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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..858f2bd --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #65596 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/65596) diff --git a/old/65596-0.txt b/old/65596-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index f891d7c..0000000 --- a/old/65596-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,3180 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Brief History of Printing in -England, by Frederick W. Hamilton - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: A Brief History of Printing in England - A Short History of Printing in England from Caxton to the Present - Time - -Author: Frederick W. Hamilton - -Release Date: June 11, 2021 [eBook #65596] - -Language: English - -Produced by: Richard Tonsing, Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier, and the - Online Distributed Proofreading Team at - https://www.pgdp.net - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A BRIEF HISTORY OF PRINTING -IN ENGLAND *** - - - - - - TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES FOR APPRENTICES—PART VIII, NO. 53 - - A BRIEF HISTORY - _of_ - PRINTING IN ENGLAND - A SHORT HISTORY OF PRINTING IN ENGLAND FROM CAXTON TO THE PRESENT TIME - - BY - FREDERICK W. HAMILTON, LL.D. - - EDUCATIONAL DIRECTOR - UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA - -[Illustration] - - PUBLISHED BY THE COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION - UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA - 1918 - - - - - COPYRIGHT, 1918 - UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA - CHICAGO, ILL. - - - Composition and electrotypes contributed by - J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY - Philadelphia - - - - - PREFACE - - -The treatment of the material used in this volume will be found somewhat -different from that adopted in the two preceding. The narrower field of -inquiry makes possible a closer following of the ordinary chronological -method of arrangement rather than the topical method of the other -volumes. An attempt is made to trace the history of printing in England -through the centuries from Caxton to Morris and to include some insight -into legal regulations, trade conditions, and industrial development -generally. As before, it is to be remembered that this is a primer, a -book of introductions. No attempt, therefore, is made to go far into -details or to discuss disputed points or to include any considerable -amount of technical detail. It is hoped that the reader will get a -comprehensive view of the subject, will feel its human interest, and -will catch some glimpse of its larger relation to the general history of -the time. - -The writer has consulted a considerable range of authorities, a few of -the more accessible of which are cited in the short list of books for -supplementary reading. Mention should be made of the very excellent -study of John Baskerville, privately printed by Col. Josiah H. Benton, -of Boston. This book may perhaps be found in the larger public -libraries. Here, as always, it is to be regretted that although much has -been written on the subject of printing and of the history of printing a -good general history of the subject is still greatly to be desired. - - - - - CONTENTS - - - CHAPTER I PAGE - - THE ENGLISH PIONEERS 7 - - CHAPTER II - - THE REGULATION OF THE INDUSTRY AND THE COMPANY OF STATIONERS 18 - - CHAPTER III - - JOHN DAY AND THE DARK AGES OF ENGLISH PRINTING 34 - - CHAPTER IV - - THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY: THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION 49 - - CHAPTER V - - THE WHITTINGHAMS AND THE MODERN BOOK 68 - - SUPPLEMENTARY READING 76 - - REVIEW QUESTIONS 77 - - - - - PRINTING IN ENGLAND - - - - - CHAPTER I - THE ENGLISH PIONEERS - - -England was slow to take up printing and slow and backward in the -development of it. It was 25 years after the invention of printing -before any printing was done in England. It was many years after that -before the work of the English printers could compare with that done on -the continent. The reason for this is to be found in the conditions of -the country itself. Although the two great universities had long been in -existence, Oxford dating back to 1167 and Cambridge to 1209, England as -a whole was a backward country. In culture and the refinements of -civilization, as well as in many more practical things, England was not -so far advanced as the rest of Europe nor was it to be so for many years -to come. - -England at this time was an agricultural and grazing country. A colony -of Flemings had been brought over to start the cloth industry. There was -still, nevertheless, a large export of wool to Flanders, which was there -woven and sent back as cloth. The English nobles lived largely on their -estates, looking after their tenants, hunting for diversion, and doing a -little fighting occasionally when life became otherwise unbearably -uninteresting. They were not an educated class and the peasantry were -profoundly ignorant. The cities which, as always, depended upon -manufacture and commerce were just beginning to grow, with the exception -of some of the seaport towns which were already prosperous and wealthy. - -Not only was this general condition true, but there were special -conditions which rendered the middle of the fifteenth century -unfavorable to culture and to the introduction of a new invention -auxiliary to culture. In 1450 England was shaken and horrified by the -bloody insurrection of peasants, with its attendant outrages, known as -Jack Cade’s Revolt. Scarcely had order been restored when a disputed -succession to the crown plunged the country into the bloody civil war -between the adherents of the Houses of York and Lancaster, known as the -Wars of the Roses. This period of civil strife lasted for thirty years -and affected the general welfare of England very seriously. It was -especially marked by mortality among the noblest families in the realm, -many of which were actually exterminated. - -Some time within this bloody half-century the art of printing was -introduced into England. There is in existence a book printed in Oxford -and dated on the title page 1468. Upon the existence of this book, and -upon a somewhat doubtful legend, has been built a claim that English -printing originated in Oxford. This claim, however, has practically -ceased to be maintained. The legend appears to be baseless, and it has -been generally concluded that the date is a misprint and that it should -be 1478, an X having been dropped in writing the Roman date, a not -uncommon error in publications of this period. Historians have now -generally agreed that the introduction of printing in England is due to -William Caxton, one of the most interesting figures in the whole annals -of printing. - -Caxton was born in the Weald, or wooded land, of Kent, a place of simple -people and uncouth speech, about 1421. As a boy he was apprenticed to -Robert Large, a prominent mercer or silk merchant of London. On the -death of Large, not many years later, Caxton went to Bruges, in Belgium, -then part of the territory of the Dukes of Burgundy, and became -connected with the so-called English “Nation” or “House.” This was a -chartered company of merchant adventurers similar to the companies which -later settled certain portions of North America and to the famous East -India Company. Caxton appears to have been successful in business and -became Governor of the English “Nation” in 1462. - -Bruges was at this time a city of wealth and culture, the Flemings being -far in advance of the English in this respect. Life in these -surroundings caused Caxton to become interested in reading and good -literature, and in 1467 he undertook a translation into English of a -collection of stories of Troy, or as he called it “Recuyell of the -Historyes of Troye.” Shortly after this, Margaret, sister of Edward IV -of England, married the Duke of Burgundy and came to Bruges to live. -Caxton immediately came into friendly relations with the Duchess, who -shortly after gave him a position in her personal service. It is not -quite clear what this position was. It has been supposed by some that -the purpose of the Duchess was to enable Caxton to pursue his literary -labors with the special end of making continental literature known to -the English through translation. A more probable supposition, however, -is that he was the confidential business adviser to the Duchess. It is a -well-known fact that royal personages at this period engaged freely in -trade and that sometimes they engaged in extensive commercial -transactions with other royal personages although trade between their -two countries might be strictly prohibited by law, as was the case with -England and Flanders during part of the reign of Edward IV. At an early -period of their friendship Caxton showed the Duchess Margaret his -unfinished translation of the Troy stories. Fortunately for the world, -the Duchess was a friendly but candid critic. She saw both the strength -and the weakness of Caxton’s work, and while she took him to task -roundly for his rough and poor English she encouraged and commanded him -to complete his translation and at the same time improve himself in -English. Caxton thereupon renewed his work and completed the translation -of the Troy stories at Cologne in 1471. - -Caxton was immediately besieged with demands for copies of his -translations, which, of course, he was unable to furnish, although he -appears to have worked at it until time, strength, and eyesight failed. -He thereupon determined to learn the new art of printing so that he -might by that means multiply copies of this and other works which he -might execute. Unquestionably he saw printing presses in operation in -Cologne. It has been claimed that he learned to print there, and this -claim receives some support from an ambiguous statement attributed to -him many years later by Wynkyn de Worde. It is possible that Caxton may -have worked a little in one of the Cologne printing offices, but it -seems clear on internal evidence that Mr. Blades is right in his -conclusion that Caxton did not learn the art there. The early printed -work of Caxton is by no means equal to that of the Cologne printers, and -represents an earlier stage of development than that which had been -reached by Cologne at this period. Many of the compositor’s methods -which were familiar to the Cologne printers of 1470 did not appear in -Caxton’s books until years later. - -On Caxton’s return from Cologne he associated himself with one Colard -Mansion, who for a few years unsuccessfully attempted to carry on a -printing business at Bruges. The probability is that Caxton learned the -art during this association with Mansion. The association was terminated -in 1476 by the bankruptcy of Mansion. During this period, however, -Caxton and Mansion published five books, two in English and three in -French. The first to be published, and the first book to be printed in -English anywhere, was the translation of the Troy stories. One of the -other books was the first book that was ever printed in French. It is -interesting to note that the first book to be printed in French was done -by an Englishman in Flanders. - -In 1476 Caxton withdrew entirely from his business connections in -Bruges, went to England, taking with him his presses, type, and workmen, -and opened a printing office within the precincts of Westminster Abbey. -It has often been stated that Caxton’s printing office was in the abbey -building itself, but this is undoubtedly an error. English abbeys and -cathedrals are commonly surrounded by a considerable extent of ground -called a “close.” Within this “close” are dwelling houses and not -infrequently shops. The entire property belongs to and is controlled by -the abbey or cathedral authorities. Caxton’s shop appears to have been -in a building known as the “Red Pale” within the abbey “close.” Caxton -continued to print here until his death in 1491. - -Within this period he printed ninety-three books and perhaps eight or -ten more whose attribution is uncertain. Of these ninety-three, fifteen -ran to two editions and three of the fifteen ran to three editions. -Caxton was a good business man and was probably possessed of -considerable capital when he began. He not only made the business pay, -but took advantage of his somewhat independent position financially to -lead and create the popular taste instead of following it. Caxton was -thoroughly English. He knew his people and knew what they would take and -he printed accordingly. He did a good business in service books, school -books, and statutes or public printing. These were what we should call -to-day “pot boilers” and kept his office going on a sound business -basis. Beyond that he printed a large number of works of good -literature, but he took no unnecessary chances even in this field. He -always endeavored either to get the financial backing of some wealthy -noble or to assure himself of a reasonable sale before he undertook a -new publication. - -In the field of literature his work was different from that of almost -any other printer of his time. He printed no Bibles. Latin Bibles could -easily be imported from the continent, probably cheaper than he could -print them. English Bibles were not permitted to be printed unless the -English translation had been made before the appearance of Wickliffe’s -Bible in 1380. There were translations into English before Wickliffe, as -well as a considerable number of later date, but with the loose and -uncertain dating of manuscripts the printing of an English Bible was -altogether a more risky proposition than Caxton cared to undertake. He -printed no works on theology. There was no demand for theology in -English, and theology in Latin and Greek could be cheaply imported. -Moreover, although Caxton was a profoundly religious man and a perfectly -loyal son of the Church, he appears to have had no personal interest in -theology whatever. For similar reasons he printed no edition of the -Fathers and only two volumes of the classics. He left all of these -matters to the importers. - -His field of publication was the putting before the public of good, -recent literature in the English language. He did this partly through -printing the works of Chaucer, Langland, and other good English authors -and partly through translation of works in French and Latin. He was very -much interested in English history and works relating to England, -publishing several of the old chronicles and other matters of this sort. -He believed that there was great help to be found in reading stories of -good women and brave men and he attempted to lay a store of such stories -before his readers. His own translations cover over five thousand -closely printed folio pages, but he had many other translations made for -him. He was a good linguist in French, Flemish, and Latin and a tireless -worker at his literary and business labors. He meant that everything -which he printed should be helpful to his readers and should make for -the betterment of the life of his time, although he would have been the -first to disclaim the title of reformer or missionary. - -Two notable instances of his literary honesty appear. After the -publication of his first edition of Chaucer, an acquaintance came to him -and called his attention to the fact that he had followed a very -imperfect manuscript. His friend said that his father had a very fine -manuscript and Caxton at once arranged for a loan of it. Finding that -through following an imperfect text he had omitted many things from -Chaucer’s text and inserted many others which did not belong there, he -at once printed a correct edition, probably at very serious loss to -himself. The unsold copies of the first edition became useless and the -cost of a second edition was equal to the first, as the work had to be -entirely done over again from the beginning. The other instance must be -judged by the standards of his time rather than ours, but showed his -desire to present only correct texts to his readers. Caxton published in -1483 a translation of John Mink’s “Liber Festivalis.” An independent -translation was published at Oxford in 1487. A few years later Caxton -published a second edition, but followed the Oxford text rather than his -own earlier translation. - -Personally Caxton is a most interesting figure, a sturdy, honest, -high-minded, common-sensible English gentleman, a man who loved and -served God, honored the King, and helped his neighbor to the best of his -ability, and who did his country an inestimable service not only by the -introduction of a new art but by the opening of a new field of -literature. - -Caxton’s printing was not remarkable for typographical excellence. He -used soft type and thin ink, very much to the detriment of the beauty of -his impressions. The first type which he used was a font of black letter -made in imitation of the handwriting of the Burgundian clerks of the -time. This font had belonged to Mansion and was probably obtained by -Caxton from Mansion’s creditors. Later he cut for himself several other -fonts, some authorities say five, some seven. All of his fonts were -black-letter Gothic and all more or less related to the Burgundian -script with which he began. He used / instead of commas and periods. He -had a habit of correcting typographical errors by hand after the books -were finished. He went over the first copy, making the corrections -himself, and afterward the other copies were made to conform by clerks -or apprentices. - -While Caxton was at work a few other printers made their appearance in -England. Some time before 1478 Theodoric Rood, of Cologne, opened a -printing office at Oxford. The office was open for about eight years, -but seems to have done only a small business. We have fifteen books -which are known to have come from this press. They were printed from -three different fonts of type. Two of them were good letters imported -from Cologne. About 1487 Rood disappeared and is supposed to have gone -back to Cologne. In 1479 a press was started at the abbey of St. Albans. -This press published eight books that we know of, all for church use or -the direct use of the abbey. These books were printed from four fonts of -type, two of which are identical with two of Caxton’s. It is possible -that this was a side enterprise of Caxton’s, although it is equally -possible that the abbey may have bought the type of Caxton or obtained -the use of his matrices or even hired some type of him. The conclusions -based on apparent identity of type-faces are always doubtful, as this -identity may be accounted for in a considerable number of ways. - -In 1480 a printer appeared in London named John Lettou. Lettou was -evidently not an Englishman, but his origin is unknown. The word Lettou -is an old form of Lithuania. Attempts have been made to identify him -with certain continental printers, but as these attempts rest on -similarities of type-face they are uncertain. Soon after his appearance -Lettou was associated with William Machlinia or de Machlinia (William of -Mechlin or Malines in Belgium). Machlinia made a specialty of law books. -The business was later taken over by Richard Pynson. None of these made -any particular contribution to typography. Their interest lies chiefly -in the fact that they were the beginners of English printing. - -There was no successor to carry on Caxton’s traditions of scholarship, -of literary taste, or even of craftsmanship. Caxton, as we have said, -was a successful business man before he became a printer and was -doubtless financially independent during the whole of his later life. -His successors were men who were dependent entirely upon their craft for -their livelihood. Caxton’s immediate successors were two, Wynkyn de -Worde, a native of Lorraine, and Richard Pynson, a native of Normandy. -Both of these men appear to have learned their trade with Caxton. Wynkyn -de Worde carried on the business after Caxton’s death. De Worde appears -to have been a man of very little education. Pynson was a graduate of -the University of Paris, but he never became at home in the English -language. - -De Worde carried on the Caxton business from 1491 to 1534, at first in -Caxton’s own shop, afterward in London (Westminster and London have now -grown together, but at that time they were a considerable distance -apart). During this time De Worde published over six hundred books. His -books were cheap and poor in every way. De Worde was slow to start -publishing. He published almost nothing for a couple of years after -Caxton’s death. He appears to have lacked initiative and probably lacked -capital. He seems to have discovered that there was money in cheap -publications of a sort that catered to the popular taste, and he -diligently worked that line of business. He appears to have made money, -but cannot be credited with any higher type of success. He hired -translators and editors and he evidently hired cheap ones, as the -editorial work on his books is not good. - -Pynson printed from 1492 to 1529. He did a much higher class of work -than De Worde, although he is by no means eminent for his typography. He -made less money than De Worde, but appears to have kept out of financial -difficulties. His publications were mostly law books. He took over the -business of Lettou and Machlinia, but had specialized in law books on -becoming printer to the king in 1510. Pynson introduced the use of roman -type in 1509, although it was some time before it displaced the gothic -in common use. In 1523 to 1525 he printed Lord Berners’s translation of -the “Chronicle” of Froissart. In literature this is a notable event. -Froissart was really the first modern historian. The book marks the -transition from the dry chronicles of the Middle Ages to history proper. - -Robert Copeland, who began to print about 1514, is notable as being -probably the first English printer, that is to say, the first -native-born Englishman to go into the business. - -One of the few good printers of this early period was Thomas Berthelet -or Bartlett. Berthelet was a Welshman and was an excellent bookbinder as -well as a good printer. He was the first man in England to use gold -tooling on his binding. Berthelet enjoyed the position of royal printer. -Richard Grafton and Edward Whitchurch were the first printers of English -Bibles, which began to appear about the middle of the sixteenth century. - - - - - CHAPTER II - THE REGULATION OF THE INDUSTRY AND THE COMPANY OF STATIONERS - - -The middle of the sixteenth century marks a distinct change in English -printing. Up to this time the industry in England had been neither -organized, regulated, nor censored. It had been conducted under -conditions of freedom almost identical with those which exist to-day, a -state of things entirely anomalous in that period. The quality of -English printing in this period was generally very poor. In spite, -however, of the poor workmanship, there lingers something of the old -craftsman spirit. Although the books show glaring imperfections, they -also show a certain dignity and harmony which is reminiscent of the -spirit of the old craftsmen. In detail, however, the work was poor both -in composition and presswork. It showed an almost entire lack of -originality. Types, wood-cuts, initials, ornaments, and even the -printer’s devices were not only bought from the continent of Europe but -bought second-hand and used long after signs of wear had become -painfully evident. Wood-cuts especially were not only over-used but -misused. They were not infrequently inserted with absolute disregard of -the text. The printers not only stuck in pictures which had no bearing -whatever upon the subject matter, but they used the same picture more -than once in the same book. - -The reason for this is to be found in the fact that the proprietors of -the large shops were intent on profit and the proprietors of the small -shops had no capital. The experience of Wynkyn de Worde had shown that -the way to make money was by printing popular books which could be sold -cheap, and his successors learned the lesson only too rapidly. There was -no effective demand for good printing. The smaller printers had to buy -such materials as they could afford and compete as best they could. - -From about 1525, which will be recalled as the date of the publication -of Froissart’s “Chronicle,” there was a change in the demand for books. -The revival of learning was beginning to make itself felt in England. -The influence of Erasmus on the intellectual life of the age was very -great. This influence was especially felt in England because Erasmus had -himself spent considerable time there and was a friend of John Colet, -Dean of St. Paul’s, who was not only an influential clergyman but a very -great scholar. England was also beginning to feel the stirrings of -philosophical and religious discussion. There was a great demand for -educational books to meet the needs of the scholars and there began to -be a great output of controversial literature. Wynkyn de Worde sometimes -printed three or four editions of the same Latin grammar in one year, so -great was the demand for educational books. - -Up to the middle of the century, however, very little original work was -printed in England, or at any rate is now extant. The popular demand was -for reprints of old books and for translations of French poems and -romances. The classics and other works of more serious literature were -commonly imported. There was also a considerable amount of printing for -the English trade done on the continent. Not content with furnishing the -English with books in Greek and Latin and the modern languages, some of -the continental printers did a flourishing trade in the printing of -books in English. Their work was generally better and cheaper than that -of the English printers. - -As has already been said, English printing was left very much alone up -to 1557 excepting that privileges were granted by the crown rather -freely. Beginning with the privileges to print statutes and law books, -the practice spread until by the middle of the sixteenth century -practically all profitable printing was covered by privilege. - -During this period, and indeed for several centuries later, the industry -was free from labor troubles. The reason, however, is to be found in the -peculiar situation which existed under English law. Under English common -law all combinations of workmen were considered as contrary to public -policy, regarded as combinations in restraint of trade, and dealt with -very harshly. A single workman might work or refuse to work for whatever -pay or under whatever conditions he pleased, but an agreement of two or -more on this basis, that is to combine for pay, hours, and the like, was -a criminal conspiracy. Not only were any agreements such a group of men -might make absolutely void, but the very fact of entering such a -combination was itself a criminal offence. From the reign of Edward I -(1272–1307) to George IV (1820–1830) thirty or forty acts of Parliament, -commonly called “Statutes of Laborers,” were passed on this basis. The -reënactment of legislation on this subject from time to time was not -caused, as is usual in such cases, by the ineffectiveness of the -legislation but by the necessity of meeting special conditions which -were created by visitations of the plague, wars, and other events having -far-reaching industrial effects. - -The development of the factory system of production, beginning about the -middle of the eighteenth century, with the consequent gathering of great -groups of workmen in certain localities and the rapid increase in the -town population, rendered a continuance of the old regulations more and -more difficult. The laws against combinations of workmen were evaded by -the organization of secret societies, while the displacement of large -numbers of hand workers by the introduction of machinery caused serious -labor troubles and rioting. Other conditions too familiar to need -description arose which caused friction between the workmen and their -employers. Attempts were made at first to put a stop to the combinations -of the workmen by more and more stringent legislation. This proving -unsuccessful, the legislation was modified in the direction of leniency. -Gradually the unions won their way to recognition, although this -recognition was developed in the slow and inconsistent way which is -common with English legislation. - -In 1875 the whole matter was put on a new basis by the legal acceptance -of the principle that it is lawful for any combination of men to do any -act which it would be lawful for either of them to do singly. This, of -course, was a reversal of the fundamental principle of more than six -hundred years of labor legislation, that it was not lawful for a -combination of men to do things which any one of them might lawfully do. -Since that time the unions have rapidly won their way to full -recognition and to great importance in the industry. In England to-day -practically all trades are very thoroughly unionized. The printing -industry is no exception. Union membership is much more universal among -the workmen in the industry than it is in the United States. This -development of organization among the workmen has been accompanied by a -development of strong organizations of employers in all industries. -To-day practically all industrial bargaining in England is collective -bargaining carried on between associated employers and associated -employees. - -The same difficulties arising out of lack of regulation which had vexed -the industry on the continent had made themselves felt in England, but -with their usual good sense the English attacked the problem at a very -early period. Nearly sixty years before the organization of the -Community of Printers in France, in 1618, the English had put printing -in line with the other industries by the organization of the Stationers’ -Company in 1557, the last year of Queen Mary I. - -The organization of the Stationers was by no means an innovation. It was -rather the legalizing and regularizing of a condition which had risen -under the familiar conditions of English industry. As early as 1403 we -find the guild or fraternity of scriveners. This guild or fraternity -developed into the “Craft” of stationers, influential in fixing and -controlling trade customs. The growth of the craft or trade guilds in -England was not unlike that of similar organizations in Europe. Their -control of the situation, however, seems to have been even more close -than elsewhere. An ordinance of Edward II (1307–1327) compelled every -citizen of a town to be a member of some craft or mystery. - -In 1375 the election of the city officials of London was turned over to -the craft guilds or, as they were termed, liveried companies. The -liveried companies were so called because each had a distinctive dress -which was worn on formal occasions. From this time on the liveried -companies controlled the political and municipal power of London for -several centuries, electing the Lord Mayor and Aldermen, controlling the -train-bands, or city militia, and to a great extent holding the defence -of the kingdom in their hands. About seventy-six of these companies -still continue to exist. They survive mainly for charitable and -philanthropic purposes, conserving and administering the large funds -which were accumulated in early centuries. - -The Stationers’ Company was organized in 1557 partly because the -printers saw the necessity for organization and regulation of the -industry, and partly because the crown desired a better means for -controlling printing than had theretofore existed. It will be remembered -that this was in the midst of the age of religious controversy. King -Henry VIII had attempted to set himself up as the head of a national -church which was not Protestant and at the same time did not acknowledge -allegiance to the Pope. King Henry executed with great impartiality both -those who defended the ecclesiastical supremacy of the Pope and those -who professed Protestant opinions. His successor, King Edward VI, was a -Protestant and attempted to make England Protestant. His short reign was -followed by that of Mary I, who was a Catholic and attempted to make -England Catholic. Her comparatively short reign was followed by the long -reign of Elizabeth, in whose time Protestantism became the established -state church of England. It will be remembered that it was near the -close of Mary’s reign that the Stationers’ Company was chartered, and -the interest of the crown in securing a better control of the printing -press and its output is obvious. In 1560, the second year of Elizabeth, -the incorporation of the Stationers’ Company was rendered complete by -the enrolment of the new company in the list of the liveried companies -of London, and we shall presently see that the royal hand was laid -heavily upon the printers and their work. - -The Stationers’ Company was organized in the usual form, with its -administration in the hands of a Master and two Wardens. The terms of -the charter gave the company authority to govern the trade and to -enforce its regulations by the exercise of the right of visitation and -disciplinary control over its members. This extended not only to the -enforcement of the regulations of the Company but also to the -enforcement of royal proclamations and injunctions, and decrees of the -Star Chamber. - -The Star Chamber, frequently mentioned in English history in general, as -well as in the history of English printing, was a special court of high -officials. The powers and jurisdiction of this court were somewhat vague -and undefined. Theoretically it was intended to deal with matters which -could not be adequately dealt with by the regular courts because of the -necessity of immediate action, the important nature of the case, or -other conditions which made the action of the ordinary courts too slow -or not sufficiently effective. Naturally the existence of such a court -opened the way to serious abuses, and alleged abuses of its authority -played a very large part in the Revolution by which King Charles I lost -his head. As a result of these revolutionary movements, the court was -discontinued in 1641, after an existence of at least three hundred -years. It is supposed to have derived its name from the fact that the -ceiling of the room it sat in in early times was decorated with stars. - -After the organization of the Stationers’ Company the exercise of the -trade was limited to its members. The Company was required to keep -registers giving the names of the Masters and Wardens, of all the -members of the Company and their apprentices, and of all who “took up -freedom,” that is to say, became members of the Company from time to -time. All books printed were required to be registered with the Company -and a copy deposited in the archives accompanied by a fee. This was the -beginning of copyright. It was understood that the members of the -Company should respect each others’ rights to publications thus -registered, although it appears to have been a “gentleman’s agreement” -rather than a regulation. This requirement did not apply to books which -were published under royal privilege, but the members of the Company -were bound to respect these privileges and not in any way infringe upon -the rights which they conferred. The requirement of registration did not -apply to the king’s printers in so far as their patent for the royal -printing extended; that is to say, the royal printer was not required to -register statutes, law books, or other government printing, but he was -required to register all general publications. This legislation -requiring registration was not always strictly enforced. - -The powers of the Company were used much more for the regulation and -control of printing than for the improvement of the art. It was to the -Company that the government looked particularly for the enforcement of -the statutes regarding printing. For that reason, if a book were of -doubtful character and liable to be prohibited the publisher preferred -to run the chance of attempting to evade the regulation regarding -registration. Fortunately the registers of the Company containing the -records of all their transactions are for the most part still in -existence. They furnish an immense fund of valuable information -extending over a very long period. - -The Stationers’ Company included the printers, bookbinders, -type-founders, and booksellers. It had ninety-seven charter members. A -few of the London printers are known not to have joined the Company when -it was organized. Why they stood out we do not know. Very likely it was -simply the usual assertion of British independence and impatience of -control. The requirement of membership in the Company as a requisite to -carrying on the business was not enforced with regard to those printers -who were in business when the Company was chartered, its application -being restricted to those who might thereafter desire to enter the -business. Some of the independents afterwards joined the Company. The -remainder stayed out permanently. - -The organization of the Company was not in itself sufficient to secure -the desired control of the industry. As has already been pointed out, an -immense flood of printed matter was being brought out on account of the -bitter religious and political controversies of the time. Most of it was -very poor printing. The end desired was to get it out as quickly as -possible and as cheaply as possible. Much of it was objectionable to the -government and the organization of the Company was immediately followed -up by repressive legislation. - -In 1558 Queen Elizabeth laid the foundation of legislation for the -control of the press by issuing “injunctions” which required that every -book should be licensed either by the Queen or by the members of the -Privy Council, by the Archbishop of Canterbury, by the Chancellor of one -of the two universities, or by other authorities specified in the act. -Frequent proclamations and orders show that the injunctions were not -obeyed. It may be laid down as a fundamental principle in the study of -history that the frequent repetition of legislation on any one subject -shows that the subject is considered very important by the government -and that the legislation is not effective. So seriously was this matter -regarded by the government that very extreme measures were adopted in -dealing with offending printers. One William Carter, for instance, who -had been several times punished for breach of the printing regulations, -finally printed a seditious book, “a treatise of schisme,” for which he -was tried for high treason, condemned to death and hanged, -disembowelled, and quartered according to the ghastly custom of that -time. - -By way of further tightening of the regulations a Star Chamber decree -was issued in 1586 much more strict than any preceding order. By the -provisions of this decree all presses then working had to be reported in -the same way as already provided. No presses whatever were allowed -outside of London, excepting one each at Oxford and Cambridge. Previous -to the charter of the Company provincial presses had been started at -Oxford, York, Cambridge, Abingdon, Tavistock, St. Albans, Bristol, -Ipswich, Canterbury, and Norwich, in the order named. These, of course, -were all swept away by this act excepting those of Oxford and Cambridge. -No more presses were to be permitted until the number in use had been -reduced to a number which should be pronounced sufficient for the needs -of the kingdom by the Archbishop of Canterbury and the Bishop of London. -Vacancies in the number of licensed printers were to be filled by three -stationers (members of the Company) who would be nominated by the -Company and licensed by an ecclesiastical commission. The censorship, -both ecclesiastical and lay, was developed and enforced by further -provisions of the act. - -These are the conditions under which that great literature which is -known as Elizabethan literature was created and published. It seems -incredible that such literature could have been produced under such -conditions. The fact that it was so produced seems to show that the -censors made a conscientious attempt to enforce the legislation in such -a way as to prevent the actual abuse of the printing press and to -protect the government from danger arising from these sources, while -leaving pure literature as free as the conditions permitted. Of course, -we of to-day regard any system of press censorship as wrong and cannot -approve any such legislation. It is worth while, however, to remember -that these men made an earnest effort to live up to the moral and -political standards of their own time. - -In the execution of this edict the Stationers’ Company made weekly -official visits to every shop. These visitations were intended to -ascertain: - -1. How many presses each printer possessed. - -2. What he printed. - -3. How many impressions were taken of each piece of work. - -4. How many workmen and apprentices there were in each plant. - -5. Whether unauthorized persons were employed or allowed to remain about -the plant. - -The regulations of the edict and also the private regulations of the -Company seem to have been enforced at this time with all the -thoroughness in the power of the Company. The registers show that its -officers frequently seized and destroyed editions of unlicensed books -and in other ways enforced the edicts against all persons. Its own -members were frequently disciplined. The registers show discipline for -printing an unlicensed book, for selling a prayer book of Edward VI in -place of one of Elizabeth, for infringing a copyright, for printing -indecent or offensive matters, for selling books to other than -book-shops, for selling books “disorderly printed,” for keeping open on -Sundays and festival days, and for keeping unregistered apprentices. The -phrase “disorderly printed” appears to refer to the careless and -inaccurate printing of the books rather than to the nature of their -contents. The printing standards of the time were not high, but this -would appear to indicate a disposition to maintain them, such as they -were. The punishment for selling to other than book shops is interesting -as showing that at that early period the book trade suffered from one of -the things which to-day causes much complaint among booksellers. Sales -by department stores, drug stores, and other parties disposed to cut -rates are regarded as serious difficulties in the book trade of to-day -and it is evident that the same difficulty occurred three hundred and -fifty years ago. - -The difficulties of the printers were by no means limited to those -created by the edicts or regulations. One of the great sources of -difficulty lay in the privileges and monopolies which had been -recklessly granted for a considerable period. These privileges had a -most unfortunate effect upon the industry both on the side of business -and on that of craftsmanship. On the side of business they gave to -certain printers a monopoly of practically all of the work which was -certain to produce good financial returns, leaving to the unprivileged -printers the doubtful enterprise of producing current literature. On the -side of craftsmanship they took away the spur of competition. The -greater part of the literature of this period was produced by -unprivileged printers, most of it with very little profit to them. On -the other hand, the privileged printer, being secured in his monopoly of -a certain kind of production, was not held to any artistic standards. -Competition being impossible, he could print as cheaply and as badly as -he chose and generally did so. In both directions the effect was -paralyzing. - -Naturally the unprivileged printers were constantly tempted to infringe -upon the monopoly rights of the others, with the result that there was -constant friction and appeals to authority were taken on both sides. The -matter finally came to a head in a serious revolt of the unprivileged -printers under the leadership of one John Wolfe. Wolfe was a member of -the Fishmongers’ Company, but had undertaken to do printing and declared -boldly that he proposed to lead a movement which would revolutionize the -entire situation. The revolt was sufficiently serious to bring about a -compromise by which a considerable number of privileges were given up -entirely or turned over to the Company to be re-distributed by them -among the printers. The extent to which these privileges were granted -may be seen by the fact that John Day, of whom we shall hear more -presently, alone gave up fifty-three privileges, although he kept -several of the most important and profitable ones. Wolfe transferred his -membership from the Fishmongers’ to the Stationers’ Company. As a member -of the Stationers’ Company he obtained certain privileges for himself -and it is interesting to note that not long afterward the registers of -the Company show Wolfe appealing because somebody had infringed upon a -privilege of his. Wolfe rose to become an officer of the Company and -distinguished himself as a prosecutor of offending printers and a -staunch upholder of law and order. - -The natural result of the reduction of the number of offices under the -edict of 1586 was that the trade was seriously overmanned and there were -too many apprentices, as the reduction in the number of offices did not -affect the number of either journeymen or apprentices. The Company dealt -with the matter in a rather successful fashion by an order issued in -1587. This order limited the number of apprentices and attempted to make -as much work as possible for the journeymen. It provided that no -apprentice should be allowed to work in either the composing room or the -press room if there were any competent journeymen in need of work. When -we remember the small number of offices in London and the fact that -there were only two in England outside of London, we can readily see -that this order was not so difficult of enforcement as might appear. No -form was to be kept standing to the injury of workmen. The meaning of -this is clearer when we remember that all composition at this time was -hand composition and that stereotyping and other methods of preserving -forms were not known and consequently a reprint or re-issue was, -excepting for absence of editorial work, a new job. If there was -expectation that a new reprint might soon be required and the printer -had the type to spare he might leave a form standing and so avoid the -labor of recomposition. This regulation meant that as soon as the first -impression was taken the type must be distributed so that in case of -reprinting the compositor would have a new job. For like reasons the -number of copies to be printed was limited in ordinary cases to 1250 or -1500, so that if the book proved to be popular work might be provided in -setting up repeated editions. These regulations seem to have been -reasonably successful so far as the journeymen were concerned, but, of -course, they materially increased the price of books. - -The period of apprenticeship was from seven to eleven years. It was -intended that apprenticeship should end at 24, and the length of the -apprenticeship depended upon the age at which it was begun. At the end -of the apprenticeship the indenture required that the master should make -the apprentice free of the Company “if he have well and truely served.” -As the limit of membership of the Company was only about 25, for a long -period only about one-half of the apprentices ever became masters; the -rest of them remained permanently in the position of journeymen. As -elsewhere in Europe, the apprentice might become heir to the business -and the place in the Company by marrying either the daughter or the -widow of a master printer. Apparently the business went to the widow -rather than to the daughter if the widow survived. Widows even seem to -have taken the business in preference to sons. Consequently the widow of -a master printer was a very desirable match for an ambitious apprentice -in spite of any difference in age, and several instances are recorded -where a business changed hands twice by successive re-marriages of the -widow. - -There was a strong tendency, which we shall discuss more at length -later, for the bookseller to get control of the situation. Copyrights -generally belonged to the booksellers. They purchased them from the -authors and held them as against the printers. It must be remembered -that an author could not obtain a copyright, as copyright was secured by -registration in the Stationers’ Company and this registration could be -made only by a bookseller or a printer. Consequently the author was -obliged to content himself with what the purchaser of his work was -willing to give him. The bookseller naturally got his printing done as -cheaply as he could and printers cut prices then just as they do now, -and got poor as a result, just as they do now. - - - - - CHAPTER III - JOHN DAY AND THE DARK AGES OF ENGLISH PRINTING - - -One name stands out among English printers of this period, that of John -Day, who has been described as “one of the best and most enterprising of -printers.” Day was born in 1522 and began to print in 1546. His business -career lasted for thirty-eight years. He died in 1584, at the age of 62. -Day began his business life at a period when English printing was very -poor. His first books were as bad as those of his contemporaries. They -were printed from worn type, the presswork was bad, they were without -pagination, and he did not even use a device such as was customary among -printers at that time. His first important work was a Bible, printed in -1549. This Bible was illustrated by wood-cuts which were very evidently -second-hand, as they extended beyond the letter-press on the page. On -the accession of Queen Mary I, in 1553, he went abroad, possibly for -religious reasons, but probably not, as Day, like most printers of this -particular time, found no difficulty in conforming himself to the -religious views of the government. As a rule they accepted the peculiar -position of Henry VIII which has already been described, printed -Protestant books under Edward VI, Catholic books under Mary, and -Protestant books under Elizabeth. They seem to have been quite content, -in other words, to take what was brought them and to accept whatever -government regulations might be in existence. - -This attitude on the part of the printers reflects the general attitude -of the English people at this time. There is very little doubt that the -mass of the people were neither staunchly Catholic nor aggressively -Protestant. While there were earnest and aggressive spirits in both -parties, it seems quite clear that the vast majority of the people were -ready to accept either Catholicism or Protestantism as a state church. -England did not become aggressively Protestant until well into the reign -of Elizabeth. Unfortunately for the interests of religion and of -religious toleration, the church question became a political question, -and when Spain and the other Catholic powers attempted to overthrow the -government of England and make England dependent upon Spain, patriotism -and Protestantism came to be regarded by the English as synonymous -terms. Here, as elsewhere, the Reformation was a political more than a -religious question. - -Just when Day returned to England is not clear, but it was before the -death of Queen Mary, as he was a charter member of the Stationers’ -Company, which was chartered in the last year of her reign, and -published a book dated the same year. Evidently Day studied abroad. Very -probably that was his purpose in travel, for we find that in 1559 his -books began to show excellence and they improved in quality until we -find him soon producing the best printing which had yet been done in -England. From this time on his work was marked by accuracy, taste, and a -high grade of excellence in both typography and presswork. - -He was greatly encouraged and at times assisted by Matthew Parker, who -was Archbishop of Canterbury from 1559 to 1575. Parker was by no means a -great man, but he was just the sort of man whom the autocratic Elizabeth -wished to have for Archbishop of Canterbury. He was moderate in his -views and easygoing in temperament, a scholar and collector of beautiful -things and a patron of the arts and sciences. Parker not only encouraged -and patronized Day but employed him to print on the private press which -the Archbishop had set up at Lambeth. Day’s best piece of work was an -edition of Asser’s “Life of Alfred the Great” which he printed for -Parker in 1574. - -Day published and printed the first edition of Foxe’s “Book of Martyrs,” -a huge folio volume of 2008 pages. In 1578 Day published a book in Latin -and Greek. The Greek was the best face yet seen in England and was equal -to the work of Estienne. Other notable achievements of Day were the -printing of the Psalter with musical notes, the cutting of Hebrew words -in wood to be used in printing the life of Bishop Jewel, published in -1573, and the cutting of a font of Saxon type which appears to have been -the first used in England. This font contained twenty-six capitals and -twenty-seven lowercase letters. The capitals consisted of eighteen old -roman letters and eight Saxon characters, two of which were diphthongs. -The lowercase contained fifteen roman and twelve Saxon characters. Day -also cut italic types to match roman, the first time this had been done. -Day’s work was mainly religious, although he published some of the first -English plays and some other works of general literature. - -As usual with men of great excellence, Day suffered much from the -antagonism of jealous rivals, but this antagonism was not sufficient to -deprive him of success. The excellence of his work was rewarded not only -by success in business but by the award of a large number of privileges -which were sources of great profit. We have seen, however, that he -relinquished a large number of these at the time of Wolfe’s revolt. -Those that he saved seem to have been by far the most profitable. - -A few other printers of this period need mention for various reasons. -The best work after that of Day was done by Vautrollier. Tottell, whose -name is variously spelled in the records of the time, printed many -things of great value to English literature. He was an enterprising -printer of contemporary publications. Robert Darker, king’s printer to -James I, printed the statutes, proclamations, and editions of the Book -of Common Prayer of that period and deserves to be remembered as the -original printer of the so-called Authorized Version of the Bible, -published in 1611. This English text, sometimes called the Authorized -and sometimes called the King James Version, was the only text of the -English Bible received among English-speaking people until the revision -made in the latter part of the eighteenth century. It may be worth while -to note that this version is not uncommonly erroneously referred to as -the St. James Version. There is absolutely no justification for this -common error. The book was authorized by King James and for that reason -is known as the Authorized or King James Version. King James, however, -was no saint. The authorization was simply a license or permission. -Darker published the book as a commercial venture at his own expense. He -used the same type and the same ornaments as those used in the Bishop’s -Bible, an English translation published in 1568. - -John Norton, another one of the group of printers favored by James I, -cut some of the best Greek types which have ever appeared in England. He -was a worthy successor in this field of John Day. William and Isaac -Jaggard printed the famous folio edition of Shakespeare’s plays in 1623. -Typographically it was a poor piece of work, but as a literary landmark -it is of the utmost importance. - -The standards of Day were not long maintained. There were a few good -printers in the seventeenth century, but for the most part they were -poor and the tendency was decidedly toward deterioration. Political and -religious controversies broke out afresh in the reign of James I -(1613–1625) and were continued with increasing bitterness until they -finally broke into the storm of civil war which swept over England in -the reign of Charles I. A natural result of these conditions was a -tightening of the restrictions upon the press, which became more and -more burdensome. The controversies called forth floods of literature, -much of which had to be clandestinely printed. The restrictions, as we -shall presently see, were almost unbearable and the market was greatly -disturbed. The consequence was that English printing reached its -low-water mark in the last half of the seventeenth century. The period -which we are considering, however, shows one important invention which -in its field was a distinct improvement. Copperplate engraving was -introduced into England in 1540, but it was a long time before it came -into general use. Later we find it used first for portraits, then for -engraved title pages, some of which were of great beauty, and then for -general purposes of illustration. - -James I strengthened the Company of Stationers by withdrawing several -valuable privileges from private persons and giving them to the Company. -This action was probably taken with a view to making the Company more -reliable as the agent for the enforcement of the press laws, which were -not materially changed during James’s reign. With the political and -religious dissensions which followed the accession of Charles I in 1525 -came renewed efforts to meet the rising tides of discussion and to dam -up the flood of pamphlets, mostly badly printed, first by the more -stringent enforcement of the old laws and then by the enactment of new -ones. The Company’s registers at this time show a long list of -penalties, including fines, cropping of ears, imprisonment, and -expulsion from the Company. It is only just to King Charles, however, to -say that he did attempt to foster learning and encourage good printing, -provided the learning were politically and religiously orthodox -according to King Charles’s standards and the printers were amenable to -authority. - -In this connection there is a rather interesting incident of an attempt -by King Charles to set up a Greek press. In 1631 Barker and Lucas -printed the so-called “Wicked Bible,” which derived its name from an -unfortunate typographical error, the omission of the word “not” in the -seventh commandment. Barker and Lucas were fined for their carelessness -£300, a very heavy fine, equal, if we make allowance for the difference -in the purchasing power of money, to about $12,000 to-day. In settlement -of this fine they were commanded instead of paying the money into the -treasury to purchase £300 worth of Greek type and to print one Greek -book a year at their own cost and risk, the Archbishop of Canterbury to -fix the size of the edition. They gladly agreed to this, but owing to -the political conditions which immediately followed very little came of -it. - -In 1637 a Star Chamber decree was issued which marks the high-water mark -of governmental regulations in England. By this decree all books of -every sort were to be licensed. Law books were to be licensed by the -Lord Chief Justice and the Lord Chief Baron; books dealing with history -by the Secretaries of State; books on heraldry by the Earl Marshal; -books on any other subjects by the Archbishop of Canterbury, the Bishop -of London, or the Chancellors or Vice-Chancellors of the two -universities. Two copies of every book submitted for publication were to -be handed to the licenser, one of which he was to keep for future -reference. Catalogues of books imported into the country were to be sent -to the Archbishop of Canterbury or to the Bishop of London, and no -consignments of foreign books were to be opened until the -representatives of one of these dignitaries and of the Stationers’ -Company were present. - -It was further decreed that no merchant or bookseller should import from -abroad any book printed in the English language. The main purpose of -this enactment was probably to prevent evasion of the English press laws -by the importation from abroad of books objectionable to the government. -It was also, although this purpose was probably secondary, intended to -protect England from foreign competition. The name of the printer, the -author, and the publisher, and the place of publication and sale were to -be placed in every book. No person was permitted to erect a printing -press or to let any premises for the purpose of carrying on printing -without first giving notice to the Company, and no carpenter was -permitted to make a press without similar notice. - -The number of master printers was limited to twenty. Every master -printer had to give a bond of £300 for good behavior. The Master and the -Wardens of the Stationers’ Company might have three presses each and -three apprentices. No other printer could have more than two presses. A -master printer on the livery (a member of the Company) might have two -apprentices, others only one. The master printers were to give work to -journeymen when requested to do so. This enactment was not made out of -any tenderness for unemployed journeymen but for the reason that the -unemployed journeyman was always tempted to pick up an occasional -shilling by printing unlicensed or objectionable books. It was -considered desirable to keep him employed where his work could be -supervised. All reprints had to be licensed exactly the same as new -publications. The Company was confirmed in its right of search. This -meant not simply a right of supervision of printing offices, but the -right to search any place where it might be suspected that printing was -being carried on. One copy of every book had to be filed in the Bodleian -Library at Oxford. Only four type-founders were permitted to carry on -business. Books could be sold only by booksellers. The punishments -imposed for infractions of these laws included destruction of stock, -fines, imprisonment, and whipping at the cart’s tail. The allowance of -type-founders, small as it was, seemed to be ample, in spite of the fact -that English type-founders had now ceased to cut type. English -type-founding had generally been poor up to this time and was to -continue so for some time to come. What new type came into use in the -English printing offices was mainly bought on the continent. - -Up to this time a great deal of printing had been done on the continent -for the English market. The works of the Fathers, the classics, and the -greater part of the serious publications of the time, being printed -mostly in Latin, were in the hands of the continental printers. With -their facilities for the production and distribution of books they held -the market so securely that English printers did not even attempt -competition. In addition to that a great deal of printing in the English -language for the English market continued to be done on the continent. -As has already been indicated, a good deal of this was political and -religious and could not safely be published in England. A considerable -quantity of it, however, was work in general literature, which was done -better than most English work and cheaper than English work of a -corresponding quality. The act of 1637 shut off a great deal of this -foreign printing, especially so much of it as was controversial. - -Further legislation was enacted in order to develop English printing. -For a long time printing was not an English industry. It will be -remembered that although Caxton was English born most of the early -printing was done by foreigners who came to England for that purpose, -and for a long time there was a very large foreign element in the -industry. In 1523 a law was passed that no alien engaged in the printing -business in England could take any but English-born apprentices. In 1529 -an act was passed that no alien not already naturalized could set up any -house or shop for the exercise of any handicraft in England. In 1534 it -was further enacted that no books should be imported bound and ready for -sale and that no unnaturalized alien could sell foreign printed books -except at wholesale. - -The decree of 1637 was fortunately not long-lived. The political -ascendency of Parliament soon began to be felt and in 1641 the Star -Chamber was abolished. While the abolition of this court did not -directly affect the decree of 1637, indirectly it made it practically -void. For a short while Parliament permitted the decree to lapse and -left the printers very much to themselves. This was not because -Parliament was any more liberal than King Charles in its views on the -subject of printing. It was only that while Parliament was strong enough -to suffer the law to be evaded and so to give free rein to the -scribbling propensities of its supporters, it was not yet strong enough -to muzzle the writers on the other side. Parliament was also very busy -with other concerns and for the time being was content to let the -printers alone. - -The result was an enormous flood of printing, most of it worse than -ever. An examination of the publications of the time shows that -everything that would go on a press was dug up and utilized. We find in -use old type and blocks which had formed part of the stock of Wynkyn de -Worde and Pynson. As soon, however, as Parliament got well seated in -power it proceeded to deal with printers along the old lines. In 1643 it -reënacted the decree of 1637 with the important modification that the -number of printers was not limited. In 1649 sixty printers in London and -the two university towns gave the bonds for good conduct required by law -as a requisite to carrying on the business. It will be remembered that -the decree of 1637 limited the number in London to twenty, with one in -each of the universities. This act called forth one of the noblest -pieces of literature in the English language, Milton’s “Areopagitica,” -or plea for unlicensed printing, in which Milton brings all the -resources of his great learning and matchless literary skill to the -defence of the freedom of the press. The plea, of course, fell on deaf -ears for the time, but it remains one of the jewels of English -literature. The Parliamentary government held the act as a weapon which -could be used in case of need. It was strictly enforced with regard to -political and religious books and newspapers. It seems to have been very -little enforced outside these limits. - -When Cromwell took the reins of power as Lord Protector of England he -enforced the press laws very strictly. Cromwell was a masterful man and -was not disposed to permit criticism of his person and government or -discussion of matters of public policy upon which the government had -decided. On the death of Cromwell there followed a period of political -uncertainty during which the enforcement of the act was relaxed, only to -be renewed at the accession of King Charles II in 1660. - -Shortly after the accession of King Charles a group of the best printers -unsuccessfully petitioned for the incorporation of a Company of Printers -as distinguished from the Stationers. They alleged that the Company of -Stationers was controlled by the booksellers and that they cheapened -printing and impoverished the printers, that the Company of Stationers -was so large that only old men could attain to the dignity of masters or -wardens, and that only once in ten or twelve years was it possible for a -journeyman printer to become a master printer. They claimed that a new -Company would free the printing industry from these shackles, that it -would improve the quality of printing, and that it would secure for the -government better supervision of the output of the press. This last was -probably a bait to the hook. The petition was not granted, however, and -things went on in the old fashion. - -In 1662 a new act similar to the preceding ones was passed, containing -only one important variation by which the privilege of having a printing -press was extended to the city of York. This act was for a time very -strictly enforced. The police power necessary to the enforcement of the -act was taken away from the Stationers’ Company and entrusted to Sir -Roger Lestrange, who was appointed censor of the press. He was given -control of the printing office and power of search. With a few reserved -exceptions the entire licensing of books was placed in his hands and he -was given a monopoly of the publication of news. Sir Roger seems to have -taken himself quite seriously and to have discharged his functions for -some years with a considerable degree of efficiency. Many books, -however, were published without licenses. Some were published -clandestinely, while it is probable that Sir Roger was more concerned to -exercise the powers of office for the suppression of political and -religious controversy and for the protection of his monopoly than for -the control of pure literature. The act was reënacted in 1685 for a -period of seven years. It was then reënacted for a period of one year -and finally disappeared in 1694. - -In spite of the wretched condition of printing at this period a few -lights appear in the gloom. Thomas Roycroft did some very excellent -printing. He achieved one of the most remarkable tasks which had yet -been accomplished by an English printer in the publication of his famous -Polyglot Bible. This Bible gave the text in Hebrew, Latin, Greek, -Chaldean, Syriac, Arabic, Samaritan, Persian, and Ethiopic. Of course, -these languages did not all appear in all parts of the Bible. The Greek, -Latin, and Arabic texts appear throughout. The Hebrew and Chaldean -appear in the Old Testament, the Ethiopic in the Psalms and New -Testament only, and the Persian only in the New Testament. The types -used came from four foundries, one of them being a face cut by John Day. -The work was published in six great volumes, pages 16 x 10 inches. The -text was so arranged that when the Bible was opened at any point each -double page showed all the languages used for that particular passage. -The first volume was published in September of 1654. The second appeared -in 1655, the third in 1656, and the other three in 1657. Cromwell -encouraged the work by ordering the admission of the paper duty free. - -In 1688 the largest office in London was that of James Fletcher, who had -five presses and employed thirteen journeymen and two apprentices. One -of the printers of this period, John Barber, arrived at the distinction -of Lord Mayor of London. He was a very popular Lord Mayor and he must -have been very prosperous in business or he would not have acquired the -means necessary to holding the position. He was in no way remarkable as -a printer, however. - -During this period there were four type-founders of importance—Joseph -Moxon, the Andrews brothers, the Glover brothers, and Thomas James. The -most famous of these was James Moxon. Primarily a man of science, he was -distinguished as a mathematician and hydrographer. To these interests he -added type-founding. Like Dürer in Germany and Geoffry Tory in France, -he worked out a theory of type design in exact mathematical proportions, -but like these and other attempts of the same sort it was not -successful. While it is true that there must be proportion in -type-faces, it is also true that a beautiful and legible type-face must -have qualities other than a mere mathematical exactness. Moxon is known -chiefly by his important work, “Mechanick Exercises.” Part II of this -book is an exhaustive study of printing and type-founding. So thorough -was Moxon’s study of these subjects and so accurate his presentation -that the work is yet a standard authority on many fundamental points. - -Joseph and Robert Andrews, although not very good workmen, made an -extensive variety of type and found a good sale for it. They used the -Moxon fonts, but added to them new roman and italic fonts, learned -fonts, so called, Anglo-Saxon, and Irish. James and Thomas Glover cast -two fonts of black letter from the matrices cut by Wynkyn de Worde and -some foreign letters. They do not appear to have undertaken competition -with Andrews and James in the ordinary forms of letter. Thomas James, -who shared with the Andrews brothers a large portion of the business, -used two sets of matrices cut in Holland. Of course, these few -type-founders hardly made a beginning of supplying the English printers -with type. The greater part of the printing of this period was done from -type imported from Holland. It was in order to compete with this -imported type that James obtained possession of the two fonts of Dutch -matrices which were the backbone of his type-foundry. - -After the Restoration of 1660, we find the Oxford Press rapidly -advancing to the commanding position in English printing which it came -to occupy in later years and still holds. Oxford had been a centre of -royal influence in the civil wars. King Charles I held court there for -some time and the university was always staunchly loyal to the Stuarts. -Naturally it enjoyed the sunshine of royal favor when the Stuarts came -back in the person of Charles II. - -In 1667 Dr. John Fell, Vice-Chancellor of the University and afterward -Bishop of Oxford, gave the University a complete type-foundry with -matrices of roman, italic, black-letter Saxon, and several Oriental -tongues. Ten years later Francis Junius added to the equipment of the -foundry a splendid collection of out-of-the-way types, including Runic, -Gothic, Saxon, Icelandic, Danish, and Swedish, together with a -considerable number of types of the more common sorts. This equipment of -type for learned work and foreign language printing enabled the Oxford -Press to take a position without a rival as a producer of learned -literature. The presswork and composition done at Oxford were well -maintained on the level of their type equipment, so that the Oxford -University Press soon came to hold a unique position. - - - - - CHAPTER IV - THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY: THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION - - -The eighteenth century was a very important time in the history of -English printing. It was the period of the changes and inventions which -led over from the mediævalism of the seventeenth century to the -modernism of the nineteenth. Three special changes took place: first, -the invention of stereotyping; second, the rise of the modern publisher; -and, third, the dawn of modern ideas in types and typography. - -The story of the invention of stereotyping is the tale only too common -in industry of the inventor who is ahead of his time, the selfish and -thoughtless crowd who opposed him, the apparent failure of the -enterprise, and final success for the idea when the inventor is no -longer alive to enjoy his triumph. About 1720 it occurred to a Scotchman -named Ged that it ought not to be difficult to cast type by the page. He -hit upon the idea of making a plaster-of-paris mould of the type-set -page and from it casting the plates. As usual in such cases, he needed a -partner with capital and some technical knowledge. In 1727 he associated -himself with an Edinburgh printer, who soon became alarmed at the -apparent prospective cost and withdrew from the enterprise. Soon after -this Ged got acquainted with a London stationer named William Fenner. -Fenner in turn introduced him to Thomas James, the type-founder, and the -three associated themselves in partnership for the development of the -new process. For some reason James proved treacherous. Apparently the -investment which he was making should have served to keep him faithful. -Whether he became alarmed by a fancied danger to his business or was -frightened or bought off by the printers is not clear. At any rate, his -cooperation was only halfhearted. Instead of furnishing Ged with the -best of type from which to make his moulds he furnished him with very -poor type and his workmen wilfully damaged the forms. - -While this was going on Ged was appointed printer to the University of -Cambridge, where he met with the same experiences at the hands of the -printers. Under great difficulties and discouragements he succeeded in -producing two prayer books which were printed from his plates, but the -animosity of the printers was so violent that the authorities suppressed -the books and destroyed the plates. The reason for this animosity is not -far to seek. The journeymen had not yet recovered from the fear and -danger caused by the old statutes which had limited the number of shops -without limiting the number of journeymen, thus causing extensive lack -of employment. It must be remembered also that the old customs were -still in force which limited editions and prohibited keeping type -standing. It looked to the printers as if the invention of a process -which would fix type by pages and make possible indefinite reprints from -one setting of type was a most serious threat to the industry. From the -point of view of the knowledge and the conditions in the second quarter -of the eighteenth century we shall have to admit that their fears were -well founded. They could not possibly foresee the enormous increase of -printing which was to make the stereotype indispensable. - -To complete the tale of his misfortune, Ged’s partners, James and -Fenner, now fell out between themselves. The partnership was broken up -and Ged, discouraged and bankrupt, went back to Edinburgh. His -discouragement was not permanent, however, and he made another attempt, -but not a printer could be found in Edinburgh who would set type for -him. Ged’s son learned composition and set up a few books, working by -night, which were printed at Newcastle. Ged died in 1749, apparently -defeated. Later in the century, however, his work was taken up and made -practical by Didot in France and his invention developed to great -proportions. - -The early printers were their own publishers and booksellers. Previous -to the invention of typography the maker and seller of the book were not -ordinarily the same person. It was only natural that in a short time the -stationers, that is to say, the sellers of manuscript books and of -writing materials, should sell printed books also. Both the printer and -bookseller were interested in an attempt to cut out one profit. If the -printer sold to the bookseller and the bookseller sold to the public, -both must profit by the transaction. If the printer could sell directly -to the public or the bookseller could print his own books, obviously the -whole or the greater part of both of these profits might go to one man. -In this competition, however, the bookseller had three advantages. One -came from the fact that the carrying on of a printing plant was a -business enterprise and the additional care of maintaining a selling -organization for marketing books with the public was more than most -printers were equal to. The second was that the bookseller could buy a -whole edition or contract for its publication. In this way while he -reduced the printer’s profits he also greatly reduced his risks. The -third was that privilege and copyright attached themselves to -manuscripts. If the bookseller bought the manuscript it could not be -printed except by arrangement with him. When the bookseller became the -owner of manuscripts, or became sufficiently confident of his power to -market books to employ the printer to produce such books as he could -use, he became a publisher in the modern sense of the word. He might -either set up a printing establishment of his own or he might have his -work done by contract by one or more outside printers. - -The business methods of the old printers were very simple. We have seen -how Schoeffer did the first piece of commercial printing when he struck -off for distribution a list of the books which he had on sale. We have -seen how Jenson and Aldus and the other early printers sold their books -at their printing offices, advertised them by correspondence, and sent -them to the Frankfort Fair and other similar places. The Plantin -workshop, which is still maintained as the Plantin Museum in Antwerp, -still shows the little salesroom which was part of the original -business. Caxton, with his sound business sense and trained business -habits, had a way of assuring or forecasting beforehand the sales of his -books, thus anticipating to a considerable extent the methods of the -modern publishers. - -It soon became the habit of the printers to open shops apart from their -printing offices for the sale of their productions. These salesrooms -developed into book-shops through carrying in stock the books of other -printers. In the old-world cities trades had a habit of congregating in -one place. If a man wanted to open a book-shop, instead of trying to -find a good location where there were no other book-shops very near at -hand, he tried to get a location as near as he could to all the other -book-shops. In this way certain streets or quarters of the cities, and -particularly of London, were given up to certain industries. The centre -of the English book trade of the seventeenth century was the churchyard -of the old St. Paul’s Church. This was the smaller church which occupied -the site where now stands the magnificent St. Paul’s Cathedral built by -the great architect Sir Christopher Wren after the fire of 1660. - -A glimpse of the way in which the business was done may be obtained from -the following description of John Day’s book-shop: “He got framed a neat -handsome shop. It was but little and low, a flat roof, and leaded -[covered with sheets of lead] like a terrace, railed and posted, fit for -men to stand upon in any triumph or show.” Evidently thrifty John Day -was not above turning an honest penny by renting the roof of his shop to -those who desired to see the Lord Mayor’s show or some other glittering -procession. All processions of any importance passed St. Paul’s. We are -told that this shop cost £40 or £50, which would be equivalent, making -allowance for the difference in the purchasing power of money, to from -$1200 to $1600 to-day. We are told that £150,000 worth of books were -burned at St. Paul’s churchyard and in the crypt of the church in the -fire of 1666. This represents no less than $4,000,000 in our present -money. - -Advertising was done largely by means of the so-called “title post,” a -sort of primitive bulletin board. On a post in the shop were put up the -titles of new books on sale, with perhaps a brief bit of description. -Books were sold either bound, stitched, or in sheets. The bindings in -favor were leather-covered boards, perhaps vellum with silk ties to -counteract the tendency of vellum to warp, or velvet and other textiles, -often ornamented with elaborate embroidery. The books which were sold -bound, however, were ordinarily in the plainer styles of binding. The -more wealthy and particular book buyers preferred to buy their books in -sheets and to have them placed in bindings which were ornamented with -their coats of arms or with other devices of a personal nature. The -stitched books were at first sewed by being pierced through the sheets -with a bodkin and tied with a string. In 1586 a limit was set to the -size and thickness of books which might be sold in this form. Those -beyond the limit must be sewed on a regular binder’s machine and made -ready for the cover to be put on. Sewed books were often covered with -cloth or pasteboard to preserve them and keep them clean. This was -substantially what is now known as binding in cases. - -For a long time the relations between printers, booksellers, and authors -were confused and irregular. Up to the end of the seventeenth century -there was nothing in the nature of copyright except registration with -the Stationers’ Company, but that registration was made by the owner of -the manuscript, who was not necessarily the author. Originally these -owners were generally the printers because the printers and publishers, -as has just been pointed out, were the same. Later, as the ascendency of -the booksellers increased, it was they who held the manuscripts. -Sometimes due regard was paid to the rights of the author and sometimes -not. This appears to have depended entirely upon the arrangements which -author and publisher were able to make. In many cases the author got -decidedly the worst of the bargain. The protection which the Company -undertook to extend was limited to the holder of the copyright. The -situation was further complicated by the survival of privileges or -monopolies of various sorts. - -Toward the end of the seventeenth century, with the passing away of the -mediæval conditions which had previously prevailed, the Company’s -control of the situation broke down. When the printing acts finally went -into disuse in 1594, as has already been described, nobody had any -protection. Everything in the way of copyright was entirely abolished. -This condition was soon felt to be intolerable and in 1709 an Act of -Parliament provided a system of copyright and recognized the author’s -right to his work. By this act the owners of old books and unpublished -manuscripts, whether they were the authors or not, had proprietary right -in them for twenty-one years, beginning April 10, 1710. This part of the -act, of course, was a temporary provision for existing conditions. New -books were to be controlled by the author for fourteen years. If at the -end of that time the author was still living his copyright might be -renewed for fourteen years more. Within the limits during which the -copyright was valid it could be transferred. Such transference did not -act as an extension. The copyright was secured by registration with the -Stationers’ Company as before. - -This was really a booksellers’ act, as at that time they held nearly all -of the copyrights and doubtless expected to be able to secure all the -new ones of any value. That was what happened at first. The protection -given to the authors by the new act greatly altered the terms upon which -the booksellers or publishers could obtain the manuscripts. It was some -years before the authors came to a full realization of their rights -under the new law. When they did arrive at this knowledge authorship as -a profession became possible. For a long time authors sold their -manuscripts outright to the publishers. The royalty system, under which -the author shares the profits of the work, was a later development. - -From this time on new work was controlled by the authors and the use of -their manuscripts could be obtained only by some sort of bargain. All -old work not covered by copyrights existing in 1709, and after 1731 all -work upon which copyrights had expired, might be freely printed by any -one. From that time on the publication of such works became, as it is -now, purely a manufacturing proposition. Whether or not such books shall -be published and whether or not the publication is a commercial success -depend entirely upon the soundness of the publisher’s judgment and the -accuracy with which he gauges the popular demand for standard literature -at a given price. - -The publication of new work depends upon a variety of circumstances. The -publisher pays either in cash or in royalty, or both, according to the -prospects of sale. In case of authors of reputation this prospect can be -reasonably well gauged. In case of unknown authors the publisher must -take a risk if he buys a manuscript. In many cases the publisher will -require a guarantee against loss on an edition of a certain size. He may -require this guarantee because he has doubts about the success of the -work or because it is a book of such limited circulation, although it -may be of the most important character, that the publication will not be -commercially profitable. Of course, if an author is determined to see -himself in print and no publisher will take his work on any terms, he -can hire a printer to make up an edition, can get it copyrighted, and -can dispose of it in such way as he may find possible or desirable. - -From this legislation really dates the differentiation of the trade. -This was a matter of economic growth rather than of legislation. The -author might print and publish and sell his work, the printer might -publish and sell, the bookseller might print and publish, but in either -case there was an added risk combined with a possibility of greater -profit. Most persons are content with smaller profits, providing they -can be released from risk. Under the system which now developed the -publisher assumed the risk. In that way he became the patron of both -author and printer. - -The first of the modern type of publishers was Jacob Tonson, the elder, -who began business in 1678. A consideration of the development of the -publishing industry would take us too far afield and it will be touched -upon only as it directly concerns the development of printing. - -About 1720 a forward step was taken in the development of English -printing by the entrance of William Caslon into the field of -type-founding. Born in 1692, we know little of his early life. In 1706 -we find him, then twenty-four years old, carrying on a little business -in London as an engraver of gun locks and a maker of binders’ tools. -Through this last he came in contact with printers, particularly John -Walter and William Bowyer, the younger, two of the well-known London -printers of that day. His connection with the printing trade, his -artistic skill, and his training as an engraver led him to undertake the -designing and cutting of type, in which he was encouraged by his printer -friends. His type was immediately successful not only in England but on -the continent, which had hitherto never looked to England for type. His -type was very legible and had a certain air of distinction which made it -much superior to any English type made at that time. His roman was -regular, graceful, and well proportioned, a worthy successor of the -types of Jenson and Aldus. His italic was almost as good as his roman. -The influence of Caslon upon English and afterwards upon American -type-cutting has been very great. Many of the types in most common use -are either Caslon’s letter or some modification of it. This book is -printed in one of the Caslon types. For many years no English -type-founder could compete with him successfully. - -The principal types of distinction which were then in the field were -three, that of Giambattista Bodoni, that produced by the Didot family, -and that made in Holland. Bodoni type was characterized by long -ascenders and descenders, over-long serifs, and protracted hair lines. -This general style of letter was very common in Italy for a long time -both in typography and in manuscript. In the last century the so-called -Italian hand, a handwriting showing these characteristics, was for a -long time very fashionable, especially among ladies. The Didot type was -characterized by sharp contrasts, the thick lines being very thick and -the thin lines being razor-edged in their thinness. The Dutch type was -rounded and regular with very little contrast between the thick and the -thin lines. Caslon’s type was a rather successful effort to retain the -good qualities and avoid the defects of all three. Avoiding the -exaggeration of Bodoni, it retained, though in modified form, the -contrasts of Didot and preserved the regularity of the Dutch without its -monotony and lack of contrast. Toward the end of the century poor paper, -poor presswork, and poor ink led to an attempt to get clearness and -legibility by thickening the type lines. The result was the -introduction, about 1800, of a very ugly, fat-faced type which had wide -use. Mrs. Caslon, a widow, who was then in charge of the Caslon foundry, -attempted to meet these demands by thickening the lines of the Caslon -type, producing a modified form which had considerable success for some -time. The old Caslon was revived by Whittingham about 1845. The better -paper, ink, and presswork of those days revealed anew the excellence of -the Caslon type and since that time it has never lost favor. - -An interesting figure of this period is Samuel Richardson (1689–1761). -Richardson was a very good printer and did a considerable business, but -was tempted into authorship and became one of the first of the modern -English novelists. He wrote, printed, and published three novels which -yet survive, “Pamela,” “Clarissa Harlowe,” and “Sir Charles Grandison.” -The new vein which these novels struck in English literature was -immediately successful. The novels, though very long and written in a -style which to modern readers seems anything but lively, were not only -widely successful themselves, but were immediately imitated, and the -good old printer’s modest efforts were the beginning of the flood of -novels which is now poured out from the press. Because Richardson was a -pioneer his novels are remembered and students of literature are set to -read them, at least in part. It is doubtful, however, if anybody reads -them to-day unless he has to. It is said that through the treachery of -one of Richardson’s journeymen a Dublin printer got out a pirated -edition of “Sir Charles Grandison” and sold it in Dublin before -Richardson got it bound and published in London. This was possible -because the English copyright law did not then apply to Ireland. - -An interesting glimpse of the trade at this period may be obtained -through the pages of Woodfall’s ledger from 1734 to 1747, which has been -published. The student of these matters can find therein very -interesting material for a study of comparative prices and the like. One -entry shows that he charged for the printing of Pope’s translation of -the Iliad, demy paper, long primer and brevier, 2000 copies, 6 volumes, -68½ sheets, £143 and 17 shillings, equal to about $1700 in American -money. - -Perhaps the most interesting and important printer in the eighteenth -century in England was John Baskerville (1706–1775). Baskerville was of -unknown and humble origin. At seventeen we find him a servant in the -house of a clergyman at Birmingham. He was a good penman, however, and -his employer soon set him to teach penmanship to the poor boys of the -parish and afterwards got him a position as a teacher of penmanship and -bookkeeping in a school. Baskerville was not only interested in -penmanship but also in the cutting of letters in stone. Unlike Caslon, -this interest did not lead him directly to take up type-founding or -printing as his life work. In 1736 a man by the name of John Taylor set -himself up in business at Birmingham as a manufacturer of japanned ware. -Baskerville became interested in Taylor’s work and learned Taylor’s -trade secrets by following him about and whenever he went into a shop -and made a purchase going in himself and buying the same things in the -same quantities. In this way he learned the composition of the japanning -mixture and shortly set up a business for himself. This was his main -business and source of revenue throughout his life and was very -prosperous. Baskerville did not imitate Taylor and was hardly his rival, -but won success in making other and better things than those made by -Taylor. Curiously enough, although Baskerville remained in this business -for many years and was very successful, not a single piece of work -survives which is known to be his. Meanwhile he did not lose his early -interest in the correct formation of letters and he became actively -interested in type-founding about 1750. By this time, however, his ideas -had spread beyond the mere designing and founding of type. - -He conceived the idea of better books than had yet been made in England. -He considered the matter in its broadest possible aspects. He realized -the fact that a book is the result of many operations. He believed that -the making of the best books, such as he had in mind, meant the best -possible paper, type, ink, machines, and workmanship. Beginning with the -type; he employed a skilful type-cutter to work from his designs and is -said to have spent £600 or £800 ($3000 or $4000) before getting a font -to suit him. He never attempted to cut many types. His roman differs -from Caslon’s, but is equal to it in legibility. It is beautifully -clear, regular, and well proportioned. Perhaps a certain lack of -character and a too mechanical perfection would be the general criticism -which could be brought against it. His italic was the best which had as -yet been seen in England. - -Baskerville also cut a font of Greek type. This experiment has been -regarded as unsuccessful and his Greek type has been somewhat -criticised. It was unsuccessful, but not through the fault of the type -itself. His type was excellent, but it differed considerably from that -to which the scholars were then accustomed and the learned world did not -care to adopt it. Minor changes in the formation of English letters are -not important, providing the general form of the letter is retained. In -languages using a different character, however, even slight -modifications are liable to be confusing and scholarly conservatism -naturally shrinks from changes of this sort. It is probable, moreover, -that the universities and the few persons doing printing in Greek did -not encourage the new character as it would have involved a considerable -expenditure for new type. With the comparatively small use for Greek -type one font would last for a very long time. - -Excellent as Baskerville’s types were, they were not generally adopted. -The printers stuck to the work of Caslon and Jackson, partly from the -fact shortly to be noted that Baskerville did not get on very well with -the printers and publishers and partly because of the expense. They -preferred sticking to the standard fonts and buying sorts which could be -easily procured when necessary to undergoing the expense of buying new -fonts from the new founder. Although the admirers of Baskerville -consider his type better than Caslon’s, it was not enough better to -drive it out of the market. Baskerville’s type, moreover, was much -criticised on its own account. It was claimed that owing to its -proportions and owing to its sharp contrasts it was hard on the eyes. -This criticism, however, was probably very largely the result of -prejudice and dislike. - -Benjamin Franklin was a friend of Baskerville and tells an amusing story -about this kind of criticism. He says that some printers were at his -lodging in London and complained vigorously of the objectionable -character of Baskerville’s type and of the eye strain and headache which -it caused to its users. Franklin thereupon stepped into another room and -came back in a moment with a sheet of Caslon’s specimens from which he -had removed the heading. He handed this sheet to the critics who had -been berating Baskerville and praising Caslon and said that he could not -help thinking that they were influenced somewhat by their prejudice and -he wished that they would examine this sheet and see if they actually -did experience the unpleasant results of which they had complained. -Supposing the sheet to be Baskerville’s type, they studied it with some -care and unanimously declared that they found the same difficulties and -experienced the same discomforts which they had always met with in -reading Baskerville’s type. Franklin refrained from pointing out the -trap into which he had betrayed them, but satisfied himself that their -criticisms really were the result of prejudice. - -Type-founding, however, was only a part of Baskerville’s scheme. As has -been said, he had conceived the idea of the perfect book, or at least a -book nearer perfection than England had yet seen. It is one of the most -interesting things about Baskerville that he did not arrive at his -conceptions by a process of experimentation and production of mediocre -work. He conceived his idea and elaborated it in his mind first and then -undertook to realize it in a product. He was the artist who conceives -rather than the craftsman who slowly elaborates. The designing and -cutting of new fonts of type was only one step in that direction. He -determined that he would attempt to produce the whole book himself and -he therefore set up a printing office of his own. He selected the paper -for his editions with the greatest care. It is not certain that he did -not even go so far as to make the paper for some of them, but whether or -not this is true he gave it great attention. He took equal care with his -ink, using every precaution to secure the production of a bright, clear -ink which should work well and be permanent. He also had a special press -built. This did not involve any innovations in design, but was built -with the greatest care so as to secure the best possible impression. In -order to give smoothness and shine to his pages and prevent the type -from pressing into the damp paper and making an impression on the -reverse side of the sheet he devised what is known as the hot press -method of finishing. As soon as the damp sheets came from the press they -were placed between plates of hot metal and subjected to pressure. This -gave the paper a perfectly smooth, shiny surface. This was another of -the points of criticism of Baskerville’s work. Those who were familiar -with the coarse paper and rough impressions in common use declared that -the shine of the smooth paper hurt their eyes. Baskerville also gave -great attention to the typographical design of his books. He used ample -margins and developed a style of dignified simplicity, free from -extraneous ornamentation and extremely reserved in the use of all forms -of ornament. - -As a result of this care Baskerville produced the best books which had -yet been made in England. They were very expensive. No cost was spared -in their production and there was no catering to the popular taste which -would enable him to reduce unit costs by publishing large editions. -Baskerville frankly printed for the few. He believed that there were -lovers of good books and good literature who were ready to pay what -might be necessary to obtain their favorite authors in a fitting dress. -In this he was somewhat disappointed. The number of such persons was -less numerous than he had supposed and it is probable that on the whole -Baskerville lost rather than made money by his printing and -type-founding enterprises. He printed about sixty-seven books, all of -which were reprints of the classics or standard authors. Not a single -new book came from his press, although these were the flourishing days -of Samuel Johnson, Goldsmith, Pope, Gray, Burke, Chesterfield, Young, -Akenside, and other famous writers. The booksellers would not support -him. He was not willing to cheapen his work or to lower his prices to -meet their wishes, nor would he consent to being, like so many printers, -a mere servant of the publisher. He felt that he had his artistic -message to give to the world and he insisted upon giving it in his own -way, making himself his own publisher as well as printer. Very likely -his editions would have made a larger sale if he had had the support of -the booksellers in putting them on the market, but this was denied him. - -Disheartened and disgusted by the lack of appreciation and support, -Baskerville tried to sell out his type-foundry, but was unsuccessful. He -negotiated with several of the leading printers of the continent and -with Franklin, but was not able to effect a sale. Twenty years after his -death, however, his type was used in the famous Boydell Shakspeare. His -type obtained partial recognition. His work has been called too artistic -for his time. It is said that Baskerville was an artist, but the England -of the eighteenth century was not artistic. Perhaps it might better be -said that Baskerville’s standard of perfection was higher than his time -could appreciate and that he failed because there was not yet a -sufficiently large public ready to spend considerable money for de luxe -book making. Baskerville unquestionably possessed great taste and a very -high degree of mechanical skill. One does not find in his work, however, -the artist’s spirit which manifests itself in the work of the old -masters or their late nineteenth century followers. Baskerville’s work, -nevertheless, was not in vain. No man can ever do anything better than -it has yet been done without contributing to the progress of true art, -even though his productions are appreciated by but few people. -Unquestionably Baskerville’s work influenced the Whittinghams, who are -the great figures in the world of printing in the early nineteenth -century. - -It is interesting to note, before passing to the consideration of the -work of the Whittinghams, that several of the great English printing -houses whose names are familiar to all readers of books run back far -into the eighteenth century. The Rivington house was established in -1711, Eyre and Spottiswoode not much later, Longmans in 1724, John -Murray in 1768, William Blackwood & Son in 1804, A. C. Black in 1815, to -mention only a few of the more familiar. In many cases these firm names -have been several times changed, but the firms have maintained -continuous existence. - - - - - CHAPTER V - THE WHITTINGHAMS AND THE MODERN BOOK - - -Charles Whittingham, the elder, founder of the business which is now -known as the Chiswick Press, was born in 1767. He began work as a -printer in 1789 on a very small scale. His first work was small job work -such as cards, letterheads, billheads, and the like. It was not until -1792 that he did any book work at all. His first job was part of an -edition of Young’s “Night Thoughts.” It was not uncommon at this time -for publishers to parcel out a book among a number of small printers, -giving to each a certain number of signatures. Like his great -predecessor Day, Whittingham started out doing printing as badly as -anybody else. The work which he did on his first book order shows all -the vices of the time. - -Fortunately for the art, Whittingham was not content to remain a poor -printer, although he must have been perfectly aware that he was such. He -early made the acquaintance of William Caslon, from whom he bought type -and from whom he not improbably received typographical suggestions. In -1798 he published a book of a sort much in vogue at that period, called -“Pity’s Gift.” In choice of type, design of title page, and other -regards this book shows a great improvement over the work of previous -years. It was illustrated and was the beginning of the long series of -illustrated books for which the house afterwards became famous. The -illustrations, however, were poor in themselves and poorly printed. Here -again Whittingham began on a level with his contemporaries, but by study -and labor raised himself far above that level. - -In a few years Whittingham was recognized as the best printer in England -and had built up a good and profitable business. He won this success in -spite of the fact that he, even more than Baskerville, failed to get on -with the publishers. The publishers wanted cheap printing and large -profits. Whittingham refused to lower his standards to meet their -desires and insisted on printing to suit himself and, as he believed, -the public. Less ambitious than Baskerville, but equally conscientious, -Whittingham published small books, well printed, which could be sold at -a reasonable price, although not at the price of trash. He was right in -his estimate of the public demand and, secure in public support, was -able to defy the publishers. When they refused to give him their work he -told them to keep it, and entirely disregarded their hostility. He -carried the war into the enemies’ country by refusing to be bound by -certain trade customs. These customs were survivals of the old -privileges and monopolies which kept certain books in certain hands. -There was no foundation for these customs except their antiquity, and -Whittingham proposed to publish certain books which from time immemorial -had been held to be the property of others. Of course, the publishers -called him a pirate, but he never infringed upon a real copyright and -his conduct in the matter is entirely free from moral reproach. - -Whittingham was an enterprising business man as well as desirous of -artistic improvement. He bought the first Stanhope press which was sold -to a printing house, in 1800, and his house was among the first to adopt -improved machinery and methods of all sorts. There is, however, one -notable exception. Whittingham and his nephew and successor believed -that it was not possible to do the best work on anything but a hand -press, and no power presses were used in the Chiswick Press until 1860. - -About the opening of the century a man by the name of Potts invented a -process for making paper-stock from old rope by removing the tar and -dirt. Whittingham got possession of this process and opened a -paper-stock factory. He did not, however, open a paper mill, but sold -the stock to Fourdrinier, the great French paper maker. The paper-stock -mill was at Chiswick, and Whittingham opened in 1811 a second printing -office in the neighborhood, which he called the Chiswick Press. For a -time he carried on the two printing offices, the paper-stock mill, a -book-shop, several publishing ventures, and a business of some sort, it -is not now known what, in Jersey. It was not many years, however, before -he saw the danger of this extension and gradually disposed of the -outside things, concentrating his interest in the Chiswick Press, which -he preferred to continue rather than the London office. - -During this period his work steadily continued to improve. He invented a -secret process for giving permanent brilliancy to his ink. He gave the -greatest attention to the design and layout of his books, proportion in -the matter of margins and the like, and to presswork. This last was -doubly important because of his determination to improve the process of -illustration. Of course, the modern processes were not then in use. -Black and white was done either from wood blocks or steel and copper -plates, and color work was done by the use of solid color on blocks. In -order to secure better results in black and white, Whittingham invented -the over-lay process. Some of his work in color was the best ever -produced by the methods which were then known. An indication of the -resources of the establishment may be gathered from the story of the -production of his British Poets, sets of which may still be occasionally -bought in old book-shops. The design for the series was planned in 1819. -It was shortly announced that they were to be published on a given day -in 1822. When the day came the whole set was published as announced. It -consisted of one hundred royal 18mo volumes, illustrated. Five hundred -sets were printed, making a total of 50,000 volumes. - -Shortly after this the younger Charles Whittingham, nephew of the elder, -appears upon the scene. He was his uncle’s apprentice and became his -partner in 1824. The partnership lasted for four years and was -apparently not a very harmonious arrangement. The elder Whittingham, -like many strong and successful men, was masterful and was not disposed -to share either power or responsibility. The young man, although having -no occasion to complain of any unfairness, felt that although nominally -a partner he was really merely an employee. In 1828 he left the Chiswick -Press and set up for himself in London. He continued in business there -for ten years and then his uncle, who was now old and in failing health, -called him back to take charge of the Chiswick Press. In spite of the -fact that their partnership had not been satisfactory, the old man -doubtless realized that his nephew was the only man in England who was -competent to continue the business which he had built up with so much -toil and in which he took so much pride. From this time until the date -of the death of the elder man the younger Whittingham was the moving -spirit in the establishment. After the death of the elder Whittingham -the plant was moved back to London without change of name. - -Shortly after the younger Whittingham took over the management he became -acquainted with William Pickering and formed an association with him -which had momentous effects on English printing and publishing. -Pickering had started an old-book business in 1821 and had made money. -Although not a practical printer he was interested in books and he had -very intelligent ideas as to what qualities made books good, considered -as pieces of work. Pickering desired to publish fine editions of old -writers and entered into an alliance with Whittingham to produce them. -For twenty-five years these two men worked together doing the best -book-making which England had yet seen. Comparatively little of it was -new work. It was mainly the printing of fine editions of so-called -standard literature. In 1844, dissatisfied with the types in current -use, they induced Henry Caslon, who was then the head of the Caslon -foundry, to revive the old William Caslon type, known technically as -old-face roman, and this revival was the beginning of the permanent -restoration of the Caslon types to favor. - -Pickering and Whittingham together may be said to be the fathers of the -modern book. Together they worked out many improvements. The excellent -work in illustration which had been developed by the elder Whittingham -was continued and improved. In 1840 they were doing color printing from -wood blocks which was the best ever done by that process in England, and -later they began to produce ornamental books with initials, borders, -head pieces, and the like, printed from wood blocks, but superior to -anything which had been seen since the days of illuminated manuscripts. -Pickering and Whittingham were in constant consultation. They spent -their Sundays and much other time together. The completeness of their -cooperation is shown by Whittingham’s answer to the question which of -the two had the greater influence on the other. He replied, “My dear -sir, when you tell me which half of a pair of scissors is the more -useful, I will answer your question.” - -Pickering died in 1854, bankrupt through indorsing notes for a friend. -The death of Pickering was a great blow to Whittingham, but the -bankruptcy did not in any way involve the Chiswick Press. Whittingham -never took the same interest in the business afterward, although the -house had become sufficiently strong to continue and maintain its -standards. Whittingham was always actuated by the true craftsman’s -spirit. He was successful in his business, but he was more anxious for -artistic than for financial success. There is not the slightest doubt -that if he had been willing to do so he might have amassed a large -fortune. Upon one occasion he was called in as an expert to figure the -price which the government should offer for a very large contract. -Instead of calling for bids the government had a price figured which it -proposed to offer for the work. Whittingham figured a price which would -be just to the government and at the same time offer a good margin of -profit to the contractor. After he had completed his labors, he was -offered the contract himself, but refused, stating as he did so that he -would rather print fine books than make money. - -The history of English printing shows one more epoch-making figure. It -is that of William Morris, poet, socialist, idealist, and craftsman. -Morris is in many ways one of the most picturesque figures of the -nineteenth century. Interested in many kinds of craftsmanship, he was -particularly interested in printing and in 1891 he set up the Kelmscott -Press in order to express his idea of what a book should be. Morris was -above all things a man of the Middle Ages. Like the even more famous -Ruskin, his spirit revolted from many of the characteristics of the -nineteenth century. Whatever he did, thought, or said is influenced by -this underlying spirit of mediævalism. In his books and his types we -find exhibited the spirit and forms of the fifteenth century, but the -vital thing is the spirit and not the form. Although deeply influenced -by fifteenth century forms, Morris’s work is not mere imitation. It is -rather a reproduction of the old-time spirit. Morris said that in -printing it was important to consider “the paper, the form of the type, -the relative spacing of the letters, words, and lines, and lastly the -position of the printed matter on the page.” The harmony and -completeness of the whole, a harmony extending beyond mechanism to the -harmony of literary spirit and typographic form, was his fundamental -idea. In working this out he adopted as a unit not the single page of -type, as had been commonly the case, but the double page, on the ground -that when the book is opened we have before our eyes not one page but -two, and therefore the two together form a unit of book composition. - -Morris designed three types, named from the books in which they were -first employed. The first was the Golden, from the Golden Legend, a -heavy black roman letter with distinct gothic influence. The second was -the Troy, from an edition of Caxton’s Troy book, a modification of a -Koburger gothic of the fifteenth century. The third was the Chaucer, so -called from an edition of some of Chaucer’s work, which was the Troy -reduced in size and slightly modified in face. The initial letters were -designed by Morris in imitation of a set used by Sweynheim and Pannartz. - -Unfortunately Morris lived only five years after he began to print and -his press did not survive him. During that period he published -fifty-three books in sixty-five volumes, none of them in large editions. -The influence of Morris, however, was very great. Although he was not -extensively copied directly, he led in a marked revival of the spirit of -the old craftsman and in a renewal of the old conception of the unity -and harmony of the book as a whole. The Kelmscott Press was hardly -closed when Charles Ricketts opened the Vale Press, which operated from -1896 to 1904. Ricketts had much of the spirit and many of the methods of -Morris, but unlike Morris, who approached his type problem from the side -of manuscript, Ricketts conceived his forms as cast in metal. Another -continuer of Morris’s work was the Dove Press, which was started in -1900. - -Morris’s influence extended beyond the Atlantic and shows itself in some -of the best American printing, particularly that of Mr. Daniel Berkeley -Updike of the Merrymount Press of Boston and Mr. Bruce Rogers of the -Riverside Press of Cambridge. - - -The central feature in the history of printing of the last century has -been the development of periodical and commercial printing. Previous to -the last hundred years the particular thing was the book, but book -printing is now only a small part of the industry. A study of periodical -and commercial printing would be extremely interesting, but it lies in -the domain of typography rather than in that of the history of printing. -With the brief consideration which we have made of the so-called revival -of printing under Morris and his successors we may properly take leave -of this branch of our subject. - - - - - SUPPLEMENTARY READING - - - William Caxton. By Charles Knight. (Popular and in a few respects - inaccurate, but excellent for its sketch of the life and conditions - of Caxton’s time.) - - Life and Typography of William Caxton. By William Blades. (The - standard authority, but suited only for somewhat advanced students.) - - A Short History of English Printing. By Henry R. Plomer. (A fairly - good general view of the subject.) - - The Cambridge History of English Literature. Vol. II, Chap. xiii; Vol. - IV, Chap. xviii; Vol. VII, Chap. xv; Vol. XI, Chap. xiv. (This work - is made up of monographs written by distinguished specialists. The - chapters indicated contain a very good general view of the - development of British printing and publishing and of the beginnings - of journalism in England.) - - See files of the Inland Printer (Chicago) for excellent articles by - Mr. Henry L. Bullen. These articles are notable for their valuable - illustrations. - - - - - REVIEW QUESTIONS - - - SUGGESTIONS TO STUDENTS AND INSTRUCTORS - - The following questions, based on the contents of this pamphlet, are - intended to serve (1) as a guide to the study of the text, (2) as an - aid to the student in putting the information contained into definite - statements without actually memorizing the text, (3) as a means of - securing from the student a reproduction of the information in his own - words. - - A careful following of the questions by the reader will insure full - acquaintance with every part of the text, avoiding the accidental - omission of what might be of value. These primers are so condensed - that nothing should be omitted. - - In teaching from these books it is very important that these questions - and such others as may occur to the teacher should be made the basis - of frequent written work, and of final examinations. - - The importance of written work cannot be overstated. It not only - assures knowledge of material but the power to express that knowledge - correctly and in good form. - - If this written work can be submitted to the teacher in printed form - it will be doubly useful. - - - QUESTIONS - - 1. What general conditions made England slow to take up printing? - - 2. What special conditions existed in England about the time of the - invention of printing? - - 3. What is the truth about the story that the first English printed - book was dated 1468? - - 4. Tell the story of Caxton’s life up to his return to England. - - 5. Tell the story of the rest of his life. - - 6. How many books did he print, and of what sort? - - 7. What remarkable omissions are there in his work, and why? - - 8. What was his special field? - - 9. What sort of man was Caxton? - - 10. What can you say about Caxton’s typography? - - 11. What other printers appeared in England during Caxton’s life? - - 12. What was the great difference between Caxton and his successors? - - 13. Who was Caxton’s successor in business, and what do you know about - him? - - 14. Who was Pynson, and what did he do? - - 15. What do you know about Copeland; Berthelet; Grafton and - Whitchurch? - - 16. Describe the condition of English printing up to 1550, and give - the reason. - - 17. What change took place after 1525? - - 18. What books were imported, and why? - - 19. What was the situation in England all through the Middle Ages with - regard to labor troubles? - - 20. What social change took place in the nineteenth century, and what - was the result? - - 21. How did the English deal with the problem of the regulation of - printing? - - 22. What can you say about English craft guilds? - - 23. What were the reasons for the organization of the Company of - Stationers? - - 24. What was the form of organization of the Company? - - 25. What was the Star Chamber? - - 26. What were the powers and the duties of the Company? - - 27. What followed the organization of the Company? - - 28. Give the substance of the edict of 1586. - - 29. What did the Company do in the execution of this edict? - - 30. What difficulties, other than those caused by the edicts, troubled - the printers? - - 31. Tell the story of John Wolfe. - - 32. What was the result of the reduction in the number of offices, and - what was done about it? - - 33. Describe English printing apprenticeship at this period. - - 34. What were the relations between author, printer, and bookseller? - - 35. Tell the story of John Day. - - 36. Mention other printers of this time, and give some distinguishing - fact about each. - - 37. What tendency appears in English printing after Day, and why? - - 38. How did printing fare under James I; under Charles I? - - 39. Give the substance of the edict of 1637. - - 40. What legislation was enacted to protect English printing? - - 41. What happened when Parliament got the upper hand, and why? - - 42. How did printing fare under Cromwell? - - 43. Tell the story of the attempt to incorporate the Company of - Printers. - - 44. Sketch the course of government regulation from 1662 to 1694. - - 45. Tell about Roycroft and his work. - - 46. Tell about the four type-founders of this time. - - 47. Describe the rise to prominence of the Oxford Press. - - 48. What three special changes took place in the eighteenth century? - - 49. Tell the story of the invention of stereotyping. - - 50. Tell how the publishers became the principal power in the book - business. - - 51. Give the substance of the copyright act of 1709. - - 52. What was the effect of this act on the author and on the - manufacture of books? - - 53. Tell the story of William Caslon. - - 54. Tell the story of Samuel Richardson. - - 55. Tell the story of the life of Baskerville. - - 56. Tell about Baskerville as a type-founder. - - 57. Tell about Baskerville’s press; his methods; the reason for his - lack of success. - - 58. Was Baskerville’s work a failure, and why? - - 59. Tell the story of Charles Whittingham, the elder. - - 60. Tell the story of Charles Whittingham, the younger. - - 61. Tell the story of Pickering and his alliance with Whittingham. - - 62. Tell the story of Morris and the Kelmscott Press. - - 63. Describe Morris’s ideas and tell about his work. - - 64. What was the effect of Morris’s work? - - 65. Name a few of the printers most influenced by him. - - - - - TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES FOR APPRENTICES - - -The following list of publications, comprising the TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL -SERIES FOR APPRENTICES, has been prepared under the supervision of the -Committee on Education of the United Typothetae of America for use in -trade classes, in courses of printing instruction, and by individuals. - -Each publication has been compiled by a competent author or group of -authors, and carefully edited, the purpose, being to provide the -printers of the United States—employers, journeymen, and -apprentices—with a comprehensive series of handy and inexpensive -compendiums of reliable, up-to-date information upon the various -branches and specialties of the printing craft, all arranged in orderly -fashion for progressive study. - -The publications of the series are of uniform size, 5 × 8 inches. Their -general make-up, in typography, illustrations, etc., has been, as far as -practicable, kept in harmony throughout. A brief synopsis of the -particular contents and other chief features of each volume will be -found under each title in the following list. - -Each topic is treated in a concise manner, the aim being to embody in -each publication as completely as possible all the rudimentary -information and essential facts necessary to an understanding of the -subject. Care has been taken to make all statements accurate and clear, -with the purpose of bringing essential information within the -understanding of beginners in the different fields of study. Wherever -practicable, simple and well-defined drawings and illustrations have -been used to assist in giving additional clearness to the text. - -In order that the pamphlets may be of the greatest possible help for use -in trade-school classes and for self-instruction, each title is -accompanied by a list of Review Questions covering essential items of -the subject matter. A short Glossary of technical terms belonging to the -subject or department treated is also added to many of the books. - -These are the Official Text-books of the United Typothetae of America. - -Address all orders and inquiries to COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION, UNITED -TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS, U. S. A. - - - - - TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES _for_ APPRENTICES - - - PART I—_Types, Tools, Machines, and Materials_ - - 1. =Type: a Primer of Information= By A. A. Stewart - - Relating to the mechanical features of printing types; their - sizes, font schemes, etc., with a brief description of their - manufacture. 44 pp.; illustrated; 74 review questions; glossary. - - 2. =Compositors’ Tools and Materials= By A. A. Stewart - - A primer of information about composing sticks, galleys, leads, - brass rules, cutting and mitering machines, etc. 47 pp.; - illustrated; 50 review questions; glossary. - - 3. =Type Cases, Composing Room Furniture= By A. A. Stewart - - A primer of information about type cases, work stands, cabinets, - case racks, galley racks, standing galleys, etc. 43 pp.; - illustrated; 33 review questions; glossary. - - 4. =Imposing Tables and Lock-up Appliances= By A. A. Stewart - - Describing the tools and materials used in locking up forms for - the press, including some modern utilities for special purposes. - 59 pp.; illustrated; 70 review questions; glossary. - - 5. =Proof Presses= By A. A. Stewart - - A primer of information about the customary methods and machines - for taking printers’ proofs. 40 pp.; illustrated; 41 review - questions; glossary. - - 6. =Platen Printing Presses= By Daniel Baker - - A primer of information regarding the history and mechanical - construction of platen printing presses, from the original hand - press to the modern job press, to which is added a chapter on - automatic presses of small size. 51 pp.; illustrated; 49 review - questions; glossary. - - 7. =Cylinder Printing Presses= By Herbert L. Baker - - Being a study of the mechanism and operation of the principal - types of cylinder printing machines. 64 pp.; illustrated; 47 - review questions; glossary. - - 8. =Mechanical Feeders and Folders= By William E. Spurrier - - The history and operation of modern feeding and folding machines; - with hints on their care and adjustments. Illustrated; review - questions; glossary. - - 9. =Power for Machinery in Printing Houses= By Carl F. Scott - - A treatise on the methods of applying power to printing presses - and allied machinery, with particular reference to electric - drive. 53 pp.; illustrated; 69 review questions; glossary. - - 10. =Paper Cutting Machines= By Niel Gray, Jr. - - A primer of information about paper and card trimmers, hand-lever - cutters, power cutters, and other automatic machines for cutting - paper. 70 pp.; illustrated; 115 review questions; glossary. - - 11. =Printers’ Rollers= By A. A. Stewart - - A primer of information about the composition, manufacture, and - care of inking rollers. 46 pp.; illustrated; 61 review - questions; glossary. - - 12. =Printing Inks= By Philip Ruxton - - Their composition, properties and manufacture (reprinted by - permission from Circular No. 53, United States Bureau of - Standards); together with some helpful suggestions about the - everyday use of printing inks by Philip Ruxton. 80 pp.; 100 - review questions; glossary. - - 13. =How Paper is Made= By William Bond Wheelwright - - A primer of information about the materials and processes of - manufacturing paper for printing and writing. 68 pp.; - illustrated; 62 review questions; glossary. - - 14. =Relief Engravings= By Joseph P. Donovan - - Brief history and non-technical description of modern methods of - engraving: woodcut, zinc plate, halftone; kind of copy for - reproduction; things to remember when ordering engravings. - Illustrated; review questions; glossary. - - 15. =Electrotyping and Stereotyping= By Harris B. Hatch and A. A. - Stewart - - A primer of information about the processes of electrotyping and - stereotyping. 94 pp.; illustrated; 129 review questions; - glossaries. - - - PART II—_Hand and Machine Composition_ - - 16. =Typesetting= By A. A. Stewart - - A handbook for beginners, giving information about justifying, - spacing, correcting, and other matters relating to typesetting. - Illustrated; review questions; glossary. - - 17. =Printers’ Proofs= By A. A. Stewart - - The methods by which they are made, marked, and corrected, with - observations on proofreading. Illustrated; review questions; - glossary. - - 18. =First Steps in Job Composition= By Camille DeVèze - - Suggestions for the apprentice compositor in setting his first - jobs, especially about the important little things which go to - make good display in typography. 63 pp.; examples; 55 review - questions; glossary. - - 19. =General Job Composition= - - How the job compositor handles business stationery, programs and - miscellaneous work. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. - - 20. =Book Composition= By J. W. Bothwell - - Chapters from DeVinne’s “Modern Methods of Book Composition,” - revised and arranged for this series of text-books by J. W. - Bothwell of The DeVinne Press, New York. Part I: Composition of - pages. Part II: Imposition of pages. 229 pp.; illustrated; 525 - review questions; glossary. - - 21. =Tabular Composition= By Robert Seaver - - A study of the elementary forms of table composition, with examples - of more difficult composition. 36 pp.; examples; 45 review - questions. - - 22. =Applied Arithmetic= By E. E. Sheldon - - Elementary arithmetic applied to problems of the printing trade, - calculation of materials, paper weights and sizes, with standard - tables and rules for computation, each subject amplified with - examples and exercises. 159 pp. - - 23. =Typecasting and Composing Machines= A. W. Finlay, Editor - - Section I—The Linotype By L. A. Hornstein Section II—The Monotype - By Joseph Hays Section III—The Intertype By Henry W. Cozzens - Section IV—Other Typecasting and Typesetting Machines By Frank H. - Smith - - A brief history of typesetting machines, with descriptions of their - mechanical principles and operations. Illustrated; review - questions; glossary. - - - PART III—_Imposition and Stonework_ - - 24. =Locking Forms for the Job Press= By Frank S. Henry - - Things the apprentice should know about locking up small forms, - and about general work on the stone. Illustrated; review - questions; glossary. - - 25. =Preparing Forms for the Cylinder Press= By Frank S. Henry - - Pamphlet and catalog imposition; margins; fold marks, etc. Methods - of handling type forms and electrotype forms. Illustrated; - review questions; glossary. - - - PART IV—_Presswork_ - - 26. =Making Ready on Platen Presses= By T. G. McGrew - - The essential parts of a press and their functions; distinctive - features of commonly used machines. Preparing the tympan, - regulating the impression, underlaying and overlaying, setting - gauges, and other details explained. Illustrated; review - questions; glossary. - - 27. =Cylinder Presswork= By T. G. McGrew - - Preparing the press; adjustment of bed and cylinder, form rollers, - ink fountain, grippers and delivery systems. Underlaying and - overlaying; modern over-lay methods. Illustrated; review - questions; glossary. - - 28. =Pressroom Hints and Helps= By Charles L. Dunton - - Describing some practical methods of pressroom work, with - directions and useful information relating to a variety of - printing-press problems. 87 pp.; 176 review questions. - - 29. =Reproductive Processes of the Graphic Arts= By A. W. Elson - - A primer of information about the distinctive features of the - relief, the intaglio, and the planographic processes of - printing. 84 pp.; illustrated; 100 review questions; glossary. - - - PART V—_Pamphlet and Book Binding_ - - 30. =Pamphlet Binding= By Bancroft L. Goodwin - - A primer of information about the various operations employed in - binding pamphlets and other work in the bindery. Illustrated; - review questions; glossary. - - 31. =Book Binding= By John J. Pleger - - Practical information about the usual operations in binding books: - folding, gathering, collating, sewing, forwarding, finishing. - Case making and cased-in books. Hand work and machine work. Job - and blank-book binding. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. - - - PART VI—_Correct Literary Composition_ - - 32. =Word Study and English Grammar= By F. W. Hamilton - - A primer of information about words, their relations, and their - uses. 68 pp.; 84 review questions; glossary. - - 33. =Punctuation= By F. W. Hamilton - - A primer of information about the marks of punctuation and their - use, both grammatically and typographically. 56 pp.; 59 review - questions; glossary. - - 34. =Capitals= By F. W. Hamilton - - A primer of information about capitalization, with some practical - typographic hints as to the use of capitals. 48 pp.; 92 review - questions; glossary. - - 35. =Division of Words= By F. W. Hamilton - - Rules for the division of words at the ends of lines, with remarks - on spelling, syllabication and pronunciation. 42 pp.; 70 review - questions. - - 36. =Compound Words= By F. W. Hamilton - - A study of the principles of compounding, the components of - compounds, and the use of the hyphen. 34 pp.; 62 review - questions. - - 37. =Abbreviations and Signs= By F. W. Hamilton - - A primer of information about abbreviations and signs, with - classified lists of those in most common use. 58 pp.; 32 review - questions. - - 38. =The Uses of Italic= By F. W. Hamilton - - A primer of information about the history and uses of italic - letters. 31 pp.; 37 review questions. - - 39. =Proofreading= By Arnold Levitas - - The technical phases of the proofreader’s work; reading, marking, - revising, etc.; methods of handling proofs and copy. Illustrated - by examples. 59 pp.; 69 review questions; glossary. - - 40. =Preparation of Printers’ Copy= By F. W. Hamilton - - Suggestions for authors, editors, and all who are engaged in - preparing copy for the composing room. 36 pp.; 67 review - questions. - - 41. =Printers’ Manual of Style= - - A reference compilation of approved rules, usages, and suggestions - relating to uniformity in punctuation, capitalization, - abbreviations, numerals, and kindred features of composition. - - 42. =The Printer’s Dictionary= By A. A. Stewart - - A handbook of definitions and miscellaneous information about - various processes of printing, alphabetically arranged. - Technical terms explained. Illustrated. - - - PART VII—_Design, Color, and Lettering_ - - 43. =Applied Design for Printers= By Harry L. Gage - - A handbook of the principles of arrangement, with brief comment on - the periods of design which have most influenced printing. - Treats of harmony, balance, proportion, and rhythm; motion; - symmetry and variety; ornament, esthetic and symbolic. 37 - illustrations; 46 review questions; glossary; bibliography. - - 44. =Elements of Typographic Design= By Harry L. Gage - - Applications of the principles of decorative design. Building - material of typography: paper, types, ink, decorations and - illustrations. Handling of shapes. Design of complete book, - treating each part. Design of commercial forms and single units. - Illustrations; review questions; glossary; bibliography. - - 45. =Rudiments of Color in Printing= By Harry L. Gage - - Use of color: for decoration of black and white, for broad poster - effect, in combinations of two, three, or more printings with - process engravings. Scientific nature of color, physical and - chemical. Terms in which color may be discussed: hue, value, - intensity. Diagrams in color, scales and combinations. - Color theory of process engraving. Experiments with color. - Illustrations in full color, and on various papers. Review - questions; glossary; bibliography. - - 46. =Lettering in Typography= By Harry L. Gage - - Printer’s use of lettering: adaptability and decorative effect. - Development of historic writing and lettering and its influence - on type design. Classification of general forms in lettering. - Application of design to lettering. Drawing for reproduction. - Fully illustrated; review questions; glossary; bibliography. - - 47. =Typographic Design in Advertising= By Harry L. Gage - - The printer’s function in advertising. Precepts upon which - advertising is based. Printer’s analysis of his copy. Emphasis, - legibility, attention, color. Method of studying advertising - typography. Illustrations; review questions; glossary: - bibliography. - - 48. =Making Dummies and Layouts= By Harry L. Gage - - A layout: the architectural plan. A dummy: the imitation of a - proposed final effect. Use of dummy in sales work. Use of - layout. Function of layout man. Binding schemes for dummies. - Dummy envelopes. Illustrations; review questions; glossary; - bibliography. - - - PART VIII—_History of Printing_ - - 49. =Books Before Typography= By F. W. Hamilton - - A primer of information about the invention of the alphabet and - the history of book-making up to the invention of movable types. - 62 pp.; illustrated; 64 review questions. - - 50. =The Invention of Typography= By F. W. Hamilton - - A brief sketch of the invention of printing and how it came about. - 64 pp.; 62 review questions. - - 51. =History of Printing—Part I= By F. W. Hamilton - - A primer of information about the beginnings of printing, the - development of the book, the development of printers’ materials, - and the work of the great pioneers. 63 pp.; 55 review questions. - - 52. =History of Printing—Part II= By F. W. Hamilton - - A brief sketch of the economic conditions of the printing industry - from 1450 to 1789, including government regulations, censorship, - internal conditions and industrial relations. 94 pp.; 128 review - questions. - - 53. =Printing in England= By F. W. Hamilton - - A short history of printing in England from Caxton to the present - time. 89 pp.; 65 review questions. - - 54. =Printing in America= By F. W. Hamilton - - A brief sketch of the development of the newspaper, and some notes - on publishers who have especially contributed to printing. 98 - pp.; 84 review questions. - - 55. =Type and Presses in America= By F. W. Hamilton - - A brief historical sketch of the development of type casting and - press building in the United States. 52 pp.; 61 review - questions. - - - PART IX—_Cost Finding and Accounting_ - - 56. =Elements of Cost in Printing= By Henry P. Porter - - A primer of information about all the elements that contribute to - the cost of printing and their relation to each other. Review - questions. Glossary. - - 57. =Use of a Cost System= By Henry P. Porter - - The Standard Cost Finding Forms and their uses. What they should - show. How to utilize the information they give. Review - questions. Glossary. - - 58. =The Printer as a Merchant= By Henry P. Porter - - The selection and purchase of materials and supplies for printing. - The relation of the cost of raw material and the selling price - of the finished product. Review questions. Glossary. - - 59. =Fundamental Principles of Estimating= By Henry P. Porter - - The estimator and his work; forms to use; general rules for - estimating. Review questions. Glossary. - - 60. =Estimating and Selling= By Henry P. Porter - - An insight into the methods used in making estimates, and their - relation to selling. Review questions. Glossary. - - 61. =Accounting for Printers= By Henry P. Porter - - A brief outline of an accounting system for printers; necessary - books and accessory records. Review questions. Glossary. - - - PART X—_Miscellaneous_ - - 62. =Health, Sanitation, and Safety= By Henry P. Porter - - Hygiene in the printing trade; a study of conditions old and new; - practical suggestions for improvement; protective appliances and - rules for safety. - - 63. =Topical Index= By F. W. Hamilton - - A book of reference covering the topics treated in the Typographic - Technical Series, alphabetically arranged. - - 64. =Courses of Study= By F. W. Hamilton - - A guidebook for teachers, with outlines and suggestions for - classroom and shop work. - - - - - ACKNOWLEDGMENT - - -This series of Typographic Text-books is the result of the splendid -cooperation of a large number of firms and individuals engaged in the -printing business and its allied industries in the United States of -America. - -The Committee on Education of the United Typothetae of America, under -whose auspices the books have been prepared and published, acknowledges -its indebtedness for the generous assistance rendered by the many -authors, printers, and others identified with this work. - -While due acknowledgment is made on the title and copyright pages of -those contributing to each book, the Committee nevertheless felt that a -group list of co-operating firms would be of interest. - -The following list is not complete, as it includes only those who have -co-operated in the production of a portion of the volumes, constituting -the first printing. As soon as the entire list of books comprising the -Typographic Technical Series has been completed (which the Committee -hopes will be at an early date), the full list will be printed in each -volume. - -The Committee also desires to acknowledge its indebtedness to the many -subscribers to this Series who have patiently awaited its publication. - - COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION, - UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA. - - HENRY P. PORTER, _Chairman_, - E. LAWRENCE FELL, - A. M. GLOSSBRENNER, - J. CLYDE OSWALD, - TOBY RUBOVITS. - - FREDERICK W. HAMILTON, _Education Director_. - - - - - CONTRIBUTORS - - - =For Composition and Electrotypes= - - ISAAC H. BLANCHARD COMPANY, New York, N. Y. - - S. H. BURBANK & CO., Philadelphia, Pa. - - J. S. CUSHING & CO., Norwood, Mass. - - THE DEVINNE PRESS, New York, N. Y. - - R. R. DONNELLEY & SONS CO., Chicago, Ill. - - GEO. H. ELLIS CO., Boston, Mass. - - EVANS-WINTER-HEBB, Detroit, Mich. - - FRANKLIN PRINTING COMPANY, Philadelphia, Pa. - - F. H. GILSON COMPANY, Boston, Mass. - - STEPHEN GREENE & CO., Philadelphia, Pa. - - W. F. HALL PRINTING CO., Chicago, Ill. - - J. B. LIPPINCOTT CO., Philadelphia, Pa. - - MCCALLA & CO. INC., Philadelphia, Pa. - - THE PATTESON PRESS, New York. - - THE PLIMPTON PRESS, Norwood, Mass. - - POOLE BROS., Chicago, Ill. - - EDWARD STERN & CO., Philadelphia, Pa. - - THE STONE PRINTING & MFG. CO., Roanoke, Va. - - C. D. TRAPHAGEN, Lincoln, Neb. - - THE UNIVERSITY PRESS, Cambridge, Mass. - - =For Composition= - - BOSTON TYPOTHETAE SCHOOL OF PRINTING, Boston, Mass. - - WILLIAM F. FELL CO., Philadelphia, Pa. - - THE KALKHOFF COMPANY, New York, N. Y. - - OXFORD-PRINT, Boston, Mass. - - TOBY RUBOVITS, Chicago, Ill. - - =For Electrotypes= - - BLOMGREN BROTHERS CO., Chicago, Ill. - - FLOWER STEEL ELECTROTYPING CO., New York, N. Y. - - C. J. PETERS & SON CO., Boston, Mass. - - ROYAL ELECTROTYPE CO., Philadelphia, Pa. - - H. C. WHITCOMB & CO., Boston, Mass. - - =For Engravings= - - AMERICAN TYPE FOUNDERS CO., Boston, Mass. - - C. B. COTTRELL & SONS CO., Westerly, R. I. - - GOLDING MANUFACTURING CO., Franklin, Mass. - - HARVARD UNIVERSITY, Cambridge, Mass. - - INLAND PRINTER CO., Chicago, Ill. - - LANSTON MONOTYPE MACHINE COMPANY, Philadelphia, Pa. - - MERGENTHALER LINOTYPE COMPANY, New York, N. Y. - - GEO. H. MORRILL CO., Norwood, Mass. - - OSWALD PUBLISHING CO., New York, N. Y. - - THE PRINTING ART, Cambridge, Mass. - - B. D. RISING PAPER COMPANY, Housatonic, Mass. - - THE VANDERCOOK PRESS, Chicago, Ill. - - =For Book Paper= - - AMERICAN WRITING PAPER CO., Holyoke, Mass. - - WEST VIRGINIA PULP & PAPER CO., Mechanicville, N. Y. - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES - - - 1. Silently corrected typographical errors and variations in spelling. - 2. Archaic, non-standard, and uncertain spellings retained as printed. - 3. 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font-style: normal; } - </style> - </head> - <body> -<div style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Brief History of Printing in England, by Frederick W. Hamilton</div> -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: A Brief History of Printing in England</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:0; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:1em;'>A Short History of Printing in England from Caxton to the Present Time</p> -<div style='display:table; margin-bottom:1em;'> -<div style='display:table-row'> - <div style='display:table-cell; padding-right:0.5em'>Author:</div> - <div style='display:table-cell'>Frederick W. Hamilton</div> -</div> -</div> -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: June 11, 2021 [eBook #65596]</div> -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</div> -<div style='display:table; margin-bottom:1em;'> - <div style='display:table-row'> - <div style='display:table-cell; padding-right:0.5em; white-space:nowrap;'>Produced by:</div> - <div style='display:table-cell'>Richard Tonsing, Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier, and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net</div> - </div> -</div> -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A BRIEF HISTORY OF PRINTING IN ENGLAND ***</div> - -<div class='tnotes covernote'> - -<p class='c000'><strong>Transcriber’s Note:</strong></p> - -<p class='c000'>The cover image was created by the transcriber and is placed in the public domain.</p> - -</div> - -<div class='titlepage'> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c001'> - <div><span class='under'><span class='small'>TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES FOR APPRENTICES—PART VIII, NO. 53</span></span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<div> - <h1 class='c002'>A BRIEF HISTORY<br /> <i>of</i><br /> PRINTING IN ENGLAND<br /> <span class='xlarge'>A SHORT HISTORY OF PRINTING IN ENGLAND FROM CAXTON TO THE PRESENT TIME</span></h1> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c003'> - <div>BY</div> - <div><span class='large'>FREDERICK W. HAMILTON, LL.D.</span></div> - <div class='c003'><span class='xsmall'>EDUCATIONAL DIRECTOR</span></div> - <div><span class='xsmall'>UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/title.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>PUBLISHED BY THE COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION</div> - <div>UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA</div> - <div>1918</div> - </div> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c001'> - <div><span class='small'><span class='sc'>Copyright</span>, 1918</span></div> - <div><span class='small'><span class='sc'>United Typothetae of America</span></span></div> - <div><span class='small'><span class='sc'>Chicago, Ill.</span></span></div> - <div class='c004'><span class='small'>Composition and electrotypes contributed by</span></div> - <div><span class='small'><span class='sc'>J. B. Lippincott Company</span></span></div> - <div><span class='small'>Philadelphia</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_3'>3</span> - <h2 class='c005'>PREFACE</h2> -</div> - -<p class='drop-capa0_0_6 c006'>The treatment of the material used in this volume -will be found somewhat different from that -adopted in the two preceding. The narrower field -of inquiry makes possible a closer following of the -ordinary chronological method of arrangement rather -than the topical method of the other volumes. An -attempt is made to trace the history of printing in England -through the centuries from Caxton to Morris and -to include some insight into legal regulations, trade -conditions, and industrial development generally. As -before, it is to be remembered that this is a primer, a -book of introductions. No attempt, therefore, is made -to go far into details or to discuss disputed points or to -include any considerable amount of technical detail. It -is hoped that the reader will get a comprehensive view -of the subject, will feel its human interest, and will -catch some glimpse of its larger relation to the general -history of the time.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The writer has consulted a considerable range of -authorities, a few of the more accessible of which are -cited in the short list of books for supplementary reading. -Mention should be made of the very excellent -study of John Baskerville, privately printed by Col. -Josiah H. Benton, of Boston. This book may perhaps -be found in the larger public libraries. Here, as always, -it is to be regretted that although much has been written -on the subject of printing and of the history of -printing a good general history of the subject is still -greatly to be desired.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_5'>5</span> - <h2 class='c005'>CONTENTS</h2> -</div> - -<table class='table0' summary=''> - <tr><td class='c008' colspan='2'><span class='sc'>Chapter</span> I <span class='fss'>PAGE</span></td></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'><span class='sc'>The English Pioneers</span></td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_7'>7</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><td class='c008' colspan='2'><span class='sc'>Chapter</span> II</td></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'><span class='sc'>The Regulation of the Industry and the Company of Stationers</span></td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_18'>18</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><td class='c008' colspan='2'><span class='sc'>Chapter</span> III</td></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'><span class='sc'>John Day and the Dark Ages of English Printing</span></td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_34'>34</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><td class='c008' colspan='2'><span class='sc'>Chapter</span> IV</td></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'><span class='sc'>The Eighteenth Century: the Period of Transition</span></td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_49'>49</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><td class='c008' colspan='2'><span class='sc'>Chapter</span> V</td></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'><span class='sc'>The Whittinghams and the Modern Book</span></td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_68'>68</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'><span class='sc'>Supplementary Reading</span></td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_76'>76</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'><span class='sc'>Review Questions</span></td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_77'>77</a></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<div><span class='pageno' id='Page_7'>7</span></div> -<div class='chapter ph1'> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c001'> - <div>PRINTING IN ENGLAND</div> - </div> -</div> - -</div> - -<div> - <h2 class='c005'>CHAPTER I<br /> <span class='large'><span class='sc'>The English Pioneers</span></span></h2> -</div> - -<p class='drop-capa0_0_6 c006'>England was slow to take up printing and slow -and backward in the development of it. It was -25 years after the invention of printing before any -printing was done in England. It was many years -after that before the work of the English printers could -compare with that done on the continent. The reason -for this is to be found in the conditions of the country -itself. Although the two great universities had long -been in existence, Oxford dating back to 1167 and Cambridge -to 1209, England as a whole was a backward -country. In culture and the refinements of civilization, -as well as in many more practical things, England was -not so far advanced as the rest of Europe nor was it to -be so for many years to come.</p> - -<p class='c007'>England at this time was an agricultural and grazing -country. A colony of Flemings had been brought over -to start the cloth industry. There was still, nevertheless, -a large export of wool to Flanders, which was there -woven and sent back as cloth. The English nobles -lived largely on their estates, looking after their tenants, -hunting for diversion, and doing a little fighting -occasionally when life became otherwise unbearably -uninteresting. They were not an educated class and -the peasantry were profoundly ignorant. The cities -which, as always, depended upon manufacture and commerce -were just beginning to grow, with the exception -<span class='pageno' id='Page_8'>8</span>of some of the seaport towns which were already prosperous -and wealthy.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Not only was this general condition true, but there -were special conditions which rendered the middle of -the fifteenth century unfavorable to culture and to the -introduction of a new invention auxiliary to culture. -In 1450 England was shaken and horrified by the bloody -insurrection of peasants, with its attendant outrages, -known as Jack Cade’s Revolt. Scarcely had order been -restored when a disputed succession to the crown -plunged the country into the bloody civil war between -the adherents of the Houses of York and Lancaster, -known as the Wars of the Roses. This period of civil -strife lasted for thirty years and affected the general -welfare of England very seriously. It was especially -marked by mortality among the noblest families in the -realm, many of which were actually exterminated.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Some time within this bloody half-century the art of -printing was introduced into England. There is in -existence a book printed in Oxford and dated on the -title page 1468. Upon the existence of this book, and -upon a somewhat doubtful legend, has been built a -claim that English printing originated in Oxford. This -claim, however, has practically ceased to be maintained. -The legend appears to be baseless, and it has -been generally concluded that the date is a misprint -and that it should be 1478, an X having been dropped -in writing the Roman date, a not uncommon error in -publications of this period. Historians have now generally -agreed that the introduction of printing in England -is due to William Caxton, one of the most interesting -figures in the whole annals of printing.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Caxton was born in the Weald, or wooded land, of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_9'>9</span>Kent, a place of simple people and uncouth speech, -about 1421. As a boy he was apprenticed to Robert -Large, a prominent mercer or silk merchant of London. -On the death of Large, not many years later, Caxton -went to Bruges, in Belgium, then part of the territory -of the Dukes of Burgundy, and became connected with -the so-called English “Nation” or “House.” This was -a chartered company of merchant adventurers similar -to the companies which later settled certain portions of -North America and to the famous East India Company. -Caxton appears to have been successful in business and -became Governor of the English “Nation” in 1462.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Bruges was at this time a city of wealth and culture, -the Flemings being far in advance of the English in -this respect. Life in these surroundings caused Caxton -to become interested in reading and good literature, -and in 1467 he undertook a translation into English -of a collection of stories of Troy, or as he called it -“Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye.” Shortly after -this, Margaret, sister of Edward IV of England, married -the Duke of Burgundy and came to Bruges to live. -Caxton immediately came into friendly relations with -the Duchess, who shortly after gave him a position in -her personal service. It is not quite clear what this -position was. It has been supposed by some that the -purpose of the Duchess was to enable Caxton to pursue -his literary labors with the special end of making continental -literature known to the English through translation. -A more probable supposition, however, is that -he was the confidential business adviser to the Duchess. -It is a well-known fact that royal personages at this -period engaged freely in trade and that sometimes they -engaged in extensive commercial transactions with other -<span class='pageno' id='Page_10'>10</span>royal personages although trade between their two countries -might be strictly prohibited by law, as was the -case with England and Flanders during part of the reign -of Edward IV. At an early period of their friendship -Caxton showed the Duchess Margaret his unfinished -translation of the Troy stories. Fortunately for the -world, the Duchess was a friendly but candid critic. -She saw both the strength and the weakness of Caxton’s -work, and while she took him to task roundly -for his rough and poor English she encouraged and -commanded him to complete his translation and at the -same time improve himself in English. Caxton thereupon -renewed his work and completed the translation -of the Troy stories at Cologne in 1471.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Caxton was immediately besieged with demands for -copies of his translations, which, of course, he was unable -to furnish, although he appears to have worked at -it until time, strength, and eyesight failed. He thereupon -determined to learn the new art of printing so that -he might by that means multiply copies of this and other -works which he might execute. Unquestionably he saw -printing presses in operation in Cologne. It has been -claimed that he learned to print there, and this claim -receives some support from an ambiguous statement -attributed to him many years later by Wynkyn de -Worde. It is possible that Caxton may have worked -a little in one of the Cologne printing offices, but it seems -clear on internal evidence that Mr. Blades is right in his -conclusion that Caxton did not learn the art there. The -early printed work of Caxton is by no means equal to that -of the Cologne printers, and represents an earlier stage -of development than that which had been reached by -Cologne at this period. Many of the compositor’s -<span class='pageno' id='Page_11'>11</span>methods which were familiar to the Cologne printers of -1470 did not appear in Caxton’s books until years later.</p> - -<p class='c007'>On Caxton’s return from Cologne he associated himself -with one Colard Mansion, who for a few years unsuccessfully -attempted to carry on a printing business -at Bruges. The probability is that Caxton learned the -art during this association with Mansion. The association -was terminated in 1476 by the bankruptcy of -Mansion. During this period, however, Caxton and -Mansion published five books, two in English and three -in French. The first to be published, and the first book -to be printed in English anywhere, was the translation -of the Troy stories. One of the other books was the first -book that was ever printed in French. It is interesting -to note that the first book to be printed in French was -done by an Englishman in Flanders.</p> - -<p class='c007'>In 1476 Caxton withdrew entirely from his business -connections in Bruges, went to England, taking with -him his presses, type, and workmen, and opened a -printing office within the precincts of Westminster -Abbey. It has often been stated that Caxton’s printing -office was in the abbey building itself, but this is -undoubtedly an error. English abbeys and cathedrals -are commonly surrounded by a considerable extent of -ground called a “close.” Within this “close” are -dwelling houses and not infrequently shops. The entire -property belongs to and is controlled by the abbey -or cathedral authorities. Caxton’s shop appears to -have been in a building known as the “Red Pale” -within the abbey “close.” Caxton continued to print -here until his death in 1491.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Within this period he printed ninety-three books -and perhaps eight or ten more whose attribution is -<span class='pageno' id='Page_12'>12</span>uncertain. Of these ninety-three, fifteen ran to two -editions and three of the fifteen ran to three editions. -Caxton was a good business man and was -probably possessed of considerable capital when he -began. He not only made the business pay, but took -advantage of his somewhat independent position financially -to lead and create the popular taste instead of -following it. Caxton was thoroughly English. He -knew his people and knew what they would take and -he printed accordingly. He did a good business in -service books, school books, and statutes or public -printing. These were what we should call to-day “pot -boilers” and kept his office going on a sound business -basis. Beyond that he printed a large number of works of -good literature, but he took no unnecessary chances even -in this field. He always endeavored either to get the financial -backing of some wealthy noble or to assure himself of -a reasonable sale before he undertook a new publication.</p> - -<p class='c007'>In the field of literature his work was different from -that of almost any other printer of his time. He printed -no Bibles. Latin Bibles could easily be imported from -the continent, probably cheaper than he could print -them. English Bibles were not permitted to be printed -unless the English translation had been made before -the appearance of Wickliffe’s Bible in 1380. There were -translations into English before Wickliffe, as well as a -considerable number of later date, but with the loose -and uncertain dating of manuscripts the printing of an -English Bible was altogether a more risky proposition -than Caxton cared to undertake. He printed no works -on theology. There was no demand for theology in -English, and theology in Latin and Greek could be -cheaply imported. Moreover, although Caxton was a -<span class='pageno' id='Page_13'>13</span>profoundly religious man and a perfectly loyal son of -the Church, he appears to have had no personal interest -in theology whatever. For similar reasons he printed no -edition of the Fathers and only two volumes of the -classics. He left all of these matters to the importers.</p> - -<p class='c007'>His field of publication was the putting before the -public of good, recent literature in the English language. -He did this partly through printing the works -of Chaucer, Langland, and other good English authors -and partly through translation of works in French and -Latin. He was very much interested in English history -and works relating to England, publishing several of -the old chronicles and other matters of this sort. He -believed that there was great help to be found in reading -stories of good women and brave men and he attempted -to lay a store of such stories before his readers. -His own translations cover over five thousand closely -printed folio pages, but he had many other translations -made for him. He was a good linguist in French, Flemish, -and Latin and a tireless worker at his literary and -business labors. He meant that everything which he -printed should be helpful to his readers and should -make for the betterment of the life of his time, although -he would have been the first to disclaim the title of -reformer or missionary.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Two notable instances of his literary honesty appear. -After the publication of his first edition of Chaucer, an -acquaintance came to him and called his attention to -the fact that he had followed a very imperfect manuscript. -His friend said that his father had a very fine -manuscript and Caxton at once arranged for a loan of -it. Finding that through following an imperfect text -he had omitted many things from Chaucer’s text and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_14'>14</span>inserted many others which did not belong there, he -at once printed a correct edition, probably at very -serious loss to himself. The unsold copies of the first -edition became useless and the cost of a second edition -was equal to the first, as the work had to be entirely -done over again from the beginning. The other instance -must be judged by the standards of his time -rather than ours, but showed his desire to present only -correct texts to his readers. Caxton published in 1483 -a translation of John Mink’s “Liber Festivalis.” An -independent translation was published at Oxford in -1487. A few years later Caxton published a second -edition, but followed the Oxford text rather than his -own earlier translation.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Personally Caxton is a most interesting figure, a -sturdy, honest, high-minded, common-sensible English -gentleman, a man who loved and served God, -honored the King, and helped his neighbor to the best -of his ability, and who did his country an inestimable -service not only by the introduction of a new art but -by the opening of a new field of literature.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Caxton’s printing was not remarkable for typographical -excellence. He used soft type and thin ink, very -much to the detriment of the beauty of his impressions. -The first type which he used was a font of black letter -made in imitation of the handwriting of the Burgundian -clerks of the time. This font had belonged -to Mansion and was probably obtained by Caxton -from Mansion’s creditors. Later he cut for himself -several other fonts, some authorities say five, some -seven. All of his fonts were black-letter Gothic and -all more or less related to the Burgundian script -with which he began. He used / instead of commas -<span class='pageno' id='Page_15'>15</span>and periods. He had a habit of correcting typographical -errors by hand after the books were finished. He -went over the first copy, making the corrections himself, -and afterward the other copies were made to conform -by clerks or apprentices.</p> - -<p class='c007'>While Caxton was at work a few other printers made -their appearance in England. Some time before 1478 -Theodoric Rood, of Cologne, opened a printing office at -Oxford. The office was open for about eight years, but -seems to have done only a small business. We have fifteen -books which are known to have come from this press. -They were printed from three different fonts of type. -Two of them were good letters imported from Cologne. -About 1487 Rood disappeared and is supposed to have -gone back to Cologne. In 1479 a press was started at -the abbey of St. Albans. This press published eight -books that we know of, all for church use or the direct -use of the abbey. These books were printed from four -fonts of type, two of which are identical with two of Caxton’s. -It is possible that this was a side enterprise of -Caxton’s, although it is equally possible that the abbey -may have bought the type of Caxton or obtained the -use of his matrices or even hired some type of him. -The conclusions based on apparent identity of type-faces -are always doubtful, as this identity may be accounted -for in a considerable number of ways.</p> - -<p class='c007'>In 1480 a printer appeared in London named John -Lettou. Lettou was evidently not an Englishman, but -his origin is unknown. The word Lettou is an old form -of Lithuania. Attempts have been made to identify -him with certain continental printers, but as these -attempts rest on similarities of type-face they are uncertain. -Soon after his appearance Lettou was associated -<span class='pageno' id='Page_16'>16</span>with William Machlinia or de Machlinia (William -of Mechlin or Malines in Belgium). Machlinia made a -specialty of law books. The business was later taken -over by Richard Pynson. None of these made any -particular contribution to typography. Their interest -lies chiefly in the fact that they were the beginners of -English printing.</p> - -<p class='c007'>There was no successor to carry on Caxton’s traditions -of scholarship, of literary taste, or even of craftsmanship. -Caxton, as we have said, was a successful -business man before he became a printer and was -doubtless financially independent during the whole of his -later life. His successors were men who were dependent -entirely upon their craft for their livelihood. Caxton’s -immediate successors were two, Wynkyn de Worde, a -native of Lorraine, and Richard Pynson, a native of -Normandy. Both of these men appear to have learned -their trade with Caxton. Wynkyn de Worde carried -on the business after Caxton’s death. De Worde -appears to have been a man of very little education. -Pynson was a graduate of the University of Paris, but -he never became at home in the English language.</p> - -<p class='c007'>De Worde carried on the Caxton business from 1491 -to 1534, at first in Caxton’s own shop, afterward in -London (Westminster and London have now grown -together, but at that time they were a considerable distance -apart). During this time De Worde published over -six hundred books. His books were cheap and poor in -every way. De Worde was slow to start publishing. -He published almost nothing for a couple of years after -Caxton’s death. He appears to have lacked initiative -and probably lacked capital. He seems to have discovered -that there was money in cheap publications of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_17'>17</span>a sort that catered to the popular taste, and he diligently -worked that line of business. He appears to -have made money, but cannot be credited with any -higher type of success. He hired translators and editors -and he evidently hired cheap ones, as the editorial -work on his books is not good.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Pynson printed from 1492 to 1529. He did a much -higher class of work than De Worde, although he is by -no means eminent for his typography. He made less -money than De Worde, but appears to have kept out -of financial difficulties. His publications were mostly -law books. He took over the business of Lettou and -Machlinia, but had specialized in law books on becoming -printer to the king in 1510. Pynson introduced -the use of roman type in 1509, although it was some -time before it displaced the gothic in common use. -In 1523 to 1525 he printed Lord Berners’s translation -of the “Chronicle” of Froissart. In literature this is -a notable event. Froissart was really the first modern -historian. The book marks the transition from the -dry chronicles of the Middle Ages to history proper.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Robert Copeland, who began to print about 1514, is -notable as being probably the first English printer, that -is to say, the first native-born Englishman to go into -the business.</p> - -<p class='c007'>One of the few good printers of this early period was -Thomas Berthelet or Bartlett. Berthelet was a Welshman -and was an excellent bookbinder as well as a good -printer. He was the first man in England to use gold tooling -on his binding. Berthelet enjoyed the position of -royal printer. Richard Grafton and Edward Whitchurch -were the first printers of English Bibles, which began -to appear about the middle of the sixteenth century.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_18'>18</span> - <h2 class='c005'>CHAPTER II<br /> <span class='large'><span class='sc'>The Regulation of the Industry and the Company of Stationers</span></span></h2> -</div> - -<p class='drop-capa0_0_6 c006'>The middle of the sixteenth century marks a distinct -change in English printing. Up to this time -the industry in England had been neither organized, -regulated, nor censored. It had been conducted -under conditions of freedom almost identical with those -which exist to-day, a state of things entirely anomalous -in that period. The quality of English printing in this -period was generally very poor. In spite, however, of -the poor workmanship, there lingers something of the -old craftsman spirit. Although the books show glaring -imperfections, they also show a certain dignity and -harmony which is reminiscent of the spirit of the old -craftsmen. In detail, however, the work was poor both -in composition and presswork. It showed an almost -entire lack of originality. Types, wood-cuts, initials, -ornaments, and even the printer’s devices were not -only bought from the continent of Europe but bought -second-hand and used long after signs of wear had -become painfully evident. Wood-cuts especially were -not only over-used but misused. They were not infrequently -inserted with absolute disregard of the text. -The printers not only stuck in pictures which had no -bearing whatever upon the subject matter, but they -used the same picture more than once in the same book.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The reason for this is to be found in the fact that -the proprietors of the large shops were intent on profit -<span class='pageno' id='Page_19'>19</span>and the proprietors of the small shops had no capital. -The experience of Wynkyn de Worde had shown that -the way to make money was by printing popular books -which could be sold cheap, and his successors learned -the lesson only too rapidly. There was no effective -demand for good printing. The smaller printers had -to buy such materials as they could afford and compete -as best they could.</p> - -<p class='c007'>From about 1525, which will be recalled as the date -of the publication of Froissart’s “Chronicle,” there -was a change in the demand for books. The revival -of learning was beginning to make itself felt in England. -The influence of Erasmus on the intellectual -life of the age was very great. This influence was -especially felt in England because Erasmus had himself -spent considerable time there and was a friend of -John Colet, Dean of St. Paul’s, who was not only an -influential clergyman but a very great scholar. England -was also beginning to feel the stirrings of philosophical -and religious discussion. There was a great -demand for educational books to meet the needs of -the scholars and there began to be a great output of -controversial literature. Wynkyn de Worde sometimes -printed three or four editions of the same Latin grammar -in one year, so great was the demand for educational -books.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Up to the middle of the century, however, very -little original work was printed in England, or at any -rate is now extant. The popular demand was for reprints -of old books and for translations of French poems -and romances. The classics and other works of more -serious literature were commonly imported. There was -also a considerable amount of printing for the English -<span class='pageno' id='Page_20'>20</span>trade done on the continent. Not content with furnishing -the English with books in Greek and Latin and -the modern languages, some of the continental printers -did a flourishing trade in the printing of books in English. -Their work was generally better and cheaper than -that of the English printers.</p> - -<p class='c007'>As has already been said, English printing was left -very much alone up to 1557 excepting that privileges -were granted by the crown rather freely. Beginning -with the privileges to print statutes and law books, the -practice spread until by the middle of the sixteenth century -practically all profitable printing was covered by -privilege.</p> - -<p class='c007'>During this period, and indeed for several centuries -later, the industry was free from labor troubles. The -reason, however, is to be found in the peculiar situation -which existed under English law. Under English -common law all combinations of workmen were considered -as contrary to public policy, regarded as combinations -in restraint of trade, and dealt with very -harshly. A single workman might work or refuse to -work for whatever pay or under whatever conditions -he pleased, but an agreement of two or more on this -basis, that is to combine for pay, hours, and the like, -was a criminal conspiracy. Not only were any agreements -such a group of men might make absolutely -void, but the very fact of entering such a combination -was itself a criminal offence. From the reign of Edward -I (1272–1307) to George IV (1820–1830) thirty or -forty acts of Parliament, commonly called “Statutes -of Laborers,” were passed on this basis. The reënactment -of legislation on this subject from time to time -was not caused, as is usual in such cases, by the ineffectiveness -<span class='pageno' id='Page_21'>21</span>of the legislation but by the necessity of -meeting special conditions which were created by visitations -of the plague, wars, and other events having -far-reaching industrial effects.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The development of the factory system of production, -beginning about the middle of the eighteenth century, -with the consequent gathering of great groups of -workmen in certain localities and the rapid increase in -the town population, rendered a continuance of the old -regulations more and more difficult. The laws against -combinations of workmen were evaded by the organization -of secret societies, while the displacement of -large numbers of hand workers by the introduction of -machinery caused serious labor troubles and rioting. -Other conditions too familiar to need description arose -which caused friction between the workmen and their -employers. Attempts were made at first to put a stop -to the combinations of the workmen by more and more -stringent legislation. This proving unsuccessful, the -legislation was modified in the direction of leniency. -Gradually the unions won their way to recognition, -although this recognition was developed in the slow -and inconsistent way which is common with English -legislation.</p> - -<p class='c007'>In 1875 the whole matter was put on a new basis by -the legal acceptance of the principle that it is lawful -for any combination of men to do any act which it -would be lawful for either of them to do singly. This, -of course, was a reversal of the fundamental principle -of more than six hundred years of labor legislation, that -it was not lawful for a combination of men to do things -which any one of them might lawfully do. Since that -time the unions have rapidly won their way to full -<span class='pageno' id='Page_22'>22</span>recognition and to great importance in the industry. In -England to-day practically all trades are very thoroughly -unionized. The printing industry is no exception. -Union membership is much more universal among the -workmen in the industry than it is in the United States. -This development of organization among the workmen -has been accompanied by a development of strong -organizations of employers in all industries. To-day -practically all industrial bargaining in England is collective -bargaining carried on between associated employers -and associated employees.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The same difficulties arising out of lack of regulation -which had vexed the industry on the continent -had made themselves felt in England, but with their -usual good sense the English attacked the problem at -a very early period. Nearly sixty years before the -organization of the Community of Printers in France, -in 1618, the English had put printing in line with the -other industries by the organization of the Stationers’ -Company in 1557, the last year of Queen Mary I.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The organization of the Stationers was by no means -an innovation. It was rather the legalizing and regularizing -of a condition which had risen under the familiar -conditions of English industry. As early as 1403 -we find the guild or fraternity of scriveners. This -guild or fraternity developed into the “Craft” of stationers, -influential in fixing and controlling trade customs. -The growth of the craft or trade guilds in England -was not unlike that of similar organizations in -Europe. Their control of the situation, however, seems -to have been even more close than elsewhere. An ordinance -of Edward II (1307–1327) compelled every citizen -of a town to be a member of some craft or mystery.</p> - -<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_23'>23</span>In 1375 the election of the city officials of London -was turned over to the craft guilds or, as they were -termed, liveried companies. The liveried companies -were so called because each had a distinctive dress -which was worn on formal occasions. From this time -on the liveried companies controlled the political and -municipal power of London for several centuries, electing -the Lord Mayor and Aldermen, controlling the -train-bands, or city militia, and to a great extent holding -the defence of the kingdom in their hands. About -seventy-six of these companies still continue to exist. -They survive mainly for charitable and philanthropic -purposes, conserving and administering the large funds -which were accumulated in early centuries.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The Stationers’ Company was organized in 1557 -partly because the printers saw the necessity for organization -and regulation of the industry, and partly because -the crown desired a better means for controlling -printing than had theretofore existed. It will be remembered -that this was in the midst of the age of -religious controversy. King Henry VIII had attempted -to set himself up as the head of a national church which -was not Protestant and at the same time did not -acknowledge allegiance to the Pope. King Henry executed -with great impartiality both those who defended -the ecclesiastical supremacy of the Pope and those -who professed Protestant opinions. His successor, -King Edward VI, was a Protestant and attempted to -make England Protestant. His short reign was followed -by that of Mary I, who was a Catholic and attempted -to make England Catholic. Her comparatively -short reign was followed by the long reign of Elizabeth, -in whose time Protestantism became the established -<span class='pageno' id='Page_24'>24</span>state church of England. It will be remembered that -it was near the close of Mary’s reign that the Stationers’ -Company was chartered, and the interest of -the crown in securing a better control of the printing -press and its output is obvious. In 1560, the second -year of Elizabeth, the incorporation of the Stationers’ -Company was rendered complete by the enrolment -of the new company in the list of the liveried companies -of London, and we shall presently see that the royal -hand was laid heavily upon the printers and their work.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The Stationers’ Company was organized in the usual -form, with its administration in the hands of a Master -and two Wardens. The terms of the charter gave the -company authority to govern the trade and to enforce -its regulations by the exercise of the right of visitation -and disciplinary control over its members. This -extended not only to the enforcement of the regulations -of the Company but also to the enforcement of -royal proclamations and injunctions, and decrees of -the Star Chamber.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The Star Chamber, frequently mentioned in English -history in general, as well as in the history of English -printing, was a special court of high officials. The -powers and jurisdiction of this court were somewhat -vague and undefined. Theoretically it was intended -to deal with matters which could not be adequately -dealt with by the regular courts because of the necessity -of immediate action, the important nature of the -case, or other conditions which made the action of the -ordinary courts too slow or not sufficiently effective. -Naturally the existence of such a court opened the -way to serious abuses, and alleged abuses of its authority -played a very large part in the Revolution by which -<span class='pageno' id='Page_25'>25</span>King Charles I lost his head. As a result of these revolutionary -movements, the court was discontinued in -1641, after an existence of at least three hundred years. -It is supposed to have derived its name from the fact -that the ceiling of the room it sat in in early times was -decorated with stars.</p> - -<p class='c007'>After the organization of the Stationers’ Company -the exercise of the trade was limited to its members. -The Company was required to keep registers giving -the names of the Masters and Wardens, of all the members -of the Company and their apprentices, and of all -who “took up freedom,” that is to say, became members -of the Company from time to time. All books -printed were required to be registered with the Company -and a copy deposited in the archives accompanied -by a fee. This was the beginning of copyright. It was -understood that the members of the Company should -respect each others’ rights to publications thus registered, -although it appears to have been a “gentleman’s -agreement” rather than a regulation. This requirement -did not apply to books which were published -under royal privilege, but the members of the Company -were bound to respect these privileges and not -in any way infringe upon the rights which they conferred. -The requirement of registration did not apply -to the king’s printers in so far as their patent for the -royal printing extended; that is to say, the royal printer -was not required to register statutes, law books, or other -government printing, but he was required to register -all general publications. This legislation requiring -registration was not always strictly enforced.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The powers of the Company were used much more -for the regulation and control of printing than for the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_26'>26</span>improvement of the art. It was to the Company that -the government looked particularly for the enforcement -of the statutes regarding printing. For that -reason, if a book were of doubtful character and liable -to be prohibited the publisher preferred to run the -chance of attempting to evade the regulation regarding -registration. Fortunately the registers of the Company -containing the records of all their transactions -are for the most part still in existence. They furnish -an immense fund of valuable information extending -over a very long period.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The Stationers’ Company included the printers, bookbinders, -type-founders, and booksellers. It had ninety-seven -charter members. A few of the London printers -are known not to have joined the Company when it was -organized. Why they stood out we do not know. Very -likely it was simply the usual assertion of British independence -and impatience of control. The requirement -of membership in the Company as a requisite to carrying -on the business was not enforced with regard to -those printers who were in business when the Company -was chartered, its application being restricted to those -who might thereafter desire to enter the business. Some -of the independents afterwards joined the Company. -The remainder stayed out permanently.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The organization of the Company was not in itself -sufficient to secure the desired control of the industry. -As has already been pointed out, an immense flood of -printed matter was being brought out on account of -the bitter religious and political controversies of the -time. Most of it was very poor printing. The end -desired was to get it out as quickly as possible and as -cheaply as possible. Much of it was objectionable to -<span class='pageno' id='Page_27'>27</span>the government and the organization of the Company -was immediately followed up by repressive legislation.</p> - -<p class='c007'>In 1558 Queen Elizabeth laid the foundation of legislation -for the control of the press by issuing “injunctions” -which required that every book should be licensed -either by the Queen or by the members of the -Privy Council, by the Archbishop of Canterbury, by -the Chancellor of one of the two universities, or by -other authorities specified in the act. Frequent proclamations -and orders show that the injunctions were -not obeyed. It may be laid down as a fundamental -principle in the study of history that the frequent repetition -of legislation on any one subject shows that the -subject is considered very important by the government -and that the legislation is not effective. So seriously -was this matter regarded by the government -that very extreme measures were adopted in dealing -with offending printers. One William Carter, for -instance, who had been several times punished for -breach of the printing regulations, finally printed a -seditious book, “a treatise of schisme,” for which he -was tried for high treason, condemned to death and -hanged, disembowelled, and quartered according to the -ghastly custom of that time.</p> - -<p class='c007'>By way of further tightening of the regulations a -Star Chamber decree was issued in 1586 much more -strict than any preceding order. By the provisions of -this decree all presses then working had to be reported -in the same way as already provided. No presses -whatever were allowed outside of London, excepting -one each at Oxford and Cambridge. Previous to the -charter of the Company provincial presses had been -started at Oxford, York, Cambridge, Abingdon, Tavistock, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_28'>28</span>St. Albans, Bristol, Ipswich, Canterbury, and -Norwich, in the order named. These, of course, were -all swept away by this act excepting those of Oxford -and Cambridge. No more presses were to be permitted -until the number in use had been reduced to a number -which should be pronounced sufficient for the needs of -the kingdom by the Archbishop of Canterbury and -the Bishop of London. Vacancies in the number of -licensed printers were to be filled by three stationers -(members of the Company) who would be nominated -by the Company and licensed by an ecclesiastical commission. -The censorship, both ecclesiastical and lay, -was developed and enforced by further provisions of -the act.</p> - -<p class='c007'>These are the conditions under which that great -literature which is known as Elizabethan literature -was created and published. It seems incredible that -such literature could have been produced under such -conditions. The fact that it was so produced seems -to show that the censors made a conscientious attempt -to enforce the legislation in such a way as to prevent -the actual abuse of the printing press and to protect -the government from danger arising from these sources, -while leaving pure literature as free as the conditions -permitted. Of course, we of to-day regard any system -of press censorship as wrong and cannot approve -any such legislation. It is worth while, however, to -remember that these men made an earnest effort to -live up to the moral and political standards of their -own time.</p> - -<p class='c007'>In the execution of this edict the Stationers’ Company -made weekly official visits to every shop. These -visitations were intended to ascertain:</p> - -<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_29'>29</span>1. How many presses each printer possessed.</p> - -<p class='c007'>2. What he printed.</p> - -<p class='c007'>3. How many impressions were taken of each piece -of work.</p> - -<p class='c007'>4. How many workmen and apprentices there were -in each plant.</p> - -<p class='c007'>5. Whether unauthorized persons were employed or -allowed to remain about the plant.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The regulations of the edict and also the private -regulations of the Company seem to have been enforced -at this time with all the thoroughness in the -power of the Company. The registers show that its -officers frequently seized and destroyed editions of -unlicensed books and in other ways enforced the edicts -against all persons. Its own members were frequently -disciplined. The registers show discipline for printing -an unlicensed book, for selling a prayer book of Edward -VI in place of one of Elizabeth, for infringing a copyright, -for printing indecent or offensive matters, for -selling books to other than book-shops, for selling books -“disorderly printed,” for keeping open on Sundays -and festival days, and for keeping unregistered apprentices. -The phrase “disorderly printed” appears to -refer to the careless and inaccurate printing of the books -rather than to the nature of their contents. The printing -standards of the time were not high, but this would -appear to indicate a disposition to maintain them, -such as they were. The punishment for selling to other -than book shops is interesting as showing that at that -early period the book trade suffered from one of the -things which to-day causes much complaint among -booksellers. Sales by department stores, drug stores, -and other parties disposed to cut rates are regarded as -<span class='pageno' id='Page_30'>30</span>serious difficulties in the book trade of to-day and it is -evident that the same difficulty occurred three hundred -and fifty years ago.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The difficulties of the printers were by no means -limited to those created by the edicts or regulations. -One of the great sources of difficulty lay in the privileges -and monopolies which had been recklessly granted -for a considerable period. These privileges had a most -unfortunate effect upon the industry both on the side -of business and on that of craftsmanship. On the side -of business they gave to certain printers a monopoly -of practically all of the work which was certain to produce -good financial returns, leaving to the unprivileged -printers the doubtful enterprise of producing current -literature. On the side of craftsmanship they took -away the spur of competition. The greater part of -the literature of this period was produced by unprivileged -printers, most of it with very little profit to them. -On the other hand, the privileged printer, being secured -in his monopoly of a certain kind of production, was -not held to any artistic standards. Competition being -impossible, he could print as cheaply and as badly as -he chose and generally did so. In both directions the -effect was paralyzing.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Naturally the unprivileged printers were constantly -tempted to infringe upon the monopoly rights of the -others, with the result that there was constant friction -and appeals to authority were taken on both sides. -The matter finally came to a head in a serious revolt -of the unprivileged printers under the leadership of -one John Wolfe. Wolfe was a member of the Fishmongers’ -Company, but had undertaken to do printing -and declared boldly that he proposed to lead a movement -<span class='pageno' id='Page_31'>31</span>which would revolutionize the entire situation. -The revolt was sufficiently serious to bring about a -compromise by which a considerable number of privileges -were given up entirely or turned over to the -Company to be re-distributed by them among the -printers. The extent to which these privileges were -granted may be seen by the fact that John Day, of -whom we shall hear more presently, alone gave up fifty-three -privileges, although he kept several of the most -important and profitable ones. Wolfe transferred his -membership from the Fishmongers’ to the Stationers’ -Company. As a member of the Stationers’ Company -he obtained certain privileges for himself and it is interesting -to note that not long afterward the registers of -the Company show Wolfe appealing because somebody -had infringed upon a privilege of his. Wolfe rose to -become an officer of the Company and distinguished -himself as a prosecutor of offending printers and a -staunch upholder of law and order.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The natural result of the reduction of the number -of offices under the edict of 1586 was that the trade -was seriously overmanned and there were too many -apprentices, as the reduction in the number of offices -did not affect the number of either journeymen or -apprentices. The Company dealt with the matter in -a rather successful fashion by an order issued in 1587. -This order limited the number of apprentices and -attempted to make as much work as possible for the -journeymen. It provided that no apprentice should -be allowed to work in either the composing room or -the press room if there were any competent journeymen -in need of work. When we remember the small -number of offices in London and the fact that there -<span class='pageno' id='Page_32'>32</span>were only two in England outside of London, we can -readily see that this order was not so difficult of enforcement -as might appear. No form was to be kept -standing to the injury of workmen. The meaning of -this is clearer when we remember that all composition -at this time was hand composition and that stereotyping -and other methods of preserving forms were not known -and consequently a reprint or re-issue was, excepting -for absence of editorial work, a new job. If there was -expectation that a new reprint might soon be required -and the printer had the type to spare he might leave -a form standing and so avoid the labor of recomposition. -This regulation meant that as soon as the first -impression was taken the type must be distributed so -that in case of reprinting the compositor would have -a new job. For like reasons the number of copies to -be printed was limited in ordinary cases to 1250 or -1500, so that if the book proved to be popular work -might be provided in setting up repeated editions. -These regulations seem to have been reasonably successful -so far as the journeymen were concerned, but, -of course, they materially increased the price of books.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The period of apprenticeship was from seven to -eleven years. It was intended that apprenticeship -should end at 24, and the length of the apprenticeship -depended upon the age at which it was begun. At the -end of the apprenticeship the indenture required that -the master should make the apprentice free of the Company -“if he have well and truely served.” As the limit -of membership of the Company was only about 25, -for a long period only about one-half of the apprentices -ever became masters; the rest of them remained permanently -in the position of journeymen. As elsewhere -<span class='pageno' id='Page_33'>33</span>in Europe, the apprentice might become heir to the -business and the place in the Company by marrying -either the daughter or the widow of a master printer. -Apparently the business went to the widow rather -than to the daughter if the widow survived. Widows -even seem to have taken the business in preference to -sons. Consequently the widow of a master printer was -a very desirable match for an ambitious apprentice in -spite of any difference in age, and several instances -are recorded where a business changed hands twice by -successive re-marriages of the widow.</p> - -<p class='c007'>There was a strong tendency, which we shall discuss -more at length later, for the bookseller to get control -of the situation. Copyrights generally belonged to -the booksellers. They purchased them from the authors -and held them as against the printers. It must be -remembered that an author could not obtain a copyright, -as copyright was secured by registration in the -Stationers’ Company and this registration could be -made only by a bookseller or a printer. Consequently -the author was obliged to content himself with what -the purchaser of his work was willing to give him. The -bookseller naturally got his printing done as cheaply -as he could and printers cut prices then just as they -do now, and got poor as a result, just as they do now.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_34'>34</span> - <h2 class='c005'>CHAPTER III<br /> <span class='large'><span class='sc'>John Day and the Dark Ages of English Printing</span></span></h2> -</div> - -<p class='drop-capa0_0_6 c006'>One name stands out among English printers of -this period, that of John Day, who has been described -as “one of the best and most enterprising of -printers.” Day was born in 1522 and began to print in -1546. His business career lasted for thirty-eight years. -He died in 1584, at the age of 62. Day began his business -life at a period when English printing was very poor. His -first books were as bad as those of his contemporaries. -They were printed from worn type, the presswork was -bad, they were without pagination, and he did not even -use a device such as was customary among printers -at that time. His first important work was a Bible, -printed in 1549. This Bible was illustrated by wood-cuts -which were very evidently second-hand, as they -extended beyond the letter-press on the page. On the -accession of Queen Mary I, in 1553, he went abroad, -possibly for religious reasons, but probably not, as Day, -like most printers of this particular time, found no -difficulty in conforming himself to the religious views -of the government. As a rule they accepted the peculiar -position of Henry VIII which has already been -described, printed Protestant books under Edward VI, -Catholic books under Mary, and Protestant books -under Elizabeth. They seem to have been quite content, -in other words, to take what was brought them -and to accept whatever government regulations might -be in existence.</p> - -<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_35'>35</span>This attitude on the part of the printers reflects the -general attitude of the English people at this time. -There is very little doubt that the mass of the people -were neither staunchly Catholic nor aggressively Protestant. -While there were earnest and aggressive -spirits in both parties, it seems quite clear that the -vast majority of the people were ready to accept either -Catholicism or Protestantism as a state church. England -did not become aggressively Protestant until well -into the reign of Elizabeth. Unfortunately for the -interests of religion and of religious toleration, the -church question became a political question, and when -Spain and the other Catholic powers attempted to -overthrow the government of England and make England -dependent upon Spain, patriotism and Protestantism -came to be regarded by the English as synonymous -terms. Here, as elsewhere, the Reformation was -a political more than a religious question.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Just when Day returned to England is not clear, -but it was before the death of Queen Mary, as he was -a charter member of the Stationers’ Company, which -was chartered in the last year of her reign, and published -a book dated the same year. Evidently Day -studied abroad. Very probably that was his purpose -in travel, for we find that in 1559 his books began to -show excellence and they improved in quality until we -find him soon producing the best printing which had -yet been done in England. From this time on his -work was marked by accuracy, taste, and a high grade -of excellence in both typography and presswork.</p> - -<p class='c007'>He was greatly encouraged and at times assisted by -Matthew Parker, who was Archbishop of Canterbury -from 1559 to 1575. Parker was by no means a great -<span class='pageno' id='Page_36'>36</span>man, but he was just the sort of man whom the autocratic -Elizabeth wished to have for Archbishop of -Canterbury. He was moderate in his views and easygoing -in temperament, a scholar and collector of beautiful -things and a patron of the arts and sciences. -Parker not only encouraged and patronized Day but -employed him to print on the private press which the -Archbishop had set up at Lambeth. Day’s best piece -of work was an edition of Asser’s “Life of Alfred the -Great” which he printed for Parker in 1574.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Day published and printed the first edition of Foxe’s -“Book of Martyrs,” a huge folio volume of 2008 pages. -In 1578 Day published a book in Latin and Greek. -The Greek was the best face yet seen in England and -was equal to the work of Estienne. Other notable -achievements of Day were the printing of the Psalter -with musical notes, the cutting of Hebrew words -in wood to be used in printing the life of Bishop Jewel, -published in 1573, and the cutting of a font of Saxon -type which appears to have been the first used in England. -This font contained twenty-six capitals and -twenty-seven lowercase letters. The capitals consisted -of eighteen old roman letters and eight Saxon characters, -two of which were diphthongs. The lowercase contained -fifteen roman and twelve Saxon characters. Day also -cut italic types to match roman, the first time this had -been done. Day’s work was mainly religious, although -he published some of the first English plays and some -other works of general literature.</p> - -<p class='c007'>As usual with men of great excellence, Day suffered -much from the antagonism of jealous rivals, but this -antagonism was not sufficient to deprive him of success. -The excellence of his work was rewarded not -<span class='pageno' id='Page_37'>37</span>only by success in business but by the award of a large -number of privileges which were sources of great profit. -We have seen, however, that he relinquished a large -number of these at the time of Wolfe’s revolt. Those -that he saved seem to have been by far the most -profitable.</p> - -<p class='c007'>A few other printers of this period need mention -for various reasons. The best work after that of Day -was done by Vautrollier. Tottell, whose name is variously -spelled in the records of the time, printed many -things of great value to English literature. He was -an enterprising printer of contemporary publications. -Robert Darker, king’s printer to James I, printed the -statutes, proclamations, and editions of the Book of -Common Prayer of that period and deserves to be -remembered as the original printer of the so-called -Authorized Version of the Bible, published in 1611. -This English text, sometimes called the Authorized -and sometimes called the King James Version, was the -only text of the English Bible received among English-speaking -people until the revision made in the latter part -of the eighteenth century. It may be worth while to -note that this version is not uncommonly erroneously -referred to as the St. James Version. There is absolutely -no justification for this common error. The -book was authorized by King James and for that reason -is known as the Authorized or King James Version. -King James, however, was no saint. The authorization -was simply a license or permission. Darker -published the book as a commercial venture at his -own expense. He used the same type and the same -ornaments as those used in the Bishop’s Bible, an -English translation published in 1568.</p> - -<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_38'>38</span>John Norton, another one of the group of printers -favored by James I, cut some of the best Greek types -which have ever appeared in England. He was a -worthy successor in this field of John Day. William -and Isaac Jaggard printed the famous folio edition -of Shakespeare’s plays in 1623. Typographically it -was a poor piece of work, but as a literary landmark -it is of the utmost importance.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The standards of Day were not long maintained. -There were a few good printers in the seventeenth century, -but for the most part they were poor and the tendency -was decidedly toward deterioration. Political and -religious controversies broke out afresh in the reign of -James I (1613–1625) and were continued with increasing -bitterness until they finally broke into the storm -of civil war which swept over England in the reign of -Charles I. A natural result of these conditions was a -tightening of the restrictions upon the press, which -became more and more burdensome. The controversies -called forth floods of literature, much of which -had to be clandestinely printed. The restrictions, as -we shall presently see, were almost unbearable and -the market was greatly disturbed. The consequence -was that English printing reached its low-water mark -in the last half of the seventeenth century. The period -which we are considering, however, shows one important -invention which in its field was a distinct improvement. -Copperplate engraving was introduced into -England in 1540, but it was a long time before it came -into general use. Later we find it used first for portraits, -then for engraved title pages, some of which -were of great beauty, and then for general purposes of -illustration.</p> - -<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_39'>39</span>James I strengthened the Company of Stationers -by withdrawing several valuable privileges from private -persons and giving them to the Company. This -action was probably taken with a view to making the -Company more reliable as the agent for the enforcement -of the press laws, which were not materially -changed during James’s reign. With the political and -religious dissensions which followed the accession of -Charles I in 1525 came renewed efforts to meet the -rising tides of discussion and to dam up the flood of -pamphlets, mostly badly printed, first by the more -stringent enforcement of the old laws and then by the -enactment of new ones. The Company’s registers at -this time show a long list of penalties, including fines, -cropping of ears, imprisonment, and expulsion from -the Company. It is only just to King Charles, however, -to say that he did attempt to foster learning -and encourage good printing, provided the learning -were politically and religiously orthodox according to -King Charles’s standards and the printers were amenable -to authority.</p> - -<p class='c007'>In this connection there is a rather interesting incident -of an attempt by King Charles to set up a Greek -press. In 1631 Barker and Lucas printed the so-called -“Wicked Bible,” which derived its name from -an unfortunate typographical error, the omission of -the word “not” in the seventh commandment. Barker -and Lucas were fined for their carelessness £300, a -very heavy fine, equal, if we make allowance for the -difference in the purchasing power of money, to about -$12,000 to-day. In settlement of this fine they were -commanded instead of paying the money into the -treasury to purchase £300 worth of Greek type and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_40'>40</span>to print one Greek book a year at their own cost and -risk, the Archbishop of Canterbury to fix the size of -the edition. They gladly agreed to this, but owing -to the political conditions which immediately followed -very little came of it.</p> - -<p class='c007'>In 1637 a Star Chamber decree was issued which -marks the high-water mark of governmental regulations -in England. By this decree all books of every -sort were to be licensed. Law books were to be licensed -by the Lord Chief Justice and the Lord Chief Baron; -books dealing with history by the Secretaries of State; -books on heraldry by the Earl Marshal; books on any -other subjects by the Archbishop of Canterbury, the -Bishop of London, or the Chancellors or Vice-Chancellors -of the two universities. Two copies of every -book submitted for publication were to be handed to -the licenser, one of which he was to keep for future -reference. Catalogues of books imported into the country -were to be sent to the Archbishop of Canterbury -or to the Bishop of London, and no consignments of -foreign books were to be opened until the representatives -of one of these dignitaries and of the Stationers’ -Company were present.</p> - -<p class='c007'>It was further decreed that no merchant or bookseller -should import from abroad any book printed -in the English language. The main purpose of this -enactment was probably to prevent evasion of the -English press laws by the importation from abroad -of books objectionable to the government. It was -also, although this purpose was probably secondary, -intended to protect England from foreign competition. -The name of the printer, the author, and the publisher, -and the place of publication and sale were to be placed -<span class='pageno' id='Page_41'>41</span>in every book. No person was permitted to erect a -printing press or to let any premises for the purpose -of carrying on printing without first giving notice to -the Company, and no carpenter was permitted to make -a press without similar notice.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The number of master printers was limited to twenty. -Every master printer had to give a bond of £300 for -good behavior. The Master and the Wardens of -the Stationers’ Company might have three presses each -and three apprentices. No other printer could have -more than two presses. A master printer on the livery -(a member of the Company) might have two apprentices, -others only one. The master printers were to -give work to journeymen when requested to do so. -This enactment was not made out of any tenderness -for unemployed journeymen but for the reason that -the unemployed journeyman was always tempted to -pick up an occasional shilling by printing unlicensed -or objectionable books. It was considered desirable -to keep him employed where his work could be supervised. -All reprints had to be licensed exactly the same -as new publications. The Company was confirmed -in its right of search. This meant not simply a right -of supervision of printing offices, but the right to search -any place where it might be suspected that printing -was being carried on. One copy of every book had to -be filed in the Bodleian Library at Oxford. Only four -type-founders were permitted to carry on business. -Books could be sold only by booksellers. The punishments -imposed for infractions of these laws included -destruction of stock, fines, imprisonment, and whipping -at the cart’s tail. The allowance of type-founders, -small as it was, seemed to be ample, in spite of the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_42'>42</span>fact that English type-founders had now ceased to cut -type. English type-founding had generally been poor -up to this time and was to continue so for some time -to come. What new type came into use in the English -printing offices was mainly bought on the continent.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Up to this time a great deal of printing had been -done on the continent for the English market. The -works of the Fathers, the classics, and the greater -part of the serious publications of the time, being -printed mostly in Latin, were in the hands of the -continental printers. With their facilities for the -production and distribution of books they held the -market so securely that English printers did not even -attempt competition. In addition to that a great -deal of printing in the English language for the English -market continued to be done on the continent. -As has already been indicated, a good deal of this was -political and religious and could not safely be published -in England. A considerable quantity of it, however, -was work in general literature, which was done -better than most English work and cheaper than English -work of a corresponding quality. The act of 1637 -shut off a great deal of this foreign printing, especially -so much of it as was controversial.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Further legislation was enacted in order to develop -English printing. For a long time printing was not -an English industry. It will be remembered that -although Caxton was English born most of the early -printing was done by foreigners who came to England -for that purpose, and for a long time there was a very -large foreign element in the industry. In 1523 a law -was passed that no alien engaged in the printing business -<span class='pageno' id='Page_43'>43</span>in England could take any but English-born apprentices. -In 1529 an act was passed that no alien -not already naturalized could set up any house or -shop for the exercise of any handicraft in England. -In 1534 it was further enacted that no books should -be imported bound and ready for sale and that no -unnaturalized alien could sell foreign printed books -except at wholesale.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The decree of 1637 was fortunately not long-lived. -The political ascendency of Parliament soon began to -be felt and in 1641 the Star Chamber was abolished. -While the abolition of this court did not directly affect -the decree of 1637, indirectly it made it practically -void. For a short while Parliament permitted the -decree to lapse and left the printers very much to themselves. -This was not because Parliament was any -more liberal than King Charles in its views on the -subject of printing. It was only that while Parliament -was strong enough to suffer the law to be evaded and -so to give free rein to the scribbling propensities of -its supporters, it was not yet strong enough to muzzle -the writers on the other side. Parliament was also very -busy with other concerns and for the time being was -content to let the printers alone.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The result was an enormous flood of printing, most -of it worse than ever. An examination of the publications -of the time shows that everything that would -go on a press was dug up and utilized. We find in use -old type and blocks which had formed part of the -stock of Wynkyn de Worde and Pynson. As soon, -however, as Parliament got well seated in power it -proceeded to deal with printers along the old lines. -In 1643 it reënacted the decree of 1637 with the important -<span class='pageno' id='Page_44'>44</span>modification that the number of printers was not -limited. In 1649 sixty printers in London and the two -university towns gave the bonds for good conduct -required by law as a requisite to carrying on the business. -It will be remembered that the decree of 1637 -limited the number in London to twenty, with one in -each of the universities. This act called forth one of -the noblest pieces of literature in the English language, -Milton’s “Areopagitica,” or plea for unlicensed printing, -in which Milton brings all the resources of his great -learning and matchless literary skill to the defence -of the freedom of the press. The plea, of course, fell -on deaf ears for the time, but it remains one of the -jewels of English literature. The Parliamentary government -held the act as a weapon which could be used -in case of need. It was strictly enforced with regard -to political and religious books and newspapers. It -seems to have been very little enforced outside these -limits.</p> - -<p class='c007'>When Cromwell took the reins of power as Lord -Protector of England he enforced the press laws very -strictly. Cromwell was a masterful man and was not -disposed to permit criticism of his person and government -or discussion of matters of public policy upon -which the government had decided. On the death -of Cromwell there followed a period of political uncertainty -during which the enforcement of the act was -relaxed, only to be renewed at the accession of King -Charles II in 1660.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Shortly after the accession of King Charles a group -of the best printers unsuccessfully petitioned for the -incorporation of a Company of Printers as distinguished -from the Stationers. They alleged that the Company -<span class='pageno' id='Page_45'>45</span>of Stationers was controlled by the booksellers and -that they cheapened printing and impoverished the -printers, that the Company of Stationers was so large -that only old men could attain to the dignity of masters -or wardens, and that only once in ten or twelve years -was it possible for a journeyman printer to become a -master printer. They claimed that a new Company -would free the printing industry from these shackles, -that it would improve the quality of printing, and -that it would secure for the government better supervision -of the output of the press. This last was probably -a bait to the hook. The petition was not granted, -however, and things went on in the old fashion.</p> - -<p class='c007'>In 1662 a new act similar to the preceding ones was -passed, containing only one important variation by -which the privilege of having a printing press was -extended to the city of York. This act was for a time -very strictly enforced. The police power necessary -to the enforcement of the act was taken away from -the Stationers’ Company and entrusted to Sir Roger -Lestrange, who was appointed censor of the press. -He was given control of the printing office and power -of search. With a few reserved exceptions the entire -licensing of books was placed in his hands and he was -given a monopoly of the publication of news. Sir -Roger seems to have taken himself quite seriously -and to have discharged his functions for some years -with a considerable degree of efficiency. Many books, -however, were published without licenses. Some were -published clandestinely, while it is probable that Sir -Roger was more concerned to exercise the powers of -office for the suppression of political and religious -controversy and for the protection of his monopoly -<span class='pageno' id='Page_46'>46</span>than for the control of pure literature. The act was -reënacted in 1685 for a period of seven years. It was -then reënacted for a period of one year and finally -disappeared in 1694.</p> - -<p class='c007'>In spite of the wretched condition of printing at -this period a few lights appear in the gloom. Thomas -Roycroft did some very excellent printing. He achieved -one of the most remarkable tasks which had yet -been accomplished by an English printer in the publication -of his famous Polyglot Bible. This Bible gave -the text in Hebrew, Latin, Greek, Chaldean, Syriac, -Arabic, Samaritan, Persian, and Ethiopic. Of course, -these languages did not all appear in all parts of the -Bible. The Greek, Latin, and Arabic texts appear -throughout. The Hebrew and Chaldean appear in the -Old Testament, the Ethiopic in the Psalms and New -Testament only, and the Persian only in the New -Testament. The types used came from four foundries, -one of them being a face cut by John Day. The work -was published in six great volumes, pages 16 x 10 inches. -The text was so arranged that when the Bible was -opened at any point each double page showed all the -languages used for that particular passage. The first -volume was published in September of 1654. The -second appeared in 1655, the third in 1656, and the -other three in 1657. Cromwell encouraged the work -by ordering the admission of the paper duty free.</p> - -<p class='c007'>In 1688 the largest office in London was that of -James Fletcher, who had five presses and employed -thirteen journeymen and two apprentices. One of the -printers of this period, John Barber, arrived at the distinction -of Lord Mayor of London. He was a very -popular Lord Mayor and he must have been very prosperous -<span class='pageno' id='Page_47'>47</span>in business or he would not have acquired the -means necessary to holding the position. He was in no -way remarkable as a printer, however.</p> - -<p class='c007'>During this period there were four type-founders of -importance—Joseph Moxon, the Andrews brothers, -the Glover brothers, and Thomas James. The most -famous of these was James Moxon. Primarily a man of -science, he was distinguished as a mathematician and -hydrographer. To these interests he added type-founding. -Like Dürer in Germany and Geoffry Tory -in France, he worked out a theory of type design in -exact mathematical proportions, but like these and -other attempts of the same sort it was not successful. -While it is true that there must be proportion in type-faces, -it is also true that a beautiful and legible type-face -must have qualities other than a mere mathematical -exactness. Moxon is known chiefly by his -important work, “Mechanick Exercises.” Part II of -this book is an exhaustive study of printing and type-founding. -So thorough was Moxon’s study of these subjects -and so accurate his presentation that the work is -yet a standard authority on many fundamental points.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Joseph and Robert Andrews, although not very good -workmen, made an extensive variety of type and found -a good sale for it. They used the Moxon fonts, but -added to them new roman and italic fonts, learned -fonts, so called, Anglo-Saxon, and Irish. James and -Thomas Glover cast two fonts of black letter from the -matrices cut by Wynkyn de Worde and some foreign -letters. They do not appear to have undertaken competition -with Andrews and James in the ordinary forms -of letter. Thomas James, who shared with the Andrews -brothers a large portion of the business, used -<span class='pageno' id='Page_48'>48</span>two sets of matrices cut in Holland. Of course, these -few type-founders hardly made a beginning of supplying -the English printers with type. The greater part -of the printing of this period was done from type imported -from Holland. It was in order to compete with -this imported type that James obtained possession -of the two fonts of Dutch matrices which were the -backbone of his type-foundry.</p> - -<p class='c007'>After the Restoration of 1660, we find the Oxford -Press rapidly advancing to the commanding position -in English printing which it came to occupy in later -years and still holds. Oxford had been a centre of -royal influence in the civil wars. King Charles I held -court there for some time and the university was -always staunchly loyal to the Stuarts. Naturally it -enjoyed the sunshine of royal favor when the Stuarts -came back in the person of Charles II.</p> - -<p class='c007'>In 1667 Dr. John Fell, Vice-Chancellor of the University -and afterward Bishop of Oxford, gave the -University a complete type-foundry with matrices of -roman, italic, black-letter Saxon, and several Oriental -tongues. Ten years later Francis Junius added -to the equipment of the foundry a splendid collection -of out-of-the-way types, including Runic, Gothic, Saxon, -Icelandic, Danish, and Swedish, together with a considerable -number of types of the more common sorts. -This equipment of type for learned work and foreign -language printing enabled the Oxford Press to take a -position without a rival as a producer of learned literature. -The presswork and composition done at -Oxford were well maintained on the level of their type -equipment, so that the Oxford University Press soon -came to hold a unique position.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_49'>49</span> - <h2 class='c005'>CHAPTER IV<br /> <span class='large'><span class='sc'>The Eighteenth Century: the Period of Transition</span></span></h2> -</div> - -<p class='drop-capa0_0_6 c006'>The eighteenth century was a very important time -in the history of English printing. It was the -period of the changes and inventions which led over -from the mediævalism of the seventeenth century -to the modernism of the nineteenth. Three special -changes took place: first, the invention of stereotyping; -second, the rise of the modern publisher; and, third, the -dawn of modern ideas in types and typography.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The story of the invention of stereotyping is the -tale only too common in industry of the inventor who -is ahead of his time, the selfish and thoughtless crowd -who opposed him, the apparent failure of the enterprise, -and final success for the idea when the inventor -is no longer alive to enjoy his triumph. About 1720 -it occurred to a Scotchman named Ged that it ought -not to be difficult to cast type by the page. He hit -upon the idea of making a plaster-of-paris mould of the -type-set page and from it casting the plates. As usual -in such cases, he needed a partner with capital and -some technical knowledge. In 1727 he associated -himself with an Edinburgh printer, who soon became -alarmed at the apparent prospective cost and withdrew -from the enterprise. Soon after this Ged got -acquainted with a London stationer named William -Fenner. Fenner in turn introduced him to Thomas -James, the type-founder, and the three associated -<span class='pageno' id='Page_50'>50</span>themselves in partnership for the development of the -new process. For some reason James proved treacherous. -Apparently the investment which he was making -should have served to keep him faithful. Whether -he became alarmed by a fancied danger to his business -or was frightened or bought off by the printers is not -clear. At any rate, his cooperation was only halfhearted. -Instead of furnishing Ged with the best of -type from which to make his moulds he furnished him -with very poor type and his workmen wilfully damaged -the forms.</p> - -<p class='c007'>While this was going on Ged was appointed printer -to the University of Cambridge, where he met with -the same experiences at the hands of the printers. -Under great difficulties and discouragements he succeeded -in producing two prayer books which were -printed from his plates, but the animosity of the printers -was so violent that the authorities suppressed the -books and destroyed the plates. The reason for this -animosity is not far to seek. The journeymen had -not yet recovered from the fear and danger caused by -the old statutes which had limited the number of shops -without limiting the number of journeymen, thus causing -extensive lack of employment. It must be remembered -also that the old customs were still in force which -limited editions and prohibited keeping type standing. -It looked to the printers as if the invention of a process -which would fix type by pages and make possible -indefinite reprints from one setting of type was a most -serious threat to the industry. From the point of -view of the knowledge and the conditions in the second -quarter of the eighteenth century we shall have to admit -that their fears were well founded. They could not -<span class='pageno' id='Page_51'>51</span>possibly foresee the enormous increase of printing -which was to make the stereotype indispensable.</p> - -<p class='c007'>To complete the tale of his misfortune, Ged’s partners, -James and Fenner, now fell out between themselves. -The partnership was broken up and Ged, discouraged -and bankrupt, went back to Edinburgh. -His discouragement was not permanent, however, and -he made another attempt, but not a printer could be -found in Edinburgh who would set type for him. -Ged’s son learned composition and set up a few books, -working by night, which were printed at Newcastle. -Ged died in 1749, apparently defeated. Later in the -century, however, his work was taken up and made -practical by Didot in France and his invention developed -to great proportions.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The early printers were their own publishers and -booksellers. Previous to the invention of typography -the maker and seller of the book were not ordinarily -the same person. It was only natural that in a short -time the stationers, that is to say, the sellers of manuscript -books and of writing materials, should sell printed -books also. Both the printer and bookseller were interested -in an attempt to cut out one profit. If the printer -sold to the bookseller and the bookseller sold to the -public, both must profit by the transaction. If the -printer could sell directly to the public or the bookseller -could print his own books, obviously the whole -or the greater part of both of these profits might go to -one man. In this competition, however, the bookseller -had three advantages. One came from the fact -that the carrying on of a printing plant was a business -enterprise and the additional care of maintaining -a selling organization for marketing books with the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_52'>52</span>public was more than most printers were equal to. -The second was that the bookseller could buy a whole -edition or contract for its publication. In this way -while he reduced the printer’s profits he also greatly -reduced his risks. The third was that privilege and -copyright attached themselves to manuscripts. If the -bookseller bought the manuscript it could not be printed -except by arrangement with him. When the bookseller -became the owner of manuscripts, or became -sufficiently confident of his power to market books to -employ the printer to produce such books as he could -use, he became a publisher in the modern sense of the -word. He might either set up a printing establishment -of his own or he might have his work done by -contract by one or more outside printers.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The business methods of the old printers were very -simple. We have seen how Schoeffer did the first -piece of commercial printing when he struck off for -distribution a list of the books which he had on sale. -We have seen how Jenson and Aldus and the other -early printers sold their books at their printing offices, -advertised them by correspondence, and sent them to -the Frankfort Fair and other similar places. The -Plantin workshop, which is still maintained as the -Plantin Museum in Antwerp, still shows the little -salesroom which was part of the original business. -Caxton, with his sound business sense and trained -business habits, had a way of assuring or forecasting beforehand -the sales of his books, thus anticipating to a considerable -extent the methods of the modern publishers.</p> - -<p class='c007'>It soon became the habit of the printers to open -shops apart from their printing offices for the sale of -their productions. These salesrooms developed into -<span class='pageno' id='Page_53'>53</span>book-shops through carrying in stock the books of -other printers. In the old-world cities trades had a -habit of congregating in one place. If a man wanted -to open a book-shop, instead of trying to find a good -location where there were no other book-shops very -near at hand, he tried to get a location as near as he -could to all the other book-shops. In this way certain -streets or quarters of the cities, and particularly of -London, were given up to certain industries. The -centre of the English book trade of the seventeenth -century was the churchyard of the old St. Paul’s Church. -This was the smaller church which occupied the site -where now stands the magnificent St. Paul’s Cathedral -built by the great architect Sir Christopher Wren after -the fire of 1660.</p> - -<p class='c007'>A glimpse of the way in which the business was -done may be obtained from the following description -of John Day’s book-shop: “He got framed a neat -handsome shop. It was but little and low, a flat roof, -and leaded [covered with sheets of lead] like a terrace, -railed and posted, fit for men to stand upon in -any triumph or show.” Evidently thrifty John Day -was not above turning an honest penny by renting the -roof of his shop to those who desired to see the Lord -Mayor’s show or some other glittering procession. All -processions of any importance passed St. Paul’s. We -are told that this shop cost £40 or £50, which would -be equivalent, making allowance for the difference in -the purchasing power of money, to from $1200 to $1600 -to-day. We are told that £150,000 worth of books -were burned at St. Paul’s churchyard and in the crypt -of the church in the fire of 1666. This represents no -less than $4,000,000 in our present money.</p> - -<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_54'>54</span>Advertising was done largely by means of the so-called -“title post,” a sort of primitive bulletin board. -On a post in the shop were put up the titles of new -books on sale, with perhaps a brief bit of description. -Books were sold either bound, stitched, or in sheets. -The bindings in favor were leather-covered boards, -perhaps vellum with silk ties to counteract the tendency -of vellum to warp, or velvet and other textiles, often -ornamented with elaborate embroidery. The books -which were sold bound, however, were ordinarily in -the plainer styles of binding. The more wealthy and -particular book buyers preferred to buy their books -in sheets and to have them placed in bindings which -were ornamented with their coats of arms or with -other devices of a personal nature. The stitched books -were at first sewed by being pierced through the sheets -with a bodkin and tied with a string. In 1586 a limit -was set to the size and thickness of books which might -be sold in this form. Those beyond the limit must be -sewed on a regular binder’s machine and made ready -for the cover to be put on. Sewed books were often -covered with cloth or pasteboard to preserve them -and keep them clean. This was substantially what -is now known as binding in cases.</p> - -<p class='c007'>For a long time the relations between printers, booksellers, -and authors were confused and irregular. Up -to the end of the seventeenth century there was -nothing in the nature of copyright except registration -with the Stationers’ Company, but that registration -was made by the owner of the manuscript, who -was not necessarily the author. Originally these -owners were generally the printers because the printers -and publishers, as has just been pointed out, were -<span class='pageno' id='Page_55'>55</span>the same. Later, as the ascendency of the booksellers -increased, it was they who held the manuscripts. Sometimes -due regard was paid to the rights of the author -and sometimes not. This appears to have depended -entirely upon the arrangements which author and publisher -were able to make. In many cases the author -got decidedly the worst of the bargain. The protection -which the Company undertook to extend was -limited to the holder of the copyright. The situation -was further complicated by the survival of privileges -or monopolies of various sorts.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Toward the end of the seventeenth century, with the -passing away of the mediæval conditions which had -previously prevailed, the Company’s control of the -situation broke down. When the printing acts finally -went into disuse in 1594, as has already been described, -nobody had any protection. Everything in the way of -copyright was entirely abolished. This condition was -soon felt to be intolerable and in 1709 an Act of Parliament -provided a system of copyright and recognized the -author’s right to his work. By this act the owners -of old books and unpublished manuscripts, whether -they were the authors or not, had proprietary right -in them for twenty-one years, beginning April 10, -1710. This part of the act, of course, was a temporary -provision for existing conditions. New books were to -be controlled by the author for fourteen years. If at -the end of that time the author was still living his copyright -might be renewed for fourteen years more. Within -the limits during which the copyright was valid it could -be transferred. Such transference did not act as an -extension. The copyright was secured by registration -with the Stationers’ Company as before.</p> - -<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_56'>56</span>This was really a booksellers’ act, as at that time -they held nearly all of the copyrights and doubtless -expected to be able to secure all the new ones of any -value. That was what happened at first. The protection -given to the authors by the new act greatly -altered the terms upon which the booksellers or publishers -could obtain the manuscripts. It was some -years before the authors came to a full realization of -their rights under the new law. When they did arrive -at this knowledge authorship as a profession became -possible. For a long time authors sold their manuscripts -outright to the publishers. The royalty system, -under which the author shares the profits of the work, -was a later development.</p> - -<p class='c007'>From this time on new work was controlled by the -authors and the use of their manuscripts could be -obtained only by some sort of bargain. All old work -not covered by copyrights existing in 1709, and after -1731 all work upon which copyrights had expired, -might be freely printed by any one. From that time -on the publication of such works became, as it is now, -purely a manufacturing proposition. Whether or not -such books shall be published and whether or not the -publication is a commercial success depend entirely -upon the soundness of the publisher’s judgment and -the accuracy with which he gauges the popular demand -for standard literature at a given price.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The publication of new work depends upon a variety -of circumstances. The publisher pays either in cash -or in royalty, or both, according to the prospects of -sale. In case of authors of reputation this prospect -can be reasonably well gauged. In case of unknown -authors the publisher must take a risk if he buys a -<span class='pageno' id='Page_57'>57</span>manuscript. In many cases the publisher will require -a guarantee against loss on an edition of a certain size. -He may require this guarantee because he has doubts -about the success of the work or because it is a book -of such limited circulation, although it may be of the -most important character, that the publication will -not be commercially profitable. Of course, if an author -is determined to see himself in print and no publisher -will take his work on any terms, he can hire a printer -to make up an edition, can get it copyrighted, and can -dispose of it in such way as he may find possible or -desirable.</p> - -<p class='c007'>From this legislation really dates the differentiation -of the trade. This was a matter of economic growth -rather than of legislation. The author might print -and publish and sell his work, the printer might publish -and sell, the bookseller might print and publish, -but in either case there was an added risk combined -with a possibility of greater profit. Most persons are -content with smaller profits, providing they can be -released from risk. Under the system which now developed -the publisher assumed the risk. In that way -he became the patron of both author and printer.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The first of the modern type of publishers was Jacob -Tonson, the elder, who began business in 1678. A -consideration of the development of the publishing -industry would take us too far afield and it will be -touched upon only as it directly concerns the development -of printing.</p> - -<p class='c007'>About 1720 a forward step was taken in the development -of English printing by the entrance of William -Caslon into the field of type-founding. Born in 1692, -we know little of his early life. In 1706 we find him, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_58'>58</span>then twenty-four years old, carrying on a little business -in London as an engraver of gun locks and a maker of -binders’ tools. Through this last he came in contact with -printers, particularly John Walter and William Bowyer, -the younger, two of the well-known London printers -of that day. His connection with the printing trade, -his artistic skill, and his training as an engraver led -him to undertake the designing and cutting of type, -in which he was encouraged by his printer friends. -His type was immediately successful not only in England -but on the continent, which had hitherto never -looked to England for type. His type was very legible -and had a certain air of distinction which made it -much superior to any English type made at that time. -His roman was regular, graceful, and well proportioned, -a worthy successor of the types of Jenson and Aldus. -His italic was almost as good as his roman. The influence -of Caslon upon English and afterwards upon -American type-cutting has been very great. Many -of the types in most common use are either Caslon’s -letter or some modification of it. This book is printed -in one of the Caslon types. For many years no English -type-founder could compete with him successfully.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The principal types of distinction which were then -in the field were three, that of Giambattista Bodoni, -that produced by the Didot family, and that made in -Holland. Bodoni type was characterized by long -ascenders and descenders, over-long serifs, and protracted -hair lines. This general style of letter was -very common in Italy for a long time both in typography -and in manuscript. In the last century the -so-called Italian hand, a handwriting showing these -characteristics, was for a long time very fashionable, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_59'>59</span>especially among ladies. The Didot type was characterized -by sharp contrasts, the thick lines being very -thick and the thin lines being razor-edged in their thinness. -The Dutch type was rounded and regular with -very little contrast between the thick and the thin -lines. Caslon’s type was a rather successful effort to -retain the good qualities and avoid the defects of all -three. Avoiding the exaggeration of Bodoni, it retained, -though in modified form, the contrasts of Didot and -preserved the regularity of the Dutch without its -monotony and lack of contrast. Toward the end of -the century poor paper, poor presswork, and poor -ink led to an attempt to get clearness and legibility -by thickening the type lines. The result was the introduction, -about 1800, of a very ugly, fat-faced type -which had wide use. Mrs. Caslon, a widow, who was -then in charge of the Caslon foundry, attempted to -meet these demands by thickening the lines of the -Caslon type, producing a modified form which had -considerable success for some time. The old Caslon -was revived by Whittingham about 1845. The better -paper, ink, and presswork of those days revealed anew -the excellence of the Caslon type and since that time it -has never lost favor.</p> - -<p class='c007'>An interesting figure of this period is Samuel Richardson -(1689–1761). Richardson was a very good -printer and did a considerable business, but was tempted -into authorship and became one of the first of the -modern English novelists. He wrote, printed, and -published three novels which yet survive, “Pamela,” -“Clarissa Harlowe,” and “Sir Charles Grandison.” -The new vein which these novels struck in English -literature was immediately successful. The novels, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_60'>60</span>though very long and written in a style which to modern -readers seems anything but lively, were not only -widely successful themselves, but were immediately -imitated, and the good old printer’s modest efforts -were the beginning of the flood of novels which is now -poured out from the press. Because Richardson was -a pioneer his novels are remembered and students of -literature are set to read them, at least in part. It is -doubtful, however, if anybody reads them to-day unless -he has to. It is said that through the treachery of -one of Richardson’s journeymen a Dublin printer got -out a pirated edition of “Sir Charles Grandison” and -sold it in Dublin before Richardson got it bound and -published in London. This was possible because the -English copyright law did not then apply to Ireland.</p> - -<p class='c007'>An interesting glimpse of the trade at this period -may be obtained through the pages of Woodfall’s ledger -from 1734 to 1747, which has been published. The -student of these matters can find therein very interesting -material for a study of comparative prices and -the like. One entry shows that he charged for the -printing of Pope’s translation of the Iliad, demy paper, -long primer and brevier, 2000 copies, 6 volumes, 68½ -sheets, £143 and 17 shillings, equal to about $1700 in -American money.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Perhaps the most interesting and important printer in -the eighteenth century in England was John Baskerville -(1706–1775). Baskerville was of unknown and humble -origin. At seventeen we find him a servant in the house -of a clergyman at Birmingham. He was a good penman, -however, and his employer soon set him to teach -penmanship to the poor boys of the parish and afterwards -got him a position as a teacher of penmanship -<span class='pageno' id='Page_61'>61</span>and bookkeeping in a school. Baskerville was not only -interested in penmanship but also in the cutting of -letters in stone. Unlike Caslon, this interest did not -lead him directly to take up type-founding or printing -as his life work. In 1736 a man by the name of John -Taylor set himself up in business at Birmingham as -a manufacturer of japanned ware. Baskerville became -interested in Taylor’s work and learned Taylor’s trade -secrets by following him about and whenever he went -into a shop and made a purchase going in himself and -buying the same things in the same quantities. In -this way he learned the composition of the japanning -mixture and shortly set up a business for himself. -This was his main business and source of revenue -throughout his life and was very prosperous. Baskerville -did not imitate Taylor and was hardly his rival, -but won success in making other and better things -than those made by Taylor. Curiously enough, although -Baskerville remained in this business for many -years and was very successful, not a single piece of -work survives which is known to be his. Meanwhile -he did not lose his early interest in the correct formation -of letters and he became actively interested in -type-founding about 1750. By this time, however, -his ideas had spread beyond the mere designing and -founding of type.</p> - -<p class='c007'>He conceived the idea of better books than had -yet been made in England. He considered the matter -in its broadest possible aspects. He realized the fact -that a book is the result of many operations. He -believed that the making of the best books, such as -he had in mind, meant the best possible paper, type, -ink, machines, and workmanship. Beginning with the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_62'>62</span>type; he employed a skilful type-cutter to work from -his designs and is said to have spent £600 or £800 -($3000 or $4000) before getting a font to suit him. -He never attempted to cut many types. His roman -differs from Caslon’s, but is equal to it in legibility. -It is beautifully clear, regular, and well proportioned. -Perhaps a certain lack of character and a too mechanical -perfection would be the general criticism which -could be brought against it. His italic was the best -which had as yet been seen in England.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Baskerville also cut a font of Greek type. This -experiment has been regarded as unsuccessful and his -Greek type has been somewhat criticised. It was unsuccessful, -but not through the fault of the type itself. -His type was excellent, but it differed considerably -from that to which the scholars were then accustomed -and the learned world did not care to adopt it. Minor -changes in the formation of English letters are not -important, providing the general form of the letter is -retained. In languages using a different character, -however, even slight modifications are liable to be -confusing and scholarly conservatism naturally shrinks -from changes of this sort. It is probable, moreover, -that the universities and the few persons doing printing -in Greek did not encourage the new character as -it would have involved a considerable expenditure for -new type. With the comparatively small use for Greek -type one font would last for a very long time.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Excellent as Baskerville’s types were, they were not -generally adopted. The printers stuck to the work -of Caslon and Jackson, partly from the fact shortly -to be noted that Baskerville did not get on very well -with the printers and publishers and partly because -<span class='pageno' id='Page_63'>63</span>of the expense. They preferred sticking to the standard -fonts and buying sorts which could be easily procured -when necessary to undergoing the expense of -buying new fonts from the new founder. Although -the admirers of Baskerville consider his type better -than Caslon’s, it was not enough better to drive it out -of the market. Baskerville’s type, moreover, was -much criticised on its own account. It was claimed -that owing to its proportions and owing to its sharp -contrasts it was hard on the eyes. This criticism, -however, was probably very largely the result of prejudice -and dislike.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Benjamin Franklin was a friend of Baskerville and -tells an amusing story about this kind of criticism. He -says that some printers were at his lodging in London and -complained vigorously of the objectionable character -of Baskerville’s type and of the eye strain and headache -which it caused to its users. Franklin thereupon -stepped into another room and came back in a moment -with a sheet of Caslon’s specimens from which he -had removed the heading. He handed this sheet to -the critics who had been berating Baskerville and -praising Caslon and said that he could not help -thinking that they were influenced somewhat by their -prejudice and he wished that they would examine this -sheet and see if they actually did experience the unpleasant -results of which they had complained. Supposing -the sheet to be Baskerville’s type, they studied -it with some care and unanimously declared that they -found the same difficulties and experienced the same -discomforts which they had always met with in reading -Baskerville’s type. Franklin refrained from pointing -out the trap into which he had betrayed them, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_64'>64</span>but satisfied himself that their criticisms really were -the result of prejudice.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Type-founding, however, was only a part of Baskerville’s -scheme. As has been said, he had conceived -the idea of the perfect book, or at least a book nearer -perfection than England had yet seen. It is one of -the most interesting things about Baskerville that he -did not arrive at his conceptions by a process of experimentation -and production of mediocre work. He conceived -his idea and elaborated it in his mind first and -then undertook to realize it in a product. He was -the artist who conceives rather than the craftsman -who slowly elaborates. The designing and cutting of -new fonts of type was only one step in that direction. -He determined that he would attempt to produce the -whole book himself and he therefore set up a printing -office of his own. He selected the paper for his editions -with the greatest care. It is not certain that he -did not even go so far as to make the paper for some -of them, but whether or not this is true he gave it -great attention. He took equal care with his ink, -using every precaution to secure the production of a -bright, clear ink which should work well and be permanent. -He also had a special press built. This did -not involve any innovations in design, but was built -with the greatest care so as to secure the best possible -impression. In order to give smoothness and shine -to his pages and prevent the type from pressing into the -damp paper and making an impression on the reverse -side of the sheet he devised what is known as the hot -press method of finishing. As soon as the damp sheets -came from the press they were placed between plates -of hot metal and subjected to pressure. This gave the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_65'>65</span>paper a perfectly smooth, shiny surface. This was -another of the points of criticism of Baskerville’s work. -Those who were familiar with the coarse paper and -rough impressions in common use declared that the -shine of the smooth paper hurt their eyes. Baskerville -also gave great attention to the typographical design -of his books. He used ample margins and developed -a style of dignified simplicity, free from extraneous ornamentation -and extremely reserved in the use of all -forms of ornament.</p> - -<p class='c007'>As a result of this care Baskerville produced the best -books which had yet been made in England. They were -very expensive. No cost was spared in their production -and there was no catering to the popular taste which -would enable him to reduce unit costs by publishing large -editions. Baskerville frankly printed for the few. He -believed that there were lovers of good books and good -literature who were ready to pay what might be necessary -to obtain their favorite authors in a fitting dress. -In this he was somewhat disappointed. The number -of such persons was less numerous than he had supposed -and it is probable that on the whole Baskerville -lost rather than made money by his printing and type-founding -enterprises. He printed about sixty-seven books, -all of which were reprints of the classics or standard -authors. Not a single new book came from his press, -although these were the flourishing days of Samuel -Johnson, Goldsmith, Pope, Gray, Burke, Chesterfield, -Young, Akenside, and other famous writers. The -booksellers would not support him. He was not willing -to cheapen his work or to lower his prices to meet -their wishes, nor would he consent to being, like so -many printers, a mere servant of the publisher. He -<span class='pageno' id='Page_66'>66</span>felt that he had his artistic message to give to the world -and he insisted upon giving it in his own way, making -himself his own publisher as well as printer. Very -likely his editions would have made a larger sale if he -had had the support of the booksellers in putting them -on the market, but this was denied him.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Disheartened and disgusted by the lack of appreciation -and support, Baskerville tried to sell out his -type-foundry, but was unsuccessful. He negotiated -with several of the leading printers of the continent -and with Franklin, but was not able to effect a sale. -Twenty years after his death, however, his type was -used in the famous Boydell Shakspeare. His type -obtained partial recognition. His work has been called -too artistic for his time. It is said that Baskerville was -an artist, but the England of the eighteenth century -was not artistic. Perhaps it might better be said that -Baskerville’s standard of perfection was higher than -his time could appreciate and that he failed because -there was not yet a sufficiently large public ready to -spend considerable money for de luxe book making. -Baskerville unquestionably possessed great taste and -a very high degree of mechanical skill. One does not -find in his work, however, the artist’s spirit which -manifests itself in the work of the old masters or their -late nineteenth century followers. Baskerville’s work, -nevertheless, was not in vain. No man can ever do -anything better than it has yet been done without contributing -to the progress of true art, even though his -productions are appreciated by but few people. Unquestionably -Baskerville’s work influenced the Whittinghams, -who are the great figures in the world of printing -in the early nineteenth century.</p> - -<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_67'>67</span>It is interesting to note, before passing to the consideration -of the work of the Whittinghams, that several -of the great English printing houses whose names -are familiar to all readers of books run back far into the -eighteenth century. The Rivington house was established -in 1711, Eyre and Spottiswoode not much later, -Longmans in 1724, John Murray in 1768, William -Blackwood & Son in 1804, A. C. Black in 1815, to mention -only a few of the more familiar. In many cases -these firm names have been several times changed, -but the firms have maintained continuous existence.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_68'>68</span> - <h2 class='c005'>CHAPTER V<br /> <span class='large'><span class='sc'>The Whittinghams and the Modern Book</span></span></h2> -</div> - -<p class='drop-capa0_0_6 c006'>Charles Whittingham, the elder, founder -of the business which is now known as the Chiswick -Press, was born in 1767. He began work as -a printer in 1789 on a very small scale. His first -work was small job work such as cards, letterheads, -billheads, and the like. It was not until 1792 that he -did any book work at all. His first job was part of an -edition of Young’s “Night Thoughts.” It was not -uncommon at this time for publishers to parcel out a -book among a number of small printers, giving to each -a certain number of signatures. Like his great predecessor -Day, Whittingham started out doing printing as -badly as anybody else. The work which he did on his -first book order shows all the vices of the time.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Fortunately for the art, Whittingham was not content -to remain a poor printer, although he must have -been perfectly aware that he was such. He early made -the acquaintance of William Caslon, from whom he -bought type and from whom he not improbably received -typographical suggestions. In 1798 he published -a book of a sort much in vogue at that period, -called “Pity’s Gift.” In choice of type, design of -title page, and other regards this book shows a great -improvement over the work of previous years. It -was illustrated and was the beginning of the long series -of illustrated books for which the house afterwards -became famous. The illustrations, however, were poor -in themselves and poorly printed. Here again Whittingham -<span class='pageno' id='Page_69'>69</span>began on a level with his contemporaries, -but by study and labor raised himself far above that -level.</p> - -<p class='c007'>In a few years Whittingham was recognized as the -best printer in England and had built up a good and -profitable business. He won this success in spite of -the fact that he, even more than Baskerville, failed -to get on with the publishers. The publishers wanted -cheap printing and large profits. Whittingham refused -to lower his standards to meet their desires and insisted -on printing to suit himself and, as he believed, -the public. Less ambitious than Baskerville, but -equally conscientious, Whittingham published small -books, well printed, which could be sold at a reasonable -price, although not at the price of trash. He was -right in his estimate of the public demand and, secure -in public support, was able to defy the publishers. -When they refused to give him their work he told them -to keep it, and entirely disregarded their hostility. He -carried the war into the enemies’ country by refusing -to be bound by certain trade customs. These customs -were survivals of the old privileges and monopolies -which kept certain books in certain hands. There was -no foundation for these customs except their antiquity, -and Whittingham proposed to publish certain books -which from time immemorial had been held to be the -property of others. Of course, the publishers called him -a pirate, but he never infringed upon a real copyright -and his conduct in the matter is entirely free from -moral reproach.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Whittingham was an enterprising business man as -well as desirous of artistic improvement. He bought -the first Stanhope press which was sold to a printing -<span class='pageno' id='Page_70'>70</span>house, in 1800, and his house was among the first to -adopt improved machinery and methods of all sorts. -There is, however, one notable exception. Whittingham -and his nephew and successor believed that it -was not possible to do the best work on anything but -a hand press, and no power presses were used in the -Chiswick Press until 1860.</p> - -<p class='c007'>About the opening of the century a man by the -name of Potts invented a process for making paper-stock from old rope by removing the tar and dirt. -Whittingham got possession of this process and opened -a paper-stock factory. He did not, however, open a -paper mill, but sold the stock to Fourdrinier, the great -French paper maker. The paper-stock mill was at -Chiswick, and Whittingham opened in 1811 a second -printing office in the neighborhood, which he called -the Chiswick Press. For a time he carried on the two -printing offices, the paper-stock mill, a book-shop, several -publishing ventures, and a business of some sort, it is -not now known what, in Jersey. It was not many -years, however, before he saw the danger of this extension -and gradually disposed of the outside things, concentrating -his interest in the Chiswick Press, which -he preferred to continue rather than the London office.</p> - -<p class='c007'>During this period his work steadily continued to -improve. He invented a secret process for giving permanent -brilliancy to his ink. He gave the greatest -attention to the design and layout of his books, proportion -in the matter of margins and the like, and to -presswork. This last was doubly important because -of his determination to improve the process of illustration. -Of course, the modern processes were not -then in use. Black and white was done either from -<span class='pageno' id='Page_71'>71</span>wood blocks or steel and copper plates, and color work -was done by the use of solid color on blocks. In order -to secure better results in black and white, Whittingham -invented the over-lay process. Some of his work -in color was the best ever produced by the methods -which were then known. An indication of the resources -of the establishment may be gathered from the story -of the production of his British Poets, sets of which -may still be occasionally bought in old book-shops. -The design for the series was planned in 1819. It was -shortly announced that they were to be published on -a given day in 1822. When the day came the whole -set was published as announced. It consisted of one -hundred royal 18mo volumes, illustrated. Five hundred -sets were printed, making a total of 50,000 volumes.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Shortly after this the younger Charles Whittingham, -nephew of the elder, appears upon the scene. He was -his uncle’s apprentice and became his partner in 1824. -The partnership lasted for four years and was apparently -not a very harmonious arrangement. The elder -Whittingham, like many strong and successful men, -was masterful and was not disposed to share either -power or responsibility. The young man, although -having no occasion to complain of any unfairness, felt -that although nominally a partner he was really merely -an employee. In 1828 he left the Chiswick Press and -set up for himself in London. He continued in business -there for ten years and then his uncle, who was now -old and in failing health, called him back to take charge -of the Chiswick Press. In spite of the fact that their -partnership had not been satisfactory, the old man -doubtless realized that his nephew was the only man -in England who was competent to continue the business -<span class='pageno' id='Page_72'>72</span>which he had built up with so much toil and in which -he took so much pride. From this time until the date -of the death of the elder man the younger Whittingham -was the moving spirit in the establishment. After -the death of the elder Whittingham the plant was -moved back to London without change of name.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Shortly after the younger Whittingham took over -the management he became acquainted with William -Pickering and formed an association with him which -had momentous effects on English printing and publishing. -Pickering had started an old-book business -in 1821 and had made money. Although not a practical -printer he was interested in books and he had -very intelligent ideas as to what qualities made books -good, considered as pieces of work. Pickering desired -to publish fine editions of old writers and entered into -an alliance with Whittingham to produce them. For -twenty-five years these two men worked together doing -the best book-making which England had yet seen. Comparatively -little of it was new work. It was mainly -the printing of fine editions of so-called standard literature. -In 1844, dissatisfied with the types in current -use, they induced Henry Caslon, who was then the -head of the Caslon foundry, to revive the old William -Caslon type, known technically as old-face roman, and -this revival was the beginning of the permanent restoration -of the Caslon types to favor.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Pickering and Whittingham together may be said -to be the fathers of the modern book. Together they -worked out many improvements. The excellent work -in illustration which had been developed by the elder -Whittingham was continued and improved. In 1840 -they were doing color printing from wood blocks which -<span class='pageno' id='Page_73'>73</span>was the best ever done by that process in England, -and later they began to produce ornamental books -with initials, borders, head pieces, and the like, printed -from wood blocks, but superior to anything which had -been seen since the days of illuminated manuscripts. -Pickering and Whittingham were in constant consultation. -They spent their Sundays and much other -time together. The completeness of their cooperation is -shown by Whittingham’s answer to the question which of -the two had the greater influence on the other. He replied, -“My dear sir, when you tell me which half of a pair of -scissors is the more useful, I will answer your question.”</p> - -<p class='c007'>Pickering died in 1854, bankrupt through indorsing -notes for a friend. The death of Pickering was a great -blow to Whittingham, but the bankruptcy did not in -any way involve the Chiswick Press. Whittingham -never took the same interest in the business afterward, -although the house had become sufficiently strong to -continue and maintain its standards. Whittingham -was always actuated by the true craftsman’s spirit. -He was successful in his business, but he was more -anxious for artistic than for financial success. There -is not the slightest doubt that if he had been willing -to do so he might have amassed a large fortune. Upon -one occasion he was called in as an expert to figure -the price which the government should offer for a very -large contract. Instead of calling for bids the government -had a price figured which it proposed to offer -for the work. Whittingham figured a price which -would be just to the government and at the same -time offer a good margin of profit to the contractor. -After he had completed his labors, he was offered -the contract himself, but refused, stating as he did so -<span class='pageno' id='Page_74'>74</span>that he would rather print fine books than make money.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The history of English printing shows one more -epoch-making figure. It is that of William Morris, -poet, socialist, idealist, and craftsman. Morris is in -many ways one of the most picturesque figures of the -nineteenth century. Interested in many kinds of craftsmanship, -he was particularly interested in printing and -in 1891 he set up the Kelmscott Press in order to express -his idea of what a book should be. Morris was -above all things a man of the Middle Ages. Like the -even more famous Ruskin, his spirit revolted from -many of the characteristics of the nineteenth century. -Whatever he did, thought, or said is influenced by this -underlying spirit of mediævalism. In his books and his -types we find exhibited the spirit and forms of the fifteenth -century, but the vital thing is the spirit and not -the form. Although deeply influenced by fifteenth -century forms, Morris’s work is not mere imitation. It -is rather a reproduction of the old-time spirit. Morris -said that in printing it was important to consider “the -paper, the form of the type, the relative spacing of the -letters, words, and lines, and lastly the position of the -printed matter on the page.” The harmony and completeness -of the whole, a harmony extending beyond -mechanism to the harmony of literary spirit and typographic -form, was his fundamental idea. In working this -out he adopted as a unit not the single page of type, as -had been commonly the case, but the double page, on -the ground that when the book is opened we have before -our eyes not one page but two, and therefore the two -together form a unit of book composition.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Morris designed three types, named from the books -in which they were first employed. The first was the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_75'>75</span>Golden, from the Golden Legend, a heavy black roman -letter with distinct gothic influence. The second was -the Troy, from an edition of Caxton’s Troy book, a -modification of a Koburger gothic of the fifteenth century. -The third was the Chaucer, so called from an -edition of some of Chaucer’s work, which was the Troy -reduced in size and slightly modified in face. The initial -letters were designed by Morris in imitation of a set -used by Sweynheim and Pannartz.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Unfortunately Morris lived only five years after he -began to print and his press did not survive him. During -that period he published fifty-three books in sixty-five -volumes, none of them in large editions. The -influence of Morris, however, was very great. Although -he was not extensively copied directly, he led in a marked -revival of the spirit of the old craftsman and in a -renewal of the old conception of the unity and harmony -of the book as a whole. The Kelmscott Press was hardly -closed when Charles Ricketts opened the Vale Press, -which operated from 1896 to 1904. Ricketts had much -of the spirit and many of the methods of Morris, but -unlike Morris, who approached his type problem from -the side of manuscript, Ricketts conceived his forms -as cast in metal. Another continuer of Morris’s work -was the Dove Press, which was started in 1900.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Morris’s influence extended beyond the Atlantic and -shows itself in some of the best American printing, -particularly that of Mr. Daniel Berkeley Updike of the -Merrymount Press of Boston and Mr. Bruce Rogers of -the Riverside Press of Cambridge.</p> - -<p class='c011'>The central feature in the history of printing of the -last century has been the development of periodical -<span class='pageno' id='Page_76'>76</span>and commercial printing. Previous to the last hundred -years the particular thing was the book, but book -printing is now only a small part of the industry. A -study of periodical and commercial printing would be -extremely interesting, but it lies in the domain of typography -rather than in that of the history of printing. -With the brief consideration which we have made of -the so-called revival of printing under Morris and his -successors we may properly take leave of this branch -of our subject.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>SUPPLEMENTARY READING</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c012'>William Caxton. By Charles Knight. (Popular and in a few respects -inaccurate, but excellent for its sketch of the life and conditions -of Caxton’s time.)</p> - -<p class='c013'>Life and Typography of William Caxton. By William Blades. (The -standard authority, but suited only for somewhat advanced -students.)</p> - -<p class='c013'>A Short History of English Printing. By Henry R. Plomer. (A fairly -good general view of the subject.)</p> - -<p class='c013'>The Cambridge History of English Literature. Vol. II, Chap. -xiii; Vol. IV, Chap. xviii; Vol. VII, Chap. xv; Vol. XI, Chap. -xiv. (This work is made up of monographs written by distinguished -specialists. The chapters indicated contain a very good -general view of the development of British printing and publishing -and of the beginnings of journalism in England.)</p> - -<p class='c013'>See files of the Inland Printer (Chicago) for excellent articles by Mr. -Henry L. Bullen. These articles are notable for their valuable -illustrations.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_77'>77</span> - <h2 class='c005'>REVIEW QUESTIONS</h2> -</div> - -<h3 class='c014'>SUGGESTIONS TO STUDENTS AND INSTRUCTORS</h3> - -<p class='c015'>The following questions, based on the contents of this pamphlet, -are intended to serve (1) as a guide to the study of the text, (2) as -an aid to the student in putting the information contained into -definite statements without actually memorizing the text, (3) as a -means of securing from the student a reproduction of the information -in his own words.</p> - -<p class='c016'>A careful following of the questions by the reader will insure full -acquaintance with every part of the text, avoiding the accidental -omission of what might be of value. These primers are so condensed -that nothing should be omitted.</p> - -<p class='c016'>In teaching from these books it is very important that these -questions and such others as may occur to the teacher should be -made the basis of frequent written work, and of final examinations.</p> - -<p class='c016'>The importance of written work cannot be overstated. It not -only assures knowledge of material but the power to express that -knowledge correctly and in good form.</p> - -<p class='c016'>If this written work can be submitted to the teacher in printed -form it will be doubly useful.</p> - -<h3 class='c017'>QUESTIONS</h3> - - <dl class='dl_1 c003'> - <dt>1.</dt> - <dd>What general conditions made England slow to take up printing? - </dd> - <dt>2.</dt> - <dd>What special conditions existed in England about the time of the invention of printing? - </dd> - <dt>3.</dt> - <dd>What is the truth about the story that the first English printed book was dated 1468? - </dd> - <dt>4.</dt> - <dd>Tell the story of Caxton’s life up to his return to England. - </dd> - <dt>5.</dt> - <dd>Tell the story of the rest of his life. - </dd> - <dt>6.</dt> - <dd>How many books did he print, and of what sort? - </dd> - <dt>7.</dt> - <dd>What remarkable omissions are there in his work, and why? - </dd> - <dt>8.</dt> - <dd>What was his special field? - </dd> - <dt>9.</dt> - <dd>What sort of man was Caxton? - </dd> - <dt>10.</dt> - <dd>What can you say about Caxton’s typography? -<div><span class='pageno' id='Page_78'>78</span></div> - </dd> - <dt>11.</dt> - <dd>What other printers appeared in England during Caxton’s life? - </dd> - <dt>12.</dt> - <dd>What was the great difference between Caxton and his successors? - </dd> - <dt>13.</dt> - <dd>Who was Caxton’s successor in business, and what do you know about him? - </dd> - <dt>14.</dt> - <dd>Who was Pynson, and what did he do? - </dd> - <dt>15.</dt> - <dd>What do you know about Copeland; Berthelet; Grafton and Whitchurch? - </dd> - <dt>16.</dt> - <dd>Describe the condition of English printing up to 1550, and give the reason. - </dd> - <dt>17.</dt> - <dd>What change took place after 1525? - </dd> - <dt>18.</dt> - <dd>What books were imported, and why? - </dd> - <dt>19.</dt> - <dd>What was the situation in England all through the Middle Ages with regard to labor - troubles? - </dd> - <dt>20.</dt> - <dd>What social change took place in the nineteenth century, and what was the result? - </dd> - <dt>21.</dt> - <dd>How did the English deal with the problem of the regulation of printing? - </dd> - <dt>22.</dt> - <dd>What can you say about English craft guilds? - </dd> - <dt>23.</dt> - <dd>What were the reasons for the organization of the Company of Stationers? - </dd> - <dt>24.</dt> - <dd>What was the form of organization of the Company? - </dd> - <dt>25.</dt> - <dd>What was the Star Chamber? - </dd> - <dt>26.</dt> - <dd>What were the powers and the duties of the Company? - </dd> - <dt>27.</dt> - <dd>What followed the organization of the Company? - </dd> - <dt>28.</dt> - <dd>Give the substance of the edict of 1586. - </dd> - <dt>29.</dt> - <dd>What did the Company do in the execution of this edict? - </dd> - <dt>30.</dt> - <dd>What difficulties, other than those caused by the edicts, troubled the printers? - </dd> - <dt>31.</dt> - <dd>Tell the story of John Wolfe. -<div><span class='pageno' id='Page_79'>79</span></div> - </dd> - <dt>32.</dt> - <dd>What was the result of the reduction in the number of offices, and what was done about it? - </dd> - <dt>33.</dt> - <dd>Describe English printing apprenticeship at this period. - </dd> - <dt>34.</dt> - <dd>What were the relations between author, printer, and bookseller? - </dd> - <dt>35.</dt> - <dd>Tell the story of John Day. - </dd> - <dt>36.</dt> - <dd>Mention other printers of this time, and give some distinguishing fact about each. - </dd> - <dt>37.</dt> - <dd>What tendency appears in English printing after Day, and why? - </dd> - <dt>38.</dt> - <dd>How did printing fare under James I; under Charles I? - </dd> - <dt>39.</dt> - <dd>Give the substance of the edict of 1637. - </dd> - <dt>40.</dt> - <dd>What legislation was enacted to protect English printing? - </dd> - <dt>41.</dt> - <dd>What happened when Parliament got the upper hand, and why? - </dd> - <dt>42.</dt> - <dd>How did printing fare under Cromwell? - </dd> - <dt>43.</dt> - <dd>Tell the story of the attempt to incorporate the Company of Printers. - </dd> - <dt>44.</dt> - <dd>Sketch the course of government regulation from 1662 to 1694. - </dd> - <dt>45.</dt> - <dd>Tell about Roycroft and his work. - </dd> - <dt>46.</dt> - <dd>Tell about the four type-founders of this time. - </dd> - <dt>47.</dt> - <dd>Describe the rise to prominence of the Oxford Press. - </dd> - <dt>48.</dt> - <dd>What three special changes took place in the eighteenth century? - </dd> - <dt>49.</dt> - <dd>Tell the story of the invention of stereotyping. - </dd> - <dt>50.</dt> - <dd>Tell how the publishers became the principal power in the book business. - </dd> - <dt>51.</dt> - <dd>Give the substance of the copyright act of 1709. - </dd> - <dt>52.</dt> - <dd>What was the effect of this act on the author and on the manufacture of books? - </dd> - <dt>53.</dt> - <dd>Tell the story of William Caslon. -<div><span class='pageno' id='Page_80'>80</span></div> - </dd> - <dt>54.</dt> - <dd>Tell the story of Samuel Richardson. - </dd> - <dt>55.</dt> - <dd>Tell the story of the life of Baskerville. - </dd> - <dt>56.</dt> - <dd>Tell about Baskerville as a type-founder. - </dd> - <dt>57.</dt> - <dd>Tell about Baskerville’s press; his methods; the reason for his lack of success. - </dd> - <dt>58.</dt> - <dd>Was Baskerville’s work a failure, and why? - </dd> - <dt>59.</dt> - <dd>Tell the story of Charles Whittingham, the elder. - </dd> - <dt>60.</dt> - <dd>Tell the story of Charles Whittingham, the younger. - </dd> - <dt>61.</dt> - <dd>Tell the story of Pickering and his alliance with Whittingham. - </dd> - <dt>62.</dt> - <dd>Tell the story of Morris and the Kelmscott Press. - </dd> - <dt>63.</dt> - <dd>Describe Morris’s ideas and tell about his work. - </dd> - <dt>64.</dt> - <dd>What was the effect of Morris’s work? - </dd> - <dt>65.</dt> - <dd>Name a few of the printers most influenced by him. - </dd> - </dl> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_81'>81</span> - <h2 class='c005'>TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES FOR APPRENTICES</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c011'>The following list of publications, comprising the <span class='sc'>Typographic -Technical Series for Apprentices</span>, has been prepared under -the supervision of the Committee on Education of the United -Typothetae of America for use in trade classes, in courses of printing -instruction, and by individuals.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Each publication has been compiled by a competent author or -group of authors, and carefully edited, the purpose, being to provide -the printers of the United States—employers, journeymen, and -apprentices—with a comprehensive series of handy and inexpensive -compendiums of reliable, up-to-date information upon the various -branches and specialties of the printing craft, all arranged in orderly -fashion for progressive study.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The publications of the series are of uniform size, 5 × 8 inches. -Their general make-up, in typography, illustrations, etc., has been, -as far as practicable, kept in harmony throughout. A brief synopsis -of the particular contents and other chief features of each volume will -be found under each title in the following list.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Each topic is treated in a concise manner, the aim being to embody -in each publication as completely as possible all the rudimentary -information and essential facts necessary to an understanding of the -subject. Care has been taken to make all statements accurate and -clear, with the purpose of bringing essential information within the -understanding of beginners in the different fields of study. Wherever -practicable, simple and well-defined drawings and illustrations have -been used to assist in giving additional clearness to the text.</p> - -<p class='c007'>In order that the pamphlets may be of the greatest possible help -for use in trade-school classes and for self-instruction, each title is -accompanied by a list of Review Questions covering essential items of -the subject matter. A short Glossary of technical terms belonging to -the subject or department treated is also added to many of the books.</p> - -<p class='c007'>These are the Official Text-books of the United Typothetae of -America.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Address all orders and inquiries to <span class='sc'>Committee on Education, -United Typothetae of America, Chicago, Illinois, U. S. A.</span></p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_82'>82</span> - <h2 class='c005'>TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES <i>for</i> APPRENTICES</h2> -</div> -<h3 class='c014'>PART I—<i>Types, Tools, Machines, and Materials</i></h3> - - <dl class='dl_1 c003'> - <dt>1.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Type: a Primer of Information</cite> By A. A. Stewart - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>Relating to the mechanical features of printing types; their sizes, font schemes, etc., - with a brief description of their manufacture. 44 pp.; illustrated; 74 review questions; - glossary. - </dd> - <dt>2.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Compositors’ Tools and Materials</cite> By A. A. Stewart - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>A primer of information about composing sticks, galleys, leads, brass rules, cutting and - mitering machines, etc. 47 pp.; illustrated; 50 review questions; glossary. - </dd> - <dt>3.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Type Cases, Composing Room Furniture</cite> By A. A. Stewart - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>A primer of information about type cases, work stands, cabinets, case racks, galley - racks, standing galleys, etc. 43 pp.; illustrated; 33 review questions; glossary. - </dd> - <dt>4.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Imposing Tables and Lock-up Appliances</cite> By A. A. Stewart - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>Describing the tools and materials used in locking up forms for the press, including some - modern utilities for special purposes. 59 pp.; illustrated; 70 review questions; glossary. - </dd> - <dt>5.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Proof Presses</cite> By A. A. Stewart - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>A primer of information about the customary methods and machines for taking printers’ - proofs. 40 pp.; illustrated; 41 review questions; glossary. - </dd> - <dt>6.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Platen Printing Presses</cite> By Daniel Baker - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>A primer of information regarding the history and mechanical construction of platen - printing presses, from the original hand press to the modern job press, to which is added - a chapter on automatic presses of small size. 51 pp.; illustrated; 49 review questions; - glossary. - </dd> - <dt>7.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Cylinder Printing Presses</cite> By Herbert L. Baker - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>Being a study of the mechanism and operation of the principal types of cylinder printing - machines. 64 pp.; illustrated; 47 review questions; glossary. - </dd> - <dt>8.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Mechanical Feeders and Folders</cite> By William E. Spurrier - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>The history and operation of modern feeding and folding machines; with hints on their - care and adjustments. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. - </dd> - <dt>9.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Power for Machinery in Printing Houses</cite> By Carl F. Scott - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>A treatise on the methods of applying power to printing presses and allied machinery, - with particular reference to electric drive. 53 pp.; illustrated; 69 review questions; - glossary. - </dd> - <dt>10.</dt> - <dd> <cite class='bcite'>Paper Cutting Machines</cite> By Niel Gray, Jr. - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>A primer of information about paper and card trimmers, hand-lever cutters, power cutters, - and other automatic machines for cutting paper. 70 pp.; illustrated; 115 review - questions; glossary. - </dd> - <dt>11.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Printers’ Rollers</cite> By A. A. Stewart - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>A primer of information about the composition, manufacture, and care of inking rollers. - 46 pp.; illustrated; 61 review questions; glossary. - </dd> - <dt>12.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Printing Inks</cite> By Philip Ruxton - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>Their composition, properties and manufacture (reprinted by permission from Circular No. - 53, United States Bureau of Standards); together with some helpful suggestions about the - everyday use of printing inks by Philip Ruxton. 80 pp.; 100 review questions; glossary. -<div><span class='pageno' id='Page_83'>83</span></div> - </dd> - <dt>13.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>How Paper is Made</cite> By William Bond Wheelwright - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>A primer of information about the materials and processes of manufacturing paper for - printing and writing. 68 pp.; illustrated; 62 review questions; glossary. - </dd> - <dt>14.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Relief Engravings</cite> By Joseph P. Donovan - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>Brief history and non-technical description of modern methods of engraving: woodcut, zinc - plate, halftone; kind of copy for reproduction; things to remember when ordering - engravings. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. - </dd> - <dt>15.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Electrotyping and Stereotyping</cite> By Harris B. Hatch and A. A. - Stewart - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>A primer of information about the processes of electrotyping and stereotyping. 94 pp.; - illustrated; 129 review questions; glossaries. - </dd> - </dl> - -<h3 class='c017'>PART II—<i>Hand and Machine Composition</i></h3> - - <dl class='dl_2 c003'> - <dt>16.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Typesetting</cite> By A. A. Stewart - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>A handbook for beginners, giving information about justifying, spacing, correcting, and - other matters relating to typesetting. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. - </dd> - <dt>17.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Printers’ Proofs</cite> By A. A. Stewart - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>The methods by which they are made, marked, and corrected, with observations on - proofreading. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. - </dd> - <dt>18.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>First Steps in Job Composition</cite> By Camille DeVèze - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>Suggestions for the apprentice compositor in setting his first jobs, especially about the - important little things which go to make good display in typography. 63 pp.; examples; 55 - review questions; glossary. - </dd> - <dt>19.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>General Job Composition</cite> - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>How the job compositor handles business stationery, programs and miscellaneous work. - Illustrated; review questions; glossary. - </dd> - <dt>20.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Book Composition</cite> By J. W. Bothwell - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>Chapters from DeVinne’s “Modern Methods of Book Composition,” revised and arranged for - this series of text-books by J. W. Bothwell of The DeVinne Press, New York. Part I: - Composition of pages. Part II: Imposition of pages. 229 pp.; illustrated; 525 review - questions; glossary. - </dd> - <dt>21.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Tabular Composition</cite> By Robert Seaver - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>A study of the elementary forms of table composition, with examples of more difficult - composition. 36 pp.; examples; 45 review questions. - </dd> - <dt>22.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Applied Arithmetic</cite> By E. E. Sheldon - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>Elementary arithmetic applied to problems of the printing trade, calculation of - materials, paper weights and sizes, with standard tables and rules for computation, each - subject amplified with examples and exercises. 159 pp. - </dd> - <dt>23.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Typecasting and Composing Machines</cite> A. W. Finlay, Editor - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>Section I—The Linotype By L. A. Hornstein Section II—The - Monotype By Joseph Hays Section III—The Intertype - By Henry W. Cozzens Section IV—Other Typecasting and Typesetting - Machines By Frank H. Smith - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>A brief history of typesetting machines, with descriptions of their mechanical principles - and operations. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. - </dd> - </dl> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_84'>84</span> - <h3 class='c017'>PART III—<i>Imposition and Stonework</i></h3> -</div> - - <dl class='dl_1 c003'> - <dt>24.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Locking Forms for the Job Press</cite> By Frank S. Henry - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>Things the apprentice should know about locking up small forms, and about general work on - the stone. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. - </dd> - <dt>25.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Preparing Forms for the Cylinder Press</cite> By Frank S. Henry - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>Pamphlet and catalog imposition; margins; fold marks, etc. Methods of handling type forms - and electrotype forms. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. - </dd> - </dl> - -<h3 class='c017'>PART IV—<i>Presswork</i></h3> - - <dl class='dl_1 c003'> - <dt>26.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Making Ready on Platen Presses</cite> By T. G. McGrew - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>The essential parts of a press and their functions; distinctive features of commonly used - machines. Preparing the tympan, regulating the impression, underlaying and overlaying, - setting gauges, and other details explained. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. - </dd> - <dt>27.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Cylinder Presswork</cite> By T. G. McGrew - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>Preparing the press; adjustment of bed and cylinder, form rollers, ink fountain, grippers - and delivery systems. Underlaying and overlaying; modern over-lay methods. Illustrated; - review questions; glossary. - </dd> - <dt>28.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Pressroom Hints and Helps</cite> By Charles L. Dunton - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>Describing some practical methods of pressroom work, with directions and useful - information relating to a variety of printing-press problems. 87 pp.; 176 review - questions. - </dd> - <dt>29.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Reproductive Processes of the Graphic Arts</cite> By A. W. Elson - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>A primer of information about the distinctive features of the relief, the intaglio, and - the planographic processes of printing. 84 pp.; illustrated; 100 review questions; - glossary. - </dd> - </dl> - -<h3 class='c017'>PART V—<i>Pamphlet and Book Binding</i></h3> - - <dl class='dl_1 c003'> - <dt>30.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Pamphlet Binding</cite> By Bancroft L. Goodwin - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>A primer of information about the various operations employed in binding pamphlets and - other work in the bindery. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. - </dd> - <dt>31.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Book Binding</cite> By John J. Pleger - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>Practical information about the usual operations in binding books: folding, gathering, - collating, sewing, forwarding, finishing. Case making and cased-in books. Hand work and - machine work. Job and blank-book binding. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. - </dd> - </dl> - -<h3 class='c017'>PART VI—<i>Correct Literary Composition</i></h3> - - <dl class='dl_1 c003'> - <dt>32.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Word Study and English Grammar</cite> By F. W. Hamilton - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>A primer of information about words, their relations, and their uses. 68 pp.; 84 review - questions; glossary. - </dd> - <dt>33.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Punctuation</cite> By F. W. Hamilton - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>A primer of information about the marks of punctuation and their use, both grammatically - and typographically. 56 pp.; 59 review questions; glossary. -<div><span class='pageno' id='Page_85'>85</span></div> - </dd> - <dt>34.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Capitals</cite> By F. W. Hamilton - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>A primer of information about capitalization, with some practical typographic hints as to - the use of capitals. 48 pp.; 92 review questions; glossary. - </dd> - <dt>35.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Division of Words</cite> By F. W. Hamilton - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>Rules for the division of words at the ends of lines, with remarks on spelling, - syllabication and pronunciation. 42 pp.; 70 review questions. - </dd> - <dt>36.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Compound Words</cite> By F. W. Hamilton - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>A study of the principles of compounding, the components of compounds, and the use of the - hyphen. 34 pp.; 62 review questions. - </dd> - <dt>37.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Abbreviations and Signs</cite> By F. W. Hamilton - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>A primer of information about abbreviations and signs, with classified lists of those in - most common use. 58 pp.; 32 review questions. - </dd> - <dt>38.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>The Uses of Italic</cite> By F. W. Hamilton - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>A primer of information about the history and uses of italic letters. 31 pp.; 37 review - questions. - </dd> - <dt>39.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Proofreading</cite> By Arnold Levitas - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>The technical phases of the proofreader’s work; reading, marking, revising, etc.; methods - of handling proofs and copy. Illustrated by examples. 59 pp.; 69 review questions; - glossary. - </dd> - <dt>40.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Preparation of Printers’ Copy</cite> By F. W. Hamilton - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>Suggestions for authors, editors, and all who are engaged in preparing copy for the - composing room. 36 pp.; 67 review questions. - </dd> - <dt>41.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Printers’ Manual of Style</cite> - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>A reference compilation of approved rules, usages, and suggestions relating to uniformity - in punctuation, capitalization, abbreviations, numerals, and kindred features of - composition. - </dd> - <dt>42.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>The Printer’s Dictionary</cite> By A. A. Stewart - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>A handbook of definitions and miscellaneous information about various processes of - printing, alphabetically arranged. Technical terms explained. Illustrated. - </dd> - </dl> - -<h3 class='c017'>PART VII—<i>Design, Color, and Lettering</i></h3> - - <dl class='dl_1 c003'> - <dt>43.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Applied Design for Printers</cite> By Harry L. Gage - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>A handbook of the principles of arrangement, with brief comment on the periods of design - which have most influenced printing. Treats of harmony, balance, proportion, and rhythm; - motion; symmetry and variety; ornament, esthetic and symbolic. 37 illustrations; 46 - review questions; glossary; bibliography. - </dd> - <dt>44.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Elements of Typographic Design</cite> By Harry L. Gage - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>Applications of the principles of decorative design. Building material of typography: - paper, types, ink, decorations and illustrations. Handling of shapes. Design of complete - book, treating each part. Design of commercial forms and single units. Illustrations; - review questions; glossary; bibliography. -<div><span class='pageno' id='Page_86'>86</span></div> - </dd> - <dt>45.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Rudiments of Color in Printing</cite> By Harry L. Gage - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>Use of color: for decoration of black and white, for broad poster effect, in combinations - of two, three, or more printings with process engravings. Scientific nature of color, - physical and chemical. Terms in which color may be discussed: hue, value, intensity. - Diagrams in color, scales and combinations. Color theory of process engraving. - Experiments with color. Illustrations in full color, and on various papers. Review - questions; glossary; bibliography. - </dd> - <dt>46.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Lettering in Typography</cite> By Harry L. Gage - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>Printer’s use of lettering: adaptability and decorative effect. Development of historic - writing and lettering and its influence on type design. Classification of general forms - in lettering. Application of design to lettering. Drawing for reproduction. Fully - illustrated; review questions; glossary; bibliography. - </dd> - <dt>47.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Typographic Design in Advertising</cite> By Harry L. Gage - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>The printer’s function in advertising. Precepts upon which advertising is based. - Printer’s analysis of his copy. Emphasis, legibility, attention, color. Method of - studying advertising typography. Illustrations; review questions; glossary: bibliography. - </dd> - <dt>48.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Making Dummies and Layouts</cite> By Harry L. Gage - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>A layout: the architectural plan. A dummy: the imitation of a proposed final effect. Use - of dummy in sales work. Use of layout. Function of layout man. Binding schemes for - dummies. Dummy envelopes. Illustrations; review questions; glossary; bibliography. - </dd> - </dl> - -<h3 class='c017'>PART VIII—<i>History of Printing</i></h3> - - <dl class='dl_1 c003'> - <dt>49.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Books Before Typography</cite> By F. W. Hamilton - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>A primer of information about the invention of the alphabet and the history of - book-making up to the invention of movable types. 62 pp.; illustrated; 64 review - questions. - </dd> - <dt>50.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>The Invention of Typography</cite> By F. W. Hamilton - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>A brief sketch of the invention of printing and how it came about. 64 pp.; 62 review - questions. - </dd> - <dt>51.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>History of Printing—Part I</cite> By F. W. Hamilton - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>A primer of information about the beginnings of printing, the development of the book, - the development of printers’ materials, and the work of the great pioneers. 63 pp.; 55 - review questions. - </dd> - <dt>52.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>History of Printing—Part II</cite> By F. W. Hamilton - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>A brief sketch of the economic conditions of the printing industry from 1450 to 1789, - including government regulations, censorship, internal conditions and industrial - relations. 94 pp.; 128 review questions. - </dd> - <dt>53.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Printing in England</cite> By F. W. Hamilton - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>A short history of printing in England from Caxton to the present time. 89 pp.; 65 review - questions. - </dd> - <dt>54.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Printing in America</cite> By F. W. Hamilton - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>A brief sketch of the development of the newspaper, and some notes on publishers who have - especially contributed to printing. 98 pp.; 84 review questions. - </dd> - <dt>55.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Type and Presses in America</cite> By F. W. Hamilton - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>A brief historical sketch of the development of type casting and press building in the - United States. 52 pp.; 61 review questions. - </dd> - </dl> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_87'>87</span> - <h3 class='c017'>PART IX—<i>Cost Finding and Accounting</i></h3> -</div> - - <dl class='dl_1 c003'> - <dt>56.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Elements of Cost in Printing</cite> By Henry P. Porter - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>A primer of information about all the elements that contribute to the cost of printing - and their relation to each other. Review questions. Glossary. - </dd> - <dt>57.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Use of a Cost System</cite> By Henry P. Porter - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>The Standard Cost Finding Forms and their uses. What they should show. How to utilize the - information they give. Review questions. Glossary. - </dd> - <dt>58.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>The Printer as a Merchant</cite> By Henry P. Porter - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>The selection and purchase of materials and supplies for printing. The relation of the - cost of raw material and the selling price of the finished product. Review questions. - Glossary. - </dd> - <dt>59.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Fundamental Principles of Estimating</cite> By Henry P. Porter - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>The estimator and his work; forms to use; general rules for estimating. Review questions. - Glossary. - </dd> - <dt>60.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Estimating and Selling</cite> By Henry P. Porter - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>An insight into the methods used in making estimates, and their relation to selling. - Review questions. Glossary. - </dd> - <dt>61.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Accounting for Printers</cite> By Henry P. Porter - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>A brief outline of an accounting system for printers; necessary books and accessory - records. Review questions. Glossary. - </dd> - </dl> -<h3 class='c017'>PART X—<i>Miscellaneous</i></h3> - - <dl class='dl_1 c003'> - <dt>62.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Health, Sanitation, and Safety</cite> By Henry P. Porter - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>Hygiene in the printing trade; a study of conditions old and new; practical suggestions - for improvement; protective appliances and rules for safety. - </dd> - <dt>63.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Topical Index</cite> By F. W. Hamilton - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>A book of reference covering the topics treated in the Typographic Technical Series, - alphabetically arranged. - </dd> - <dt>64.</dt> - <dd><cite class='bcite'>Courses of Study</cite> By F. W. Hamilton - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>A guidebook for teachers, with outlines and suggestions for classroom and shop work. - </dd> - </dl> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_88'>88</span> - <h2 class='c005'>ACKNOWLEDGMENT</h2> -</div> -<p class='drop-capa0_0_6 c006'>This series of Typographic Text-books is the result of the -splendid cooperation of a large number of firms and individuals -engaged in the printing business and its allied industries in the United -States of America.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The Committee on Education of the United Typothetae of -America, under whose auspices the books have been prepared and -published, acknowledges its indebtedness for the generous assistance -rendered by the many authors, printers, and others identified with -this work.</p> - -<p class='c007'>While due acknowledgment is made on the title and copyright -pages of those contributing to each book, the Committee nevertheless -felt that a group list of co-operating firms would be of interest.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The following list is not complete, as it includes only those who -have co-operated in the production of a portion of the volumes, -constituting the first printing. As soon as the entire list of books -comprising the Typographic Technical Series has been completed -(which the Committee hopes will be at an early date), the full list -will be printed in each volume.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The Committee also desires to acknowledge its indebtedness to -the many subscribers to this Series who have patiently awaited its -publication.</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'><span class='sc'>Committee on Education,</span></div> - <div class='line'><span class='sc'>United Typothetae of America.</span></div> - </div> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line in6'><span class='sc'>Henry P. Porter</span>, <i>Chairman</i>,</div> - <div class='line in6'><span class='sc'>E. Lawrence Fell</span>,</div> - <div class='line in6'><span class='sc'>A. M. Glossbrenner</span>,</div> - <div class='line in6'><span class='sc'>J. Clyde Oswald</span>,</div> - <div class='line in6'><span class='sc'>Toby Rubovits</span>.</div> - </div> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'><span class='sc'>Frederick W. Hamilton</span>, <i>Education Director</i>.</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_89'>89</span> - <h2 class='c005'>CONTRIBUTORS</h2> -</div> - <dl class='dl_3 c004'> - <dt><strong>For Composition and Electrotypes</strong></dt> - <dd> - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd><span class='sc'>Isaac H. Blanchard Company</span>, New York, N. Y. - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd><span class='sc'>S. H. Burbank & Co.</span>, Philadelphia, Pa. - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd><span class='sc'>J. S. Cushing & Co.</span>, Norwood, Mass. - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd><span class='sc'>The DeVinne Press</span>, New York, N. Y. - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd><span class='sc'>R. R. Donnelley & Sons Co.</span>, Chicago, Ill. - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd><span class='sc'>Geo. H. Ellis Co.</span>, Boston, Mass. - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd><span class='sc'>Evans-Winter-Hebb</span>, Detroit, Mich. - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd><span class='sc'>Franklin Printing Company</span>, Philadelphia, Pa. - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd><span class='sc'>F. H. Gilson Company</span>, Boston, Mass. - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd><span class='sc'>Stephen Greene & Co.</span>, Philadelphia, Pa. - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd><span class='sc'>W. F. Hall Printing Co.</span>, Chicago, Ill. - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd><span class='sc'>J. B. Lippincott Co.</span>, Philadelphia, Pa. - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd><span class='sc'>McCalla & Co. Inc.</span>, Philadelphia, Pa. - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd><span class='sc'>The Patteson Press</span>, New York. - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd><span class='sc'>The Plimpton Press</span>, Norwood, Mass. - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd><span class='sc'>Poole Bros.</span>, Chicago, Ill. - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd><span class='sc'>Edward Stern & Co.</span>, Philadelphia, Pa. - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd><span class='sc'>The Stone Printing & Mfg. Co.</span>, Roanoke, Va. - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd><span class='sc'>C. D. Traphagen</span>, Lincoln, Neb. - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd><span class='sc'>The University Press</span>, Cambridge, Mass. - </dd> - <dt><strong>For Composition</strong></dt> - <dd> - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd><span class='sc'>Boston Typothetae School of Printing</span>, Boston, Mass. - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd><span class='sc'>William F. Fell Co.</span>, Philadelphia, Pa. - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd><span class='sc'>The Kalkhoff Company</span>, New York, N. Y. - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd><span class='sc'>Oxford-Print</span>, Boston, Mass. - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd><span class='sc'>Toby Rubovits</span>, Chicago, Ill. - </dd> - <dt><strong>For Electrotypes</strong></dt> - <dd> - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd><span class='sc'>Blomgren Brothers Co.</span>, Chicago, Ill. - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd><span class='sc'>Flower Steel Electrotyping Co.</span>, New York, N. Y. - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd><span class='sc'>C. J. Peters & Son Co.</span>, Boston, Mass. - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd><span class='sc'>Royal Electrotype Co.</span>, Philadelphia, Pa. - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd><span class='sc'>H. C. Whitcomb & Co.</span>, Boston, Mass. - </dd> - <dt><strong>For Engravings</strong></dt> - <dd> - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd><span class='sc'>American Type Founders Co.</span>, Boston, Mass. - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd><span class='sc'>C. B. Cottrell & Sons Co.</span>, Westerly, R. I. - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd><span class='sc'>Golding Manufacturing Co.</span>, Franklin, Mass. - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd><span class='sc'>Harvard University</span>, Cambridge, Mass. - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd><span class='sc'>Inland Printer Co.</span>, Chicago, Ill. - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd><span class='sc'>Lanston Monotype Machine Company</span>, Philadelphia, Pa. - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd><span class='sc'>Mergenthaler Linotype Company</span>, New York, N. Y. - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd><span class='sc'>Geo. H. Morrill Co.</span>, Norwood, Mass. - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd><span class='sc'>Oswald Publishing Co.</span>, New York, N. Y. - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd><span class='sc'>The Printing Art</span>, Cambridge, Mass. - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd><span class='sc'>B. D. Rising Paper Company</span>, Housatonic, Mass. - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd><span class='sc'>The Vandercook Press</span>, Chicago, Ill. - </dd> - <dt><strong>For Book Paper</strong></dt> - <dd> - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd><span class='sc'>American Writing Paper Co.</span>, Holyoke, Mass. - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd><span class='sc'>West Virginia Pulp & Paper Co.</span>, Mechanicville, N. Y. - </dd> - </dl> - -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c003' /> -</div> -<div class='tnotes x-ebookmaker'> - -<div class='section ph2'> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c001'> - <div>TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES</div> - </div> -</div> - -</div> - - <ol class='ol_1 c004'> - <li>Silently corrected typographical errors and variations in spelling. - - </li> - <li>Archaic, non-standard, and uncertain spellings retained as printed. - </li> - </ol> - -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A BRIEF HISTORY OF PRINTING IN ENGLAND ***</div> -<div style='text-align:left'> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will -be renamed. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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