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diff --git a/old/65585-0.txt b/old/65585-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index a293562..0000000 --- a/old/65585-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,3670 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Brief History of Printing, by Frederick W. -Hamilton - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: A Brief History of Printing - Part II: The Economic History of Printing - -Author: Frederick W. Hamilton - -Release Date: June 10, 2021 [eBook #65585] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -Produced by: Richard Tonsing, Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier, and the Online - Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A BRIEF HISTORY OF PRINTING *** - - - - - A BRIEF HISTORY _of_ PRINTING - - PART II - THE ECONOMIC HISTORY OF PRINTING - -BEING A BRIEF SKETCH OF THE ECONOMIC CONDITIONS OF THE PRINTING INDUSTRY - FROM 1450 TO 1789, INCLUDING GOVERNMENT REGULATIONS, CENSORSHIP, - INTERNAL CONDITIONS _and_ INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS - - - BY - - FREDERICK W. HAMILTON, LL.D. - - EDUCATIONAL DIRECTOR - -[Illustration] - - PUBLISHED BY THE COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION - - UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA - - 1918 - - - - - Copyright, 1918 - United Typothetae of America - Chicago, Ill. - - - Composition and electrotypes contributed by - S. H. Burbank & Co., Inc. - Philadelphia, Pa. - - - - - PREFACE - - -In this volume, as in the preceding, an effort has been made to give the -reader some idea of the actual conditions of the printing industry in -Europe from the time of the invention down to the French Revolution. -Attention has been devoted to the organization and conditions of the -industry, the circumstances under which the work was done, and the -actual life and work of the men who did it. - -The method of treatment chosen has been topical rather than -chronological. It has been thought that a series of pictures of -different aspects of the industry would be of more value than the -ordinary detailed study of periods, of schools, and of the actual work -produced at various times which is rather suited to advanced students -than to beginners. This method of treatment necessarily involves a -certain amount of repetition, but probably less than would be required -if an attempt were made to fit the same information into a chronological -framework. - -To an extent even greater than in the previous volume the writer has -endeavored to reconstruct in part at least the general conditions of the -time. The economic history of printing or, indeed, any history of -printing is a part of the general history of the period. It so happens -that the peculiar conditions of the printing industry had a very marked -effect in the changes which took place in the industrial world in the -sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The attempt is made to show the -working of these influences in the treatment of certain parts of the -subject. The main purpose, however, throughout has been to give the -young printer of today an idea of the work and life of the old printers, -who were very human men, engaged, though under different conditions, in -the same struggle to earn their bread and butter which occupies our -attention today. - - - - - CONTENTS - - - CHAPTER I - GOVERNMENTAL REGULATIONS 7 - - CHAPTER II - PRIVILEGES AND MONOPOLIES 16 - - CHAPTER III - CENSORSHIP 26 - - CHAPTER IV - DEVELOPMENT OF THE IDEA OF COPYRIGHT 34 - - CHAPTER V - TRADE GUILDS AND THE COMING OF THE NEW INDUSTRY 38 - - CHAPTER VI - THE COMMUNITY OF PRINTERS 49 - - CHAPTER VII - HOW THE OLD-TIME PRINTERS WORKED 53 - - CHAPTER VIII - INTERNAL ORGANIZATION OF THE INDUSTRY 58 - - CHAPTER IX - RELATIONS BETWEEN EMPLOYER AND EMPLOYED 72 - - SUPPLEMENTARY READING 79 - - REVIEW QUESTIONS 80 - - - - - CHAPTER I - GOVERNMENTAL REGULATIONS - - -We turn now to a study of the printing industry in some aspects -concerning the industry as a whole, rather than the life and work of the -great printers. A very large part of what follows will be found to deal -with conditions in France. This happens because the study has been far -better worked out for France than for any other country. While much -incidental information is to be obtained from other histories, -Mellotté’s _Histoire Economique de l’Imprimerie_ stands alone as a study -of the printing industry from this point of view. Unfortunately it -concerns only France and ends with the French Revolution of 1789. -Conditions in France, however, were not greatly different from those -existing elsewhere and for that reason the study which follows, based -largely on Mellotté’s work, will give a fairly accurate idea of the -condition of the industry in general. It is to be regretted that -Mellotté’s book has not been translated into the English as it is a mine -of information of great interest and value to all students of the -industry. - -The history of the printing industry is hardly intelligible unless one -begins with a general understanding of the industries of the Middle Ages -and the organization of those who were engaged in them. When Gutenberg -practiced printing there was no such thing in the world as a factory. -Perhaps the nearest approach to one might be found in some royal -arsenal, shipyard, or mint where certain industries were carried on on a -large scale. The day of invention had not yet dawned. Machinery, except -of the most primitive types, did not exist. Consequently, industrial and -social conditions were different in every respect from those which now -prevail. - -The work of the Middle Ages was hand-work carried on by a small group of -workmen living in the household of the master; in other words it was -what we call today household industry. Very often there was no one -engaged in the work except the master and his family. Sometimes he had -an apprentice or two. Master workmen usually employed as many -apprentices as they could use. The apprentices paid for the privilege of -learning the trade. As we shall see presently, the knowledge of a trade -and admission to the ranks of the master workmen was a privilege very -well worth paying for. - -The apprenticeship indenture or agreement was a contract covering a -certain number of years, usually seven. During this period the -apprentice was obliged to work for the master to the best of his -ability, to be careful of the master’s goods, and to be subject in every -way to his personal control, a control which extended to the infliction -of corporal punishment if the apprentice were idle or disobedient. - -The master was bound to teach the apprentice his trade so that if the -apprentice used due diligence he might at the end of his agreement -qualify as a journeyman. He was obliged to furnish him board and lodging -in his own (the master’s) home, to keep him decently clothed and, -especially toward the end of the period, to give him a small wage for -pocket money. We shall look a little closer at this matter of -apprenticeship in a later chapter. - -The masters themselves were organized into guilds. These guilds were a -combination of what we now know as trade unions and employers’ -associations. Everybody connected with the trade in a regular and legal -manner belonged to the guild. In some cases the master workman became so -prosperous that he employed a considerable number of other master -workmen and devoted his time to superintendence, but whether he were in -this way an ancestor of a modern captain of industry or were at the -other end of the scale, an apprentice just under indenture, he was -recognized as part and parcel of the trade guild. If he were not free of -the guild he was not permitted to work at the industry excepting as an -employee. As we shall see, there grew up in this way an intermediate -class of hired workmen who were neither apprentices nor masters. - -The guilds acted very honestly and conscientiously in the interests of -both the public and the trade. While they monopolized the industry, -restricted the number of persons engaged in it, and permitted no outside -competition, they guaranteed the quality of workmanship and product. A -guild member putting inferior goods upon the market or in any way -detracting from the workmanlike standards of the guild was liable to -severe penalties, and as a rule these penalties were conscientiously -inflicted.[1] - -Footnote 1: - - A more detailed account of the guilds will be found in Chapter V. - -The introduction of printing raised new questions. Printing did not fit -into this scheme of things for several reasons. As a newly discovered -art it did not properly belong to any of the known industries, which had -gradually become consolidated into strong guilds. The printers, -therefore, found themselves outside the recognized trade law. - -They were, therefore, taken in hand by the authorities until such time -as their own trade organization developed. Not only was the printing -trade outside the guild organizations, but it was different from them in -several important principles. In the first place, it was from the -beginning a machine occupation; in the second place, it involved -division of labor; and in the third place, it dealt with a product -entirely different from that of the other craftsmen. The dawn of the -printing industry was the dawn of an age of machinery in production. The -product of the printing press was not simply an article of consumption. -There is no comparison between a piece of cloth or a pair of shoes and a -book. The book is a source of information and enlightenment, or the -reverse. It may stir men to the ecstasies of devotion or incite them to -rebellion or unsettle the foundations of their religious faith. It may -serve the highest interests of mankind or it may be in the last degree -dangerous to the church, the state, and the individual. - -Obviously, to the fifteenth century mind everything called for the -regulation of the industry. The fifteenth century, like those which -immediately preceded it, was an age of regulation. The idea of the -freedom of commerce and industry, so dear to the modern political -economist, had not yet been conceived. All industry was subject to the -most minute regulations partly imposed by the state and partly imposed -by the guild. All the concerns of human life were subject to regulation, -including even what people in different ranks of life should eat, drink, -and wear. As there was no trade organization to regulate printing, of -course it became immediately the subject of governmental interest. - -Scarcely had the art of printing appeared when the governmental rights -of regulation were invoked to destroy it, fortunately without success. -Most important inventions deprive certain workmen of their occupation. -The invention of printing was no exception. It necessarily meant the -economic ruin of the copyists and threatened the illuminators. By the -middle of the fifteenth century the copying of books had to a -considerable extent come out of the monasteries and become a regular -occupation. In 1472 there were in France ten thousand of these copyists, -to say nothing of the illuminators. These copyists were organized into -guilds with charter rights and a definite legal position. Seeing their -livelihood threatened, they attempted in every way to prevent the -introduction of printing. They invoked their charter rights and -attempted to protect themselves thereby against the invasion of their -field by the printer. Not only that, but they were probably back of the -popular clamor which raised the accusation of witchcraft against Fust -and drove him out of Paris in 1465. Their opposition, however, was -unsuccessful. A few of them retained their work. For a long time the -manuscript book retained the esteem which is so often felt for hand work -as compared with machine work. Long after the invention of printing -there were many eminent collectors of books who would not have a printed -book in their libraries. To this day there are a few people who live by -engrossing and illuminating, although not generally by the copying of -books. - -An admirable illustration of the beauties and disadvantages of this kind -of work may be found in the Congressional Library at Washington. There -is there displayed in a series of frames a very wonderful engrossed and -illuminated copy of the Constitution of the United States. The text is -beautifully engrossed and the illuminated borders and the illustrations -are in the finest style of modern art. At first sight it is a wonderful -piece of work, but it requires but a slight examination to see that the -text is full of errors. Words are omitted and misspelled so that the -whole thing is practically worthless so far as its content is concerned. - -A few of the copyists became printers. Probably the greater number of -them lost their distinctive occupation and became absorbed in some way -or other into other industries or, if they were too old for this, -suffered the evils incident to permanent loss of occupation. - -The illuminators at first made common cause with the copyists. Before -long, however, they discovered that the copyists were making a hopeless -fight and that their own occupation had a chance of surviving. They, -therefore, for the most part went over to the printers and found -occupation in the new industry, either directly in their old occupations -as illuminators or in slightly modified form as illustrators. Many of -the early books show hand-illuminated capitals and some show illuminated -margins and hand-painted illustrations equal to those of the finest -manuscripts. It was, however, only the more expensive books which were -separately hand-illustrated. The field of book illustration, -substantially as we know it through the medium of pictures mechanically -reproduced, was soon developed and offered a large field for the -exercise of artistic ability and taste. - -The kings and rulers generally favored printing as a means of spreading -intelligence. The fifteenth century kings, unlike some of a little later -period, were believers in education and patrons of learning and the -arts. They had not yet come to see that their thrones, or at least their -prerogatives, might be threatened by learning, and therefore they did -their best to encourage it. Among all these royal patrons of printing, -Francis I of France is the most conspicuous. When he first came to the -throne he was under the influence of those who were hostile to the new -art and attempted to stifle it by stringent legislation. An edict of his -issued in 1534 prohibits printing on pain of hanging for the offender. -Exactly why King Francis took so positive a position is not clear, but -fortunately he very soon changed his mind and repealed the edict. From -this time forward he did everything in his power to encourage printing -and printers, as we have already seen in recounting the history of the -Estienne family. In 1536 he made an arrangement, the first of the kind, -to have a copy of every book that was printed filed in the Royal -Library. In 1538 he favored the printers by granting them an edict of -exemption from service in the City Guard, a service to which residents -generally were liable. - -During King Francis’s reign labor troubles arose in the industry. Enough -references have already been made to show that the strike is by no means -a modern institution and that strikes in printing offices are pretty -nearly as old as the industry. There were strikes, some of them of a -rather serious nature, among the Parisian printers in the reign of King -Francis. As soon, however, as it appeared that they were liable to -injure the industry or interfere seriously with the work of the master -printers the king suppressed them by a heavy-handed use of the royal -authority, insisting that trade disputes must not be allowed to -interfere with the successful prosecution of the industry and that the -journeymen must not be permitted by strikes to put a stop to the -operations of their employers. - -In 1585 King Henry III of France issued an edict relieving printers from -the application of a general edict taxing artisans. This action was -based on the ground that the work of the printer was so far superior in -character to that of other mechanics that the printer was not to be -regarded as a mechanic at all. He was formally recognized as being in a -social class above the members of the trade guilds and almost, if not -quite, in the class of gentlemen. Of course, we are speaking now in -terms of the sixteenth century and not of the twentieth. - -As an incident of this recognized social superiority the printer was -permitted to wear a sword, a right which was denied to artisans -generally. The old prints showing the interiors of print shops almost -invariably show at least one of the workmen wearing a sword, or show a -sword conspicuously displayed standing against a pillar or the wall. The -introduction of the sword into these pictures is deliberately done to -indicate the social pretensions of the printer of this period. It is -worth remembering because although it involves a certain artificial -social distinction which we now consider rather absurd it also involves -certain principles which we should do well not to lose sight of. In -those days printing was regarded as a profession rather than strictly a -trade, and the printer was deeply impressed with the value and -importance of his work, a value and importance which were not only -claimed by him but recognized by his fellow citizens. It was very -strongly felt that a man who made a book was engaged in a much more -important piece of work than a man who made a pair of shoes or forged a -sword. The more of this spirit of self respect, the more of this -recognition of the importance of printing and the printed product we can -recover today, the better off we shall be. - -From the beginning printers were troubled by typographical errors. Some -of the earlier printers, like Caxton and Gehring, had their books -corrected by hand after they were printed. As a rule, however, the -modern practice of more or less careful proof reading preceded -publication. There were constant complaints of inaccuracy, especially on -the part of the cheap printers and the printers of pirated editions. The -influence of the better printers and the insistent demands of the public -finally brought about a reasonable degree of textual accuracy. It is -interesting to note that royal regulation attempted to deal with this -matter as it dealt with so many other things. - -Charles IX of France issued an edict in 1592 the vital portion of which -read as follows: “The said Masters shall furnish copies carefully -edited, corrected, and made clear to the compositors lest through -default of this their labor be hindered.” The principle underlying the -edict was a good one. It is certainly in the interest of all concerned -that compositors should be furnished good copy. There is unfortunately -every reason to believe that the efforts of this royal champion of copy -editing were not attended with very much success. - -In 1618 Louis XII organized the corporation of printers which will be -discussed later. Louis XIV reaffirmed the preceding edicts governing and -regulating the industry, and his great minister Colbert, in 1686, issued -certain new regulations. In these it was provided that every shop should -have a minimum equipment of two presses well provided with type. This -was probably intended to put a stop to the small shops which did poor -work and were very difficult to regulate under the police regulations -which will be later discussed. The number of shops in Paris was fixed by -this edict at 36. Private printing—that is to say, the exercise of the -industry by persons not members of the Community of Printers—was -absolutely forbidden. The quality of the work put out was insisted upon -under severe penalties in case proper standards were not maintained. The -long standing disagreement between booksellers and printers was settled -by a decision that booksellers could not be members of the Community of -Printers, unless they were themselves printers. The bookseller, pure and -simple, who was merely a dealer in books was thus barred out of the -Community. - -Louis XVI, the last king of the old regime, went still further in the -matter of the regulation of journeymen. By his regulations every -journeyman printer was obliged to register with the public authorities, -to take out an identification card, and to have his domicile legally -fixed and registered with the public authorities. He could not obtain -employment without showing his card and could not change his residence -without notifying the public authorities. - -In 1789 came the Revolution which swept away all the edicts regulating -printing. In this ruin royal regulation, trade organization, police -supervision, and every other restraint on the trade went down together. -Printing was unregulated and unlicensed. As an actual result there came -a flood of printing of a very low character both mechanically and -morally. - -Some great houses like that of Didot stood fast by the old standards, -but small printing houses flourished and the unregulated condition of -the trade was in many respects most unfortunate. In the long run, -however, economic laws asserted themselves as they always do. The -establishment of a settled government under Napoleon and the reassertion -of the old laws of libel and the like put a stop to some of the worst -extravagances. At a later period, the growth and development of unions -of the modern type has had its influence everywhere and the industry has -at last come into its own, unhampered by artificial regulations and -unrestrained by ill-advised attempts to prevent abuses which can better -be dealt with by general statutes applying to all industries and by the -operation of economic law. - - - - - CHAPTER II - PRIVILEGES AND MONOPOLIES - - -The governmental regulations just described were similar to those -imposed upon all trades. The product of the printing press, however, was -not like that of other manufacturing establishments. The use of books is -clearly different from the use of ordinary manufactured products. The -modern printing press puts out a flood of material which is temporary in -its nature. Much of it never gets read at all and comparatively little -of it is considered as of permanent value. The early presses, however, -turned out books almost entirely. Practically the whole product was of -permanent value. It could be easily imitated, and in many cases the -imitation could be produced at much less expense than the original as -the imitation involved no labor of editors and compilers. Again, -communication in those days was very difficult and freight rates were -high. If a book could be reprinted freely by anyone who got hold of it, -a book printed in a given place could be sold much cheaper than one -brought from a distance. For example, a Paris printer could not compete -with a Lyons printer in Lyons provided the latter were permitted to -print the same books as the former. - -But there was another far more important difference. The products of the -printing press materially affected the human mind and through it -influenced human action. When men began to read and printed matter began -to be cheap and plenty, the individual in particular and the state at -large entered an entirely new phase of existence. Minds of men might be -filled with information or misinformation, with noble or with base -desires and purposes, with high thoughts or low by the products of the -press. They might be roused to patriotic action or stirred to rebellion. -Their religion might be deepened, altered, or destroyed. Immense and -unimaginable influence might be and, as soon appeared, was exerted by -this new agency. - -These facts gave rise to certain problems peculiar to the industry. What -right had the publisher to control his product and be protected against -a ruinous competition from other printers? Had he any such right at all? -Had the author any right to control the printing, publishing, and sale -of his works? Had he any right to be secured in the receipt of some -remuneration? How could that right be protected? Was the printing press -to be allowed to pour out anything its owners pleased, regardless of its -effect upon citizenship, religion, or morals, or should the product be -controlled so as to secure the helping and not the hurting of mankind? -If it was to be controlled, who was to decide upon the measures and -standards of control, and on what ground? What was helpful and what was -harmful? - -The attempted solution of these problems, of course, grew out of the -accepted commercial usages of the time. Patents and copyrights as we now -know them, regulated by general laws and accessible to all inventors and -authors, were unknown. Their place was taken by monopolies which, as we -shall see, sometimes had much the same effect as a modern patent or -copyright. - -A monopoly, sometimes called a privilege, was a grant to a certain -person of the sole right to sell or to manufacture a certain thing, to -trade in a certain locality, or do something of a similar nature. -Monopolies survive today in certain countries, though mainly as -governmental monopolies; for example, in Italy the sale of matches is a -governmental monopoly. No individual is allowed to sell them except as a -government agent, and the traveler is not allowed to take any across the -frontier, even in his pocket. In Russia the sale of vodka was a -governmental monopoly until the outbreak of the Great War in 1914, when -its sale was prohibited. In the middle ages, however, private monopolies -were very common. It is important to know that these monopolies or -privileges were literally what the latter name indicates. Very often -they were given to royal favorites as a means for their personal -enrichment. They were purely acts of grace and did not imply any -recognition of right on the part of the person to whom they were -granted. - -Those trades which could not obtain the protection of monopoly attempted -to protect themselves when possible by trade secrets. This was a much -more important protection in those days than it would be now. -Combinations and processes, tricks of the trade which had been -discovered experimentally by some clever workman, could hardly be -discovered by his rivals unless they could hit upon the same thing by a -tedious course of experimentation or could in some way secure betrayal -of the secret. Very few trade secrets can be hidden from modern science, -but modern science did not exist in the fifteenth century. The -apprentice was sworn not to betray his master’s secrets, and the -consequences of such betrayal were very serious. As we have already -seen, Gutenberg at first attempted to keep printing a trade secret, but -the obvious impossibility of doing so led to other methods of -protection. - -Fortunately for the new art the great men of the time were interested in -it and, as a rule, it was not difficult to obtain a certain amount of -protection by privilege. Venice was perhaps the most advanced state in -Europe in the middle of the fifteenth century, certainly it was one of -the most advanced. The intelligent business men and astute nobles -trained in public affairs who made up the body of citizens of the -Republic of Venice were not slow in perceiving that a condition had -arisen which must be immediately attended to. The matter was therefore -taken up by the Council of Ten, an executive body which had large -functions in the government of Venice. Their methods of dealing with the -matter may be divided into four heads. - -The first was the monopoly under which only one printer was allowed to -work in a given town. Such a monopoly was granted John of Spire who, in -1469, was given the sole privilege of doing printing in Venice. -Fortunately the unwisdom of this particular method of protection was -soon seen and other printers were allowed in Venice. - -The next was a form of privilege something like the modern copyright. -Under this a publisher or even an author was granted the sole right to -print or cause to be printed a certain book. The first one of these -copyrights was issued to Antonio Sabellico in 1486. Sabellico was the -official historian of Venice and the copyright covered his history. -Unlike modern copyrights, which cover but a single book, these -privileges might cover anything that an author had written or might -write. It is clear that such a blanket copyright in the hands of a -publisher might be used very injuriously, and there is evidence that -they were so used either to extort money or to impede publication. It is -probable that in many cases this form of privilege involved some -arrangement between the author and the printer whereby the author shared -the profits. - -Copyright privileges ran from one to twenty-five years and were -sometimes extended. Not infrequently copyright privileges were issued -with limiting clauses or conditions, such as that the books should be -sold at a “fair price,” that the work copyrighted should be published -within a year, or that a certain number of copies should be printed per -week, and the like. - -The third method of protection was by a privilege like a modern patent, -covering certain processes or certain kinds of printing. For example: -Aldus was granted the sole right to use the italic character, while -others were given the sole right of printing in some foreign language. - -The fourth method was the absolute prohibition of the importation of -books printed outside the territories of the Republic. This was coupled -with the refusal of copyright privileges to all books not printed in -Venice. Of course, in this whole discussion we must understand that -Venice was not the modern city, but the medieval state, which at times -was of considerable extent. - -This system had certain rather serious defects in practice. In the first -place the Council of Ten which issued all these privileges, although -usually an extremely businesslike body, kept no record of its relations -with printers. Probably this was not a serious matter for the first few -years, but the time soon came when no member of the Council could -remember what privileges had been granted either to printers or authors. -Consequently privileges were very liable to duplication and the Council -finally got out of the difficulty by issuing its copyrights with the -proviso “If no previous copyright has been issued.” This was very -comfortable for the Council, but rather uncomfortable for the printer, -because it threw upon him the burden of finding out facts which were -nowhere on record. Again, there was no machinery for the enforcement of -the privileges. While it is probable that legal proceedings could be -instituted under them, some other machinery ought to have been provided -to make them effective. Lastly, and this was, as we shall see, a common -difficulty with all early privileges, they were very narrow in -application. Privileges applied only to the territory of Venice and were -worthless elsewhere. As we have seen in the case of Aldus, the products -of the Venetian press were sold throughout the civilized world, but -outside of their place of production they were unprotected by any -copyright or other defence. In some cases they were excluded by -protective laws similar to those by which Venice attempted to secure her -printers from foreign competition. At a somewhat later period some -difficulty arose because of the claims of the Papal Court to issue -privileges outside of the States of the Church. On the whole, however, -the Venetian system was about the best and the simplest of the early -systems for dealing with the problems of the printing press. - -Turning next to Germany, we find that practically all of the books -printed from 1450 to 1500 were reprints of old books. The literary -pirate made his appearance almost as soon as the printer appeared. We -have already seen that Fust himself was the first of the brood. The fact -is not surprising, however, when we remember the conditions of the time. -The idea of property in a book excepting as one particular object, a -piece of furniture so to speak, never occurred to anybody. Throughout -the entire period of manuscript books it was everywhere held that any -man who had possession of a book, even temporarily, had a right to copy -it. That the owner of the book had any right to control its duplication, -even though he had been at great expense to make a copy, was not -considered worth discussion. If a man could copy a manuscript which had -cost a hundred crowns to make, might he not reprint a book which cost -less than one tenth of that amount? It was held that ownership of a -printed book carried with it the same rights of reproduction which had -from time immemorial been attached to ownership of a written book. - -Men who wrote books wrote for the love of it. There was no such thing as -authorship as a profession and no such thing as the sale of an author’s -work, except so far as the books themselves were concerned. It is true -that certain writers were helped and perhaps supported by wealthy -patrons of literature in the old world or by rich men and politicians -who were willing to pay for verses or pamphlets eulogizing their names -and praising their exploits. Doubtless, there were writers who lived by -their wits in this way, but their case was far different from that of -the modern author who either sells his work to a publisher or makes a -contract for a royalty. If a man was paid for writing a poem in praise -of his patron neither he nor his patron was supposed to control the -poem; in a word, there was no conception of any kind of literary -property, and the printers soon found that there must be property in -books or printing would become impossible. - -Germany, like Venice, undertook to deal with the matter by the privilege -system, although German privileges seem to have been less varied and -more simple than those of the Venetians and to have concerned themselves -more exclusively with the printer, to the neglect of the author. As -elsewhere, a privilege was the sole right to print a work or a series of -works in a given place. The peculiar political condition which existed -in Germany made this a rather difficult matter. Germany in the fifteenth -century consisted geographically of what is now the Empire of Germany, -the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Netherlands, and Switzerland. It was -composed of a great number of states of very different sizes, from a -single city up to a reasonably large country. Each one of these cities -had a large degree of self government. They were all supposed to be -governed by the emperor. He was called the Holy Roman Emperor and was -supposed to be the heir of the old emperors of Rome. He governed largely -through assemblages of the princes, called Diets, which were held -wherever and whenever the emperor called them. There were also certain -imperial courts and governing councils. All this elaborate scheme of -government existed largely on paper. It was not generally strong enough -to govern effectively, but was generally strong enough to keep things -more or less in confusion. - -The power of the emperor depended to a considerable extent upon his -personal character and his private resources. An emperor who happened to -be a strong man, governing a powerful state in the empire from which he -could draw money and military support, could hold the states, which were -liable to be extremely unruly, in their places and could collect the -imperial revenue. A man of weaker personality or without the backing of -such private resources could neither keep the turbulent princes in order -nor collect the revenue. - -The local princes had no sooner begun to issue privileges than the -emperor began to do the same thing. A local privilege was not good -beyond the limits of the small state which issued it. An imperial -privilege was theoretically good throughout the empire, but practically -good only in spots. If it conflicted with a local privilege, or the -local authority happened to be on bad terms with the emperor it would be -worthless. The result of all of this was that at a very early period the -printers of Germany got together and made a sort of “gentleman’s -agreement,” as we say today, to respect each other’s undertakings. This -agreement was practically the best protection of the German book trade -until the development of copyright laws at a very much later period. It -appears to have been relied upon by the printers more than was the -privilege. Privileges were often obtained, partly because it was -desirable to keep on good terms with the local authorities and partly -because of the relation of privilege to censorship, which we shall -discuss later, but it is clear that printing in Germany would have -suffered greatly if it had not been for the existence of the “live and -let live” agreement of the German printers. - -Printers’ privileges covered only old books. New books unless covered by -some author’s privilege were not covered at all, presumably on the -ground that in those days, before author’s rights to compensation were -fully recognized, the expense and risk of producing the classics for a -comparatively small market was greater than that of printing new books, -especially as many of the new books were controversial and the authors -paid the printers. Until about 1800 the printer was a much more -important personage in legislation than the author. There was -practically very little protection of literary rights of authors -excepting what came through privileges, and the printer’s privileges -were considered much more important than the author’s rights. Privileges -covered: - -(a) Public documents, including church books and school books. - -(b) The first printing of books from the body of the world’s literature. - -(c) New books which were first treatments of some specific subject, -generally scientific, technical, or practical. - -The granting of a privilege often carried with it exemption from -taxation. - -Conditions in France were not greatly different from those in Italy and -Germany, although France dealt with the problem by means of privileges -only and had her problem somewhat simplified by unified administration -over a large territory. The first privilege to be issued in France was -granted Antoine Verrard in 1507 for an edition of the Epistles of Paul -with a French commentary. French privileges were sometimes issued to -printers for a single work and sometimes for all the works which they -might print. They ran from two to ten years. They might be general, -covering the whole kingdom, or they might be local, covering a single -province or district. For example, one might have the exclusive -privilege of printing certain books or the books of a certain author for -ten years, or another might have the privilege of printing anything of a -certain sort in the city of Lyons for five years. - -It is understood, of course, that a privilege implied prohibition. If a -man had a privilege for the works of an author throughout France that -meant that no one else in France could print the same books. If he had -the privilege for all that he wanted to print in Lyons it meant that -nobody else in Lyons could print those books, although anybody outside -of Lyons could print them freely. The French law contained one provision -which does not appear elsewhere, namely that licenses could be revoked -before they expired. They were occasionally issued to persons not -residents of France, another provision which appears to have been -peculiar to the French law. A third peculiarity is that privileges were -occasionally given to authors for the control of their works, but -without the right to print them or to sell them. In such a case as that -the printer would have to get another privilege to print and sell the -books. He would have to pay the author for the right to do so. The -question of privilege in France, like the question of censorship, which -we shall soon take up, was greatly complicated by the multiplication of -authorities and consequent conflict and confusion. Privileges might be -issued by the king, by the Parliament of Paris (a misleading name, as -the Parliament of Paris was a judicial and not a legislative body), by -the University of Paris, and by the Provost of Paris. The tendency in -all things French, however, from early in the 15th century to the French -Revolution was toward the concentration of power, so that the right to -issue privileges was gradually concentrated in the hands of the king. - - - - - CHAPTER III - CENSORSHIP - - -To the mind of the fifteenth or sixteenth century man the protection of -church and state and of the public was a very much more important matter -than the protection of the printer or the author, and it was seen that -the printing press might easily distill a venom which would poison the -minds of men and threaten the health of institutions. Measures to -prevent this occurrence went hand in hand with the granting of -privileges. It was only natural that they should do so as they might -well be regarded as conditions upon which the privilege should be -granted, or, as the idea developed, upon which the trade should be -exercised. France early decreed that every piece of printing put out in -the kingdom must be certified as “containing nothing contrary to faith, -good manners, public peace, and the royal authority.” Theoretically, -nothing could be more admirable. Doubtless many of us today would like -to be assured that all printed matter should meet these requirements. It -is obvious, however, that such regulations were liable to work very -badly in practice. What constitutes faith, good manners, public peace, -and the royal authority? These are, to a considerable extent, matters of -opinion. It may happen that the royal authority becomes tyranny and -ought to be opposed rather than supported. In the hands of the -narrow-minded, ignorant, and unscrupulous, censorship laws may easily -open the way to intolerable abuses. As a matter of fact, they have only -too often done so, and it is for that reason that we in the United -States today insist upon freedom of the press. - -Possible injury to the faith was very early perceived by the church. As -guardian of the faith and morals of the people, the church felt -constrained to see that nothing with heretical or immoral tendencies -should be placed in the hands of the faithful. Just as Venice led the -way in laws relating to privilege, so she was prominent in the matter of -censoring books. Usually the body which issued licenses had charge of -the censorship as well. It might not distrust the ecclesiastical -examination and censoring of the books, but it made the censorship -effective by its refusal of privilege. Later, as we shall see, when this -procedure did not prove entirely effective other methods were taken to -punish the printers and the authors of books which were deemed -injurious. The first book which appeared with the approval of the -ecclesiastical authorities was printed in 1480. This approval at first -had nothing to do with the privilege to print, but was rather a -commendation to the attention of the faithful. - -In 1487, however, the Pope (Innocent VIII) issued a bull against -objectionable books. This bull was addressed to the States of the -Church, Italy, Germany, France, Spain, England, and Scotland. As a -result, probably, of this bull, Venice enacted a requirement in 1508 -that the approval of the Church should precede the granting of any -privilege to print. In 1515 the Lateran Council established the -principle of strict censorship. The religious troubles of the sixteenth -century had much to do with the application of this principle. In the -Protestant countries it was applied much less vigorously than in the -Catholic countries. It must not be understood, however, that the -Protestants had any broader or more intelligent views on the subject of -censorship than the Catholics had. They were just as ready to recognize -the principle of censorship and apply it, but the occasions for applying -it were, or seemed to be, less frequent. Venice, although always a -Catholic country, was careful to keep herself as independent of Rome as -possible. The Venetians consequently kept the reins in their own hands -with regard to the censorship of books as well as in other matters, -although they co-operated with the church authorities and offered no -hindrances to the work of the Inquisition. - -In 1503 Venice extended the scope of censorship to cover the literary -quality of books and translations, the political effect of books, and -their effect upon morals. The political and moral censorship appears to -have been less effective than the religious and literary. In 1547 the -Inquisition took charge of the censorship of books and the punishment of -those who offended against the press laws, and continued to exercise -those functions until 1730. It is interesting to note that the greatest -activity of the Inquisition was in the first half century of its work, a -period when religion was still the subject of bitter controversy and -bloody warfare. The Inquisition took cognizance of 132 cases between -1547 and 1600. Between 1600 and 1700, however, it only dealt with 55, -while from 1700 to 1730 it dealt with only four. - -In 1571 Pope Pius V started the Index Expurgatorius. This Index was and -is a list wherein are registered books and other publications which are -condemned by the Commission in charge of it, called the Congregation of -the Index, as being immoral and unsound either in religion or politics. -By this means the church undertakes to protect its members from the -reading of books calculated to injure their morals or to unsettle their -faith. - -Lines of legislation in Venice regarding censorship ran in certain very -definite directions, namely: the legalizing of custom and precedent, -protection of the industry against foreign competition and preservation -of the excellence of the nation’s press, protection of the buyer of -books against poor workmanship and excessive charges (protection of the -author’s right has already been discussed), and the development of a -Bureau to administer the press laws and regulate the industry. In 1549 -the book trade was organized by the creation with definite legal -recognition of the Guild of Printers and Booksellers. It was believed -that the trade could be dealt with better and could do its own work -better if it were organized. - -The purpose of the guild was three-fold: - -1. To protect trade interests—the purpose of trade organizations at all -times. - -2. To assist the state and church in watching the output of the press. - -3. To suppress pernicious books. - -As the years went by the tendency was for the state censorship to relax -and for the church censorship to become more severe. In time the -censorship became very harassing and very troublesome. In 1671, although -the Inquisition had ceased to be very active in dealing with the -enforcement of press censorship laws, the requirements preliminary to -printing a book were so severe that one wonders that printing existed at -all. If a man wanted to print a book in Venice at that time he had to -secure the following: - -1. A testamur (a sort of approval) from the Inquisition. - -2. A testamur from the Ducal Secretary. - -3. A certificate from the University of Padua. - -4. Permission to print from the Council of Ten. - -5. Revision of his work by the superintendent of the press. - -6. Revision of his proofs by the public proof reader. - -7. Collation of the original text with the printed text by the -representative of the University. - -8. A certificate by the Librarian of Saint Marks that a copy of the book -had been deposited in the Library. - -9. Examination by government experts to fix the price. - -Almost every one of these processes had to be paid for. Italy outside -Venice was strongly influenced by Rome and the press was comparatively -strictly controlled by the influence of the church. - -In Germany, on the contrary, the censorship was probably the least -severe of any on the Continent. As already noted, there was -substantially no printing of original work in Germany until 1500 and -consequently no special need of censorship. Shortly afterward Germany -was rent in twain by religious dissensions. It must be remembered that -the Reformation, being very largely a political movement, the difference -between Catholics and Protestants followed geographical lines for the -most part. There were comparatively few Protestants in Catholic -countries or Catholics in Protestant countries. The Protestants seized -upon the printing press as a method of propaganda. They consequently -advocated its freedom and encouraged its use. The Catholics at first -attempted to defend themselves from this attack by the suppression of -printing and the destruction of imported books. After a little time, -however, with greater wisdom, they themselves made use of the printing -press for a counter propaganda. Those who were disturbed by the -censorship in a country in either camp could and did move to one in the -other. In this way unless a man had religious opinions which were -unacceptable anywhere or wished to publish books which were seditious or -immoral it would be entirely easy for him to find a place where he could -be undisturbed and probably encouraged. - -The early assertion of government control in France has already been -described. Francis I, although a good friend of printing, was a loyal -son of the church, and all the more so because of his unfriendly -relations with Henry VIII of England who, for much of his life, was not -on good terms with the church. Francis, therefore, issued edicts in 1521 -enforcing the censorship which was called for by the decree of the -Lateran Council already referred to. - -This censorship was exercised by a considerable number of persons. This -was always a defect in the French press laws and was the cause of a -great deal of difficulty and hardship. At first censorship was exercised -by the bishops, by the Faculty of Theology of the University of Paris, -by the Parliament of Paris, by the Royal Chancellor, by the -Director-General of the Book Trade, and by the Lieutenant of Police. -Tendencies to consolidation, however, soon manifested themselves. The -first important step was the centering of church censorship in the hands -of the Faculty of Theology of the University of Paris to the exclusion -of the bishops generally. - -The tendency to centralize was naturally accompanied by a tendency to -tighten the censorship of the civil authorities, a tendency quite -opposite to that which we observed in Venice. In 1624 a Censor-Royal was -appointed to whom everybody, even the bishops themselves, was obliged to -submit his writing. The numerous civil authorities having charge of -censorship caused confusion for a time, but gradually their powers were -concentrated in the hands of the Director-General of the Book Trade. - -The laws were administered by inspectors of bookselling and enforced by -the police and the civil courts. The laws were very severe. They applied -primarily to the printer and bookseller, probably because he was an -easier person to get at than the author and much more likely to be -financially responsible. The printer was obliged to make public the name -of the author and printer, the place of manufacture, and the place of -sale of every book which he printed. A printer might be prosecuted if an -authorized book turned out to be objectionable. This was a particularly -unjust law because the printer was obliged to take the chance that, -after the book had been duly censored and approved by authority, some -censor, perhaps not the one who had originally approved it, might find -something in it which he considered objectionable. - -The penalties for infraction of the press laws were very severe. They -consisted of the burning of books, confiscation of books, fines, -flogging, imprisonment, banishment, and even burning alive. From 1660 to -1756, 869 authors, printers, and booksellers were sent to the Bastille. -At least one-third of these were printers. - -The press laws in France were more severe than almost anywhere else in -Europe. In practical operation they favored foreign printers at the -expense of the French. Naturally the result of all of this regulation -was that Frenchmen did not print, and the market was supplied from -abroad. If the laws had been strictly enforced printing would apparently -have been driven out of France. There were, however, certain -mitigations. In the first place certain things were exempt from the -operations of the press laws, such as legal documents, police papers, -documents bearing the signatures of advocates, and small publications of -two leaves or less for the spread of news or for other purposes. This -particular exemption was always the cause of a good deal of question and -a good deal of abuse. Again, these laws were largely held in reserve, -that is to say, they made possible the punishment of offending printers, -but in many cases the offender was not proceeded against unless someone -complained. Again, the judges used large discretion in dealing with -cases of infraction of the press laws. In many cases licenses were -issued in a very informal way, so that official responsibility was not -involved; and sometimes a clandestine permission was given, the printer -being assured that although his book could not be approved no action -would be taken against him if he published it. False statements as to -place of printing were used as a means of avoiding responsibility, -sometimes apparently with the connivance of the authorities. The -personal influence of the Chancellor was very great in these cases, and -it was entirely possible for him to protect authors or writers if he -chose to do so. - -By the eighteenth century the condition had become practically -intolerable. There was a great mass of laws on the statute books. -Legislation was confused and contradictory and of the most drastic sort. -The enforcement was sporadic and irregular, depending upon a great many -personal and local considerations. There was no underlying principle to -control either the making or enforcement of the laws. All this, like so -much else that belonged to the life of the old days, was swept away by -the French Revolution. All the laws regarding privilege, censorship, and -the like were annulled in a mass. The press was given absolute freedom -and left without any control whatever. Of course, it abused this freedom -and the condition of things for a while was extremely bad. It finally -readjusted itself, however, and gradually settled down into the -condition which is familiar today. - - - - - CHAPTER IV - DEVELOPMENT OF THE IDEA OF COPYRIGHT - - -As we have already seen, the early printers concerned themselves almost -exclusively with the reprinting of church books and the classics. These -last required for successful performance expert editorial work and proof -reading. The printers engaged competent and sometimes very distinguished -scholars to do this work for them and paid them for their labor. Out of -this practice grew the idea that the author might properly share in the -profits of the original work done by him. If he were paid for preparing -a good text of Virgil, for instance, why could he not be paid for -writing a critical article to be prefixed to the volume, and why not if -he wrote a whole book about Virgil which the publisher desired to -present to the world of scholars? At first there was some objection on -the part of the writers themselves. It was held by many that it was -undignified and improper for a writer to sell his ideas. Such opinions -soon ceased to be common. The race of professional authors living by -their pens came into existence. - -The same questions which arose with regard to the printer’s right to his -work extended to the question of the author’s right. Even before the -author’s pecuniary right in his work was clearly recognized the claim -was asserted that he ought to have control of it. Luther, for example, -strongly asserted this right of control and strenuously objected to -piracy on the ground of his desire to safeguard the correctness of texts -purporting to be written by him. He does not appear to have cared for -the money, as he himself corrected the texts of pirated editions of his -works. He feared, however, that harm might come through typographical -errors or even the deliberate falsification of his writing. This has -always been a real danger, and one of the greatest complaints made by -European authors against American printers previous to the days of -international copyright was on the ground of the incorrectness of the -pirated editions. - -One of the first persons to enjoy anything like copyright protection in -Germany was Albrecht Dürer. The city government of Nuremberg undertook -to protect Dürer and his family in the right to print and publish his -works. It is a curious mark of the undeveloped state of public opinion -regarding these matters at this time that Dürer seems to have been -protected more as an inventor than as an author. The early German -copyrights in many cases seem not only to have prevented others from -reprinting a specified book but also from printing any book on the same -subject. For example, Dürer wrote a book on _Proportion_ which was -published in Paris. Before it was completed another artist named Beham -undertook to publish a book on _Proportion_. Beham was ordered not to -publish his book until after Dürer had completed publication. He -insisted that his work was an absolutely independent one, not in any way -copied from or related to the work of Dürer, but his plea was -disregarded, although, as it afterward turned out, it was quite true -that his work was entirely independent. - -Throughout Europe during the period we have under consideration we find -two ideas gradually clearing themselves from the confused thinking of -the time and coming into recognition. The first is the idea that the -writer of a book has for a time at least property rights in it, and the -other that old books belong to the public. That is the basis of our -modern thinking on the subject. We recognize that any writer may -copyright his work and is entitled to the control of it during the -copyright period, which varies in different countries. When his -copyright has expired any publisher who cares to undertake the venture -as a business proposition may bring out an edition and sell it at -whatever price he chooses. That is the reason why old books are -generally cheaper than new books. An edition of Scott or Dickens is -purely a manufacturing proposition. An edition of Maurice Hewlett is a -very different matter because Mr. Hewlett, or his publisher, holds -copyright on his works and must be paid for the privilege of publishing. - -Another important development in thought was the growth of the idea of -right as distinguished from privilege. A privilege, as the word implies, -is an act of grace. It is a grant of permission to do a thing which one -has no inherent right to do. In England, as we shall later see, when the -idea of copyright came to be seriously considered it was based on the -common law, that is to say, it was recognized that the printer and -author had some rights in the matter. - -As soon as it was seen that the printer and the author had produced -something more than a mere piece of merchandise and that the property -right of the producer inhered in that added element quite as much as in -the piece of merchandise the basis was laid for the common law treatment -of the whole matter. The extension of the conception of property to -cover thoughts as well as things was the basis of the whole matter. - -It was a long time before these ideas emerged on the Continent. It was -well to the end of the 18th century before these matters were clearly -understood and recognized by law. It was not until 1777 that French law -distinctly recognized the difference between old and new books, and the -rights of the author. This was only twelve years before the French -Revolution. At that time all the old laws were swept away and the -extreme regulation of printing in France gave place to no regulation at -all, which for a time made things worse than ever. It was not until into -the nineteenth century that the question of copyright has been -reasonably settled. There is still something to be desired before ideal -conditions are reached. Copyright laws of the various nations differ -greatly, but on the whole they fairly accomplish the desired results -within the national boundaries. - -International copyright rests on the Treaty of Bern in 1887. The United -States was for many years a great offender in the matter of the -recognition of the rights of foreign authors. At the time of the Treaty -of Bern the United States recognized the principle of international -copyright, but we did not have reasonably satisfactory legislation on -the subject until so recently as 1909. In this, as in other matters -which we have been discussing and shall discuss in this volume, very -little reference has been made to England for the reason that a separate -volume will be given to the history of printing in that country. - - - - - CHAPTER V - TRADE GUILDS AND THE COMING OF THE NEW INDUSTRY - - -The outstanding factor in the industrial, social, and economic life of -the Middle Ages is the trade guild. The real life of any people is not -the story of its wars or the record of the doings of its kings and -nobles. It is the life of the people themselves. The moment we try to -study this aspect of these old times we find that in the towns -especially the life of the people centers around their trade guilds. The -guild was an organization of all the workmen in any given trade. It -included the master workman, the journeyman, and the apprentice. It -controlled the whole life of the industry from the buying of materials -to the selling of the finished product, from the indenturing of the -apprentice to the certification of the master workman. Its peculiar -strength lay in the fact that it did not exercise this control in the -interest of either the employer or the employed. It exercised it in the -interest of the industry as a whole. It did not forget the interests of -the public. It did not permit the industry to be practised by the -unauthorized or outsiders. It limited competition. It distributed labor. -It prevented over-production. It assumed great responsibility for its -members and it held them to a very strict accountability. - -Of course, such an organization was possible only under conditions of -production far different from those which now prevail. All work was -hand-work and each hand-worker was supposed to make the whole of the -thing produced. There were no machines of any importance and there was -practically no division of labor. The armorer, for example, made his -helmet, carrying it through every process from the first shaping of the -steel to the attaching of the last plume. The shoemaker selected his -leather and carried it through every process until the shoe was -finished. Men learned trades in those days. They did not learn to tend a -machine. A trade was worth something because the trade organization of -that day made lack of employment impossible for a decent man in ordinary -times. Learning a trade took a long time. As soon as the boy was old -enough to begin to learn he was apprenticed to a master workman, usually -for a term of seven years. Usually he paid something for his -apprenticeship, in some cases a considerable amount. He lived in the -master’s family and was supported by him until he was out of his time. -He then usually worked as a journeyman until he could accumulate the -small capital necessary to set up as an independent master. - -Having been apprenticed under guild regulations to a guild member he -became a member of the guild himself as soon as he qualified as a -journeyman. Meantime he had not only been thoroughly instructed in the -practice of the industry but he had absorbed the craftsman’s spirit and -become imbued with the great principles of guild life. These principles -were five: - -1. General protection of workmen. This has perhaps been sufficiently -described already. - -2. Limitation of competition. This has also been remarked upon. - -3. Perfection of work. The guild always stood behind the quality of the -product made by its members. If goods were not up to standard in quality -it was not only held to be a disgrace to the guild, but the offending -member was liable to severe punishment at the hands of the guild itself. -The guilds maintained their own inspectors. These inspectors visited the -shops and the fairs or occasional markets where goods were sold. If they -found poor work in the shop or if they found that poor work had been put -in the hands of the merchants for sale, they reported it to the guild -officers who immediately dealt with the offending member. - -4. Honesty in business. The guild member not only made his goods but -sold them, generally directly to the public. Sometimes he sold them to -merchants and sometimes he sent them to certain cities where at certain -times markets or fairs were held, there to be sold on commission. More -often, however, he made and sold his own goods in his own shop and lived -in the same building with his family, his apprentices, and sometimes his -journeymen. The guild stood for full weight and measure and for honesty -in all business transactions. It punished faults in these directions as -sternly as in the making of poor goods. - -5. The maintenance of the social order. The guilds were always to be -found arranged on the side of law and order, although that did not -always mean that they were on the side of the king or other constituted -authority in periods of civil disturbance. - -The members of the guilds, all fighting men usually serving under their -own guild banners and their own leaders, were an important part of the -military force of the medieval cities. Although they might and did fight -on one side or the other of some civic quarrel they always stood for -order in the community just as they did for honesty in production and -trade. This, however, is closely connected with the further fact that -the guilds had a distinct religious side. The medieval man was not -perhaps very much more religious than his modern descendant, but he was -religious in a different way and paid much more attention to the forms -of religion. Religious ceremonies formed a part of the regular routine -of guild life and in many cases special churches were closely identified -with certain guilds. Closely connected with the guilds were -organizations known as confraternities. These confraternities were -religious, charitable, and social organizations. Although usually drawn -from members of some particular industry, they did not attempt to -exercise the trade control which was in the hands of the guilds. They -adopted the name of some saint who was chosen as their patron. They had -a solemn feast following attendance at church on his day in the -calendar, and they maintained a fund out of which the needy could be -assisted and the dead buried with due provision of masses for the repose -of his soul in case the family funds were not sufficient. - -You see we are dealing with a time when the lives of men were very -simple, very neighborly, and at least so far as observance goes, very -religious. It is very important that we should have some fairly clear -idea of these times if we are to understand at all how the early -printers lived, what they did, and why they did it. - -The thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries were the golden age -of the guilds. They were at the height of their power and influence at -the period of the invention of printing. The sixteenth, seventeenth, and -eighteenth centuries were a period of decline. At first the decline was -slow. After the sixteenth century, however, the decline was rapid, and -long before the end of the eighteenth century the guilds had lost -practically all of their old-time power and influence. In some portions -of Europe the old guild organization still exists, but its influence is -very slight and its purposes are far different from those of the old -organizations of the Middle Ages. - -This decline was the result of the changing economic conditions. One of -the most important of these was the development of the modern type of -production in factories using costly equipment and employing large -numbers of men. The old type of production required little or no -capital. There was practically no costly machinery. The work was done in -the master workman’s house by himself, his sons, and apprentices. No -expensive outlay for materials or plant was required. The journeyman -required practically no capital for starting in business beyond his -personal strength and skill. - -Printing was the first industry which could not be carried on under the -old conditions. From the beginning the printer must have capital to -supply type, presses, and other equipment, to purchase material, which -was costly, and to maintain himself and those who were working with him -while a long process was being brought to completion and the product -marketed. In order to carry on the business to any advantage a -considerable number of persons must be employed. Under these -circumstances printing was necessarily from the beginning an enterprise -which required the co-operation of capital and labor to an extent -hitherto unknown. - -Another reason for the decline of the guilds may be found in the -increasing power of the government and its progressive control of the -citizen. The control and protection thus exercised by the government -rendered the protection and control exercised by the guild over its -members not only unnecessary but improper. While in some respects -governmental control and the freedom of a well-organized system of -courts did not protect the rights of the individual and insure the -quality of product as effectively as the guilds had done, it was -inevitable that particular regulations should give way to general -regulation and that the individual should not only be taught but -compelled to look to the state rather than to an association of -individuals for the protection of his rights and the definition of his -duties. - -It was probably this more than anything else which brought about an -increasing antagonism between the guilds and the state in every country. -In the years of their growth and power the guilds, as we have seen, had -been the strong supporters of the social order, the pillars of the -state, and the firm reliance of the government, or at any rate of that -party in the government which they supported. When the government became -strong enough to desire to stand alone, the power of the guilds, which -had formerly been useful, became decidedly objectionable, and the entire -influence of the state was more and more directed against them. - -Another important social change was the development of free labor and -free capital, resulting in the separation of industrial classes. Under -the guild system there was no separation between labor and capital, or -between the employers and the employed as classes. The guilds were -associations in which labor and so much capital as there was were -combined in a close organization, while there was neither labor nor -capital in any particular amount outside the guild. With the gradual -change of conditions, growth of population, increase of wealth, and -greater intercourse between communities there grew up on one end of the -social scale groups of laborers who were not members of any guild and on -the other end accumulations of capital which were either in the hands of -men who were neither craftsmen nor guild members or of those who had -larger accumulations than they could use in their own business. This -development of laborers seeking employment and capital seeking -investment was fatal to the guild system when once the progress of -invention made the factory system possible. - -One of the factors which accelerated this movement was a curious -combination of high prices fixed by the economic law of supply and -demand and low wages fixed by the ancient law of custom. It must be -remembered that at this time the science of political economy did not -exist. People did not know the laws which govern business and control -prices and wages. They ignorantly supposed, as some persons still -suppose, that these things may be governed by statute, being entirely -unaware of the fact that they are really the product of causes for the -most part beyond human control. In the early Middle Ages wages and -prices were fixed on a basis of custom. The three centuries which formed -the golden age of the guilds were a period of very slight industrial -changes. There were no great changes in population. There was no -colonizing, with the consequent opening of new markets. There were no -modern inventions. There was no particular change in the amount of gold -and silver in circulation. Consequently the law of supply and demand -made itself felt so little through variations in prices and in wages -that it was entirely neglected. It became the custom to pay a certain -amount for each commodity, and especially to pay a fixed rate of wages -in certain occupations. Nobody thought of paying less or of asking more -than this customary sum. In case anybody did attempt any modification of -this sort he was promptly checked by law. Attempts were also frequently -made to prevent by law variations in prices. - -This condition of things was completely upset by the changes which took -place about the time of the discovery of America. One of the immediate -results of the opening up of the mines and treasure hoards of Mexico and -Central and South America, with the consequent enormous increases in the -amount of gold and silver in circulation, was a rise in general prices -of about 100 per cent or, to put it differently, a cutting in two of the -value of gold and silver. Gold and silver are just like other -commodities. When the amount of gold in a given market is doubled its -value is halved; that is to say, you have to pay twice as much for -whatever you want to buy. - -The opening of new markets and the stimulus given not only to invention -but to production and communication by the intellectual movement and -consequent discoveries and inventions which were going on at this time -upset industrial conditions tremendously. As usual, however, the workmen -were the last to feel this change. Men paid more gold for commodities -because they could not get them at the same old price, but wages for a -long period remained fixed by custom. The laborer, like other people, -had to pay more for what he bought, but unlike other people did not get -any more for what he sold. This condition was made even worse by -ignorant and sometimes disastrous attempts to control by legislation a -situation which nobody understood. Statutes to fix prices and curtail -profits are never enforceable unless backed by a government monopoly of -production. Consequently the extensive legislation for these purposes -was useless. Unfortunately there was also legislation forbidding -combination of workmen, forbidding their passage from place to place in -search of work, and forbidding their asking or receiving more than the -customary rate of wages. Some of this was old legislation revived. Some -of it was new. While not entirely effective, it was much more effective -than the legislation with regard to commodity prices, because in the -nature of things it was much more easily enforceable. - -The natural consequence of these conditions was the disruption of the -old economic order. The employer and employed, who had been associated -together in the old guilds, separated into antagonistic, if not hostile, -camps. Capital and labor instead of co-operating contested for -supremacy. Guilds, if they survived at all, gradually became -associations of masters. We shall see how this worked out in the -development of the Community of Printers. The workmen gathered into -organizations of their own which were the ancestors of the modern labor -unions. The modern industrial system with all its power and with all its -abuses came into existence. - -Printing did not fit into the guild system at all. As has already been -pointed out, the very nature of the industry prevented it. Indeed it was -not legally regarded as an industry or a mechanical occupation until the -great reorganization of the trade in 1618, a date to which we shall have -frequent occasion to refer. At first it was regarded as an art or -profession and those who practiced it were legally recognized as not -being mechanics and not being liable to the laws governing mechanics. -From 1450 to 1618 the printing industry was a sort of industrial outlaw. -It was not under guild control on the one hand and was not amenable to -the general statutes regarding industry on the other. That meant that -the regulations which were at this period so advantageous to the other -industries did not apply to this one, with numerous unfortunate results. - -The industry at first attached itself to the universities. It was -utilized, as we have seen, not for a commercial purpose as now, but for -the production of Bibles, the classics, and other learned books almost -exclusively. As we have also seen, the universities attempted to control -the output of the press until more effective methods of censorship were -devised. - -Previous to the invention of typography there had been a sort of guild -of the makers and sellers of books. In most places this was known as the -Confraternity of St. John the Evangelist, sometimes as the Confraternity -of St. Luke, and in one place at least as the Brothers of the Pen. This -organization continued to exist as an association of printers, but it -did not have the power and standing of the great trade guilds of an -earlier period. Soon after the invention of printing the journeymen and -apprentices formed an association of their own, which very soon -developed into something like a labor union. The result of these -conditions was great disorganization in the trade. Strikes were -frequent. In France particularly the period from 1539 to 1544 was one of -great disorder. Accounts of a series of strikes in the city of Lyons at -this period read almost like the accounts of a serious labor disturbance -of the present time. Shops were picketed. There were parades of -strikers. There were riots by the strikers and their sympathizers, and -an appeal to the town authorities to settle the matter. The settlement -proposed was so unfavorable to the master printers that they threatened -to leave Lyons in a body. This would have been a very serious matter, as -printing was then one of the great industries of the city, and the -disturbance was finally settled by a compromise which granted the -journeymen some of their more important demands and yet left enough to -the masters so that they felt that they could continue in business. The -great grievances complained of were low pay, poor food (the journeymen -were boarded by their employers), too many apprentices, and the -unwillingness of the masters to allow them to work at certain times when -they wanted to work, such as on the eves of Sundays and feast days and -the like, and to abstain from work at certain times when they did not -want to work. - -Attempts were made to stop the disturbances in the trade by the -intervention of the government. This intervention was entirely on the -side of the masters. The journeymen were forbidden to do anything -whatever to injure the masters or to impede their business and they were -denied the limitation of apprentices for which they had asked. Guild -regulations limited the number of apprentices taken in other industries -and it seemed only reasonable to the journeyman that similar regulations -should obtain among the printers, but the royal authority was constantly -exercised against them. This attempted settlement by royal authority was -immediately followed by still more serious strikes. The masters -complained that the agitation was due to the pernicious activity of -labor leaders and invoked the royal edicts. The journeymen alleged -abuses, claimed their rights, and undertook to enforce them by -combination. The royal authority was exercised in the effort to coerce -the journeymen even to the point of threatening by an edict of 1617 that -workmen who interfered with the conduct of their master’s business -should be put to death. This, however, was the last expiring effort of -the old order of things. In the next year, 1618, a royal edict organized -the trade and prescribed the regulations under which it should be -conducted. - -This organization, which we shall proceed to study in detail, was the -basis of the conduct of the printing industry in France until 1789. It -did not bring industrial peace and it did not remedy all existing evils. -As we shall see, the history of printing is a history of industrial -conflict throughout the whole period until 1789. Henceforth, however, -the regulation of the trade, the establishment of a responsible -organization, and the fixing of regulations between masters and men -changed the field of strife. We hear little or nothing more of strikes. -The state was recognized as the source of regulation and as the arbiter -of questions which might arise between the associated employers on one -hand and their partially associated employees on the other. The -industrial struggles hereafter took the form of litigation rather than -of strikes. The outlaw industry at last obtained a recognized, -responsible position in the industrial world. - - - - - CHAPTER VI - THE COMMUNITY OF PRINTERS - - -An unregulated trade, conducted under conditions of absolute freedom -approximating those of the present day, was not only out of place in the -Middle Ages but was practically impossible. We have seen how the attempt -to carry on a trade under such conditions resulted in a state of -intolerable confusion in the printing industry. Accordingly a royal -edict was issued by King Louis XII supplying the needed regulations for -the conduct of the industry according to seventeenth century ideas. - -So far as the industry itself was concerned the important feature of -this edict was the organization of the Community of Printers. This -Community embraced all the printing trades; that is to say, printing, -book binding, type founding, and bookselling. The master workmen -carrying on shops in any of these allied industries were members of the -Community. It differed from the trade guilds in that it was an -organization of employers only. It did not include even the master -workmen who were not employers. - -Certain matters were decided upon by the Community as a whole, but the -work of the Community was carried on for the most part by a sort of -Executive Committee called the Syndics. This Committee consisted of a -chairman, who is usually referred to as the Syndic, and four associates -or assessors. This board was chosen annually. Originally the elections -were held in general assemblages of the industry at which all members of -the Community were entitled to vote. Later the elections were in the -hands of a board consisting of the five syndics for the year, past -members of the board of syndics, and twenty-four electors. Of these -twenty-four, eight were printers, eight booksellers, and eight binders. -The type founders appear never to have been very important members of -the Community and probably soon ceased to be represented among the -syndics. At the time the Community was organized typefounding was not a -separate industry, but was carried on by the printers themselves. - -The duty of the syndics was to act as the corporate representatives of -the industry. They fixed wages and prices. They adjusted disputes -between their fellow-members and acted for the employers in dealing with -the employees. They had powers of visitation and supervision. Through -these they were supposed to exercise a sort of censorship over printing, -to maintain the quality of work done, to see that trade regulations were -enforced and trade agreements carried out; in a word, to exercise the -same minute control over the industry which was exercised by the guilds. - -The new organization was a very great improvement over the former lack -of organization, but it was very far from being completely successful. -Its first effort was to regulate admission to mastership and so to -membership of the Community. The number of shops in Paris in 1618 was -76. By 1686 this number had been reduced to 36 and the process was still -going on. At Troyes in 1700 there were 16 shops and in 1739 only 3. This -limitation was brought about by freezing out the small shops, by strict -regulation of admissions to the Community without which the business -could not be legally carried on, and by the purchase from time to time -of certificates of membership. A certificate of membership in the -Community was a very considerable asset to an individual and on his -death it passed to his heirs. While it could not apparently be sold -outside the family, it had distinct value and could often be purchased -and cancelled by the Community. Except by inheritances membership might -be obtained only through advancement in the trade from apprenticeship -through journeymanship to master workmanship, as we shall see later. The -fees required for membership of the Community and the capital required -for carrying on business were so great that very few attained membership -of the Community in this way. Membership of the Community, however, was -open to the sons of members or to those who might marry the widows of -members, and in a very short time membership became practically limited -to those who obtained it in one or the other of these ways. - -The Community was undoubtedly very useful in giving a corporate center -to the industry and also in giving more support to trade usages, -contracts, and agreements. On the other hand its efficiency was greatly -weakened by the quarrels which immediately broke out between the three -elements of the Community and which lasted until the final break-up of -the old conditions in 1789. The quarrel was mainly between the printers -and the booksellers or publishers. The binders were soon recognized as -forming an independent industry and they were before very long -eliminated from the Community of Printers. They formed a Community of -their own in 1686 and need not be further considered. - -The hostility between the booksellers and the printers began with the -invention of printing. Their interests were so closely related and yet -so antagonistic that an attempt to combine them in one Community while -at the same time keeping their functions separate resulted in constant -quarrels and in a weakening of the influence of the Community itself. - -The booksellers, for instance, were lax in their supervision and control -in matters where the printers were directly concerned, while the -printers were equally negligent of the interests of the booksellers. The -printers naturally desired to restrict the number of printers but they -were glad to see the number of booksellers competing for the privilege -of handling their output increased indefinitely. The booksellers, being -fewer in number and probably richer, were more united and more -aggressive than the printers. They attempted to get control of -manuscripts so that the printers could not produce anything without -first paying toll to the owners of the manuscripts. We must always -remember that at this period the great mass of commercial and periodical -printing which supports the industry today was not in existence, and -that printing was practically confined to books and official documents. -The booksellers also wanted to print for themselves; that is to say, to -hire journeymen printers and so make themselves independent of the -master printers. By their resistence to the closing of the mastership -and by the cultivation of competition they did their best to lower the -prices of printing. In a word, they endeavored to subjugate the printers -entirely. In this they did not succeed, but they kept the quarrel alive, -very much to the detriment of the industry, until the end of the old -industrial order. - - - - - CHAPTER VII - HOW THE OLD-TIME PRINTERS WORKED - - -Before considering the organization of a shop and the conditions under -which the work was done, it is worth while to look into a printing -establishment of the sixteenth, seventeenth, or eighteenth century and -see how the work itself was carried on. This general view of an old-time -printing plant will be made fairly full even at the cost of some -repetition of facts already stated elsewhere on account of the -importance of presenting here as complete a picture as possible of the -life and labor of printers in the centuries under discussion. - -Originally the printer did everything except to make his paper and his -presses. He designed and cast his type, he made his ink, he edited his -manuscript, printed his books, bound them, and, for a time, sold them. -We have just considered his relations to the bookseller. He got rid of -his type casting about one hundred years after the invention. The type -foundry of Guillaume Le Bé, established about 1551, seems to have been -the beginning of type founding as a separate industry, although in later -years some very large establishments maintained type foundries and even -paper mills as incidents of the business; but the printer from this time -on began to get his type outside. - -Bookbinding came to be regarded as a separate industry at about the same -time. - -Ink making was done by the printer until comparatively recently. The ink -balls which were used for distributing the ink on types were made by the -printers themselves until the ink ball was superseded by the roller with -the coming in of modern presses. Even then rollers were made in the -shops for a long time, and indeed the practice is hardly now entirely -discontinued. - -The early paper was hand-made and was thick, with a rough, furrowed -surface. It was grayish or yellowish in color and was very strongly -water-marked. It was very costly, but very durable. It was heavy and -hard to handle, especially as it was handled without mechanical -appliances. - -The early types were irregular in face and body as the natural result of -being cast in hand moulds from hand cut dies. The early types were cast -on large bodies and were used without leads. The point system, which -reduced type to uniformity and did away with the annoying irregularity -in size of the old types, did not come into existence until the middle -of the eighteenth century, three hundred years after the invention of -printing. Of course, all composition throughout this period was done by -hand. Women were employed as compositors as early as 1500, but they -apparently disappeared from the industry before long, as we find no -evidence of their presence after the reorganization of 1618 or for some -time before that. - -The press was substantially the old screw press of Gutenberg in which -the platen was forced down onto the bed by the direct pressure of a -screw. A few improvements had been made. A sliding bed was introduced in -1500. A copper screw (more effective and durable than the old wooden -screw), tympan, and frisket were added in 1550, and the so-called Dutch -press, which did away with the necessity of raising the platen by a -reverse motion of the screw by substituting leverage for it, was -introduced in 1620. These were the only improvements of any note which -were made before the introduction of the Stanhope press about 1800. Of -course, the presses were worked by hand power and it will be seen that -the setting up of the screw or the throwing of a lever with sufficient -force to insure a good impression was an extremely laborious task. It -was sometimes dangerous, as the screw bar or lever was liable to break -when the workman’s weight and strength were thrown upon it, resulting in -serious injuries. - -The ink was good—well-aged linseed oil, boiled until viscous when cool, -and mixed in a mortar with resin black. It was mixed in the proportion -of thirty-two ounces of oil to five ounces of black. Of course, it was -variable, its quality depending upon the quality of the ingredients and -the care exercised in preparation. It was spread on the type by means of -balls of leather stuffed with wool and firmly attached to wooden -handles. One of these balls was taken in each hand, a small portion of -ink was spread evenly over the balls by rubbing them together, and the -ink ball was then passed over the type so as to distribute the ink as -evenly as possible. - -Composition was done by the full page. This was a fairly reasonable -method of reckoning, as the kinds of printing were not varied as they -are now. Compositors worked “on honor” and were paid by time. Payment by -ems is a very late advance, not having been adopted until about 1775. - -Imposition was done practically as now. - -The pressman’s day began by the preparation, through softening and -cleaning, of the balls which were to be used on the day’s run, and the -mixing of the amount of ink considered necessary for the day’s work. -Make-ready, adjustment of margins, register, and the like had to be -attended to before the impressions could be taken. Meanwhile the paper -had been dampened. The old screw press could not print on dry paper. -Paper came from the mill in “hands” or packages of twenty-five sheets, -folded once and laid inside each other as note paper is now sold by the -stationer. A “hand” was dipped in a tub of water. It was then taken out -and the sheets were placed flat under weights to squeeze out the -superfluous water and keep the sheets in shape. After the water had been -squeezed out the sheets were re-folded into “hands” and sent to the -pressroom to be placed upon the press while still damp. - -Two men worked together on the press, one inking the type and the other -making the impression. They worked turn and turn about in hour shifts so -that the more and less laborious work was equally distributed. - -Two-color work was done by taking two impressions from one form. The -parts which were intended to be printed in red were set in higher type -than the rest and a perforated frisket was used. The red ink impression -was taken first. The type for red ink was then removed and slugs were -put in, making the form type high throughout. From this form the -impression was taken in black ink. As might be supposed, the register -was almost always imperfect. - -The printed leaves while still damp were piled under weights to remove -the counter impression of the type which naturally struck through the -damp paper. - -The printing was done with the paper sufficiently damp to make this -simple process of removal fairly successful. Later the printed sheets -were pressed between heated plates of metal, giving a very smooth and -glossy surface to the page. - -The pressman was paid by time like the compositor, but he was expected -to accomplish a given amount of work in a day. In Paris, about 1575, he -was expected to print 2650 sheets, while at Lyons the day’s work was -held to be 3350. All folding, of course, was done by hand with no -further assistance than that of the bone or wooden folding stick. The -first sheet from the press was taken as a sample or proof. Proving, as -distinguished from printing, was then unknown. - -Proofreading was done practically as now and the proof marks were -substantially the same. Two corrections per page must be made by the -compositor without extra compensation. Other corrections were apparently -not made by the original compositor, but by other workmen who were -employed as piece workers on that particular occupation for the time -being. The printer appears to have ordinarily managed to get these -corrections charged to the author. - -There was a rude system of cost finding and estimating in force. In -making a price on a job the printer charged first for the paper. Whether -or not he took a profit here is uncertain, but he probably did when he -thought he could get it. The paper did not enter any further into his -computation. He next estimated the cost of the labor. He then figured 50 -per cent of the labor cost as overhead, including such minor items as -ink and other special materials which might be needed on that particular -job before it got to the customer. He then added another 25 per cent of -the labor cost, which was supposed to be profit, and upon that basis he -made up his price. Presumably there were price cutters and more or less -unsuccessful guessers in those days as there are now, but the method -just outlined was supposed to be that by which printers generally -reached their figures. The financial success of the printer depended, of -course, on operation. He might so conduct his work that the 50 per cent -overhead might leave a considerable margin to be added to the 25 per -cent profit or, on the other hand, he might so bungle it as to eat up -the 25 per cent and more too. - - - - - CHAPTER VIII - INTERNAL ORGANIZATION OF THE INDUSTRY - - -The workers in the industry were divided into four clearly defined -classes, namely apprentices, laborers, journeymen, and masters. In this, -as in most respects in this volume, the study is based largely on -conditions prevailing in France for the reason that we have much more -abundant material from French sources than elsewhere. The conditions in -France, however, were probably substantially the same as those which -existed elsewhere, so that by studying conditions in France we get a -very fair idea of those which generally prevailed at this period. - - - _Apprentices_ - -The apprentices, as now, were the boys and young men learning the -industry under an apprenticeship agreement. The age of apprentices -varied considerably. They were not often received under seventeen or -above twenty-four. Perhaps the majority of them were received at the age -of nineteen or twenty. - -The printer’s apprentice was probably a little older as a rule than the -apprentice in other industries because he had to have a much more -extensive previous education. It was not only necessary that he should -be well versed in his own language and in the essentials of ordinary -education, but it was necessary that he should also be able to read and -write both Latin and Greek. While it is true that after a few years many -books were printed in the native tongue of the printers, it must not be -forgotten that the printing of this period was almost entirely book -printing and to a very great extent the printing of books of what we -should call today religion and serious literature. Latin was the -universal language of the Catholic Church as it is today. It was also -the language of learned men everywhere. No scholar thought of writing a -serious work in English, French, or German. He might translate one into -the vernacular or he might, especially after the beginning of the -religious controversies, write a controversial book in his native -language, but for the most part serious writing was done in Latin. There -was a considerable amount of printing of Greek classics in the original, -although there was not much use of Greek for original composition. Under -these circumstances it is clear that the knowledge of these tongues was -very important. The enforcement, however, of the strict requirements of -this period was a cause of many disputes in the industry. The employers -then as now were ready to hire cheap help for cheap jobs, and they were -given to taking on apprentices far beyond the requirements of recruiting -the industry because they could get a good deal of work out of them -which otherwise must be given to higher priced men. In many cases they -were willing to take on apprentices who did not understand Greek or even -Latin. The result was injury to the industry itself and to the interests -of the workmen, as is always the case when employers take on improperly -trained apprentices who are incapable of development into the highest -efficiency. We shall meet these half-trained apprentices a little later. - -Further requirements were that the apprentice should be of good life and -manners and that he should be a Catholic and a native of France and -unmarried. - -An apprenticeship agreement was a formal contract. Originally this was a -verbal contract only, a sort of “gentlemen’s agreement.” After the -reorganization of 1618 it was a written contract drawn up by a notary. -The period of apprenticeship varied somewhat, especially before 1618. In -general, however, it was four years. The condition of the contract was -that the apprentice should pay a specified sum to the master for the -privilege of learning the trade and that he should agree to serve his -master with care and diligence for a period of four years and not -neglect his master’s interests nor spoil his master’s goods. In return -the master was bound to teach him the trade of printing so that at the -end of his time he would be qualified as a journeyman. In addition the -master was bound to furnish the apprentice lodging, food, clothing in -specified quantity, and sometimes a very small amount of money. - -The apprentice lived in the master’s house and ate either at the -master’s table or at the table set for the journeymen, who also received -their food from the master. If the apprentice absented himself for any -reason from his work his absence must be atoned for by double time added -to the period of apprenticeship. If his absences were repeated he was -liable to be discharged. In this case the master was held to be the -sufferer, the contract of apprenticeship was cancelled, and the entire -amount paid in by the apprentice as a premium was forfeited to the -master. It frequently happened that apprentices desired to be relieved -of their contracts before the expiration of their time. Sometimes it -happened that they changed their minds about becoming printers, more -often, probably, they sought short cuts into the industry. It has always -been the misfortune of printing that a very imperfect knowledge of it -has a comparatively higher market value than an equally imperfect -knowledge of other industries, while the period of apprenticeship -required for full learning of the trade is long and wearisome. The -apprentices were often tempted by offers of occupation as laborers or -even as journeymen in some of the poorer shops which were willing to -evade regulations. The habit of canceling indentures before their -expiration for a money consideration thus grew up to the serious -detriment of the industry. - -The printers made profit by taking the premium from the apprentice and -then selling him his freedom before his indenture had expired. The -injury to the industry and to the well-trained workman of this -competition of half-trained, incompetent workmen is perfectly clear. - -The masters, of course, complained that the apprentices were idle, -wasteful, and unteachable, and probably some of them were. Boys and -young men were good, bad, and indifferent in the Middle Ages just as -they are now. The apprentices complained on the other hand that they -were overworked, underfed, and personally abused in many instances. -Doubtless these complaints were often well founded because grownup men -were good, bad, and indifferent in the Middle Ages very much as they are -now. - -At best the work of the apprentice was very hard. Living as he did in -the master’s house and working in the shop as a beginner, he was a cross -between a domestic servant, an errand boy, and a learner in the -industry. The master’s wife might call upon him to wash the kitchen -floor. The foreman might send him out with a package of proofs. The -workmen might send him out for a bottle of wine or a pot of beer, or he -might be set to work on one of the legitimate tasks of his -apprenticeship only to be called away at almost any time by some such -personal demand as those just indicated. His hours, like those of -everybody else in the trade, were very long. He was expected to keep the -shop clean and in order, to clean the type and the presses, to mix ink, -to dampen paper, and if he were strong and well grown he might even be -put to working on the press. These and a thousand other things, many of -them unknown to modern shops, were required of him besides the work at -the case and elsewhere which gave him his real knowledge of the trade. - -The question of the number of apprentices was a burning one. Previous to -1618 it was one of the great causes of strikes and labor disputes. The -masters at that time desired to increase the number of apprentices -indefinitely, to which the journeymen objected on account of the injury -to their interests by having too many workmen, especially cheap ones. -The journeymen succeeded in securing a royal edict which limited the -number of apprentices to be employed in any establishment to two for -each press, one on composition and the other on presswork. The shop -conditions which have been already described show that this taking of -the press as a unit was fairly equitable. In the absence of machine work -both composition and presswork were slow, and had a more nearly equal -rate of speed than now. After 1618 the masters attempted to enforce the -limitation of apprentices as against each other. They feared the -competition of the man who succeeded in getting into his shop a supply -of cheap help which enabled him to cut prices, consequently the -journeymen no longer appear as parties to this dispute. - -During the whole period there were complaints that the apprenticeship -regulations were not enforced and that some of the masters insisted upon -taking more than the proper number of apprentices and taking them with -less than the proper qualifications. This seems to have been a very real -difficulty and one which was never entirely overcome. The temptation to -obtain cheap labor, regardless of the welfare of either the apprentice -or the industry, was too great, and many printers found it impossible to -resist it, especially as during the latter part of this period the -conditions in the industry became very bad and it was almost impossible -to make any money at it. - -Throughout this period, especially after 1618, all regulations as to -apprenticeship were relaxed in favor of the sons of masters and other -persons whom the masters desired particularly to favor. One of the most -significant and far-reaching of the regulations of the printing trade -was that which admitted the sons of masters directly to membership -without any previous training. We shall discuss this a little more fully -later. - - - _Laborers_ - -The class of workmen called laborers constituted a source of one of the -greatest difficulties and abuses in the industry, especially during the -seventeenth century. - -At this period there were no restrictions on their employment, or at -least none that were successfully enforced. After that period they were -less freely employed. They were ignorant or unskilled workmen incapable -of becoming journeymen. It was into this class that the apprentices -dropped who were employed without sufficient previous education, more -especially those who were ignorant in Greek and Latin. The class was -further made up of apprentices who had not finished their time, workmen -who proved incompetent to hold journeymen’s positions, and men who could -do rough work but had never been apprentices. Obviously there was a good -deal of work which these men could do. Part of it was work which would -otherwise be done by apprentices, part work which would otherwise be -done by journeymen. The unrestricted hiring of these men limited the -number of journeymen’s positions, reduced wages, lowered standards, and -was in every way detrimental to the industry. - - - _Journeymen_ - -In the printing industry the journeyman was not the same as the master. -In other industries after the apprentice had finished his time and -qualified by submitting a piece of work of approved standard, he became -a master workman. He was made free of the guild and ordinarily set up in -business for himself. Theoretically a somewhat similar condition -prevailed in the printing trade. Before the reorganization of 1618 and -the consequent restriction of mastership the apprentice became a master -workman when he had completed his time, and was at liberty to set up for -himself if he so desired. - -After the reorganization the apprentice after having finished his time -became a journeyman in the shop to which he had been apprenticed. -Originally he was restricted to that shop. He was then required to serve -as a journeyman from two to four years. At the expiration of that period -he passed a theoretical and practical examination. This covered his -proficiency in the languages and other academic subjects required and -the submission of a piece of completed work. He was also obliged to -submit a certificate of character covering the requirements of -apprenticeship and testifying as to his conduct while an apprentice. - -The question of his admission to the Community was then voted upon by -the syndics, and if he was found qualified and admitted he was formally -received into the Community at a public meeting at which were present -the syndics and the elders of the Community. He was then sworn in as a -member of the Community by the Lieutenant-General of Police. Before -being sworn in, however, he was required to pay certain fees. Originally -these fees were small, but they afterward became very large. - -As a matter of fact, very few journeymen became masters. The heavy fees -in themselves were almost prohibitive, but the greatest obstacle was the -difficulty about raising the necessary capital. No other business at -that time required so heavy an outlay for equipment, material, and labor -before any return whatever could be realized. The equipment was very -expensive and there were no small jobs such as are found in modern -commercial offices, especially those of the less pretentious type, to -keep the plant going. The printer was obliged to go to the entire -expense for material and labor involved in getting out an edition of a -book before he could begin to get any returns from it. Sometimes he knew -where he could sell the book (Caxton seems to have been particularly -successful in this regard), but more often he did not know. There is in -existence a letter written by Sweynheym and Pannartz to the Pope asking -him for assistance. They set forth their case by saying that they have -sunk a great deal of money in procuring equipment and printing books -which have sold slowly. They complain that they have a large house full -of books but with nothing in it to eat, and beg that he will either -assist them in the sale of their books or tide them over until they can -find a market. - -These conditions tended to keep the journeymen permanently in that -position and to confine the masters to those who came into the business -by inheritance or marriage. The printing industry has thus the -unfortunate prominence of being the leading influence in breaking up the -old unities of industry and bringing about the modern industrial system. -It was the first industry in which there was developed a distinct class -of masters who were not and never had been workmen, and in which the -workman could become a master only under unusual circumstances. The -sharp division of industry into employers and employed with antagonistic -interests and divergent aims begins here. - -The hours of labor in the printing industry were very long. Throughout -France they averaged about fourteen hours a day, and similar conditions -appear to have prevailed elsewhere. As already indicated, a certain -amount of product, particularly on the press, was considered to be a -fair day’s work. In 1572 the 3350 sheets per day required of a pressman -at Lyons compelled him to work from two o’clock in the morning to eight -or nine in the evening without leaving the shop. This appears from -evidence submitted in litigation. Printers were boarded and generally -lodged by their employers. Plantin’s establishment, still in existence -in Amsterdam, shows living quarters for all of the workmen who were -employed in the plant. They were given their meals in the shop and were -permitted to send the apprentices out for wine or beer, which they drank -in considerable quantities. The men themselves objected to going out for -their food, although they often complained of the quality of that -furnished. Their objection was based upon the fact that they so depended -upon each other for their work that if men went out, especially if they -overstayed their time, they would be likely to hold up each other’s work -and make it impossible to complete the required task of the day even in -the very liberal time allowance which was then regarded as reasonable. - -It is not to be wondered at that the long hours, close confinement, and -hard work encouraged the drinking habits which were proverbial among -printers. The natural result of so much drinking was a good deal of -disorder and violence, especially on holidays. There is no reason to -suppose, however, that printers as a class were worse than other workmen -of their day and generation. They were much superior in education and -they were recognized as being of higher social condition. They were -exempt from many of the legal requirements upon journeymen in other -trades, and their industry was more than once recognized by royal edict -as being an art or profession and not a mechanical trade. The printers -were very proud of this social distinction and, as has been already -stated, emphasized their claim to it by wearing swords, which in those -days was the mark of the gentleman or professional man. - -The hard work and long hours had two compensations; one partial, the -other very real. The first, which printing shared with other industries, -was the great number of holidays. The shops did not work on Sundays or -feast days. Under modern conditions there are slightly more than 300 -working days in the year, taking out Sundays and holidays and making no -allowance for illness or voluntary absence. In the period with which we -are dealing there were only from 230 to 240 working days in the year; -that is to say, there were 60 or 70 more holidays than we now have. -Probably shorter hours and more days of work would have been better for -all concerned. The other compensation was the very high rate of wages. -To state the printer’s wages of that time in terms of money would carry -very little information, partly because of the difference in coinage and -partly because of the difference in the purchasing power of money. The -really enlightening fact is that the wages of a printer were from two to -three times those of journeymen in the other skilled trades. Actual -wages were fixed by the operation of the law of supply and demand and by -the skill of the individual workman. There was what we should call today -a “scale” fixed either by custom or by law. The scale, however, instead -of being a minimum, as now, was a maximum, the variations being below -instead of above it. - -Unfortunately there was a great deal of unemployment, owing to the -prevalence of a form of work which will be presently described. This -unemployment was not only a serious evil in itself, but it led to -competition among workmen, who were often willing to work for less than -the going rate rather than to go idle. Another tendency toward the -lowering of wages was the competition in the book trade caused by -literary piracy and the work of printers from the smaller towns or even -outside countries who could do work cheaper than it could be done in the -larger cities. For example, in the absence of copyright a printer might -go to the expense of getting out an edition of an important work only to -have a rival buy one of his copies and throw into the market an edition -at a price based on the cost of manufacture only, while it is obvious -that even if the competition were based on the cost of manufacture the -printer from Lyons could undersell the printer from Paris because his -presses turned out 700 more sheets a day, an advantage of 25 per cent. - -All this competition had a tendency to reduce selling prices and to -drive down the workman’s pay. It was for these reasons that the -employers were so anxious to use laborers instead of journeymen, and -apprentices instead of either. All these depressing tendencies had full -sway under the curiously inverted scale system which made the scale a -maximum instead of a minimum. - -Journeymen were divided into two classes, day workers and piece workers. -The day worker was engaged under an annual contract which covered his -salary, his board, and usually his lodging. In the printing trade these -contracts were written after 1618. In the other industries they were not -written, although verbal contracts were common to all industries. - -In some cases these bargains were collective; that is to say, they were -made between the Community and the journeymen’s organization soon to be -described. Wherever possible, however, the masters prevented the -organization of the journeymen and compelled the men to resort to -individual bargaining. - -The piece workers were men who were engaged for some particular contract -or job which the master had in hand. Whenever an important piece of work -was undertaken a number of extra men, depending upon the equipment and -the time in which it was desired to do the job, were employed. Day -workers and men employed for another job were supposed not to be put on -and no additional men were to be employed for it, unless some of the -original group dropped out. The men were supposed to know how long the -job would last and were supposed not to be discharged without eight -days’ notice. These men were paid by the day and were fed and sometimes -lodged like the day workmen. - -The workmen constantly complained that in practice they were greatly -abused under this system. They claimed that they were discharged without -notice, that day men were put to work on their jobs, and that additional -men were hired, shortening the period of their occupation. This -manipulation of the job was a frequent device of the masters in order to -finish a piece of work before a holiday, especially when a Sunday and a -holiday and even two holidays came together, as was not infrequently the -case with the great number of holidays then observed. By hurrying up the -job and finishing it before the holiday the master could avoid feeding -the men over the holiday. Under ordinary circumstances he was supposed -to feed his men, whether day workers or piece workers, throughout the -period of their employment, whether or not he paid them on holidays. The -result of this system was that a very large proportion, probably a large -majority, of the printers had no regular employment, working only at -such job work as they could from time to time pick up. - -The journeymen were graded as first- and second-class workmen and -foremen. The first-class workman was a sort of assistant foreman. He was -employed upon the more difficult work or aided the foreman in the -discharge of his duties. The second-class was the ordinary workman, -comparable today to a man who would be earning the union scale with very -little prospect of ever getting any more. - -The two departments of composition and presswork were recognized then as -now. Just as at present, there was keen rivalry between compositors and -pressmen, each claiming that his was the superior art and required the -greater skill. - -In the composing room there were three subdivisions—compositors, -stone-hands and make-up men, and distributors. These last appear to have -been employed on that particular work exclusively. There were no -divisions in the press room. As has been pointed out, two men were -employed on the press, one on the ink balls and the other on the lever, -but these were not separate occupations as the two men exchanged -positions every hour. - -The foreman was a man capable of oversight of all processes carried on -in the plant. The foremanship was not divided as it now is between the -foreman of the composing room and the foreman of the press room. These -functions were discharged by first-class workmen under the supervision -of the foreman. The foreman was also a proofreader, at least in part. He -corrected the first proofs although they were afterwards corrected by -the author and sometimes by the master or an editor in his employ. It -was necessary, therefore, that the foreman should be not only a -first-class workman but an accomplished scholar. He had to be thoroughly -versed in his own language and highly trained in Latin and Greek or any -other language in which books were printed in the plant. He was obliged -also to be thoroughly familiar with theological, philosophical, or -scientific terms, or any other special terms required for any particular -kind of printing which the plant undertook. - -When the workman became too old and infirm to hold his place or his -eyesight failed there were several sources of at least partial support -open to him if his family was not in a condition to support him. Some of -these old workmen were licensed by the syndics of the Community to -peddle tracts, almanacs, broadside sheets of ballads and notices, and -other things which might be called the small wares of the printing -trade. Some of them did a sort of junk business in old paper and -parchments. In some places there were asylums for aged printers where a -few found entrance. Others became pensioners on the Community. The -Community in France and similar organizations elsewhere appear to have -had funds especially for this purpose and to have used some of their -current funds for charity. Other old men were allowed to make the rounds -of the shops, particularly those in which they had been employed, taking -a few coppers from their younger and more fortunate fellow workmen. -There seems to have been a sort of comradeship among the printers which -made these old fellows welcome as they made their periodical rounds for -help. - - - _The Master_ - -The master has perhaps been sufficiently described as we went along. He -was the capitalist who carried on the business. In the great days of -Jenson and Aldus and the Estiennes he was often, himself, his own -foreman and best journeyman. We have seen, however, how he gradually -came to be in many cases a business man with little or no practical -knowledge of the business. - -In the early days of printing the masters seem to have been more -prosperous than they were later. Godart and Merlin, of Paris, in 1538 -employed 200 men. Such printers as these were rich and prosperous and -held in high esteem by their fellow citizens. We have seen, however, -that some of the greatest of the printers were constantly struggling -with financial difficulties. The reorganization of 1618 did not seem to -have the effect upon the prosperity of the masters which might have been -expected. As we have seen, there was a cut-throat competition and even -after the reorganization of the Community and the restrictions of -mastership governmental control had a tendency to grow more and more -burdensome while the market for their wares increased but slowly. It is -said that in 1700 there were not two printers in Paris who were worth -25,000 francs or $5000. In 1700, $5000 was worth two or three times that -amount now, but even so the fact stated shows the prostration of the -industry. - - - - - CHAPTER IX - RELATIONS BETWEEN EMPLOYER AND EMPLOYED - - -The printing industry has always been liable to friction between the -employers and the employed. We have already made reference from time to -time to strikes and labor disputes, going back to the very beginnings of -the industry. Previous to the reorganization of 1618 the workmen -generally had recourse to strikes for the settlement of disputes and the -masters in turn appealed to the civil authorities. In conformity with -the ideas of those days the authorities intervened, if at all, to -suppress the strike. The idea of authority was very strong at that -period and rebellion or disobedience on the part of laborers was -regarded as little less than sedition or treason. Social lines were -sharply drawn and every attempt possible was made to secure and maintain -the supremacy of those in authority, whether that authority were civil, -ecclesiastical, or industrial. - -After the reorganization of 1618, however, the strike as a means of -settlement was rarely resorted to until revived in modern times. The -very organization of the industry made it amenable to authority and made -it possible to settle disputes by legal processes. Accordingly, we find -that both masters and journeymen presented their cases before the courts -or the executive officers having authority and endeavored to gain their -points by means of laws or edicts. The journeymen on the whole were more -successful by this method than they had previously been, although the -points of dispute were never permanently settled. - -The organization of the Community united the masters, but the attempts -of the journeymen to unite were met with constant opposition and were -frequently prohibited by law. The germ of the journeymen’s organization -was the chapel. Originally the chapel was a group of workmen engaged on -the same job and consequently dependent upon each other for its success -and for the regular progress of the work. The origin of the name is -somewhat in doubt, but it probably is either derived from the fact that -many of the early printing establishments were connected with -monasteries, or under the patronage of the church, or from the fact that -the printers were educated men, and in the 15th century educated men -were generally identified with the clergy. In English law, until within -a comparatively recent time, a man convicted of certain crimes could -escape capital punishment if he could prove that he could read and -write. This proof was held to identify him with the clergy, who were -exempted from certain criminal provisions of the statutes. This process -was technically known as “pleading one’s clergy.” - -The chapel was soon extended to include in its membership all the -workmen in one shop, and in this significance the name is still in use. -The organization of journeymen into chapels runs back to the early days -of printing. There never seems to have been any serious attempt to -prevent this organization in individual shops for the reason that such -an organization was highly beneficial to the masters themselves, -securing the better co-ordination of related processes and hence more -efficient production. In France the chapel was legally recognized in -1777, only a short time before the break-up of the old order. The chapel -had certain revenues which were derived from assessments and fees which -it laid upon its members and particularly from the sale of books. It was -the custom to give to the chapel a certain number of copies of every -book printed. These revenues appear to have been intended originally as -provision for certain periodical feasts and festivals such as were -common in all the guilds of the middle ages. Later they were extended to -cover charity and also to provide a sort of war chest out of which the -expense of litigation could be met. - -The combination of these chapels or the formation of tacit -understandings between them created a sort of trade union, and the -combination of their funds made possible the raising of the large -amounts of money necessary to employ counsel and carry on the -litigations against the employers. The employers, often backed by the -authorities, strove throughout this period to prevent these -combinations. They understood fully the tactical value of the precept -“divide and rule,” and they did their best to keep the journeymen -divided and at the same time to strengthen the bonds of their own union. -In this, however, they were only partially successful. In spite of -edicts to the contrary, the chapels, though unable to form an open, -strong organization which could meet the Community on equal terms or to -act with the openness and authority of the modern trade union, -nevertheless maintained a very real and often effective organization -through correspondence, conferences, and other methods of securing -mutual agreement and common action. - -In addition to the general settlements of industrial conditions which -were sought by legislation, individual disputes in particular shops or -localities were often settled by arbitration. The great difficulty about -these arbitrations, which rendered their results unsatisfactory and was -never obviated during this whole period, arose from the impossibility of -agreeing on a satisfactory board of arbitrators. The masters insisted -that all these arbitrations should be referred either to the courts or -to the syndics. To this the journeymen seriously objected. They felt -that the courts would not really arbitrate but would settle the matter -by an application of the statutes, and they knew by experience that the -statutes were generally construed against the journeymen wherever -possible. They were on the whole very law-abiding people. They had no -disposition to break the statutes, but the questions which they wanted -decided were either as to the application of the statutes or as to -points not covered by them. On the other hand they felt that the syndics -were entirely unqualified to act as arbitrators for the reason that they -were masters and consequently interested parties. The masters were -insistent whenever possible that these cases should go to the syndics, -although as an alternative they were willing that they should go to the -courts. - -The journeymen desired that arbitration boards should be composed of -masters, workmen, and citizens not connected with the industry. They -maintained that only thus could the interests of all be fairly -represented and an impartial arbitration secured. To this type of board -the masters almost invariably objected, and they generally refused to -submit to its findings. In this regard the journeymen appear to much -better advantage than the masters throughout this period. - -The main points of dispute have already been indicated and were on the -whole not different from similar difficulties today. - -First and foremost came the question of pay and food, usually together. -Occasionally men were satisfied with their food but not with their pay -or vice versa, but ordinarily the two went together. The man who paid -badly was likely to feed badly. Another burning question was the right -of combination on the part of the journeymen or, as we should say today, -the question of the recognition of the union. Another point was the -matter of discharge or leaving without notice. The grievance arising -from discharge without notice has already been discussed. The masters -complained that the men would leave without notice and so render it -impossible for them to complete their jobs according to contract. This -was one of the evils attendant on the piece system which has already -been described. On the one hand the masters tried to manipulate it by -hiring extra men and the like so as to increase their profits, while on -the other hand workmen facing the danger of a period of unemployment -would leave a job unfinished if they could get employment on another job -which promised several weeks or even months of work. - -Another fruitful cause of difference was tickets of leave or cards of -dismissal. When a man left a job he was supposed to be given a card -which identified him, told where he had been employed, what he did -there, how well he did it, and what his conduct had been in the shop. He -was supposed to show this card before obtaining employment. The workmen -complained that these cards were withheld or improperly filled out for -personal or other unworthy reasons. Sometimes masters were very -particular about giving and demanding these cards. At other times they -were very lax in both these regards and the consequence was that the -card system was a source of constant annoyance to all concerned. - -The complaint was also made by journeymen that members of the Community -maintained a black-list, and if a journeyman offended a single member of -the Community or fell into disfavor in a single shop he might be placed -on this black-list and find it impossible to obtain employment. - -Of course, there were many other questions which arose from time to time -but these were the particular causes of difficulty which we find -constantly recurring, just as the questions of pay, hours, recognition -of the union, and handling of non-union material constantly recur today. - -A fairly careful study of the conditions of this period shows that -according to our modern ideas the journeymen generally appear to better -advantage than the masters. There is no question, of course, that there -were unreasonable demands and that individual journeymen or even groups -of journeymen behaved at times in objectionable ways. On the whole, -however, the effort of the journeymen of this period seems to have been -only to obtain fair treatment and a reasonable recognition of their -rights. They especially desired to be treated as men and to confer on -equal terms with their employers instead of being treated as inferior -beings bound to accept without protest what was handed down to them. It -must be remembered that they were far more highly educated than the -workers in any other industry and that they had been officially -recognized many times as being in a class apart from the ordinary -workmen. They appear to have attempted only to secure in the industry -the same recognition which they legally enjoyed socially. While they did -attempt to have a voice in the fixing of wages and hours there is very -little evidence of any attempt to enforce upon the shops the observance -of rules and regulations made by themselves. The masters on the other -hand had those ancient ideas of authority which have already been -mentioned. They were not willing that their employees should rise above -the level of other workers and they were not willing to recognize them -as men entitled to fair consideration, to say nothing of equal rights. -They lived in the days of serfdom and they took their position as -masters quite seriously and quite literally. This opposition in spirit -between the masters who, by their wealth, their education, and their -social position were associated with the upper classes and imbued with -all of their ancient pride, and the men who, themselves educated and -imbued with a spirit of progress and a desire for freedom, were -attempting to rise above the condition of serfdom in which the laborers -of that age were commonly held was the real root of the struggles in the -medieval printing trade. The purely industrial questions involved were -the occasions rather than the causes of strife. - -The end of the old regime is marked in France by the date 1789. This -date marks the beginning of the French Revolution when great masses of -medieval statutes were swept from the statute books, including all those -which regulated the trade of printing. The Community, censorship, -licenses to print, and all the edicts regulating conditions in the -industry went by the board together. The French Revolution, however, was -only an incident of a change which was coming over the thinking of the -whole world. A new condition had been growing up under the old forms and -the time had come when the old forms had to break to make way for the -new life. They broke in the most dramatic and tragic fashion in France -and therefore we think and speak of this event as the French Revolution, -but the change took place elsewhere in as real though a less striking -manner. - -One of the features of this change was the birth of the newspaper and an -enormous production of pamphlets and other minor literature. There had -been newspapers and periodicals for a long time before, but the ferment -of men’s minds which began in the middle of the eighteenth century -naturally caused a great production of printed matter and a demand that -it should be produced very quickly. Much of this printed matter was of a -sort forbidden by the old laws and regulations. The greater part of it, -being produced under conditions of haste inconsistent with good -workmanship and under a demand for cheapness also inconsistent with good -workmanship, was of a very poor quality. The industry was disordered by -a great increase in the number of shops, particularly shops of a poorer -character. At first the workmen profited greatly, but as is always the -case conditions gradually settled back to a normal state. - -The general history of printing may be left at this point. From this -time on the conditions with which we are familiar are coming into shape. -The old day with its old conditions has gone. We need to know the -history of these old times in order that we may understand the records -and experiences of the early day. The later conditions we understand -from our own surroundings. The periodical literature which forms so -large a part of the output of the press has fairly come to life by the -end of the eighteenth century. Commercial printing, which is now -entering upon so positive a career of usefulness and importance, is -about to begin. The invention of the Stanhope press about 1800 is the -first of that long series of inventions which have made possible the -printing establishments of today and their wonderful product. These -things are elsewhere treated. Here we say good-bye to our elder brothers -of the home-made type, the ink balls, and the hand press. - - - _Supplementary Reading_ - -The material bearing on the economic history of printing is very -scattered. So far as the present writer is aware there is no book on the -subject in English. The nearest approach to such a treatment will -perhaps be found in the second volume of Mr. George Haven Putnam’s -excellent book _Books and Their Makers in the Middle Ages_. Some -information may be obtained from Mr. DeVinne’s _Invention of Printing_; -_Notable Printers of Italy During the Fifteenth Century_; and -_Christopher Plantin and the Plantin-Moretus Museum at Antwerp_. The -“Plantin” is a publication of the Grolier Club, but may be found in -substance in _The Century_ for June, 1888. Some very excellent -historical articles have been published in recent years in _The Inland -Printer_ by Mr. Henry L. Bullen and Mr. John Rittenour. The student will -do well to examine the files of this and other leading trade journals -for some years back and to consult the local librarian for such material -as may be found in libraries. - - - SUGGESTIONS TO STUDENTS AND INSTRUCTORS - - The following questions, based on the contents of this pamphlet, are - intended to serve (1) as a guide to the study of the text, (2) as an - aid to the student in putting the information contained into definite - statements without actually memorizing the text, (3) as a means of - securing from the student a reproduction of the information in his own - words. - - A careful following of the questions by the reader will insure full - acquaintance with every part of the text, avoiding the accidental - omission of what might be of value. These primers are so condensed - that nothing should be omitted. - - In teaching from these books it is very important that these questions - and such others as may occur to the teacher should be made the basis - of frequent written work and of final examinations. - - The importance of written work cannot be overstated. It not only - assures knowledge of material but the power to express that knowledge - correctly and in good form. - - If this written work can be submitted to the teacher in printed form - it will be doubly useful. - - - QUESTIONS - - 1. How were industries carried on in the days of Gutenberg? - - 2. What was the general relation between an apprentice and a master? - - 3. What was a guild, and what did it do? - - 4. Did printing fit into this scheme, and why? - - 5. How was printing regulated, and why? - - 6. What was the effect of the invention of printing on the manuscript - makers? - - 7. What did the copyists do? - - 8. What did the illuminators do? - - 9. What was the attitude of the authorities? - - 10. What king is especially noted as a patron of printing, and what - were some of the things he did? - - 11. How did he deal with labor troubles in the printing industry? - - 12. What important edict was issued by King Henry III of France, and - on what grounds? - - 13. How did the early printers deal with typographical errors? - - 14. How did a French king endeavor to deal with this difficulty, and - with what result? - - 15. What important event took place in 1618? - - 16. Give the general points in the regulations of 1686. - - 17. What additional regulations were made by Louis XVI? - - 18. What happened in 1789, and what was the result? - - 19. What are some of the differences between the product of a print - shop and that of the ordinary factory? - - 20. What were some of the problems arising out of this difference? - - 21. What was the 15th century substitute for copyright and patents? - Describe it. - - 22. What did trades do to protect themselves if they could not get the - form of protection just described? - - 23. Why did the printer especially need some kind of protection? - - 24. Discuss briefly under four heads the system of protection in use - in Venice. - - 25. What were the practical defects of this system? - - 26. What kind of books were printed in Germany for the first fifty - years? - - 27. What evil practice did Fust begin, and why did he think it was - right? - - 28. Was there a profession of authorship, and why? - - 29. How did Germany undertake to protect printers? - - 30. Give a brief sketch of the political organization of Germany in - the 15th century. - - 31. What effect did this have on the protection of printers? - - 32. What did the printers do about it? - - 33. What did printers’ privileges cover in Germany? - - 34. How did France deal with the question of printers’ privileges, and - what were some of the peculiarities of French law? - - 35. What moral and political danger was perceived shortly after the - invention of printing? - - 36. How was it dealt with by church and state? - - 37. What action was taken by Pope Innocent VIII? - - 38. What was the result in Venice? - - 39. What had the Inquisition to do with printing? - - 40. What is the Index Expurgatorius? Why was it drawn up? - - 41. What were the general lines of legislation in Venice regarding - censorship? - - 42. What was done in 1549, and why? - - 43. What was the purpose of the guild of printers and booksellers? - - 44. What were the requirements in 1671 for the publishing of a book in - Venice? - - 45. How did censorship work in Germany, and why? - - 46. What was the result of Pope Innocent’s action in France? - - 47. By whom was censorship exercised in France? - - 48. What was the result of this system, and how was it improved? - - 49. Give some features of the press laws of France, and state the - penalties. - - 50. What was the effect of this legislation, and how were the worst - effects avoided? - - 51. What was the end of it all? - - 52. How did authorship come to be recognized as a profession? - - 53. How did the idea arise that the author had the right to control - his work? - - 54. What was the early German idea of copyright as illustrated by the - experiences of Luther? - - 55. What two ideas gradually came into prominence at this time with - regard to literary property? - - 56. When and how did copyright come into general existence? - - 57. When was international copyright recognized? - - 58. What is the record of the United States with regard to - international copyright? - - 59. What is the outstanding factor in the industrial life of the - Middle Ages? - - 60. Describe it briefly. - - 61. What conditions made it possible? - - 62. State and discuss briefly the five general principles which - governed it. - - 63. What was its relation to the state and to religion? - - 64. What was the best period of this organization? - - 65. When did it decline? - - 66. Give three reasons for this decline. - - 67. Why was the printing industry an important factor in this decline? - - 68. How were wages and prices fixed in the early Middle Ages, and why? - - 69. What happened after the discovery of America? - - 70. What was the effect on prices and what the effect on wages? - - 71. What was the result on the social and industrial organization? - - 72. How did printing relate itself to the industrial system of the - sixteenth century? - - 73. What was the result of this relation? - - 74. What difficulties arose, and how were they met? - - 75. What was the effect of the legislation of 1618? - - 76. Who composed the Community of Printers? - - 77. Who were the syndics? How were they elected, and for what purpose? - - 78. What advantages were gained by the new organization? - - 79. What was the relation between printers and booksellers, and why? - - 80. What did the old-time printer have to do? - - 81. What was the early paper like? - - 82. Describe the types in use at this period. - - 83. Describe the presses in use at this period. - - 84. Describe the ink of this period, and tell how it was spread. - - 85. How were compositors paid? - - 86. What did the old-time pressman have to do? - - 87. Describe the old method of two-color printing. - - 88. How were the printed sheets treated when they came from the press? - - 89. How were pressmen paid? - - 90. What was the custom with regard to proofreading? - - 91. Describe the system of cost finding and estimating of this period. - - 92. What four different classes of workmen are enumerated? - - 93. What was an apprentice? - - 94. What were the qualifications necessary to apprenticeship? - - 95. What were the conditions of an apprenticeship agreement? - - 96. How were these agreements abused by both sides? - - 97. Describe the work of an apprentice. - - 98. How many apprentices were allowed? - - 99. What can you say about the enforcement of these conditions? - - 100. Who were the laborers, and how did they affect the industry? - - 101. How did an apprentice come to be a journeyman? - - 102. How did the journeyman become a master? - - 103. Did journeymen commonly become masters, and why? - - 104. What were the hours of labor at this period? - - 105. How did the journeymen live? - - 106. What sort of men were they? - - 107. What two compensations did they have for the hard conditions of - the industry? - - 108. What influences tended to lower wages? - - 109. How were journeymen divided? - - 110. What were the conditions of employment of each? - - 111. What were the difficulties of the second class? - - 112. How were journeymen graded? - - 113. What division of labor existed in the composing room, and what in - the press room? - - 114. Describe the foreman of this period. - - 115. What happened to the old or disabled workmen? - - 116. What was the place of the master? - - 117. Was the general condition of the industry good or bad, and why? - - 118. What were the relations between the masters and journeymen before - 1618? - - 119. What were these relations after 1618? - - 120. What was a chapel? - - 121. What difficulties did the organization of journeymen have to meet? - - 122. Describe briefly the growth of organization among the journeymen. - - 123. How did masters desire to settle their disputes with the - journeymen, and why? - - 124. How did the journeymen desire to settle them, and why? - - 125. What were the principle causes of dispute? - - 126. According to modern ideas, which party of these disputes generally - appears to the better advantage, and why? - - 127. What was the French Revolution? - - 128. How did the French Revolution contribute to the coming in of - modern conditions in the printing industry? - - - - - TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES FOR APPRENTICES - - -The following list of publications, comprising the TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL -SERIES FOR APPRENTICES, has been prepared under the supervision of the -Committee on Education of the United Typothetae of America for use in -trade classes, in courses of printing instruction, and by individuals. - -Each publication has been compiled by a competent author or group of -authors, and carefully edited, the purpose being to provide the printers -of the United States—employers, journeymen, and apprentices—with a -comprehensive series of handy and inexpensive compendiums of reliable, -up-to-date information upon the various branches and specialties of the -printing craft, all arranged in orderly fashion for progressive study. - -The publications of the series are of uniform size, 5 × 8 inches. Their -general make-up, in typography, illustrations, etc., has been, as far as -practicable, kept in harmony throughout. A brief synopsis of the -particular contents and other chief features of each volume will be -found under each title in the following list. - -Each topic is treated in a concise manner, the aim being to embody in -each publication as completely as possible all the rudimentary -information and essential facts necessary to an understanding of the -subject. Care has been taken to make all statements accurate and clear, -with the purpose of bringing essential information within the -understanding of beginners in the different fields of study. Wherever -practicable, simple and well-defined drawings and illustrations have -been used to assist in giving additional clearness to the text. - -In order that the pamphlets may be of the greatest possible help for use -in trade-school classes and for self-instruction, each title is -accompanied by a list of Review Questions covering essential items of -the subject matter. A short Glossary of technical terms belonging to the -subject or department treated is also added to many of the books. - -These are the Official Text-books of the United Typothetae of America. - -Address all orders and inquiries to COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION, UNITED -TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS, U. S. A. - - - - - TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES _for_ APPRENTICES - - - PART I—_Types, Tools, Machines, and Materials_ - - 1. =Type: a Primer of Information=, By A. A. Stewart - - Relating to the mechanical features of printing types; their - sizes, font schemes, etc., with a brief description of their - manufacture. 44 pp.; illustrated; 74 review questions; glossary. - - 2. =Compositors’ Tools and Materials=, By A. A. Stewart - - A primer of information about composing sticks, galleys, leads, - brass rules, cutting and mitering machines, etc. 47 pp.; - illustrated; 50 review questions; glossary. - - 3. =Type Cases, Composing Room Furniture=, By A. A. Stewart - - A primer of information about type cases, work stands, cabinets, - case racks, galley racks, standing galleys, etc. 43 pp.; - illustrated; 33 review questions; glossary. - - 4. =Imposing Tables and Lock-up Appliances=, By A. A. Stewart - - Describing the tools and materials used in locking up forms for - the press, including some modern utilities for special purposes. - 59 pp.; illustrated; 70 review questions; glossary. - - 5. =Proof Presses=, By A. A. Stewart - - A primer of information about the customary methods and machines - for taking printers’ proofs. 40 pp.; illustrated; 41 review - questions; glossary. - - 6. =Platen Printing Presses=, By Daniel Baker - - A primer of information regarding the history and mechanical - construction of platen printing presses, from the original hand - press to the modern job press, to which is added a chapter on - automatic presses of small size. 51 pp.; illustrated; 49 review - questions; glossary. - - 7. =Cylinder Printing Presses=, By Herbert L. Baker - - Being a study of the mechanism and operation of the principal - types of cylinder printing machines. 64 pp.; illustrated; 47 - review questions; glossary. - - 8. =Mechanical Feeders and Folders=, By William E. Spurrier - - The history and operation of modern feeding and folding machines; - with hints on their care and adjustments. Illustrated; review - questions; glossary. - - 9. =Power for Machinery in Printing Houses=, By Carl F. Scott - - A treatise on the methods of applying power to printing presses - and allied machinery with particular reference to electric drive. - 53 pp.; illustrated; 69 review questions; glossary. - - 10. =Paper Cutting Machines=, By Niel Gray, Jr. - - A primer of information about paper and card trimmers, hand-lever - cutters, power cutters, and other automatic machines for cutting - paper. 70 pp.; illustrated; 115 review questions; glossary. - - 11. =Printers’ Rollers=, By A. A. Stewart - - A primer of information about the composition, manufacture, and - care of inking rollers. 46 pp.; illustrated; 61 review questions; - glossary. - - 12. =Printing Inks=, By Philip Ruxton - - Their composition, properties and manufacture (reprinted by - permission from Circular No. 53, United States Bureau of - Standards); together with some helpful suggestions about the - everyday use of printing inks by Philip Ruxton. 80 pp.; 100 review - questions; glossary. - - 13. =How Paper is Made=, By William Bond Wheelwright - - A primer of information about the materials and processes of - manufacturing paper for printing and writing. 68 pp.; illustrated; - 62 review questions; glossary. - - 14. =Relief Engravings=, By Joseph P. Donovan - - Brief history and non-technical description of modern methods of - engraving; woodcut, zinc plate, halftone; kind of copy for - reproduction; things to remember when ordering engravings. - Illustrated; review questions; glossary. - - 15. =Electrotyping and Stereotyping=, By Harris B. Hatch and A. A. - Stewart - - A primer of information about the processes of electrotyping and - stereotyping. 94 pp.; illustrated; 129 review questions; - glossaries. - - - PART II—_Hand and Machine Composition_ - - 16. =Typesetting=, By A. A. Stewart - - A handbook for beginners, giving information about justifying, - spacing, correcting, and other matters relating to typesetting. - Illustrated; review questions; glossary. - - 17. =Printers’ Proofs=, By A. A. Stewart - - The methods by which they are made, marked, and corrected, with - observations on proofreading. Illustrated; review questions; - glossary. - - 18. =First Steps in Job Composition=, By Camille DeVéze - - Suggestions for the apprentice compositor in setting his first - jobs, especially about the important little things which go to - make good display in typography. 63 pp.; examples; 55 review - questions; glossary. - - 19. =General Job Composition= - - How the job compositor handles business stationery, programs and - miscellaneous work. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. - - 20. =Book Composition=, By J. W. Bothwell - - Chapters from DeVinne’s “Modern Methods of Book Composition,” - revised and arranged for this series of text-books by J. W. - Bothwell of The DeVinne Press, New York. Part I: Composition of - pages. Part II: Imposition of pages. 229 pp.; illustrated; 525 - review questions; glossary. - - 21. =Tabular Composition=, By Robert Seaver - - A study of the elementary forms of table composition, with - examples of more difficult composition. 36 pp.; examples; 45 - review questions. - - 22. =Applied Arithmetic=, By E. E. Sheldon - - Elementary arithmetic applied to problems of the printing trade, - calculation of materials, paper weights and sizes, with standard - tables and rules for computation, each subject amplified with - examples and exercises. 159 pp. - - 23. =Typecasting and Composing Machines=, A. W. Finlay, Editor - - Section I—The Linotype, By L. A. Hornstein - - Section II—The Monotype, By Joseph Hays - - Section III—The Intertype, By Henry W. Cozzens - - Section IV—Other Typecasting and Typesetting Machines, By Frank H. - Smith - - A brief history of typesetting machines, with descriptions of - their mechanical principles and operations. Illustrated; review - questions; glossary. - - - PART III—_Imposition and Stonework_ - - 24. =Locking Forms for the Job Press=, By Frank S. Henry - - Things the apprentice should know about locking up small forms, - and about general work on the stone. Illustrated; review - questions; glossary. - - 25. =Preparing Forms for the Cylinder Press=, By Frank S. Henry - - Pamphlet and catalog imposition; margins; fold marks, etc. Methods - of handling type forms and electrotype forms. Illustrated; review - questions; glossary. - - - PART IV—_Presswork_ - - 26. =Making Ready on Platen Presses=, By T. G. McGrew - - The essential parts of a press and their functions; distinctive - features of commonly used machines. Preparing the tympan, - regulating the impression, underlaying and overlaying, setting - gauges, and other details explained. Illustrated; review - questions; glossary. - - 27. =Cylinder Presswork=, By T. G. McGrew - - Preparing the press; adjustment of bed and cylinder, form rollers, - ink fountain, grippers and delivery systems. Underlaying and - overlaying; modern overlay methods. Illustrated; review questions; - glossary. - - 28. =Pressroom Hints and Helps=, By Charles L. Dunton - - Describing some practical methods of pressroom work, with - directions and useful information relating to a variety of - printing-press problems. 87 pp.; 176 review questions. - - 29. =Reproductive Processes of the Graphic Arts=, By A. W. Elson - - A primer of information about the distinctive features of the - relief, the intaglio, and the pianographic processes of printing. - 84 pp.; illustrated; 100 review questions; glossary. - - - PART V—_Pamphlet and Book Binding_ - - 30. =Pamphlet Binding=, By Bancroft L. Goodwin - - A primer of information about the various operations employed in - binding pamphlets and other work in the bindery. Illustrated; - review questions; glossary. - - 31. =Book Binding=, By John J. Pleger - - Practical information about the usual operations in binding books; - folding; gathering, collating, sewing, forwarding, finishing. Case - making and cased-in books. Hand work and machine work. Job and - blank-book binding. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. - - - PART VI—_Correct Literary Composition_ - - 32. =Word Study and English Grammar=, By F. W. Hamilton - - A primer of information about words, their relations, and their - uses. 68 pp.; 84 review questions; glossary. - - 33. =Punctuation=, By F. W. Hamilton - - A primer of information about the marks of punctuation and their - use, both grammatically and typographically. 56 pp.; 59 review - questions; glossary. - - 34. =Capitals=, By F. W. Hamilton - - A primer of information about capitalization, with some practical - typographic hints as to the use of capitals. 48 pp.; 92 review - questions; glossary. - - 35. =Division of Words=, By F. W. Hamilton - - Rules for the division of words at the ends of lines, with remarks - on spelling, syllabication and pronunciation. 42 pp.; 70 review - questions. - - 36. =Compound Words=, By F. W. Hamilton - - A study of the principles of compounding, the components of - compounds, and the use of the hyphen. 34 pp.; 62 review questions. - - 37. =Abbreviations and Signs=, By F. W. Hamilton - - A primer of information about abbreviations and signs, with - classified lists of those in most common use. 58 pp.; 32 review - questions. - - 38. =The Uses of Italic=, By F. W. Hamilton - - A primer of information about the history and uses of italic - letters. 31 pp.; 37 review questions. - - 39. =Proofreading=, By Arnold Levitas - - The technical phases of the proofreader’s work; reading, marking, - revising, etc.; methods of handling proofs and copy. Illustrated - by examples. 59 pp.; 69 review questions; glossary. - - 40. =Preparation of Printers’ Copy=, By F. W. Hamilton - - Suggestions for authors, editors, and all who are engaged in - preparing copy for the composing room. 36 pp.; 67 review - questions. - - 41. =Printers’ Manual of Style= - - A reference compilation of approved rules, usages, and suggestions - relating to uniformity in punctuation, capitalization, - abbreviations, numerals, and kindred features of composition. - - 42. =The Printer’s Dictionary=, By A. A. Stewart - - A handbook of definitions and miscellaneous information about - various processes of printing, alphabetically arranged. Technical - terms explained. Illustrated. - - - PART VII—_Design, Color, and Lettering_ - - 43. =Applied Design for Printers=, By Harry L. Gage - - A handbook of the principles of arrangement, with brief comment on - the periods of design which have most influenced printing. Treats - of harmony, balance, proportion, and rhythm; motion; symmetry and - variety; ornament, esthetic and symbolic. 37 illustrations; 46 - review questions; glossary; bibliography. - - 44. =Elements of Typographic Design=, By Harry L. Gage - - Applications of the principles of decorative design. Building - material of typography paper, types, ink, decorations and - illustrations. Handling of shapes. Design of complete book, - treating each part. Design of commercial forms and single units. - Illustrations; review questions, glossary; bibliography. - - 45. =Rudiments of Color in Printing=, By Harry L. Gage - - Use of color: for decoration of black and white, for broad poster - effect, in combinations of two, three, or more printings with - process engravings. Scientific nature of color, physical and - chemical. Terms in which color may be discussed: hue, value, - intensity. Diagrams in color, scales and combinations. Color - theory of process engraving. Experiments with color. Illustrations - in full color, and on various papers. Review questions; glossary; - bibliography. - - 46. =Lettering in Typography=, By Harry L. Gage - - Printer’s use of lettering: adaptability and decorative effect. - Development of historic writing and lettering and its influence on - type design. Classification of general forms in lettering. - Application of design to lettering. Drawing for reproduction. - Fully illustrated; review questions; glossary; bibliography. - - 47. =Typographic Design in Advertising=, By Harry L. Gage - - The printer’s function in advertising. Precepts upon which - advertising is based. Printer’s analysis of his copy. Emphasis, - legibility, attention, color. Method of studying advertising - typography. Illustrations; review questions; glossary; - bibliography. - - 48. =Making Dummies and Layouts=, By Harry L. Gage - - A layout: the architectural plan. A dummy: the imitation of a - proposed final effect. Use of dummy in sales work. Use of - layout. Function of layout man. Binding schemes for dummies. - Dummy envelopes. Illustrations; review questions; glossary; - bibliography. - - - PART VIII—_History of Printing_ - - 49. =Books Before Typography=, By F. W. Hamilton - - A primer of information about the invention of the alphabet and - the history of bookmaking up to the invention of movable types. 62 - pp.; illustrated; 64 review questions. - - 50. =The Invention of Typography=, By F. W. Hamilton - - A brief sketch of the invention of printing and how it came about. - 64 pp.; 62 review questions. - - 51. =History of Printing=—Part I, By F. W. Hamilton - - A primer of information about the beginnings of printing, the - development of the book, the development of printers’ materials, - and the work of the great pioneers. 63 pp.; 55 review questions. - - 52. =History of Printing=—Part II, By F. W. Hamilton - - A brief sketch of the economic conditions of the printing industry - from 1450 to 1789, including government regulations, censorship, - internal conditions and industrial relations. 94 pp.; 128 review - questions. - - 53. =Printing in England=, By F. W. Hamilton - - A short history of printing in England from Caxton to the present - time. 89 pp.; 65 review questions. - - 54. =Printing in America=, By F. W. Hamilton - - A brief sketch of the development of the newspaper, and some notes - on publishers who have especially contributed to printing. 98 pp.; - 84 review questions. - - 55. =Type and Presses in America=, By F. W. Hamilton - - A brief historical sketch of the development of type casting and - press building in the United States. 52 pp.; 61 review questions. - - - PART IX—_Cost Finding and Accounting_ - - 56. =Elements of Cost in Printing=, By Henry P. Porter - - The Standard Cost-Finding Forms and their uses. What they should - show. How to utilize the information they give. Review questions. - Glossary. - - 57. =Use of a Cost System=, By Henry P. Porter - - The Standard Cost-Finding Forms and their uses. What they should - show. How to utilize the information they give. Review questions. - Glossary. - - 58. =The Printer as a Merchant=, By Henry P. Porter - - The selection and purchase of materials and supplies for printing. - The relation of the cost of raw material and the selling price of - the finished product. Review questions. Glossary. - - 59. =Fundamental Principles of Estimating=, By Henry P. Porter - - The estimator and his work; forms to use; general rules for - estimating. Review questions. Glossary. - - 60. =Estimating and Selling=, By Henry P. Porter - - An insight into the methods used in making estimates, and their - relation to selling. Review questions. Glossary. - - 61. =Accounting for Printers=, By Henry P. Porter - - A brief outline of an accounting system for printers; necessary - books and accessory records. Review questions. Glossary. - - - PART X—_Miscellaneous_ - - 62. =Health, Sanitation, and Safety=, By Henry P. Porter - - Hygiene in the printing trade; a study of conditions old and new; - practical suggestions for improvement; protective appliances and - rules for safety. - - 63. =Topical Index=, By F. W. Hamilton - - A book of reference covering the topics treated in the Typographic - Technical Series, alphabetically arranged. - - 64. =Courses of Study=, By F. W. Hamilton - - A guidebook for teachers, with outlines and suggestions for - classroom and shop work. - - - - - ACKNOWLEDGMENT - - -This series of Typographic Text-books is the result of the splendid -co-operation of a large number of firms and individuals engaged in the -printing business and its allied industries in the United States of -America. - -The Committee on Education of the United Typothetae of America, under -whose auspices the books have been prepared and published, acknowledges -its indebtedness for the generous assistance rendered by the many -authors, printers, and others identified with this work. - -While due acknowledgment is made on the title and copyright pages of -those contributing to each book, the Committee nevertheless felt that a -group list of co-operating firms would be of interest. - -The following list is not complete, as it includes only those who have -co-operated in the production of a portion of the volumes, constituting -the first printing. As soon as the entire list of books comprising the -Typographic Technical Series has been completed (which the Committee -hopes will be at an early date), the full list will be printed in each -volume. - -The Committee also desires to acknowledge its indebtedness to the many -subscribers to this Series who have patiently awaited its publication. - - COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION, - UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA. - - HENRY P. PORTER, _Chairman_, - E. LAWRENCE FELL, - A. M. GLOSSBRENNER, - J. CLYDE OSWALD, - TOBY RUBOVITS. - - FREDERICK W. HAMILTON, _Education Director_. - - - - - CONTRIBUTORS - - -=For Composition and Electrotypes= - - ISAAC H. BLANCHARD COMPANY, New York, N. Y. - S. H. BURBANK & CO., Philadelphia, Pa. - J. S. CUSHING & CO., Norwood, Mass. - THE DEVINNE PRESS, New York, N. Y. - R. R. DONNELLEY & SONS CO., Chicago, Ill. - GEO. H. ELLIS CO., Boston, Mass. - EVANS-WINTER-HEBB, Detroit, Mich. - FRANKLIN PRINTING COMPANY, Philadelphia, Pa. - F. H. GILSON COMPANY, Boston, Mass. - STEPHEN GREENE & CO., Philadelphia, Pa. - W. F. HALL PRINTING CO., Chicago, Ill. - J. B. LIPPINCOTT CO., Philadelphia, Pa. - MCCALLA & CO. INC., Philadelphia, Pa. - THE PATTESON PRESS, New York, New York - THE PLIMPTON PRESS, Norwood, Mass. - POOLE BROS., Chicago, Ill. - EDWARD STERN & CO., Philadelphia, Pa. - THE STONE PRINTING & MFG. CO., Roanoke, Va. - C. D. TRAPHAGEN, Lincoln, Neb. - THE UNIVERSITY PRESS, Cambridge, Mass. - -=For Composition= - - BOSTON TYPOTHETAE SCHOOL OF PRINTING, Boston, Mass. - WILLIAM F. FELL CO., Philadelphia, Pa. - THE KALKHOFF COMPANY, New York, N. Y. - OXFORD-PRINT, Boston, Mass. - TOBY RUBOVITS, Chicago, Ill. - -=For Electrotypes= - - BLOMGREN BROTHERS CO., Chicago, Ill. - FLOWER STEEL ELECTROTYPING CO., New York, N. Y. - C. J. PETERS & SON CO., Boston, Mass. - ROYAL ELECTROTYPE CO., Philadelphia, Pa. - H. C. WHITCOMB & CO., Boston, Mass. - -=For Engravings= - - AMERICAN TYPE FOUNDERS CO., Boston, Mass. - C. B. COTTRELL & SONS CO., Westerly, R. I. - GOLDING MANUFACTURING CO., Franklin, Mass. - HARVARD UNIVERSITY, Cambridge, Mass. - INLAND PRINTER CO., Chicago, Ill. - LANSTON MONOTYPE MACHINE COMPANY, Philadelphia, Pa. - MERGENTHALER LINOTYPE COMPANY, New York, N. Y. - GEO. H. MORRILL CO., Norwood, Mass. - OSWALD PUBLISHING CO., New York, N. Y. - THE PRINTING ART, Cambridge, Mass. - B. D. RISING PAPER COMPANY, Housatonic, Mass. - THE VANDERCOOK PRESS, Chicago, Ill. - -=For Book Paper= - - AMERICAN WRITING PAPER CO., Holyoke, Mass. - WEST VIRGINIA PULP & PAPER CO., Mechanicville, N. Y. - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES - - - 1. Silently corrected typographical errors and variations in spelling. - 2. Archaic, non-standard, and uncertain spellings retained as printed. - 3. 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