diff options
| author | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-01-22 20:18:04 -0800 |
|---|---|---|
| committer | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-01-22 20:18:04 -0800 |
| commit | 0d53d3d1509e4e12d699f4588a8a57e4c33c4f68 (patch) | |
| tree | 74b74535a8ecee4cfc5b5bcca28d70f5119df156 /old/65893-0.txt | |
| parent | accd505ecdcb7d28bffe48fb98248d480999733a (diff) | |
Diffstat (limited to 'old/65893-0.txt')
| -rw-r--r-- | old/65893-0.txt | 2463 |
1 files changed, 0 insertions, 2463 deletions
diff --git a/old/65893-0.txt b/old/65893-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 9cc7a1f..0000000 --- a/old/65893-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,2463 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of Atoms at the Science Fair, by Robert -G. LeCompte - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: Atoms at the Science Fair - Exhibiting Nuclear Projects - -Authors: Robert G. LeCompte - Burrell L. Wood - -Release Date: July 21, 2021 [eBook #65893] - -Language: English - -Produced by: Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed Proofreading - Team at https://www.pgdp.net - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ATOMS AT THE SCIENCE -FAIR *** - - - - - - Atoms at the Science Fair - EXHIBITING NUCLEAR PROJECTS - - - U.S. ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION/Division of Technical Information - - -Each year more students undertake science fair projects, many of which -involve some aspect of nuclear science or technology. - -The United States Atomic Energy Commission has prepared this booklet to -help these young exhibitors, their science teachers, project counselors, -and parents. - -The booklet suggests also some of the numerous nuclear topics on which -students can base meaningful science projects. It offers all -exhibitors—regardless of age, experience, or project topic—advice on how -to plan, design, and construct successful exhibits. It describes some -rewards awaiting those who win their way to the National Science -Fair-International, including 10 AEC Special Awards offered for the most -outstanding nuclear exhibits. - -Detailed advice on conducting science projects is omitted, partly -because several earlier publications deal with the subject, but also -because much of the personal satisfaction gained while doing a science -project stems from the student investigator’s opportunity to exercise -his initiative, imagination, and judgment in solving a problem of his -own choice, in his own way. - -We trust this booklet will encourage students to enter science fair -competition, and hope it will help their advisers guide them toward -better projects and more successful exhibits. - - {Edward J. Brunenkant} - Edward J. Brunenkant, Director - Division of Technical Information - - - - - Atoms at the Science Fair - Exhibiting Nuclear Projects - - - by Robert G. LeCompte and Burrell L. Wood - - - - - CONTENTS - - - SCIENCE PROJECTS, EXHIBITS, AND FAIRS 1 - Science Projects 1 - Project Exhibits 2 - Science Fairs 2 - YOUR SCIENCE PROJECT 4 - Choosing the Topic 4 - Where to Get Help 8 - Documenting Your Work 9 - EXHIBITING YOUR SCIENCE PROJECT 11 - Planning the Content of Your Exhibit 11 - How Exhibits Are Judged 12 - Designing Your Exhibit 16 - About Color 25 - Completing Your Exhibit 27 - COMPETITION AND ITS REWARDS 30 - QUO VADIS? 34 - APPENDIX I—NUCLEAR SCIENCE PROJECT IDEAS 37 - APPENDIX II—NUCLEAR ENERGY-RELATED INVESTIGATIONS AND APPLICATIONS 47 - APPENDIX III—SUGGESTED REFERENCES 48 - APPENDIX IV—WORKING WITH RADIATION AND RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS 50 - APPENDIX V—SUPPLIERS OF RADIOISOTOPES 51 - APPENDIX VI—INTERNATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR RULES 52 - - - United States Atomic Energy Commission - Division of Technical Information - - Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 64-65589 - 1968 - - [Illustration: Interviews help AEC Special Awards judges identify - the most outstanding nuclear-related exhibits entered in each - National Science Fair-International. Here, Elizabeth Winstead of - Jacksonville, Florida, explains her irradiated fruit flies to Dr. - Paul W. McDaniel, AEC Director of Research and a Special Awards - judge at the 1963 national fair, Albuquerque, New Mexico. Selected - as one of the 10 winners, Miss Winstead and her science teacher - spent a week at the Commission’s Argonne National Laboratory near - Chicago.] - -ROBERT G. LeCOMPTE majored in English (A. B., St. Benedict’s, 1935) and -has worked primarily as a communicator—reporter, house-organ editor and -photographer, military-information officer and instructor, -public-relations consultant, and information and exhibits specialist. He -joined the Atomic Energy Commission’s staff at Albuquerque, New Mexico, -in 1951, transferring in 1957 to the AEC’s Headquarters, where he is -Exhibits and Education Officer in the Division of Technical Information. -His concern with science stems from aviation writing, World War II -service as an Air Force pilot and technical-intelligence officer, -science-news reporting, and requirements for presenting AEC -scientific-technical developments to the lay public. He has been -involved in science fair activities since 1960, when he began the study -which led to establishment of AEC Special Awards for outstanding -nuclear-related exhibits at the National Science Fair-International. - -BURRELL L. WOOD is a chemist (A.B. in French and B.S. in Chemistry, -Presbyterian College, 1940; M.S. in Chemistry, University of Georgia, -1942; Ph. D. in Chemistry, University of North Carolina, 1952). In 1953, -while head of the Chemistry Department at Furman University, Dr. Wood -organized a statewide science fair program in South Carolina. He moved -to the New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology in 1957, and -expanded that state’s program by organizing four regional science fairs. -He joined the staff of Science Service in 1960 and edited _Chemistry_ -magazine and “Things of Science” experimental kits. In 1961 he joined -the Atomic Energy Commission’s Headquarters staff and is now Exhibit -Coordinator in the Division of Special Projects. He served at the -National Science Fair-International in 1962 and 1963 as a judge of -nuclear-related exhibits considered for AEC Special Awards. - - - - - Atoms at the Science Fair - Exhibiting Nuclear Projects - - - by ROBERT G. LeCOMPTE and BURRELL L. WOOD - - - - - SCIENCE PROJECTS, EXHIBITS, AND FAIRS - - -In almost every area of endeavor, we learn best by _doing_. Books and -lectures provide background, but it is by putting theory into practice -that we make knowledge truly our own. To learn a language, we read and -speak it. Our knowledge of mathematics follows practice at problem -solving, and so it is with science. - - -Science Projects - -In conducting a good science project, we work in much the same manner as -professional scientists. Like them, we observe, experiment, investigate, -speculate, and check the validity of our speculations with more -experiments, all in order to learn something. If our work is good, -others may learn from it too, but only if we present it adequately. - -Better understanding of an area of science is the least that we can gain -from doing a science project. At their best, science projects foster -habits of effective planning, attention to detail, careful work, and -high performance standards that will serve us well throughout our lives. -Moreover, there is always the promise that the project will open the -door to a satisfying career. - - -Project Exhibits - -More and more, scientists are called upon to share their work not only -with other scientists but also with legislators, administrators, -sociologists, artists—all kinds of people in all kinds of professions. -To follow this lead, student scientists also must tell other people -about their science projects. - -When executed properly, exhibits are an effective way to do this. -Exhibits which combine interesting visual materials with well-written -messages can communicate much in very limited time and space. Good -exhibits can speak clearly to a great variety of viewers. Those already -generally familiar with the subject may absorb the entire message, but -even the uninitiated will find something of interest. - - -Science Fairs - -Fairs have been popular throughout history. Generally they have been -occasions to display work or feats of which people are proud. Often they -have stimulated progress and the exchange of goods and ideas. - -Early in this century some teachers encouraged their students to -undertake individual science projects, then exhibit them before their -classmates and fellow students. Between the two World Wars some -individual school systems developed citywide science fairs to show the -most outstanding of these exhibits from each school. The science fair -movement gained momentum rapidly after World War II, and in 1950 the -First National Science Fair was held in Philadelphia, drawing exhibitors -from 13 affiliated area fairs. - -Today the national event draws exhibitors from more than 200 affiliated -state and regional fairs. Recent entry of competitors from several other -countries has produced its new title—National Science Fair-International -(NSFI). It is the “Olympic Games” for science fair exhibitors, conducted -by Science Clubs of America, an activity of Science Service, 1719 N -Street N. W., Washington, D. C. - - [Illustration: _The growing international flavor of the national - science fair is exemplified in contestants like Anders S. Brahme, - Sweden’s entrant at Albuquerque in 1963, and the first non-U. S. - student to achieve Atomic Energy Commission Special Awards - recognition. He was one of 10 alternates to the 10 winners and is - shown receiving a Certificate of Achievement from Harry S. Traynor, - AEC Assistant General Manager._] - -Usually state and regional science fairs are limited, like the national -event, to the 10th, 11th, and 12th grades, but occasionally they have a -division for junior high school entrants. In school districts where -junior high schools hold fairs, the district fair frequently includes -both senior high and junior high divisions. Some elementary schools -conduct science fairs for their 4th, 5th, and 6th grade students. In -both the elementary and junior high school divisions, exhibitors usually -compete against entrants of their own grade level, for example, 5th -graders against 5th graders, and 9th graders against 9th graders. In the -senior division each entrant competes against all others. Although the -overall quality of exhibits at local fairs is rarely up to that of -regional, state, and national fairs, the local events are possibly the -most valuable educational tools because they are viewed by so large a -“grass-roots” audience of classmates, parents, teachers, and other local -citizens. - -In science fairs—as in athletics or music—top prizes are seldom won by -first-time competitors. Almost all national fair exhibitors have -participated in science fairs at various levels for a year or more -before winning their way into the national event. Both experience in -science projects and practice in display techniques are required to -develop outstanding exhibits. Since this is true, the time to start the -science project which will form the basis for your exhibit is now! - - - - - YOUR SCIENCE PROJECT - - -Choosing the Topic - -Since you will necessarily spend considerable thought, time, physical -effort, and (sometimes) money on your project, pick a topic from which -you can expect to learn something. If you can avoid the temptation to -pick one with which you are already familiar, you will probably get more -out of it. Your project should be an adventure, not merely a drill! - -On the other hand your science project need not be in utterly unexplored -areas; to be successful you need not come up with data and conclusions -which will confound professional scientists who have spent their lives -in similar work. You are a student and a hobbyist, not yet a -professional research scientist. Primarily your project should advance -your personal knowledge, and your abilities to observe, speculate, -hypothesize, experiment, deduce, and conclude. - -You should choose a project which you can expect to follow to a -successful conclusion, but which is enough above your current knowledge -to make you “stretch” your abilities. - -But it is important not to bite off more than you can chew. The project -should not demand so much time that you neglect other responsibilities. -However, you need not pass up an interesting topic because covering all -of it would consume too much time. Instead, zero in on just those -aspects which interest you most. - - [Illustration: _Sophomore Eileen O’Brien of New Dorp High School, - Staten Island, New York, displayed this nuclear-related exhibit at - the 13th NSFI at Seattle in 1962, but did not win any AEC - recognition._] - - [Illustration: _At the 14th NSFI at Albuquerque in 1963, junior - Eileen O’Brien returned with a new and better exhibit of a related - but more advanced project..._] - - [Illustration: _... and found herself an AEC Special Awards winner - invited, with her science teacher, to spend a week at Argonne - National Laboratory._] - - [Illustration: _At the 15th NSFI at Baltimore in 1964, senior Eileen - O’Brien qualified again as an AEC Special Awards winner by - exhibiting a more advanced project, but one still related to her - earlier ones._ - Courtesy Science Service] - -You may be able to select a project which will be of continuing interest -in later years. For example, a 9th-grade general-science student might -begin by making an _overall survey_ of a topic to discover what is -already known about it and what remains to be discovered. As a -10th-grade biology student, he might investigate _biological_ aspects of -his topic, and then follow with investigations of _chemical_ and -_physical_ aspects of it while studying 11th grade chemistry and 12th -grade physics. Some outstanding science fair exhibits have resulted from -such progressive development of a single project which the exhibitors -undertook first in junior high school. - -Whenever you ask a question about some aspect of nature you have a -possible project topic. “How does a chicken hatch?” “What is the best -way to treat a burn?” “How could nuclear energy be used in space -travel?” You need only examine the questions that occur to you every day -to find dozens of topics on which to base projects. - -You might identify promising topics by reviewing the table of contents -in your science text, noting chapters or topics of particular interest. -Or you may find it helpful to consult the references listed in the -appendix to this booklet. If you are interested in a project related to -atomic energy, the appendix lists also many nuclear topics and research -areas. - -It is probably wise to select several potential project topics, do a -little reading on each of them, and then pick one. Before reaching a -decision, discuss them with your teachers and parents. Your science -teacher can help you pick a topic that will relate closely to classroom -work, and may be able to suggest interesting approaches you haven’t -considered. By talking your project topic over with your parents and -advisers you can make sure that you will have the time, working space, -moral support, and financial resources needed to complete it -successfully. - - [Illustration: _After failing as sophomores to qualify for AEC - Special Awards at Seattle, both these Texans came back as juniors to - win at Albuquerque with better exhibits of similar, but more refined - projects. James L. Ash (below) is from Dallas, and Michael A. - Haralson (above) is from Abilene._] - - [Illustration: James L. Ash] - -At the outset, the exhibit possibilities of your chosen project may not -be clearly apparent. You cannot predict exactly what procedures you will -follow nor what conclusions you will draw. As you proceed, you will -probably uncover many facts which you will want to tell people about. If -you choose a good topic, work carefully and accurately, and cover the -topic fully, you will produce a successful project which can form the -basis for a good exhibit. - - -Where to Get Help - -One mark of a truly educated individual is his willingness to discuss -his problems with others and profit by their advice and help. One of the -most important things that you can learn while doing a project is how -and where to obtain information and assistance. - -Your _science teacher_ may be an excellent source. If he cannot provide -specialized help himself probably he can direct you to those who can. - -Your _school librarian_ can point out specialized references such as -scientific encyclopedias and “reserved” reference books. Scientific -magazines and journals have good “survey articles” on recent -developments. Don’t overlook the public, college, and special technical -libraries near you. Also, academies of science, technical societies, and -science laboratories may have libraries or publications you can use. - -It is to be hoped that your topic is one on which some expert local -counseling will be available—from your science teacher or one of your -parents, your family physician or the local pharmacist, your -agricultural extension agent, or scientific and engineering personnel of -a nearby manufacturing plant, defense installation, research laboratory, -or college. - -Select a _project adviser_ and try to enlist his cooperation. Explain -your choice of topic to him and how you plan to develop it. (If you have -already done background reading you may find him more receptive and more -helpful.) You may need to consult him on several different occasions. -You will probably want him to check you project plan to make sure that -you have not left out an important step, or included some potential -pitfall. Also, you may want him to review the final written report in -which you summarize your work and findings. - -However, your project must rest upon work done by you. It is permissible -to obtain assistance from others, but never to the extent that you are -standing on the sidelines watching someone else do your work. Keep your -interviews brief and approach each conference with a clear idea of what -you are seeking and why, and always only after you have already done as -much as possible—whether by way of reading or project work—to find the -answer on your own. By doing this you will gain valuable habits of -self-reliance, and added stature in your adviser’s eyes. - -_Special equipment and materials_ may be obtained or borrowed through -laboratories. College laboratories assist sometimes. Some industrial -organizations may have surplus equipment and materials that they are -willing to lend or donate. - - -Documenting Your Work - -Project Notebook Every scientist worth his salt keeps detailed notes on -each project on which he works. You should do likewise. This notebook, -which could as well be a set of file cards, contains a running, -day-by-day account of everything that concerns the project—observations, -speculations, experiments, materials, expenses, procedures, data and -observations, hypotheses, checks for validity, conclusions, and -conjectures. From such notebooks comes the information for the -scientist’s formal report, or “paper”, by which he advises his employers -and colleagues of the progress of his work. - -Since the notebook contains everything pertaining to your project, it -may become disarranged, no matter how well you organize it in the -beginning. If so, don’t worry—just keep it up to date. - -Project Report But there should be nothing haphazard about the final -report on your project. In some science fairs, this report is displayed -in the exhibit and considered in the judging. Even where not required, -the project report belongs with your exhibit. - -After writing your report you will find that much of your exhibit -planning—and even some of the text which will appear in your exhibit—is -already accomplished. - -If you are doing your project as a classroom assignment, your teacher -may specify the manner in which your report is to be organized. -Otherwise, you can follow a format such as this: - - 1. TITLE. Keep it short. If accuracy requires more than a few words, - consider using a very brief main title and a more definitive subtitle. - - 2. ABSTRACT. This is a very brief condensation of the entire report - summarizing the objectives of the project, what you did, and the - conclusions you came to. - - 3. INTRODUCTION. Describe your topic and give some background - information such as relevant work done by others. Summarize your - purpose, scope, and method of investigation. State the questions or - hypotheses your examined. Include the most significant findings of - your investigations. - - 4. MATERIALS AND METHODS. Describe in detail the materials, equipment, - methods, experiments, controls, unforeseen difficulties and remedies. - - 5. OBSERVATIONS AND DATA. Describe your observations. Include some of - your observational data here as an example. You may wish to put the - bulk of it in an appendix. - - 6. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS. Give the main conclusions your observations - tend to prove or deny. (Disproval of your initial hypothesis may be as - important as proof of it!) Include the evidence developed for each - main conclusion and any exceptions, or for opposing theories. Offer - possible explanations. Compare your results and interpretations with - those of other workers in the same field. - - 7. NEW QUESTIONS, POSSIBLE APPLICATIONS, AND FUTURE PROJECTS, IF ANY. - - 8. APPENDIX. Give more detailed and supplementary information, often - including graphs, tables, photographs, and drawings. - - 9. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Keep it brief, listing only those books and - periodicals which you actually used to provide background information. - - 10. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. Both prudence and the best traditions of science - require that you acknowledge all help which you receive. Usually - student scientists do not produce laboratory work of professional - quality, nor do student exhibitors match the skill of commercial - designers and fabricators. Consequently, when judges encounter very - exceptional unacknowledged work, they may reasonably wonder if the - exhibitor received some professional help. And if on part, they - speculate, on how much more? Result: they might be tempted to - disqualify the exhibit entirely, whereas if you had acknowledged - frankly—“Professor James Smith, Alpha University, for loan of four - color transparencies”, or “My father, who devised the lighting - system”—you might lose a point or two on their scorecards, but remain - in competition. - -Your project notebook and your formal project report are important -components of your exhibit to follow. If both are completed first, you -will find planning the rest of your exhibit a much simpler task. - - - - - EXHIBITING YOUR SCIENCE PROJECT - - -Planning the Content of Your Exhibit - -Try to organize your exhibit content so that it will be meaningful to -viewers who know less about it than you do. The following outline may be -followed, but is not the only one possible. Don’t be afraid to let the -unusual aspects of your project influence the organization of its -exhibit. - -Title The same title you chose for your project report may be an -acceptable exhibit title. It should be brief and as nontechnical as -possible. A subtitle may explain or amplify the main title. - -The Summary Message (or Statement of the Problem) Give the viewer a -capsule explanation of the project and its significance. You may use a -simplified version of your abstract, eliminating information and -language which is not meaningful to the average viewer. Keep it simple. - -Hypotheses and Conclusions List these briefly in a manner understandable -to the average viewer. (Those interested in details can find them in -your notebook and project report.) - -Method and Scope of Investigation Hit only the high points, but -emphasize instances where you feel you displayed unusual imagination, -ingenuity, or resourcefulness. - -Observations and Data Both are important, but in an exhibit too many -data can be dull. Select only those which are essential to the capsule -story of your project. - -Photographs and Illustrations Review the foregoing elements to see where -pictures will tell your story as well as (or better than) words. List -all photographs you have already taken of your project, ones you can -still obtain, and drawings which will illustrate or help narrate your -story. Don’t be selective yet. Later, when you are designing your -exhibit layout, space limitations will force you to choose. - -Equipment and Specimens These also help narrate your story. Select -objects and apparatus which will provide viewers a good grasp of your -project work. Have you hit upon a low-cost substitute for expensive -laboratory equipment? Do some of your specimens present clearly visible -evidence of points you want to make? Are any of the experimental results -or specimens particularly unusual, spectacular, or beautiful? List them -for possible use. - -Handout Brochure An important but frequently overlooked exhibit -component is the “handout brochure” to be distributed to interested -viewers. Even a single mimeographed page can supply more written -information than should be displayed in the limited space of the -exhibit. It can provide serious viewers a condensed version of the -project report. The brochure provides all viewers a reference when they -discuss the science fair and your exhibit with others. Consider the -handout brochure while planning your exhibit’s contents because it can -contain data and graphs which might otherwise clutter and confuse your -exhibit proper. - - -How Exhibits Are Judged - -Rules for the judging of exhibits vary, but most science fairs stick -fairly closely to the criteria and point values used by the National -Science Fair-International, which are: - - I. Creative Ability Total 30 points - - How much of the work appears to show originality of approach or - handling? Judge that which appears to you to be original regardless of - the expense of purchased or borrowed equipment. Give weight to - ingenious uses of materials, if present. Consider collections creative - if they seem to serve a purpose. - - II. Scientific Thought Total 30 points - - Does the exhibit disclose organized procedures? Is there a planned - system, classification, accurate observation, or controlled - experiment? Does exhibit show a verification of laws, or a cause and - effect, or present by models or other methods a better understanding - of scientific facts or theories? Give weight to probable amount of - real study and effort which is represented in the exhibit. Guard - against discounting for what might have been added, included, or - improved. - - III. Thoroughness Total 10 points - - Score here for how completely the story is told. It is not essential - that step-by-step elucidation of construction details be given in - working models. - - IV. Skill Total 10 points - - Is the workmanship good? Under normal working conditions, is the - exhibit likely to demand frequent repairs? In collections, how skilled - is the handling, preparation, mounting or other treatment? - - V. Clarity Total 10 points - - In your opinion, will the average person understand what is being - displayed? Are guide marks, labels, and descriptions spelled - correctly, and neatly yet briefly presented? Is there sensible - progression of the attention of the spectator across or through the - exhibit? - - VI. Dramatic Value Total 10 points - - Is this exhibit more attractive than others in the same field? Do not - be influenced by “cute” things, lights, buttons, switches, cranks, or - other gadgets which contribute nothing to the exhibit. - -Such rules leave much to the individual discretion of the judges, -particularly regarding the distinction between the science project -itself and the exhibit. Be sure to study your local rules and judging -criteria carefully. Since usually 60 points pertain to creativity and -sound scientific thought, a large part of your score depends on the -original excellence of your science project. The remaining 40 points -apply to the manner in which you develop your exhibit of that project. - - [Illustration: _AEC Special Award competition is judged by a - “blue-ribbon” panel composed of people who head research and - development programs at AEC offices and laboratories throughout the - United States. At the 14th NSFI at Albuquerque, these judges spent - the morning identifying eligible exhibits, “huddled” late in the - afternoon to select semifinal choices, and then in the evening - talked with each semifinalist before making the final choice of - winners and alternates._] - -Judges study criteria and point values before evaluating exhibits. -Although your exhibit should speak for itself, at many fairs the judges -chat with each exhibitor to determine how well he understands his -project area. Be prepared to present details concisely and clearly, but -avoid lengthy explanations unless asked. - - -Designing Your Exhibit - -After you have finished your project, documented your work in a project -report, planned and listed what must go into the exhibit, and -familiarized yourself with the ground rules under which you will -compete, you are ready to design your exhibit. The sections which follow -suggest guidelines and construction hints on exhibit structure; ways of -presenting information (text, photographs, transparencies, line -drawings, captions, models, specimens, laboratory equipment, etc.); -layout and location of exhibit items, exhibit materials, color, and -lighting. - - - STRUCTURE - -_Size._ National Science Fair-International rules limit exhibit size to -48 inches wide and 30 inches deep. The structure may rest on the floor, -on its own supports, or on a table (normally about 30 inches high) -supplied by the fair. Even if local rules permit more space, you may -find it desirable to build to NSFI rules so your structure will be -eligible at all fairs. - -The overall height of your exhibit is limited by practical -considerations to about 7 feet, since the passing viewer’s eye -encompasses most easily the area between 30 and 90 inches above the -floor and the view of someone standing near is even more limited. -Tabletop structures 48 inches or less in height work out nicely, and can -conserve materials. - -_Shape._ With few exceptions, science fair exhibitors can explain their -projects adequately within structures similar to those shown in Figures -1 and 2. Such tabletop “booth” exhibits have these common features: (a) -a large back wall which can be used for the introductory message, for -featured illustrations or specimens, or for important conclusions; (b) -two smaller side walls, angled outward for easier viewing, which can -contain supplementary text and illustrations; and (c) horizontal display -space at table height to hold specimens, apparatus, project notebook and -project report, handout brochures, etc. Some exhibitors fit this space -with a slanted- or stepped-shelf unit. If the back and side walls are -fastened to such a base the structure is stronger. - - [Illustration: _These two basic structures are designed for - simplicity, flexibility, economy of materials, and repeated use in - successive years of science fair competition. Both meet NSFI rules - on maximum dimensions. The structure shown in Figure 1 is easiest to - build. The one in Figure 2 is a modified Figure 1 designed to - accommodate an outsize object which must rest on the floor._] - - [Illustration: Figure 1] - - [Illustration: Figure 2] - -Many variations are possible. Very tall objects might be handled by the -self-supporting structure shown in Figure 2. Some exhibitors extend back -and side walls to the floor, but this requires more panel material and -tempts the exhibitor to mount text and illustrations below the level of -easy viewing. - -The title board can be functional as well as attractive, as in Figure 1. -It puts your main title where it can be seen easily and it conserves -wall space. It can brace the side walls and serve to shield lights. - -_Materials._ Attractive exhibit structures can be built from artboard -and similar paper products, so for one-time-only elementary school -exhibits you may not wish to invest in more permanent materials. But if -you look forward to other projects, exhibits, and fairs, you will be -wise to consider materials which will hold up in repeated use. Even -though most fairs do not permit you to compete in successive years with -the same exhibit material, seldom do they require you to build a new -structure each year to hold your changing displays. - -“Masonite” and similar wood-fiber particle boards are relatively -inexpensive, take paint and adhesives well, are fairly light, and in -thicknesses of more than ⅛ inch and lengths of less than 48 inches are -sufficiently rigid when supported by adjoining panels. They are -available with rows of holes pre-drilled to accommodate a multiplicity -of “pegboard” hanger devices. If you hope to use your basic structure -for other exhibits, pegboard allows you flexibility in rearranging -three-dimensional exhibit items. Also, the holes facilitate wiring down -display items that might be dislodged by careless viewers or filched by -thoughtless souvenir hunters. - -One standard 4-by-8 foot sheet of hardboard or plywood will suffice for -the typical tabletop structure if you divide it as shown in Figure 3. - -Plywood and untempered hardboard should be sealed with a primer coat -before finish painting. If you seal the reverse side of the panels also, -they warp less. For finish coats, the enamel now available in aerosol -spray cans will save you some brush work. Always apply spray paints in -several light coats while the surface is horizontal, to avoid unsightly -“runs”. - -For bracing, framing, and other woodwork, white pine is strong, light, -easy to work, and unlikely to warp if seasoned properly. - -Hinges, washers, bolts, nails, or screws which will be painted may be of -uncoated steel. Otherwise, you may find brass, stainless steel, -aluminum, or chrome-plated steel better. - -If your exhibit proves to be a winner, you may need to erect and -dismantle it at several fairs. A little ingenuity and foresight in the -selection of removable-pin hinges, wing-nut bolt assemblies, and the -like, may save a lot of time later and help keep your exhibit structure -in good condition. - - [Illustration: Figure 3] - - CUTTING 4′ × 8′ PLYWOOD OR HARD BOARD FOR MAXIMUM ECONOMY - BACK WALL PANEL 34″ × 48″ - TITLE BOARD OR “HEADER” - 6″ - SIDE WALL PANELS (2 ea.) 28″ × 48″ - OVERHEAD PLAN OF TYPICAL SCIENCE FAIR EXHIBIT STRUCTURE - BACK WALL PANEL - SIDE WALL PANEL - SIDE WALL PANEL - BASE UNIT - 30″ (allowable) - LIGHT BEHIND HEADER - 48″ (allowable) - SIDE PLAN OF SAME STRUCTURE - CONCEALED LIGHT - HEADER - BACK PANEL - SIDE PANELS - ELECTRICAL OUTLET BOX - BASE UNIT - TABLE - -_Lighting and Wiring._ Fluorescent lighting is bulky and hard to conceal -in the average science fair exhibit. Incandescent showcase lamps work -well, take up less space, and are less expensive. If you need shielded -light, consider inexpensive clip-on bed lamps. - -Most fairs have rigid rules on electrical wiring and you should study -them and those of the National Science Fair-International. If you will -install a fused entry-outlet box on your back wall or base unit, as -shown in Figure 3, you can run all fixture cords to that one location. -Most fairs provide power cords reaching to the exhibitor’s electrical -inlet, but don’t depend on it. Procure 25 to 50 feet of heavy-duty -extension cord and keep it handy, just in case. - - - PRESENTING INFORMATION - -After determining the shape and size of your structure, you can decide -how best to present the information needed to explain your project. Some -exhibitors prefer to build their structure first, so that they may try -out different arrangements of illustrations and three-dimensional items -on the finished display space. Or, you can measure off your back wall, -side walls, and interior base areas, and then “try out” the size and -placement of your display items on matching-size sheets of tracing -paper. - -There are many good ways to present the same information. Exhibit design -is an art with some established principles but with few fixed rules. -Here are some guidelines which may help you. - -_Preliminary Sketches._ Make sketches of all possible layout ideas and -study each for clarity of content and visual effect. - -_Text._ Keep all text to a minimum number of words. Viewers come to see -an exhibit, not to read it! A good illustration, specimen, or a graphic -representation (see Figure 4) can save many words. Where text is needed, -letter it clearly and large enough for easy reading. But avoid -unnecessarily large or garish lettering—titles and text should only -explain your exhibit, never dominate it! - - [Illustration: Figure 4] - -_Text Placement._ Some exhibitors place captions uniformly over or under -all illustrations, but text blocks placed at the side may communicate as -clearly, and help prevent visual monotony (see Figure 5). - -_Points of Emphasis._ If you use a series of illustrations or specimens -to tell a running story, consider enlarging or featuring one of the most -significant items so it can serve as the focal point of the series, as -in Figure 5. - -_Large Photos._ Unless your photographs can be viewed in detail without -stooping and squinting, either have them enlarged or discard them. - -_Color Photos._ Color photos are expensive, but just one or two will add -interest to a large group of black-and-white prints. - -_Charts and Graphs._ If your exhibit contains charts and graphs, keep -them simple. Avoid line charts if several curves must cross and recross. -Logarithmic charts, scatter diagrams, and similar ratio charts are -confusing to the average viewer. Caption and explain charts and graphs -adequately. Simple pie, bar, and representational charts, as shown in -Figure 6, can be particularly meaningful. Often the use of colors will -make the various factors more discernible. - - [Illustration: Figure 5] - -_White Space._ Next to content, the exhibitor’s most valuable tool is -“white space”—those unoccupied areas of his display panels. Crowded, -busy panels on which materials and text fill every inch of space are a -hallmark of the amateur. Worse, they defeat their purpose, for viewers -usually take one hurried glance, decide that understanding so cluttered -an exhibit would be a chore, and move on to simpler displays. (As a rule -of thumb, approximately 40% of your available display space should be -occupied by absolutely nothing!) - -_Organization._ Just as you organize words into sentences and -paragraphs, your exhibit elements (textual and visual) should be -organized into groups and subgroups. (See Figures 1 and 2.) Here again -the “feature” technique may be employed. For example, if you are -displaying several similar specimens you may emphasize the most unusual -one by placing it on a raised or differently-colored background as shown -in Figure 7. - - [Illustration: Figure 6] - - [Illustration: Figure 7] - -_Apparatus._ Amateur exhibitors sometimes get carried away with -enthusiasm for large arrays of mechanical apparatus which are both -unnecessary and confusing. If your project involved development of a -unique piece of equipment, consider whether you can display it alone, -without the entire assembly into which it fits. Sometimes this can be -done by displaying the featured part alongside a drawing or photograph -of the complete assembly, as in Figure 4. Again, keep details to a -minimum; leave them in the project report. - -_Mechanical movement._ Usually motion in a science fair exhibit is -called for only when there is a clear need for it. Thus it is logical to -use a turntable to revolve different fluorescing mineral specimens under -“black light”, or to present successive radioactive ore specimens to a -Geiger-counter probe. But to use such a turntable to present a series of -photographs would probably be unnecessarily contrived. Usually you may -spend your efforts better on sound content, clean design, and clear text -than on mechanical gimmicks. - -_Pushbuttons and Such._ Few audience-participation devices in science -fair exhibits merit the effort, money, and space expended on them. But -if you do display equipment for viewers to operate, make certain it can -be operated safely and dependably even when you are absent (as during -the judging). Nothing frustrates an exhibit viewer more than a -pushbutton that doesn’t work! - -_Demonstrations._ These can be informative and interesting, and you may -want to include one. But since you cannot be on hand to demonstrate at -all times, design your exhibit to “stand alone” without the -demonstration. And when you are absent, you may avoid unsatisfied viewer -curiosity either by removing the idle demonstration equipment, or by -posting a “Next demonstration at ____ o’clock” sign. - -_Living Things._ Plants or animals which have been employed in the -science project can often be displayed to lend interest and meaning to -the exhibit. But since the science fair follows the project, interim -growth and aging may alter living specimens so that at fair time they -are considerably less meaningful or attractive than at the peak of your -project. Also, if you compete in several fairs, you may find -transportation and special care of your living specimens difficult and -onerous. If you do plan to exhibit living specimens, familiarize -yourself with local and national fair regulations governing their use, -make sure that animals can be housed attractively and comfortably, and -protect both animals and plants from inquisitive fingers. Then be -selective and employ the minimum needed to make your point in the -exhibit. - - -About Color - -Properly employed, color is functional as well as aesthetically -pleasing. You may find the following suggestions helpful in deciding -which colors to employ in your exhibit, and where. - -In a space as small as your science fair exhibit, one or two basic -colors, plus black and white, should suffice. Use your color in a few -large blocks, not in many small patches. Different basic colors can be -used to define different main areas of emphasis; then different shades -of the basic colors can be used to define subareas. - -Life-science project exhibits can rely most safely on pastel shades -running heavily to greens and yellows, while physical-science projects -are portrayed frequently against more intense colors. In either case, -avoid violent contrasts and “paintpot” variety. Your exhibit should -convey an air of handsome restraint, not flippant prettiness or carnival -gaudiness. Your colors should attract and enhance, not shock or confuse! - - [Illustration: Figure 8 - - _Far too frequently science fair judges are asked to evaluate very - poor exhibits of what may have been very worthwhile science - projects. Some of the more common mistakes they encounter have been - included by our artist in the sketch above. Now that you have read - our advice on designing science fair exhibits, how many shortcomings - can you identify? (Answers below.)_ - - _Answers: Structure extends too high and too low for easy viewing, - and width exceeds dimensions usually allowed. The main title is too - long. Two words are misspelled. The best display space is wasted on - ordinary objects which contribute little new understanding to topic - exhibited. There are too many photographs which are too small and - poorly positioned for viewing. Specimen boxes positioned on the - floor as an afterthought where few viewers will attempt to inspect - them. Endless text provides details of little or no interest to the - average viewer. More text on introductory topic (“Catching Bugs”) - than on the exhibit topic. No logical progression from the original - problem and hypothesis through experimentation and observation to - conclusions. There is no project notebook, report, or handout - brochure. No thought has been given to lighting. No points of - emphasis in either text or illustrations. White space has not been - exploited._] - - A STEP-BY-STEP ACOUNT OF HOW I MOUNT MY BUGS - CATCHING BUGS - MOUNTING BUGS - SCIZZORS - TWEEZERS - PIN - COTTON - NET - CHLOROFORM - SOME OF MY BUGS - -Where desired, visibility and impact of illustrations and specimens can -be increased by mounting them against contrasting background colors. -Avoid the amateurish impulse to always tape or paint a border around -illustrations, specimens, and blocks of type. Placed properly against a -contrasting background, these provide their own best border. - -The final test of color is how it looks in actual use, so experiment -with your color schemes before making a final choice. And if you have -any doubts, invite the reactions of your family and friends and also the -advice of your art teacher. - - -Completing Your Exhibit - -Before mounting your exhibit elements on the structure permanently, lay -them out temporarily. (You will probably want to move them around -several times to get the best position.) You can then pencil in your -title, text, and caption blocks in actual size. Use separate sheets of -paper for each, and try out various locations around the materials they -explain. - -Use of too many letter styles will detract from the attractiveness of -your exhibit. Headings can be all in capital letters, and subheads in -smaller “caps”, or in initial caps and “lower case” letters. Statements -and other text should use caps and lower case. Do not use all caps for a -paragraph of descriptive material—a mass of capitals is harder to read. - -Before completing the lettering, you should try out your layout and text -on classmates, family, and perhaps your English teacher. Science fair -exhibits should be understandable to intelligent laymen as well as to -trained specialists. Technical jargon, pompous adjectives, and stilted -sentence structure are not scientific. In scientific writing, as in any -good writing, the simple, direct approach is usually best. Try to use -short sentences, familiar words, and a minimum of technical terms and -formulae. - -Are your present photographs too small? You can experiment with -desirable sizes of photos by clipping from old magazines any -illustrations that appear about the right size, and trying them on your -layout. You can then have your photos enlarged to the ideal sizes that -you find most pleasing. Matte-finish photo prints are preferable since -glossy prints produce “glare”. Before mounting photographs, trim off the -white border, which detracts from the impact of your pictures and the -simple unity of your exhibit. - -When fully satisfied with your layout, begin the final lettering of your -text. For hand-lettering, sketch with a soft pencil first, using a ruler -and eraser freely. A lettering guide, borrowed from your school’s -graphic arts department, will prove very helpful. Unless you are -experienced you can save yourself trouble by not lettering directly upon -the background. Instead, letter each copy block on a separate piece of -art paper which can be glued into position later. Have a friend or -teacher double-check your lettering for typographical errors. - -With illustrations and copy blocks complete and trimmed to size, you are -ready to start mounting. For paper products use “rubber cement”, -obtainable at stationery stores. Coat both surfaces completely, but do -not press them together until each is dry. To avoid air bubbles, first -separate the coated surfaces with a “slip sheet” of waxed paper or -aluminum foil, which can be slipped out when the materials are -positioned exactly. Then press into place with a soft cloth or rubber -roller. (Excess cement will rub off when dry, without damage.) Also -consider using double-coated adhesive tape for mounting. It is -obtainable at art-supply stores. - -Assemble your structure, mount your lighting fixtures, and plug them in. -Install whatever equipment needs to be displayed. Put your project -notebook, project report, and handout brochure in place. Your science -fair exhibit is finished and you are ready to compete! - - [Illustration: _Typical arrival day activities at the 14th National - Science Fair-International, Albuquerque, New Mexico, 1963._] - - - - - COMPETITION AND ITS REWARDS - - -Some of you can look forward to enjoying within the next several years a -thrilling experience. - -Some morning in May you will bid your parents farewell, walk up the -steps of an airliner, and touch down a few hours later in a distant -city. For the next five days you will be caught up in the excitement and -fascination of the National Science Fair-International! - -The full impact of your nation’s science fair hits you the morning you -set up your exhibit in the auditorium. You knew that you had a good -exhibit when you entered the district fair back home in March. (Since -this is your second year of serious competition, and you have improved -both your science project and your exhibit, you weren’t too surprised to -win there.) But regional and statewide competition is even tougher, so -you were holding your breath until they finally called your name! - -Now here you are, and as you appraise the 400 other exhibits going up -besides yours, you realize this is the “big league”. These guys and gals -are really good. But some of your awe evaporates as you talk with your -neighbors, and while you help the pretty blonde with the guppies -position her heavy aquaria. Win or not, this is going to be fun! - -And so it is—during the tension of the judging the next day, when you -show your exhibit to the public the day after that, and throughout the -tours of research laboratories and industrial processing plants that -follow. In conversations with the judges, in the varied social contacts -with more than 400 fellow exhibitors from the United States and several -foreign countries, you get a fresh look at the rewards of serious -scientific endeavor. One evening you listen enthralled by the startling -concept being explained by one of the “big men” in science. You’ve seen -his name and picture in newspapers, textbooks, and technical journals, -and there he stands, talking seriously to you and your fellow -exhibitors. As he explains a problem that has puzzled you, you begin to -see science as a community of kindred minds where every serious -truth-seeker is welcome, where there is no rank other than that bestowed -on active intellects, sound procedures, and reasoned, honest -conclusions. - -All too soon, the week is almost over. At the Awards Banquet they are -calling the names of the winners and you sit unsurprised when the early -prizes pass you by. You’ve studied those winning exhibits, and you must -acknowledge that they have the edge on yours—one because of the very -unusual hypothesis posed and proved, the other because of the masterful -clarity with which it explains the area of investigation. - -But next they name the winners of special awards, presented by the -American Chemical Society, The American Institute of Biological -Sciences, the military departments, and similar organizations, for -outstanding exhibits related to the programs of the sponsors. And here -you are on the stage, having your photograph taken with the nine other -winners of the U. S. Atomic Energy Commission’s Special Awards! - -After the banquet, the AEC representative explains to you that the AEC -Special Award includes considerably more than the Certificate of -Achievement you have just received. - -First, a duplicate certificate will be sent to your principal for -display among the school trophies. Then, in August you and your science -teacher will fly to Chicago for a week as exciting and rewarding as the -one you have just completed. You will be guests of the AEC’s Argonne -National Laboratory—an outstanding center for nuclear research. Your -group will spend several days behind the scenes in Argonne’s -laboratories. You will visit outstanding research facilities and science -museums in downtown Chicago. Best of all, you will have an opportunity -to discuss your interests and career plans with members of the Argonne -staff—men and women who are doing professional research in the same -areas that interest you. - -What are the costs of such an experience? Only the attention you pay to -your science instruction; the thought and care you devote to a project -related to nuclear science; and the clarity and ingenuity with which you -explain that project to your classmates, teachers, and the general -public through your science fair exhibit. - - [Illustration: _First Atomic Energy Commission Special Awards - winners, selected at the 13th NSFI at Seattle, photographed during - their Nuclear Research Orientation Week at the AEC’s Argonne - National Laboratory near Chicago in August 1962. High point of the - week, winners report, is the opportunity—pictured here—to talk - face-to-face with Argonne scientists who are working in areas of - research of particular interest to each student visitor._ - Courtesy Argonne National Laboratory] - - [Illustration: continued] - - [Illustration: _1963 AEC Special Awards winners and their science - teachers spent their Nuclear Research Orientation Week at Argonne - National Laboratory. Top photograph is of Elizabeth Winstead of - Jacksonville, Florida, whose prize-winning exhibit at Albuquerque is - pictured on the cover. The photograph below hers is of William E. - Murray, Jr., of Bethesda, Maryland, who was also an AEC Special - Awards winner at Seattle in 1962._ - Courtesy Argonne National Laboratory] - - - - - QUO VADIS? - - -Or “where do you go from here?” - -First, resolve now to enter science fair competition this year. You may -not win, but at least you will have started, and you will gain some of -the experience needed for victory in later years. - -Next, choose a science project topic, and discuss your choice with your -science teacher, science club adviser, or hobby counselor. Especially if -this is your first attempt, choose a topic which can be investigated -with materials and equipment available to you at school or at home, and -which can be finished by mid-February. Also, allocate definite -times—particularly on weekends and holidays—when you will work on your -project. (Remember that exams and term papers will probably keep you -very busy in late January and early February.) - -Third, execute your project, keeping careful notes and consulting your -project counselor from time to time. Then draft your Project Report, -discuss it with your counselor, revise and edit it as necessary, and get -it typed in final form. Also verify the date your local science fair -opens. - -Fourth, plan your exhibit content, design and build your exhibit -structure, select your exhibit components and draft your text, and make -trial layouts until you arrive at the best possible design, including -color. Prepare your color backgrounds, letter your text, and install -text, components, and lighting. Get your handout brochure mimeographed. - -Fifth, enter local science fair competition. If you don’t win, find out -why by comparing your project and your exhibit with the winners’, and by -discussing it with your parents, classmates, teachers, judges, and -viewers. If you do win, attempt to understand what made your exhibit -better than the others. - -Finally, continue reading and thinking about your basic project topic, -so that next year you will know whether you want to continue to work on -the same topic or to shift your interest to another field. - -Above all, have fun, and - - - GOOD LUCK! - - - - - APPENDIX I - NUCLEAR SCIENCE PROJECT IDEAS - - -The following projects related to nuclear science were exhibited at the -National Science Fair-International from 1950 through 1963. - - -General and Theoretical Topics - - The Review and Future of the Atom - Simplified Nuclear Physics - Approach to the Study of Nuclear Physics - Elementary Particles—an Investigation of the Fundamental Components of - Matter and Energy - Odd Nucleon Effect - A Study of Binding Energies and Nuclear Reactions - The Integrated Theory of Atomic Structure Through Inductive and - Deductive Reasoning - Tools of Nuclear Physics - E = MC²—Energy Equals Mass Multiplied by the Speed of Light Squared - Downfall of Parity - How to Measure the Charge of the Electron - How Atoms Are Constructed - Formation of Heavy Nuclear Particles - Millikan Oil-Drop Experiment - Nuclear Magnetic Resonance - Third Electrons in Transition-Metal Complexes - Probability in Electron Position - Stability of Radioactive Equilibria - The Electron: Measurement of Its Charge and Mass - Experimental Study of Nuclear Structure - Fourth State of Matter - Project-Observation Satellite - Creation of Antimatter - Energy Loss of Beta Particles in Lead and Aluminum - Stochastic-Radioactive-Equilibria Models - Cosmology - Controlled Thermonuclear Reaction - Electron Chemistry - Plasma-Ion Engine - Plasma Production by Gaseous Ionization - Finite Calculus and Particle Physics - Two Applications of the Plasma Discharge - Increasing the Efficiency of a Plasma Jet Suitable for Space - Propulsion - Prediction of Elements 99-118 - Exact Evaluation of the Charge of the Electron - Three-Dimensional Periodic Chart of Atoms - Atom Mobiles - Weight of an Atom - Determination of the Charge of an Electron Using the Millikan-Stokes - Effects - Atomic-Particles Detection and Analysis - Electron-Charge Determination by Oil-Drop Method - The Mineral That May Shape Our Destiny: Uranium - A Machine to Show Radioactive Materials - The Making of Active Metals - The Extraction of Uranium from Carnotite - The Chemistry of Thorium - - -Special Apparatus Topics - - Construction and Operations of Wilson Cloud Chamber - Geiger-Müller Counter: Theory and Construction - Experiments with a Homemade Geiger Counter - An Experimental High-Voltage Geiger Counter - Design and Construction of a Scintillation Counter - The Construction and Theory of Radiation Detectors for Radioactive - Experiments - The Underlying Principles of Accelerators for Positively Charged - Particles - Electronic-Equipment Construction and Applications to Nuclear Theory - and Techniques - A Germanium Linear Accelerator - Proton Accelerator - Construction of a One-Half Million Electron-Volt Proton Cyclotron - Construction of Apparatus for Accelerating and Detecting High-Energy - Beta Radiation - Betatron - A Continuous Cloud Chamber - Van de Graaff Generator - The Mass-Energy Problem of Particle Accelerators - Mass Spectrograph for Determining the Mass of Atoms - A Liquid-Scintillation Spectrometer for Counting Natural Carbon-14 - Samples - Proton Linear Accelerator - Magnetic Thermonuclear Chamber - Atom Smasher and Ionic-Drive Reaction Motor - Expansion Cloud Chamber for Observation of Tracks of Alpha Particles - Nuclear-Magnetic Resonance Spectrometer - High-Voltage Particle Acceleration - Linear Accelerator - Van de Graaff Generator Designed for an Accelerating Tube - Wilson Cloud Chamber - Low Energy Linear Accelerator - Nuclear-Magnetic Resonance and Spectrometry - Millikan’s Oil-Drop Experiment - Theory, Design, and Construction of a 10½-inch Cyclotron - Carbon-14 Counter - Proton-Free Precession Magnetometry - The Bubble Chamber - Electron Accelerator - Nuclear-Magnetic Resonance - Beta Synchrotron - Electrostatic Particle Accelerator with Van de Graaff Generator Power - Supply - The Cyclotron - Linear Alpha-Particle Accelerator - The Plasma Jet - Beta-Ray Spectrometer - Freon-13 B1 Bubble Chamber - Wilson Liquid-Piston Cloud Chamber - Expansion-Type Cloud Chamber - Nuclear-Magnetic Resonance Spectrometer - Linear-Subatomic-Particle Accelerator - Experimental Linear Accelerator - New Design in Microwave Techniques Used in Electron Acceleration - Application of Relativity to the Phenomena of a Diffusion Cloud - Chamber - 0.5-Mev Electron Accelerator - Radio-Frequency Plasma Torch - Design, Construction, and Operation of a 3-inch Freon Bubble Chamber - Experiments in Plasma Physics - Studies with a 500,000-volt Electron Accelerator - An Experimental Plasma Generator - The Plasma Torch - Using Nuclear Emulsions to Track Ionizing Particles - Experimental Study of Nuclear Structure - Emission Studies of a Nitrogen Plasma - A Combination 3-Mev Neutron Source and Medium-energy X-ray Source - Van de Graaff Electron Accelerator - Cosmic Rays Studied with a Counter-controlled Cloud Chamber - Radio-Frequency Plasma Generator - Plasma Acceleration - Investigation of High-Temperature Plasma Techniques Necessary for a - Controlled Thermonuclear Reaction - Atom Smasher—An Electrostatic Particle Accelerator - Design, Construction, and Use of a 0.5-Mev Linear Particle Accelerator - in Study of Short DeBroglie Wavelengths by - Crystal-Diffraction Method - Production of Plasma by a High-Frequency Magnetic Field - - -Radiation Topics - - A Cosmic Ray - Beta- and Gamma-Ray Analysis - Calculating the Angle of Deflection for Beta-Ray Under Normal - Atmospheric Conditions in Magnetic Fields of Differing - Intensities - Effects of Absorption and Geometry on Beta Count Rate - Detection and Recording of Cosmic Radiation - A Study of Alpha Particles by Means of the Continuous Cloud Chamber - Visual Detection of Alpha Particles - Detection of Subatomic Particles - A Survey of Background Radiation Made with a Geiger Counter - ⁵¹Ne as a Radiation Detector - Detection of Atomic Radiation - Methods of Measuring Radioactivity - Preliminary Study of the Effect of Radiation from some Common - Radioactive Materials on Photographic Film - Carnotite and Radioactivity - Study and Analysis of a Sample of Radioactive Sand from the Atomic - Explosion at Alamogordo - The Use of Ion Exchangers in the Disposal of Radioactive Wastes - Radiation Effects on Fruit Flies - Effects of Radiation on _Drosophila melanogaster_ - Investigating Radioactive Minerals with Thick-Emulsion Photography - Actions of Gamma Radiation on the Offspring of Irradiated Female - Guppies - Influence of Beta-Particle Bombardment upon the Embryonic Development - of the Chick - Autoradiographs of Brain Tumors - A Radiation Detector - A Study of Cosmic Rays - Effects of Atomic Radiation on Rats - Atomic Radiation and the Geiger Counter - Atomic Radishes - Effects of X-Ray Radiation on Plants and Animals - Radiation Demonstration - Nuclear Radiations - Radiation Sterilization - X-Ray, Light’s Cousin - Effects of Ionizing Radiations on Plants and Animals - Roentgen Rays and the Construction of an X-Ray Machine - Visual and Aural Detection of Cosmic and Atomic Radiation - Radioautography - Experimentation with Ionizing Radiation - Radiation Hazard? - Phosphorus Uptake by Autoradiography - Demonstration of Rutherford’s Method of Separating Alpha, Beta, and - Gamma Radiation - Radiation—Effects and Possible Protection - Tired Blood—Production of Anemia by Radioactivity - Techniques of Autoradiography - Cosmic Radiation and Life - Radiation in Plant Breeding - Experiments with Induced-Radioactivity Apparatus - Effects of Radiation on the Blood in White Rats - Radioautographic Study of Tryptophan Metabolism in the Rat - The Effects of Beta Rays from ³²P on the Tissues on White Rabbits - Radioactivity Around Us - Effects of Radiation on Mice - Experiment, Design, and Application of Solid Propellant Rockets to - Radiation Studies of the Upper Atmosphere - Comparative Study of Radiation - Alpha and Beta Rays (Photographs) - A Laboratory-Scale Neutron Irradiator - Colchicine vs. Radiation - Mutations in German Millet Induced by Gamma Radiation - Cosmic Radiation - Cloud Chamber Study of Alpha and Beta Radiation - Effects of Radiation on Chick Embryos - The Protection of Cystamine and AET on X-Irradiated Mice - The Effects of X Ray on the Blood of Guinea Pigs - Measurement of Radioactivity in Milk - Chemical Modification of Radiation Effects - The Absorption of Alpha Particles in Air and Other Cases - Mass Absorption of Beta Radiation - The Danger of Radioactive Contamination of Kelp - Carnotite Radiation on Reproduction and Mortality Rates of _Daphnia - magna_ - Mutations Produced by the Irradiation of German Millet Seeds - Spectrometer Analysis of Beta Emitters - The Effects of Total-Body X-ray Radiation on the Hematopoietic System - of the Guinea Pig - Energies of Nuclear Radiations - An Analysis of Tracks Formed by Atomic Particles in a Diffusion Cloud - Chamber - Effects of X-Ray Radiation on the Bacteria _Serratia marcescens_ - Effects of Prenatal Radiation on Postnatal Learning Behavior of Mice - Color Changes in Gemstones by Radiation and Heat Induction - Studies in Effects of the Protection from Ionizing Radiations - Temperature Variation and Effects of Radiation on Reproduction and - Mortality - Effects of Irradiated Neoplasmic Extracts on Carcinoma in Cottontail - Rabbits - Determining Locus of Irradiated Mutant Drosophila “b1-pt-rd” - Effects of Radiation on Bacteria - Effects of Total-Body Irradiation on Longevity of Tissue Homografts in - Rabbits - Radiation—Why Be Concerned? - Radiation Effects on Drosophila - Effect of X rays on Drosophila - Effect of Irradiation on Black Shank Fungus - Comparative Determination of Radioactivity in Rowan County Soils - Lethal and Mutagenic Effects of Radiation on Penicillium - The Teratogenetic Effects of X ray on Hamsters - Protection from Total-Body Irradiation - Effects of Ionizing Radiation from a ⁶⁰Co Source on Ascorbic-Acid - Concentration in _Raphanus sativus_ - Drugs vs. Radiation - Radiation Effects on Selected Botanical Specimens - Energy Loss of Beta Particles in Lead and Aluminum - Radioactive Uptake of ³²P in Animals and Subsequent-Recovery Period - Effects of X rays on Living Cells - Radiation Effect on Chick Embryos - Dietary Defense Against Radiation - Irradiation Effects on Gene Mutations in Drosophila - A Study in Radioactivity - Bacteria Protection from Radiation - Damaging Effects of Radiation - Effect of X-irradiation on Titration of Influenza Virus - Effect of Vitamin-K1 Analogue on Coagulation Time of - Cobalt-60-irradiated Mice - Effect of Gamma Radiation on Regeneration Rate of Planaria - Spirogyra and Cobalt-60 - Effects of Blood Serum from Irradiated Guinea Pigs on Tissue Cultures - Chemical Protection from Radiation in Planaria - Induced Mutations in Drosophila - Effects of Gamma Rays on Yeast and Aspergillus - Radiation-Protective Effects of RNA - Radiation, Hematology, and Biochemical Study of Molt-Control Hormones - of Crayfish, and Possible Importance to Man - Radiation and Mutations - Aromatics Possibly Help Determine Plant Radiosensitivity - Bone Marrow Transplantation and Recovery - Mutation in Tomato Plants Produced by Gamma-Ray Radiation - Dietary Control of Ionizing Radiation - Effects of Cooling on Radiation Damage to Living Cells - Rate of Regeneration of Eyespots in Planaria - Effects of Radiation on Transmission of Nerve Impulses - Irradiation of Amino Acids - - -Radioisotopes Topics - - Use of Radioactive Salts in Plant and Animal Nutrition Studies - The Radioactive Isotopes: Its Uses in Medical Research and Treatment - Chemical Activity of Deuterium as Compared with Hydrogen - Radioisotopes in Medicine - Pinpointing the Past with Carbon-14 - Algae Uptake of ³²P - Radioiodine and Construction of a Geiger-Mueller Counter - Radioiodine in Guppies - Uses of Radioisotopes - Radioisotopes - Chelation of a Radioactive Isotope in Rats - The Role for Radioactive Testosterone on Hematopoieses - Phosphorus-32 Tracer Studies Conducted with the Coleus Plant - Tracing the Organ Uptake of Radioisotopes in Animal Tissue - Carbon-14 in Photosynthesis - Transfer of Radioactive Elements on Succeeding Generations - Corrosion and Adsorption Studies Using Radiochemical Techniques - The Radioactive Elements—Separation, Detection, and Properties - Experiments with Radioisotopes - Translocation of Radioactive Phosphorus - Assimilation of Radioactive Isotopes in Fish - Use of ³²P by Plants - Comparative Studies of Isotope Utilization in Tomato Plants - Detection of Strontium-90 in Backbones of Fish from Areas of the - United States - The Circulation of Iodine (¹³¹I) in the Parabiotic Rat - Radioactive Zinc and Zinc-Chelates in the Hormone Metabolism of - Plant-Tissue Culture - Effect of Dietary Calcium on Deposition of Calcium-45 and Strontium-90 - Autoradiographical Evidences of Cytological-Radioisotope Deposition - Tracing the Development of a Chick Embryo with ³²P - Radioactive Isotopes as Tracers - Beware! Strontium-90 Everywhere - Plant Research with Radioactive Phosphorus - The Kettleman Hills Formation (Carbon-14 Dating) - Radiobiologic Investigations of Contractile Activity and ATP-induced - Pinocytosis _in vitro_ - Determination of the Half-life of ⁶⁵Zn - Atomic Farming - Nutrient Passage Through Plant Grafts as Tested with Radioisotopes - Study of the Period of DNS Synthesis Using Tritiated Thymidine - Absorption of Radioactive Iodine by Molds and Bacteria - Radioisotopes as Tracers - Translocation of ³²P in Plants - - -Nuclear-Change Topics - - Demonstration of Chain Reaction - A Study of Chain Reactions - The Theory and Construction of an Inexpensive Neutron Source of - Moderate Strength - A Study of the Reaction ₅B¹⁰(n,a)₃Li⁷ with the Aid of Nuclear Research - Plates - How Fission and Fusion Take Place - Uranium Fission and Isotope Production - From Uranium to Energy - Atomic Transmutation - Atomic Disintegration - Conversion of Atomic Power to Electric Power - Interactions Between Subatomic Particles - A General Study of Atomic Energy: Its Fundamentals and Its Uses - Atomic Power Plant - Construction of an Atomic Reactor - Atomic Power for Space Travel - Atomic Weapons - Model of Atomic Power Plant - Bikini Bomb-Explosion Model - Destruction by the Atom Bomb - Demonstrated Principles of Nuclear Physics - The Sun—Our Chief Source of Energy - Uranium—Radioactivity and Fission - Atomic Power—The Servant of Man - Power from the Sun - The Process of Nuclear Fission - Fusion—Source of Solar Energy - Electricity from Atomic Power - Effects of Thermal Neutrons on Mammalian Systems - Fusion - Nuclear-Powered Electric Generator - Particle Characteristics and Reactions - Fusion Theory of the Universe - Project Fusion - The Magnetic-Mirror Machine - Plasmatron - The Heating and Confinement of a Thermodynamically Stable Plasma - Controlled Thermonuclear Reaction - The Stability of Radioactive Equilibria - Determination of the Half-life of ⁶⁰Zn - Subatomic Particle Research - Nuclear Disintegration and Density - The Theory of the Plasma Torch - - - - - APPENDIX II - NUCLEAR ENERGY-RELATED INVESTIGATIONS AND APPLICATIONS - - -Listed below are a number of areas in which nuclear knowledge or atomic -energy products may be used to achieve investigative, developmental, or -engineering data and results which would have been unattainable a few -years ago. Science fair exhibits may be based on projects in which these -nuclear “tools” are employed to help solve problems of a non-nuclear -nature. Such exhibits receive consideration for AEC Special Awards at -the National Science Fair-International. - - -Biology - -Biosynthesis of Compounds; Plant Genetics; Plant Metabolism; Plant -Nutrition; Effects of Soil Density and Water Content; Disease Control; -Pollination Agents; Crop Improvement; Photosynthesis; Ecological Cycles; -Pest Control; Action of Pesticides; Ecology of Wildlife; Dispersion of -Pesticides; Nutrition of Domestic Animals; Milk Production; Mammalian -Aging; Animal Physiology; Genetic Chemistry. - - -Medicine - -Blood and Water Volume Studies; Cardiac Output; Blood Flow; Measurement -of Physiological Functions; Location of Appetite Control Centers; -Formation of Blood Cells; Metabolic Processes; Cancer Study; Leukemia -Study; Antibody Therapy; Study of the Central Nervous System; Vitamin -Studies; Behavior of Viruses. - - -Chemistry - -Reaction Mechanisms; Catalysis; Exchange; Kinetics; Corrosion; Dilution; -Diffusion; Mineral Flotation; Detergent Action; Mirror Formation; Metal -Plating; Analysis. - - -Physics - -Standard Length Measurements; Film Thickness; Nuclear Structure; Vapor -Pressures; Elementary Particles. - - -Geology - -Sedimentation; Ocean Currents; Underground-Water Resources and Movement; -Geological Dating. - - -Industry - -Thickness Gauging; Process Control; Inspections for Defects; Volume -Gauging; Leak Detection; Sterilization; Electron Printing; Flow-rate -Gauging; Tool-wear Gauging; Dye-migration Measurement; Oil-well -Acidizing Control; Lubricant Studies; Cleansing Efficiencies; -Measurement of Oxygen in Metals; Food Preservation; Power Sources; -Self-luminous Light Sources. - - - - - APPENDIX III - SUGGESTED REFERENCES - - -The following is a partial listing of publications on science projects, -science fairs, and atomic energy. Many of these publications also -contain bibliographies which readers may use to multiply their source of -knowledge. - - -Science and Science Projects - -_Science Projects Handbook_, Shirley Moore (Ed.), Ballantine Books, - Inc., New York, 1960, 254 pp., $0.50. - -_Ideas for Science Projects_, V. Showalter and I. Slesnick, National - Science Teachers Association, Washington, D. C., 1962, 53 pp., - $1.00. - -_Wonderful World of Science_, Shirley Moore and Judy Viorst, Science - Service, 1719 N Street N. W., Washington, D. C., 1961, 246 pp., - $0.50. - -_How To Do an Experiment_, Philip Goldstein, Harcourt, Brace and World, - Inc., New York, 1957, 260 pp., $2.60. - -_Science News Letter_, published every week by Science Service, 1719 N - Street N. W., Washington, D. C., single copies, $0.15; $5.50 per - year. - -_Scientific American_, published every month by Scientific American, - Inc., 415 Madison Avenue, New York, single copies $0.60; $7.00 per - year. - - -Science Projects and Science Fairs - -_Project Ideas for Young Scientists_, John Taylor, Phoebe Knipling, and - Falconer Smith, Joint Board on Science Education, Washington, D. - C., 1962, 173 pp., $1.25. - -_Ideas for Science Fair Projects_, Ronald Benrey and other winners of - the National Science Fair-International, Fawcett Publications, - Inc., Greenwich, Connecticut, 1962, 144 pp., $0.75. - -_Science Fair Projects_, Science and Mechanics Publishing Company, - Chicago, Illinois, 1962, 162 pp., $0.75. - -_Your Science Fair_, Arden Welte, James Diamond, and Alfred Friedl, - Burgess Publishing Company, Minneapolis, Minnesota, 1959, 103 pp., - $2.75. - -_Scientific Exhibits_, Thomas Hull and Tom Jones, Charles C. Thomas, - Publisher, Springfield, Illinois, 1961, 126 pp., $6.50. - - -Atomic Energy and Nuclear Science Experiments and Projects - -_Sourcebook on Atomic Energy_, Samuel Glasstone, D. Van Nostrand - Company, Inc., Princeton, New Jersey, 1958, 641 pp., $4.40. - -_Annual Report to Congress of the Atomic Energy Commission_, available - from the Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing - Office, Washington, D. C. (January 1964), 512 pp., $1.75. - -_Fundamental Nuclear Energy Research_ (annual report), available from - the Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office, - Washington, D. C. (December 1963), 412 pp., $2.50. - -_Atomic Energy_ (including experiments), Irene Jaworski and Alexander - Joseph, Harcourt, Brace and World, Inc., New York, 1961, 218 pp., - $4.95. - -_Laboratory Experiments with Radioisotopes for High School Science - Demonstrations_, Samuel Schenberg, available from the - Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office, - Washington, D. C., 1958, 59 pp., $0.35. - -_Teaching with Radioisotopes_, U. S. Government Printing Office, out of - print but possibly available in school libraries or science - departments. - -_Experiments with Radioactivity_, National Science Teachers Association, - Washington, D. C., 1957, 20 pp., $0.50. - -_Atomic Energy_, Boy Scouts of America Merit Badge Series, available - from Official Boy Scout Distributors (at local retail stores) or - from Boy Scouts of America, National Supply Service, New - Brunswick, New Jersey 08903. - -_Scientific Instruments You Can Make_, Helen M. Davis, Science Service, - 1719 N Street N. W., Washington, D. C., 1959, 253 pp., $2.00. - -_Experiments with Atomics_, Nelson Beeler and Franklin Branley, Thomas - Y. Crowell Company, New York, 1954, 160 pp., $2.50. - -_Atomic Experiments for Boys_, Raymond F. Yates, Harper and Row - Publishers, Inc., New York, 1952, 132 pp., $2.50. - -_Atomic Energy and Civil Defense_ (Price List 84) a listing of related - publications available from the Superintendent of Documents, U. S. - Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., free. - - -Preparation of Scientific and Technical Reports - -_How to Write Scientific and Technical Papers_, Sam F. Trelease, - Williams & Wilkins Company, Baltimore, Maryland, 1958, 185 pp., - $3.25. - -_Writing Useful Reports_, Robert E. Tuttle and C. A. Brown, - Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., New York, 1956, 635 pp., $4.75. - -_Technical Reporting_, Joseph N. Ulman, Jr., and J. R. Gould, Holt, - Rinehart & Winston, Inc., New York, 1959, 289 pp., regular edition - $6.75; textbook edition $5.00. - -_Report Writers’ Handbook_, Charles E. Van Hagan, Prentice-Hall, Inc., - Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1961, 276 pp., regular edition - $9.35; textbook edition $7.00. - - - - - APPENDIX IV - WORKING WITH RADIATION AND RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS - - -No scientist worth his title ever exposes himself needlessly to any -potential hazards which confront him in his investigations. Thoughtful -student scientists also will avoid any unnecessary exposure to ionizing -radiation, particularly since bad habits acquired while doing student -projects may be difficult to overcome later. - -Before undertaking experiments with radioactivity, consult your science -teacher or project counselor. Any materials to be irradiated should be -processed with professional equipment by persons trained and authorized -to operate it. Use of radioisotopes, even in quantities exempt from -license requirements, usually involves special laboratory facilities, -techniques, and instruments, as well as the isotope itself. Make certain -that all these will be available to you before you embark on your -project. - -If possible, conduct all work with radioisotopes under the supervision -of a trained, experienced isotope technician. At the very least, -familiarize yourself with the specialized handling techniques required -(see _Experiments with Radioactivity_ or _Laboratory Experiments with -Radioisotopes for High School Science Demonstrations_, listed in -Appendix III). Then follow them to the letter! - - - - - APPENDIX V - SUPPLIERS OF RADIOISOTOPES - - -Your science teacher or project counselor may know of a nearby -laboratory from which you can obtain the radioisotopes required for your -investigation. If you wish to write direct to a commercial source, some -of the suppliers of application-exempt quantities are: - - Atomic Corporation of America - 14725 Arminta Street - Panorama City, California - - Abbott Laboratories - Box 1008 - Oak Ridge, Tennessee - - Bio-Rad Laboratories - 32nd & Griffin Avenue - Richmond, California - - Nuclear Consultants Corporation - 9842 Manchester Road - St. Louis 19, Missouri - - U. S. Nuclear Corporation - 801 N. Lake Street - Box 2022 - Burbank, California - - Nuclear-Chicago Corporation - 333 East Howard Avenue at Nuclear Drive - Des Plaines, Illinois - - New England Nuclear Corporation - 575 Albany Street - Boston, Massachusetts - - Union Carbide Nuclear Company - Oak Ridge National Laboratory - Isotope Sales Department - P. O. Box X - Oak Ridge, Tennessee - - ChemTrac Corporation - 130 Alewife Brook Pkwy. - Cambridge 40, Massachusetts - - Nuclear Consultants, Inc. - 33-61 Crescent Street - Long Island City 6, New York - - - - - APPENDIX VI - INTERNATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR RULES - - - _Finalists who enter the ISF must follow these rules without - exception._ - -The following code refers to the ISF rules listed below: - - S—School Fairs (recommended) - R—Regional Fairs (recommended) - I—ISF (required) - - -S-R-I - -Categories established for grouping and judging science projects at the -ISF are: - - Botany - Zoology - Medicine and Health - Biochemistry - Chemistry - Pure Physics - Applied Physics and Engineering - Mathematics and Computers - Earth and Space Sciences - - Entries in any of these categories, if nuclear-related, will be - considered for AEC Special Awards at the International Science Fair. - - -S-R-I - -Project exhibit size is limited to 30 inches deep (front to back), 48 -inches wide (side to side), and 12 feet high (floor to top). Any project -exceeding these dimensions is oversize and does not qualify for entrance -in the ISF. - - -R-I - -Each exhibitor must assemble his or her exhibit without major outside -help, except for transportation and unpacking. - - -S-R-I - -A typed abstract of the project, using not more than 250 words, is -required and must be displayed with the project. - - -S-R-I - -Anything which could be hazardous to public display is prohibited. This -includes: - -Live poisonous animals may not be displayed. - -No dangerous chemical substances such as caustics, acids, highly -combustible solids, fluids or gases may be displayed. If such materials -are required, inert substitutes should be used. - -No open flames are permitted. - -Any project producing temperatures exceeding 100°C must be adequately -insulated from its surroundings. - -Highly flammable display materials are prohibited. - -Tanks which have contained combustible gases must be purged with carbon -dioxide. No combustible fuel may be displayed. - -High voltage equipment such as large vacuum tubes or dangerous -ray-generating devices must be shielded and safety checked by a -qualified inspector. Students should be cautioned in advance about the -dangers of experimenting with such equipment and their work carefully -supervised. - - -S-R-I - -No live, warm-blooded animals may be displayed at the ISF. Projects -involving the use of such animals may display photographs, drawings, -charts or graphs to illustrate the conditions, developments, and results -of the investigations. This eliminates the needless shipping, housing, -care, harm, discomfort or loss of animals. - - -S-R-I - -During judging the exhibit area is closed to all except judges and -authorized personnel. Exhibitors may be present only at a specified time -during which they are to remain at their exhibits. - - -S-R-I - -All exhibitors must be interviewed at their projects by at least one -judge. The purpose of all interviews is to determine the exhibitors’ -familiarity with the project, the science involved, and to give the -student an opportunity to meet the judges, react to questions and to -discuss their work with a recognized leader. Care must be taken to allow -a reasonable interview time within the time limits allotted for judging. - - -I - -Not more than two students, male or female, may be certified as -finalists to the ISF from an affiliated science fair. They must be -students in 10th, 11th or 12th year classes in a public, private or -parochial school. - - -I - -A student who will have reached age 21 on or before May 1, preceding the -ISF is not eligible to participate as a finalist in the ISF. - - -I - -A student may enter only one project and it must be his own work. Group -projects involving two or more students give experience to beginners and -are acceptable in S or R fairs but may not be entered in the ISF. - - -I - -The identical repetition of previous year’s project is not permitted. -However, a student may again exhibit work on a continuing problem -provided the work demonstrates considerable progress when compared with -the previous year. - - -I - -Finalists must be accompanied to the ISF by an official adult escort -designated and/or sponsored by the regional fair. Responsibility and -liability for entry in the ISF rests with the affiliated fair -organization which finances the entry, provides transportation for the -finalists and their projects, and living expenses during ISF. - - -I - -Students planning to enter exhibits in the ISF which contain materials -that may be regulated by a quarantine should first consult with a -Federal or State plant pest control or animal health inspector, a county -agricultural agent, or write to the Director, Plant Pest Control -Division, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Federal Center Building, -Hyattsville, Maryland 20782. - - -S-R-I Regulations for Experiments With Animals - -_This guide was prepared and approved by the National Society for -Medical Research, the Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources (National -Research Council), and the American Association for Laboratory Animal -Science (1968)._ - -1. The basic aims of scientific studies involving animals are to achieve -an understanding of life and to advance our knowledge of life processes. -Such studies lead to respect for life. - -2. Insects, other invertebrates and protozoa are materials of choice for -many experiments. They offer opportunities for exploration of biological -principles and extension of established ones. Their wide variety and the -feasibility of using larger numbers than is usually possible with -vertebrates makes them especially suitable for illustrating principles. - -3. A qualified adult supervisor must assume primary responsibility for -the purposes and conditions of any experiment that involves living -animals. - -4. No experiment should be undertaken that involves anesthetic drugs, -surgical procedures, pathogenic organisms, toxicological products, -carcinogens, or ionizing radiation unless a trained life scientist, -physician, dentist or veterinarian directly supervises the experiment. - -5. Any experiment must be performed with the animal under appropriate -anesthesia if pain is involved. - -6. The comfort of the animal used in any study shall be a prime concern -of the student investigator. Gentle handling, proper feeding, and -provision of appropriate sanitary quarters shall be strictly observed. -Any experiment in nutritional deficiency may proceed only to the point -where symptoms of the deficiency appear. Appropriate measures shall then -be taken to correct the deficiency, if such action is feasible, the -animal(s) shall be killed by a humane method. - - -This booklet is one of the “Understanding the Atom” Series. Comments are -invited on this booklet and others in the series; please send them to -the Division of Technical Information, U. S. Atomic Energy Commission, -Washington, D. C. 20545. - -Published as part of the ABC’s educational assistance program, the -series includes these titles: - - _Accelerators_ - _Animals in Atomic Research_ - _Atomic Fuel_ - _Atomic Power Safety_ - _Atoms at the Science Fair_ - _Atoms in Agriculture_ - _Atoms, Nature, and Man_ - _Books on Atomic Energy for Adults and Children_ - _Careers in Atomic Energy_ - _Computers_ - _Controlled Nuclear Fusion_ - _Cryogenics, The Uncommon Cold_ - _Direct Conversion of Energy_ - _Fallout From Nuclear Tests_ - _Food Preservation by Irradiation_ - _Genetic Effects of Radiation_ - _Index to the UAS Series_ - _Lasers_ - _Microstructure of Matter_ - _Neutron Activation Analysis_ - _Nondestructive Testing_ - _Nuclear Clocks_ - _Nuclear Energy for Desalting_ - _Nuclear Power and Merchant Shipping_ - _Nuclear Power Plants_ - _Nuclear Propulsion for Space_ - _Nuclear Reactors_ - _Nuclear Terms, A Brief Glossary_ - _Our Atomic World_ - _Plowshare_ - _Plutonium_ - _Power from Radioisotopes_ - _Power Reactors in Small Packages_ - _Radioactive Wastes_ - _Radioisotopes and Life Processes_ - _Radioisotopes in Industry_ - _Radioisotopes in Medicine_ - _Rare Earths_ - _Research Reactors_ - _SNAP, Nuclear Space Reactors_ - _Sources of Nuclear Fuel_ - _Space Radiation_ - _Spectroscopy_ - _Synthetic Transuranium Elements_ - _The Atom and the Ocean_ - _The Chemistry of the Noble Gases_ - _The Elusive Neutrino_ - _The First Reactor_ - _The Natural Radiation Environment_ - _Whole Body Counters_ - _Your Body and Radiation_ - -A single copy of any one booklet, or of no more than three different -booklets, may be obtained free by writing to: - - USAEC, P. O. BOX 62, OAK RIDGE, TENNESSEE 37830 - -Complete sets of the series are available to school and public -librarians, and to teachers who can make them available for reference or -for use by groups. Requests should be made on school or library -letterheads and indicate the proposed use. - -Students and teachers who need other material on specific aspects of -nuclear science, or references to other reading material, may also write -to the Oak Ridge address. Requests should state the topic of interest -exactly, and the use intended. - -In all requests, include “Zip Code” in return address. - - - Printed in the United States of America -USAEC Division of Technical Information Extension, Oak Ridge, Tennessee - - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - - -—Silently corrected a few typos. - -—Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook - is public-domain in the country of publication. - -—In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by - _underscores_. - - - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ATOMS AT THE SCIENCE FAIR *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm -concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, -and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following -the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use -of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for -copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very -easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as creation -of derivative works, reports, performances and research. Project -Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given away--you may -do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks not protected -by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark -license, especially commercial redistribution. - -START: FULL LICENSE - -THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE -PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK - -To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full -Project Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at -www.gutenberg.org/license. - -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works - -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or -destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your -possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a -Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound -by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the -person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph -1.E.8. - -1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this -agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below. - -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the -Foundation" or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection -of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual -works in the collection are in the public domain in the United -States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the -United States and you are located in the United States, we do not -claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, -displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as -all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope -that you will support the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting -free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm -works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the -Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with the work. You can easily -comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the -same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg-tm License when -you share it without charge with others. - -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are -in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, -check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this -agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, -distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any -other Project Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no -representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any -country other than the United States. - -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: - -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other -immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear -prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work -on which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the -phrase "Project Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, -performed, viewed, copied or distributed: - - This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and - most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no - restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it - under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this - eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the - United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where - you are located before using this eBook. - -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is -derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not -contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the -copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in -the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are -redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply -either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or -obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg-tm -trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any -additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms -will be linked to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works -posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the -beginning of this work. - -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. - -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg-tm License. - -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including -any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access -to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format -other than "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official -version posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm website -(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense -to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means -of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original "Plain -Vanilla ASCII" or other form. Any alternate format must include the -full Project Gutenberg-tm License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. - -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -provided that: - -* You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed - to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he has - agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid - within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are - legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty - payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in - Section 4, "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg - Literary Archive Foundation." - -* You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm - License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all - copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue - all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg-tm - works. - -* You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of - any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of - receipt of the work. - -* You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work or group of works on different terms than -are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing -from the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of -the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the Foundation as set -forth in Section 3 below. - -1.F. - -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project -Gutenberg-tm collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may -contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate -or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other -intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or -other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or -cannot be read by your equipment. - -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right -of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. - -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium -with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you -with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in -lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person -or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second -opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If -the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing -without further opportunities to fix the problem. - -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO -OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT -LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. - -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of -damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement -violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the -agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or -limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or -unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the -remaining provisions. - -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in -accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the -production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, -including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of -the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this -or any Project Gutenberg-tm work, (b) alteration, modification, or -additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any -Defect you cause. - -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm - -Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of -computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It -exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations -from people in all walks of life. - -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future -generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see -Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at -www.gutenberg.org - -Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation - -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by -U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. - -The Foundation's business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, -Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up -to date contact information can be found at the Foundation's website -and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact - -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation - -Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without -widespread public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. - -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND -DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular -state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate - -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. - -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. - -Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To -donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate - -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works - -Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project -Gutenberg-tm concept of a library of electronic works that could be -freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and -distributed Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of -volunteer support. - -Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in -the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not -necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper -edition. - -Most people start at our website which has the main PG search -facility: www.gutenberg.org - -This website includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. |