. - -The foreman was a man capable of oversight of all processes carried on -in the plant. The foremanship was not divided as it now is between the -foreman of the composing room and the foreman of the press room. These -functions were discharged by first-class workmen under the supervision -of the foreman. The foreman was also a proofreader, at least in part. He -corrected the first proofs although they were afterwards corrected by -the author and sometimes by the master or an editor in his employ. It -was necessary, therefore, that the foreman should be not only a -first-class workman but an accomplished scholar. He had to be thoroughly -versed in his own language and highly trained in Latin and Greek or any -other language in which books were printed in the plant. He was obliged -also to be thoroughly familiar with theological, philosophical, or -scientific terms, or any other special terms required for any particular -kind of printing which the plant undertook. - -When the workman became too old and infirm to hold his place or his -eyesight failed there were several sources of at least partial support -open to him if his family was not in a condition to support him. Some of -these old workmen were licensed by the syndics of the Community to -peddle tracts, almanacs, broadside sheets of ballads and notices, and -other things which might be called the small wares of the printing -trade. Some of them did a sort of junk business in old paper and -parchments. In some places there were asylums for aged printers where a -few found entrance. Others became pensioners on the Community. The -Community in France and similar organizations elsewhere appear to have -had funds especially for this purpose and to have used some of their -current funds for charity. Other old men were allowed to make the rounds -of the shops, particularly those in which they had been employed, taking -a few coppers from their younger and more fortunate fellow workmen. -There seems to have been a sort of comradeship among the printers which -made these old fellows welcome as they made their periodical rounds for -help. - - - _The Master_ - -The master has perhaps been sufficiently described as we went along. He -was the capitalist who carried on the business. In the great days of -Jenson and Aldus and the Estiennes he was often, himself, his own -foreman and best journeyman. We have seen, however, how he gradually -came to be in many cases a business man with little or no practical -knowledge of the business. - -In the early days of printing the masters seem to have been more -prosperous than they were later. Godart and Merlin, of Paris, in 1538 -employed 200 men. Such printers as these were rich and prosperous and -held in high esteem by their fellow citizens. We have seen, however, -that some of the greatest of the printers were constantly struggling -with financial difficulties. The reorganization of 1618 did not seem to -have the effect upon the prosperity of the masters which might have been -expected. As we have seen, there was a cut-throat competition and even -after the reorganization of the Community and the restrictions of -mastership governmental control had a tendency to grow more and more -burdensome while the market for their wares increased but slowly. It is -said that in 1700 there were not two printers in Paris who were worth -25,000 francs or $5000. In 1700, $5000 was worth two or three times that -amount now, but even so the fact stated shows the prostration of the -industry. - - - - - CHAPTER IX - RELATIONS BETWEEN EMPLOYER AND EMPLOYED - - -The printing industry has always been liable to friction between the -employers and the employed. We have already made reference from time to -time to strikes and labor disputes, going back to the very beginnings of -the industry. Previous to the reorganization of 1618 the workmen -generally had recourse to strikes for the settlement of disputes and the -masters in turn appealed to the civil authorities. In conformity with -the ideas of those days the authorities intervened, if at all, to -suppress the strike. The idea of authority was very strong at that -period and rebellion or disobedience on the part of laborers was -regarded as little less than sedition or treason. Social lines were -sharply drawn and every attempt possible was made to secure and maintain -the supremacy of those in authority, whether that authority were civil, -ecclesiastical, or industrial. - -After the reorganization of 1618, however, the strike as a means of -settlement was rarely resorted to until revived in modern times. The -very organization of the industry made it amenable to authority and made -it possible to settle disputes by legal processes. Accordingly, we find -that both masters and journeymen presented their cases before the courts -or the executive officers having authority and endeavored to gain their -points by means of laws or edicts. The journeymen on the whole were more -successful by this method than they had previously been, although the -points of dispute were never permanently settled. - -The organization of the Community united the masters, but the attempts -of the journeymen to unite were met with constant opposition and were -frequently prohibited by law. The germ of the journeymen’s organization -was the chapel. Originally the chapel was a group of workmen engaged on -the same job and consequently dependent upon each other for its success -and for the regular progress of the work. The origin of the name is -somewhat in doubt, but it probably is either derived from the fact that -many of the early printing establishments were connected with -monasteries, or under the patronage of the church, or from the fact that -the printers were educated men, and in the 15th century educated men -were generally identified with the clergy. In English law, until within -a comparatively recent time, a man convicted of certain crimes could -escape capital punishment if he could prove that he could read and -write. This proof was held to identify him with the clergy, who were -exempted from certain criminal provisions of the statutes. This process -was technically known as “pleading one’s clergy.” - -The chapel was soon extended to include in its membership all the -workmen in one shop, and in this significance the name is still in use. -The organization of journeymen into chapels runs back to the early days -of printing. There never seems to have been any serious attempt to -prevent this organization in individual shops for the reason that such -an organization was highly beneficial to the masters themselves, -securing the better co-ordination of related processes and hence more -efficient production. In France the chapel was legally recognized in -1777, only a short time before the break-up of the old order. The chapel -had certain revenues which were derived from assessments and fees which -it laid upon its members and particularly from the sale of books. It was -the custom to give to the chapel a certain number of copies of every -book printed. These revenues appear to have been intended originally as -provision for certain periodical feasts and festivals such as were -common in all the guilds of the middle ages. Later they were extended to -cover charity and also to provide a sort of war chest out of which the -expense of litigation could be met. - -The combination of these chapels or the formation of tacit -understandings between them created a sort of trade union, and the -combination of their funds made possible the raising of the large -amounts of money necessary to employ counsel and carry on the -litigations against the employers. The employers, often backed by the -authorities, strove throughout this period to prevent these -combinations. They understood fully the tactical value of the precept -“divide and rule,” and they did their best to keep the journeymen -divided and at the same time to strengthen the bonds of their own union. -In this, however, they were only partially successful. In spite of -edicts to the contrary, the chapels, though unable to form an open, -strong organization which could meet the Community on equal terms or to -act with the openness and authority of the modern trade union, -nevertheless maintained a very real and often effective organization -through correspondence, conferences, and other methods of securing -mutual agreement and common action. - -In addition to the general settlements of industrial conditions which -were sought by legislation, individual disputes in particular shops or -localities were often settled by arbitration. The great difficulty about -these arbitrations, which rendered their results unsatisfactory and was -never obviated during this whole period, arose from the impossibility of -agreeing on a satisfactory board of arbitrators. The masters insisted -that all these arbitrations should be referred either to the courts or -to the syndics. To this the journeymen seriously objected. They felt -that the courts would not really arbitrate but would settle the matter -by an application of the statutes, and they knew by experience that the -statutes were generally construed against the journeymen wherever -possible. They were on the whole very law-abiding people. They had no -disposition to break the statutes, but the questions which they wanted -decided were either as to the application of the statutes or as to -points not covered by them. On the other hand they felt that the syndics -were entirely unqualified to act as arbitrators for the reason that they -were masters and consequently interested parties. The masters were -insistent whenever possible that these cases should go to the syndics, -although as an alternative they were willing that they should go to the -courts. - -The journeymen desired that arbitration boards should be composed of -masters, workmen, and citizens not connected with the industry. They -maintained that only thus could the interests of all be fairly -represented and an impartial arbitration secured. To this type of board -the masters almost invariably objected, and they generally refused to -submit to its findings. In this regard the journeymen appear to much -better advantage than the masters throughout this period. - -The main points of dispute have already been indicated and were on the -whole not different from similar difficulties today. - -First and foremost came the question of pay and food, usually together. -Occasionally men were satisfied with their food but not with their pay -or vice versa, but ordinarily the two went together. The man who paid -badly was likely to feed badly. Another burning question was the right -of combination on the part of the journeymen or, as we should say today, -the question of the recognition of the union. Another point was the -matter of discharge or leaving without notice. The grievance arising -from discharge without notice has already been discussed. The masters -complained that the men would leave without notice and so render it -impossible for them to complete their jobs according to contract. This -was one of the evils attendant on the piece system which has already -been described. On the one hand the masters tried to manipulate it by -hiring extra men and the like so as to increase their profits, while on -the other hand workmen facing the danger of a period of unemployment -would leave a job unfinished if they could get employment on another job -which promised several weeks or even months of work. - -Another fruitful cause of difference was tickets of leave or cards of -dismissal. When a man left a job he was supposed to be given a card -which identified him, told where he had been employed, what he did -there, how well he did it, and what his conduct had been in the shop. He -was supposed to show this card before obtaining employment. The workmen -complained that these cards were withheld or improperly filled out for -personal or other unworthy reasons. Sometimes masters were very -particular about giving and demanding these cards. At other times they -were very lax in both these regards and the consequence was that the -card system was a source of constant annoyance to all concerned. - -The complaint was also made by journeymen that members of the Community -maintained a black-list, and if a journeyman offended a single member of -the Community or fell into disfavor in a single shop he might be placed -on this black-list and find it impossible to obtain employment. - -Of course, there were many other questions which arose from time to time -but these were the particular causes of difficulty which we find -constantly recurring, just as the questions of pay, hours, recognition -of the union, and handling of non-union material constantly recur today. - -A fairly careful study of the conditions of this period shows that -according to our modern ideas the journeymen generally appear to better -advantage than the masters. There is no question, of course, that there -were unreasonable demands and that individual journeymen or even groups -of journeymen behaved at times in objectionable ways. On the whole, -however, the effort of the journeymen of this period seems to have been -only to obtain fair treatment and a reasonable recognition of their -rights. They especially desired to be treated as men and to confer on -equal terms with their employers instead of being treated as inferior -beings bound to accept without protest what was handed down to them. It -must be remembered that they were far more highly educated than the -workers in any other industry and that they had been officially -recognized many times as being in a class apart from the ordinary -workmen. They appear to have attempted only to secure in the industry -the same recognition which they legally enjoyed socially. While they did -attempt to have a voice in the fixing of wages and hours there is very -little evidence of any attempt to enforce upon the shops the observance -of rules and regulations made by themselves. The masters on the other -hand had those ancient ideas of authority which have already been -mentioned. They were not willing that their employees should rise above -the level of other workers and they were not willing to recognize them -as men entitled to fair consideration, to say nothing of equal rights. -They lived in the days of serfdom and they took their position as -masters quite seriously and quite literally. This opposition in spirit -between the masters who, by their wealth, their education, and their -social position were associated with the upper classes and imbued with -all of their ancient pride, and the men who, themselves educated and -imbued with a spirit of progress and a desire for freedom, were -attempting to rise above the condition of serfdom in which the laborers -of that age were commonly held was the real root of the struggles in the -medieval printing trade. The purely industrial questions involved were -the occasions rather than the causes of strife. - -The end of the old regime is marked in France by the date 1789. This -date marks the beginning of the French Revolution when great masses of -medieval statutes were swept from the statute books, including all those -which regulated the trade of printing. The Community, censorship, -licenses to print, and all the edicts regulating conditions in the -industry went by the board together. The French Revolution, however, was -only an incident of a change which was coming over the thinking of the -whole world. A new condition had been growing up under the old forms and -the time had come when the old forms had to break to make way for the -new life. They broke in the most dramatic and tragic fashion in France -and therefore we think and speak of this event as the French Revolution, -but the change took place elsewhere in as real though a less striking -manner. - -One of the features of this change was the birth of the newspaper and an -enormous production of pamphlets and other minor literature. There had -been newspapers and periodicals for a long time before, but the ferment -of men’s minds which began in the middle of the eighteenth century -naturally caused a great production of printed matter and a demand that -it should be produced very quickly. Much of this printed matter was of a -sort forbidden by the old laws and regulations. The greater part of it, -being produced under conditions of haste inconsistent with good -workmanship and under a demand for cheapness also inconsistent with good -workmanship, was of a very poor quality. The industry was disordered by -a great increase in the number of shops, particularly shops of a poorer -character. At first the workmen profited greatly, but as is always the -case conditions gradually settled back to a normal state. - -The general history of printing may be left at this point. From this -time on the conditions with which we are familiar are coming into shape. -The old day with its old conditions has gone. We need to know the -history of these old times in order that we may understand the records -and experiences of the early day. The later conditions we understand -from our own surroundings. The periodical literature which forms so -large a part of the output of the press has fairly come to life by the -end of the eighteenth century. Commercial printing, which is now -entering upon so positive a career of usefulness and importance, is -about to begin. The invention of the Stanhope press about 1800 is the -first of that long series of inventions which have made possible the -printing establishments of today and their wonderful product. These -things are elsewhere treated. Here we say good-bye to our elder brothers -of the home-made type, the ink balls, and the hand press. - - - _Supplementary Reading_ - -The material bearing on the economic history of printing is very -scattered. So far as the present writer is aware there is no book on the -subject in English. The nearest approach to such a treatment will -perhaps be found in the second volume of Mr. George Haven Putnam’s -excellent book _Books and Their Makers in the Middle Ages_. Some -information may be obtained from Mr. DeVinne’s _Invention of Printing_; -_Notable Printers of Italy During the Fifteenth Century_; and -_Christopher Plantin and the Plantin-Moretus Museum at Antwerp_. The -“Plantin” is a publication of the Grolier Club, but may be found in -substance in _The Century_ for June, 1888. Some very excellent -historical articles have been published in recent years in _The Inland -Printer_ by Mr. Henry L. Bullen and Mr. John Rittenour. The student will -do well to examine the files of this and other leading trade journals -for some years back and to consult the local librarian for such material -as may be found in libraries. - - - SUGGESTIONS TO STUDENTS AND INSTRUCTORS - - The following questions, based on the contents of this pamphlet, are - intended to serve (1) as a guide to the study of the text, (2) as an - aid to the student in putting the information contained into definite - statements without actually memorizing the text, (3) as a means of - securing from the student a reproduction of the information in his own - words. - - A careful following of the questions by the reader will insure full - acquaintance with every part of the text, avoiding the accidental - omission of what might be of value. These primers are so condensed - that nothing should be omitted. - - In teaching from these books it is very important that these questions - and such others as may occur to the teacher should be made the basis - of frequent written work and of final examinations. - - The importance of written work cannot be overstated. It not only - assures knowledge of material but the power to express that knowledge - correctly and in good form. - - If this written work can be submitted to the teacher in printed form - it will be doubly useful. - - - QUESTIONS - - 1. How were industries carried on in the days of Gutenberg? - - 2. What was the general relation between an apprentice and a master? - - 3. What was a guild, and what did it do? - - 4. Did printing fit into this scheme, and why? - - 5. How was printing regulated, and why? - - 6. What was the effect of the invention of printing on the manuscript - makers? - - 7. What did the copyists do? - - 8. What did the illuminators do? - - 9. What was the attitude of the authorities? - - 10. What king is especially noted as a patron of printing, and what - were some of the things he did? - - 11. How did he deal with labor troubles in the printing industry? - - 12. What important edict was issued by King Henry III of France, and - on what grounds? - - 13. How did the early printers deal with typographical errors? - - 14. How did a French king endeavor to deal with this difficulty, and - with what result? - - 15. What important event took place in 1618? - - 16. Give the general points in the regulations of 1686. - - 17. What additional regulations were made by Louis XVI? - - 18. What happened in 1789, and what was the result? - - 19. What are some of the differences between the product of a print - shop and that of the ordinary factory? - - 20. What were some of the problems arising out of this difference? - - 21. What was the 15th century substitute for copyright and patents? - Describe it. - - 22. What did trades do to protect themselves if they could not get the - form of protection just described? - - 23. Why did the printer especially need some kind of protection? - - 24. Discuss briefly under four heads the system of protection in use - in Venice. - - 25. What were the practical defects of this system? - - 26. What kind of books were printed in Germany for the first fifty - years? - - 27. What evil practice did Fust begin, and why did he think it was - right? - - 28. Was there a profession of authorship, and why? - - 29. How did Germany undertake to protect printers? - - 30. Give a brief sketch of the political organization of Germany in - the 15th century. - - 31. What effect did this have on the protection of printers? - - 32. What did the printers do about it? - - 33. What did printers’ privileges cover in Germany? - - 34. How did France deal with the question of printers’ privileges, and - what were some of the peculiarities of French law? - - 35. What moral and political danger was perceived shortly after the - invention of printing? - - 36. How was it dealt with by church and state? - - 37. What action was taken by Pope Innocent VIII? - - 38. What was the result in Venice? - - 39. What had the Inquisition to do with printing? - - 40. What is the Index Expurgatorius? Why was it drawn up? - - 41. What were the general lines of legislation in Venice regarding - censorship? - - 42. What was done in 1549, and why? - - 43. What was the purpose of the guild of printers and booksellers? - - 44. What were the requirements in 1671 for the publishing of a book in - Venice? - - 45. How did censorship work in Germany, and why? - - 46. What was the result of Pope Innocent’s action in France? - - 47. By whom was censorship exercised in France? - - 48. What was the result of this system, and how was it improved? - - 49. Give some features of the press laws of France, and state the - penalties. - - 50. What was the effect of this legislation, and how were the worst - effects avoided? - - 51. What was the end of it all? - - 52. How did authorship come to be recognized as a profession? - - 53. How did the idea arise that the author had the right to control - his work? - - 54. What was the early German idea of copyright as illustrated by the - experiences of Luther? - - 55. What two ideas gradually came into prominence at this time with - regard to literary property? - - 56. When and how did copyright come into general existence? - - 57. When was international copyright recognized? - - 58. What is the record of the United States with regard to - international copyright? - - 59. What is the outstanding factor in the industrial life of the - Middle Ages? - - 60. Describe it briefly. - - 61. What conditions made it possible? - - 62. State and discuss briefly the five general principles which - governed it. - - 63. What was its relation to the state and to religion? - - 64. What was the best period of this organization? - - 65. When did it decline? - - 66. Give three reasons for this decline. - - 67. Why was the printing industry an important factor in this decline? - - 68. How were wages and prices fixed in the early Middle Ages, and why? - - 69. What happened after the discovery of America? - - 70. What was the effect on prices and what the effect on wages? - - 71. What was the result on the social and industrial organization? - - 72. How did printing relate itself to the industrial system of the - sixteenth century? - - 73. What was the result of this relation? - - 74. What difficulties arose, and how were they met? - - 75. What was the effect of the legislation of 1618? - - 76. Who composed the Community of Printers? - - 77. Who were the syndics? How were they elected, and for what purpose? - - 78. What advantages were gained by the new organization? - - 79. What was the relation between printers and booksellers, and why? - - 80. What did the old-time printer have to do? - - 81. What was the early paper like? - - 82. Describe the types in use at this period. - - 83. Describe the presses in use at this period. - - 84. Describe the ink of this period, and tell how it was spread. - - 85. How were compositors paid? - - 86. What did the old-time pressman have to do? - - 87. Describe the old method of two-color printing. - - 88. How were the printed sheets treated when they came from the press? - - 89. How were pressmen paid? - - 90. What was the custom with regard to proofreading? - - 91. Describe the system of cost finding and estimating of this period. - - 92. What four different classes of workmen are enumerated? - - 93. What was an apprentice? - - 94. What were the qualifications necessary to apprenticeship? - - 95. What were the conditions of an apprenticeship agreement? - - 96. How were these agreements abused by both sides? - - 97. Describe the work of an apprentice. - - 98. How many apprentices were allowed? - - 99. What can you say about the enforcement of these conditions? - - 100. Who were the laborers, and how did they affect the industry? - - 101. How did an apprentice come to be a journeyman? - - 102. How did the journeyman become a master? - - 103. Did journeymen commonly become masters, and why? - - 104. What were the hours of labor at this period? - - 105. How did the journeymen live? - - 106. What sort of men were they? - - 107. What two compensations did they have for the hard conditions of - the industry? - - 108. What influences tended to lower wages? - - 109. How were journeymen divided? - - 110. What were the conditions of employment of each? - - 111. What were the difficulties of the second class? - - 112. How were journeymen graded? - - 113. What division of labor existed in the composing room, and what in - the press room? - - 114. Describe the foreman of this period. - - 115. What happened to the old or disabled workmen? - - 116. What was the place of the master? - - 117. Was the general condition of the industry good or bad, and why? - - 118. What were the relations between the masters and journeymen before - 1618? - - 119. What were these relations after 1618? - - 120. What was a chapel? - - 121. What difficulties did the organization of journeymen have to meet? - - 122. Describe briefly the growth of organization among the journeymen. - - 123. How did masters desire to settle their disputes with the - journeymen, and why? - - 124. How did the journeymen desire to settle them, and why? - - 125. What were the principle causes of dispute? - - 126. According to modern ideas, which party of these disputes generally - appears to the better advantage, and why? - - 127. What was the French Revolution? - - 128. How did the French Revolution contribute to the coming in of - modern conditions in the printing industry? - - - - - TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES FOR APPRENTICES - - -The following list of publications, comprising the TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL -SERIES FOR APPRENTICES, has been prepared under the supervision of the -Committee on Education of the United Typothetae of America for use in -trade classes, in courses of printing instruction, and by individuals. - -Each publication has been compiled by a competent author or group of -authors, and carefully edited, the purpose being to provide the printers -of the United States—employers, journeymen, and apprentices—with a -comprehensive series of handy and inexpensive compendiums of reliable, -up-to-date information upon the various branches and specialties of the -printing craft, all arranged in orderly fashion for progressive study. - -The publications of the series are of uniform size, 5 × 8 inches. Their -general make-up, in typography, illustrations, etc., has been, as far as -practicable, kept in harmony throughout. A brief synopsis of the -particular contents and other chief features of each volume will be -found under each title in the following list. - -Each topic is treated in a concise manner, the aim being to embody in -each publication as completely as possible all the rudimentary -information and essential facts necessary to an understanding of the -subject. Care has been taken to make all statements accurate and clear, -with the purpose of bringing essential information within the -understanding of beginners in the different fields of study. Wherever -practicable, simple and well-defined drawings and illustrations have -been used to assist in giving additional clearness to the text. - -In order that the pamphlets may be of the greatest possible help for use -in trade-school classes and for self-instruction, each title is -accompanied by a list of Review Questions covering essential items of -the subject matter. A short Glossary of technical terms belonging to the -subject or department treated is also added to many of the books. - -These are the Official Text-books of the United Typothetae of America. - -Address all orders and inquiries to COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION, UNITED -TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS, U. S. A. - - - - - TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES _for_ APPRENTICES - - - PART I—_Types, Tools, Machines, and Materials_ - - 1. =Type: a Primer of Information=, By A. A. Stewart - - Relating to the mechanical features of printing types; their - sizes, font schemes, etc., with a brief description of their - manufacture. 44 pp.; illustrated; 74 review questions; glossary. - - 2. =Compositors’ Tools and Materials=, By A. A. Stewart - - A primer of information about composing sticks, galleys, leads, - brass rules, cutting and mitering machines, etc. 47 pp.; - illustrated; 50 review questions; glossary. - - 3. =Type Cases, Composing Room Furniture=, By A. A. Stewart - - A primer of information about type cases, work stands, cabinets, - case racks, galley racks, standing galleys, etc. 43 pp.; - illustrated; 33 review questions; glossary. - - 4. =Imposing Tables and Lock-up Appliances=, By A. A. Stewart - - Describing the tools and materials used in locking up forms for - the press, including some modern utilities for special purposes. - 59 pp.; illustrated; 70 review questions; glossary. - - 5. =Proof Presses=, By A. A. Stewart - - A primer of information about the customary methods and machines - for taking printers’ proofs. 40 pp.; illustrated; 41 review - questions; glossary. - - 6. =Platen Printing Presses=, By Daniel Baker - - A primer of information regarding the history and mechanical - construction of platen printing presses, from the original hand - press to the modern job press, to which is added a chapter on - automatic presses of small size. 51 pp.; illustrated; 49 review - questions; glossary. - - 7. =Cylinder Printing Presses=, By Herbert L. Baker - - Being a study of the mechanism and operation of the principal - types of cylinder printing machines. 64 pp.; illustrated; 47 - review questions; glossary. - - 8. =Mechanical Feeders and Folders=, By William E. Spurrier - - The history and operation of modern feeding and folding machines; - with hints on their care and adjustments. Illustrated; review - questions; glossary. - - 9. =Power for Machinery in Printing Houses=, By Carl F. Scott - - A treatise on the methods of applying power to printing presses - and allied machinery with particular reference to electric drive. - 53 pp.; illustrated; 69 review questions; glossary. - - 10. =Paper Cutting Machines=, By Niel Gray, Jr. - - A primer of information about paper and card trimmers, hand-lever - cutters, power cutters, and other automatic machines for cutting - paper. 70 pp.; illustrated; 115 review questions; glossary. - - 11. =Printers’ Rollers=, By A. A. Stewart - - A primer of information about the composition, manufacture, and - care of inking rollers. 46 pp.; illustrated; 61 review questions; - glossary. - - 12. =Printing Inks=, By Philip Ruxton - - Their composition, properties and manufacture (reprinted by - permission from Circular No. 53, United States Bureau of - Standards); together with some helpful suggestions about the - everyday use of printing inks by Philip Ruxton. 80 pp.; 100 review - questions; glossary. - - 13. =How Paper is Made=, By William Bond Wheelwright - - A primer of information about the materials and processes of - manufacturing paper for printing and writing. 68 pp.; illustrated; - 62 review questions; glossary. - - 14. =Relief Engravings=, By Joseph P. Donovan - - Brief history and non-technical description of modern methods of - engraving; woodcut, zinc plate, halftone; kind of copy for - reproduction; things to remember when ordering engravings. - Illustrated; review questions; glossary. - - 15. =Electrotyping and Stereotyping=, By Harris B. Hatch and A. A. - Stewart - - A primer of information about the processes of electrotyping and - stereotyping. 94 pp.; illustrated; 129 review questions; - glossaries. - - - PART II—_Hand and Machine Composition_ - - 16. =Typesetting=, By A. A. Stewart - - A handbook for beginners, giving information about justifying, - spacing, correcting, and other matters relating to typesetting. - Illustrated; review questions; glossary. - - 17. =Printers’ Proofs=, By A. A. Stewart - - The methods by which they are made, marked, and corrected, with - observations on proofreading. Illustrated; review questions; - glossary. - - 18. =First Steps in Job Composition=, By Camille DeVéze - - Suggestions for the apprentice compositor in setting his first - jobs, especially about the important little things which go to - make good display in typography. 63 pp.; examples; 55 review - questions; glossary. - - 19. =General Job Composition= - - How the job compositor handles business stationery, programs and - miscellaneous work. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. - - 20. =Book Composition=, By J. W. Bothwell - - Chapters from DeVinne’s “Modern Methods of Book Composition,” - revised and arranged for this series of text-books by J. W. - Bothwell of The DeVinne Press, New York. Part I: Composition of - pages. Part II: Imposition of pages. 229 pp.; illustrated; 525 - review questions; glossary. - - 21. =Tabular Composition=, By Robert Seaver - - A study of the elementary forms of table composition, with - examples of more difficult composition. 36 pp.; examples; 45 - review questions. - - 22. =Applied Arithmetic=, By E. E. Sheldon - - Elementary arithmetic applied to problems of the printing trade, - calculation of materials, paper weights and sizes, with standard - tables and rules for computation, each subject amplified with - examples and exercises. 159 pp. - - 23. =Typecasting and Composing Machines=, A. W. Finlay, Editor - - Section I—The Linotype, By L. A. Hornstein - - Section II—The Monotype, By Joseph Hays - - Section III—The Intertype, By Henry W. Cozzens - - Section IV—Other Typecasting and Typesetting Machines, By Frank H. - Smith - - A brief history of typesetting machines, with descriptions of - their mechanical principles and operations. Illustrated; review - questions; glossary. - - - PART III—_Imposition and Stonework_ - - 24. =Locking Forms for the Job Press=, By Frank S. Henry - - Things the apprentice should know about locking up small forms, - and about general work on the stone. Illustrated; review - questions; glossary. - - 25. =Preparing Forms for the Cylinder Press=, By Frank S. Henry - - Pamphlet and catalog imposition; margins; fold marks, etc. Methods - of handling type forms and electrotype forms. Illustrated; review - questions; glossary. - - - PART IV—_Presswork_ - - 26. =Making Ready on Platen Presses=, By T. G. McGrew - - The essential parts of a press and their functions; distinctive - features of commonly used machines. Preparing the tympan, - regulating the impression, underlaying and overlaying, setting - gauges, and other details explained. Illustrated; review - questions; glossary. - - 27. =Cylinder Presswork=, By T. G. McGrew - - Preparing the press; adjustment of bed and cylinder, form rollers, - ink fountain, grippers and delivery systems. Underlaying and - overlaying; modern overlay methods. Illustrated; review questions; - glossary. - - 28. =Pressroom Hints and Helps=, By Charles L. Dunton - - Describing some practical methods of pressroom work, with - directions and useful information relating to a variety of - printing-press problems. 87 pp.; 176 review questions. - - 29. =Reproductive Processes of the Graphic Arts=, By A. W. Elson - - A primer of information about the distinctive features of the - relief, the intaglio, and the pianographic processes of printing. - 84 pp.; illustrated; 100 review questions; glossary. - - - PART V—_Pamphlet and Book Binding_ - - 30. =Pamphlet Binding=, By Bancroft L. Goodwin - - A primer of information about the various operations employed in - binding pamphlets and other work in the bindery. Illustrated; - review questions; glossary. - - 31. =Book Binding=, By John J. Pleger - - Practical information about the usual operations in binding books; - folding; gathering, collating, sewing, forwarding, finishing. Case - making and cased-in books. Hand work and machine work. Job and - blank-book binding. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. - - - PART VI—_Correct Literary Composition_ - - 32. =Word Study and English Grammar=, By F. W. Hamilton - - A primer of information about words, their relations, and their - uses. 68 pp.; 84 review questions; glossary. - - 33. =Punctuation=, By F. W. Hamilton - - A primer of information about the marks of punctuation and their - use, both grammatically and typographically. 56 pp.; 59 review - questions; glossary. - - 34. =Capitals=, By F. W. Hamilton - - A primer of information about capitalization, with some practical - typographic hints as to the use of capitals. 48 pp.; 92 review - questions; glossary. - - 35. =Division of Words=, By F. W. Hamilton - - Rules for the division of words at the ends of lines, with remarks - on spelling, syllabication and pronunciation. 42 pp.; 70 review - questions. - - 36. =Compound Words=, By F. W. Hamilton - - A study of the principles of compounding, the components of - compounds, and the use of the hyphen. 34 pp.; 62 review questions. - - 37. =Abbreviations and Signs=, By F. W. Hamilton - - A primer of information about abbreviations and signs, with - classified lists of those in most common use. 58 pp.; 32 review - questions. - - 38. =The Uses of Italic=, By F. W. Hamilton - - A primer of information about the history and uses of italic - letters. 31 pp.; 37 review questions. - - 39. =Proofreading=, By Arnold Levitas - - The technical phases of the proofreader’s work; reading, marking, - revising, etc.; methods of handling proofs and copy. Illustrated - by examples. 59 pp.; 69 review questions; glossary. - - 40. =Preparation of Printers’ Copy=, By F. W. Hamilton - - Suggestions for authors, editors, and all who are engaged in - preparing copy for the composing room. 36 pp.; 67 review - questions. - - 41. =Printers’ Manual of Style= - - A reference compilation of approved rules, usages, and suggestions - relating to uniformity in punctuation, capitalization, - abbreviations, numerals, and kindred features of composition. - - 42. =The Printer’s Dictionary=, By A. A. Stewart - - A handbook of definitions and miscellaneous information about - various processes of printing, alphabetically arranged. Technical - terms explained. Illustrated. - - - PART VII—_Design, Color, and Lettering_ - - 43. =Applied Design for Printers=, By Harry L. Gage - - A handbook of the principles of arrangement, with brief comment on - the periods of design which have most influenced printing. Treats - of harmony, balance, proportion, and rhythm; motion; symmetry and - variety; ornament, esthetic and symbolic. 37 illustrations; 46 - review questions; glossary; bibliography. - - 44. =Elements of Typographic Design=, By Harry L. Gage - - Applications of the principles of decorative design. Building - material of typography paper, types, ink, decorations and - illustrations. Handling of shapes. Design of complete book, - treating each part. Design of commercial forms and single units. - Illustrations; review questions, glossary; bibliography. - - 45. =Rudiments of Color in Printing=, By Harry L. Gage - - Use of color: for decoration of black and white, for broad poster - effect, in combinations of two, three, or more printings with - process engravings. Scientific nature of color, physical and - chemical. Terms in which color may be discussed: hue, value, - intensity. Diagrams in color, scales and combinations. Color - theory of process engraving. Experiments with color. Illustrations - in full color, and on various papers. Review questions; glossary; - bibliography. - - 46. =Lettering in Typography=, By Harry L. Gage - - Printer’s use of lettering: adaptability and decorative effect. - Development of historic writing and lettering and its influence on - type design. Classification of general forms in lettering. - Application of design to lettering. Drawing for reproduction. - Fully illustrated; review questions; glossary; bibliography. - - 47. =Typographic Design in Advertising=, By Harry L. Gage - - The printer’s function in advertising. Precepts upon which - advertising is based. Printer’s analysis of his copy. Emphasis, - legibility, attention, color. Method of studying advertising - typography. Illustrations; review questions; glossary; - bibliography. - - 48. =Making Dummies and Layouts=, By Harry L. Gage - - A layout: the architectural plan. A dummy: the imitation of a - proposed final effect. Use of dummy in sales work. Use of - layout. Function of layout man. Binding schemes for dummies. - Dummy envelopes. Illustrations; review questions; glossary; - bibliography. - - - PART VIII—_History of Printing_ - - 49. =Books Before Typography=, By F. W. Hamilton - - A primer of information about the invention of the alphabet and - the history of bookmaking up to the invention of movable types. 62 - pp.; illustrated; 64 review questions. - - 50. =The Invention of Typography=, By F. W. Hamilton - - A brief sketch of the invention of printing and how it came about. - 64 pp.; 62 review questions. - - 51. =History of Printing=—Part I, By F. W. Hamilton - - A primer of information about the beginnings of printing, the - development of the book, the development of printers’ materials, - and the work of the great pioneers. 63 pp.; 55 review questions. - - 52. =History of Printing=—Part II, By F. W. Hamilton - - A brief sketch of the economic conditions of the printing industry - from 1450 to 1789, including government regulations, censorship, - internal conditions and industrial relations. 94 pp.; 128 review - questions. - - 53. =Printing in England=, By F. W. Hamilton - - A short history of printing in England from Caxton to the present - time. 89 pp.; 65 review questions. - - 54. =Printing in America=, By F. W. Hamilton - - A brief sketch of the development of the newspaper, and some notes - on publishers who have especially contributed to printing. 98 pp.; - 84 review questions. - - 55. =Type and Presses in America=, By F. W. Hamilton - - A brief historical sketch of the development of type casting and - press building in the United States. 52 pp.; 61 review questions. - - - PART IX—_Cost Finding and Accounting_ - - 56. =Elements of Cost in Printing=, By Henry P. Porter - - The Standard Cost-Finding Forms and their uses. What they should - show. How to utilize the information they give. Review questions. - Glossary. - - 57. =Use of a Cost System=, By Henry P. Porter - - The Standard Cost-Finding Forms and their uses. What they should - show. How to utilize the information they give. Review questions. - Glossary. - - 58. =The Printer as a Merchant=, By Henry P. Porter - - The selection and purchase of materials and supplies for printing. - The relation of the cost of raw material and the selling price of - the finished product. Review questions. Glossary. - - 59. =Fundamental Principles of Estimating=, By Henry P. Porter - - The estimator and his work; forms to use; general rules for - estimating. Review questions. Glossary. - - 60. =Estimating and Selling=, By Henry P. Porter - - An insight into the methods used in making estimates, and their - relation to selling. Review questions. Glossary. - - 61. =Accounting for Printers=, By Henry P. Porter - - A brief outline of an accounting system for printers; necessary - books and accessory records. Review questions. Glossary. - - - PART X—_Miscellaneous_ - - 62. =Health, Sanitation, and Safety=, By Henry P. Porter - - Hygiene in the printing trade; a study of conditions old and new; - practical suggestions for improvement; protective appliances and - rules for safety. - - 63. =Topical Index=, By F. W. Hamilton - - A book of reference covering the topics treated in the Typographic - Technical Series, alphabetically arranged. - - 64. =Courses of Study=, By F. W. Hamilton - - A guidebook for teachers, with outlines and suggestions for - classroom and shop work. - - - - - ACKNOWLEDGMENT - - -This series of Typographic Text-books is the result of the splendid -co-operation of a large number of firms and individuals engaged in the -printing business and its allied industries in the United States of -America. - -The Committee on Education of the United Typothetae of America, under -whose auspices the books have been prepared and published, acknowledges -its indebtedness for the generous assistance rendered by the many -authors, printers, and others identified with this work. - -While due acknowledgment is made on the title and copyright pages of -those contributing to each book, the Committee nevertheless felt that a -group list of co-operating firms would be of interest. - -The following list is not complete, as it includes only those who have -co-operated in the production of a portion of the volumes, constituting -the first printing. As soon as the entire list of books comprising the -Typographic Technical Series has been completed (which the Committee -hopes will be at an early date), the full list will be printed in each -volume. - -The Committee also desires to acknowledge its indebtedness to the many -subscribers to this Series who have patiently awaited its publication. - - COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION, - UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA. - - HENRY P. PORTER, _Chairman_, - E. LAWRENCE FELL, - A. M. GLOSSBRENNER, - J. CLYDE OSWALD, - TOBY RUBOVITS. - - FREDERICK W. HAMILTON, _Education Director_. - - - - - CONTRIBUTORS - - -=For Composition and Electrotypes= - - ISAAC H. BLANCHARD COMPANY, New York, N. Y. - S. H. BURBANK & CO., Philadelphia, Pa. - J. S. CUSHING & CO., Norwood, Mass. - THE DEVINNE PRESS, New York, N. Y. - R. R. DONNELLEY & SONS CO., Chicago, Ill. - GEO. H. ELLIS CO., Boston, Mass. - EVANS-WINTER-HEBB, Detroit, Mich. - FRANKLIN PRINTING COMPANY, Philadelphia, Pa. - F. H. GILSON COMPANY, Boston, Mass. - STEPHEN GREENE & CO., Philadelphia, Pa. - W. F. HALL PRINTING CO., Chicago, Ill. - J. B. LIPPINCOTT CO., Philadelphia, Pa. - MCCALLA & CO. INC., Philadelphia, Pa. - THE PATTESON PRESS, New York, New York - THE PLIMPTON PRESS, Norwood, Mass. - POOLE BROS., Chicago, Ill. - EDWARD STERN & CO., Philadelphia, Pa. - THE STONE PRINTING & MFG. CO., Roanoke, Va. - C. D. TRAPHAGEN, Lincoln, Neb. - THE UNIVERSITY PRESS, Cambridge, Mass. - -=For Composition= - - BOSTON TYPOTHETAE SCHOOL OF PRINTING, Boston, Mass. - WILLIAM F. FELL CO., Philadelphia, Pa. - THE KALKHOFF COMPANY, New York, N. Y. - OXFORD-PRINT, Boston, Mass. - TOBY RUBOVITS, Chicago, Ill. - -=For Electrotypes= - - BLOMGREN BROTHERS CO., Chicago, Ill. - FLOWER STEEL ELECTROTYPING CO., New York, N. Y. - C. J. PETERS & SON CO., Boston, Mass. - ROYAL ELECTROTYPE CO., Philadelphia, Pa. - H. C. WHITCOMB & CO., Boston, Mass. - -=For Engravings= - - AMERICAN TYPE FOUNDERS CO., Boston, Mass. - C. B. 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margin-bottom: .5em; } - .chapter { clear: both; page-break-before: always; } - .section { page-break-before: always; } - .ol_1 li {font-size: .9em; } - .x-ebookmaker .ol_1 li {padding-left: 1em; text-indent: 0em; } - body {font-family: Georgia, serif; text-align: justify; } - table {font-size: .9em; padding: 1.5em .5em 1em; page-break-inside: avoid; - clear: both; } - div.titlepage {text-align: center; page-break-before: always; - page-break-after: always; } - div.titlepage p {text-align: center; text-indent: 0em; font-weight: bold; - line-height: 1.5; margin-top: 3em; } - .ph2 { text-indent: 0em; font-weight: bold; font-size: x-large; margin: .75em auto; - page-break-before: always; } - .x-ebookmaker p.dropcap:first-letter { float: left; } - .bcite {font-weight:bold; font-style: normal; } - </style> - </head> - <body> - -<div style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Brief History of Printing, by Frederick W. Hamilton</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: A Brief History of Printing</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:5ch;'>Part II: The Economic History of Printing</p> - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Frederick W. Hamilton</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: June 10, 2021 [eBook #65585]</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Character set encoding: UTF-8</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Produced by: Richard Tonsing, Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier, and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net</div> - -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A BRIEF HISTORY OF PRINTING ***</div> - -<div class='tnotes covernote'> - -<p class='c000'><strong>Transcriber’s Note:</strong></p> - -<p class='c000'>The cover image was created by the transcriber and is placed in the public domain.</p> - -</div> - -<div class='titlepage'> - -<div> - <h1 class='c001'>A BRIEF HISTORY <i>of</i> PRINTING<br /> <br /> <span class='xlarge'>PART II<br /> THE ECONOMIC HISTORY OF PRINTING</span><br /> <br /> <span class='large'>BEING A BRIEF SKETCH OF THE ECONOMIC CONDITIONS OF THE PRINTING INDUSTRY FROM 1450 TO 1789, INCLUDING GOVERNMENT REGULATIONS, CENSORSHIP, INTERNAL CONDITIONS <i>and</i> INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS</span></h1> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c002'> - <div>BY</div> - <div class='c003'><span class='xlarge'>FREDERICK W. HAMILTON, LL.D.</span></div> - <div class='c003'><span class='small'>EDUCATIONAL DIRECTOR</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/title.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>PUBLISHED BY THE COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION</div> - <div class='c003'>UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA</div> - <div class='c003'>1918</div> - </div> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c004'> - <div><span class='small'>Copyright, 1918</span></div> - <div><span class='small'>United Typothetae of America</span></div> - <div><span class='small'>Chicago, Ill.</span></div> - <div class='c002'><span class='small'>Composition and electrotypes contributed by</span></div> - <div><span class='small'>S. H. Burbank & Co., Inc.</span></div> - <div><span class='small'>Philadelphia, Pa.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_3'>3</span> - <h2 class='c005'>PREFACE</h2> -</div> - -<p class='drop-capa0_0_6 c006'>In this volume, as in the preceding, an effort has -been made to give the reader some idea of the -actual conditions of the printing industry in Europe -from the time of the invention down to the French -Revolution. Attention has been devoted to the organization -and conditions of the industry, the circumstances -under which the work was done, and the -actual life and work of the men who did it.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The method of treatment chosen has been topical -rather than chronological. It has been thought that -a series of pictures of different aspects of the industry -would be of more value than the ordinary detailed -study of periods, of schools, and of the actual work -produced at various times which is rather suited to -advanced students than to beginners. This method -of treatment necessarily involves a certain amount of -repetition, but probably less than would be required -if an attempt were made to fit the same information -into a chronological framework.</p> - -<p class='c007'>To an extent even greater than in the previous -volume the writer has endeavored to reconstruct in -part at least the general conditions of the time. The -economic history of printing or, indeed, any history of -printing is a part of the general history of the period. -It so happens that the peculiar conditions of the printing -industry had a very marked effect in the changes -which took place in the industrial world in the sixteenth -and seventeenth centuries. The attempt is made -to show the working of these influences in the treatment -of certain parts of the subject. The main purpose, -however, throughout has been to give the young printer -of today an idea of the work and life of the old printers, -who were very human men, engaged, though under different -conditions, in the same struggle to earn their -bread and butter which occupies our attention today.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_5'>5</span> - <h2 class='c005'>CONTENTS</h2> -</div> - -<table class='table0' summary='CONTENTS'> - <tr><td class='c008' colspan='2'>CHAPTER I</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'><span class='fss'>GOVERNMENTAL REGULATIONS</span></td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_7'>7</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><td class='c008' colspan='2'>CHAPTER II</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'><span class='fss'>PRIVILEGES AND MONOPOLIES</span></td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_16'>16</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><td class='c008' colspan='2'>CHAPTER III</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'><span class='fss'>CENSORSHIP</span></td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_26'>26</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><td class='c008' colspan='2'>CHAPTER IV</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'><span class='fss'>DEVELOPMENT OF THE IDEA OF COPYRIGHT</span></td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_34'>34</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><td class='c008' colspan='2'>CHAPTER V</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'><span class='fss'>TRADE GUILDS AND THE COMING OF THE NEW INDUSTRY</span></td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_38'>38</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><td class='c008' colspan='2'>CHAPTER VI</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'><span class='fss'>THE COMMUNITY OF PRINTERS</span></td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_49'>49</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><td class='c008' colspan='2'>CHAPTER VII</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'><span class='fss'>HOW THE OLD-TIME PRINTERS WORKED</span></td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_53'>53</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><td class='c008' colspan='2'>CHAPTER VIII</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'><span class='fss'>INTERNAL ORGANIZATION OF THE INDUSTRY</span></td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_58'>58</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><td class='c008' colspan='2'>CHAPTER IX</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'><span class='fss'>RELATIONS BETWEEN EMPLOYER AND EMPLOYED</span></td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_72'>72</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'><span class='fss'>SUPPLEMENTARY READING</span></td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_79'>79</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'><span class='fss'>REVIEW QUESTIONS</span></td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_80'>80</a></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_7'>7</span> - <h2 class='c005'>CHAPTER I<br /> <span class='large'>GOVERNMENTAL REGULATIONS</span></h2> -</div> - -<p class='drop-capa0_0_6 c006'>We turn now to a study of the printing industry -in some aspects concerning the industry as a -whole, rather than the life and work of the -great printers. A very large part of what follows will -be found to deal with conditions in France. This -happens because the study has been far better worked -out for France than for any other country. While -much incidental information is to be obtained from -other histories, Mellotté’s <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Histoire Economique de l’Imprimerie</span></cite> -stands alone as a study of the printing -industry from this point of view. Unfortunately it -concerns only France and ends with the French Revolution -of 1789. Conditions in France, however, were -not greatly different from those existing elsewhere and -for that reason the study which follows, based largely -on Mellotté’s work, will give a fairly accurate idea of -the condition of the industry in general. It is to be -regretted that Mellotté’s book has not been translated -into the English as it is a mine of information of great -interest and value to all students of the industry.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The history of the printing industry is hardly intelligible -unless one begins with a general understanding -of the industries of the Middle Ages and the organization -of those who were engaged in them. When -Gutenberg practiced printing there was no such thing -in the world as a factory. Perhaps the nearest approach -to one might be found in some royal arsenal, -shipyard, or mint where certain industries were carried -on on a large scale. The day of invention had not -yet dawned. Machinery, except of the most primitive -types, did not exist. Consequently, industrial and -social conditions were different in every respect from -those which now prevail.</p> - -<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_8'>8</span>The work of the Middle Ages was hand-work carried -on by a small group of workmen living in the household -of the master; in other words it was what we call -today household industry. Very often there was no -one engaged in the work except the master and his -family. Sometimes he had an apprentice or two. -Master workmen usually employed as many apprentices -as they could use. The apprentices paid for the -privilege of learning the trade. As we shall see presently, -the knowledge of a trade and admission to the -ranks of the master workmen was a privilege very well -worth paying for.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The apprenticeship indenture or agreement was a -contract covering a certain number of years, usually -seven. During this period the apprentice was obliged -to work for the master to the best of his ability, to be -careful of the master’s goods, and to be subject in every -way to his personal control, a control which extended -to the infliction of corporal punishment if the apprentice -were idle or disobedient.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The master was bound to teach the apprentice his -trade so that if the apprentice used due diligence he -might at the end of his agreement qualify as a journeyman. -He was obliged to furnish him board and lodging -in his own (the master’s) home, to keep him decently -clothed and, especially toward the end of the period, -to give him a small wage for pocket money. We shall -look a little closer at this matter of apprenticeship in a -later chapter.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The masters themselves were organized into guilds. -These guilds were a combination of what we now know -as trade unions and employers’ associations. Everybody -connected with the trade in a regular and legal -manner belonged to the guild. In some cases the -master workman became so prosperous that he employed -a considerable number of other master workmen -and devoted his time to superintendence, but whether -he were in this way an ancestor of a modern captain of -industry or were at the other end of the scale, an -<span class='pageno' id='Page_9'>9</span>apprentice just under indenture, he was recognized as -part and parcel of the trade guild. If he were not free -of the guild he was not permitted to work at the -industry excepting as an employee. As we shall see, -there grew up in this way an intermediate class of hired -workmen who were neither apprentices nor masters.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The guilds acted very honestly and conscientiously -in the interests of both the public and the trade. While -they monopolized the industry, restricted the number -of persons engaged in it, and permitted no outside -competition, they guaranteed the quality of workmanship -and product. A guild member putting inferior -goods upon the market or in any way detracting from -the workmanlike standards of the guild was liable to -severe penalties, and as a rule these penalties were -conscientiously inflicted.<a id='r1' /><a href='#f1' class='c011'><sup>[1]</sup></a></p> - -<div class='footnote' id='f1'> -<p class='c007'><a href='#r1'>1</a>. A more detailed account of the guilds will be found in Chapter V.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c007'>The introduction of printing raised new questions. -Printing did not fit into this scheme of things for several -reasons. As a newly discovered art it did not properly -belong to any of the known industries, which had -gradually become consolidated into strong guilds. The -printers, therefore, found themselves outside the recognized -trade law.</p> - -<p class='c007'>They were, therefore, taken in hand by the authorities -until such time as their own trade organization -developed. Not only was the printing trade outside -the guild organizations, but it was different from them -in several important principles. In the first place, it -was from the beginning a machine occupation; in the -second place, it involved division of labor; and in the -third place, it dealt with a product entirely different -from that of the other craftsmen. The dawn of the -printing industry was the dawn of an age of machinery -in production. The product of the printing press was -not simply an article of consumption. There is no -comparison between a piece of cloth or a pair of shoes -and a book. The book is a source of information and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_10'>10</span>enlightenment, or the reverse. It may stir men to the -ecstasies of devotion or incite them to rebellion or -unsettle the foundations of their religious faith. It may -serve the highest interests of mankind or it may be in -the last degree dangerous to the church, the state, and -the individual.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Obviously, to the fifteenth century mind everything -called for the regulation of the industry. The fifteenth -century, like those which immediately preceded it, -was an age of regulation. The idea of the freedom of -commerce and industry, so dear to the modern political -economist, had not yet been conceived. All industry -was subject to the most minute regulations partly -imposed by the state and partly imposed by the guild. -All the concerns of human life were subject to regulation, -including even what people in different ranks of -life should eat, drink, and wear. As there was no trade -organization to regulate printing, of course it became -immediately the subject of governmental interest.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Scarcely had the art of printing appeared when the -governmental rights of regulation were invoked to -destroy it, fortunately without success. Most important -inventions deprive certain workmen of their occupation. -The invention of printing was no exception. -It necessarily meant the economic ruin of the copyists -and threatened the illuminators. By the middle of the -fifteenth century the copying of books had to a considerable -extent come out of the monasteries and -become a regular occupation. In 1472 there were in -France ten thousand of these copyists, to say nothing -of the illuminators. These copyists were organized -into guilds with charter rights and a definite legal -position. Seeing their livelihood threatened, they -attempted in every way to prevent the introduction of -printing. They invoked their charter rights and -attempted to protect themselves thereby against the -invasion of their field by the printer. Not only that, -but they were probably back of the popular clamor -which raised the accusation of witchcraft against Fust -<span class='pageno' id='Page_11'>11</span>and drove him out of Paris in 1465. Their opposition, -however, was unsuccessful. A few of them retained -their work. For a long time the manuscript book -retained the esteem which is so often felt for hand work -as compared with machine work. Long after the -invention of printing there were many eminent collectors -of books who would not have a printed book in -their libraries. To this day there are a few people who -live by engrossing and illuminating, although not -generally by the copying of books.</p> - -<p class='c007'>An admirable illustration of the beauties and disadvantages -of this kind of work may be found in the -Congressional Library at Washington. There is there -displayed in a series of frames a very wonderful engrossed -and illuminated copy of the Constitution of -the United States. The text is beautifully engrossed -and the illuminated borders and the illustrations are -in the finest style of modern art. At first sight it is a -wonderful piece of work, but it requires but a slight -examination to see that the text is full of errors. Words -are omitted and misspelled so that the whole thing is -practically worthless so far as its content is concerned.</p> - -<p class='c007'>A few of the copyists became printers. Probably the -greater number of them lost their distinctive occupation -and became absorbed in some way or other into -other industries or, if they were too old for this, suffered -the evils incident to permanent loss of occupation.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The illuminators at first made common cause with -the copyists. Before long, however, they discovered -that the copyists were making a hopeless fight and that -their own occupation had a chance of surviving. -They, therefore, for the most part went over to the -printers and found occupation in the new industry, -either directly in their old occupations as illuminators -or in slightly modified form as illustrators. Many of -the early books show hand-illuminated capitals and -some show illuminated margins and hand-painted -illustrations equal to those of the finest manuscripts. -It was, however, only the more expensive books which -<span class='pageno' id='Page_12'>12</span>were separately hand-illustrated. The field of book -illustration, substantially as we know it through the -medium of pictures mechanically reproduced, was soon -developed and offered a large field for the exercise of -artistic ability and taste.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The kings and rulers generally favored printing as a -means of spreading intelligence. The fifteenth century -kings, unlike some of a little later period, were believers -in education and patrons of learning and the arts. -They had not yet come to see that their thrones, or at -least their prerogatives, might be threatened by learning, -and therefore they did their best to encourage it. -Among all these royal patrons of printing, Francis I of -France is the most conspicuous. When he first came -to the throne he was under the influence of those who -were hostile to the new art and attempted to stifle it -by stringent legislation. An edict of his issued in 1534 -prohibits printing on pain of hanging for the offender. -Exactly why King Francis took so positive a position -is not clear, but fortunately he very soon changed his -mind and repealed the edict. From this time forward -he did everything in his power to encourage printing -and printers, as we have already seen in recounting the -history of the Estienne family. In 1536 he made an -arrangement, the first of the kind, to have a copy of -every book that was printed filed in the Royal Library. -In 1538 he favored the printers by granting them an -edict of exemption from service in the City Guard, a -service to which residents generally were liable.</p> - -<p class='c007'>During King Francis’s reign labor troubles arose in -the industry. Enough references have already been -made to show that the strike is by no means a modern -institution and that strikes in printing offices are pretty -nearly as old as the industry. There were strikes, some -of them of a rather serious nature, among the Parisian -printers in the reign of King Francis. As soon, however, -as it appeared that they were liable to injure the -industry or interfere seriously with the work of the -master printers the king suppressed them by a heavy-handed -<span class='pageno' id='Page_13'>13</span>use of the royal authority, insisting that trade -disputes must not be allowed to interfere with the -successful prosecution of the industry and that the -journeymen must not be permitted by strikes to put -a stop to the operations of their employers.</p> - -<p class='c007'>In 1585 King Henry III of France issued an edict -relieving printers from the application of a general -edict taxing artisans. This action was based on the -ground that the work of the printer was so far superior -in character to that of other mechanics that the -printer was not to be regarded as a mechanic at all. -He was formally recognized as being in a social class -above the members of the trade guilds and almost, if not -quite, in the class of gentlemen. Of course, we are -speaking now in terms of the sixteenth century and not -of the twentieth.</p> - -<p class='c007'>As an incident of this recognized social superiority -the printer was permitted to wear a sword, a right -which was denied to artisans generally. The old prints -showing the interiors of print shops almost invariably -show at least one of the workmen wearing a sword, or -show a sword conspicuously displayed standing against -a pillar or the wall. The introduction of the sword -into these pictures is deliberately done to indicate the -social pretensions of the printer of this period. It is -worth remembering because although it involves a -certain artificial social distinction which we now consider -rather absurd it also involves certain principles -which we should do well not to lose sight of. In those -days printing was regarded as a profession rather than -strictly a trade, and the printer was deeply impressed -with the value and importance of his work, a value and -importance which were not only claimed by him but -recognized by his fellow citizens. It was very strongly -felt that a man who made a book was engaged in a -much more important piece of work than a man who -made a pair of shoes or forged a sword. The more of -this spirit of self respect, the more of this recognition -of the importance of printing and the printed product -<span class='pageno' id='Page_14'>14</span>we can recover today, the better off we shall be.</p> - -<p class='c007'>From the beginning printers were troubled by -typographical errors. Some of the earlier printers, -like Caxton and Gehring, had their books corrected -by hand after they were printed. As a rule, however, -the modern practice of more or less careful proof -reading preceded publication. There were constant -complaints of inaccuracy, especially on the part of the -cheap printers and the printers of pirated editions. -The influence of the better printers and the insistent -demands of the public finally brought about a reasonable -degree of textual accuracy. It is interesting to note -that royal regulation attempted to deal with this -matter as it dealt with so many other things.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Charles IX of France issued an edict in 1592 the vital -portion of which read as follows: “The said Masters -shall furnish copies carefully edited, corrected, and -made clear to the compositors lest through default of -this their labor be hindered.” The principle underlying -the edict was a good one. It is certainly in the -interest of all concerned that compositors should be -furnished good copy. There is unfortunately every -reason to believe that the efforts of this royal champion -of copy editing were not attended with very much -success.</p> - -<p class='c007'>In 1618 Louis XII organized the corporation of -printers which will be discussed later. Louis XIV reaffirmed -the preceding edicts governing and regulating the -industry, and his great minister Colbert, in 1686, issued -certain new regulations. In these it was provided that -every shop should have a minimum equipment of two -presses well provided with type. This was probably -intended to put a stop to the small shops which did -poor work and were very difficult to regulate under the -police regulations which will be later discussed. The -number of shops in Paris was fixed by this edict at 36. -Private printing—that is to say, the exercise of the -industry by persons not members of the Community -of Printers—was absolutely forbidden. The quality of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_15'>15</span>the work put out was insisted upon under severe -penalties in case proper standards were not maintained. -The long standing disagreement between booksellers -and printers was settled by a decision that booksellers -could not be members of the Community of Printers, -unless they were themselves printers. The bookseller, -pure and simple, who was merely a dealer in books was -thus barred out of the Community.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Louis XVI, the last king of the old regime, went still -further in the matter of the regulation of journeymen. -By his regulations every journeyman printer was -obliged to register with the public authorities, to take -out an identification card, and to have his domicile -legally fixed and registered with the public authorities. -He could not obtain employment without showing his -card and could not change his residence without -notifying the public authorities.</p> - -<p class='c007'>In 1789 came the Revolution which swept away all -the edicts regulating printing. In this ruin royal -regulation, trade organization, police supervision, and -every other restraint on the trade went down together. -Printing was unregulated and unlicensed. As an -actual result there came a flood of printing of a very -low character both mechanically and morally.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Some great houses like that of Didot stood fast by -the old standards, but small printing houses flourished -and the unregulated condition of the trade was in many -respects most unfortunate. In the long run, however, -economic laws asserted themselves as they always do. -The establishment of a settled government under -Napoleon and the reassertion of the old laws of libel -and the like put a stop to some of the worst extravagances. -At a later period, the growth and development -of unions of the modern type has had its influence everywhere -and the industry has at last come into its own, -unhampered by artificial regulations and unrestrained -by ill-advised attempts to prevent abuses which can -better be dealt with by general statutes applying to all -industries and by the operation of economic law.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_16'>16</span> - <h2 class='c005'>CHAPTER II<br /> <span class='large'><span class='sc'>Privileges and Monopolies</span></span></h2> -</div> - -<p class='drop-capa0_0_6 c006'>The governmental regulations just described were -similar to those imposed upon all trades. The -product of the printing press, however, was not like -that of other manufacturing establishments. The -use of books is clearly different from the use of ordinary -manufactured products. The modern printing press -puts out a flood of material which is temporary in its -nature. Much of it never gets read at all and comparatively -little of it is considered as of permanent value. -The early presses, however, turned out books almost -entirely. Practically the whole product was of permanent -value. It could be easily imitated, and in many -cases the imitation could be produced at much less -expense than the original as the imitation involved no -labor of editors and compilers. Again, communication -in those days was very difficult and freight rates were -high. If a book could be reprinted freely by anyone -who got hold of it, a book printed in a given place could -be sold much cheaper than one brought from a distance. -For example, a Paris printer could not compete with a -Lyons printer in Lyons provided the latter were permitted -to print the same books as the former.</p> - -<p class='c007'>But there was another far more important difference. -The products of the printing press materially affected -the human mind and through it influenced human -action. When men began to read and printed matter -began to be cheap and plenty, the individual in particular -and the state at large entered an entirely new -phase of existence. Minds of men might be filled with -information or misinformation, with noble or with base -desires and purposes, with high thoughts or low by the -products of the press. They might be roused to -patriotic action or stirred to rebellion. Their religion -<span class='pageno' id='Page_17'>17</span>might be deepened, altered, or destroyed. Immense -and unimaginable influence might be and, as soon -appeared, was exerted by this new agency.</p> - -<p class='c007'>These facts gave rise to certain problems peculiar to -the industry. What right had the publisher to control -his product and be protected against a ruinous competition -from other printers? Had he any such right at all? -Had the author any right to control the printing, -publishing, and sale of his works? Had he any right to -be secured in the receipt of some remuneration? How -could that right be protected? Was the printing -press to be allowed to pour out anything its owners -pleased, regardless of its effect upon citizenship, -religion, or morals, or should the product be controlled -so as to secure the helping and not the hurting of -mankind? If it was to be controlled, who was to decide -upon the measures and standards of control, and on -what ground? What was helpful and what was harmful?</p> - -<p class='c007'>The attempted solution of these problems, of course, -grew out of the accepted commercial usages of the -time. Patents and copyrights as we now know them, -regulated by general laws and accessible to all inventors -and authors, were unknown. Their place was taken -by monopolies which, as we shall see, sometimes had -much the same effect as a modern patent or copyright.</p> - -<p class='c007'>A monopoly, sometimes called a privilege, was a grant -to a certain person of the sole right to sell or to -manufacture a certain thing, to trade in a certain -locality, or do something of a similar nature. Monopolies -survive today in certain countries, though mainly -as governmental monopolies; for example, in Italy the -sale of matches is a governmental monopoly. No -individual is allowed to sell them except as a government -agent, and the traveler is not allowed to take -any across the frontier, even in his pocket. In Russia -the sale of vodka was a governmental monopoly until -the outbreak of the Great War in 1914, when its sale -was prohibited. In the middle ages, however, private -<span class='pageno' id='Page_18'>18</span>monopolies were very common. It is important to know -that these monopolies or privileges were literally what -the latter name indicates. Very often they were given -to royal favorites as a means for their personal -enrichment. They were purely acts of grace and -did not imply any recognition of right on the part -of the person to whom they were granted.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Those trades which could not obtain the protection -of monopoly attempted to protect themselves when -possible by trade secrets. This was a much more -important protection in those days than it would be -now. Combinations and processes, tricks of the trade -which had been discovered experimentally by some -clever workman, could hardly be discovered by his -rivals unless they could hit upon the same thing by -a tedious course of experimentation or could in some -way secure betrayal of the secret. Very few trade -secrets can be hidden from modern science, but modern -science did not exist in the fifteenth century. The -apprentice was sworn not to betray his master’s -secrets, and the consequences of such betrayal were -very serious. As we have already seen, Gutenberg at -first attempted to keep printing a trade secret, but the -obvious impossibility of doing so led to other methods -of protection.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Fortunately for the new art the great men of the -time were interested in it and, as a rule, it was not -difficult to obtain a certain amount of protection by -privilege. Venice was perhaps the most advanced -state in Europe in the middle of the fifteenth century, -certainly it was one of the most advanced. The intelligent -business men and astute nobles trained in public -affairs who made up the body of citizens of the Republic -of Venice were not slow in perceiving that a condition -had arisen which must be immediately attended to. -The matter was therefore taken up by the Council of -Ten, an executive body which had large functions in -the government of Venice. Their methods of dealing -with the matter may be divided into four heads.</p> - -<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_19'>19</span>The first was the monopoly under which only one -printer was allowed to work in a given town. Such a -monopoly was granted John of Spire who, in 1469, was -given the sole privilege of doing printing in Venice. -Fortunately the unwisdom of this particular method -of protection was soon seen and other printers were -allowed in Venice.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The next was a form of privilege something like the -modern copyright. Under this a publisher or even an -author was granted the sole right to print or cause to be -printed a certain book. The first one of these copyrights -was issued to Antonio Sabellico in 1486. Sabellico -was the official historian of Venice and the copyright -covered his history. Unlike modern copyrights, -which cover but a single book, these privileges might -cover anything that an author had written or might -write. It is clear that such a blanket copyright in the -hands of a publisher might be used very injuriously, -and there is evidence that they were so used either to -extort money or to impede publication. It is probable -that in many cases this form of privilege involved some -arrangement between the author and the printer whereby -the author shared the profits.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Copyright privileges ran from one to twenty-five -years and were sometimes extended. Not infrequently -copyright privileges were issued with limiting clauses -or conditions, such as that the books should be sold at -a “fair price,” that the work copyrighted should be -published within a year, or that a certain number of -copies should be printed per week, and the like.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The third method of protection was by a privilege -like a modern patent, covering certain processes or -certain kinds of printing. For example: Aldus was -granted the sole right to use the italic character, while -others were given the sole right of printing in some -foreign language.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The fourth method was the absolute prohibition of -the importation of books printed outside the territories -of the Republic. This was coupled with the refusal of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_20'>20</span>copyright privileges to all books not printed in Venice. -Of course, in this whole discussion we must understand -that Venice was not the modern city, but the medieval -state, which at times was of considerable extent.</p> - -<p class='c007'>This system had certain rather serious defects in -practice. In the first place the Council of Ten which issued -all these privileges, although usually an extremely -businesslike body, kept no record of its relations -with printers. Probably this was not a serious matter -for the first few years, but the time soon came when -no member of the Council could remember what -privileges had been granted either to printers or authors. -Consequently privileges were very liable to duplication -and the Council finally got out of the difficulty by -issuing its copyrights with the proviso “If no previous -copyright has been issued.” This was very comfortable -for the Council, but rather uncomfortable for the -printer, because it threw upon him the burden of finding -out facts which were nowhere on record. Again, -there was no machinery for the enforcement of the privileges. -While it is probable that legal proceedings -could be instituted under them, some other machinery -ought to have been provided to make them effective. -Lastly, and this was, as we shall see, a common difficulty -with all early privileges, they were very narrow -in application. Privileges applied only to the territory -of Venice and were worthless elsewhere. As we have -seen in the case of Aldus, the products of the Venetian -press were sold throughout the civilized world, but outside -of their place of production they were unprotected -by any copyright or other defence. In some cases they -were excluded by protective laws similar to those by -which Venice attempted to secure her printers from -foreign competition. At a somewhat later period some -difficulty arose because of the claims of the Papal -Court to issue privileges outside of the States of the -Church. On the whole, however, the Venetian system -was about the best and the simplest of the early systems -for dealing with the problems of the printing press.</p> - -<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_21'>21</span>Turning next to Germany, we find that practically -all of the books printed from 1450 to 1500 were reprints -of old books. The literary pirate made his appearance -almost as soon as the printer appeared. We -have already seen that Fust himself was the first of -the brood. The fact is not surprising, however, when -we remember the conditions of the time. The idea of -property in a book excepting as one particular object, a -piece of furniture so to speak, never occurred to anybody. -Throughout the entire period of manuscript -books it was everywhere held that any man who had -possession of a book, even temporarily, had a right to -copy it. That the owner of the book had any right to -control its duplication, even though he had been at -great expense to make a copy, was not considered -worth discussion. If a man could copy a manuscript -which had cost a hundred crowns to make, might he -not reprint a book which cost less than one tenth of -that amount? It was held that ownership of a printed -book carried with it the same rights of reproduction -which had from time immemorial been attached to -ownership of a written book.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Men who wrote books wrote for the love of it. There -was no such thing as authorship as a profession and no -such thing as the sale of an author’s work, except so -far as the books themselves were concerned. It is -true that certain writers were helped and perhaps -supported by wealthy patrons of literature in the old -world or by rich men and politicians who were willing -to pay for verses or pamphlets eulogizing their names -and praising their exploits. Doubtless, there were -writers who lived by their wits in this way, but their -case was far different from that of the modern author -who either sells his work to a publisher or makes a -contract for a royalty. If a man was paid for writing -a poem in praise of his patron neither he nor -his patron was supposed to control the poem; in a -word, there was no conception of any kind of literary -property, and the printers soon found that there must be -<span class='pageno' id='Page_22'>22</span>property in books or printing would become impossible.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Germany, like Venice, undertook to deal with the -matter by the privilege system, although German -privileges seem to have been less varied and more -simple than those of the Venetians and to have concerned -themselves more exclusively with the printer, -to the neglect of the author. As elsewhere, a privilege -was the sole right to print a work or a series of works in -a given place. The peculiar political condition which -existed in Germany made this a rather difficult matter. -Germany in the fifteenth century consisted geographically -of what is now the Empire of Germany, the -Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Netherlands, and Switzerland. -It was composed of a great number of states -of very different sizes, from a single city up to a reasonably -large country. Each one of these cities had a -large degree of self government. They were all supposed -to be governed by the emperor. He was called -the Holy Roman Emperor and was supposed to be the -heir of the old emperors of Rome. He governed -largely through assemblages of the princes, called -Diets, which were held wherever and whenever the -emperor called them. There were also certain imperial -courts and governing councils. All this elaborate -scheme of government existed largely on paper. It -was not generally strong enough to govern effectively, -but was generally strong enough to keep things more -or less in confusion.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The power of the emperor depended to a considerable -extent upon his personal character and his private -resources. An emperor who happened to be a strong -man, governing a powerful state in the empire from -which he could draw money and military support, -could hold the states, which were liable to be extremely -unruly, in their places and could collect the imperial -revenue. A man of weaker personality or without -the backing of such private resources could neither -keep the turbulent princes in order nor collect the -revenue.</p> - -<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_23'>23</span>The local princes had no sooner begun to issue -privileges than the emperor began to do the same -thing. A local privilege was not good beyond the limits -of the small state which issued it. An imperial privilege -was theoretically good throughout the empire, but -practically good only in spots. If it conflicted with a -local privilege, or the local authority happened to be -on bad terms with the emperor it would be worthless. -The result of all of this was that at a very early period -the printers of Germany got together and made a sort -of “gentleman’s agreement,” as we say today, to respect -each other’s undertakings. This agreement was -practically the best protection of the German book -trade until the development of copyright laws at a -very much later period. It appears to have been -relied upon by the printers more than was the privilege. -Privileges were often obtained, partly because it was -desirable to keep on good terms with the local authorities -and partly because of the relation of privilege -to censorship, which we shall discuss later, but it is -clear that printing in Germany would have suffered -greatly if it had not been for the existence of the “live -and let live” agreement of the German printers.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Printers’ privileges covered only old books. New -books unless covered by some author’s privilege were -not covered at all, presumably on the ground that in -those days, before author’s rights to compensation were -fully recognized, the expense and risk of producing -the classics for a comparatively small market was -greater than that of printing new books, especially as -many of the new books were controversial and the -authors paid the printers. Until about 1800 the -printer was a much more important personage in -legislation than the author. There was practically -very little protection of literary rights of authors -excepting what came through privileges, and the -printer’s privileges were considered much more important -than the author’s rights. Privileges covered:</p> - -<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_24'>24</span>(a) Public documents, including church books and -school books.</p> - -<p class='c007'>(b) The first printing of books from the body of the -world’s literature.</p> - -<p class='c007'>(c) New books which were first treatments of some -specific subject, generally scientific, technical, or practical.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The granting of a privilege often carried with it exemption -from taxation.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Conditions in France were not greatly different from -those in Italy and Germany, although France dealt -with the problem by means of privileges only and had -her problem somewhat simplified by unified administration -over a large territory. The first privilege to be -issued in France was granted Antoine Verrard in 1507 -for an edition of the Epistles of Paul with a French -commentary. French privileges were sometimes issued -to printers for a single work and sometimes for all the -works which they might print. They ran from two -to ten years. They might be general, covering the -whole kingdom, or they might be local, covering a single -province or district. For example, one might have the -exclusive privilege of printing certain books or the -books of a certain author for ten years, or another -might have the privilege of printing anything of a -certain sort in the city of Lyons for five years.</p> - -<p class='c007'>It is understood, of course, that a privilege implied -prohibition. If a man had a privilege for the works of -an author throughout France that meant that no one -else in France could print the same books. If he had -the privilege for all that he wanted to print in Lyons -it meant that nobody else in Lyons could print those -books, although anybody outside of Lyons could print -them freely. The French law contained one provision -which does not appear elsewhere, namely that licenses -could be revoked before they expired. They were -occasionally issued to persons not residents of France, -another provision which appears to have been peculiar -<span class='pageno' id='Page_25'>25</span>to the French law. A third peculiarity is that privileges -were occasionally given to authors for the control of -their works, but without the right to print them or to -sell them. In such a case as that the printer would -have to get another privilege to print and sell the books. -He would have to pay the author for the right to do so. -The question of privilege in France, like the question -of censorship, which we shall soon take up, was greatly -complicated by the multiplication of authorities and -consequent conflict and confusion. Privileges might -be issued by the king, by the Parliament of Paris -(a misleading name, as the Parliament of Paris was a -judicial and not a legislative body), by the University -of Paris, and by the Provost of Paris. The tendency in -all things French, however, from early in the 15th -century to the French Revolution was toward the -concentration of power, so that the right to issue -privileges was gradually concentrated in the hands of -the king.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_26'>26</span> - <h2 class='c005'>CHAPTER III<br /> <span class='large'><span class='sc'>Censorship</span></span></h2> -</div> - -<p class='drop-capa0_0_6 c006'>To the mind of the fifteenth or sixteenth century -man the protection of church and state and of the -public was a very much more important matter than -the protection of the printer or the author, and it was -seen that the printing press might easily distill a -venom which would poison the minds of men and -threaten the health of institutions. Measures to -prevent this occurrence went hand in hand with the -granting of privileges. It was only natural that they -should do so as they might well be regarded as conditions -upon which the privilege should be granted, or, -as the idea developed, upon which the trade should -be exercised. France early decreed that every piece -of printing put out in the kingdom must be certified as -“containing nothing contrary to faith, good manners, -public peace, and the royal authority.” Theoretically, -nothing could be more admirable. Doubtless many of -us today would like to be assured that all printed -matter should meet these requirements. It is obvious, -however, that such regulations were liable to work -very badly in practice. What constitutes faith, good -manners, public peace, and the royal authority? These -are, to a considerable extent, matters of opinion. It -may happen that the royal authority becomes tyranny -and ought to be opposed rather than supported. In -the hands of the narrow-minded, ignorant, and unscrupulous, -censorship laws may easily open the way -to intolerable abuses. As a matter of fact, they have -only too often done so, and it is for that reason that we -in the United States today insist upon freedom of the -press.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Possible injury to the faith was very early perceived -by the church. As guardian of the faith and morals of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_27'>27</span>the people, the church felt constrained to see that -nothing with heretical or immoral tendencies should -be placed in the hands of the faithful. Just as Venice -led the way in laws relating to privilege, so she was -prominent in the matter of censoring books. Usually -the body which issued licenses had charge of the -censorship as well. It might not distrust the ecclesiastical -examination and censoring of the books, but -it made the censorship effective by its refusal of -privilege. Later, as we shall see, when this procedure -did not prove entirely effective other methods were -taken to punish the printers and the authors of books -which were deemed injurious. The first book which -appeared with the approval of the ecclesiastical authorities -was printed in 1480. This approval at first had -nothing to do with the privilege to print, but was -rather a commendation to the attention of the faithful.</p> - -<p class='c007'>In 1487, however, the Pope (Innocent VIII) issued -a bull against objectionable books. This bull was -addressed to the States of the Church, Italy, Germany, -France, Spain, England, and Scotland. As a result, -probably, of this bull, Venice enacted a requirement in -1508 that the approval of the Church should precede -the granting of any privilege to print. In 1515 the -Lateran Council established the principle of strict -censorship. The religious troubles of the sixteenth -century had much to do with the application of this -principle. In the Protestant countries it was applied -much less vigorously than in the Catholic countries. -It must not be understood, however, that the Protestants -had any broader or more intelligent views on the -subject of censorship than the Catholics had. They -were just as ready to recognize the principle of censorship -and apply it, but the occasions for applying it were, -or seemed to be, less frequent. Venice, although always -a Catholic country, was careful to keep herself as -independent of Rome as possible. The Venetians -consequently kept the reins in their own hands with -regard to the censorship of books as well as in other -<span class='pageno' id='Page_28'>28</span>matters, although they co-operated with the church -authorities and offered no hindrances to the work -of the Inquisition.</p> - -<p class='c007'>In 1503 Venice extended the scope of censorship to -cover the literary quality of books and translations, -the political effect of books, and their effect upon -morals. The political and moral censorship appears -to have been less effective than the religious and -literary. In 1547 the Inquisition took charge of the -censorship of books and the punishment of those who -offended against the press laws, and continued to -exercise those functions until 1730. It is interesting to -note that the greatest activity of the Inquisition was -in the first half century of its work, a period when -religion was still the subject of bitter controversy and -bloody warfare. The Inquisition took cognizance of -132 cases between 1547 and 1600. Between 1600 and -1700, however, it only dealt with 55, while from 1700 -to 1730 it dealt with only four.</p> - -<p class='c007'>In 1571 Pope Pius V started the Index Expurgatorius. -This Index was and is a list wherein are -registered books and other publications which are -condemned by the Commission in charge of it, called -the Congregation of the Index, as being immoral and -unsound either in religion or politics. By this means -the church undertakes to protect its members from -the reading of books calculated to injure their morals -or to unsettle their faith.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Lines of legislation in Venice regarding censorship -ran in certain very definite directions, namely: the -legalizing of custom and precedent, protection of the -industry against foreign competition and preservation -of the excellence of the nation’s press, protection of the -buyer of books against poor workmanship and excessive -charges (protection of the author’s right has already -been discussed), and the development of a Bureau to -administer the press laws and regulate the industry. -In 1549 the book trade was organized by the creation -with definite legal recognition of the Guild of Printers -<span class='pageno' id='Page_29'>29</span>and Booksellers. It was believed that the trade could -be dealt with better and could do its own work better -if it were organized.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The purpose of the guild was three-fold:</p> - -<p class='c007'>1. To protect trade interests—the purpose of trade -organizations at all times.</p> - -<p class='c007'>2. To assist the state and church in watching the -output of the press.</p> - -<p class='c007'>3. To suppress pernicious books.</p> - -<p class='c007'>As the years went by the tendency was for the -state censorship to relax and for the church censorship -to become more severe. In time the censorship became -very harassing and very troublesome. In 1671, -although the Inquisition had ceased to be very active in -dealing with the enforcement of press censorship laws, -the requirements preliminary to printing a book were -so severe that one wonders that printing existed at all. -If a man wanted to print a book in Venice at that -time he had to secure the following:</p> - -<p class='c007'>1. A testamur (a sort of approval) from the Inquisition.</p> - -<p class='c007'>2. A testamur from the Ducal Secretary.</p> - -<p class='c007'>3. A certificate from the University of Padua.</p> - -<p class='c007'>4. Permission to print from the Council of Ten.</p> - -<p class='c007'>5. Revision of his work by the superintendent of -the press.</p> - -<p class='c007'>6. Revision of his proofs by the public proof reader.</p> - -<p class='c007'>7. Collation of the original text with the printed -text by the representative of the University.</p> - -<p class='c007'>8. A certificate by the Librarian of Saint Marks -that a copy of the book had been deposited in the -Library.</p> - -<p class='c007'>9. Examination by government experts to fix the -price.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Almost every one of these processes had to be paid -for. Italy outside Venice was strongly influenced by -<span class='pageno' id='Page_30'>30</span>Rome and the press was comparatively strictly controlled -by the influence of the church.</p> - -<p class='c007'>In Germany, on the contrary, the censorship was -probably the least severe of any on the Continent. -As already noted, there was substantially no printing -of original work in Germany until 1500 and consequently -no special need of censorship. Shortly afterward -Germany was rent in twain by religious dissensions. -It must be remembered that the Reformation, -being very largely a political movement, the difference -between Catholics and Protestants followed geographical -lines for the most part. There were comparatively -few Protestants in Catholic countries or Catholics in -Protestant countries. The Protestants seized upon -the printing press as a method of propaganda. They -consequently advocated its freedom and encouraged -its use. The Catholics at first attempted to defend -themselves from this attack by the suppression of -printing and the destruction of imported books. After -a little time, however, with greater wisdom, they -themselves made use of the printing press for a counter -propaganda. Those who were disturbed by the censorship -in a country in either camp could and did move to -one in the other. In this way unless a man had religious -opinions which were unacceptable anywhere or -wished to publish books which were seditious or immoral -it would be entirely easy for him to find a place -where he could be undisturbed and probably encouraged.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The early assertion of government control in France -has already been described. Francis I, although a -good friend of printing, was a loyal son of the church, -and all the more so because of his unfriendly relations -with Henry VIII of England who, for much of his life, -was not on good terms with the church. Francis, therefore, -issued edicts in 1521 enforcing the censorship -which was called for by the decree of the Lateran -Council already referred to.</p> - -<p class='c007'>This censorship was exercised by a considerable -number of persons. This was always a defect in the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_31'>31</span>French press laws and was the cause of a great deal of -difficulty and hardship. At first censorship was exercised -by the bishops, by the Faculty of Theology of -the University of Paris, by the Parliament of Paris, by -the Royal Chancellor, by the Director-General of the -Book Trade, and by the Lieutenant of Police. Tendencies -to consolidation, however, soon manifested themselves. -The first important step was the centering of -church censorship in the hands of the Faculty of -Theology of the University of Paris to the exclusion of -the bishops generally.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The tendency to centralize was naturally accompanied -by a tendency to tighten the censorship of the -civil authorities, a tendency quite opposite to that -which we observed in Venice. In 1624 a Censor-Royal -was appointed to whom everybody, even the bishops -themselves, was obliged to submit his writing. The -numerous civil authorities having charge of censorship -caused confusion for a time, but gradually their powers -were concentrated in the hands of the Director-General -of the Book Trade.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The laws were administered by inspectors of bookselling -and enforced by the police and the civil courts. -The laws were very severe. They applied primarily to -the printer and bookseller, probably because he was -an easier person to get at than the author and much -more likely to be financially responsible. The printer -was obliged to make public the name of the author and -printer, the place of manufacture, and the place of -sale of every book which he printed. A printer might -be prosecuted if an authorized book turned out to be -objectionable. This was a particularly unjust law -because the printer was obliged to take the chance that, -after the book had been duly censored and approved -by authority, some censor, perhaps not the one who had -originally approved it, might find something in it -which he considered objectionable.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The penalties for infraction of the press laws were -very severe. They consisted of the burning of books, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_32'>32</span>confiscation of books, fines, flogging, imprisonment, -banishment, and even burning alive. From 1660 to -1756, 869 authors, printers, and booksellers were sent -to the Bastille. At least one-third of these were -printers.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The press laws in France were more severe than -almost anywhere else in Europe. In practical operation -they favored foreign printers at the expense of -the French. Naturally the result of all of this regulation -was that Frenchmen did not print, and the market -was supplied from abroad. If the laws had been strictly -enforced printing would apparently have been driven -out of France. There were, however, certain mitigations. -In the first place certain things were exempt -from the operations of the press laws, such as legal -documents, police papers, documents bearing the -signatures of advocates, and small publications of two -leaves or less for the spread of news or for other purposes. -This particular exemption was always the -cause of a good deal of question and a good deal of -abuse. Again, these laws were largely held in reserve, -that is to say, they made possible the punishment of -offending printers, but in many cases the offender was -not proceeded against unless someone complained. -Again, the judges used large discretion in dealing with -cases of infraction of the press laws. In many cases -licenses were issued in a very informal way, so that -official responsibility was not involved; and sometimes -a clandestine permission was given, the printer being -assured that although his book could not be approved -no action would be taken against him if he published it. -False statements as to place of printing were used as -a means of avoiding responsibility, sometimes apparently -with the connivance of the authorities. The -personal influence of the Chancellor was very great in -these cases, and it was entirely possible for him to -protect authors or writers if he chose to do so.</p> - -<p class='c007'>By the eighteenth century the condition had become -practically intolerable. There was a great mass of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_33'>33</span>laws on the statute books. Legislation was confused -and contradictory and of the most drastic sort. The -enforcement was sporadic and irregular, depending -upon a great many personal and local considerations. -There was no underlying principle to control either -the making or enforcement of the laws. All this, like -so much else that belonged to the life of the old days, -was swept away by the French Revolution. All the -laws regarding privilege, censorship, and the like were -annulled in a mass. The press was given absolute -freedom and left without any control whatever. Of -course, it abused this freedom and the condition of -things for a while was extremely bad. It finally -readjusted itself, however, and gradually settled down -into the condition which is familiar today.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_34'>34</span> - <h2 class='c005'>CHAPTER IV<br /> <span class='large'><span class='sc'>Development of the Idea of Copyright</span></span></h2> -</div> - -<p class='drop-capa0_0_6 c006'>As we have already seen, the early printers concerned -themselves almost exclusively with the -reprinting of church books and the classics. These -last required for successful performance expert editorial -work and proof reading. The printers engaged competent -and sometimes very distinguished scholars to -do this work for them and paid them for their labor. -Out of this practice grew the idea that the author -might properly share in the profits of the original work -done by him. If he were paid for preparing a good -text of Virgil, for instance, why could he not be paid for -writing a critical article to be prefixed to the volume, -and why not if he wrote a whole book about Virgil -which the publisher desired to present to the world of -scholars? At first there was some objection on the -part of the writers themselves. It was held by many -that it was undignified and improper for a writer to -sell his ideas. Such opinions soon ceased to be common. -The race of professional authors living by their pens -came into existence.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The same questions which arose with regard to the -printer’s right to his work extended to the question of -the author’s right. Even before the author’s pecuniary -right in his work was clearly recognized the claim was -asserted that he ought to have control of it. Luther, -for example, strongly asserted this right of control and -strenuously objected to piracy on the ground of his -desire to safeguard the correctness of texts purporting -to be written by him. He does not appear to have -cared for the money, as he himself corrected the texts -of pirated editions of his works. He feared, however, -that harm might come through typographical errors or -even the deliberate falsification of his writing. This -<span class='pageno' id='Page_35'>35</span>has always been a real danger, and one of the greatest -complaints made by European authors against American -printers previous to the days of international copyright -was on the ground of the incorrectness of the -pirated editions.</p> - -<p class='c007'>One of the first persons to enjoy anything like copyright -protection in Germany was Albrecht Dürer. The -city government of Nuremberg undertook to protect -Dürer and his family in the right to print and publish his -works. It is a curious mark of the undeveloped state -of public opinion regarding these matters at this time -that Dürer seems to have been protected more as an -inventor than as an author. The early German copyrights -in many cases seem not only to have prevented -others from reprinting a specified book but also from -printing any book on the same subject. For example, -Dürer wrote a book on <cite>Proportion</cite> which was published -in Paris. Before it was completed another -artist named Beham undertook to publish a book on -<cite>Proportion</cite>. Beham was ordered not to publish his -book until after Dürer had completed publication. He -insisted that his work was an absolutely independent -one, not in any way copied from or related to the work -of Dürer, but his plea was disregarded, although, as it -afterward turned out, it was quite true that his work -was entirely independent.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Throughout Europe during the period we have under -consideration we find two ideas gradually clearing -themselves from the confused thinking of the time and -coming into recognition. The first is the idea that the -writer of a book has for a time at least property rights -in it, and the other that old books belong to the public. -That is the basis of our modern thinking on the subject. -We recognize that any writer may copyright his work -and is entitled to the control of it during the copyright -period, which varies in different countries. When -his copyright has expired any publisher who cares to -undertake the venture as a business proposition may -bring out an edition and sell it at whatever price he -<span class='pageno' id='Page_36'>36</span>chooses. That is the reason why old books are generally -cheaper than new books. An edition of Scott or -Dickens is purely a manufacturing proposition. An -edition of Maurice Hewlett is a very different matter -because Mr. Hewlett, or his publisher, holds copyright -on his works and must be paid for the privilege of -publishing.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Another important development in thought was the -growth of the idea of right as distinguished from -privilege. A privilege, as the word implies, is an act -of grace. It is a grant of permission to do a thing which -one has no inherent right to do. In England, as we -shall later see, when the idea of copyright came to be -seriously considered it was based on the common law, -that is to say, it was recognized that the printer and -author had some rights in the matter.</p> - -<p class='c007'>As soon as it was seen that the printer and the -author had produced something more than a mere -piece of merchandise and that the property right of the -producer inhered in that added element quite as much -as in the piece of merchandise the basis was laid for the -common law treatment of the whole matter. The -extension of the conception of property to cover -thoughts as well as things was the basis of the whole -matter.</p> - -<p class='c007'>It was a long time before these ideas emerged on the -Continent. It was well to the end of the 18th century -before these matters were clearly understood and -recognized by law. It was not until 1777 that French -law distinctly recognized the difference between old -and new books, and the rights of the author. This -was only twelve years before the French Revolution. -At that time all the old laws were swept away and the -extreme regulation of printing in France gave place -to no regulation at all, which for a time made things -worse than ever. It was not until into the nineteenth -century that the question of copyright has been reasonably -settled. There is still something to be desired -before ideal conditions are reached. Copyright laws -<span class='pageno' id='Page_37'>37</span>of the various nations differ greatly, but on the whole -they fairly accomplish the desired results within the -national boundaries.</p> - -<p class='c007'>International copyright rests on the Treaty of Bern -in 1887. The United States was for many years a -great offender in the matter of the recognition of the -rights of foreign authors. At the time of the Treaty of -Bern the United States recognized the principle of -international copyright, but we did not have reasonably -satisfactory legislation on the subject until so -recently as 1909. In this, as in other matters which -we have been discussing and shall discuss in this -volume, very little reference has been made to England -for the reason that a separate volume will be given to -the history of printing in that country.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_38'>38</span> - <h2 class='c005'>CHAPTER V<br /> <span class='large'><span class='sc'>Trade Guilds and the Coming of The New Industry</span></span></h2> -</div> - -<p class='drop-capa0_0_6 c006'>The outstanding factor in the industrial, social, and -economic life of the Middle Ages is the trade guild. -The real life of any people is not the story of its wars or -the record of the doings of its kings and nobles. It is -the life of the people themselves. The moment we try -to study this aspect of these old times we find that in -the towns especially the life of the people centers -around their trade guilds. The guild was an organization -of all the workmen in any given trade. It included -the master workman, the journeyman, and the apprentice. -It controlled the whole life of the industry -from the buying of materials to the selling of the -finished product, from the indenturing of the apprentice -to the certification of the master workman. -Its peculiar strength lay in the fact that it did not -exercise this control in the interest of either the employer -or the employed. It exercised it in the interest -of the industry as a whole. It did not forget the -interests of the public. It did not permit the industry -to be practised by the unauthorized or outsiders. It -limited competition. It distributed labor. It prevented -over-production. It assumed great responsibility for -its members and it held them to a very strict accountability.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Of course, such an organization was possible only -under conditions of production far different from those -which now prevail. All work was hand-work and each -hand-worker was supposed to make the whole of the -thing produced. There were no machines of any -importance and there was practically no division of -labor. The armorer, for example, made his helmet, -carrying it through every process from the first shaping -<span class='pageno' id='Page_39'>39</span>of the steel to the attaching of the last plume. The -shoemaker selected his leather and carried it through -every process until the shoe was finished. Men learned -trades in those days. They did not learn to tend a -machine. A trade was worth something because the -trade organization of that day made lack of employment -impossible for a decent man in ordinary times. -Learning a trade took a long time. As soon as the boy -was old enough to begin to learn he was apprenticed -to a master workman, usually for a term of seven years. -Usually he paid something for his apprenticeship, in -some cases a considerable amount. He lived in the -master’s family and was supported by him until he was -out of his time. He then usually worked as a journeyman -until he could accumulate the small capital necessary -to set up as an independent master.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Having been apprenticed under guild regulations to -a guild member he became a member of the guild himself -as soon as he qualified as a journeyman. Meantime -he had not only been thoroughly instructed in the -practice of the industry but he had absorbed the -craftsman’s spirit and become imbued with the great -principles of guild life. These principles were five:</p> - -<p class='c007'>1. General protection of workmen. This has perhaps -been sufficiently described already.</p> - -<p class='c007'>2. Limitation of competition. This has also been -remarked upon.</p> - -<p class='c007'>3. Perfection of work. The guild always stood -behind the quality of the product made by its members. -If goods were not up to standard in quality it was -not only held to be a disgrace to the guild, but the -offending member was liable to severe punishment at -the hands of the guild itself. The guilds maintained -their own inspectors. These inspectors visited the -shops and the fairs or occasional markets where goods -were sold. If they found poor work in the shop or -if they found that poor work had been put in the -hands of the merchants for sale, they reported it to -<span class='pageno' id='Page_40'>40</span>the guild officers who immediately dealt with the -offending member.</p> - -<p class='c007'>4. Honesty in business. The guild member not only -made his goods but sold them, generally directly to -the public. Sometimes he sold them to merchants -and sometimes he sent them to certain cities where at -certain times markets or fairs were held, there to be -sold on commission. More often, however, he made -and sold his own goods in his own shop and lived in the -same building with his family, his apprentices, and -sometimes his journeymen. The guild stood for full -weight and measure and for honesty in all business -transactions. It punished faults in these directions as -sternly as in the making of poor goods.</p> - -<p class='c007'>5. The maintenance of the social order. The guilds -were always to be found arranged on the side of law -and order, although that did not always mean that -they were on the side of the king or other constituted -authority in periods of civil disturbance.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The members of the guilds, all fighting men usually -serving under their own guild banners and their own -leaders, were an important part of the military force of -the medieval cities. Although they might and did -fight on one side or the other of some civic quarrel they -always stood for order in the community just as they -did for honesty in production and trade. This, however, -is closely connected with the further fact that -the guilds had a distinct religious side. The medieval -man was not perhaps very much more religious than -his modern descendant, but he was religious in a -different way and paid much more attention to the -forms of religion. Religious ceremonies formed a part -of the regular routine of guild life and in many cases -special churches were closely identified with certain -guilds. Closely connected with the guilds were organizations -known as confraternities. These confraternities -were religious, charitable, and social organizations. -Although usually drawn from members of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_41'>41</span>some particular industry, they did not attempt to -exercise the trade control which was in the hands of -the guilds. They adopted the name of some saint who -was chosen as their patron. They had a solemn feast -following attendance at church on his day in the calendar, -and they maintained a fund out of which the needy -could be assisted and the dead buried with due provision -of masses for the repose of his soul in case the -family funds were not sufficient.</p> - -<p class='c007'>You see we are dealing with a time when the lives -of men were very simple, very neighborly, and at least -so far as observance goes, very religious. It is very -important that we should have some fairly clear idea -of these times if we are to understand at all how the -early printers lived, what they did, and why they -did it.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries -were the golden age of the guilds. They were at the -height of their power and influence at the period of the -invention of printing. The sixteenth, seventeenth, and -eighteenth centuries were a period of decline. At first -the decline was slow. After the sixteenth century, -however, the decline was rapid, and long before the -end of the eighteenth century the guilds had lost practically -all of their old-time power and influence. In -some portions of Europe the old guild organization -still exists, but its influence is very slight and its purposes -are far different from those of the old organizations -of the Middle Ages.</p> - -<p class='c007'>This decline was the result of the changing economic -conditions. One of the most important of these was -the development of the modern type of production in -factories using costly equipment and employing large -numbers of men. The old type of production required -little or no capital. There was practically no costly -machinery. The work was done in the master workman’s -house by himself, his sons, and apprentices. -No expensive outlay for materials or plant was required. -The journeyman required practically no -<span class='pageno' id='Page_42'>42</span>capital for starting in business beyond his personal -strength and skill.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Printing was the first industry which could not be -carried on under the old conditions. From the beginning -the printer must have capital to supply type, -presses, and other equipment, to purchase material, -which was costly, and to maintain himself and those -who were working with him while a long process was -being brought to completion and the product marketed. -In order to carry on the business to any advantage a -considerable number of persons must be employed. -Under these circumstances printing was necessarily -from the beginning an enterprise which required the -co-operation of capital and labor to an extent hitherto -unknown.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Another reason for the decline of the guilds may be -found in the increasing power of the government and -its progressive control of the citizen. The control and -protection thus exercised by the government rendered -the protection and control exercised by the guild over -its members not only unnecessary but improper. -While in some respects governmental control and the -freedom of a well-organized system of courts did not -protect the rights of the individual and insure the -quality of product as effectively as the guilds had done, -it was inevitable that particular regulations should -give way to general regulation and that the individual -should not only be taught but compelled to look to the -state rather than to an association of individuals for the -protection of his rights and the definition of his duties.</p> - -<p class='c007'>It was probably this more than anything else which -brought about an increasing antagonism between the -guilds and the state in every country. In the years of -their growth and power the guilds, as we have seen, -had been the strong supporters of the social order, the -pillars of the state, and the firm reliance of the government, -or at any rate of that party in the government -which they supported. When the government became -strong enough to desire to stand alone, the power of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_43'>43</span>the guilds, which had formerly been useful, became -decidedly objectionable, and the entire influence of the -state was more and more directed against them.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Another important social change was the development -of free labor and free capital, resulting in the -separation of industrial classes. Under the guild -system there was no separation between labor and -capital, or between the employers and the employed as -classes. The guilds were associations in which labor -and so much capital as there was were combined in a -close organization, while there was neither labor nor -capital in any particular amount outside the guild. -With the gradual change of conditions, growth of -population, increase of wealth, and greater intercourse -between communities there grew up on one end of -the social scale groups of laborers who were not members -of any guild and on the other end accumulations -of capital which were either in the hands of men who -were neither craftsmen nor guild members or of those -who had larger accumulations than they could use in -their own business. This development of laborers seeking -employment and capital seeking investment was -fatal to the guild system when once the progress of -invention made the factory system possible.</p> - -<p class='c007'>One of the factors which accelerated this movement -was a curious combination of high prices fixed by the -economic law of supply and demand and low wages -fixed by the ancient law of custom. It must be remembered -that at this time the science of political -economy did not exist. People did not know the laws -which govern business and control prices and wages. -They ignorantly supposed, as some persons still suppose, -that these things may be governed by statute, being -entirely unaware of the fact that they are really the -product of causes for the most part beyond human -control. In the early Middle Ages wages and prices -were fixed on a basis of custom. The three centuries -which formed the golden age of the guilds were a -period of very slight industrial changes. There were -<span class='pageno' id='Page_44'>44</span>no great changes in population. There was no colonizing, -with the consequent opening of new markets. -There were no modern inventions. There was no -particular change in the amount of gold and silver in -circulation. Consequently the law of supply and -demand made itself felt so little through variations in -prices and in wages that it was entirely neglected. It -became the custom to pay a certain amount for each -commodity, and especially to pay a fixed rate of wages -in certain occupations. Nobody thought of paying -less or of asking more than this customary sum. In -case anybody did attempt any modification of this -sort he was promptly checked by law. Attempts were -also frequently made to prevent by law variations in -prices.</p> - -<p class='c007'>This condition of things was completely upset by -the changes which took place about the time of the -discovery of America. One of the immediate results -of the opening up of the mines and treasure hoards of -Mexico and Central and South America, with the -consequent enormous increases in the amount of gold -and silver in circulation, was a rise in general prices -of about 100 per cent or, to put it differently, a cutting -in two of the value of gold and silver. Gold and silver -are just like other commodities. When the amount of -gold in a given market is doubled its value is halved; -that is to say, you have to pay twice as much for whatever -you want to buy.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The opening of new markets and the stimulus given -not only to invention but to production and communication -by the intellectual movement and consequent -discoveries and inventions which were going on at this -time upset industrial conditions tremendously. As -usual, however, the workmen were the last to feel this -change. Men paid more gold for commodities because -they could not get them at the same old price, but -wages for a long period remained fixed by custom. -The laborer, like other people, had to pay more for -what he bought, but unlike other people did not get -<span class='pageno' id='Page_45'>45</span>any more for what he sold. This condition was made -even worse by ignorant and sometimes disastrous -attempts to control by legislation a situation which -nobody understood. Statutes to fix prices and curtail -profits are never enforceable unless backed by a -government monopoly of production. Consequently -the extensive legislation for these purposes was useless. -Unfortunately there was also legislation forbidding -combination of workmen, forbidding their passage -from place to place in search of work, and forbidding -their asking or receiving more than the customary -rate of wages. Some of this was old legislation revived. -Some of it was new. While not entirely effective, it -was much more effective than the legislation with -regard to commodity prices, because in the nature of -things it was much more easily enforceable.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The natural consequence of these conditions was the -disruption of the old economic order. The employer -and employed, who had been associated together in -the old guilds, separated into antagonistic, if not -hostile, camps. Capital and labor instead of co-operating -contested for supremacy. Guilds, if they survived -at all, gradually became associations of masters. -We shall see how this worked out in the development -of the Community of Printers. The workmen gathered -into organizations of their own which were the ancestors -of the modern labor unions. The modern industrial -system with all its power and with all its abuses came -into existence.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Printing did not fit into the guild system at all. -As has already been pointed out, the very nature of the -industry prevented it. Indeed it was not legally -regarded as an industry or a mechanical occupation -until the great reorganization of the trade in 1618, a -date to which we shall have frequent occasion to refer. -At first it was regarded as an art or profession and -those who practiced it were legally recognized as not -being mechanics and not being liable to the laws -governing mechanics. From 1450 to 1618 the printing -<span class='pageno' id='Page_46'>46</span>industry was a sort of industrial outlaw. It was -not under guild control on the one hand and was not -amenable to the general statutes regarding industry -on the other. That meant that the regulations which -were at this period so advantageous to the other industries -did not apply to this one, with numerous unfortunate -results.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The industry at first attached itself to the universities. -It was utilized, as we have seen, not for a commercial -purpose as now, but for the production of -Bibles, the classics, and other learned books almost -exclusively. As we have also seen, the universities -attempted to control the output of the press until -more effective methods of censorship were devised.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Previous to the invention of typography there had -been a sort of guild of the makers and sellers of books. -In most places this was known as the Confraternity -of St. John the Evangelist, sometimes as the Confraternity -of St. Luke, and in one place at least as the -Brothers of the Pen. This organization continued to -exist as an association of printers, but it did not have -the power and standing of the great trade guilds of an -earlier period. Soon after the invention of printing the -journeymen and apprentices formed an association of -their own, which very soon developed into something -like a labor union. The result of these conditions was -great disorganization in the trade. Strikes were -frequent. In France particularly the period from 1539 -to 1544 was one of great disorder. Accounts of a series -of strikes in the city of Lyons at this period read -almost like the accounts of a serious labor disturbance -of the present time. Shops were picketed. There -were parades of strikers. There were riots by the -strikers and their sympathizers, and an appeal to the -town authorities to settle the matter. The settlement -proposed was so unfavorable to the master printers -that they threatened to leave Lyons in a body. This -would have been a very serious matter, as printing was -then one of the great industries of the city, and the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_47'>47</span>disturbance was finally settled by a compromise -which granted the journeymen some of their more -important demands and yet left enough to the masters -so that they felt that they could continue in business. -The great grievances complained of were low pay, poor -food (the journeymen were boarded by their employers), -too many apprentices, and the unwillingness of the -masters to allow them to work at certain times when -they wanted to work, such as on the eves of Sundays -and feast days and the like, and to abstain from work at -certain times when they did not want to work.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Attempts were made to stop the disturbances in the -trade by the intervention of the government. This -intervention was entirely on the side of the masters. -The journeymen were forbidden to do anything whatever -to injure the masters or to impede their business -and they were denied the limitation of apprentices for -which they had asked. Guild regulations limited the -number of apprentices taken in other industries and it -seemed only reasonable to the journeyman that similar -regulations should obtain among the printers, but the -royal authority was constantly exercised against them. -This attempted settlement by royal authority was immediately -followed by still more serious strikes. The -masters complained that the agitation was due to the -pernicious activity of labor leaders and invoked the -royal edicts. The journeymen alleged abuses, claimed -their rights, and undertook to enforce them by combination. -The royal authority was exercised in the -effort to coerce the journeymen even to the point of -threatening by an edict of 1617 that workmen who -interfered with the conduct of their master’s business -should be put to death. This, however, was the last -expiring effort of the old order of things. In the next -year, 1618, a royal edict organized the trade and -prescribed the regulations under which it should be -conducted.</p> - -<p class='c007'>This organization, which we shall proceed to study -in detail, was the basis of the conduct of the printing -<span class='pageno' id='Page_48'>48</span>industry in France until 1789. It did not bring industrial -peace and it did not remedy all existing evils. -As we shall see, the history of printing is a history of -industrial conflict throughout the whole period until -1789. Henceforth, however, the regulation of the -trade, the establishment of a responsible organization, -and the fixing of regulations between masters and men -changed the field of strife. We hear little or nothing -more of strikes. The state was recognized as the -source of regulation and as the arbiter of questions -which might arise between the associated employers -on one hand and their partially associated employees -on the other. The industrial struggles hereafter took -the form of litigation rather than of strikes. The -outlaw industry at last obtained a recognized, responsible -position in the industrial world.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_49'>49</span> - <h2 class='c005'>CHAPTER VI<br /> <span class='large'><span class='sc'>The Community of Printers</span></span></h2> -</div> - -<p class='drop-capa0_0_6 c006'>An unregulated trade, conducted under conditions -of absolute freedom approximating those of the -present day, was not only out of place in the Middle -Ages but was practically impossible. We have seen -how the attempt to carry on a trade under such conditions -resulted in a state of intolerable confusion in -the printing industry. Accordingly a royal edict was -issued by King Louis XII supplying the needed regulations -for the conduct of the industry according to -seventeenth century ideas.</p> - -<p class='c007'>So far as the industry itself was concerned the important -feature of this edict was the organization of the -Community of Printers. This Community embraced -all the printing trades; that is to say, printing, book -binding, type founding, and bookselling. The master -workmen carrying on shops in any of these allied -industries were members of the Community. It differed -from the trade guilds in that it was an organization -of employers only. It did not include even the -master workmen who were not employers.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Certain matters were decided upon by the Community -as a whole, but the work of the Community -was carried on for the most part by a sort of Executive -Committee called the Syndics. This Committee consisted -of a chairman, who is usually referred to as the -Syndic, and four associates or assessors. This board -was chosen annually. Originally the elections were -held in general assemblages of the industry at which -all members of the Community were entitled to vote. -Later the elections were in the hands of a board consisting -of the five syndics for the year, past members -of the board of syndics, and twenty-four electors. Of -these twenty-four, eight were printers, eight booksellers, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_50'>50</span>and eight binders. The type founders appear never to -have been very important members of the Community -and probably soon ceased to be represented among the -syndics. At the time the Community was organized -typefounding was not a separate industry, but was -carried on by the printers themselves.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The duty of the syndics was to act as the corporate -representatives of the industry. They fixed wages and -prices. They adjusted disputes between their fellow-members -and acted for the employers in dealing with -the employees. They had powers of visitation and supervision. -Through these they were supposed to exercise -a sort of censorship over printing, to maintain the -quality of work done, to see that trade regulations were -enforced and trade agreements carried out; in a word, to -exercise the same minute control over the industry -which was exercised by the guilds.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The new organization was a very great improvement -over the former lack of organization, but it was very -far from being completely successful. Its first effort -was to regulate admission to mastership and so to -membership of the Community. The number of shops -in Paris in 1618 was 76. By 1686 this number had -been reduced to 36 and the process was still going on. -At Troyes in 1700 there were 16 shops and in 1739 -only 3. This limitation was brought about by freezing -out the small shops, by strict regulation of admissions -to the Community without which the business could -not be legally carried on, and by the purchase from -time to time of certificates of membership. A certificate -of membership in the Community was a very -considerable asset to an individual and on his death -it passed to his heirs. While it could not apparently -be sold outside the family, it had distinct value and -could often be purchased and cancelled by the Community. -Except by inheritances membership might be -obtained only through advancement in the trade from -apprenticeship through journeymanship to master -workmanship, as we shall see later. The fees required -<span class='pageno' id='Page_51'>51</span>for membership of the Community and the capital -required for carrying on business were so great that -very few attained membership of the Community in -this way. Membership of the Community, however, -was open to the sons of members or to those who -might marry the widows of members, and in a very -short time membership became practically limited -to those who obtained it in one or the other of these -ways.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The Community was undoubtedly very useful in -giving a corporate center to the industry and also in -giving more support to trade usages, contracts, and -agreements. On the other hand its efficiency was -greatly weakened by the quarrels which immediately -broke out between the three elements of the Community -and which lasted until the final break-up of the old -conditions in 1789. The quarrel was mainly between -the printers and the booksellers or publishers. The -binders were soon recognized as forming an independent -industry and they were before very long eliminated -from the Community of Printers. They formed a -Community of their own in 1686 and need not be -further considered.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The hostility between the booksellers and the printers -began with the invention of printing. Their interests -were so closely related and yet so antagonistic that an -attempt to combine them in one Community while at -the same time keeping their functions separate resulted -in constant quarrels and in a weakening of the influence -of the Community itself.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The booksellers, for instance, were lax in their -supervision and control in matters where the printers -were directly concerned, while the printers were equally -negligent of the interests of the booksellers. The -printers naturally desired to restrict the number of -printers but they were glad to see the number of booksellers -competing for the privilege of handling their -output increased indefinitely. The booksellers, being -fewer in number and probably richer, were more united -<span class='pageno' id='Page_52'>52</span>and more aggressive than the printers. They attempted -to get control of manuscripts so that the -printers could not produce anything without first -paying toll to the owners of the manuscripts. We -must always remember that at this period the great -mass of commercial and periodical printing which -supports the industry today was not in existence, and -that printing was practically confined to books and -official documents. The booksellers also wanted to -print for themselves; that is to say, to hire journeymen -printers and so make themselves independent of the -master printers. By their resistence to the closing of -the mastership and by the cultivation of competition -they did their best to lower the prices of printing. In -a word, they endeavored to subjugate the printers -entirely. In this they did not succeed, but they kept -the quarrel alive, very much to the detriment of the -industry, until the end of the old industrial order.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_53'>53</span> - <h2 class='c005'>CHAPTER VII<br /> <span class='large'><span class='sc'>How The Old-time Printers Worked</span></span></h2> -</div> - -<p class='drop-capa0_0_6 c006'>Before considering the organization of a shop -and the conditions under which the work was -done, it is worth while to look into a printing establishment -of the sixteenth, seventeenth, or eighteenth century -and see how the work itself was carried on. This -general view of an old-time printing plant will be made -fairly full even at the cost of some repetition of facts -already stated elsewhere on account of the importance -of presenting here as complete a picture as possible of -the life and labor of printers in the centuries under -discussion.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Originally the printer did everything except to make -his paper and his presses. He designed and cast -his type, he made his ink, he edited his manuscript, -printed his books, bound them, and, for a time, sold -them. We have just considered his relations to the -bookseller. He got rid of his type casting about one -hundred years after the invention. The type foundry -of Guillaume Le Bé, established about 1551, seems to -have been the beginning of type founding as a separate -industry, although in later years some very large -establishments maintained type foundries and even -paper mills as incidents of the business; but the -printer from this time on began to get his type outside.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Bookbinding came to be regarded as a separate -industry at about the same time.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Ink making was done by the printer until comparatively -recently. The ink balls which were used for -distributing the ink on types were made by the printers -themselves until the ink ball was superseded by the roller -with the coming in of modern presses. Even then -rollers were made in the shops for a long time, and -indeed the practice is hardly now entirely discontinued.</p> - -<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_54'>54</span>The early paper was hand-made and was thick, with -a rough, furrowed surface. It was grayish or yellowish -in color and was very strongly water-marked. It was -very costly, but very durable. It was heavy and hard -to handle, especially as it was handled without mechanical -appliances.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The early types were irregular in face and body as -the natural result of being cast in hand moulds from -hand cut dies. The early types were cast on large -bodies and were used without leads. The point -system, which reduced type to uniformity and did -away with the annoying irregularity in size of the old -types, did not come into existence until the middle of -the eighteenth century, three hundred years after -the invention of printing. Of course, all composition -throughout this period was done by hand. Women -were employed as compositors as early as 1500, but -they apparently disappeared from the industry before -long, as we find no evidence of their presence after -the reorganization of 1618 or for some time before that.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The press was substantially the old screw press of -Gutenberg in which the platen was forced down onto -the bed by the direct pressure of a screw. A few improvements -had been made. A sliding bed was introduced -in 1500. A copper screw (more effective and -durable than the old wooden screw), tympan, and frisket -were added in 1550, and the so-called Dutch press, -which did away with the necessity of raising the platen -by a reverse motion of the screw by substituting -leverage for it, was introduced in 1620. These were -the only improvements of any note which were made -before the introduction of the Stanhope press about 1800. -Of course, the presses were worked by hand power and -it will be seen that the setting up of the screw or the -throwing of a lever with sufficient force to insure a good -impression was an extremely laborious task. It was -sometimes dangerous, as the screw bar or lever was -liable to break when the workman’s weight and strength -were thrown upon it, resulting in serious injuries.</p> - -<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_55'>55</span>The ink was good—well-aged linseed oil, boiled until -viscous when cool, and mixed in a mortar with resin -black. It was mixed in the proportion of thirty-two -ounces of oil to five ounces of black. Of course, it was -variable, its quality depending upon the quality of the -ingredients and the care exercised in preparation. -It was spread on the type by means of balls of leather -stuffed with wool and firmly attached to wooden -handles. One of these balls was taken in each hand, -a small portion of ink was spread evenly over the balls -by rubbing them together, and the ink ball was then -passed over the type so as to distribute the ink as -evenly as possible.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Composition was done by the full page. This was a -fairly reasonable method of reckoning, as the kinds of -printing were not varied as they are now. Compositors -worked “on honor” and were paid by time. Payment -by ems is a very late advance, not having been adopted -until about 1775.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Imposition was done practically as now.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The pressman’s day began by the preparation, -through softening and cleaning, of the balls which were -to be used on the day’s run, and the mixing of the -amount of ink considered necessary for the day’s work. -Make-ready, adjustment of margins, register, and the -like had to be attended to before the impressions could -be taken. Meanwhile the paper had been dampened. -The old screw press could not print on dry paper. -Paper came from the mill in “hands” or packages of -twenty-five sheets, folded once and laid inside each -other as note paper is now sold by the stationer. -A “hand” was dipped in a tub of water. It was then -taken out and the sheets were placed flat under weights -to squeeze out the superfluous water and keep the -sheets in shape. After the water had been squeezed -out the sheets were re-folded into “hands” and sent -to the pressroom to be placed upon the press while -still damp.</p> - -<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_56'>56</span>Two men worked together on the press, one inking -the type and the other making the impression. They -worked turn and turn about in hour shifts so that the -more and less laborious work was equally distributed.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Two-color work was done by taking two impressions -from one form. The parts which were intended to be -printed in red were set in higher type than the rest -and a perforated frisket was used. The red ink impression -was taken first. The type for red ink was then -removed and slugs were put in, making the form type -high throughout. From this form the impression was -taken in black ink. As might be supposed, the register -was almost always imperfect.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The printed leaves while still damp were piled under -weights to remove the counter impression of the type -which naturally struck through the damp paper.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The printing was done with the paper sufficiently -damp to make this simple process of removal fairly -successful. Later the printed sheets were pressed -between heated plates of metal, giving a very smooth -and glossy surface to the page.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The pressman was paid by time like the compositor, -but he was expected to accomplish a given amount of -work in a day. In Paris, about 1575, he was expected -to print 2650 sheets, while at Lyons the day’s work was -held to be 3350. All folding, of course, was done by -hand with no further assistance than that of the bone -or wooden folding stick. The first sheet from the -press was taken as a sample or proof. Proving, as -distinguished from printing, was then unknown.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Proofreading was done practically as now and the -proof marks were substantially the same. Two corrections -per page must be made by the compositor -without extra compensation. Other corrections were -apparently not made by the original compositor, but -by other workmen who were employed as piece workers -on that particular occupation for the time being. The -printer appears to have ordinarily managed to get these -corrections charged to the author.</p> - -<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_57'>57</span>There was a rude system of cost finding and estimating -in force. In making a price on a job the -printer charged first for the paper. Whether or not he -took a profit here is uncertain, but he probably did -when he thought he could get it. The paper did not -enter any further into his computation. He next estimated -the cost of the labor. He then figured 50 per -cent of the labor cost as overhead, including such -minor items as ink and other special materials which -might be needed on that particular job before it got -to the customer. He then added another 25 per cent -of the labor cost, which was supposed to be profit, and -upon that basis he made up his price. Presumably there -were price cutters and more or less unsuccessful guessers -in those days as there are now, but the method just -outlined was supposed to be that by which printers -generally reached their figures. The financial success -of the printer depended, of course, on operation. He -might so conduct his work that the 50 per cent overhead -might leave a considerable margin to be added -to the 25 per cent profit or, on the other hand, he might -so bungle it as to eat up the 25 per cent and more too.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_58'>58</span> - <h2 class='c005'>CHAPTER VIII<br /> <span class='large'><span class='sc'>Internal Organization of the Industry</span></span></h2> -</div> - -<p class='drop-capa0_0_6 c006'>The workers in the industry were divided into -four clearly defined classes, namely apprentices, -laborers, journeymen, and masters. In this, as in most -respects in this volume, the study is based largely on -conditions prevailing in France for the reason that we -have much more abundant material from French sources -than elsewhere. The conditions in France, however, -were probably substantially the same as those which -existed elsewhere, so that by studying conditions in -France we get a very fair idea of those which generally -prevailed at this period.</p> - -<h3 class='c012'><i>Apprentices</i></h3> - -<p class='c013'>The apprentices, as now, were the boys and young -men learning the industry under an apprenticeship -agreement. The age of apprentices varied considerably. -They were not often received under seventeen or above -twenty-four. Perhaps the majority of them were -received at the age of nineteen or twenty.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The printer’s apprentice was probably a little older -as a rule than the apprentice in other industries because -he had to have a much more extensive previous education. -It was not only necessary that he should be -well versed in his own language and in the essentials of -ordinary education, but it was necessary that he should -also be able to read and write both Latin and Greek. -While it is true that after a few years many books were -printed in the native tongue of the printers, it must not -be forgotten that the printing of this period was almost -entirely book printing and to a very great extent the -printing of books of what we should call today religion -and serious literature. Latin was the universal language -of the Catholic Church as it is today. It was -<span class='pageno' id='Page_59'>59</span>also the language of learned men everywhere. No -scholar thought of writing a serious work in English, -French, or German. He might translate one into the -vernacular or he might, especially after the beginning of -the religious controversies, write a controversial book -in his native language, but for the most part serious -writing was done in Latin. There was a considerable -amount of printing of Greek classics in the original, -although there was not much use of Greek for original -composition. Under these circumstances it is clear -that the knowledge of these tongues was very important. -The enforcement, however, of the strict requirements -of this period was a cause of many disputes in the -industry. The employers then as now were ready to -hire cheap help for cheap jobs, and they were given to -taking on apprentices far beyond the requirements of -recruiting the industry because they could get a good -deal of work out of them which otherwise must be -given to higher priced men. In many cases they were -willing to take on apprentices who did not understand -Greek or even Latin. The result was injury to the -industry itself and to the interests of the workmen, as -is always the case when employers take on improperly -trained apprentices who are incapable of development -into the highest efficiency. We shall meet these half-trained -apprentices a little later.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Further requirements were that the apprentice should -be of good life and manners and that he should be a -Catholic and a native of France and unmarried.</p> - -<p class='c007'>An apprenticeship agreement was a formal contract. -Originally this was a verbal contract only, a sort of -“gentlemen’s agreement.” After the reorganization -of 1618 it was a written contract drawn up by a notary. -The period of apprenticeship varied somewhat, especially -before 1618. In general, however, it was four -years. The condition of the contract was that the -apprentice should pay a specified sum to the master -for the privilege of learning the trade and that he -should agree to serve his master with care and diligence -<span class='pageno' id='Page_60'>60</span>for a period of four years and not neglect his master’s -interests nor spoil his master’s goods. In return the -master was bound to teach him the trade of printing so -that at the end of his time he would be qualified as a -journeyman. In addition the master was bound to furnish -the apprentice lodging, food, clothing in specified -quantity, and sometimes a very small amount of money.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The apprentice lived in the master’s house and ate -either at the master’s table or at the table set for the -journeymen, who also received their food from the -master. If the apprentice absented himself for any -reason from his work his absence must be atoned for -by double time added to the period of apprenticeship. -If his absences were repeated he was liable to be discharged. -In this case the master was held to be the -sufferer, the contract of apprenticeship was cancelled, -and the entire amount paid in by the apprentice as a -premium was forfeited to the master. It frequently -happened that apprentices desired to be relieved of their -contracts before the expiration of their time. Sometimes -it happened that they changed their minds about -becoming printers, more often, probably, they sought -short cuts into the industry. It has always been the -misfortune of printing that a very imperfect knowledge -of it has a comparatively higher market value than an -equally imperfect knowledge of other industries, while -the period of apprenticeship required for full learning -of the trade is long and wearisome. The apprentices -were often tempted by offers of occupation as laborers -or even as journeymen in some of the poorer shops -which were willing to evade regulations. The habit of -canceling indentures before their expiration for a -money consideration thus grew up to the serious detriment -of the industry.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The printers made profit by taking the premium from -the apprentice and then selling him his freedom before -his indenture had expired. The injury to the industry -and to the well-trained workman of this competition -of half-trained, incompetent workmen is perfectly clear.</p> - -<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_61'>61</span>The masters, of course, complained that the apprentices -were idle, wasteful, and unteachable, and probably -some of them were. Boys and young men were good, -bad, and indifferent in the Middle Ages just as they -are now. The apprentices complained on the other -hand that they were overworked, underfed, and -personally abused in many instances. Doubtless these -complaints were often well founded because grownup -men were good, bad, and indifferent in the Middle -Ages very much as they are now.</p> - -<p class='c007'>At best the work of the apprentice was very hard. -Living as he did in the master’s house and working -in the shop as a beginner, he was a cross between a -domestic servant, an errand boy, and a learner in -the industry. The master’s wife might call upon him -to wash the kitchen floor. The foreman might send -him out with a package of proofs. The workmen -might send him out for a bottle of wine or a pot of beer, -or he might be set to work on one of the legitimate -tasks of his apprenticeship only to be called away at -almost any time by some such personal demand as -those just indicated. His hours, like those of everybody -else in the trade, were very long. He was expected -to keep the shop clean and in order, to clean -the type and the presses, to mix ink, to dampen paper, -and if he were strong and well grown he might even be -put to working on the press. These and a thousand -other things, many of them unknown to modern shops, -were required of him besides the work at the case and -elsewhere which gave him his real knowledge of the trade.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The question of the number of apprentices was a -burning one. Previous to 1618 it was one of the great -causes of strikes and labor disputes. The masters -at that time desired to increase the number of apprentices -indefinitely, to which the journeymen objected -on account of the injury to their interests by -having too many workmen, especially cheap ones. -The journeymen succeeded in securing a royal edict -which limited the number of apprentices to be -<span class='pageno' id='Page_62'>62</span>employed in any establishment to two for each press, -one on composition and the other on presswork. The -shop conditions which have been already described -show that this taking of the press as a unit was fairly -equitable. In the absence of machine work both -composition and presswork were slow, and had a more -nearly equal rate of speed than now. After 1618 the -masters attempted to enforce the limitation of apprentices -as against each other. They feared the -competition of the man who succeeded in getting into -his shop a supply of cheap help which enabled him to -cut prices, consequently the journeymen no longer -appear as parties to this dispute.</p> - -<p class='c007'>During the whole period there were complaints that -the apprenticeship regulations were not enforced and -that some of the masters insisted upon taking more -than the proper number of apprentices and taking -them with less than the proper qualifications. This -seems to have been a very real difficulty and one which -was never entirely overcome. The temptation to -obtain cheap labor, regardless of the welfare of either -the apprentice or the industry, was too great, and many -printers found it impossible to resist it, especially as -during the latter part of this period the conditions in -the industry became very bad and it was almost impossible -to make any money at it.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Throughout this period, especially after 1618, all -regulations as to apprenticeship were relaxed in favor -of the sons of masters and other persons whom the -masters desired particularly to favor. One of the most -significant and far-reaching of the regulations of the -printing trade was that which admitted the sons of -masters directly to membership without any previous -training. We shall discuss this a little more fully later.</p> - -<h3 class='c012'><i>Laborers</i></h3> - -<p class='c013'>The class of workmen called laborers constituted a -source of one of the greatest difficulties and abuses in -the industry, especially during the seventeenth century.</p> - -<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_63'>63</span>At this period there were no restrictions on their -employment, or at least none that were successfully -enforced. After that period they were less freely -employed. They were ignorant or unskilled workmen -incapable of becoming journeymen. It was into this -class that the apprentices dropped who were employed -without sufficient previous education, more especially -those who were ignorant in Greek and Latin. The -class was further made up of apprentices who had not -finished their time, workmen who proved incompetent -to hold journeymen’s positions, and men who could do -rough work but had never been apprentices. Obviously -there was a good deal of work which these men could -do. Part of it was work which would otherwise be -done by apprentices, part work which would otherwise -be done by journeymen. The unrestricted hiring of -these men limited the number of journeymen’s positions, -reduced wages, lowered standards, and was in -every way detrimental to the industry.</p> - -<h3 class='c012'><i>Journeymen</i></h3> - -<p class='c013'>In the printing industry the journeyman was not -the same as the master. In other industries after the -apprentice had finished his time and qualified by submitting -a piece of work of approved standard, he -became a master workman. He was made free of the -guild and ordinarily set up in business for himself. -Theoretically a somewhat similar condition prevailed -in the printing trade. Before the reorganization of -1618 and the consequent restriction of mastership the -apprentice became a master workman when he had -completed his time, and was at liberty to set up for -himself if he so desired.</p> - -<p class='c007'>After the reorganization the apprentice after having -finished his time became a journeyman in the shop to -which he had been apprenticed. Originally he was -restricted to that shop. He was then required to serve -as a journeyman from two to four years. At the expiration -of that period he passed a theoretical and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_64'>64</span>practical examination. This covered his proficiency -in the languages and other academic subjects required -and the submission of a piece of completed work. He -was also obliged to submit a certificate of character -covering the requirements of apprenticeship and testifying -as to his conduct while an apprentice.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The question of his admission to the Community -was then voted upon by the syndics, and if he was -found qualified and admitted he was formally received -into the Community at a public meeting at which were -present the syndics and the elders of the Community. -He was then sworn in as a member of the Community -by the Lieutenant-General of Police. Before being -sworn in, however, he was required to pay certain fees. -Originally these fees were small, but they afterward -became very large.</p> - -<p class='c007'>As a matter of fact, very few journeymen became -masters. The heavy fees in themselves were almost -prohibitive, but the greatest obstacle was the difficulty -about raising the necessary capital. No other business -at that time required so heavy an outlay for equipment, -material, and labor before any return whatever could -be realized. The equipment was very expensive and -there were no small jobs such as are found in modern -commercial offices, especially those of the less pretentious -type, to keep the plant going. The printer -was obliged to go to the entire expense for material -and labor involved in getting out an edition of a book -before he could begin to get any returns from it. Sometimes -he knew where he could sell the book (Caxton -seems to have been particularly successful in this -regard), but more often he did not know. There is in -existence a letter written by Sweynheym and Pannartz -to the Pope asking him for assistance. They set forth -their case by saying that they have sunk a great deal -of money in procuring equipment and printing books -which have sold slowly. They complain that they -have a large house full of books but with nothing in it -to eat, and beg that he will either assist them in the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_65'>65</span>sale of their books or tide them over until they can -find a market.</p> - -<p class='c007'>These conditions tended to keep the journeymen -permanently in that position and to confine the masters -to those who came into the business by inheritance or -marriage. The printing industry has thus the unfortunate -prominence of being the leading influence in -breaking up the old unities of industry and bringing -about the modern industrial system. It was the first -industry in which there was developed a distinct class -of masters who were not and never had been workmen, -and in which the workman could become a master -only under unusual circumstances. The sharp division -of industry into employers and employed with antagonistic -interests and divergent aims begins here.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The hours of labor in the printing industry were very -long. Throughout France they averaged about fourteen -hours a day, and similar conditions appear to have -prevailed elsewhere. As already indicated, a certain -amount of product, particularly on the press, was -considered to be a fair day’s work. In 1572 the 3350 -sheets per day required of a pressman at Lyons compelled -him to work from two o’clock in the morning -to eight or nine in the evening without leaving the shop. -This appears from evidence submitted in litigation. -Printers were boarded and generally lodged by their -employers. Plantin’s establishment, still in existence -in Amsterdam, shows living quarters for all of the -workmen who were employed in the plant. They -were given their meals in the shop and were permitted -to send the apprentices out for wine or beer, which they -drank in considerable quantities. The men themselves -objected to going out for their food, although they -often complained of the quality of that furnished. -Their objection was based upon the fact that they so -depended upon each other for their work that if men -went out, especially if they overstayed their time, they -would be likely to hold up each other’s work and make -it impossible to complete the required task of the day -<span class='pageno' id='Page_66'>66</span>even in the very liberal time allowance which was then -regarded as reasonable.</p> - -<p class='c007'>It is not to be wondered at that the long hours, close -confinement, and hard work encouraged the drinking -habits which were proverbial among printers. The -natural result of so much drinking was a good deal of -disorder and violence, especially on holidays. There -is no reason to suppose, however, that printers as a -class were worse than other workmen of their day and -generation. They were much superior in education -and they were recognized as being of higher social -condition. They were exempt from many of the legal -requirements upon journeymen in other trades, and -their industry was more than once recognized by -royal edict as being an art or profession and not a -mechanical trade. The printers were very proud of -this social distinction and, as has been already stated, -emphasized their claim to it by wearing swords, which -in those days was the mark of the gentleman or -professional man.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The hard work and long hours had two compensations; -one partial, the other very real. The first, which -printing shared with other industries, was the great -number of holidays. The shops did not work on -Sundays or feast days. Under modern conditions -there are slightly more than 300 working days in the -year, taking out Sundays and holidays and making no -allowance for illness or voluntary absence. In the -period with which we are dealing there were only from -230 to 240 working days in the year; that is to say, -there were 60 or 70 more holidays than we now have. -Probably shorter hours and more days of work would -have been better for all concerned. The other compensation -was the very high rate of wages. To state the -printer’s wages of that time in terms of money would -carry very little information, partly because of the -difference in coinage and partly because of the difference -in the purchasing power of money. The really enlightening -fact is that the wages of a printer were from two -<span class='pageno' id='Page_67'>67</span>to three times those of journeymen in the other skilled -trades. Actual wages were fixed by the operation of -the law of supply and demand and by the skill of the -individual workman. There was what we should call -today a “scale” fixed either by custom or by law. -The scale, however, instead of being a minimum, as -now, was a maximum, the variations being below -instead of above it.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Unfortunately there was a great deal of unemployment, -owing to the prevalence of a form of work which -will be presently described. This unemployment was -not only a serious evil in itself, but it led to competition -among workmen, who were often willing to work for -less than the going rate rather than to go idle. Another -tendency toward the lowering of wages was the competition -in the book trade caused by literary piracy and -the work of printers from the smaller towns or even -outside countries who could do work cheaper than it -could be done in the larger cities. For example, in the -absence of copyright a printer might go to the expense -of getting out an edition of an important work only to -have a rival buy one of his copies and throw into the -market an edition at a price based on the cost of -manufacture only, while it is obvious that even if the -competition were based on the cost of manufacture -the printer from Lyons could undersell the printer -from Paris because his presses turned out 700 more -sheets a day, an advantage of 25 per cent.</p> - -<p class='c007'>All this competition had a tendency to reduce selling -prices and to drive down the workman’s pay. It was -for these reasons that the employers were so anxious -to use laborers instead of journeymen, and apprentices -instead of either. All these depressing tendencies had full -sway under the curiously inverted scale system which -made the scale a maximum instead of a minimum.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Journeymen were divided into two classes, day -workers and piece workers. The day worker was -engaged under an annual contract which covered his -salary, his board, and usually his lodging. In the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_68'>68</span>printing trade these contracts were written after 1618. -In the other industries they were not written, although -verbal contracts were common to all industries.</p> - -<p class='c007'>In some cases these bargains were collective; that is -to say, they were made between the Community and -the journeymen’s organization soon to be described. -Wherever possible, however, the masters prevented the -organization of the journeymen and compelled the men -to resort to individual bargaining.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The piece workers were men who were engaged for -some particular contract or job which the master had -in hand. Whenever an important piece of work was -undertaken a number of extra men, depending upon -the equipment and the time in which it was desired to -do the job, were employed. Day workers and men -employed for another job were supposed not to be -put on and no additional men were to be employed for -it, unless some of the original group dropped out. The -men were supposed to know how long the job would -last and were supposed not to be discharged without -eight days’ notice. These men were paid by the day -and were fed and sometimes lodged like the day workmen.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The workmen constantly complained that in practice -they were greatly abused under this system. They -claimed that they were discharged without notice, that -day men were put to work on their jobs, and that additional -men were hired, shortening the period of their -occupation. This manipulation of the job was a -frequent device of the masters in order to finish a -piece of work before a holiday, especially when a -Sunday and a holiday and even two holidays came -together, as was not infrequently the case with the -great number of holidays then observed. By hurrying -up the job and finishing it before the holiday the -master could avoid feeding the men over the holiday. -Under ordinary circumstances he was supposed to -feed his men, whether day workers or piece workers, -throughout the period of their employment, whether -<span class='pageno' id='Page_69'>69</span>or not he paid them on holidays. The result of this -system was that a very large proportion, probably a -large majority, of the printers had no regular employment, -working only at such job work as they could from -time to time pick up.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The journeymen were graded as first- and second-class -workmen and foremen. The first-class workman -was a sort of assistant foreman. He was employed -upon the more difficult work or aided the foreman in -the discharge of his duties. The second-class was the -ordinary workman, comparable today to a man who -would be earning the union scale with very little -prospect of ever getting any more.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The two departments of composition and presswork -were recognized then as now. Just as at present, there -was keen rivalry between compositors and pressmen, -each claiming that his was the superior art and required -the greater skill.</p> - -<p class='c007'>In the composing room there were three subdivisions—compositors, -stone-hands and make-up men, and distributors. -These last appear to have been employed on -that particular work exclusively. There were no divisions -in the press room. As has been pointed out, -two men were employed on the press, one on the ink -balls and the other on the lever, but these were not -separate occupations as the two men exchanged positions -every hour.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The foreman was a man capable of oversight of all -processes carried on in the plant. The foremanship -was not divided as it now is between the foreman of -the composing room and the foreman of the press room. -These functions were discharged by first-class workmen -under the supervision of the foreman. The foreman -was also a proofreader, at least in part. He corrected -the first proofs although they were afterwards corrected -by the author and sometimes by the master or an -editor in his employ. It was necessary, therefore, that -the foreman should be not only a first-class workman -but an accomplished scholar. He had to be thoroughly -<span class='pageno' id='Page_70'>70</span>versed in his own language and highly trained in Latin -and Greek or any other language in which books were -printed in the plant. He was obliged also to be thoroughly -familiar with theological, philosophical, or -scientific terms, or any other special terms required -for any particular kind of printing which the plant -undertook.</p> - -<p class='c007'>When the workman became too old and infirm to -hold his place or his eyesight failed there were several -sources of at least partial support open to him if his -family was not in a condition to support him. Some -of these old workmen were licensed by the syndics of -the Community to peddle tracts, almanacs, broadside -sheets of ballads and notices, and other things which -might be called the small wares of the printing trade. -Some of them did a sort of junk business in old paper -and parchments. In some places there were asylums -for aged printers where a few found entrance. Others -became pensioners on the Community. The Community -in France and similar organizations elsewhere -appear to have had funds especially for this purpose -and to have used some of their current funds for charity. -Other old men were allowed to make the rounds of the -shops, particularly those in which they had been employed, -taking a few coppers from their younger and -more fortunate fellow workmen. There seems to have -been a sort of comradeship among the printers which -made these old fellows welcome as they made their -periodical rounds for help.</p> - -<h3 class='c012'><i>The Master</i></h3> - -<p class='c013'>The master has perhaps been sufficiently described -as we went along. He was the capitalist who carried -on the business. In the great days of Jenson and -Aldus and the Estiennes he was often, himself, his -own foreman and best journeyman. We have seen, -however, how he gradually came to be in many cases a -business man with little or no practical knowledge of -the business.</p> - -<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_71'>71</span>In the early days of printing the masters seem to -have been more prosperous than they were later. -Godart and Merlin, of Paris, in 1538 employed 200 men. -Such printers as these were rich and prosperous and -held in high esteem by their fellow citizens. We have -seen, however, that some of the greatest of the printers -were constantly struggling with financial difficulties. -The reorganization of 1618 did not seem to have the -effect upon the prosperity of the masters which might -have been expected. As we have seen, there was a -cut-throat competition and even after the reorganization -of the Community and the restrictions of mastership -governmental control had a tendency to grow -more and more burdensome while the market for their -wares increased but slowly. It is said that in 1700 -there were not two printers in Paris who were worth -25,000 francs or $5000. In 1700, $5000 was worth two -or three times that amount now, but even so the fact -stated shows the prostration of the industry.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_72'>72</span> - <h2 class='c005'>CHAPTER IX<br /> <span class='large'><span class='sc'>Relations Between Employer and Employed</span></span></h2> -</div> - -<p class='drop-capa0_0_6 c006'>The printing industry has always been liable to -friction between the employers and the employed. -We have already made reference from time to time to -strikes and labor disputes, going back to the very -beginnings of the industry. Previous to the reorganization -of 1618 the workmen generally had recourse to -strikes for the settlement of disputes and the masters -in turn appealed to the civil authorities. In conformity -with the ideas of those days the authorities -intervened, if at all, to suppress the strike. The idea -of authority was very strong at that period and rebellion -or disobedience on the part of laborers was regarded -as little less than sedition or treason. Social lines were -sharply drawn and every attempt possible was made to -secure and maintain the supremacy of those in authority, -whether that authority were civil, ecclesiastical, -or industrial.</p> - -<p class='c007'>After the reorganization of 1618, however, the -strike as a means of settlement was rarely resorted to -until revived in modern times. The very organization -of the industry made it amenable to authority and -made it possible to settle disputes by legal processes. -Accordingly, we find that both masters and journeymen -presented their cases before the courts or the executive -officers having authority and endeavored to gain their -points by means of laws or edicts. The journeymen on -the whole were more successful by this method than -they had previously been, although the points of -dispute were never permanently settled.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The organization of the Community united the -masters, but the attempts of the journeymen to unite -were met with constant opposition and were frequently -prohibited by law. The germ of the journeymen’s -<span class='pageno' id='Page_73'>73</span>organization was the chapel. Originally the chapel -was a group of workmen engaged on the same job and -consequently dependent upon each other for its success -and for the regular progress of the work. The origin -of the name is somewhat in doubt, but it probably is -either derived from the fact that many of the early -printing establishments were connected with monasteries, -or under the patronage of the church, or from -the fact that the printers were educated men, and in -the 15th century educated men were generally identified -with the clergy. In English law, until within a -comparatively recent time, a man convicted of certain -crimes could escape capital punishment if he could -prove that he could read and write. This proof was held -to identify him with the clergy, who were exempted from -certain criminal provisions of the statutes. This process -was technically known as “pleading one’s clergy.”</p> - -<p class='c007'>The chapel was soon extended to include in its -membership all the workmen in one shop, and in this -significance the name is still in use. The organization -of journeymen into chapels runs back to the early days -of printing. There never seems to have been any -serious attempt to prevent this organization in individual -shops for the reason that such an organization -was highly beneficial to the masters themselves, -securing the better co-ordination of related processes -and hence more efficient production. In France the -chapel was legally recognized in 1777, only a short time -before the break-up of the old order. The chapel had -certain revenues which were derived from assessments -and fees which it laid upon its members and particularly -from the sale of books. It was the custom to give -to the chapel a certain number of copies of every book -printed. These revenues appear to have been intended -originally as provision for certain periodical feasts and -festivals such as were common in all the guilds of the -middle ages. Later they were extended to cover -charity and also to provide a sort of war chest out of -which the expense of litigation could be met.</p> - -<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_74'>74</span>The combination of these chapels or the formation -of tacit understandings between them created a sort -of trade union, and the combination of their funds made -possible the raising of the large amounts of money -necessary to employ counsel and carry on the litigations -against the employers. The employers, often backed -by the authorities, strove throughout this period to -prevent these combinations. They understood fully -the tactical value of the precept “divide and rule,” and -they did their best to keep the journeymen divided and -at the same time to strengthen the bonds of their own -union. In this, however, they were only partially -successful. In spite of edicts to the contrary, the -chapels, though unable to form an open, strong organization -which could meet the Community on equal -terms or to act with the openness and authority of the -modern trade union, nevertheless maintained a very -real and often effective organization through correspondence, -conferences, and other methods of securing -mutual agreement and common action.</p> - -<p class='c007'>In addition to the general settlements of industrial -conditions which were sought by legislation, individual -disputes in particular shops or localities were often -settled by arbitration. The great difficulty about these -arbitrations, which rendered their results unsatisfactory -and was never obviated during this whole -period, arose from the impossibility of agreeing on a -satisfactory board of arbitrators. The masters insisted -that all these arbitrations should be referred either to -the courts or to the syndics. To this the journeymen -seriously objected. They felt that the courts would -not really arbitrate but would settle the matter by an -application of the statutes, and they knew by experience -that the statutes were generally construed against -the journeymen wherever possible. They were on the -whole very law-abiding people. They had no disposition -to break the statutes, but the questions which -they wanted decided were either as to the application -of the statutes or as to points not covered by them. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_75'>75</span>On the other hand they felt that the syndics were -entirely unqualified to act as arbitrators for the reason -that they were masters and consequently interested -parties. The masters were insistent whenever possible -that these cases should go to the syndics, although as -an alternative they were willing that they should go to -the courts.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The journeymen desired that arbitration boards -should be composed of masters, workmen, and citizens -not connected with the industry. They maintained -that only thus could the interests of all be fairly represented -and an impartial arbitration secured. To -this type of board the masters almost invariably objected, -and they generally refused to submit to its findings. -In this regard the journeymen appear to much -better advantage than the masters throughout this -period.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The main points of dispute have already been indicated -and were on the whole not different from -similar difficulties today.</p> - -<p class='c007'>First and foremost came the question of pay and -food, usually together. Occasionally men were satisfied -with their food but not with their pay or vice versa, -but ordinarily the two went together. The man who -paid badly was likely to feed badly. Another burning -question was the right of combination on the part of -the journeymen or, as we should say today, the question -of the recognition of the union. Another point was the -matter of discharge or leaving without notice. The -grievance arising from discharge without notice has -already been discussed. The masters complained that -the men would leave without notice and so render it -impossible for them to complete their jobs according -to contract. This was one of the evils attendant on the -piece system which has already been described. On -the one hand the masters tried to manipulate it by -hiring extra men and the like so as to increase their -profits, while on the other hand workmen facing the -danger of a period of unemployment would leave a job -<span class='pageno' id='Page_76'>76</span>unfinished if they could get employment on another -job which promised several weeks or even months of -work.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Another fruitful cause of difference was tickets of -leave or cards of dismissal. When a man left a job he -was supposed to be given a card which identified him, -told where he had been employed, what he did there, -how well he did it, and what his conduct had been in -the shop. He was supposed to show this card before -obtaining employment. The workmen complained -that these cards were withheld or improperly filled -out for personal or other unworthy reasons. Sometimes -masters were very particular about giving and -demanding these cards. At other times they were -very lax in both these regards and the consequence -was that the card system was a source of constant -annoyance to all concerned.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The complaint was also made by journeymen that -members of the Community maintained a black-list, -and if a journeyman offended a single member of the -Community or fell into disfavor in a single shop he -might be placed on this black-list and find it impossible -to obtain employment.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Of course, there were many other questions which -arose from time to time but these were the particular -causes of difficulty which we find constantly recurring, -just as the questions of pay, hours, recognition of the -union, and handling of non-union material constantly -recur today.</p> - -<p class='c007'>A fairly careful study of the conditions of this period -shows that according to our modern ideas the journeymen -generally appear to better advantage than the -masters. There is no question, of course, that there -were unreasonable demands and that individual journeymen -or even groups of journeymen behaved at -times in objectionable ways. On the whole, however, -the effort of the journeymen of this period seems to -have been only to obtain fair treatment and a reasonable -recognition of their rights. They especially -<span class='pageno' id='Page_77'>77</span>desired to be treated as men and to confer on equal -terms with their employers instead of being treated as -inferior beings bound to accept without protest what -was handed down to them. It must be remembered -that they were far more highly educated than the -workers in any other industry and that they had been -officially recognized many times as being in a class -apart from the ordinary workmen. They appear to -have attempted only to secure in the industry the -same recognition which they legally enjoyed socially. -While they did attempt to have a voice in the fixing -of wages and hours there is very little evidence of any -attempt to enforce upon the shops the observance of -rules and regulations made by themselves. The -masters on the other hand had those ancient ideas of -authority which have already been mentioned. They -were not willing that their employees should rise above -the level of other workers and they were not willing -to recognize them as men entitled to fair consideration, -to say nothing of equal rights. They lived in the days -of serfdom and they took their position as masters -quite seriously and quite literally. This opposition in -spirit between the masters who, by their wealth, their -education, and their social position were associated -with the upper classes and imbued with all of their -ancient pride, and the men who, themselves educated -and imbued with a spirit of progress and a desire for -freedom, were attempting to rise above the condition -of serfdom in which the laborers of that age were -commonly held was the real root of the struggles in -the medieval printing trade. The purely industrial -questions involved were the occasions rather than the -causes of strife.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The end of the old regime is marked in France by the -date 1789. This date marks the beginning of the -French Revolution when great masses of medieval -statutes were swept from the statute books, including -all those which regulated the trade of printing. The -Community, censorship, licenses to print, and all the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_78'>78</span>edicts regulating conditions in the industry went by -the board together. The French Revolution, however, -was only an incident of a change which was coming -over the thinking of the whole world. A new condition -had been growing up under the old forms and the -time had come when the old forms had to break to -make way for the new life. They broke in the most -dramatic and tragic fashion in France and therefore -we think and speak of this event as the French Revolution, -but the change took place elsewhere in as real -though a less striking manner.</p> - -<p class='c007'>One of the features of this change was the birth of -the newspaper and an enormous production of pamphlets -and other minor literature. There had been -newspapers and periodicals for a long time before, but -the ferment of men’s minds which began in the middle -of the eighteenth century naturally caused a great production -of printed matter and a demand that it should -be produced very quickly. Much of this printed matter -was of a sort forbidden by the old laws and regulations. -The greater part of it, being produced under conditions -of haste inconsistent with good workmanship and under -a demand for cheapness also inconsistent with good -workmanship, was of a very poor quality. The industry -was disordered by a great increase in the -number of shops, particularly shops of a poorer character. -At first the workmen profited greatly, but as -is always the case conditions gradually settled back to -a normal state.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The general history of printing may be left at this -point. From this time on the conditions with which -we are familiar are coming into shape. The old day -with its old conditions has gone. We need to know the -history of these old times in order that we may understand -the records and experiences of the early day. -The later conditions we understand from our own -surroundings. The periodical literature which forms -so large a part of the output of the press has fairly come -to life by the end of the eighteenth century. Commercial -<span class='pageno' id='Page_79'>79</span>printing, which is now entering upon so positive -a career of usefulness and importance, is about to begin. -The invention of the Stanhope press about 1800 is the -first of that long series of inventions which have -made possible the printing establishments of today and -their wonderful product. These things are elsewhere -treated. Here we say good-bye to our elder brothers -of the home-made type, the ink balls, and the hand press.</p> - -<h3 class='c012'><i>Supplementary Reading</i></h3> - -<p class='c013'>The material bearing on the economic history of -printing is very scattered. So far as the present -writer is aware there is no book on the subject in -English. The nearest approach to such a treatment -will perhaps be found in the second volume of Mr. -George Haven Putnam’s excellent book <cite>Books and -Their Makers in the Middle Ages</cite>. Some information -may be obtained from Mr. DeVinne’s <cite>Invention of -Printing</cite>; <cite>Notable Printers of Italy During the Fifteenth -Century</cite>; and <cite>Christopher Plantin and the Plantin-Moretus -Museum at Antwerp</cite>. The “Plantin” is a -publication of the Grolier Club, but may be found in -substance in <cite>The Century</cite> for June, 1888. Some very -excellent historical articles have been published in -recent years in <cite>The Inland Printer</cite> by Mr. Henry L. -Bullen and Mr. John Rittenour. The student will do -well to examine the files of this and other leading -trade journals for some years back and to consult the -local librarian for such material as may be found in -libraries.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_80'>80</span> - <h3 class='c012'>SUGGESTIONS TO STUDENTS AND INSTRUCTORS</h3> -</div> - -<p class='c014'>The following questions, based on the contents of this pamphlet, -are intended to serve (1) as a guide to the study of the text, (2) as -an aid to the student in putting the information contained into -definite statements without actually memorizing the text, (3) as -a means of securing from the student a reproduction of the information -in his own words.</p> - -<p class='c015'>A careful following of the questions by the reader will insure full -acquaintance with every part of the text, avoiding the accidental -omission of what might be of value. These primers are so condensed -that nothing should be omitted.</p> - -<p class='c015'>In teaching from these books it is very important that these questions -and such others as may occur to the teacher should be made -the basis of frequent written work and of final examinations.</p> - -<p class='c015'>The importance of written work cannot be overstated. It not -only assures knowledge of material but the power to express that -knowledge correctly and in good form.</p> - -<p class='c015'>If this written work can be submitted to the teacher in printed -form it will be doubly useful.</p> - -<h3 class='c012'>QUESTIONS</h3> - - <dl class='dl_1 c003'> - <dt>1.</dt> - <dd>How were industries carried on in the days of Gutenberg? - </dd> - <dt>2.</dt> - <dd>What was the general relation between an apprentice and a master? - </dd> - <dt>3.</dt> - <dd>What was a guild, and what did it do? - </dd> - <dt>4.</dt> - <dd>Did printing fit into this scheme, and why? - </dd> - <dt>5.</dt> - <dd>How was printing regulated, and why? - </dd> - <dt>6.</dt> - <dd>What was the effect of the invention of printing on the manuscript makers? - </dd> - <dt>7.</dt> - <dd>What did the copyists do? - </dd> - <dt>8.</dt> - <dd>What did the illuminators do? - </dd> - <dt>9.</dt> - <dd>What was the attitude of the authorities? - </dd> - <dt>10.</dt> - <dd>What king is especially noted as a patron of printing, and what were some of the things - he did? - </dd> - <dt>11.</dt> - <dd>How did he deal with labor troubles in the printing industry? - </dd> - <dt>12.</dt> - <dd>What important edict was issued by King Henry III of France, and on what grounds? - </dd> - <dt>13.</dt> - <dd>How did the early printers deal with typographical errors? -<div><span class='pageno' id='Page_81'>81</span></div> - </dd> - <dt>14.</dt> - <dd>How did a French king endeavor to deal with this difficulty, and with what result? - </dd> - <dt>15.</dt> - <dd>What important event took place in 1618? - </dd> - <dt>16.</dt> - <dd>Give the general points in the regulations of 1686. - </dd> - <dt>17.</dt> - <dd>What additional regulations were made by Louis XVI? - </dd> - <dt>18.</dt> - <dd>What happened in 1789, and what was the result? - </dd> - <dt>19.</dt> - <dd>What are some of the differences between the product of a print shop and that of the - ordinary factory? - </dd> - <dt>20.</dt> - <dd>What were some of the problems arising out of this difference? - </dd> - <dt>21.</dt> - <dd>What was the 15th century substitute for copyright and patents? Describe it. - </dd> - <dt>22.</dt> - <dd>What did trades do to protect themselves if they could not get the form of protection - just described? - </dd> - <dt>23.</dt> - <dd>Why did the printer especially need some kind of protection? - </dd> - <dt>24.</dt> - <dd>Discuss briefly under four heads the system of protection in use in Venice. - </dd> - <dt>25.</dt> - <dd>What were the practical defects of this system? - </dd> - <dt>26.</dt> - <dd>What kind of books were printed in Germany for the first fifty years? - </dd> - <dt>27.</dt> - <dd>What evil practice did Fust begin, and why did he think it was right? - </dd> - <dt>28.</dt> - <dd>Was there a profession of authorship, and why? - </dd> - <dt>29.</dt> - <dd>How did Germany undertake to protect printers? - </dd> - <dt>30.</dt> - <dd>Give a brief sketch of the political organization of Germany in the 15th century. - </dd> - <dt>31.</dt> - <dd>What effect did this have on the protection of printers? - </dd> - <dt>32.</dt> - <dd>What did the printers do about it? - </dd> - <dt>33.</dt> - <dd>What did printers’ privileges cover in Germany? - </dd> - <dt>34.</dt> - <dd>How did France deal with the question of printers’ privileges, and what were some of the - peculiarities of French law? - </dd> - <dt>35.</dt> - <dd>What moral and political danger was perceived shortly after the invention of printing? -<div><span class='pageno' id='Page_82'>82</span></div> - </dd> - <dt>36.</dt> - <dd>How was it dealt with by church and state? - </dd> - <dt>37.</dt> - <dd>What action was taken by Pope Innocent VIII? - </dd> - <dt>38.</dt> - <dd>What was the result in Venice? - </dd> - <dt>39.</dt> - <dd>What had the Inquisition to do with printing? - </dd> - <dt>40.</dt> - <dd>What is the Index Expurgatorius? Why was it drawn up? - </dd> - <dt>41.</dt> - <dd>What were the general lines of legislation in Venice regarding censorship? - </dd> - <dt>42.</dt> - <dd>What was done in 1549, and why? - </dd> - <dt>43.</dt> - <dd>What was the purpose of the guild of printers and booksellers? - </dd> - <dt>44.</dt> - <dd>What were the requirements in 1671 for the publishing of a book in Venice? - </dd> - <dt>45.</dt> - <dd>How did censorship work in Germany, and why? - </dd> - <dt>46.</dt> - <dd>What was the result of Pope Innocent’s action in France? - </dd> - <dt>47.</dt> - <dd>By whom was censorship exercised in France? - </dd> - <dt>48.</dt> - <dd>What was the result of this system, and how was it improved? - </dd> - <dt>49.</dt> - <dd>Give some features of the press laws of France, and state the penalties. - </dd> - <dt>50.</dt> - <dd>What was the effect of this legislation, and how were the worst effects avoided? - </dd> - <dt>51.</dt> - <dd>What was the end of it all? - </dd> - <dt>52.</dt> - <dd>How did authorship come to be recognized as a profession? - </dd> - <dt>53.</dt> - <dd>How did the idea arise that the author had the right to control his work? - </dd> - <dt>54.</dt> - <dd>What was the early German idea of copyright as illustrated by the experiences of Luther? - </dd> - <dt>55.</dt> - <dd>What two ideas gradually came into prominence at this time with regard to literary - property? - </dd> - <dt>56.</dt> - <dd>When and how did copyright come into general existence? - </dd> - <dt>57.</dt> - <dd>When was international copyright recognized? - </dd> - <dt>58.</dt> - <dd>What is the record of the United States with regard to international copyright? - </dd> - <dt>59.</dt> - <dd>What is the outstanding factor in the industrial life of the Middle Ages? -<div><span class='pageno' id='Page_83'>83</span></div> - </dd> - <dt>60.</dt> - <dd>Describe it briefly. - </dd> - <dt>61.</dt> - <dd>What conditions made it possible? - </dd> - <dt>62.</dt> - <dd>State and discuss briefly the five general principles which governed it. - </dd> - <dt>63.</dt> - <dd>What was its relation to the state and to religion? - </dd> - <dt>64.</dt> - <dd>What was the best period of this organization? - </dd> - <dt>65.</dt> - <dd>When did it decline? - </dd> - <dt>66.</dt> - <dd>Give three reasons for this decline. - </dd> - <dt>67.</dt> - <dd>Why was the printing industry an important factor in this decline? - </dd> - <dt>68.</dt> - <dd>How were wages and prices fixed in the early Middle Ages, and why? - </dd> - <dt>69.</dt> - <dd>What happened after the discovery of America? - </dd> - <dt>70.</dt> - <dd>What was the effect on prices and what the effect on wages? - </dd> - <dt>71.</dt> - <dd>What was the result on the social and industrial organization? - </dd> - <dt>72.</dt> - <dd>How did printing relate itself to the industrial system of the sixteenth century? - </dd> - <dt>73.</dt> - <dd>What was the result of this relation? - </dd> - <dt>74.</dt> - <dd>What difficulties arose, and how were they met? - </dd> - <dt>75.</dt> - <dd>What was the effect of the legislation of 1618? - </dd> - <dt>76.</dt> - <dd>Who composed the Community of Printers? - </dd> - <dt>77.</dt> - <dd>Who were the syndics? How were they elected, and for what purpose? - </dd> - <dt>78.</dt> - <dd>What advantages were gained by the new organization? - </dd> - <dt>79.</dt> - <dd>What was the relation between printers and booksellers, and why? - </dd> - <dt>80.</dt> - <dd>What did the old-time printer have to do? - </dd> - <dt>81.</dt> - <dd>What was the early paper like? - </dd> - <dt>82.</dt> - <dd>Describe the types in use at this period. - </dd> - <dt>83.</dt> - <dd>Describe the presses in use at this period. - </dd> - <dt>84.</dt> - <dd>Describe the ink of this period, and tell how it was spread. - </dd> - <dt>85.</dt> - <dd>How were compositors paid? - </dd> - <dt>86.</dt> - <dd>What did the old-time pressman have to do? - </dd> - <dt>87.</dt> - <dd>Describe the old method of two-color printing. -<div><span class='pageno' id='Page_84'>84</span></div> - </dd> - <dt>88.</dt> - <dd>How were the printed sheets treated when they came from the press? - </dd> - <dt>89.</dt> - <dd>How were pressmen paid? - </dd> - <dt>90.</dt> - <dd>What was the custom with regard to proofreading? - </dd> - <dt>91.</dt> - <dd>Describe the system of cost finding and estimating of this period. - </dd> - <dt>92.</dt> - <dd>What four different classes of workmen are enumerated? - </dd> - <dt>93.</dt> - <dd>What was an apprentice? - </dd> - <dt>94.</dt> - <dd>What were the qualifications necessary to apprenticeship? - </dd> - <dt>95.</dt> - <dd>What were the conditions of an apprenticeship agreement? - </dd> - <dt>96.</dt> - <dd>How were these agreements abused by both sides? - </dd> - <dt>97.</dt> - <dd>Describe the work of an apprentice. - </dd> - <dt>98.</dt> - <dd>How many apprentices were allowed? - </dd> - <dt>99.</dt> - <dd>What can you say about the enforcement of these conditions? - </dd> - <dt>100.</dt> - <dd>Who were the laborers, and how did they affect the industry? - </dd> - <dt>101.</dt> - <dd>How did an apprentice come to be a journeyman? - </dd> - <dt>102.</dt> - <dd>How did the journeyman become a master? - </dd> - <dt>103.</dt> - <dd>Did journeymen commonly become masters, and why? - </dd> - <dt>104.</dt> - <dd>What were the hours of labor at this period? - </dd> - <dt>105.</dt> - <dd>How did the journeymen live? - </dd> - <dt>106.</dt> - <dd>What sort of men were they? - </dd> - <dt>107.</dt> - <dd>What two compensations did they have for the hard conditions of the industry? - </dd> - <dt>108.</dt> - <dd>What influences tended to lower wages? - </dd> - <dt>109.</dt> - <dd>How were journeymen divided? - </dd> - <dt>110.</dt> - <dd>What were the conditions of employment of each? - </dd> - <dt>111.</dt> - <dd>What were the difficulties of the second class? - </dd> - <dt>112.</dt> - <dd>How were journeymen graded? - </dd> - <dt>113.</dt> - <dd>What division of labor existed in the composing room, and what in the press room? - </dd> - <dt>114.</dt> - <dd>Describe the foreman of this period. - </dd> - <dt>115.</dt> - <dd>What happened to the old or disabled workmen? - </dd> - <dt>116.</dt> - <dd>What was the place of the master? -<div><span class='pageno' id='Page_85'>85</span></div> - </dd> - <dt>117.</dt> - <dd>Was the general condition of the industry good or bad, and why? - </dd> - <dt>118.</dt> - <dd>What were the relations between the masters and journeymen before 1618? - </dd> - <dt>119.</dt> - <dd>What were these relations after 1618? - </dd> - <dt>120.</dt> - <dd>What was a chapel? - </dd> - <dt>121.</dt> - <dd>What difficulties did the organization of journeymen have to meet? - </dd> - <dt>122.</dt> - <dd>Describe briefly the growth of organization among the journeymen. - </dd> - <dt>123.</dt> - <dd>How did masters desire to settle their disputes with the journeymen, and why? - </dd> - <dt>124.</dt> - <dd>How did the journeymen desire to settle them, and why? - </dd> - <dt>125.</dt> - <dd>What were the principle causes of dispute? - </dd> - <dt>126.</dt> - <dd>According to modern ideas, which party of these disputes generally appears to the better - advantage, and why? - </dd> - <dt>127.</dt> - <dd>What was the French Revolution? - </dd> - <dt>128.</dt> - <dd>How did the French Revolution contribute to the coming in of modern conditions in the - printing industry? - </dd> - </dl> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_86'>86</span> - <h2 class='c005'>TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES FOR APPRENTICES</h2> -</div> - -<p class='drop-capa0_0_6 c006'>The following list of publications, comprising the <span class='sc'>Typographic -Technical Series for Apprentices</span>, has been prepared -under the supervision of the Committee on Education of the -United Typothetae of America for use in trade classes, in courses of -printing instruction, and by individuals.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Each publication has been compiled by a competent author or -group of authors, and carefully edited, the purpose being to provide -the printers of the United States—employers, journeymen, -and apprentices—with a comprehensive series of handy and -inexpensive compendiums of reliable, up-to-date information upon -the various branches and specialties of the printing craft, all -arranged in orderly fashion for progressive study.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The publications of the series are of uniform size, 5 × 8 inches. -Their general make-up, in typography, illustrations, etc., has -been, as far as practicable, kept in harmony throughout. A brief -synopsis of the particular contents and other chief features of each -volume will be found under each title in the following list.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Each topic is treated in a concise manner, the aim being to -embody in each publication as completely as possible all the -rudimentary information and essential facts necessary to an understanding -of the subject. Care has been taken to make all statements -accurate and clear, with the purpose of bringing essential -information within the understanding of beginners in the different -fields of study. Wherever practicable, simple and well-defined -drawings and illustrations have been used to assist in giving -additional clearness to the text.</p> - -<p class='c007'>In order that the pamphlets may be of the greatest possible -help for use in trade-school classes and for self-instruction, each -title is accompanied by a list of Review Questions covering -essential items of the subject matter. A short Glossary of technical -terms belonging to the subject or department treated is also -added to many of the books.</p> - -<p class='c007'>These are the Official Text-books of the United Typothetae of -America.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Address all orders and inquiries to <span class='sc'>Committee on Education, -United Typothetae of America, Chicago, Illinois, U. S. A.</span></p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_87'>87</span> - <h2 class='c005'>TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES <i>for</i> APPRENTICES</h2> -</div> - - <dl class='dl_2 c002'> - <dt class='c002'> </dt> - <dd class='c002'>PART I—<i>Types, Tools, Machines, and Materials</i> - </dd> - <dt>1.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Type: a Primer of Information</cite>, By A. A. Stewart - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>Relating to the mechanical features of printing types; their sizes, font schemes, etc., - with a brief description of their manufacture. 44 pp.; illustrated; 74 review questions; - glossary. - </dd> - <dt>2.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Compositors’ Tools and Materials</cite>, By A. A. Stewart - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>A primer of information about composing sticks, galleys, leads, brass rules, cutting and - mitering machines, etc. 47 pp.; illustrated; 50 review questions; glossary. - </dd> - <dt>3.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Type Cases, Composing Room Furniture</cite>, By A. A. Stewart - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>A primer of information about type cases, work stands, cabinets, case racks, galley - racks, standing galleys, etc. 43 pp.; illustrated; 33 review questions; glossary. - </dd> - <dt>4.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Imposing Tables and Lock-up Appliances</cite>, By A. A. Stewart - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>Describing the tools and materials used in locking up forms for the press, including some - modern utilities for special purposes. 59 pp.; illustrated; 70 review questions; glossary. - </dd> - <dt>5.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Proof Presses</cite>, By A. A. Stewart - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>A primer of information about the customary methods and machines for taking printers’ - proofs. 40 pp.; illustrated; 41 review questions; glossary. - </dd> - <dt>6.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Platen Printing Presses</cite>, By Daniel Baker - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>A primer of information regarding the history and mechanical construction of platen - printing presses, from the original hand press to the modern job press, to which is added - a chapter on automatic presses of small size. 51 pp.; illustrated; 49 review questions; - glossary. - </dd> - <dt>7.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Cylinder Printing Presses</cite>, By Herbert L. Baker - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>Being a study of the mechanism and operation of the principal types of cylinder printing - machines. 64 pp.; illustrated; 47 review questions; glossary. - </dd> - <dt>8.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Mechanical Feeders and Folders</cite>, By William E. Spurrier - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>The history and operation of modern feeding and folding machines; with hints on their - care and adjustments. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. - </dd> - <dt>9.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Power for Machinery in Printing Houses</cite>, By Carl F. Scott - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>A treatise on the methods of applying power to printing presses and allied machinery with - particular reference to electric drive. 53 pp.; illustrated; 69 review questions; - glossary. - </dd> - <dt>10.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Paper Cutting Machines</cite>, By Niel Gray, Jr. - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>A primer of information about paper and card trimmers, hand-lever cutters, power cutters, - and other automatic machines for cutting paper. 70 pp.; illustrated; 115 review - questions; glossary. - </dd> - <dt>11.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Printers’ Rollers</cite>, By A. A. Stewart - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>A primer of information about the composition, manufacture, and care of inking rollers. - 46 pp.; illustrated; 61 review questions; glossary. - </dd> - <dt>12.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Printing Inks</cite>, By Philip Ruxton - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>Their composition, properties and manufacture (reprinted by permission from Circular No. - 53, United States Bureau of Standards); together with some helpful suggestions about the - everyday use of printing inks by Philip Ruxton. 80 pp.; 100 review questions; glossary. -<div><span class='pageno' id='Page_88'>88</span></div> - </dd> - <dt>13.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>How Paper is Made</cite>, By William Bond Wheelwright - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>A primer of information about the materials and processes of manufacturing paper for - printing and writing. 68 pp.; illustrated; 62 review questions; glossary. - </dd> - <dt>14.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Relief Engravings</cite>, By Joseph P. Donovan - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>Brief history and non-technical description of modern methods of engraving; woodcut, zinc - plate, halftone; kind of copy for reproduction; things to remember when ordering - engravings. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. - </dd> - <dt>15.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Electrotyping and Stereotyping</cite>, By Harris B. Hatch and A. A. Stewart - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>A primer of information about the processes of electrotyping and stereotyping. 94 pp.; - illustrated; 129 review questions; glossaries. - </dd> - <dt class='c002'> </dt> - <dd class='c002'>PART II—<i>Hand and Machine Composition</i> - </dd> - <dt>16.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Typesetting</cite>, By A. A. Stewart - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>A handbook for beginners, giving information about justifying, spacing, correcting, and - other matters relating to typesetting. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. - </dd> - <dt>17.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Printers’ Proofs</cite>, By A. A. Stewart - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>The methods by which they are made, marked, and corrected, with observations on - proofreading. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. - </dd> - <dt>18.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>First Steps in Job Composition</cite>, By Camille DeVéze - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>Suggestions for the apprentice compositor in setting his first jobs, especially about the - important little things which go to make good display in typography. 63 pp.; examples; 55 - review questions; glossary. - </dd> - <dt>19.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>General Job Composition</cite> - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>How the job compositor handles business stationery, programs and miscellaneous work. - Illustrated; review questions; glossary. - </dd> - <dt>20.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Book Composition</cite>, By J. W. Bothwell - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>Chapters from DeVinne’s “Modern Methods of Book Composition,” revised and arranged for - this series of text-books by J. W. Bothwell of The DeVinne Press, New York. Part I: - Composition of pages. Part II: Imposition of pages. 229 pp.; illustrated; 525 review - questions; glossary. - </dd> - <dt>21.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Tabular Composition</cite>, By Robert Seaver - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>A study of the elementary forms of table composition, with examples of more difficult - composition. 36 pp.; examples; 45 review questions. - </dd> - <dt>22.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Applied Arithmetic</cite>, By E. E. Sheldon - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>Elementary arithmetic applied to problems of the printing trade, calculation of - materials, paper weights and sizes, with standard tables and rules for computation, each - subject amplified with examples and exercises. 159 pp. - </dd> - <dt>23.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Typecasting and Composing Machines</cite>, A. W. Finlay, Editor - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>Section I—The Linotype, By L. A. Hornstein - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>Section II—The Monotype, By Joseph Hays - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>Section III—The Intertype, By Henry W. Cozzens - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>Section IV—Other Typecasting and Typesetting Machines, By Frank H. Smith - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>A brief history of typesetting machines, with descriptions of their mechanical principles - and operations. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. -<div><span class='pageno' id='Page_89'>89</span></div> - </dd> - <dt class='c002'> </dt> - <dd class='c002'>PART III—<i>Imposition and Stonework</i> - </dd> - <dt>24.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Locking Forms for the Job Press</cite>, By Frank S. Henry - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>Things the apprentice should know about locking up small forms, and about general work on - the stone. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. - </dd> - <dt>25.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Preparing Forms for the Cylinder Press</cite>, By Frank S. Henry - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>Pamphlet and catalog imposition; margins; fold marks, etc. Methods of handling type forms - and electrotype forms. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. - </dd> - <dt class='c002'> </dt> - <dd class='c002'>PART IV—<i>Presswork</i> - </dd> - <dt>26.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Making Ready on Platen Presses</cite>, By T. G. McGrew - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>The essential parts of a press and their functions; distinctive features of commonly used - machines. Preparing the tympan, regulating the impression, underlaying and overlaying, - setting gauges, and other details explained. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. - </dd> - <dt>27.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Cylinder Presswork</cite>, By T. G. McGrew - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>Preparing the press; adjustment of bed and cylinder, form rollers, ink fountain, grippers - and delivery systems. Underlaying and overlaying; modern overlay methods. Illustrated; - review questions; glossary. - </dd> - <dt>28.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Pressroom Hints and Helps</cite>, By Charles L. Dunton - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>Describing some practical methods of pressroom work, with directions and useful - information relating to a variety of printing-press problems. 87 pp.; 176 review - questions. - </dd> - <dt>29.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Reproductive Processes of the Graphic Arts</cite>, By A. W. Elson - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>A primer of information about the distinctive features of the relief, the intaglio, and - the pianographic processes of printing. 84 pp.; illustrated; 100 review questions; - glossary. - </dd> - <dt class='c002'> </dt> - <dd class='c002'>PART V—<i>Pamphlet and Book Binding</i> - </dd> - <dt>30.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Pamphlet Binding</cite>, By Bancroft L. Goodwin - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>A primer of information about the various operations employed in binding pamphlets and - other work in the bindery. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. - </dd> - <dt>31.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Book Binding</cite>, By John J. Pleger - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>Practical information about the usual operations in binding books; folding; gathering, - collating, sewing, forwarding, finishing. Case making and cased-in books. Hand work and - machine work. Job and blank-book binding. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. - </dd> - <dt class='c002'> </dt> - <dd class='c002'>PART VI—<i>Correct Literary Composition</i> - </dd> - <dt>32.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Word Study and English Grammar</cite>, By F. W. Hamilton - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>A primer of information about words, their relations, and their uses. 68 pp.; 84 review - questions; glossary. - </dd> - <dt>33.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Punctuation</cite>, By F. W. Hamilton - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>A primer of information about the marks of punctuation and their use, both grammatically - and typographically. 56 pp.; 59 review questions; glossary. -<div><span class='pageno' id='Page_90'>90</span></div> - </dd> - <dt>34.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Capitals</cite>, By F. W. Hamilton - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>A primer of information about capitalization, with some practical typographic hints as to - the use of capitals. 48 pp.; 92 review questions; glossary. - </dd> - <dt>35.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Division of Words</cite>, By F. W. Hamilton - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>Rules for the division of words at the ends of lines, with remarks on spelling, - syllabication and pronunciation. 42 pp.; 70 review questions. - </dd> - <dt>36.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Compound Words</cite>, By F. W. Hamilton - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>A study of the principles of compounding, the components of compounds, and the use of the - hyphen. 34 pp.; 62 review questions. - </dd> - <dt>37.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Abbreviations and Signs</cite>, By F. W. Hamilton - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>A primer of information about abbreviations and signs, with classified lists of those in - most common use. 58 pp.; 32 review questions. - </dd> - <dt>38.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>The Uses of Italic</cite>, By F. W. Hamilton - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>A primer of information about the history and uses of italic letters. 31 pp.; 37 review - questions. - </dd> - <dt>39.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Proofreading</cite>, By Arnold Levitas - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>The technical phases of the proofreader’s work; reading, marking, revising, etc.; methods - of handling proofs and copy. Illustrated by examples. 59 pp.; 69 review questions; - glossary. - </dd> - <dt>40.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Preparation of Printers’ Copy</cite>, By F. W. Hamilton - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>Suggestions for authors, editors, and all who are engaged in preparing copy for the - composing room. 36 pp.; 67 review questions. - </dd> - <dt>41.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Printers’ Manual of Style</cite> - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>A reference compilation of approved rules, usages, and suggestions relating to uniformity - in punctuation, capitalization, abbreviations, numerals, and kindred features of - composition. - </dd> - <dt>42.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>The Printer’s Dictionary</cite>, By A. A. Stewart - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>A handbook of definitions and miscellaneous information about various processes of - printing, alphabetically arranged. Technical terms explained. Illustrated. - </dd> - <dt class='c002'> </dt> - <dd class='c002'>PART VII—<i>Design, Color, and Lettering</i> - </dd> - <dt>43.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Applied Design for Printers</cite>, By Harry L. Gage - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>A handbook of the principles of arrangement, with brief comment on the periods of design - which have most influenced printing. Treats of harmony, balance, proportion, and rhythm; - motion; symmetry and variety; ornament, esthetic and symbolic. 37 illustrations; 46 - review questions; glossary; bibliography. - </dd> - <dt>44.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Elements of Typographic Design</cite>, By Harry L. Gage - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>Applications of the principles of decorative design. Building material of typography - paper, types, ink, decorations and illustrations. Handling of shapes. Design of complete - book, treating each part. Design of commercial forms and single units. Illustrations; - review questions, glossary; bibliography. -<div><span class='pageno' id='Page_91'>91</span></div> - </dd> - <dt>45.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Rudiments of Color in Printing</cite>, By Harry L. Gage - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>Use of color: for decoration of black and white, for broad poster effect, in combinations - of two, three, or more printings with process engravings. Scientific nature of color, - physical and chemical. Terms in which color may be discussed: hue, value, intensity. - Diagrams in color, scales and combinations. Color theory of process engraving. - Experiments with color. Illustrations in full color, and on various papers. Review - questions; glossary; bibliography. - </dd> - <dt>46.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Lettering in Typography</cite>, By Harry L. Gage - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>Printer’s use of lettering: adaptability and decorative effect. Development of historic - writing and lettering and its influence on type design. Classification of general forms - in lettering. Application of design to lettering. Drawing for reproduction. Fully - illustrated; review questions; glossary; bibliography. - </dd> - <dt>47.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Typographic Design in Advertising</cite>, By Harry L. Gage - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>The printer’s function in advertising. Precepts upon which advertising is based. - Printer’s analysis of his copy. Emphasis, legibility, attention, color. Method of - studying advertising typography. Illustrations; review questions; glossary; bibliography. - </dd> - <dt>48.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Making Dummies and Layouts</cite>, By Harry L. Gage - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>A layout: the architectural plan. A dummy: the imitation of a proposed final effect. Use - of dummy in sales work. Use of layout. Function of layout man. Binding schemes for - dummies. Dummy envelopes. Illustrations; review questions; glossary; bibliography. - </dd> - <dt class='c002'> </dt> - <dd class='c002'>PART VIII—<i>History of Printing</i> - </dd> - <dt>49.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Books Before Typography</cite>, By F. W. Hamilton - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>A primer of information about the invention of the alphabet and the history of bookmaking - up to the invention of movable types. 62 pp.; illustrated; 64 review questions. - </dd> - <dt>50.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>The Invention of Typography</cite>, By F. W. Hamilton - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>A brief sketch of the invention of printing and how it came about. 64 pp.; 62 review - questions. - </dd> - <dt>51.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>History of Printing</cite>—Part I, By F. W. Hamilton - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>A primer of information about the beginnings of printing, the development of the book, - the development of printers’ materials, and the work of the great pioneers. 63 pp.; 55 - review questions. - </dd> - <dt>52.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>History of Printing</cite>—Part II, By F. W. Hamilton - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>A brief sketch of the economic conditions of the printing industry from 1450 to 1789, - including government regulations, censorship, internal conditions and industrial - relations. 94 pp.; 128 review questions. - </dd> - <dt>53.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Printing in England</cite>, By F. W. Hamilton - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>A short history of printing in England from Caxton to the present time. 89 pp.; 65 review - questions. - </dd> - <dt>54.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Printing in America</cite>, By F. W. Hamilton - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>A brief sketch of the development of the newspaper, and some notes on publishers who have - especially contributed to printing. 98 pp.; 84 review questions. - </dd> - <dt>55.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Type and Presses in America</cite>, By F. W. Hamilton - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>A brief historical sketch of the development of type casting and press building in the - United States. 52 pp.; 61 review questions. -<div><span class='pageno' id='Page_92'>92</span></div> - </dd> - <dt class='c002'> </dt> - <dd class='c002'>PART IX—<i>Cost Finding and Accounting</i> - </dd> - <dt>56.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Elements of Cost in Printing</cite>, By Henry P. Porter - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>The Standard Cost-Finding Forms and their uses. What they should show. How to utilize the - information they give. Review questions. Glossary. - </dd> - <dt>57.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Use of a Cost System</cite>, By Henry P. Porter - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>The Standard Cost-Finding Forms and their uses. What they should show. How to utilize the - information they give. Review questions. Glossary. - </dd> - <dt>58.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>The Printer as a Merchant</cite>, By Henry P. Porter - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>The selection and purchase of materials and supplies for printing. The relation of the - cost of raw material and the selling price of the finished product. Review questions. - Glossary. - </dd> - <dt>59.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Fundamental Principles of Estimating</cite>, By Henry P. Porter - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>The estimator and his work; forms to use; general rules for estimating. Review questions. - Glossary. - </dd> - <dt>60.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Estimating and Selling</cite>, By Henry P. Porter - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>An insight into the methods used in making estimates, and their relation to selling. - Review questions. Glossary. - </dd> - <dt>61.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Accounting for Printers</cite>, By Henry P. Porter - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>A brief outline of an accounting system for printers; necessary books and accessory - records. Review questions. Glossary. - </dd> - <dt class='c002'> </dt> - <dd class='c002'>PART X—<i>Miscellaneous</i> - </dd> - <dt>62.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Health, Sanitation, and Safety</cite>, By Henry P. Porter - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>Hygiene in the printing trade; a study of conditions old and new; practical suggestions - for improvement; protective appliances and rules for safety. - </dd> - <dt>63.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Topical Index</cite>, By F. W. Hamilton - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>A book of reference covering the topics treated in the Typographic Technical Series, - alphabetically arranged. - </dd> - <dt>64.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Courses of Study</cite>, By F. W. Hamilton - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>A guidebook for teachers, with outlines and suggestions for classroom and shop work. - </dd> - </dl> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_93'>93</span> - <h2 class='c005'>ACKNOWLEDGMENT</h2> -</div> - -<p class='drop-capa0_0_6 c006'>This series of Typographic Text-books is the result of the -splendid co-operation of a large number of firms and individuals -engaged in the printing business and its allied industries -in the United States of America.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The Committee on Education of the United Typothetae of -America, under whose auspices the books have been prepared and -published, acknowledges its indebtedness for the generous assistance -rendered by the many authors, printers, and others identified -with this work.</p> - -<p class='c007'>While due acknowledgment is made on the title and copyright -pages of those contributing to each book, the Committee nevertheless -felt that a group list of co-operating firms would be of -interest.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The following list is not complete, as it includes only those who -have co-operated in the production of a portion of the volumes, -constituting the first printing. As soon as the entire list of books -comprising the Typographic Technical Series has been completed -(which the Committee hopes will be at an early date), the full list -will be printed in each volume.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The Committee also desires to acknowledge its indebtedness to -the many subscribers to this Series who have patiently awaited its -publication.</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'><span class='sc'>Committee on Education,</span></div> - <div class='line'><span class='sc'>United Typothetae of America.</span></div> - </div> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line in4'><span class='sc'>Henry P. Porter</span>, <i>Chairman</i>,</div> - <div class='line in4'><span class='sc'>E. Lawrence Fell</span>,</div> - <div class='line in4'><span class='sc'>A. M. Glossbrenner</span>,</div> - <div class='line in4'><span class='sc'>J. Clyde Oswald</span>,</div> - <div class='line in4'><span class='sc'>Toby Rubovits</span>.</div> - </div> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'><span class='sc'>Frederick W. Hamilton</span>, <i>Education Director</i>.</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_94'>94</span> - <h2 class='c005'>CONTRIBUTORS</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c016'><strong>For Composition and Electrotypes</strong></p> - -<ul class='index'> - <li class='c017'><span class='sc'>Isaac H. Blanchard Company</span>, New York, N. Y.</li> - <li class='c017'><span class='sc'>S. H. Burbank & Co.</span>, Philadelphia, Pa.</li> - <li class='c017'><span class='sc'>J. S. Cushing & Co.</span>, Norwood, Mass.</li> - <li class='c017'><span class='sc'>The DeVinne Press</span>, New York, N. Y.</li> - <li class='c017'><span class='sc'>R. R. Donnelley & Sons Co.</span>, Chicago, Ill.</li> - <li class='c017'><span class='sc'>Geo. H. Ellis Co.</span>, Boston, Mass.</li> - <li class='c017'><span class='sc'>Evans-Winter-Hebb</span>, Detroit, Mich.</li> - <li class='c017'><span class='sc'>Franklin Printing Company</span>, Philadelphia, Pa.</li> - <li class='c017'><span class='sc'>F. H. Gilson Company</span>, Boston, Mass.</li> - <li class='c017'><span class='sc'>Stephen Greene & Co.</span>, Philadelphia, Pa.</li> - <li class='c017'><span class='sc'>W. F. Hall Printing Co.</span>, Chicago, Ill.</li> - <li class='c017'><span class='sc'>J. B. Lippincott Co.</span>, Philadelphia, Pa.</li> - <li class='c017'><span class='sc'>McCalla & Co. Inc.</span>, Philadelphia, Pa.</li> - <li class='c017'><span class='sc'>The Patteson Press</span>, New York, New York</li> - <li class='c017'><span class='sc'>The Plimpton Press</span>, Norwood, Mass.</li> - <li class='c017'><span class='sc'>Poole Bros.</span>, Chicago, Ill.</li> - <li class='c017'><span class='sc'>Edward Stern & Co.</span>, Philadelphia, Pa.</li> - <li class='c017'><span class='sc'>The Stone Printing & Mfg. Co.</span>, Roanoke, Va.</li> - <li class='c017'><span class='sc'>C. D. Traphagen</span>, Lincoln, Neb.</li> - <li class='c017'><span class='sc'>The University Press</span>, Cambridge, Mass.</li> -</ul> - -<p class='c007'><strong>For Composition</strong></p> - -<ul class='index'> - <li class='c017'><span class='sc'>Boston Typothetae School of Printing</span>, Boston, Mass.</li> - <li class='c017'><span class='sc'>William F. Fell Co.</span>, Philadelphia, Pa.</li> - <li class='c017'><span class='sc'>The Kalkhoff Company</span>, New York, N. Y.</li> - <li class='c017'><span class='sc'>Oxford-Print</span>, Boston, Mass.</li> - <li class='c017'><span class='sc'>Toby Rubovits</span>, Chicago, Ill.</li> -</ul> - -<p class='c007'><strong>For Electrotypes</strong></p> - -<ul class='index'> - <li class='c017'><span class='sc'>Blomgren Brothers Co.</span>, Chicago, Ill.</li> - <li class='c017'><span class='sc'>Flower Steel Electrotyping Co.</span>, New York, N. Y.</li> - <li class='c017'><span class='sc'>C. J. Peters & Son Co.</span>, Boston, Mass.</li> - <li class='c017'><span class='sc'>Royal Electrotype Co.</span>, Philadelphia, Pa.</li> - <li class='c017'><span class='sc'>H. C. Whitcomb & Co.</span>, Boston, Mass.</li> -</ul> - -<p class='c007'><strong>For Engravings</strong></p> - -<ul class='index'> - <li class='c017'><span class='sc'>American Type Founders Co.</span>, Boston, Mass.</li> - <li class='c017'><span class='sc'>C. B. Cottrell & Sons Co.</span>, Westerly, R. I.</li> - <li class='c017'><span class='sc'>Golding Manufacturing Co.</span>, Franklin, Mass.</li> - <li class='c017'><span class='sc'>Harvard University</span>, Cambridge, Mass.</li> - <li class='c017'><span class='sc'>Inland Printer Co.</span>, Chicago, Ill.</li> - <li class='c017'><span class='sc'>Lanston Monotype Machine Company</span>, Philadelphia, Pa.</li> - <li class='c017'><span class='sc'>Mergenthaler Linotype Company</span>, New York, N. Y.</li> - <li class='c017'><span class='sc'>Geo. H. Morrill Co.</span>, Norwood, Mass.</li> - <li class='c017'><span class='sc'>Oswald Publishing Co.</span>, New York, N. Y.</li> - <li class='c017'><span class='sc'>The Printing Art</span>, Cambridge, Mass.</li> - <li class='c017'><span class='sc'>B. D. Rising Paper Company</span>, Housatonic, Mass.</li> - <li class='c017'><span class='sc'>The Vandercook Press</span>, Chicago, Ill.</li> -</ul> - -<p class='c007'><strong>For Book Paper</strong></p> - -<ul class='index'> - <li class='c017'><span class='sc'>American Writing Paper Co.</span>, Holyoke, Mass.</li> - <li class='c017'><span class='sc'>West Virginia Pulp & Paper Co.</span>, Mechanicville, N. Y.</li> -</ul> - -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c003' /> -</div> -<div class='tnotes x-ebookmaker'> - -<div class='section ph2'> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c004'> - <div>TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES</div> - </div> -</div> - -</div> - - <ol class='ol_1 c002'> - <li>Silently corrected typographical errors and variations in spelling. - - </li> - <li>Archaic, non-standard, and uncertain spellings retained as printed. - </li> - </ol> - -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A BRIEF HISTORY OF PRINTING ***</div> -<div style='text-align:left'> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will -be renamed. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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