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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..891c17c --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #66317 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/66317) diff --git a/old/66317-0.txt b/old/66317-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 0e3488d..0000000 --- a/old/66317-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,1475 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of Inside Illinois: Mineral Resources, by -Anonymous - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: Inside Illinois: Mineral Resources - Educational Series 9 - -Author: Anonymous - -Release Date: September 15, 2021 [eBook #66317] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -Produced by: Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed Proofreading - Team at https://www.pgdp.net - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INSIDE ILLINOIS: MINERAL -RESOURCES *** - - - - - Educational Series 9 - - - - - _INSIDE ILLINOIS - Mineral Resources_ - - - _Illinois State Geological Survey_ - - [Illustration: SEAL OF THE STATE OF ILLINOIS • AUG. 26^TH 1818] - - STATE of ILLINOIS - - DEPARTMENT of - REGISTRATION and EDUCATION - - - 1965 - - ILLINOIS STATE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY - John C. Frye, Chief - URBANA, ILLINOIS - - -Printed by Authority of State of Illinois, Ch. 127, IRS, Par. 58.25. - - - - - INSIDE ILLINOIS— - _Mineral Resources_ - - -Although Illinois has been nicknamed the “Prairie State,” many parts of -it are hilly and scenic. The idea of large areas of the state being -nothing more than broad, flat prairies has come about because the major -highways have been built to take advantage of the comparatively low, -gently rolling landscape rather than the rougher more scenic areas. - -Physiography is the study of the creation and gradual change of land -surface forms (the landscape). Thus, the land surface as we see it today -in each of the physiographic provinces (fig. 1) has had a particular -history of development. - -Illinois is about 385 miles long from north to south and about 218 miles -wide. It has an area of 55,947 square miles. The average elevation of -the state is about 600 feet above sea level. Charles Mound, however, in -the northern part of Jo Daviess County in extreme northwestern Illinois, -has an elevation of 1,241 feet above sea level and is the highest point -in the state. - -Cheap water transportation is available to Illinois industry through -Lake Michigan, the Illinois Waterway, and the Mississippi, Ohio, and -Wabash Rivers. These major rivers of Illinois collect the surface -drainage of the state from a network of about 500 streams. - - -WHAT IS THE EARTH MADE OF BENEATH THE GROUND SURFACE? - -The earth is made of a large number of different rocks and minerals -(limestone, sandstone, shale, coal, iron, granite, and many others). -These materials are divided into three zones: core, mantle, and crust -(fig. 2). - - [Illustration: Figure 1—Physiographic provinces of Illinois.] - - DRIFTLESS AREA - WISCONSINAN MORAINES - ILLINOIAN TILL PLAIN - MISSISSIPPI RIVER - WABASH RIVER - SHAWNEE HILLS - OHIO RIVER - - [Illustration: Figure 2—The earth with a segment removed to show - supposed internal zones.] - - Crust (6-30 miles) - Mantle (1800 miles) - Outer core (1400 miles) - Inner core (750 miles) - - -WHAT IS CORE? - -The core is the innermost zone of the earth. It is mainly iron with some -nickel and cobalt. The inner core probably is solid, but the outer core -may consist of the same elements in a molten form. The core is the most -dense (heaviest) of the three zones. - - -HOW DOES THE MANTLE DIFFER FROM THE CORE? - -The mantle, which surrounds the core, is a rigid zone of materials rich -in iron and magnesium. These materials are not as dense as those found -in the core. - - -WHAT IS THE CRUST OF THE EARTH AND HOW IS IT DISTINGUISHED FROM THE -MANTLE AND THE CORE? - -The crust, the top part of which includes the ground we walk on, is the -hard, outer surface layer of the earth. Although the crust is about 6 to -30 miles deep, the scale (size) of figure 2 allows it to be drawn only -as the thin outer line. The rocks and minerals that we are all -acquainted with are found in the crust. These rocks are not as dense and -do not have as high an iron content as do the rocks of the mantle and -the core. - - -WHAT IS THE EARTH’S CRUST UNDER ILLINOIS MADE OF? - -The earth’s crust under Illinois is made of: sedimentary rocks deposited -by water, wind, or glaciers (limestone, sandstone, shale, glacial -drift); igneous, or melted rocks (granite, gabbro); and metamorphic, or -altered sedimentary and igneous rocks (quartzite, gneiss). These various -types of rocks have a relatively thin covering of broken or weathered -material called mantle rock and soil. - - -WHEN AND HOW WAS THE LAND SURFACE OF ILLINOIS FORMED? - -The ground surface over most of Illinois was formed during the ice age -(Quaternary Period) which lasted from about one million years ago up to -nearly 5,000 years ago. As much as 90 percent of the state was covered -by one of several sheets of glacial ice (fig. 3). The glaciers smoothed -down and covered much of the old, rocky, hilly land surface and filled -old valleys with loose, unconsolidated deposits. - - -WHERE DID THE LOOSE, UNCONSOLIDATED DEPOSITS COME FROM AND WHAT ARE THEY -MADE OF? - -In Canada vast thicknesses of snow and ice accumulated until the weight -of the ice finally caused it to flow slowly outward, mainly to the south -(fig. 4). Rocks and surface materials of all types were picked up and -carried by the glaciers for great distances before being deposited. -Pieces of granite, quartzite, and native copper among the many local -rocks and minerals are found in glacial deposits and indicate that at -least part of these deposits came from the Great Lakes Region. The -materials deposited range from clay-size minerals to large boulders. - - [Illustration: Figure 3—Extent of the main glacial advances which - began with the Nebraskan (a—the oldest) and ended with the late - Wisconsinan (f—the youngest). Diagram “d” shows the major stream - development during the time between the Illinoian and the earliest - Wisconsinan glaciers. The heavy lines on the diagrams indicate major - stream valleys that were present during these times.] - - a. Inferred limit of NEBRASKAN glaciation - b. Inferred limit of KANSAN glaciation - c. ILLINOIAN glacial advance - d. SANGAMONIAN major drainage - e. Maximum WISCONSINAN glacial advance - f. Late WISCONSINAN Valparaiso front and Kankakee Flood - - -HOW DID ILLINOIS GET ITS SOILS? - - [Illustration: Figure 4—Limits of ice age glaciers.] - -Weathering and bacterial decay action have modified many of the loose, -unconsolidated surface materials into soils. The present soils of -Illinois are fertile partly because they have minerals and trace -elements (minute amounts of elements such as copper, zinc, manganese) -brought in by the glaciers from adjacent parts of the country. The -youngest and most fertile soils occur in the northeastern part of the -state and along the Illinois and Mississippi River valleys. These young -soils are more fertile because the glacial deposits and loess -(wind-blown silt) upon which they have developed are younger and -fresher. The minerals and trace elements in these deposits have not been -dissolved out to the extent that they have in the older glacial deposits -and soils in other parts of the state. - - [Illustration: Figure 5—Woolly mammoth (after C. R. Knight).] - - -ARE ANIMAL AND PLANT REMAINS FOUND IN THE GLACIAL DEPOSITS OF ILLINOIS? - -Scattered mammoth (fig. 5) and mastodon remains have been found in -glacial deposits at various localities in the state. Peat, which is an -accumulation of partially decomposed plant materials, has been found, -especially in the northern part of the state. It is marketed as an -organic soil conditioner. - - - - - MINERAL WEALTH - - -HOW WEALTHY IS ILLINOIS IN MINERAL PRODUCTION? - -In 1963, Illinois mineral production totaled approximately $615,000,000. -This placed the state first as a mineral producer in the Upper -Mississippi Valley and eighth in the nation. - - -WHAT MINERAL COMMODITIES ARE PRODUCED IN ILLINOIS? - -Coal and petroleum, two of the world’s most important mineral resources, -are produced in Illinois. Iron ore, another mineral of extreme -importance, is brought into the steel mills of the Chicago and East St. -Louis areas from deposits in Minnesota and Missouri. Some ore from -foreign countries is also processed in these mills. - -A great variety of mineral commodities are produced in Illinois. In the -order of their 1963 value (fig. 6) they are (1) crude oil and natural -gas, (2) coal, (3) clay products, (4) crushed stone and cement, (5) -common sand and gravel, (6) special sands, (7) fluorspar, and (8) -metals—zinc and lead. - - -HOW MANY ILLINOIS COUNTIES PRODUCE MINERAL COMMODITIES? - -In 1963, 99 of the 102 counties of Illinois reported mineral production -of one kind or another. - - [Illustration: Figure 6—Percentage diagram of Illinois mineral - production value for 1963.] - - Petroleum and Natural Gas 36.3% - Coal 31.9% - Stone Products 15.2% - Clay Products 8.8% - Sand and Gravel 5.9% - Fluorspar and Metals 1.9% - - -HOW MANY PEOPLE WORK IN THE MINERAL INDUSTRIES OF ILLINOIS? - -In 1963, approximately 27,000 people worked in mines, quarries, oil -fields, and direct processing operations such as cement and clay -products plants and oil refineries. Many other persons were employed in -transporting the materials and in plants and general offices. - - -HOW DOES THE FARMER IN ILLINOIS BENEFIT FROM MINERAL PRODUCTION? - -The farmers of the state are among those receiving direct and indirect -benefits from Illinois minerals. In 1963, more than 4,800,000 tons of -agstone (crushed limestone and dolomite) were spread on Illinois fields -to reduce acidity, maintain soil fertility, and improve crop production. -Other stone and stone products are used in constructing farm buildings -and facilities and in the maintenance of farm-to-market roads. In -addition, petroleum products and coal provide energy to power the -laborsaving devices that enable the farmer to increase his production -and scale of operations. - - - - - PETROLEUM - - -WHAT IS PETROLEUM AND HOW IS IT FORMED? - -Petroleum is a dark, oily fluid that is irregularly distributed in -sedimentary rocks throughout the world. There are several ideas about -the origin of petroleum. The most widely accepted of these is that -billions of plants and animals lived and died in widespread seas and -their remains decomposed and released fluid, fatty particles. These were -distilled into “hydrocarbons” (a mixture of the elements hydrogen and -carbon, such as gas and oil). - - -HOW AND WHERE DID OIL COLLECT IN ROCKS? - -The hydrocarbons, or oil and gas droplets, were buried by countless tons -of sediments that accumulated on ancient sea bottoms. As these sediments -hardened into sedimentary rocks, the hydrocarbons were squeezed into -whatever empty spaces were available in the rocks. As the layers of -sedimentary rocks later became folded and broken, oil and gas droplets -and salt water moved upward through any interconnecting open spaces. -Some droplets escaped to the surface as “seeps,” but many were trapped -when they came up against a nonporous barrier. Gas, being lighter than -either oil or water, was trapped at the top, and oil was stopped in the -middle, above the salt water. An accumulation of this kind is termed a -“pool” or a “field.” - - -WHERE DID OIL ACCUMULATE IN ILLINOIS? - -Conditions under which oil is found in Illinois (fig. 7) are as follows: -(a) coral reefs, (b) anticlines (upfolds or arches of rock layers), (c) -“pinching” or “lensing” out of dipping, overlapping porous rock layers, -and (d) buried sandstone-filled ancient stream channels. - - -ARE THERE LAKES OR RIVERS OF OIL UNDERGROUND? - -No. Oil and gas accumulate in the pores (openings) between silt and sand -grains and in small openings in limestone and dolomite. - - [Illustration: Figure 7—Places where oil is found in Illinois: (a) - coral reefs, (b) anticlines, (c) pinch-outs, and (d) channel - sandstones.] - - EXPLANATION - Glacial drift - Dolomite - Shale - Gas saturated zone - Sandstone - Oil saturated zone - Limestone - Water saturated zone - - -HOW IS OIL DISCOVERED? - -Although prospect (test) drilling is still the only way to prove the -presence or absence of commercial quantities of oil beneath the surface, -careful study by a geologist of all available information may indicate -the most favorable places for testing. Since oil and gas migrate to the -highest parts of the porous rock zones, the geologist tries to find -these high places even though they may be several hundred feet -underground. Sometimes dipping rocks can be seen in outcrops, and -several geophysical methods have been used to indicate where such high -places may occur underground. At other times, high places are found by -studying with a microscope samples of rocks collected from wells already -drilled in the surrounding area. The geologist notes the type and order -of the formations which have been drilled. Many holes have been drilled -based on such information. - -Whether or not the test drilling is successful as a producing well, -small samples of cuttings of the rock being drilled are collected and -saved to be studied at a later time. Various instruments are also put -down into the hole to record temperatures, pressures, electrical -properties, and other characteristics of the rocks. This type of -information, when carefully plotted on maps, serves to locate new areas -for test drilling. - - -HOW MUCH OIL CAN BE OBTAINED FROM AN OIL POOL? - -There is no way to tell before a hole is drilled whether or not oil will -be found, how much oil is present, or what will be the best way to get -it to the surface. Where subsurface pressures are great enough, oil may -flow to the surface. - -Generally speaking, about one-third of the oil actually present in the -rocks can be pumped before the well becomes uneconomical to operate. -This is called primary production. Oil operators have learned that by -pumping water or gas down some wells into the oil-bearing formation, -another third of the oil may be forced out through neighboring wells. -This is called secondary production. Experiments that use steam or that -burn some of the oil underground in an oil-bearing formation are -attempts to recover the remaining third. These methods using heat are -often referred to as tertiary production methods. - - -WHAT IS THE “BIGGEST” OIL WELL ON RECORD IN ILLINOIS? - -Illinois’ largest well, near Centralia, flowed 12,000 barrels of oil in -a 24-hour period. Most Illinois oil wells, however, have to be pumped, -and the majority of them are now producing 10 barrels or less a day. The -deepest producing well, 5,354 feet, was drilled in 1960 in Wayne County, -near Fairfield. In the same year the deepest oil test was drilled to a -depth of 8,616 feet and was stopped in granite. This test is located in -Fayette County near Beecher City and has its oil production from a zone -over 4,000 feet above the bottom of the hole. - - -HOW MUCH OIL IS PRODUCED IN ILLINOIS AND HOW VALUABLE IS IT? - -In 1963, about 75 million barrels of oil, 2.7 percent of the nation’s -total, were produced in Illinois (fig. 8). This oil is valued at over -$221,000,000. - - -IS OIL PRODUCTION INCREASING OR DECREASING IN ILLINOIS? - -In 1940, our state had its highest yield of oil when 147,647,000 barrels -were produced. Although production figures remained fairly high for some -time, they have declined in the past few years. Since no new large oil -discoveries have been made recently, Illinois’ total known oil reserves -are decreasing yearly. In 1963, Illinois ranked eighth among the -oil-producing states, with 420 oil fields consisting of 30,149 wells. - - - - - COAL - - -WHAT IS COAL AND HOW IS IT FORMED? - -Coal is a combustible rock that was formed by the accumulation and -partial decay of vegetation. When coal was forming millions of years -ago, most of the state was a low coastal plain bordered on the west and -southwest by a shallow sea. A large variety of plants grew in great -swamps which covered this coastal plain (fig. 9). When the plants died, -they accumulated in the swamps to form thick masses of peat that were -eventually covered by shallow seas and buried beneath mud and sand. -Periodically, the region was above sea level, new swamps developed, new -peat deposits accumulated, and more sediments were laid down. This -process occurred repeatedly until over 3,000 feet of sediments had been -deposited. Then the sediments were slowly compacted and hardened so that -sandstones, shales, limestones, and coals were formed. - - [Illustration: Figure 8—Estimated total oil production by counties - from 1888 through 1963.] - - Counties producing oil in January 1965 - Total Production 2,464,758,000 barrels - 46 counties producing - - [Illustration: Figure 9—Reconstruction of coal-forming swamp.] - - -HOW DO WE KNOW THAT COAL WAS DERIVED FROM PLANT MATERIALS? - -Although plant impressions or fossilized wood can be seen in coal, they -are more common in shales and sandstones associated with the coal. Often -roots can be seen in the clay that lies just under the coal, and in some -places stumps of trees from the coal swamp forest are preserved in the -sediments adjacent to the coal (fig. 10). When pieces of coal are -examined with a microscope, carbonized plant remains can be seen. - - -HOW MANY COAL SEAMS ARE PRESENT IN ILLINOIS? - -There are at least 40 different coal seams in Illinois, but most are -relatively thin. Seven coal seams have been mined extensively, and all -together 20 or more have been mined. - - [Illustration: Figure 10—Some root, stem, and leaf fossils found in - Illinois coal-bearing rocks.] - - _Neuropteris_ ⅖× - _Nosopteris stem_ ⅔× - _Neuropteris_ ½× - _Lepidodendron_ ⅖× - _Pecopteris_ ⅔× - _Stigmaria_ ⅖× - _Annularia_ ⅔× - _Spiropteris_ ⅔× - _Sphenophyllum_ 1× - - -HOW IS ILLINOIS COAL MINED? - -In Illinois there are two main ways of mining coal: strip (open-cut) and -underground. Strip or open-cut mines (fig. 11) usually operate where the -coal is at very shallow depths, although such mining is done as much as -100 feet deep or more in some places. Many old underground mines -produced coal from seams that were less than 100 feet deep because they -did not have the large machinery for strip mining when these mines were -started. An abandoned mine, 1,004 feet deep, near Assumption is the -deepest underground coal mine in the state. Coal is now being mined at -depths somewhat over 800 feet in Jefferson County. - - -HOW DOES ILLINOIS RANK AS A COAL PRODUCER? - -Illinois ranks fourth in production of coal in the United States. It is -exceeded only by West Virginia, Kentucky, and Pennsylvania. Some of the -largest and most efficient mines in the country are operated in -Illinois. Underground mines in Illinois have the highest rate of tons -mined per man each day in the country, and this rate is increasing. -Increased mining efficiency has made it possible to hold the price of -coal low enough so that it can successfully compete against other fuels -for many uses. - - [Illustration: Figure 11—Diagram of strip mine showing: (a) - stripping shovel, and (b) coal-loading shovel.] - - -HOW MUCH COAL IS PRODUCED IN ILLINOIS ANNUALLY AND HOW VALUABLE IS IT? - -In the last 10 years, an average of about 46 million tons of coal has -been mined each year (fig. 12). In 1963, approximately 51.6 million tons -were produced, which were valued at about $196,000,000 at the mine. -Since 1961, strip mines have produced over half of the coal mined in -Illinois. - - -HOW LONG WILL OUR COAL SUPPLIES LAST? - -It will take well over 1,000 years at the present rate of mining in -Illinois to exhaust our coal reserves. An estimated 140 billion tons of -coal in seams of minable thickness remain in the ground in our state; -these are the largest known reserves of bituminous coal of any state in -the United States. - - -WHAT IS COAL USED FOR? - -Electric power generation consumes the greater part of the annual coal -production in Illinois. Coal is also used for home and commercial -heating, for production of coke, and for manufacturing various chemical -compounds from coal tar. Products derived from coal tar include drugs -and medicines, plastics, synthetic fibres, perfumes, flavorings, dyes, -synthetic rubbers, explosives, specialized oils, solvents, wood -preservatives, tarlike paving and roofing materials, and some gas. The -gas is both produced and utilized in the coke industry. - - -WHAT IS COKE? - -Coke is a material produced by burning coal in the absence of air so -that most of the gases and water are driven off without consuming the -solid portion. The resulting solid coke is a strong, porous, combustible -substance. - - -HOW IMPORTANT IS COKE AND HOW IS IT USED? - -The structure and nature of coke make it a valuable fuel for blast -furnace use in the production of steel. In the past, most of the coal -used in the manufacture of coke has come from areas of higher quality -coal outside of our state. However, at present, over 1,000,000 tons of -Illinois coal are mined annually for the production of metallurgical -coke. - - [Illustration: Figure 12—Estimated total coal production by counties - from 1882 through 1963.] - - Area underlain by coal-bearing rocks - Counties producing coal in January 1965 - Total Production 3,749,423,534 tons - 71 counties producing - - - - - STONE AND STONE PRODUCTS - - -WHAT TYPES OF STONE ARE PRODUCED IN ILLINOIS? - -Limestone and dolomite are the most abundant rocks quarried in Illinois. -Small amounts of marble, limestone, and sandstone for building stone are -also produced. In addition, some glacial boulders and cobbles are used -for rock gardens and in home construction. The crushed limestone -industry is Illinois’ most important rock products industry. - - -WHAT ARE LIMESTONE AND DOLOMITE? - -Limestone is a sedimentary rock that consists chiefly of calcite, which -is composed of calcium, carbon, and oxygen. Dolomite is a variety of -limestone that contains considerable magnesium in addition to the other -elements. Limestones were deposited on the floors of ancient seas that -repeatedly covered most parts of Illinois. Shelled creatures, corals, -and coral reefs helped build up the thick limestone deposits (figs. 13 -and 14). - - [Illustration: Figure 13—Piece of limestone largely made up of - fossil brachiopod shells.] - - -WHERE ARE LIMESTONE AND DOLOMITE QUARRIES LOCATED IN ILLINOIS? - -Limestone and dolomite quarries are located along the southern, western, -and northern margins of the state where the thick deposits of these -rocks crop out at the surface. Although bedrock was deposited in -horizontal layers, it has since been downfolded into the Illinois Basin -whose center is in southeastern Illinois. Thus, the thick limestones and -dolomites that are quarried along the margins of the state are too -deeply buried to be quarried in the central part of this basin (fig. -15). - - [Illustration: Figure 14—Fossils commonly found in Illinois rocks.] - - _Strophomena_ 1× - _Paleoneilo_ 1× - _Ctenodonta_ ⅔× - _Dolmanites_ ½× - _Archimedes_ 1× - _Hormotoma Polygyra_ 1× - _Mucrospirifer_ 1½× - _Atrypa_ ⅔× - _Crinoid Columnais_ 1× - _Halysites_ ⅔× - _Hexagonaria_ 1× - _Microcylus_ 1× - _Streptelasma_ ⅔× - _Lithostrationella_ ½× - _Lophophyllum_ 1× - - [Illustration: Figure 15—Diagrammatic cross section of the Illinois - Basin.] - - _MISS. RIVER_ - Waterloo - Mt. Vernon - ILLINOIS - _WABASH RIVER_ - INDIANA - New Albany - _OHIO RIVER_ - - -ARE ANY STONE QUARRIES LOCATED IN THE AREA UNDERLAIN BY THE ILLINOIS -BASIN? - -Yes. In the area underlain by the basin, stone quarries are operated in -younger, thinner rock strata of Pennsylvanian age. These strata also -overlie the thick limestones and dolomites quarried along the margins of -the state. The quarries located within the basin area produce stone for -agricultural limestone, roads, and other purposes. - - -HOW AND WHERE ARE LIMESTONE AND DOLOMITE USED? - -Millions of tons of stone are crushed annually to produce aggregate for -use in making concrete roads and buildings, for road surfacing, and for -agricultural limestone. Agstone is applied to farmlands to neutralize -soil acidity, improve soil structure, add calcium and magnesium, and -promote conditions favorable for the utilization of soil materials by -plants. Large quantities of limestone are used in making lime and -cement. There are three cement plants in northern Illinois—two at -LaSalle and one at Dixon—and one in southern Illinois, at Joppa. - -Small amounts of stone are used for making alkalies and glass, for -railroad ballast, for building stone, for dusting coal mines to prevent -coal dust explosions, and for ingredients in mineral feeds for -livestock. - - -HOW MUCH STONE DOES ILLINOIS PRODUCE? - -A production of about 36 million tons of stone in 1963 was valued at -almost $48,000,000. The cement made from Illinois limestone in the same -year was valued at $32,000,000. - - - - - CLAY - - -WHAT IS CLAY AND HOW IS IT FORMED? - -Weathering or alteration of some rocks produces clay which is a very -fine-grained, unconsolidated rock. Clay is made up of a group of -minerals, of which illite, montmorillonite, kaolinite, and chlorite are -the most abundant. - - -HOW EXTENSIVE ARE CLAY DEPOSITS IN ILLINOIS? - -Clay deposits in Illinois consist of Quaternary clays, which were -deposited by glaciers, lakes, and winds; and of fireclay, shale, kaolin, -and “fuller’s earth,” all of which are bedrock deposits. Quaternary -clay, fireclay, and shale resources occur widely in very large -quantities; “fuller’s earth” and kaolin deposits are small in relation -to other clay resources. - - -HOW IS ILLINOIS CLAY USED? - -Surface clay, shale, and fireclay are used in the manufacture of -structural clay products, such as brick, drain tile, and hollow block -(fig. 16). Fireclay is used for a bonding agent in molding sand, for the -making of stoneware vessels, for a plaster on the walls of industrial -furnaces, and for making refractory brick. Refractory brick must be able -to withstand very high temperatures and is used to line industrial -furnaces, boilers, kilns, and ladles for molten steel. - -Shale and clay are ground up and mixed with limestone in the manufacture -of cement. Crucibles, refractories, china, and porcelain are made from -kaolin. “Fuller’s earth” is used as a sweeping compound and as an animal -litter. - - [Illustration: Figure 16—Typical Illinois bee-hive kiln.] - - -WHAT IS THE VALUE OF THE CLAY PRODUCTS MANUFACTURED IN ILLINOIS? - -About $53,900,000 worth of clay products were manufactured in Illinois -in 1963. - - - - - SAND AND GRAVEL - - -WHERE DO SAND AND GRAVEL COME FROM? - -Glacial deposits of sand and gravel are the chief source of these -materials in Illinois, but chert or flint gravels that are older than -the glacial deposits are known and utilized locally in western and -extreme southern Illinois. Sands of recent origin are dredged from -deposits in the larger rivers and streams (fig. 17), and commercial -silica sand is produced from sandstone bedrock. - - [Illustration: Figure 17—Dredge equipment used in producing sand and - gravel.] - - -WHAT IS THE VALUE OF COMMON ILLINOIS SAND AND GRAVEL PRODUCTION? - -Production of common sand and gravel totaled 27,115,000 tons at a value -of $24,800,000 in 1963. - - - - - SILICA SAND - - -WHAT IS SILICA SAND? - -Although natural sands are aggregations of many kinds of small rock and -mineral fragments, silica sand consists almost entirely of fine grains -of a single mineral, quartz. The principal sources of Illinois silica -sand are in LaSalle (Ottawa, Utica, Wedron, and Troy Grove areas) and -Ogle (Oregon area) Counties. - - -HOW IS SILICA SAND USED? - -Silica sand, produced in northern Illinois, is famous for its high -purity, and is widely used in making glass. More than two-thirds of the -raw material in common glass is silica sand. - -Quantities of silica sand are used as molding sand, because it can -withstand the high temperatures produced in casting steel and other -metals. It also is used for grinding and smoothing plate glass, for sand -blasting, and for fracturing sand used to increase the production of oil -wells. Some silica sand is ground to a fine powder and utilized as an -ingredient in scouring compounds, paint fillers, pottery, glazes, and -enamels. - -A specially sized sand is produced from the St. Peter Sandstone -Formation (Ordovician in age) that is used in testing the strength of -cements and as a laboratory standard in various kinds of tests. - - -HOW VALUABLE IS SILICA SAND TO THE ECONOMY OF THE STATE? - -Illinois is a major producer of silica sand, having produced 2,900,000 -tons in 1963. The silica sand and ground silica produced in the same -year was valued at $11,400,000. - - - - - TRIPOLI - - -WHAT IS TRIPOLI AND WHERE IS IT FOUND? - -Tripoli, also known as amorphous silica, is mined in Alexander County in -southern Illinois. It is prepared for market by being ground to a fine -powder. It consists of tiny particles of quartz. - - -WHAT ARE SOME OF THE USES FOR TRIPOLI? - -Tripoli is used as “white rouge” in optical lens polishing, as a paint -filler, as a fine abrasive, in the ceramic industry, and for many other -purposes. - - - - - FLUORSPAR - - -WHAT IS FLUORSPAR? - -Fluorspar, or fluorite, is a glassy mineral that is commonly gray, -white, or colorless, but may be green, blue, purple, yellow, or black. -It is composed of calcium and fluorine. Fluorite is not a gem because it -is too fragile and soft. Mineral collectors seek it because it is -attractive and because some varieties have the ability to glow under -invisible ultraviolet light (hence the term “fluorescence”). - - -WHERE ARE FLUORSPAR DEPOSITS LOCATED AND HOW IMPORTANT IS ILLINOIS -PRODUCTION? - -Fluorspar produced in the United States comes chiefly from a small area -in Illinois and Kentucky where it has been mined since 1842. Illinois -produced about 66 percent of the nation’s total in 1963. The state’s -production amounted to more than 132,000 tons, valued at about -$6,547,000. The crude ore is extracted from nearly horizontal bedded -deposits and from nearly vertical veins in mines up to 800 feet deep in -Pope and Hardin Counties. Finished fluorspar is produced from the crude -ore by separating and concentrating methods. - - -WHAT ARE FLUORSPAR PELLETS? - -In the separation of fluorspar from the other materials with which it -naturally occurs, a process is used that involves grinding the spar to a -very fine powder. The powdered spar has a number of uses, but to suit it -for use as a flux (a substance which promotes fusion) it is made into -pellets by the use of a binder. - - -WHAT IS FLUORSPAR USED FOR? - -Fluorspar is used extensively as a flux in the steel industry, but over -50 percent of the spar produced in Illinois in 1963 was consumed in the -manufacture of hydrofluoric acid. A large portion of this acid -production is used in the aluminum industry. Hydrofluoric acid is also -employed in the preparation of many fluorine compounds, particularly -those used in the production of fluorocarbons (refrigerants, plastics, -aerosols), insecticides, and high-energy fuels for rockets and missiles. -The fluorocarbons utilize about 40 percent of the hydrofluoric acid -production. - - - - - LEAD AND ZINC - - -WHAT ORES YIELD LEAD AND ZINC IN ILLINOIS? - -The mineral galena is the principal ore of lead. Galena is gray in -color, very heavy, has a bright metallic luster, and breaks into cubes -along steplike cleavage surfaces (fig. 18). It is composed of lead and -sulfur. - -The chief ore of zinc is the mineral sphalerite. It may be brown, -yellow, or black. Sphalerite is a combination of zinc and sulfur, has a -resinous luster, and is not as heavy as galena. - - -WHERE ARE LEAD AND ZINC MINES LOCATED AND HOW LONG HAVE THESE ORES BEEN -MINED? - -Although the lead deposits of extreme northwestern Illinois (now Jo -Daviess County) were reported by the French explorers in 1658 and are -said to have been worked by the Indians, the influx of white settlers in -the early 1800’s marked the beginning of an extensive mining industry, -which was an important factor in the early development of that part of -the state. The town of Galena takes its name from the mineral galena, -which was the principal ore mined. - - [Illustration: Figure 18—Galena cubes.] - -In 1845, the Upper Mississippi Valley produced 60 percent of all lead -mined in the United States, which then ranked first in world lead -production. Until about 1860, the zinc ore was considered useless, but -today its total value is several times that of lead. - -Lead mining began in southern Illinois in 1842. Lead and zinc production -in this area is a by-product of fluorspar mining. - - -WHAT IS THE VALUE OF THESE METALS PRODUCED IN ILLINOIS? - -In 1963, Illinois produced 20,377 tons of zinc valued at about -$4,677,500 and 2,901 tons of lead worth about $626,600. - - - - - GROUND WATER - - -WHAT IS GROUND WATER? - -Ground water is water that fills all openings in earth materials in the -zone of permanent saturation. The top of the zone of saturation is -called the water table. The source of ground water is precipitation -(rain and snow) that seeps into the soil and percolates downward. Below -the water table, ground water moves slowly toward places of discharge -such as springs, lakes, rivers, marshes, and wells. Water falls to the -ground, moves through the rocks, returns to the surface, and finally -gets back to the atmosphere by evaporation and from plants (fig. 19). -This cycle is continuously repeated. - - -WHAT KINDS OF ROCKS YIELD GROUND WATER? - -Ground water is most readily obtained from saturated rocks that have -fairly large openings between grains (such as sand, gravel, and -sandstone) or have interconnected cracks or channels (such as -limestones). Rocks that contain ground water and that will yield it to -wells are called aquifers. Sand and gravel beds are widely used aquifers -in Illinois. - - [Illustration: Figure 19—Source, movement, and occurrence of ground - water. Arrows in aquifers show direction of flow of water.] - - _EVAPORATION_ - SAND AND GRAVEL WELL - Water Table - River sand and gravel - ARTESIAN WELLS - _EVAPORATION_ - River - WELL - COLLECTING AREA FOR ARTESIAN WATER - PRECIPITATION - Crater - WATER TABLE WELL - _Lake_ - Glacial pebbly clay - Glacial sand and aquifer - Shale - Sandstone aquifer - Limestone aquifer - Shale - GROUND-WATER RESERVOIR - - -IS WATER FOUND IN UNDERGROUND LAKES AND RIVERS IN ILLINOIS? - -No. There are a few large springs that flow from rocks along river -bluffs in Illinois, but most ground water occurs in tiny openings within -the rocks. Ground water reservoirs may be regarded as similar to sponges -rather than as underground lakes or rivers. - - -WHY DO WELLS SOMETIMES GO DRY? - -The water table rises and falls seasonally and from year to year, -depending upon the amount of precipitation. Sometimes the water table -may fall below the bottom of the well or below the pump. Sometimes -overpumping the well or pumping too many wells in a small area lowers -the water table sufficiently to check the yield of the well. - - -WHAT IS AN ARTESIAN WELL? - -An artesian well is one in which pressure forces water to rise in the -well above the level where it was found. In some artesian wells water -flows out at the surface. Conditions for artesian wells are illustrated -in figure 19. The shale above the sandstone and limestone aquifers in -the figure is “tight” and does not permit water to escape upward to the -level at which it enters the aquifers in the intake areas. The water is -under natural pressure. When a well is drilled through the shale and -into the aquifers, water rises, seeking its own level. Most of the deep -wells in northern Illinois are artesian wells, though few of them flow -at the surface anymore. - - -WILL YOU ALWAYS FIND WATER IF YOU GO DEEP ENOUGH? - -This is generally true. However, in much of the southern two-thirds of -Illinois the deeper waters are quite salty. Therefore, only the upper -few hundred feet of rocks are worth exploring for water. In the northern -third of Illinois, where the deepest water wells are located, fresh -water extends in some places to more than 2,000 feet. - - -HOW CAN GROUND WATER BE FOUND? - -The most effective way of locating a ground water supply is by using -knowledge of the geology and ground water conditions—gained partly from -study of existing well records—to determine the most favorable areas and -depths to drill to. - -An additional tool that has been used successfully in Illinois is the -electrical earth resistivity survey. The resistivity survey attempts to -locate buried sand and gravel layers that commonly are sources of ground -water. Test drilling is recommended at sites that appear to be underlain -by sand and gravel. - -There is no known method that will positively “find” ground water -without drilling. - - - - - ILLINOIS STATE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY - - -WHY IS GEOLOGY IMPORTANT? - -Geology and allied sciences are being called upon increasingly to aid in -more intelligent and efficient discovery and utilization of mineral -wealth. Our national life and welfare are more and more dependent upon -the further discovery and proper use of the earth’s natural resources. -Illinois is widely recognized by scientists, industrialists, and -educators as being outstanding in its promotion of research and -industrial development. - - -WHAT ARE SOME OF THE SERVICES AVAILABLE FROM THE SURVEY? - -The occurrence and distribution of rock and mineral deposits in Illinois -are studied by the State Geological Survey Division of the Department of -Registration and Education (fig. 20). In seeking new information -concerning the state’s natural mineral resources, physical and chemical -studies of useful rocks, minerals, and mineral products are made. -Techniques and methods are developed and experiments are conducted to -find and prepare Illinois’ mineral substances for use. - -The results of the Survey’s field and laboratory findings are published -and made available to all citizens upon request. Much information that -has not been published is in the open files of the Geological Survey -where it may be examined by the public. Members of the Survey’s -scientific and technical staff answer requests for information received -by letter, telegram, telephone, or personal interview. - -Since the main ideas of geology are easy to understand and greatly -increase one’s enjoyment and appreciation of the world in which we live, -the Geological Survey publishes popular and educational booklets -designed for the use of Illinois teachers and students. The Survey also -distributes a labeled collection of rocks and minerals for class use in -Illinois schools. Six geological science field trips are conducted each -year throughout various sections of the state for teachers and -interested laymen. Members of the Survey staff give illustrated lectures -to organized groups about the geology and mineral resources of the -state. - - [Illustration: Figure 20—Geological Survey offices are located in - the Natural Resources Building, Urbana, Illinois.] - - -WHAT IS THE CHARGE FOR THESE SERVICES? - -All of the Survey’s publications are distributed free to schools and -teachers. Only topographic maps and certain base maps, which are -prepared and printed by the U.S. Geological Survey in Washington, are -sold at nominal prices. - - [Illustration: uncaptioned] - - [Illustration: Geologic column] - - Era General Types of Rocks - Period or System and Thickness - Epoch - - CENOZOIC “Recent Life” - Age of Mammals - Quaternary - 0-500′ - Pleistocene or Glacial Age - Recent—alluvium in river valleys - Glacial till, glacial outwash, gravel, sand, - silt lake deposits of clay and silt, loess and - sand dunes; covers nearly all of state except - northwest corner and southern tip - Tertiary - 0-500′ - Pliocene Chert gravel; present in northern, southern, and - western Illinois - Eocene Mostly micaceous sand with some silt and clay; - present only in southern Illinois - Paleocene Mostly clay, little sand; present only in - southern Illinois - MESOZOIC “Middle Life” - Age of Reptiles - Cretaceous Mostly sand, some thin beds of clay and, - 0-300′ locally, gravel; present only in southern - Illinois - PALEOZOIC “Ancient Life” - Age of Amphibians and Early Plants - Pennsylvanian Largely shale and sandstone with beds of coal, - 0-3,000′ limestone, and clay - (“Coal Measures”) - Mississippian Black and gray shale at base; middle zone of - 0-3,500′ thick limestone that grades to siltstone, chert, - and shale; upper zone of interbedded sandstone, - shale and limestone - Age of Fishes - Devonian Thick limestone, minor sandstones and shales; - 0-1,500′ largely chert and cherty limestone in southern - Illinois - Age of Invertebrates - Silurian Principally dolomite and limestone - 0-1,000′ - Ordovician Largely dolomite and limestone but contains - 500-2,000′ sandstone, shale, and siltstone formations - Cambrian Chiefly sandstones with some dolomite and shale; - 1,500-3,000′ exposed only in small areas in north-central - Illinois - ARCHEOZOIC and PROTEROZOIC - Igneous and metamorphic rocks; known in Illinois - only from deep wells - - [Illustration: uncaptioned] - - _Illinois State Geological Survey - Educational Series 9_ - - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - - -—Silently corrected a few typos. - -—Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook - is public-domain in the country of publication. - -—In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by - _underscores_. - - - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INSIDE ILLINOIS: MINERAL -RESOURCES *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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text-align:justify; font-size:90%; } -p.biblio { margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; } -.clear { clear:both; } -p.book { margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; } -p.review { margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; font-size:80%; } -p.pcap { margin-left:2em; text-indent:-1em; text-align:justify; margin-top:0; font-size:90%; } -p.pcapc { margin-left:4.7em; text-indent:0em; text-align:justify; } -dl.pcap { margin-left:1em; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:90%; } -span.attr { font-size:80%; font-family:sans-serif; } -span.pn { display:inline-block; width:4.7em; text-align:left; margin-left:0; text-indent:0; } -</style> -</head> -<body> - -<div style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Inside Illinois: Mineral Resources, by Anonymous</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: Inside Illinois: Mineral Resources</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:0;'>Educational Series 9</p> - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Anonymous</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: September 15, 2021 [eBook #66317]</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Character set encoding: UTF-8</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Produced by: Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net</div> - -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INSIDE ILLINOIS: MINERAL RESOURCES ***</div> -<div id="cover" class="img"> -<img id="coverpage" src="images/cover.jpg" alt="Inside Illinois: Mineral Resources" width="1000" height="1509" /> -</div> -<div class="box bluesi"> -<p class="center blues i">Educational Series 9</p> -<h1 class="bluesi"><i>INSIDE ILLINOIS -<br /><span class="smaller">Mineral Resources</span></i></h1> -<p class="center blues"><i>Illinois State Geological Survey</i></p> -</div> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/p01.jpg" id="ncfig1" alt="SEAL OF THE STATE OF ILLINOIS • AUG. 26^TH 1818" width="313" height="320" /> -</div> -<p class="center">STATE of ILLINOIS</p> -<p class="center">DEPARTMENT of -<br />REGISTRATION and EDUCATION</p> -<p class="tbcenter">1965</p> -<p class="center">ILLINOIS STATE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY -<br />John C. Frye, Chief -<br />URBANA, ILLINOIS</p> -<p class="tb"><span class="smaller">Printed by Authority of State of Illinois, Ch. 127, IRS, Par. 58.25.</span></p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_1">1</div> -<h1 title=""><span class="smaller"><span class="ss">INSIDE ILLINOIS— -<br /><i class="small">Mineral Resources</i></span></span></h1> -<p>Although Illinois has been nicknamed the “Prairie -State,” many parts of it are hilly and scenic. The idea of large -areas of the state being nothing more than broad, flat prairies -has come about because the major highways have been built -to take advantage of the comparatively low, gently rolling -landscape rather than the rougher more scenic areas.</p> -<p>Physiography is the study of the creation and gradual -change of land surface forms (the landscape). Thus, the land -surface as we see it today in each of the physiographic provinces -(<a href="#fig1">fig. 1</a>) has had a particular history of development.</p> -<p>Illinois is about 385 miles long from north to south and -about 218 miles wide. It has an area of 55,947 square miles. -The average elevation of the state is about 600 feet above -sea level. Charles Mound, however, in the northern part of -Jo Daviess County in extreme northwestern Illinois, has an -elevation of 1,241 feet above sea level and is the highest point -in the state.</p> -<p>Cheap water transportation is available to Illinois industry -through Lake Michigan, the Illinois Waterway, and the -Mississippi, Ohio, and Wabash Rivers. These major rivers -of Illinois collect the surface drainage of the state from a network -of about 500 streams.</p> -<h3 id="c1">WHAT IS THE EARTH MADE OF BENEATH THE GROUND SURFACE?</h3> -<p>The earth is made of a large number of different rocks -and minerals (limestone, sandstone, shale, coal, iron, granite, -and many others). These materials are divided into three -zones: core, mantle, and crust (<a href="#fig2">fig. 2</a>).</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_2">2</div> -<div class="img" id="fig1"> -<img src="images/p02.jpg" alt="" width="586" height="1000" /> -<p class="pcap">Figure 1—Physiographic provinces of Illinois.</p> -</div> -<dl class="undent pcap"><dt>DRIFTLESS AREA</dt> -<dt>WISCONSINAN MORAINES</dt> -<dt>ILLINOIAN TILL PLAIN</dt> -<dt>MISSISSIPPI RIVER</dt> -<dt>WABASH RIVER</dt> -<dt>SHAWNEE HILLS</dt> -<dt>OHIO RIVER</dt></dl> -<div class="pb" id="Page_3">3</div> -<div class="img" id="fig2"> -<img src="images/p02a.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="723" /> -<p class="pcap">Figure 2—The earth with a segment removed to -show supposed internal zones.</p> -</div> -<dl class="undent pcap"><dt>Crust (6-30 miles)</dt> -<dt>Mantle (1800 miles)</dt> -<dt>Outer core (1400 miles)</dt> -<dt>Inner core (750 miles)</dt></dl> -<h3 id="c2">WHAT IS CORE?</h3> -<p>The core is the innermost zone of the earth. It is mainly -iron with some nickel and cobalt. The inner core probably is solid, -but the outer core may consist of the same elements in a molten -form. The core is the most dense (heaviest) of the three zones.</p> -<h3 id="c3">HOW DOES THE MANTLE DIFFER FROM THE CORE?</h3> -<p>The mantle, which surrounds the core, is a rigid zone of -materials rich in iron and magnesium. These materials are not as -dense as those found in the core.</p> -<h3 id="c4">WHAT IS THE CRUST OF THE EARTH AND HOW IS IT DISTINGUISHED FROM THE MANTLE AND THE CORE?</h3> -<p>The crust, the top part of which includes the ground we -walk on, is the hard, outer surface layer of the earth. Although the -<span class="pb" id="Page_4">4</span> -crust is about 6 to 30 miles deep, the scale (size) of <a href="#fig2">figure 2</a> allows -it to be drawn only as the thin outer line. The rocks and -minerals that we are all acquainted with are found in the crust. -These rocks are not as dense and do not have as high an iron content -as do the rocks of the mantle and the core.</p> -<h3 id="c5">WHAT IS THE EARTH’S CRUST UNDER ILLINOIS MADE OF?</h3> -<p>The earth’s crust under Illinois is made of: sedimentary -rocks deposited by water, wind, or glaciers (limestone, sandstone, -shale, glacial drift); igneous, or melted rocks (granite, gabbro); -and metamorphic, or altered sedimentary and igneous rocks (quartzite, -gneiss). These various types of rocks have a relatively thin -covering of broken or weathered material called mantle rock and -soil.</p> -<h3 id="c6">WHEN AND HOW WAS THE LAND SURFACE OF ILLINOIS FORMED?</h3> -<p>The ground surface over most of Illinois was formed during -the ice age (Quaternary Period) which lasted from about one -million years ago up to nearly 5,000 years ago. As much as 90 -percent of the state was covered by one of several sheets of glacial -ice (<a href="#fig3">fig. 3</a>). The glaciers smoothed down and covered much -of the old, rocky, hilly land surface and filled old valleys with -loose, unconsolidated deposits.</p> -<h3 id="c7">WHERE DID THE LOOSE, UNCONSOLIDATED DEPOSITS COME FROM AND WHAT ARE THEY MADE OF?</h3> -<p>In Canada vast thicknesses of snow and ice accumulated -until the weight of the ice finally caused it to flow slowly outward, -mainly to the south (<a href="#fig4">fig. 4</a>). Rocks and surface materials of all -types were picked up and carried by the glaciers for great distances -before being deposited. Pieces of granite, quartzite, and native -copper among the many local rocks and minerals are found in glacial -deposits and indicate that at least part of these deposits came -from the Great Lakes Region. The materials deposited range from -clay-size minerals to large boulders.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_5">5</div> -<div class="img" id="fig3"> -<img src="images/p03.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="1155" /> -<p class="pcap">Figure 3—Extent of the main glacial advances which began with the Nebraskan -(a—the oldest) and ended with the late Wisconsinan (f—the youngest). -Diagram “d” shows the major stream development during the time between -the Illinoian and the earliest Wisconsinan glaciers. The heavy lines on -the diagrams indicate major stream valleys that were present during these -times.</p> -</div> -<dl class="undent pcap"><dt>a. Inferred limit of NEBRASKAN glaciation</dt> -<dt>b. Inferred limit of KANSAN glaciation</dt> -<dt>c. ILLINOIAN glacial advance</dt> -<dt>d. SANGAMONIAN major drainage</dt> -<dt>e. Maximum WISCONSINAN glacial advance</dt> -<dt>f. Late WISCONSINAN Valparaiso front and Kankakee Flood</dt></dl> -<div class="pb" id="Page_6">6</div> -<h3 id="c8">HOW DID ILLINOIS GET ITS SOILS?</h3> -<div class="img" id="fig4"> -<img src="images/p04.jpg" alt="" width="613" height="801" /> -<p class="pcap">Figure 4—Limits of ice age glaciers.</p> -</div> -<p>Weathering and bacterial -decay action have modified -many of the loose, unconsolidated -surface materials into -soils. The present soils of Illinois -are fertile partly because -they have minerals and trace elements -(minute amounts of elements -such as copper, zinc, -manganese) brought in by the -glaciers from adjacent parts of -the country. The youngest and -most fertile soils occur in the -northeastern part of the state and -along the Illinois and Mississippi -River valleys. These young -soils are more fertile because the -glacial deposits and loess (wind-blown silt) upon which they have -developed are younger and fresher. The minerals and trace elements -in these deposits have not been dissolved out to the extent -that they have in the older glacial deposits and soils in other parts -of the state.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig5"> -<img src="images/p04a.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="489" /> -<p class="pcap">Figure 5—Woolly mammoth (after C. R. Knight).</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_7">7</div> -<h3 id="c9">ARE ANIMAL AND PLANT REMAINS FOUND IN THE GLACIAL DEPOSITS OF ILLINOIS?</h3> -<p>Scattered mammoth (<a href="#fig5">fig. 5</a>) and mastodon remains have been -found in glacial deposits at various localities in the state. Peat, -which is an accumulation of partially decomposed plant materials, -has been found, especially in the northern part of the state. It is -marketed as an organic soil conditioner.</p> -<h2 id="c10"><span class="small">MINERAL WEALTH</span></h2> -<h3 id="c11">HOW WEALTHY IS ILLINOIS IN MINERAL PRODUCTION?</h3> -<p>In 1963, Illinois mineral production totaled approximately -$615,000,000. This placed the state first as a mineral producer -in the Upper Mississippi Valley and eighth in the nation.</p> -<h3 id="c12">WHAT MINERAL COMMODITIES ARE PRODUCED IN ILLINOIS?</h3> -<p>Coal and petroleum, two of the world’s most important -mineral resources, are produced in Illinois. Iron ore, another -mineral of extreme importance, is brought into the steel mills of -the Chicago and East St. Louis areas from deposits in Minnesota -and Missouri. Some ore from foreign countries is also processed -in these mills.</p> -<p>A great variety of mineral commodities are produced in Illinois. -In the order of their 1963 value (<a href="#fig6">fig. 6</a>) they are (1) crude -oil and natural gas, (2) coal, (3) clay products, (4) crushed stone -and cement, (5) common sand and gravel, (6) special sands, -(7) fluorspar, and (8) metals—zinc and lead.</p> -<h3 id="c13">HOW MANY ILLINOIS COUNTIES PRODUCE MINERAL COMMODITIES?</h3> -<p>In 1963, 99 of the 102 counties of Illinois reported mineral -production of one kind or another.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_8">8</div> -<div class="img" id="fig6"> -<img src="images/p05.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="842" /> -<p class="pcap">Figure 6—Percentage diagram of Illinois mineral production value for 1963.</p> -</div> -<dl class="undent pcap"><dt>Petroleum and Natural Gas 36.3%</dt> -<dt>Coal 31.9%</dt> -<dt>Stone Products 15.2%</dt> -<dt>Clay Products 8.8%</dt> -<dt>Sand and Gravel 5.9%</dt> -<dt>Fluorspar and Metals 1.9%</dt></dl> -<h3 id="c14">HOW MANY PEOPLE WORK IN THE MINERAL INDUSTRIES OF ILLINOIS?</h3> -<p>In 1963, approximately 27,000 people worked in mines, -quarries, oil fields, and direct processing operations such as -cement and clay products plants and oil refineries. Many other -persons were employed in transporting the materials and in plants -and general offices.</p> -<h3 id="c15">HOW DOES THE FARMER IN ILLINOIS BENEFIT FROM MINERAL PRODUCTION?</h3> -<p>The farmers of the state are among those receiving direct -and indirect benefits from Illinois minerals. In 1963, more than -4,800,000 tons of agstone (crushed limestone and dolomite) were -spread on Illinois fields to reduce acidity, maintain soil fertility, -and improve crop production. Other stone and stone products are -used in constructing farm buildings and facilities and in the maintenance -of farm-to-market roads. In addition, petroleum products -and coal provide energy to power the laborsaving devices that enable -the farmer to increase his production and scale of operations.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_9">9</div> -<h2 id="c16"><span class="small">PETROLEUM</span></h2> -<h3 id="c17">WHAT IS PETROLEUM AND HOW IS IT FORMED?</h3> -<p>Petroleum is a dark, oily fluid that is irregularly distributed -in sedimentary rocks throughout the world. There are several ideas -about the origin of petroleum. The most widely accepted of these -is that billions of plants and animals lived and died in widespread -seas and their remains decomposed and released fluid, fatty particles. -These were distilled into “hydrocarbons” (a mixture of the -elements hydrogen and carbon, such as gas and oil).</p> -<h3 id="c18">HOW AND WHERE DID OIL COLLECT IN ROCKS?</h3> -<p>The hydrocarbons, or oil and gas droplets, were buried by -countless tons of sediments that accumulated on ancient sea bottoms. -As these sediments hardened into sedimentary rocks, the -hydrocarbons were squeezed into whatever empty spaces were available -in the rocks. As the layers of sedimentary rocks later became -folded and broken, oil and gas droplets and salt water moved upward -through any interconnecting open spaces. Some droplets escaped -to the surface as “seeps,” but many were trapped when they came -up against a nonporous barrier. Gas, being lighter than either oil -or water, was trapped at the top, and oil was stopped in the middle, -above the salt water. An accumulation of this kind is termed a -“pool” or a “field.”</p> -<h3 id="c19">WHERE DID OIL ACCUMULATE IN ILLINOIS?</h3> -<p>Conditions under which oil is found in Illinois (<a href="#fig7">fig. 7</a>) are -as follows: (a) coral reefs, (b) anticlines (upfolds or arches of rock -layers), (c) “pinching” or “lensing” out of dipping, overlapping -porous rock layers, and (d) buried sandstone-filled ancient stream -channels.</p> -<h3 id="c20">ARE THERE LAKES OR RIVERS OF OIL UNDERGROUND?</h3> -<p>No. Oil and gas accumulate in the pores (openings) between -silt and sand grains and in small openings in limestone and -dolomite.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_10">10</div> -<div class="img" id="fig7"> -<img src="images/p06.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="939" /> -<p class="pcap">Figure 7—Places where oil is found in Illinois: (a) coral reefs, (b) anticlines, -(c) pinch-outs, and (d) channel sandstones.</p> -</div> -<dl class="undent pcap"><dt>EXPLANATION</dt> -<dt>Glacial drift</dt> -<dt>Dolomite</dt> -<dt>Shale</dt> -<dt>Gas saturated zone</dt> -<dt>Sandstone</dt> -<dt>Oil saturated zone</dt> -<dt>Limestone</dt> -<dt>Water saturated zone</dt></dl> -<h3 id="c21">HOW IS OIL DISCOVERED?</h3> -<p>Although prospect (test) drilling is still the only way to prove -the presence or absence of commercial quantities of oil beneath -the surface, careful study by a geologist of all available information -may indicate the most favorable places for testing. Since oil -<span class="pb" id="Page_11">11</span> -and gas migrate to the highest parts of the porous rock zones, the -geologist tries to find these high places even though they may be -several hundred feet underground. Sometimes dipping rocks can -be seen in outcrops, and several geophysical methods have been -used to indicate where such high places may occur underground. At -other times, high places are found by studying with a microscope -samples of rocks collected from wells already drilled in the surrounding -area. The geologist notes the type and order of the formations -which have been drilled. Many holes have been drilled -based on such information.</p> -<p>Whether or not the test drilling is successful as a producing -well, small samples of cuttings of the rock being drilled -are collected and saved to be studied at a later time. Various instruments -are also put down into the hole to record temperatures, -pressures, electrical properties, and other characteristics of the -rocks. This type of information, when carefully plotted on maps, -serves to locate new areas for test drilling.</p> -<h3 id="c22">HOW MUCH OIL CAN BE OBTAINED FROM AN OIL POOL?</h3> -<p>There is no way to tell before a hole is drilled whether or -not oil will be found, how much oil is present, or what will be the -best way to get it to the surface. Where subsurface pressures are -great enough, oil may flow to the surface.</p> -<p>Generally speaking, about one-third of the oil actually -present in the rocks can be pumped before the well becomes uneconomical -to operate. This is called primary production. Oil -operators have learned that by pumping water or gas down some -wells into the oil-bearing formation, another third of the oil may -be forced out through neighboring wells. This is called secondary -production. Experiments that use steam or that burn some of the -oil underground in an oil-bearing formation are attempts to recover -the remaining third. These methods using heat are often referred -to as tertiary production methods.</p> -<h3 id="c23">WHAT IS THE “BIGGEST” OIL WELL ON RECORD IN ILLINOIS?</h3> -<p>Illinois’ largest well, near Centralia, flowed 12,000 barrels -of oil in a 24-hour period. Most Illinois oil wells, however, -<span class="pb" id="Page_12">12</span> -have to be pumped, and the majority of them are now producing 10 -barrels or less a day. The deepest producing well, 5,354 feet, -was drilled in 1960 in Wayne County, near Fairfield. In the same -year the deepest oil test was drilled to a depth of 8,616 feet and -was stopped in granite. This test is located in Fayette County -near Beecher City and has its oil production from a zone over 4,000 -feet above the bottom of the hole.</p> -<h3 id="c24">HOW MUCH OIL IS PRODUCED IN ILLINOIS AND HOW VALUABLE IS IT?</h3> -<p>In 1963, about 75 million barrels of oil, 2.7 percent of the -nation’s total, were produced in Illinois (<a href="#fig8">fig. 8</a>). This oil is valued -at over $221,000,000.</p> -<h3 id="c25">IS OIL PRODUCTION INCREASING OR DECREASING IN ILLINOIS?</h3> -<p>In 1940, our state had its highest yield of oil when -147,647,000 barrels were produced. Although production figures -remained fairly high for some time, they have declined in the past -few years. Since no new large oil discoveries have been made -recently, Illinois’ total known oil reserves are decreasing yearly. -In 1963, Illinois ranked eighth among the oil-producing states, -with 420 oil fields consisting of 30,149 wells.</p> -<h2 id="c26"><span class="small">COAL</span></h2> -<h3 id="c27">WHAT IS COAL AND HOW IS IT FORMED?</h3> -<p>Coal is a combustible rock that was formed by the accumulation -and partial decay of vegetation. When coal was forming -millions of years ago, most of the state was a low coastal plain -bordered on the west and southwest by a shallow sea. A large -variety of plants grew in great swamps which covered this coastal -plain (<a href="#fig9">fig. 9</a>). When the plants died, they accumulated in the -swamps to form thick masses of peat that were eventually covered -by shallow seas and buried beneath mud and sand. Periodically, -the region was above sea level, new swamps developed, new peat -deposits accumulated, and more sediments were laid down. This -process occurred repeatedly until over 3,000 feet of sediments had -been deposited. Then the sediments were slowly compacted and -hardened so that sandstones, shales, limestones, and coals were -formed.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_13">13</div> -<div class="img" id="fig8"> -<img src="images/p07.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="1446" /> -<p class="pcap">Figure 8—Estimated total oil production by counties from 1888 through 1963.</p> -</div> -<dl class="undent pcap"><dt>Counties producing oil in January 1965</dt> -<dt>Total Production 2,464,758,000 barrels</dt> -<dt>46 counties producing</dt></dl> -<div class="pb" id="Page_14">14</div> -<div class="img" id="fig9"> -<img src="images/p08.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="601" /> -<p class="pcap">Figure 9—Reconstruction of coal-forming swamp.</p> -</div> -<h3 id="c28">HOW DO WE KNOW THAT COAL WAS DERIVED FROM PLANT MATERIALS?</h3> -<p>Although plant impressions or fossilized wood can be seen -in coal, they are more common in shales and sandstones associated -with the coal. Often roots can be seen in the clay that lies just -under the coal, and in some places stumps of trees from the coal -swamp forest are preserved in the sediments adjacent to the coal -(<a href="#fig10">fig. 10</a>). When pieces of coal are examined with a microscope, -carbonized plant remains can be seen.</p> -<h3 id="c29">HOW MANY COAL SEAMS ARE PRESENT IN ILLINOIS?</h3> -<p>There are at least 40 different coal seams in Illinois, but -most are relatively thin. Seven coal seams have been mined extensively, -and all together 20 or more have been mined.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_15">15</div> -<div class="img" id="fig10"> -<img src="images/p08a.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="1477" /> -<p class="pcap">Figure 10—Some root, stem, and leaf fossils found in Illinois coal-bearing -rocks.</p> -</div> -<dl class="undent pcap"><dt><i>Neuropteris</i> ⅖×</dt> -<dt><i>Nosopteris stem</i> ⅔×</dt> -<dt><i>Neuropteris</i> ½×</dt> -<dt><i>Lepidodendron</i> ⅖×</dt> -<dt><i>Pecopteris</i> ⅔×</dt> -<dt><i>Stigmaria</i> ⅖×</dt> -<dt><i>Annularia</i> ⅔×</dt> -<dt><i>Spiropteris</i> ⅔×</dt> -<dt><i>Sphenophyllum</i> 1×</dt></dl> -<div class="pb" id="Page_16">16</div> -<h3 id="c30">HOW IS ILLINOIS COAL MINED?</h3> -<p>In Illinois there are two main ways of mining coal: strip -(open-cut) and underground. Strip or open-cut mines (<a href="#fig11">fig. 11</a>) -usually operate where the coal is at very shallow depths, although -such mining is done as much as 100 feet deep or more in some -places. Many old underground mines produced coal from seams -that were less than 100 feet deep because they did not have the -large machinery for strip mining when these mines were started. An -abandoned mine, 1,004 feet deep, near Assumption is the deepest -underground coal mine in the state. Coal is now being mined at -depths somewhat over 800 feet in Jefferson County.</p> -<h3 id="c31">HOW DOES ILLINOIS RANK AS A COAL PRODUCER?</h3> -<p>Illinois ranks fourth in production of coal in the United -States. It is exceeded only by West Virginia, Kentucky, and Pennsylvania. -Some of the largest and most efficient mines in the -country are operated in Illinois. Underground mines in Illinois -have the highest rate of tons mined per man each day in the country, -and this rate is increasing. Increased mining efficiency has -made it possible to hold the price of coal low enough so that it can -successfully compete against other fuels for many uses.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig11"> -<img src="images/p09.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="334" /> -<p class="pcap">Figure 11—Diagram of strip mine showing: (a) stripping shovel, and (b) coal-loading -shovel.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_17">17</div> -<h3 id="c32">HOW MUCH COAL IS PRODUCED IN ILLINOIS ANNUALLY AND HOW VALUABLE IS IT?</h3> -<p>In the last 10 years, an average of about 46 million tons -of coal has been mined each year (<a href="#fig12">fig. 12</a>). In 1963, approximately -51.6 million tons were produced, which were valued at about -$196,000,000 at the mine. Since 1961, strip mines have produced -over half of the coal mined in Illinois.</p> -<h3 id="c33">HOW LONG WILL OUR COAL SUPPLIES LAST?</h3> -<p>It will take well over 1,000 years at the present rate of -mining in Illinois to exhaust our coal reserves. An estimated 140 -billion tons of coal in seams of minable thickness remain in the -ground in our state; these are the largest known reserves of bituminous -coal of any state in the United States.</p> -<h3 id="c34">WHAT IS COAL USED FOR?</h3> -<p>Electric power generation consumes the greater part of the -annual coal production in Illinois. Coal is also used for home and -commercial heating, for production of coke, and for manufacturing -various chemical compounds from coal tar. Products derived from -coal tar include drugs and medicines, plastics, synthetic fibres, -perfumes, flavorings, dyes, synthetic rubbers, explosives, specialized -oils, solvents, wood preservatives, tarlike paving and -roofing materials, and some gas. The gas is both produced and -utilized in the coke industry.</p> -<h3 id="c35">WHAT IS COKE?</h3> -<p>Coke is a material produced by burning coal in the absence -of air so that most of the gases and water are driven off without -consuming the solid portion. The resulting solid coke is a strong, -porous, combustible substance.</p> -<h3 id="c36">HOW IMPORTANT IS COKE AND HOW IS IT USED?</h3> -<p>The structure and nature of coke make it a valuable fuel for -blast furnace use in the production of steel. In the past, most of -the coal used in the manufacture of coke has come from areas of -higher quality coal outside of our state. However, at present, -over 1,000,000 tons of Illinois coal are mined annually for the -production of metallurgical coke.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_18">18</div> -<div class="img" id="fig12"> -<img src="images/p10.jpg" alt="" width="711" height="999" /> -<p class="pcap">Figure 12—Estimated total coal production by counties from 1882 through 1963.</p> -</div> -<dl class="undent pcap"><dt>Area underlain by coal-bearing rocks</dt> -<dt>Counties producing coal in January 1965</dt> -<dt>Total Production 3,749,423,534 tons</dt> -<dt>71 counties producing</dt></dl> -<div class="pb" id="Page_19">19</div> -<h2 id="c37"><span class="small">STONE AND STONE PRODUCTS</span></h2> -<h3 id="c38">WHAT TYPES OF STONE ARE PRODUCED IN ILLINOIS?</h3> -<p>Limestone and dolomite are the most abundant rocks quarried -in Illinois. Small amounts of marble, limestone, and sandstone for -building stone are also produced. In addition, some glacial boulders -and cobbles are used for rock gardens and in home construction. -The crushed limestone industry is Illinois’ most important -rock products industry.</p> -<h3 id="c39">WHAT ARE LIMESTONE AND DOLOMITE?</h3> -<p>Limestone is a sedimentary rock that consists chiefly of -calcite, which is composed of calcium, carbon, and oxygen. -Dolomite is a variety of limestone -that contains considerable magnesium -in addition to the other elements. -Limestones were deposited -on the floors of ancient seas that -repeatedly covered most parts of -Illinois. Shelled creatures, corals, -and coral reefs helped build -up the thick limestone deposits -(figs. <a href="#fig13">13</a> and <a href="#fig14">14</a>).</p> -<div class="img" id="fig13"> -<img src="images/p10a.jpg" alt="" width="534" height="800" /> -<p class="pcap">Figure 13—Piece of limestone -largely made up of fossil -brachiopod shells.</p> -</div> -<h3 id="c40">WHERE ARE LIMESTONE AND DOLOMITE QUARRIES LOCATED IN ILLINOIS?</h3> -<p>Limestone and dolomite -quarries are located along the -southern, western, and northern -margins of the state where the thick -deposits of these rocks crop out at the surface. Although bedrock -was deposited in horizontal layers, it has since been downfolded -into the Illinois Basin whose center is in southeastern Illinois. -Thus, the thick limestones and dolomites that are quarried along -the margins of the state are too deeply buried to be quarried in the -central part of this basin (<a href="#fig15">fig. 15</a>).</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_20">20</div> -<div class="img" id="fig14"> -<img src="images/p11.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="1592" /> -<p class="pcap">Figure 14—Fossils commonly found in Illinois rocks.</p> -</div> -<dl class="undent pcap"><dt><i>Strophomena</i> 1×</dt> -<dt><i>Paleoneilo</i> 1×</dt> -<dt><i>Ctenodonta</i> ⅔×</dt> -<dt><i>Dolmanites</i> ½×</dt> -<dt><i>Archimedes</i> 1×</dt> -<dt><i>Hormotoma Polygyra</i> 1×</dt> -<dt><i>Mucrospirifer</i> 1½×</dt> -<dt><i>Atrypa</i> ⅔×</dt> -<dt><i>Crinoid Columnais</i> 1×</dt> -<dt><i>Halysites</i> ⅔×</dt> -<dt><i>Hexagonaria</i> 1×</dt> -<dt><i>Microcylus</i> 1×</dt> -<dt><i>Streptelasma</i> ⅔×</dt> -<dt><i>Lithostrationella</i> ½×</dt> -<dt><i>Lophophyllum</i> 1×</dt></dl> -<div class="pb" id="Page_21">21</div> -<div class="img" id="fig15"> -<img src="images/p11a.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="427" /> -<p class="pcap">Figure 15—Diagrammatic cross section of the Illinois Basin.</p> -</div> -<dl class="undent pcap"><dt><i>MISS. RIVER</i></dt> -<dt>Waterloo</dt> -<dt>Mt. Vernon</dt> -<dt>ILLINOIS</dt> -<dt><i>WABASH RIVER</i></dt> -<dt>INDIANA</dt> -<dt>New Albany</dt> -<dt><i>OHIO RIVER</i></dt></dl> -<h3 id="c41">ARE ANY STONE QUARRIES LOCATED IN THE AREA UNDERLAIN BY THE ILLINOIS BASIN?</h3> -<p>Yes. In the area underlain by the basin, stone quarries are -operated in younger, thinner rock strata of Pennsylvanian age. -These strata also overlie the thick limestones and dolomites quarried -along the margins of the state. The quarries located within -the basin area produce stone for agricultural limestone, roads, and -other purposes.</p> -<h3 id="c42">HOW AND WHERE ARE LIMESTONE AND DOLOMITE USED?</h3> -<p>Millions of tons of stone are crushed annually to produce -aggregate for use in making concrete roads and buildings, for road -surfacing, and for agricultural limestone. Agstone is applied to -farmlands to neutralize soil acidity, improve soil structure, add -calcium and magnesium, and promote conditions favorable for the -utilization of soil materials by plants. Large quantities of limestone -are used in making lime and cement. There are three cement plants -<span class="pb" id="Page_22">22</span> -in northern Illinois—two at LaSalle and one at Dixon—and one in -southern Illinois, at Joppa.</p> -<p>Small amounts of stone are used for making alkalies and -glass, for railroad ballast, for building stone, for dusting coal -mines to prevent coal dust explosions, and for ingredients in -mineral feeds for livestock.</p> -<h3 id="c43">HOW MUCH STONE DOES ILLINOIS PRODUCE?</h3> -<p>A production of about 36 million tons of stone in 1963 was -valued at almost $48,000,000. The cement made from Illinois -limestone in the same year was valued at $32,000,000.</p> -<h2 id="c44"><span class="small">CLAY</span></h2> -<h3 id="c45">WHAT IS CLAY AND HOW IS IT FORMED?</h3> -<p>Weathering or alteration of some rocks produces clay -which is a very fine-grained, unconsolidated rock. Clay is made -up of a group of minerals, of which illite, montmorillonite, kaolinite, -and chlorite are the most abundant.</p> -<h3 id="c46">HOW EXTENSIVE ARE CLAY DEPOSITS IN ILLINOIS?</h3> -<p>Clay deposits in Illinois consist of Quaternary clays, -which were deposited by glaciers, lakes, and winds; and of fireclay, -shale, kaolin, and “fuller’s earth,” all of which are bedrock -deposits. Quaternary clay, fireclay, and shale resources -occur widely in very large quantities; “fuller’s earth” and kaolin -deposits are small in relation to other clay resources.</p> -<h3 id="c47">HOW IS ILLINOIS CLAY USED?</h3> -<p>Surface clay, shale, and fireclay are used in the manufacture -of structural clay products, such as brick, drain tile, -and hollow block (<a href="#fig16">fig. 16</a>). Fireclay is used for a bonding agent -in molding sand, for the making of stoneware vessels, for a -plaster on the walls of industrial furnaces, and for making -<span class="pb" id="Page_23">23</span> -refractory brick. Refractory -brick must be able to withstand -very high temperatures -and is used to line industrial -furnaces, boilers, kilns, and -ladles for molten steel.</p> -<p>Shale and clay are -ground up and mixed with -limestone in the manufacture -of cement. Crucibles, refractories, -china, and porcelain -are made from kaolin. -“Fuller’s earth” is used as a -sweeping compound and as an -animal litter.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig16"> -<img src="images/p12.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="532" /> -<p class="pcap">Figure 16—Typical Illinois bee-hive kiln.</p> -</div> -<h3 id="c48">WHAT IS THE VALUE OF THE CLAY PRODUCTS MANUFACTURED IN ILLINOIS?</h3> -<p>About $53,900,000 worth of clay products were manufactured -in Illinois in 1963.</p> -<h2 id="c49"><span class="small">SAND AND GRAVEL</span></h2> -<h3 id="c50">WHERE DO SAND AND GRAVEL COME FROM?</h3> -<p>Glacial deposits of sand and gravel are the chief source of -these materials in Illinois, but chert or flint gravels that are older -than the glacial deposits are known and utilized locally in western -and extreme southern Illinois. Sands of recent origin are dredged -from deposits in the larger rivers and streams (<a href="#fig17">fig. 17</a>), and commercial -silica sand is produced from sandstone bedrock.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig17"> -<img src="images/p12a.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="173" /> -<p class="pcap">Figure 17—Dredge equipment used in producing sand and gravel.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_24">24</div> -<h3 id="c51">WHAT IS THE VALUE OF COMMON ILLINOIS SAND AND GRAVEL PRODUCTION?</h3> -<p>Production of common sand and gravel totaled 27,115,000 -tons at a value of $24,800,000 in 1963.</p> -<h2 id="c52"><span class="small">SILICA SAND</span></h2> -<h3 id="c53">WHAT IS SILICA SAND?</h3> -<p>Although natural sands are aggregations of many kinds of -small rock and mineral fragments, silica sand consists almost -entirely of fine grains of a single mineral, quartz. The principal -sources of Illinois silica sand are in LaSalle (Ottawa, Utica, -Wedron, and Troy Grove areas) and Ogle (Oregon area) Counties.</p> -<h3 id="c54">HOW IS SILICA SAND USED?</h3> -<p>Silica sand, produced in northern Illinois, is famous for -its high purity, and is widely used in making glass. More than -two-thirds of the raw material in common glass is silica sand.</p> -<p>Quantities of silica sand are used as molding sand, because -it can withstand the high temperatures produced in casting -steel and other metals. It also is used for grinding and smoothing -plate glass, for sand blasting, and for fracturing sand used -to increase the production of oil wells. Some silica sand is ground -to a fine powder and utilized as an ingredient in scouring compounds, -paint fillers, pottery, glazes, and enamels.</p> -<p>A specially sized sand is produced from the St. Peter Sandstone -Formation (Ordovician in age) that is used in testing the -strength of cements and as a laboratory standard in various kinds -of tests.</p> -<h3 id="c55">HOW VALUABLE IS SILICA SAND TO THE ECONOMY OF THE STATE?</h3> -<p>Illinois is a major producer of silica sand, having produced -2,900,000 tons in 1963. The silica sand and ground silica produced -in the same year was valued at $11,400,000.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_25">25</div> -<h2 id="c56"><span class="small">TRIPOLI</span></h2> -<h3 id="c57">WHAT IS TRIPOLI AND WHERE IS IT FOUND?</h3> -<p>Tripoli, also known as amorphous silica, is mined in Alexander -County in southern Illinois. It is prepared for market by -being ground to a fine powder. It consists of tiny particles of -quartz.</p> -<h3 id="c58">WHAT ARE SOME OF THE USES FOR TRIPOLI?</h3> -<p>Tripoli is used as “white rouge” in optical lens polishing, -as a paint filler, as a fine abrasive, in the ceramic industry, and -for many other purposes.</p> -<h2 id="c59"><span class="small">FLUORSPAR</span></h2> -<h3 id="c60">WHAT IS FLUORSPAR?</h3> -<p>Fluorspar, or fluorite, is a glassy mineral that is commonly -gray, white, or colorless, but may be green, blue, purple, yellow, -or black. It is composed of calcium and fluorine. Fluorite is not -a gem because it is too fragile and soft. Mineral collectors seek -it because it is attractive and because some varieties have the -ability to glow under invisible ultraviolet light (hence the term -“fluorescence”).</p> -<h3 id="c61">WHERE ARE FLUORSPAR DEPOSITS LOCATED AND HOW IMPORTANT IS ILLINOIS PRODUCTION?</h3> -<p>Fluorspar produced in the United States comes chiefly from -a small area in Illinois and Kentucky where it has been mined -since 1842. Illinois produced about 66 percent of the nation’s -total in 1963. The state’s production amounted to more than -132,000 tons, valued at about $6,547,000. The crude ore is extracted -from nearly horizontal bedded deposits and from nearly -vertical veins in mines up to 800 feet deep in Pope and Hardin -Counties. Finished fluorspar is produced from the crude ore by -separating and concentrating methods.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_26">26</div> -<h3 id="c62">WHAT ARE FLUORSPAR PELLETS?</h3> -<p>In the separation of fluorspar from the other materials with -which it naturally occurs, a process is used that involves grinding -the spar to a very fine powder. The powdered spar has a number -of uses, but to suit it for use as a flux (a substance which -promotes fusion) it is made into pellets by the use of a binder.</p> -<h3 id="c63">WHAT IS FLUORSPAR USED FOR?</h3> -<p>Fluorspar is used extensively as a flux in the steel industry, -but over 50 percent of the spar produced in Illinois in 1963 -was consumed in the manufacture of hydrofluoric acid. A large -portion of this acid production is used in the aluminum industry. -Hydrofluoric acid is also employed in the preparation of many -fluorine compounds, particularly those used in the production of -fluorocarbons (refrigerants, plastics, aerosols), insecticides, and -high-energy fuels for rockets and missiles. The fluorocarbons -utilize about 40 percent of the hydrofluoric acid production.</p> -<h2 id="c64"><span class="small">LEAD AND ZINC</span></h2> -<h3 id="c65">WHAT ORES YIELD LEAD AND ZINC IN ILLINOIS?</h3> -<p>The mineral galena is the principal ore of lead. Galena is -gray in color, very heavy, has a bright metallic luster, and breaks -into cubes along steplike cleavage surfaces (<a href="#fig18">fig. 18</a>). It is composed -of lead and sulfur.</p> -<p>The chief ore of zinc is the mineral sphalerite. It may be -brown, yellow, or black. Sphalerite is a combination of zinc and -sulfur, has a resinous luster, and is not as heavy as galena.</p> -<h3 id="c66">WHERE ARE LEAD AND ZINC MINES LOCATED AND HOW LONG HAVE THESE ORES BEEN MINED?</h3> -<p>Although the lead deposits of extreme northwestern Illinois -(now Jo Daviess County) were reported by the French explorers -<span class="pb" id="Page_27">27</span> -in 1658 and are said to have been worked by the Indians, the influx -of white settlers in the early 1800’s marked the beginning of -an extensive mining industry, which was an important factor in the -early development of that part of the state. The town of Galena -takes its name from the mineral galena, which was the principal -ore mined.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig18"> -<img src="images/p13.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="761" /> -<p class="pcap">Figure 18—Galena cubes.</p> -</div> -<p>In 1845, the Upper Mississippi Valley produced 60 percent -of all lead mined in the United States, which then ranked first in -world lead production. Until about 1860, the zinc ore was considered -useless, but today its total value is several times that -of lead.</p> -<p>Lead mining began in southern Illinois in 1842. Lead and -zinc production in this area is a by-product of fluorspar mining.</p> -<h3 id="c67">WHAT IS THE VALUE OF THESE METALS PRODUCED IN ILLINOIS?</h3> -<p>In 1963, Illinois produced 20,377 tons of zinc valued at -about $4,677,500 and 2,901 tons of lead worth about $626,600.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_28">28</div> -<h2 id="c68"><span class="small">GROUND WATER</span></h2> -<h3 id="c69">WHAT IS GROUND WATER?</h3> -<p>Ground water is water that fills all openings in earth materials -in the zone of permanent saturation. The top of the zone of -saturation is called the water table. The source of ground water -is precipitation (rain and snow) that seeps into the soil and percolates -downward. Below the water table, ground water moves -slowly toward places of discharge such as springs, lakes, rivers, -marshes, and wells. Water falls to the ground, moves through -the rocks, returns to the surface, and finally gets back to the atmosphere -by evaporation and from plants (<a href="#fig19">fig. 19</a>). This cycle is -continuously repeated.</p> -<h3 id="c70">WHAT KINDS OF ROCKS YIELD GROUND WATER?</h3> -<p>Ground water is most readily obtained from saturated rocks -that have fairly large openings between grains (such as sand, -gravel, and sandstone) or have interconnected cracks or channels -(such as limestones). Rocks that contain ground water and that -will yield it to wells are called aquifers. Sand and gravel beds -are widely used aquifers in Illinois.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig19"> -<img src="images/p14.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="461" /> -<p class="pcap">Figure 19—Source, movement, and occurrence of ground water. Arrows in -aquifers show direction of flow of water.</p> -</div> -<dl class="undent pcap"><dt><i>EVAPORATION</i></dt> -<dt>SAND AND GRAVEL WELL</dt> -<dt>Water Table</dt> -<dt>River sand and gravel</dt> -<dt>ARTESIAN WELLS</dt> -<dt><i>EVAPORATION</i></dt> -<dt>River</dt> -<dt>WELL</dt> -<dt>COLLECTING AREA FOR ARTESIAN WATER</dt> -<dt>PRECIPITATION</dt> -<dt>Crater</dt> -<dt>WATER TABLE WELL</dt> -<dt><i>Lake</i></dt> -<dt>Glacial pebbly clay</dt> -<dt>Glacial sand and aquifer</dt> -<dt>Shale</dt> -<dt>Sandstone aquifer</dt> -<dt>Limestone aquifer</dt> -<dt>Shale</dt> -<dt>GROUND-WATER RESERVOIR</dt></dl> -<div class="pb" id="Page_29">29</div> -<h3 id="c71">IS WATER FOUND IN UNDERGROUND LAKES AND RIVERS IN ILLINOIS?</h3> -<p>No. There are a few large springs that flow from rocks -along river bluffs in Illinois, but most ground water occurs in -tiny openings within the rocks. Ground water reservoirs may be -regarded as similar to sponges rather than as underground lakes -or rivers.</p> -<h3 id="c72">WHY DO WELLS SOMETIMES GO DRY?</h3> -<p>The water table rises and falls seasonally and from year -to year, depending upon the amount of precipitation. Sometimes -the water table may fall below the bottom of the well or below the -pump. Sometimes overpumping the well or pumping too many wells -in a small area lowers the water table sufficiently to check the -yield of the well.</p> -<h3 id="c73">WHAT IS AN ARTESIAN WELL?</h3> -<p>An artesian well is one in which pressure forces water to -rise in the well above the level where it was found. In some artesian -wells water flows out at the surface. Conditions for artesian -wells are illustrated in <a href="#fig19">figure 19</a>. The shale above the sandstone -and limestone aquifers in the figure is “tight” and does not -permit water to escape upward to the level at which it enters the -aquifers in the intake areas. The water is under natural pressure. -When a well is drilled through the shale and into the aquifers, -water rises, seeking its own level. Most of the deep wells in -northern Illinois are artesian wells, though few of them flow at -the surface anymore.</p> -<h3 id="c74">WILL YOU ALWAYS FIND WATER IF YOU GO DEEP ENOUGH?</h3> -<p>This is generally true. However, in much of the southern -two-thirds of Illinois the deeper waters are quite salty. Therefore, -only the upper few hundred feet of rocks are worth exploring for -water. In the northern third of Illinois, where the deepest water -wells are located, fresh water extends in some places to more -than 2,000 feet.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_30">30</div> -<h3 id="c75">HOW CAN GROUND WATER BE FOUND?</h3> -<p>The most effective way of locating a ground water supply -is by using knowledge of the geology and ground water conditions—gained -partly from study of existing well records—to determine -the most favorable areas and depths to drill to.</p> -<p>An additional tool that has been used successfully in Illinois -is the electrical earth resistivity survey. The resistivity -survey attempts to locate buried sand and gravel layers that commonly -are sources of ground water. Test drilling is recommended -at sites that appear to be underlain by sand and gravel.</p> -<p>There is no known method that will positively “find” ground -water without drilling.</p> -<h2 id="c76"><span class="small">ILLINOIS STATE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY</span></h2> -<h3 id="c77">WHY IS GEOLOGY IMPORTANT?</h3> -<p>Geology and allied sciences are being called upon increasingly -to aid in more intelligent and efficient discovery and utilization -of mineral wealth. Our national life and welfare are more -and more dependent upon the further discovery and proper use of -the earth’s natural resources. Illinois is widely recognized by -scientists, industrialists, and educators as being outstanding in -its promotion of research and industrial development.</p> -<h3 id="c78">WHAT ARE SOME OF THE SERVICES AVAILABLE FROM THE SURVEY?</h3> -<p>The occurrence and distribution of rock and mineral deposits -in Illinois are studied by the State Geological Survey Division -of the Department of Registration and Education (<a href="#fig20">fig. 20</a>). In -seeking new information concerning the state’s natural mineral resources, -physical and chemical studies of useful rocks, minerals, -and mineral products are made. Techniques and methods are developed -and experiments are conducted to find and prepare Illinois’ -mineral substances for use.</p> -<p>The results of the Survey’s field and laboratory findings -are published and made available to all citizens upon request. -<span class="pb" id="Page_31">31</span> -Much information that has not been published is in the open files -of the Geological Survey where it may be examined by the public. -Members of the Survey’s scientific and technical staff answer requests -for information received by letter, telegram, telephone, or -personal interview.</p> -<p>Since the main ideas of geology are easy to understand -and greatly increase one’s enjoyment and appreciation of the world -in which we live, the Geological Survey publishes popular and -educational booklets designed for the use of Illinois teachers and -students. The Survey also distributes a labeled collection of rocks -and minerals for class use in Illinois schools. Six geological -science field trips are conducted each year throughout various sections -of the state for teachers and interested laymen. Members -of the Survey staff give illustrated lectures to organized groups -about the geology and mineral resources of the state.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig20"> -<img src="images/p15.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="322" /> -<p class="pcap">Figure 20—Geological Survey offices are located in the Natural Resources -Building, Urbana, Illinois.</p> -</div> -<h3 id="c79">WHAT IS THE CHARGE FOR THESE SERVICES?</h3> -<p>All of the Survey’s publications are distributed free to -schools and teachers. Only topographic maps and certain base -maps, which are prepared and printed by the U.S. Geological Survey -in Washington, are sold at nominal prices.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_32">32</div> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/p16.jpg" id="ncfig2" alt="uncaptioned" width="800" height="571" /> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_33">33</div> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/p16a.jpg" id="ncfig3" alt="Geologic column" width="1000" height="1515" /> -</div> -<table class="center"> -<tr class="th"><th class="l" colspan="2">Era </th><th> </th><th>General Types of Rocks</th></tr> -<tr class="th"><th> </th><th class="l" colspan="4">Period or System and Thickness</th></tr> -<tr class="th"><th> </th><th> </th><th class="l" colspan="2">Epoch</th></tr> -<tr><td colspan="4" class="l">CENOZOIC “Recent Life”</td></tr> -<tr><td colspan="4" class="l">Age of Mammals</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td colspan="2" class="l">Quaternary<br />0-500′</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l"> </td><td colspan="2" class="l">Pleistocene or Glacial Age</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l"> </td><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Recent—alluvium in river valleys</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l"> </td><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Glacial till, glacial outwash, gravel, sand, silt lake deposits of clay and silt, loess and sand dunes; covers nearly all of state except northwest corner and southern tip</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td colspan="2" class="l">Tertiary<br />0-500′</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Pliocene </td><td class="l">Chert gravel; present in northern, southern, and western Illinois</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Eocene </td><td class="l">Mostly micaceous sand with some silt and clay; present only in southern Illinois</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Paleocene </td><td class="l">Mostly clay, little sand; present only in southern Illinois</td></tr> -<tr><td colspan="4" class="l">MESOZOIC “Middle Life”</td></tr> -<tr><td colspan="4" class="l">Age of Reptiles</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td colspan="2" class="l">Cretaceous<br />0-300′ </td><td class="l">Mostly sand, some thin beds of clay and, locally, gravel; present only in southern Illinois</td></tr> -<tr><td colspan="4" class="l">PALEOZOIC “Ancient Life”</td></tr> -<tr><td colspan="4" class="l">Age of Amphibians and Early Plants</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td colspan="2" class="l">Pennsylvanian<br />0-3,000′<br />(“Coal Measures”) </td><td class="l">Largely shale and sandstone with beds of coal, limestone, and clay</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td colspan="2" class="l">Mississippian<br />0-3,500′ </td><td class="l">Black and gray shale at base; middle zone of thick limestone that grades to siltstone, chert, and shale; upper zone of interbedded sandstone, shale and limestone</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td colspan="3" class="l">Age of Fishes</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td colspan="2" class="l">Devonian<br />0-1,500′ </td><td class="l">Thick limestone, minor sandstones and shales; largely chert and cherty limestone in southern Illinois</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td colspan="3" class="l">Age of Invertebrates</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td colspan="2" class="l">Silurian<br />0-1,000′ </td><td class="l">Principally dolomite and limestone</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td colspan="2" class="l">Ordovician<br />500-2,000′ </td><td class="l">Largely dolomite and limestone but contains sandstone, shale, and siltstone formations</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td colspan="2" class="l">Cambrian<br />1,500-3,000′ </td><td class="l">Chiefly sandstones with some dolomite and shale; exposed only in small areas in north-central Illinois</td></tr> -<tr><td colspan="4" class="l">ARCHEOZOIC and PROTEROZOIC</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l"> </td><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Igneous and metamorphic rocks; known in Illinois only from deep wells</td></tr> -</table> -<div class="pb" id="Page_34">34</div> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/p20.jpg" id="ncfig4" alt="uncaptioned" width="608" height="1000" /> -</div> -<p class="center"><i class="large">Illinois State Geological Survey -<br />Educational Series 9</i></p> -<h2 id="trnotes">Transcriber’s Notes</h2> -<ul> -<li>Silently corrected a few typos.</li> -<li>Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook is public-domain in the country of publication.</li> -<li>In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by _underscores_.</li> -</ul> -<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INSIDE ILLINOIS: MINERAL RESOURCES ***</div> -<div style='text-align:left'> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will -be renamed. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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