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diff --git a/old/66331-0.txt b/old/66331-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 5ce9671..0000000 --- a/old/66331-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,3132 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Treatise on Bread, and Bread-making, -by Sylvester Graham - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: A Treatise on Bread, and Bread-making - -Author: Sylvester Graham - -Release Date: September 17, 2021 [eBook #66331] - -Language: English - -Produced by: Charlene Taylor, Benjamin Fluehr and the Online Distributed - Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was - produced from images generously made available by The - Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A TREATISE ON BREAD, AND -BREAD-MAKING *** - - - A - - TREATISE ON BREAD, - - AND - - BREAD-MAKING. - - - - BY SYLVESTER GRAHAM. - - - - “Bread strengtheneth man’s heart.”—HOLY WRIT. - - - - BOSTON: - LIGHT & STEARNS, 1 CORNHILL. - 1837. - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - -Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1837, by LIGHT & - STEARNS, in the Clerk’s Office of the District Court of Massachusetts. - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - CONTENTS. - - - HISTORY OF BREAD. - -Primitive food of man. Bruising and grinding grain. Baking. Invention of - leavened bread. Bread among the Greeks and Romans—among the Hebrews. - Simplicity of the bread now used in many countries. - - 9–16 - - LAWS OF DIET. - -Reasons why food in its natural state would be the best. Concentrated - nutriment. Interesting experiments on animals. Mixtures of food. - Leavened and unleavened bread. Qualifications of the best bread. - - 17–30 - - MATERIAL OF BREAD. - -Wheat. Extent of climate favorable to it. Injured by improper tillage. - Removal of impurities. Washing of grain. Separation of the bran from - the nutrient particles improper. Ancient Roman bread. Public bakers. - Use of bad flour. Adulterations. Poisonous agents used to disguise - them. - - 31–50 - - PROPERTIES OF BREAD. - -Superfine flour injurious—a probable cause of some common disorders. - Objections to coarse bread. Its medical properties. Extensive - experiments of its use, by soldiers and others. Use among European - peasantry. Selection, preservation and grinding of wheat. - - 51–72 - - FERMENTATION. - -Chemical composition of flour. Yeast—modes of preparing it. Substitutes - for it. Fermentation, and its products. Vinous, acetous and - putrefactive fermentation. - - 73–86 - - PREPARATION OF BREAD. - -Mixing. Much kneading necessary. Rising, or fermentation. Use of - alkalies—saleratus and soda. Baking. Ovens. Alcohol in bread. - Preservation of bread. - - 87–102 - - WHO SHOULD MAKE BREAD. - -Making bread by rule. Bakers. Domestics. Sour bread. An anecdote. Mrs. - Van Winkle. Bad bread need not be made. How cake is made. Bread-making - a drudgery. Excellent example of a mother. Eating bad bread. - Importance of having good bread. - - 103–126 - - VARIETIES OF BREAD. - -Rye bread. Indian meal bread. Use of sour milk or butter-milk. Acids. - Family grinding. - - 127–131 - - - - - PREFACE. - - -There are probably few people in civilized life, who—were the question -put to them directly—would not say, that they consider bread _one_ of -the most, if not the most important article of diet which enters into -the food of man. And yet there is, in reality, almost a total and -universal carelessness about the character of bread. Thousands in civic -life will, for years, and perhaps as long as they live, eat the most -miserable trash that can be imagined, in the form of bread, and never -seem to think that they can possibly have anything better, nor even that -it is an evil to eat such vile stuff as they do. And if there is -occasionally an individual who is troubled with some convictions that -his bread is not quite what it should be, he knows not how to remedy the -difficulty; for it is a serious truth, that, although nearly every human -being in civilized life eats bread of some kind or other, yet scarcely -any one has sufficient knowledge of the true principles and processes -concerned in bread-making, and of the actual causes of the bad qualities -of bread, to know how, with any degree of certainty, to avoid bad and -secure good bread. - -I have thought, therefore, that I could hardly do society a better -service, than to publish the following treatise on a subject which, -whether people are aware of it or not, is, in reality, of very great -importance to the health and comfort of every one. - -It has been prepared for the press with more haste, under more -embarrassments from other engagements, and with less severity of -revision, than I could wish. Yet, whatever may be its defects of -arrangement, method or style, I have taken care to have the principles -correct, and the instructions such as, if attended to, will enable every -one who is heartily devoted to the object, to make good bread. - -I must, however, acknowledge, that I have very little expectation that -proper attention will be paid to this subject, so long as the dietetic -habits of society continue to be what they are. While the various -preparations of animal food constitute so important a portion of human -aliment, the quality of bread will be greatly disregarded and neglected, -and people will continue almost universally to be cursed with poor -bread. - -Nevertheless, I trust some good will be done by the little work I now -send out; and I am not without hope, that it will be the means of a -considerable improvement in the quality of bread, and, as a natural and -necessary consequence, an improvement in the health and happiness of -those who consume it. - -That it may prove thus beneficial to my fellow creatures in a high -degree, is my hearty and fervent desire. - - S. GRAHAM. - - NORTHAMPTON, APRIL 12, 1837. - - - - - TREATISE ON BREAD. - - HISTORY OF BREAD. - -Primitive food of man. Bruising and grinding grain. Baking. Invention of - leavened bread. Bread among the Greeks and Romans—among the Hebrews. - Simplicity of the bread now used in many countries. - - -In the English version of the sacred scriptures, the term Bread is -frequently used to signify vegetable food in general. Thus in Gen. iii, -19, the Lord says to Adam—“In the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat bread -(or food) till thou return to the ground.” See also Gen. xviii, 5, and -xxviii, 20, and Ex. ii, 20. - -The most extended sense of the word, however, according to general -usage, comprehends all farinaceous vegetable substances which enter into -the diet of man; such as the farinaceous seeds or grain, nuts, fruit, -roots, &c. And in this extended sense, Bread, in some form or other, has -been the principal article in the diet of mankind, from the earliest -generations of the human race, to the present time; except among the -few, small and scattered tribes, which have, perhaps, ever since the -days of Noah, in different parts of the earth, subsisted mainly on -animal food. - -It is nearly certain that the primitive inhabitants of the earth, ate -their food with very little, if any artificial preparation. - -The various fruits, nuts, seeds, roots, and other vegetable substances -on which they fed, were eaten by them in their natural state, with no -other grinding than that which was done by the teeth. - -As the human family increased, and population became more dense and -extended, and providential measures more necessary, the condition and -circumstances of society gradually led to the invention and adoption of -the simple, and, at first, rude arts of domestic life. Among these, was -that of bruising the harder articles of their food, such as nuts and -seeds, or grain, on flat stones, selected and kept for the purpose. By -constant use, these stones in time became hollowed out; and being -thereby rendered more convenient, men at length began to form mortars -and pestles from stones; and probably the next step was the construction -of the rude kind of hand-mills, which continued in use for many -centuries; and indeed, which, with the stone mortars, have, throughout -all ages and in almost every portion of the earth, been used in the -ruder states of society. - -When men became acquainted with the use of fire, they probably often -parched their corn or grain before they pounded it; and afterwards, they -learned to mix it with water into the consistency of dough, and to bake -this, in an unleavened or unfermented state, on flat stones before the -fire, or in the hot ashes or hot earth, or in the rude ovens which they -formed, by digging holes in the earth, into which they put heated -stones, and slightly covered them with leaves or grass, and then laid in -the article they wished to bake, and over this strewed some leaves, and -then covered the whole with earth.[A] - -This kind of unleavened bread, undoubtedly constituted a very important, -if not the principal article of artificially prepared food in the diet -of the primitive inhabitants of the earth, for many centuries; and the -same, or very nearly the same kind of bread continued in general use -down to the days of Abraham; and it is probable that the unleavened -bread used by his descendants at the feast of the Passover, before and -after they left Egypt, was of the same kind. - -It is hardly possible, however, that it could have been otherwise, than -that, at a much earlier period, larger quantities of this dough were -occasionally made, than were immediately baked, and consequently -portions of it were suffered to stand and ferment; and by this means, -men were in process of time learned to make leavened, or raised bread. - -At how early a date, loaf or raised bread came into common use, it is -impossible now to ascertain with any considerable degree of precision. -The scriptures do not afford us any evidence that Abraham was accustomed -to such bread; but the fact that Moses, at the institution of the supper -of the Passover, the night before the Jews left Egypt, commanded them -strictly to abstain from leavened bread, and to eat only the unleavened, -proves conclusively, that the Israelites at least, were then accustomed -to fermented, or raised bread. - -Neither history nor tradition enables us to speak with any degree of -confidence in regard to the period at which other nations became -acquainted with the art of bread-making; but from all that has come down -to us from ancient times, we learn that the primitive generations of -every nation, subsisted on fruits and other products of the vegetable -kingdom, in their uncooked or natural state. - -“The Greeks assert that they were taught the art of making bread by -their god, Pan; and Pliny informs us that this art was not known at Rome -till near six hundred years after the foundation of that city. The Roman -armies, he says, on their return from Macedonia, brought Grecian bakers -into Italy. Before this time, the Romans prepared their meal in a kind -of pap or soft pudding; and on this account Pliny calls them pap -eaters.” - -But though the Egyptians and Israelites were probably among the earliest -portions of the human family, who became acquainted with the art of -making loaf or raised bread, the quality of their bread continued to be -exceedingly simple and coarse for many generations. - -Even after the establishment of the Hebrew nation in Palestine—in the -most splendid days of Jerusalem—at the period of the highest refinement -of the Jews, in the arts of civil and domestic life, their fine flour, -from which their choicest bread and cakes were made, was, in comparison -with modern superfine flour, extremely coarse,—ground mostly by females, -in hand-mills constructed and kept for that purpose. - -From Rome the art of bread-making very slowly found its way over -considerable portions of Europe. A thousand years after Julius Cæsar -first entered Britain, the rude people of that country were little -acquainted with raised bread. “Even at present,” says Prof. Thomson, -“loaf bread is seldom used except by the higher classes of inhabitants, -in the northern countries of Europe and Asia.” - -In Eastern and Southern Asia, rice constitutes the principal -bread-stuff; and this is generally prepared with great simplicity. In -Middle and Western Asia, and in Africa, bread, though made of different -kinds of grain, is prepared with almost equal simplicity. In Scotland, -Ireland, and indeed throughout Europe generally, barley, oats, rye, -potatoes, peas, beans, chesnuts, and other farinaceous vegetables, -constitute the bread-stuff of most of the laboring people, or peasantry. -In the islands of the Pacific and Southern oceans, the bread of the -inhabitants consists of the plantain, bananas, yams, bread-fruit, and -other like vegetables, simply roasted, baked, or boiled. - -Bread, therefore, of some kind or other, made of some of the farinaceous -products of the vegetable kingdom, has probably, in almost every portion -of the world, and every period of time, been one of the first, and most -important, and universal articles of food, artificially prepared by -cooking, which has entered into the diet of mankind; and hence it has -with great propriety been called “the staff of life.” - - - - - LAWS OF DIET. - -Reasons why food in its natural state would be the best. Concentrated - nutriment. Interesting experiments on animals. Mixtures of food. - Leavened and unleavened bread. Qualifications of the best bread. - - -If man were to subsist wholly on alimentary substances in their natural -state, or without any artificial preparation by cooking, then he would -be obliged to use his teeth freely in masticating his food; and by so -doing, not only preserve his teeth from decay, and keep them in sound -health, but at the same time, and by the same means, would he thoroughly -mix his food with the fluid of his mouth, and thus prepare it both for -swallowing and for the action of the stomach, and by the same means -also, he would be made to swallow his food slowly, as the welfare of the -stomach and of the whole system requires he should. - -Again, if man were to subsist wholly on uncooked food, he would never -suffer from the improper temperature of his aliment. Hot substances -taken into the mouth, serve more directly and powerfully to destroy the -teeth, than any other cause which acts immediately upon them; and hot -food and drink received into the stomach, always in some degree -debilitate that organ, and through it, every other organ and portion of -the whole system; diminishing, as an ultimate result, the vital power of -every part—impairing every function, and increasing the susceptibility -of the whole body to the action of disturbing causes, and predisposing -it to disease. Again, if man were to subsist entirely on food in a -natural state, he would never suffer from concentrated aliment. Every -substance in nature which God has prepared for the food of man, consists -of both nutritious and innutritious matter. The proportions vary in -different kinds of food. Thus in a hundred pounds of potatoes, there are -about twenty-five pounds of nourishing matter; while in a hundred pounds -of good wheat there are about eighty pounds of nourishing matter. There -are a few products of the vegetable kingdom which are still higher in -the scale of nutriment, than wheat; and on the other hand there is a -boundless variety ranging below wheat, extending down to three or four -per cent. of nourishment. But nature, without the aid of human art, -produces nothing for the alimentary use of man which is purely a -concentrated nutrient substance. And God has constructed man in strict -accordance with this general economy of nature. He has organized and -endowed the human body with reference to the condition and qualities of -those substances in nature, which He designed for the food of man. And -consequently, while man obeys the laws of constitution and relation -which should govern him in regard to his food, he preserves the health -and integrity of his alimentary organs, and through them of his whole -nature; and so far as his dietetic habits are concerned, secures the -highest and best condition of his nature. But, if he disregards these -laws, and by artificial means greatly departs from the natural -adaptation of things, he inevitably brings evil on himself and on his -posterity. - -It has been fully proved that “bulk, or a due proportion of innutritious -matter in our food, is quite as important to health as nourishment.” -Human beings may subsist from childhood to extreme old age on good -potatoes and pure water alone, and enjoy the best and most uninterrupted -health, and possess the greatest muscular power and ability to endure -protracted fatigue and exposure. But if the purely nutrient matter of -the potato be separated out by artificial means, and human beings, fed -exclusively on this concentrated form of aliment and pure water, they -will soon perish, because the alimentary organs of man are not -constituted and endowed for such kinds of food. And this is true of all -animals, in the higher orders, at least. - -We know that dogs fed on sugar and water, gum and water, fine flour -bread and water, or any other kind of concentrated aliment, will soon -languish, and droop, and emaciate, and die; but if a due proportion of -proper innutritious substance be mixed with these concentrated forms of -aliment, the dogs will subsist on them and remain healthy. So if horses, -cows, deer, sheep, and other grass-eating animals be fed on grain alone, -they will soon lose their appetite and begin to droop, and will shortly -perish; but if a due proportion of straw or shavings of wood be given -them with their grain, they will continue to do well. Man is affected in -the same manner. He cannot long subsist on purely nutritious substances. -And the reason is not because these substances have no azote or nitrogen -in them; nor is it because man _necessarily_ requires a variety of -alimentary substances, but simply and exclusively because the anatomical -construction and vital powers of the alimentary organs, are -constitutionally adapted to alimentary substances which consist of both -nutritious and innutritious matter; and therefore a due proportion of -innutritious matter in the food of man is as essential to the welfare of -his alimentary organs, as a due proportion of nourishment is to the -support of his body. - -Again, if man subsisted wholly on uncooked food, he would not only be -preserved from improper concentrations, but also from pernicious -combinations of alimentary substances. The alimentary organs of man, -like those of the horse, ox, sheep, dog, cat, and most or all other -animals of the higher orders, if not in fact, of all other animals -without limitation, possess the vital capability of so accommodating -themselves to emergencies, that they can be made to digest almost every -vegetable and animal substance in nature; and they can, by long -training, be educated to digest a mixture of these substances at the -same time. Nevertheless it is incontestibly true, that the alimentary -organs of man and of all other animals, can manage one kind of food at a -time better than a mixed ingestion; for it is impossible that the -solvent fluids secreted by the stomach and other organs belonging to the -alimentary apparatus, should be at the same time equally well adapted to -entirely different kinds of food. - -I do not say that the alimentary organs of man cannot, by long habit, be -brought into such a condition as that, while that condition remains, -they will not manage a mixed ingestion of animal and vegetable food, -with more immediate comfort and satisfaction to themselves and the -individual, than they will an ingestion of pure vegetable food. But this -does not militate against the general principle in the least; for it is -nevertheless true, that the same organs are capable of being brought -into a condition in which they will manage an ingestion of unmixed food -of either kind, with less embarrassment and injury to themselves and the -whole system, than they can the mixed food in any condition. Hence it is -a general law of nature, concerning the dietetic habits of man, that -simplicity of food at each meal is essential to the highest well-being -of the individual and of the race. - -God has unquestionably provided a great and rich variety of substances -for man’s nourishment and enjoyment; but it is equally certain that he -did not design that man should partake of all this variety at a single -meal, nor in a single day, nor season—but from meal to meal, from day to -day, and from season to season, varying his enjoyment in strictest -consistency with the great laws of his nature. And hence all artificial -combinations of alimentary substances, and particularly those of a -heterogeneous kind, and yet more especially the concentrated forms, must -be more or less pernicious to the alimentary organs, and through them to -the whole system. - -Finally, if man subsisted wholly on uncooked food, the undepraved -integrity of his appetite, his thorough mastication and slow swallowing, -and his simple meal, would greatly serve to prevent his overeating, and -thus save him from the ruinous effects of one of the most destructive -causes operating in civic life. - -Whatever may be the material, therefore, from which bread is made, when -the artificial preparation is of that simple character which leaves the -proportions of nutritious and innutritious properties, as nature -combined them, and effects little change in the nutritious principles, -and retains the natural requisition for the function of the teeth, and -thus secures the proper chewing of the food and the mixing of it with -the fluids of the mouth, and swallowing of it slowly, the artificial -process militates very little, if at all, against any of the -physiological or vital interests of the body. But if our artificial -process of bread-making, concentrates the nutrient properties, and -destroys the due proportion between the bulk and nourishment, and forms -improper changes and combinations in the nutrient elements, and does -away the necessity for mastication or chewing, and presents the food in -too elevated a temperature, or too hot, and enables us to swallow it too -rapidly, with little or no exercise of the teeth, and without properly -mixing it with the fluids of the mouth, the artificial process or -cooking is decidedly and often exceedingly inimical, not only to the -vital interests of the alimentary organs, but of the whole human system. - -In all civilized nations, and particularly in civic life, bread, as I -have already stated, is far the most important article of food which is -artificially prepared; and in our country and climate, it is the most -important article that enters into the diet of man; and therefore it is -of the first consideration, that its character should, in every respect, -be as nearly as possible, consistent with the laws of constitution and -relation established in our nature; or with the anatomical construction -and vital properties and powers and interest of our systems. - -If we contemplate the human constitution in its highest and best -condition,—in the possession of its most vigorous and unimpaired -powers—and ask, what must be the character of our bread in order to -preserve that constitution in that condition? the answer most -indubitably is, that the coarse unleavened bread of early times, when of -proper age, was one of the least removes from the natural state of -food,—one of the simplest and most wholesome forms of artificial -preparations, and best adapted to fulfil the laws of constitution and -relation; and therefore best adapted to sustain the most vigorous and -healthy state of the alimentary organs, and the highest and best -condition of the whole nature of man, as a general and permanent fact; -and hence it is very questionable whether loaf or raised bread can be -made equally conducive to all the interests of our nature, with the -simple unleavened bread. - -I am aware that many professional men entertain a very different opinion -on this subject, and speak of unleavened bread as being less nourishing -and less easily digested. This may be true to a limited extent, in -special cases of impaired and debilitated alimentary organs; but I am -confident that as a general fact the notion is entirely erroneous. - -“The whole people of Asia,” says Dr. Cullen, “live upon unfermented -rice. The Americans, before they became acquainted with the Europeans, -employed, and for the most part, still employ their maize in the same -condition. Even in Europe, the employment of unfermented bread, and -unfermented farinaceæ in other forms, is still very considerable, and we -are ready to maintain that the morbid consequences of such a diet are -very seldom to be observed. In Scotland, nine tenths of the lower -classes of people—and that is the greater part of the whole—live upon -unfermented bread and unfermented farinaceæ in other forms, and at the -same time, I am of opinion that there are not a more healthy people -anywhere to be found. We give it to all classes and both sexes with -advantage.” - -It is incontestibly true, that if two portions of the same kind of wheat -meal be taken and made, the one into unleavened and the other into -leavened bread, and both be eaten warm from the oven, the leavened bread -will prove much more oppressive and difficult to manage in the stomach -than the unleavened. But aside from the changes that are produced by the -process of fermentation, there are many other considerations why -unleavened bread of a proper quality and age, is better adapted to -sustain the alimentary organs and general constitution of man, in their -highest and best condition. - -Nevertheless, it is very certain, that loaf or raised bread can be made -so nearly in accordance with the vital laws and interests of our bodies, -as scarcely to militate against them in any perceptible or appreciable -degree. And when I say this, I mean not merely its effects on the health -and longevity of a single individual, but its effects upon the human -constitution, through successive generations, for a thousand years or -more. - -As a general criterion or rule, then, in regard to the character of -bread, we perceive that the most perfect loaf or raised bread, is that -which, being made of the best material, is light, and sweet, and well -baked, and still most nearly retains all the natural proportions and -properties of the original material. - - - - - MATERIAL OF BREAD. - -Wheat. Extent of climate favorable to it. Injured by improper tillage. - Removal of impurities. Washing of grain. Separation of the bran from - the nutrient particles improper. Ancient Roman bread. Public bakers. - Use of bad flour. Adulterations. Poisonous agents used to disguise - them. - - -Among the materials used for making bread in our country—and, in fact, -of all the known productions of the vegetable kingdom in any country, -wheat is decidedly the best; and it is a remarkable fact, that wheat -comes nearer to man than perhaps any other plant, in its power of -becoming adapted to different climates, over a wide extent of the -earth’s surface, so that it may almost be said that wherever the human -species can flourish, there wheat can be cultivated. - -“It is not certainly known,” says Prof. Thomson, “in what country wheat -was first produced. Mr. Bruce informs us that he found it growing wild -in Abyssinia; and in his opinion, that kingdom is the native country of -the plant. It would seem,” continues the Professor, “to be originally an -African plant, since it thrives best in Barbary and Egypt; and perhaps -the mountains of Abyssinia, though within the torrid zone, may not -differ much in point of climate, from the more northern plains of Egypt. -Wheat is perhaps cultivated over a greater extent of the globe than any -other plant. Excellent crops are raised as far north as Sweden, in -latitude 60°; it is cultivated in the East Indies, considerably within -the limits of the torrid zone; and in the North of Hindostan, it -constitutes a chief article in the food of the inhabitants. In India, -however, the plant seems to have deteriorated. It is always dwarfish, -and the crop is said to be less abundant than in more northern -climates.” Yet a cold climate is not most genial to the nature of this -plant. “The wheat of France is superior to that of England; the wheat of -Italy is still better than that of France; and perhaps the best of all -is raised in Barbary and Egypt.” - -Excellent wheat is raised in the southern, and western, and middle -portions of the United States; and even in the northern and eastern -parts of New England, very fine crops have been produced. - -But the wheat and other cultivated products of the vegetable kingdom -appropriated to the nourishment of man, like those on which our domestic -animals subsist, are too generally, in civilized life, very considerably -deteriorated, as to their wholesomeness, by the improper tillage of the -soil. I have no doubt that it is true, as stated by those who have made -the experiment, that the flour of wheat, raised on a cultivated soil -recently dressed with crude, stable manure, may readily be distinguished -by its odor, from the flour of wheat raised on a new and undepraved -soil, or from that raised on a cultivated soil which has been dressed -with properly digested manure. And if such and similar results of -improper tillage can become the sources of serious evil to the human -family, through their effects on the flesh of animals which man devours, -and on the milk and butter which he consumes, surely the immediate -effects of such a deteriorated vegetable aliment on the human system, -must be very considerable. - -They who have never eaten bread made of wheat, recently produced by a -pure virgin soil, have but a very imperfect notion of the deliciousness -of good bread; such as is often to be met with in the comfortable log -houses in our western country. It is probably true that the new soil, in -its virgin purity, before it becomes exhausted by tillage, and debauched -by the means which man uses to enrich and stimulate it, produces most, -if not all kinds of vegetables appropriate for human aliment, in a more -perfect and healthy state, than any soil which has been long under -cultivation, can be made to do. Nevertheless, by a proper application of -physiological principles to agriculture, many of the evils which now -result from improper tillage may easily be avoided, and the quality of -all those vegetable substances which enter into the diet of man may be -very greatly improved, both in regard to wholesomeness and -deliciousness. - -But while the people of our country are so entirely given up as they are -at present, to gross and promiscuous feeding on the dead carcasses of -animals, and to the untiring pursuits of wealth, it is perhaps wholly in -vain for a single individual to raise his voice on a subject of this -kind. The farmer will continue to be most eager to increase the number -of his acres, and to extort from those acres the greatest amount of -produce, with the least expense of tillage, and with little or no regard -to the quality of that produce in relation to the physiological -interests of man; while the people generally, are contented to gratify -their depraved appetites on whatever comes before them, without pausing -to inquire whether their indulgences are adapted to preserve or to -destroy their health and life. Yet if some one does not raise a voice -upon this subject which shall be heard and heeded, there will soon reach -us, as a nation, a voice of calamity which we shall not be able to shut -our ears against, albeit we may in the perverseness of our sensualism, -incorrigibly persist in disregarding its admonitions, till the deep -chastisements of outraged nature shall reach the very “bone and marrow” -of the human constitution, and fill our land with such a living -rottenness, as now in some other portions of the earth, renders human -society odious and abominable. - -Whether, therefore, my voice shall be heard and heeded or not, I will -obey the dictates of my sense of duty, and solemnly declare that this -subject demands the prompt and earnest attention of every agriculturist -and of every friend to the common cause of humanity; for it is most -certain, that until the agriculture of our country is conducted in -strict accordance with physiological truth, it is not possible for us to -realize those physical, and intellectual, and moral, and social, and -civil blessings for which the human constitution and our soil and -climate are naturally capacitated. - -When proper attention has been paid to the character of the wheat -itself, the next thing is to see that it is thoroughly cleansed. - -Sometimes, in consequence of the peculiarities of the season, or -climate, or soil, or some other cause, there will be a species of -disease affecting the wheat and other grains; and this may be of such a -character as not easily to be removed nor counteracted by any means; but -more generally the rust, and smut, and dust, which attach themselves to -the skin of the grain, may, by proper care, be so far removed, as at -least to render the meal or flour far more pure and wholesome than it -otherwise would be. And here let me remark, that they are greatly -deceived, who suppose that the bolting cloth which separates the fine -flour from the outer skin or bran, also separates the impurities -attached to the outer skin from the flour. By the process of grinding, -these impurities are rubbed from the outer skin, and made quite as fine -as any portion of the flour, and for the most part pass with the fine -flour through the bolting cloth. - -To remedy this, it is perhaps generally true, that in large flouring -establishments, a kind of smut or scouring mill is in operation, through -which the wheat passes, and is pretty thoroughly rubbed or scoured -without being broken; and after this, it passes through a screen or -winnowing mill, and thus is tolerably well cleansed and prepared for -grinding. Yet this process by no means renders the wheat so perfectly -clean and wholesome as washing. - -Those who have given little attention to this subject, will probably -think that the trouble of washing all their bread-stuff before it is -ground, would be much greater than any benefit which would result from -it. But a short experience in the matter, would convince every one who -has a proper regard for the character of his bread, that the trouble of -washing his grain bears no comparison to the improvement effected by it. -Indeed, they who become accustomed to washing their grain, will soon -cease to regard it as a trouble; and the improvement in the whiteness -and sweetness of their bread will be so great, that they would be -extremely unwilling to relinquish the practice. - -When people are so situated that they can have things as they wish, they -will also find that their bread is much richer, if the grain is ground -but a short time before it is cooked. - -The best way, therefore, is, for every family to raise or purchase a -sufficient quantity of the best new wheat that can be produced by proper -tillage in a good soil, and put that away in clean casks or bins, where -it will be kept perfectly dry and sweet; and, according to the size of -the family, take, from time to time, as they need it, one or two -bushels, and wash it thoroughly but briskly in two or three waters, and -then spread it out on a drying sheet or table, made for the purpose, and -which is considerably inclined, so that the water remaining with the -wheat will easily run off. - -The skin or bran of the wheat is so well protected by its own oily -property, that little or no water will penetrate it, unless it be -suffered to remain in the water much longer than is necessary. Being -thinly spread out upon the sheet or table in a good drying day, it will -be sufficiently dry in a few hours for grinding. And I say again, let -any one who loves good bread, wash his grain a few times in this manner, -and he will be very reluctant to return to the use of bread made of -unwashed grain. - -It would be difficult to ascertain at how early a period in the progress -of society, mankind, in the preparation of wheat for bread-making, began -to put asunder what God has joined together, and to concentrate the more -purely nutrient properties, by separating the flour from the part -commonly called the bran. The Bible speaks of fine flour or meal, as a -portion of the meat offerings of the temple, but it is not probable this -approached very near to the superfine flour of the present time. - -We are informed also that the Romans, more than two thousand years ago, -had four or five different kinds of bread—one of which was made of the -purest flour, from which all the bran was separated. This was eaten only -by the rich and luxurious. A second kind, in more common use, was that -from which a portion of the bran was taken; and a third kind, which was -more generally used than any other, was that which was made of the whole -substance of the wheat. A fourth kind was made mostly of the bran, for -dogs. - -But at whatever period in the history of the race, this artificial -process was commenced, certain it is that in direct violation of the -laws of constitution and relation which the Creator has established in -the nature of man, this process of mechanical analysis is, at the -present day, carried to the full extent of possibility; and the farina, -and gluten, and saccharine matter of the wheat, are almost perfectly -concentrated in the form of superfine flour. Nor is this all—these -concentrated nutrient properties of the wheat are mixed and complicated -in ways innumerable, with other concentrated substances, to pamper the -depraved appetites of man, with kinds of food which always and -inevitably tend to impair his health and to abbreviate his life. - -Even the bread, which is the simplest form into which human ingenuity -tortures the flour of wheat, is, by other causes besides the -concentration I have named, too frequently rendered the instrument of -disease and death, rather than the means of life and health, to those -that eat it. - -In cities and large towns, most people depend on public bakers for their -bread. And I have no doubt that public bakers, as a body, are as honest -and worthy a class of men as any in society. I have no wish to speak -evil of any one; and it is always painful to me to find myself -compelled, in fidelity to the common cause of humanity, to expose the -faults of any particular class of men, when probably every other class -in society is as deeply involved in errors which, in the sight of God, -evince, at least, an equal degree of moral turpitude. - -But public bakers, like other men, who serve the public more for the -sake of securing their own emolument than for the public good, have -always had recourse to various expedients in order to increase the -lucrativeness of their business. - -To secure custom and profit at the same time, they have considered it -necessary, that a given quantity of flour should be made into a loaf as -large and as white as possible, and free from any disagreeable taste, -while at the same time it retains the greatest possible weight. - -From a variety of causes, the quality and price of flour have always -been very unstable. Sometimes the crops are small, or the foreign demand -for flour or the home consumption is unusually great, or the season is -unfavorable to the health of grain, and the wheat becomes diseased, or -the harvest time is unfavorable, and the wheat sprouts before it is -secured, or large quantities of flour become soured or musty, or in some -other manner damaged. - -To counteract these things, and to make the most profitable use of such -flour as the market affords them, the public bakers have been led to try -various experiments with chemical agents, and there is reason to believe -that in numerous instances, they have been too successful in their -practices, for the well-being of those who have been the consumers of -their bread. - -According to treatises on bread-making, which have within a few years -past appeared in European scientific journals, “alum, sulphate of zinc, -sub-carbonate of magnesia, sub-carbonate of ammonia, sulphate of copper, -and several other substances, have been used by public bakers in making -bread; and some of these substances have been employed by them to a very -great extent, and with very great success in the cause of their -cupidity. They have not only succeeded by such means, in making light -and white bread out of extremely poor flour, but they have also been -able so to disguise their adulterations, as to work in with their flour, -without being detected by the consumers, a portion of the flour of -beans, peas and potatoes—and even chalk, pipe clay and plaster of Paris, -have been employed to increase the weight and whiteness of their bread.” - -“The use of alum in bread-making,” says a distinguished chemist, -“appears to be very ancient. It is one of those articles which have been -the most extensively and successfully used in disguising bad flour, and -the various adulterations of bread. Its injurious action upon the health -is not to be compared with that of sulphate of copper, and yet, daily -taken into the stomach, it may seriously affect the system.” - -“Thirteen bakers were condemned on the 27th of January, 1829, by the -correctional tribunal of Brussels, for mixing sulphate of copper or blue -vitriol with their bread. It makes the bread very white, light, large -and porous, but rather tasteless; and it also enables the bread to -retain a greater quantity of water, and thereby very considerably -increases its weight. A much larger quantity of alum is necessary to -produce these effects; but when of sufficient quantity, it strengthens -the paste, and, as the bakers say, ‘makes the bread swell large.’” - -If the statements of our large druggists can be relied on, the public -bakers of our own country probably employ ammonia more freely, at -present, than any other substance I have named. Pearlash or saleratus is -also used by them in considerable quantities. - -But even where these adulterations are not practised, the bakers’ bread -is very rarely a wholesome article of diet. - -If any dependence is to be placed on the testimony of several of the -principal bakers and flour merchants in New York, Boston and other -cities, the flour which most of our public bakers work into bread, is of -a very inferior quality to what is called good “family flour,” and for -which they pay from one to three dollars less per barrel; and they -sometimes purchase large quantities of old spoiled flour from New -Orleans and elsewhere, which has heated and soured in the barrel, and -perhaps become almost as solid as a mass of chalk; so that they are -obliged to break it up, and grind it over, and spread it out, and expose -it to the air, in order to purify it in a measure from its acid and -other bad properties; and then they mix it with a portion of much better -flour; and from this mixture they can make, as they say, the very -largest and finest looking loaf.[B] - -But should the public bakers always use the best of flour, their bread, -as a general statement, would still be very inferior to well made -domestic bread, in point of sweetness and wholesomeness. Their mode of -manufacturing bread—to say the least of it—destroys much of the virtue -of the flour or meal; and hence their bread is only palatable—even to -those who are accustomed to it—within twelve, or at the longest, -twenty-four hours after it is baked. - -But I must repeat, that in making these statements, I am not prompted by -any unkind feelings towards public bakers; I have no doubt that they are -as honest in their calling as any other class of men; but perhaps there -is no other class pursuing an interest founded on the necessities of -their fellow creatures, whose expedients to increase the lucrativeness -of their business, are so immediately and universally injurious to the -health of those on whom they depend for support. - -If any of my statements are thought to be exaggerated or incorrect, I -can only say, that with honest and benevolent intentions, I have -diligently sought for the truth; and if I have been in any respect -betrayed into error, I have been misinformed by public bakers -themselves, who certainly ought to know the truth in this matter; and -who could have no conceivable reason for making the general character of -their calling appear worse than it really is. Nevertheless, I have no -question that there are individuals in every city employed as public -bakers, who are too honest—too conscientious—too upright in heart, to be -guilty of any practice which they consider fraudulent or improper. - -Still, truth compels me to declare, that if we would have good and -wholesome bread, it must be made within the precincts of our own -domestic threshold; and by those whose skill and care are exercised more -with a view to secure our health and happiness, than their own pecuniary -interest. - - - - - PROPERTIES OF BREAD. - -Superfine flour injurious—a probable cause of some common disorders. - Objections to coarse bread. Its medical properties. Extensive - experiments of its use, by soldiers and others. Use among European - peasantry. Selection, preservation and grinding of wheat. - - -Whether our bread is of domestic manufacture or made by the public -baker, that which is made of superfine flour is always far less -wholesome, in any and every situation of life, than that which is made -of wheaten meal which contains all the natural properties of the grain. - -It is true, that when much flesh is eaten with our bread, or when bread -constitutes but a very small and unimportant portion of our food, the -injurious effects of superfine flour bread are not always so immediately -and distinctly perceived as in other cases. Nevertheless, it is a -general and invariable law of our nature, that all concentrated forms of -food are unfriendly to the physiological or vital interests of our -bodies. - -A very large proportion of all the diseases and ailments in civic life, -are originated by causes which are introduced into the alimentary canal -as articles of diet; and disturbance and derangement of -function—obstructions, debility and irritations, are among the most -important elements of those diseases. - -It is, probably, speaking within bounds, to say that nine tenths of the -adults, and nearly as large a proportion of youth in civic life, are -more or less afflicted with obstructions and disturbances in the stomach -and bowels, and other organs of the abdomen, the symptoms of which are -either habitual costiveness or diarrhœa, or an alternation of both; or -frequent and severe attacks of what are called bilious colics, &c., &c.; -and in children and youth, worms, fits, convulsions, &c. And I cannot -but feel confident, that the use of superfine flour bread is among the -important causes of these and numerous other difficulties. - -I have indeed been surprised to observe, that in the hundreds of cases -of chronic diseases of every form and name, which have come to my -knowledge within the last five or six years, costiveness of the bowels -has in almost every instance been among the first and most important -symptoms. And I have never known this difficulty, even after an -obstinate continuance of five, ten, twenty or thirty years, fail to -disappear in a short time, after the coarse wheaten bread of a proper -character has been substituted for that made of superfine flour. - -Some physicians and other individuals, without properly examining the -subject, have raised several objections against the coarse wheaten -bread. - -It is said, in the first place, that bran is wholly indigestible, and -therefore should never be taken into the human stomach. - -This objection betrays so much ignorance of the final causes and -constitutional laws, clearly indicated by the anatomical structure and -physiological economy of the alimentary organs, that it scarcely -deserves the slightest notice. If the digestive organs of man were -designed to receive nothing but digestible and nutrient substances, they -would have been constructed and arranged very differently from what they -are. As we have already seen, everything which nature provides for our -sustenance, consists of certain proportions of nutritious and -innutritious matter; and a due proportion of innutritious matter in our -food is as essential to the health and functional integrity of our -alimentary organs, as a due proportion of nutritious matter is to the -sustenance of the body. - -Another objection is, that although bran may serve, like other -mechanical irritants and excitants, for a while, to relieve -constipation, yet it soon wears out the excitability of the organs, and -leaves them more inactive than before. - -Here again, a false statement is urged by inexcusable ignorance; for it -is not true that the bran acts in the manner supposed in this objection; -nor are the effects here asserted ever produced by it. - -It is true, however, that the very pernicious habits of some people, who -use the coarse wheaten bread, entirely counteract the aperient effects -of the bread; and it is true that others, depending wholly on the -virtues of this bread for peristaltic action, and neglecting all -exercise, by their extreme inertness, and indolence, and overeating, -bring on a sluggishness, and debility, and constipation of the bowels, -and perhaps become severely afflicted with piles, in spite of the -natural fitness of the bread to promote regular peristaltic action, and -to prevent all these results. - -A third objection is, that though the coarse wheaten bread may do very -well for those who are troubled with constipation, by mechanically -irritating and exciting the stomach and bowels, yet for that very reason -it is wholly unfit and improper for those who are afflicted with chronic -diarrhœa. - -Here is still another objection founded in ignorance of the true -physiological and pathological principles which it involves. The truth -is, that the coarse wheaten bread, under a proper general regimen, is as -excellent and sure a remedy for chronic diarrhœa as for chronic -constipation. - -I have seen cases of chronic diarrhœa of the most obstinate character, -and which had baffled the highest medical skill and every mode of -treatment for more than twenty years, yielding entirely under a proper -general regimen, in which this bread was the almost exclusive article of -food, and not a particle of medicine was used. And I have never known -such a mode of treatment to fail of wholly relieving diarrhœa, whether -recent or chronic; although a very great number of cases have come under -my notice. - -It is fully evident, therefore, that the bran does not act on the -digestive organs as a mere mechanical irritant; for if it did, it would -always necessarily aggravate, rather than alleviate diarrhœa. Nor does -it relieve diarrhœa on the principle of a narcotic nor of a stimulant; -for the effect of these is always to give an immediate check to that -complaint; and in such a manner as to expose the system to a return of -it. But the coarse wheaten bread _seems_ to increase the disease for a -short time, at first, and then gradually restores the healthy condition -and action of the bowels. - -The mucilage of wheat bran is probably one of the most soothing -substances in the vegetable kingdom, that can be applied to the mucous -membrane of the stomach and bowels. - -Chronic constipation and chronic diarrhœa, both spring from the same -root. Where the constitutional vigor of the alimentary canal is very -considerable, continued irritations, resulting in debility, will produce -constipation; and these continued causes operating for some time, will -often induce such a state of debility and irritability as is attended -with diarrhœa:—and in other cases, when this constitutional vigor of the -alimentary canal is much less, diarrhœa is far more readily induced, and -rendered chronic. - -Coarse wheaten bread, then, by its adaptation to the anatomical -structure and to the physiological properties and functional powers of -our organs, serves to prevent and to remove the disorders and diseases -of our bodies, only by preventing and removing irritation and morbid -action and condition, and thereby affording the system an opportunity of -recovering its healthy and vigorous action and condition. And the -thousands of individuals in our own country of every age—of both -sexes—of all situations, conditions and circumstances, who within the -last six years have been benefited by using the coarse wheaten bread, -instead of that made of superfine flour, are living witnesses of the -virtues of that bread. - -But the testimony in favor of coarse wheaten bread as an important -article in the food of man, is by no means limited to our own country -nor to modern times. - -In all probability, as we have already seen, the first generations of -our species, who became acquainted with the art of making bread, -continued for many centuries to employ all the substance of the grain, -which they coarsely mashed in their rude mortars or mills. And even -since mankind began, by artificial means, to separate the bran from the -flour, and to make bread from the latter, the more close and discerning -observers among physicians and philanthropists, have perceived and -asserted, that bread made of fine flour is decidedly less wholesome than -that made of the unbolted wheat meal. - -Hippocrates, styled the father of medicine, who flourished more than two -thousand years ago, and who depended far more on a correct diet and -general regimen, both for the prevention and removal of disease, than he -did on medicine, particularly commended the unbolted wheat meal bread, -“for its salutary effects upon the bowels.” It was a fact well -understood by the ancients, that this bread was much more conducive to -the general health and vigor of their bodies, and every way better -adapted to nourish and sustain them than that made of the fine flour. -And accordingly, their wrestlers and others who were trained for great -bodily power, “ate only the coarse wheaten bread, to preserve them in -their strength of limbs.” The Spartans were famous for this kind of -bread; and we learn from Pliny that the Romans, as a nation, at that -period of their history when they were the most remarkable for bodily -vigor and personal prowess and achievement, knew no other bread for -three hundred years. The warlike and powerful nations which overran the -Roman Empire, and finally spread over the greater part of Europe, used -no other kind of bread than that which was made of the whole substance -of the grain; and from the fall of the Roman Empire to the present day, -a large proportion of the inhabitants of all Europe and the greater part -of Asia, have rarely used any other kind of bread. - -“If you set any value on health, and have a mind to preserve -nature,”—said Thomas Tryon, student in physic, in his “Way to Health, -Long Life and Happiness,” published in London, in the latter part of the -fifteenth century,—“you must not separate the finest from the coarsest -flour; because that which is fine is naturally of an obstructive and -stopping quality; but, on the contrary, the other, which is coarse, is -of a cleansing and opening nature, therefore the bread is best which is -made of both together. It is more wholesome, easier of digestion, and -more strengthening than bread made of the finest flour. It must be -confessed, that the nutrimentive quality is contained in the fine flour; -yet, in the branny part is contained the opening and digestive quality; -and there is as great a necessity for the one as the other, for the -support of health: that which is accounted the worst is as good and -beneficial to nature as the best; for when the finest flour is separated -from the coarsest and branny parts, neither the one nor the other has -the true operations of the wheat meal. The eating of fine bread, -therefore, is inimical to health, and contrary both to nature and -reason; and was at first invented to gratify _wanton_ and _luxurious_ -persons, who are ignorant both of themselves, and the true virtue and -efficacy of natural things.” - -“Baron Steuben has often told me,” says Judge Peters, “that the peculiar -healthfulness of the Prussian soldiers, was in a great measure to be -attributed to their ammunition bread, made of grain, triturated or -ground, but not bolted; which was accounted the most wholesome and -nutritious part of their rations.”[C] - -“The Dutch sailors, in the days of their naval glory, were supplied with -the same kind of bread.” - -“During the war between England and France, near the close of the last -century,” says Mr. Samuel Prior, a respectable merchant of Salem, New -Jersey—“the crops of grain, and particularly wheat, were very small in -England, and the supplies from Dantzic, the Netherlands and Sweden being -cut off by the French army, and also the usual supplies from America -failing, there was a very great scarcity of wheat in England. The -British army was then very extensive, and it was exceedingly difficult -to procure provisions for it, both at home and abroad—on land and sea. -Such was the demand for the foreign army, and such the deficiency of -crops at home and supplies from abroad, that serious fears were -entertained that the army would suffer, and that the continental -enterprise of the British government would be defeated in consequence of -the scarcity of provisions; and every prudential measure by which such a -disastrous event could be prevented, was carefully considered and -proposed. William Pitt was then prime minister of state, and at his -instance, government recommended to the people generally throughout -Great Britain, to substitute potatoes and rice as far as possible, for -bread, in order to save the wheat for the foreign army. This -recommendation was promptly complied with by many of the people. But -still the scarcity was alarmingly great. In this emergency, parliament -passed a law (to take effect for two years) that the army at home should -be supplied with bread made of unbolted wheat meal, solely for the -purpose of making the wheat go as far as possible, and thus saving as -much as they could from the home consumption, for the better supply of -the army on the continent. - -“Eighty thousand men were quartered in barracks in the counties of Essex -and Suffolk. A great many were also quartered throughout the towns, at -taverns, in squads of thirty or forty in a place. Throughout the whole -of Great Britain, the soldiers were supplied with this coarse bread. It -was deposited in the store-rooms with the other provisions of the army; -and on the day that it was baked, and at nine o’clock the next morning, -was distributed to the soldiers—who were at first exceedingly displeased -with the bread, and refused to eat it, often casting it from them with -great rage, and violent execrations. But after two or three weeks they -began to be much pleased with it, and preferred it to the fine flour -bread. - -“My father,” continues Mr. P., “whom I have often heard talk these -things over, was a miller and a baker, and resided in the county of -Essex, on the border joining Suffolk, and near the barracks containing -the eighty thousand soldiers. He contracted with government, to supply -the eastern district of the county of Essex, with the kind of bread I -have mentioned: and he used always to send me with it to the -depositories on the day it was baked: and though I was then a youth, I -can still very distinctly remember the angry looks and remarks of the -soldiers, when they were first supplied with it. Indeed they often threw -their loaves at me as I passed along, and accompanied them with a volley -of curses. The result of this experiment was, that not only the wheat -was made to go much farther, but the health of the soldiers improved so -much and so manifestly, in the course of a few months, that it became a -matter of common remark among themselves, and of observation and -surprise among the officers and physicians of the army. These gentlemen -at length came out with confidence and zeal on the subject, and publicly -declared that the soldiers were never before so healthy and robust; and -that disease of every kind had almost entirely disappeared from the -army. The public papers, were for months filled with recommendations of -this bread, and the civic physicians almost universally throughout Great -Britain, pronounced it far the most healthy bread that could be eaten, -and as such, recommended it to all the people, who very extensively -followed the advice:—and the coarse wheaten bread was very generally -introduced into families—female boarding schools, and indeed all public -institutions. The nobility also generally used it; and in fact, in many -towns, it was a rare thing to meet with a piece of fine flour bread. The -physicians generally asserted that this wheaten bread was the very best -thing that could be taken into the human stomach, to promote digestion -and peristaltic action; and that it, more than anything else, would -assist the stomach in digesting other things which were less easily -digested, and therefore they recommend that a portion of it should be -eaten at every meal with other food. - -“Still, after this extensive experiment had been made with such happy -results, and after so general and full a testimony had been given in -favor of the coarse wheaten bread, when large supplies of superfine -flour came in from America, and the crops at home were abundant, and the -act of parliament in relation to the army became extinct, most of the -people who had before been accustomed to the use of fine flour bread, -now by degrees returned again to their old habits of eating fine bread. -Many of the nobility, however, continued to use the coarse bread for a -number of years afterwards. General Hanoward, Squire Western, Squire -Hanbury and others living near my father’s, continued to use the bread -for a long time, and some of them still used it when I left home and -came to America, in 1816.” - -The testimony of sea captains and old whalemen is equally in favor of -wheaten bread. “I have always found,” said a very intelligent sea -captain of more than thirty years’ experience, “that the coarser my ship -bread, the healthier my crew is.” - -A writer in Rees’ Cyclopædia, (article Bread) says—“The inhabitants of -Westphalia, who are a hardy and robust people, and capable of enduring -the greatest fatigues, are a living testimony to the salutary effects of -this sort of bread; and it is remarkable that they are very seldom -attacked by acute fevers, and those other diseases which are from bad -humors.” - -In short, as I have already stated, the bread of a large portion of the -laboring class, or peasantry, throughout Europe, Asia and Africa, and -the islands of the ocean, whether leavened or unleavened—whether more or -less artificially prepared, is made of the whole substance of the grain -from which it is manufactured: and no one who is sufficiently -enlightened in physiological science to qualify him to judge correctly -in this matter, can doubt that bread made in the best manner from -unbolted wheat meal, is far better adapted to the anatomical structure -and physiological powers of the alimentary organs of man, than bread -made of superfine wheat flour; and consequently, the former is far more -conducive to the health and vigor and general well-being of man than the -latter. - -If, therefore, mankind will have raised bread which in every respect -most perfectly conforms to the laws of constitution and relation -established in their nature, and is most highly conducive to the welfare -of their bodies and souls, then must it be well made, well baked, light -and sweet bread, which contains all the natural properties of the wheat. -And if they will have this bread of the very best, and most wholesome -kind, they must, as I have already stated, see that the soil from which -their wheat is raised, is of a proper character, and is properly -tilled,—that the wheat is plump—full-grown—ripe, and free from rust and -other diseases; and then, before it is ground, they must see that it is -thoroughly cleansed, not only from chaff, cockles, tares, and such like -substances, but also from all smut, and every kind of impurity that may -be attached to the skin of the kernel. And let every one be assured that -this is a matter which really deserves all the attention and care that I -suggest. - -If human existence is worth possessing, it is worth preserving; and they -who have enjoyed it as some have done, and as all the human family are -naturally endowed with the capabilities to enjoy it, certainly will not -doubt whether it is worth possessing; nor, if they will properly -consider the matter, can they doubt that its preservation is worthy of -their most serious and diligent care. - -And when they perceive how intimately and closely the character of their -bread is connected with the dearest interests of man, they will not be -inclined to feel that any reasonable amount of care and labor is too -much to be given to secure precisely the right kind of bread. - -I repeat, then, that they who would have the very best bread should -certainly wash their wheat, and cleanse it thoroughly from all -impurities, before they take it to the mill; and when it is properly -dried, it should be ground by sharp stones which will cut rather than -mash it: and particular care should be taken that it is not ground too -fine. Coarsely ground wheat meal, even when the bran is retained, makes -decidedly sweeter and more wholesome bread than very finely ground meal. -When the meal is ground, it should immediately be spread out to cool -before it is put into sacks or casks:—for if it is packed or enclosed in -a heated state, it will be far more likely to become sour and musty. And -I say again, where families are in circumstances to do wholly as they -choose in the matter, it is best to have but little ground at a time; as -the freshly ground meal is always the liveliest and sweetest, and makes -the most delicious bread. - -When the meal is thus prepared and brought home, whether in a barrel or -sack, the next thing to be attended to, is, that it be placed and kept -in a perfectly clean, and sweet, and well ventilated meal room. It -should on no consideration be put into a closet, or pantry, or -store-room, which is seldom aired, and more rarely cleansed; and into -which all manner of rubbish is thrown; or even where other kinds of -provisions are kept. If the meal be put into a pantry or store-room -which is confined and dirty, and into which old boots and shoes, and old -clothes and pieces of carpet, and other things of this kind, are -thrown—or where portions of vegetable or animal substance, whether -cooked or uncooked, are habitually or even occasionally put and -permitted to remain, it must be expected, as a matter of course, of -necessity, that the quality of the meal will be considerably -deteriorated by the impurities with which the air of the place will be -loaded, and which will be continually generated there. - -People generally have but a sorry idea of what constitutes true -cleanliness; but they may be assured that they cannot be too deeply -impressed with the importance of keeping their meal room as clean and -sweet and well aired as possible. - - - - - FERMENTATION. - -Chemical composition of flour. Yeast—modes of preparing it. Substitutes - for it. Fermentation, and its products. Vinous, acetous and - putrefactive fermentation. - - -Having procured good wheat, cleansed it thoroughly, and got it properly -ground, and placed in the meal room, the next step is to take a portion -of the meal and manufacture it into good bread. But in order that this -may be done in the most certain and perfect manner, it is important that -the properties of the meal and the principles concerned in bread-making -should be well understood. - -According to the statement of Prof. Thomson, of Edinburgh, one pound of -good wheat meal contains ten ounces of farina or starch, three ounces of -bran, six drams of gluten and two drams of sugar;—and it is because -wheat contains such proportions of these substances that it makes the -very best loaf bread. The farina or starch is the principal nourishing -property;—the saccharine matter or sugar is also highly nutrient; but in -the process of making loaf bread, it serves mainly, by its vinous -fermentation, to produce the gas or air by which the dough is raised and -the bread made light. The gluten is likewise a very nutrient property, -but in loaf bread, it principally serves, by its cohesiveness, like gum -elastic, or India rubber, to prevent the gas or air formed by the -fermentation of the sugar, from escaping or passing off;—and the gas -being thus retained, inflates or puffs up the dough, and makes it porous -and light. The bran, with its mucilaginous and other properties, not -only adds to the nutritiousness of the bread, but eminently serves to -increase its digestibility, and to invigorate the digestive organs, and -preserve the general integrity of their functions. - -The wheat which is raised in Virginia and the southern states generally, -contains a larger proportion of gluten than that which is raised in the -western part of the state of New York. Hence bakers are able to make a -larger loaf of bread out of a pound of southern flour than they can out -of a pound of western flour; and consequently some of them have -endeavored to make their customers believe that the southern flour is -the most profitable. It certainly _is_ the most profitable for the -baker; but it is not the most profitable for the consumer. - -The next thing indispensably necessary to the making of good bread, is -good lively sweet yeast, or leaven, to produce what is called the -panary, or more properly, the vinous fermentation of the saccharine -matter, or sugar. - -Some bread-makers will do best with one kind of yeast or leaven, and -some with another. I have generally found that people do best with those -materials to which they have been most accustomed; but I am sorry to -find so general a dependence on breweries for yeast. To say nothing of -the impure and poisonous substances which brewers employ in the -manufacture of beer, and which always affect the quality of their yeast, -I am confident that domestic yeast can be made of a far superior -quality. However light and good in other respects that bread may be -which is made with brewers yeast, I have rarely if ever seen any in -which I could not at once detect the disagreeable properties of the -yeast. - -There are various ways of making domestic yeast. One of the simplest, -and perhaps the best, is the following, which was communicated to me by -one of the best bread-makers I ever saw: - -“Put into one gallon of water a double handful of hops;—boil them -fifteen or twenty minutes, then strain off the water while it is -scalding hot;—stir in wheat flour or meal till it becomes a thick -batter, so that it will hardly pour;—let it stand till it becomes about -blood warm, then add a pint of good lively yeast, and stir it well; and -then let it stand in a place where it will be kept at a temperature of -about 70° F. till it becomes perfectly light, whether more or less time -is required; and then it is fit for use;—or if it is desired to keep a -portion of it, let it stand several hours and become cool; and then put -it into a clean jug and cork it tight, and place it in the cellar where -it will keep cool; and it may be preserved good, ten or twelve days, and -even longer.” - -Another way by which yeast when thus made may be preserved much longer, -and perhaps more conveniently, is, to take it when it has become -perfectly light, and stir in good Indian meal until it becomes a hard -dough: then take this dough and make it into small thin cakes, and dry -them perfectly, without baking or cooking them at all. These cakes, if -kept perfectly dry, will be good for several weeks and even months. - -When yeast is needed, take some of these cakes (more or less according -to the quantity of bread desired) and break them fine and dissolve them -in warm water, and then stir in some wheat flour till a batter is -formed, which should be kept at a temperature of about 60° F. till the -yeast becomes light and lively, and fitted for making bread. - -Others, in making this yeast, originally put into the water with the -hops, a double handful of good clean wheat bran, and boil them up -together and strain off the water as above described: others again, boil -up a quantity of wheat bran without the hops, and make their yeast in -all other respects as above described. - -The milk yeast is greatly preferred by many; and when it is well -managed, it certainly makes very handsome bread. The way of making it is -simple. Take a quart of milk fresh from the cow, (more or less according -to the quantity of bread desired,)—a little salt is generally added, and -some add about half a pint of water blood warm, but this is not -essential;—then stir wheat flour or meal into the milk till it forms a -moderately thick batter; and then cover it over, and place it where it -will remain at a temperature of from 60° to 70° F. till it becomes -perfectly light. It should then be used immediately: and let it be -remembered that dough made with this yeast will sour sooner than that -made with other yeast; and also that the bread after it is baked will -become extremely dry and _crumbly_ much sooner than bread made with -other yeast. Yet this bread, when a day old, is exceedingly light and -beautiful: albeit some dislike the animal smell and taste which it -derives from the milk. - -In all these preparations of yeast and dough, it should ever be -recollected that “the process of fermentation cannot go on when the -temperature is below 30° F., that it proceeds quite slowly at 50°, -moderately at 60°, rapidly at 70°, and very rapidly at 80°.” - -If, therefore, it is desired to have the yeast or dough stand several -hours before it is used or baked, it should be kept at a temperature of -about 50°. But in the ordinary way of making bread, a temperature -varying from 60° to 70°, or about summer heat, is perhaps as near right -as it can well be made. - -Prof. Thomson gives the following directions for making yeast in large -quantities:—“Add ten pounds of flour to two gallons of boiling -water;—stir it well into a paste, let this mixture stand for seven -hours, and then add about a quart of good yeast. In about six or eight -hours, this mixture, if kept in a warm place, will have fermented and -produced as much yeast as will make 120 quartern loaves” (of 4 lbs. -each.) - -A much smaller quantity can be made by observing due proportions of the -ingredients. - -To raise bread in a very short time without yeast, Prof. Thomson gives -the following recipe: - -“Dissolve in water 2 ounces, 5 drams and 45 grains of common -crystallized carbonate of soda, and mix the solution well with your -dough, and then add 7 ounces, 2 drams and 22 grains of muriatic acid of -the specific gravity of 1,121, and knead it as rapidly as possible with -your dough;—it will rise immediately—fully as much, if not more than -dough mixed with yeast—and when baked, will be a very light and -excellent bread.” Smaller quantities would be required for small batches -of bread. - -A tea-spoonful or more (according to the quantity of dough or batter) of -super-carbonate of soda dissolved in water, and flour stirred in till it -becomes a batter, and then an equal quantity of tartaric acid dissolved -and stirred in thoroughly, will in a few minutes make very light batter -for griddle or pancakes; or if it be mixed into a thick dough, it will -make light bread. - -Good lively yeast, however, makes better bread than these alkalies and -acids: howbeit these are very convenient in emergencies, when bread or -cakes must be prepared in a very short time; or when the yeast has -proved inefficient. - -We see then that wheat meal consists of certain proportions of starch, -gluten, sugar, bran, &c.; and that in making loaf bread, we add yeast or -leaven, in order to produce that kind of fermentation peculiar to -saccharine matter or sugar, which is called vinous, and by which the gas -or air is formed that raises the dough. But the sugar is an incorporate -part of every particle of the meal, and is therefore equally diffused -throughout the whole mass; and hence if we would make the very best loaf -bread, the fermentive principle or yeast must also be equally diffused -throughout the whole mass, so that a suitable portion of yeast will be -brought to act at the same time on every particle of saccharine matter -in the mass. - -But let us endeavor to understand this process of fermentation. To speak -in the language of chemistry, sugar is composed of certain proportions -of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen. The yeast, acting on the sugar, -overcomes those affinities by which these substances are held in the -constitutional arrangement of sugar, and the process of decay or -decomposition of the sugar takes place, which is called vinous -fermentation. By this process of decay, two other forms of matter are -produced, of an essentially different nature from each other and from -the sugar. One of them is called carbonic acid gas or air, being formed -by a chemical combination of certain proportions of carbon and oxygen. -The other is known by the name of alcohol, and consists of a chemical -combination of certain proportions of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. -Carbonic acid gas is also produced by animal respiration or breathing, -by the combustion of wood, coal, &c. &c. and in other ways of nature and -of art: but neither in nature nor in art is there any known way by which -alcohol can be produced, except by that process of the decay or -destruction of sugar called vinous fermentation. - -The carbonic acid gas, produced in the manner I have stated, is the air -which inflates or puffs up and swells out the bread, when there is -sufficient gluten or other cohesive matter in the dough to prevent its -escape. - -If the dough be permitted to stand too long in a warm place, the -fermentation, having destroyed most or all of the sugar, will begin to -act on the starch and mucilage, and destroy their nature, and produce -vinegar; and therefore this stage of it is called the acetous -fermentation: and if it still be permitted to go on, it will next -commence its work of destruction on the gluten; and this is called the -putrefactive fermentation, because it in many respects resembles the -putrefaction of animal matter. - -The vinous fermentation, therefore, by which the dough is raised and -made light, may be carried to all necessary extent, and still be limited -in its action to the saccharine matter or sugar—leaving the starch and -gluten, and other properties of the meal, uninjured; and this is the -point at which the fermentation should be arrested by the heat that -bakes the dough. If it be permitted to go beyond the sugar, and act on -the mucilage and starch, and produce acidity, the excellence of the -bread is in some degree irreparably destroyed. The acid may be -neutralized by pearlash or soda, so that the bread shall not be sour; -but still, something of the natural flavor of the bread is gone, and it -is not possible by any earthly means to restore it; and this injury will -always be in proportion to the extent to which the process of the -acetous fermentation is permitted to go in destroying the nature of the -starch, and the bread will be proportionably destitute of that natural -sweetness and delicious richness essential to good bread. Yet it is -almost universally true, both in public and domestic bread-making, that -the acetous fermentation is allowed to take place; and saleratus, or -soda, or some other chemical agent is employed to neutralize the acid. -By this means we may have bread free from acidity, it is true, but it is -also destitute of the best and most delicious properties of good bread; -and generally, by the time it is twenty-four hours old—and this is -particularly true of bakers’ bread—it is as dry and tasteless and -unsavory as if it were made of plaster of Paris. - -Many bread-makers mix their saleratus or soda with their yeast, or -introduce it when they mix their dough, so that if the acetous -fermentation does take place, the acid is neutralized by the alkali, and -therefore, not being perceived, it is supposed never to have existed, -and the bread is called sweet and good; especially if a small quantity -of molasses be employed in making the dough. Others far more wisely -withhold their alkali till the dough is raised enough to mould into the -loaf, and then if it is found to be in any degree acid, a solution of -saleratus or soda is worked into it, so as just to neutralize the acid, -and no more. This is infinitely better that no have sour bread, which, -after all, is almost everywhere met with; yet the very best bread that -can be made in this way is only second best. Happy are they who can make -good light and sweet bread, without the use of molasses—without -suffering the least degree of acetous fermentation to take place, and -without employing saleratus, soda, or any other kind of alkali. - -The third or putrefactive stage of fermentation rarely takes place in -domestic bread-making; but it is by no means uncommon in public -bakeries. Indeed it is thought necessary in the manufacture of certain -kinds of crackers, in order to make them split open, and render them -brittle, and cause them readily to become soft when dipped into water. -But dyspepsia crackers, and all other kinds of bread made in this way -are, to say the least of them, miserable stuff. For besides the fact -that all the best qualities of the flour or meal have been destroyed by -fermentation, the great quantity of alkali employed in neutralizing the -acid, is necessarily injurious to the digestive organs. - - - - - PREPARATION OF BREAD. - -Mixing. Much kneading necessary. Rising, or fermentation. Use of - alkalies, saleratus and soda. Baking. Ovens. Alcohol in bread. - Preservation of bread. - - -Now, then, the business of the bread-maker is, to take the wheat meal, -prepared in the manner I have stated, and with all the properties I have -described, and convert it into good, light, sweet, well-baked bread, -with the least possible change in those properties; so that the bread, -when done, will present to the senses of smell and taste, all the -delicious flavor and delicate sweetness which pure organs perceive in -the meal of good new wheat, just taken from the ear and ground, or -chewed without grinding; and it should be so baked that it will, as a -general statement, require and secure a full exercise of the teeth in -mastication. - -In order to do this, as we have seen, it is necessary, in the first -place, that the wheat should be of the best kind, and well cleansed, and -the meal properly prepared. In the next place, it is necessary that the -yeast should be fresh, lively and sweet; and in the third place, it is -necessary that the dough should be properly mixed, raised and baked. - -Take then such a quantity of meal, in a perfectly clean and sweet bread -trough, as is necessary for the quantity of bread desired, and having -made a hollow in the centre, turn in as much yeast as a judgment matured -by sound experience shall deem requisite; then add such a quantity of -water, milk and water, or clear milk, as is necessary to form the meal -into a dough of proper consistency. Some prefer bread mixed with water -alone; others prefer that which is mixed with milk and water; and others -think that bread mixed with good milk is much richer and better; while -others dislike the animal odor and taste of bread mixed with milk. -Perhaps the very best and most wholesome bread is that which is mixed -with pure soft water, when such bread is made perfect. But whether -water, milk and water, or milk alone is employed, it should be used at a -temperature of about blood heat. - -Here let it be understood, that the starch of the meal is of such a -nature that, by a delicate process peculiar to itself, it becomes -changed into sugar or saccharine matter; and when the fluid used in -mixing the dough is of a proper temperature, and the dough is properly -mixed and kneaded, this process, to some small extent, takes place, and -a small portion of the starch is actually converted into sugar, and -thereby increases the sweetness of the bread. Let it also be recollected -here, that the saccharine matter on which the yeast is to act, is -equally diffused throughout the whole mass of the meal; and therefore if -the yeast be not properly diffused throughout the whole mass, but is -unequally distributed, so that an undue quantity of it remains in one -part, while other parts receive little or none, then the fermentation -will go on very rapidly in some parts of the mass, and soon run into the -acetous state, while in other parts it will proceed very slowly or not -at all; and consequently large cavities will be formed in some parts of -the dough, while other parts of it will remain as compact and heavy as -when first mixed, and sometimes even more so. I need not say that such -dough cannot be made into good bread; yet it is probably true, that more -than nine tenths of the bread consumed in this country is more or less -of this character. Nor, after what I have said, should it seem necessary -for me to remark, that good bread cannot be made by merely stirring the -meal, and yeast, and water or milk together into a thin dough or sponge, -and suffering it to ferment with little or no working or kneading. Bread -made in this manner, if it is not full of cavities large enough for a -mouse to burrow in, surrounded by parts as solid as lead, is almost -invariably full of cells of the size of large peas and grapes; and the -substance of the bread has a shining, glutinous appearance; and if the -bread is not sour, it is because pearlash or some other kind of alkali -has been used to destroy the acid. - -The very appearance of such bread is forbidding, and shows, at a glance, -that it has not been properly mixed—that the yeast has acted unequally -on different portions of the meal, and that the fermentation has not -been of the right kind. - -But if the yeast be so diffused throughout the whole mass, as that a -suitable portion of it will act on each and every particle of the -saccharine matter at the same time, and if the dough be of such a -consistency and temperature as not to admit of too rapid a fermentation, -then each minute portion of saccharine matter throughout the whole mass -will, in the process of fermentation, produce its little volume of air, -which will form its little cell, about the size of a pin’s head, and -smaller; and this will take place so nearly at the same time, in every -part of the dough, that the whole will be raised and made as light as a -sponge, before the acetous fermentation takes place in any part. And -then if it be properly moulded and baked, it will make the most -beautiful and delicious bread—perfectly light and sweet, without the use -of any alkali, and with all the gluten and nearly all the starch of the -meal remaining unchanged by fermentation. - -Proper materials, proper care, a due amount of labor, a suitable length -of time, and proper temperature, are all, therefore, necessary to the -making of good bread. - -With your meal, and yeast, and water or milk brought together before -you, then, proceed in the light of the instruction you have now -received, to mix your dough; and remember that the more thoroughly you -knead it, the more equally you diffuse the yeast throughout the whole -mass, and bring it to act on every particle of the saccharine matter at -the same time, and the whiter, lighter, and more delicious you make your -bread. - -Who that can look back thirty or forty years to those blessed days of -New England’s prosperity and happiness, when our good mothers used to -make the family bread, but can well remember how long and how patiently -those excellent matrons stood over their bread troughs, kneading and -moulding their dough? and who with such recollections cannot also well -remember the delicious bread that these mothers used invariably to set -before them? There was a natural sweetness and richness in it which made -it always desirable; and which we cannot now vividly recollect, without -feeling a strong desire to partake again of such bread as our mothers -made for us in the days of our childhood. - -Let it be borne in mind, then, that without a very thorough kneading of -the dough, there can be no just ground of confidence that the bread will -be good. “It should be kneaded,” says one of much experience in this -matter, “till it becomes flaky.” Indeed I am confident that our loaf -bread would be greatly improved in all its qualities, if the dough were -for a considerable time subjected to the operations of the machine which -the bakers call the break, used in making crackers and sea-bread. - -The wheat meal, and especially if it is ground coarsely, swells -considerably in the dough, and therefore the dough should not, at first, -be made quite so stiff, as that made of superfine flour; and when it is -raised, if it is found too soft to mould well, let a little more meal be -added. - -When the dough has been properly mixed and thoroughly kneaded, cover it -over with a clean napkin or towel, and a light woollen blanket kept for -the purpose, and place the bread trough where the temperature will be -kept at about 60° F., or about summer heat, and there let it remain till -the dough becomes light. But as it is impossible to regulate the -quantity and quality of your yeast, the moisture and temperature of your -dough, and several other conditions and circumstances, so as to secure -at all times precisely the same results in the same time, it is -therefore necessary that careful attention should be given that the -proper moment should be seized to work over and mould the dough into the -loaf, and get it into the oven, just at the time when it is as light as -it can be made by the vinous fermentation, and before the acetous -fermentation commences. - -If, however, by any means there should unfortunately be a little acidity -in the dough, take a small quantity of saleratus, or, what is better, -carbonate of soda, and dissolve it in some warm water, and carefully -work in just enough to neutralize the acid. The best bread-makers are so -exceedingly careful on this point, that they dip their fingers into the -solution of saleratus or soda, and thrust them into the dough in every -part, as they work it over, so as to be sure that they get in just -enough to neutralize the acid, and not a particle more. - -I must here repeat, that they who would have the very best of bread, -must always consider it a cause of regret, that there should be any -necessity to use alkali; because the acetous fermentation cannot in any -degree take place, without commensurately and irremediably impairing the -quality of the bread. And here it should be remarked, that dough made of -wheat meal will take on the acetous fermentation, or become sour, sooner -than that made of fine flour. This is probably owing principally to the -mucilage contained in the bran, which runs into the acetous fermentation -sooner than starch. - -While the dough is rising, preparations should be made for baking it. -Some bake their bread in a brick oven, some in a stove, some in a -reflector, and some in a baking kettle. In all these ways very good -bread may be baked; but the baking kettle is decidedly the most -objectionable. Probably there is no better and more certain way of -baking bread well than in the use of the brick oven. Good bread-makers, -accustomed to brick ovens, can always manage them with a very great -degree of certainty; and as a general fact, bread is sweeter, baked in -this way, than in any other. Yet, when it is well baked in tin -reflectors, it is certainly very fine; and so it is also when well baked -in iron stoves. But the baking of bread requires almost as much care and -judgment as any part of the process of bread-making. If the oven is too -hot, the bread will burn on the outside before it is done in the centre; -if it is too cold, the bread will be heavy, raw and sour. If the heat is -much greater from below than from above, the bottom of the loaf will -burn before the top is done: or if the heat is much greater from above -than from below, the top of the loaf will burn before the bottom is -done. - -All these points therefore must be carefully attended to; and no small -excuse ought to be considered a satisfactory apology for sour, heavy, -raw or burnt bread; for it is hardly possible to conceive of an absolute -necessity for such results; and the cases are extremely rare in which -they are not the offspring of downright and culpable carelessness. - -The best bread-makers I have ever known, watch over their bread troughs -while their dough is rising, and over their ovens while it is baking, -with about as much care and attention as a mother watches over the -cradle of her sick child. - -Dough made of wheat meal requires a hotter oven than that made of fine -flour; and it needs to remain in the oven longer. Indeed, it is a -general fault of bread of every description, made in this country, that -it is not sufficiently baked. Multitudes eat their bread hot and smoking -from the oven in a half-cooked state; and very few seem to think there -is any impropriety in doing so. But they who would have their bread -good, not only a few hours after it comes from the oven, but as long as -it can be kept, must see that it is thoroughly baked. - -I have said that the process of vinous fermentation converts a portion -of the saccharine matter of the meal into carbonic acid gas or air, by -which means the dough is raised and made light; and that the same -process converts a portion of the saccharine matter into alcohol. The -alcohol thus generated is mostly if not entirely driven off by the heat -of the oven when the dough is baking;—and in modern times, ovens have -been so constructed in England, as to serve the double purpose of ovens -and stills; so that while the bread is baking, the alcohol is distilled -off and condensed, and saved for the various uses of arts and -manufacture. - -The question has, however, been frequently started, whether a portion of -the alcohol thus generated, is not contained in the bread when it comes -from the oven. - -This question cannot be answered with entire certainty; but there are -some facts in relation to it of considerable importance. - -It is perfectly certain that if two portions of wheat meal or flour be -taken from the same barrel or sack, and one portion be made into -unleavened bread, and the other portion be made into the very best -fermented or raised bread, and both be eaten as soon as they are baked, -the fermented bread will digest with more difficulty, and oppress and -disturb the stomach more than the unleavened bread will. Indeed it is -well known and very generally understood, that few of the articles which -compose the food of man in civic life, are so trying to the human -stomach, and so powerful causes of dyspepsia, as fresh-baked raised -bread. - -It is now well known also that alcohol wholly resists the action of the -solvent fluid of the stomach, and is entirely indigestible; and always -retards the digestion of those substances which contain it. How far all -this may be true of carbonic acid gas, is not yet ascertained; but it is -difficult to account for the difference between leavened and unleavened -bread, as above stated, without supposing that the alcohol or carbonic -acid gas, or both of them, are in some degree concerned in rendering the -leavened bread, when newly baked, peculiarly oppressive and injurious to -the stomach. - -This, be it remembered, is purely a conjecture of my own; and I am not -entirely certain that it is correct; but I see no other way of meeting -the difficulty. - -Be it as it may, however, it is very certain that when the bread has -been drawn from the oven, and permitted to stand in a proper place -twenty-four hours, either by evaporation or some other means, it becomes -perfectly matured, and so changed in character, that it is, if properly -made, one of the most wholesome articles entering into the diet of man; -and at that age, there is not the slightest reason to believe that a -particle of alcohol remains in the bread. - -When therefore the bread is thoroughly baked, let it be taken from the -oven and placed on a perfectly clean and sweet shelf, in a perfectly -clean and well ventilated pantry. Do not, as you value the character of -your bread, put it into a pantry where you set away dishes of cold meat, -cold potatoes, and other vegetables, and keep your butter, cheese and -various other table provisions—in a pantry which perhaps is seldom -thoroughly cleansed with hot water and soap, and where the pure air of -heaven seldom if ever has a free circulation. The quality of your bread -should be of too much importance to allow of such reprehensible -carelessness, not to say sluttishness. And if you will have your bread -such as every one ought to desire to have it, you must pay the strictest -attention to the cleanliness and sweetness of the place where you keep -it. - -If in baking, the outer crust should become a little too dry and crispy, -you can easily remedy this by throwing a clean bread or table cloth over -it for a short time when it first comes from the oven; but if this is -not necessary, let the bread stand on an airy shelf, till it becomes -perfectly cool, and when it is twenty-four hours old, it is fit for use; -and if it is in all respects properly made, and properly kept, it will -continue to be sweet and delicious bread for two or even three weeks, -except perhaps in very hot and sultry weather. - -When we have acquired the art of making such bread as I have described, -in the very best manner, then have we carried the art of cooking to the -very height of perfection; for it is not only true, that there is no -other artificially prepared article in human diet of so much importance -as bread, but it is also true that there is no other preparation in the -whole round of cooking, which requires so much care, and attention, and -experience, and skill, and wisdom. - - - - - WHO SHOULD MAKE BREAD. - -Making bread by rule. Bakers. Domestics. Sour bread. An anecdote. Mrs. - Van Winkle. Bad bread need not be made. How cake is made. Bread-making - a drudgery. Excellent example of a mother. Eating bad bread. - Importance of having good bread. - - -Who then shall make our bread? For after all that science in its utmost -accuracy can do, in ascertaining principles and in laying down rules, -there is little certainty that any one, who undertakes to make bread -merely by rule, will be anything like uniformly successful. We may make -a batch of bread according to certain rules, and it may prove excellent; -and then we may make another batch according to the same rules, which -may be very poor. For if we follow our rules ever so closely, there may -be some slight differences in the quality or condition of the meal or -the yeast, or something else, which will materially alter the character -of the bread, if we do not exercise a proper care and judgment, and vary -our operations according as the particular circumstances of the case may -require. - -Correct rules are certainly very valuable; but they can only serve as -general way-marks, in the art of bread-making. Uniform success can only -be secured by the exercise of that mature judgment which is always able -to dictate those extemporaneous measures which every exigency and -circumstance may require; and such a judgment can only result from a -care and attention and experience which are the offspring of that moral -sensibility which duly appreciates the importance of the quality of -bread, in relation to the happiness and welfare of those that consume -it. - -But are we to look for such a sensibility in public bakers? Can we -expect that they will feel so lively and so strong an interest for our -enjoyment and for our physical and intellectual and moral well-being, -that they will exercise all that care and attention and patience, and -watch with that untiring vigilance and solicitude in all the progress of -their operations, which are indispensably necessary in order to secure -us the best of bread? - -Or can we reasonably expect to find these qualifications in domestics—in -those who serve us for hire? Many a female domestic, it is true, can -make much better bread than her mistress can. Many a female domestic has -an honest and sincere desire to do her duty faithfully; but can she be -actuated by those sensibilities and affections which alone can secure -that careful attention, that soundness of judgment, that accuracy of -operation, without which the best of bread cannot uniformly, if ever, be -produced? - -No;—it is the wife, the mother only—she who loves her husband and her -children as woman ought to love, and who rightly perceives the relations -between the dietetic habits and physical and moral condition of her -loved ones, and justly appreciates the importance of good bread to their -physical and moral welfare—she alone it is, who will be ever inspired by -that cordial and unremitting affection and solicitude which will excite -the vigilance, secure the attention, and prompt the action requisite to -success, and essential to the attainment of that maturity of judgment -and skilfulness of operation, which are the indispensable attributes of -a perfect bread-maker. And could wives and mothers fully comprehend the -importance of good bread in relation to all the bodily and intellectual -and moral interests of their husbands and children, and in relation to -the domestic and social and civil welfare of mankind, and to their -religious prosperity, both for time and eternity, they would estimate -the art and duty of bread-making far, very far more highly than they now -do. They would then realize that, as no one can feel so deep and -delicate an interest for their husbands’ and children’s happiness as -they do, so no one can be so proper a person to prepare for them that -portion of their aliment, which requires a degree of care and attention -that can only spring from the lively affections and solicitude of a wife -and mother. - -But it is a common thing to hear women say—“We cannot always have good -bread, if we take ever so much pains;—it will sometimes be heavy, and -sometimes be sour, and sometimes badly baked, in spite of all our care.” - -It may be true that such things will sometimes happen, even with the -best of care;—but I believe that there is almost infinitely more poor -bread than there is any good excuse for. The truth is, the quality of -bread is a matter of too little consideration; and therefore too little -care is given to the making of it. Moreover, the sense of taste is so -easily vitiated, that we can very easily become reconciled to the most -offensive gustatory qualities, and even learn to love them; and it is a -very common thing to find families so accustomed to sour bread, that -they have no perception of its acid quality. - -“It is very strange,” said a lady to me one day at her dinner table, -“that some folks always have sour bread, and never know it.” She then -went on to name a number of families in the circle of her acquaintance, -who, she said, invariably had sour bread upon their tables when she -visited them—“and they never,” continued she, “seem to have the least -consciousness that their bread is not perfectly sweet and good.” - -Yet this very lady, at the very moment she was thus addressing me, had -sour bread upon her own table; and although I had for many months been -very frequently at her table, I had never found any but sour bread upon -it. Still she was wholly unconscious of the fact. - -Difficult however as most women think it is, to have good bread always, -yet there are some women who invariably have excellent bread. I have -known such women. The wife of Thomans Van Winkle, Esq. of the beautiful -valley of Booneton, New Jersey—peace to her ashes!—was deservedly -celebrated throughout the whole circle of her acquaintance for her -excellent bread. Few ever ate at her hospitable board once that did not -desire to enjoy the privilege again. I know not how often it has been my -good fortune to sit at her table; but the times have not been few; and -though long past, and she who presided there has slept for years in her -grave, yet the remembrance of those times and of those hospitalities, -awakens in my bosom a deep and fervent sentiment of gratitude while I -write. - -Never at the table of Mrs. Van Winkle did I eat poor bread;—and of my -numerous acquaintances who had sat at her table, I never heard one say -he had eaten poor bread there. Her bread was invariably good. Nay, it -was of such a quality that it was impossible for any one to eat of it, -and not be conscious that he was partaking of bread of extraordinary -excellence. - -Mrs. Van Winkle, said I to her one day, while I was feasting on her -delicious bread, tell me truly, is there either a miracle or mystery in -this matter of bread-making, by which you are enabled to have such -excellent bread upon your table at all times, while I rarely ever find -bread equally good at any other table, and at ninety-nine tables in a -hundred, I almost invariably find poor bread? Is it necessarily so? Is -it not possible for people by any means to have good bread uniformly? - -“There is no necessity for having poor bread at any time, if those who -make it will give proper care and attention to their business,” replied -Mrs. Van Winkle, confidently. “The truth is,” continued she, “most -people attach very little importance to the quality of their bread; and -therefore they give little care to the preparation of it. If every woman -would see that her flour is sweet and good, that her yeast is fresh and -lively, that her bread trough is kept perfectly clean and sweet, that -her dough is properly mixed and thoroughly kneaded, and kept at a proper -temperature, and at the proper time moulded into the loaf, and put into -the oven, which has been properly heated, and there properly baked, then -good bread would be as common as poor bread now is. But while there is -such perfect carelessness and negligence about the matter, it is not -surprising that bread should be generally poor.” - -Mrs. Van Winkle was undoubtedly correct. If anything like the care were -given to bread-making that its real importance demands, a loaf of poor -bread would rarely be met with. Indeed, if the same degree of care were -given to bread-making, that is devoted to the making of cakes and -pastry, we should far more generally be blessed with good bread. - -Who does not know, that as soon as girls are old enough to go into -company and to give parties, they begin to notice with great interest -the qualities of the different kinds of cake and pastry which they meet -with; and whenever they find anything very nice, they are exceedingly -curious to learn precisely how it was made. And lest memory should be -treacherous, they will carefully write down the exact rules for mixing -and cooking it;—“so many pounds of flour, so many pounds of butter, so -many pounds of sugar, so many eggs, and spice to your taste—the eggs to -be beaten so and so, the whole mixed so and so, and baked so many -minutes,” &c. &c. And thus with great care and industry they collect and -write down, in a book which they keep for the purpose, all the recipes -they can get hold of, for making every kind of cake and pastry used in -society. And when they are preparing for company, they rarely if ever -order Dinah or any other domestic to make their nice cake. They do not -regard it as a menial office, but as a highly genteel employment; and -their great desire to have their cake and pastry as good as it can be -made, prompts them to undertake the manufacture of it themselves. And -during this operation, the scales, the measures, the clock or watch, all -are brought into requisition; the Recipe Book is placed upon the table -before them, and carefully consulted; and everything is done with the -utmost precision, and exactitude, and vigilance. And if the young lady -feels any misgiving as to her own judgment, or taste, or experience, she -earnestly inquires of Ma, or some one else who she thinks is capable of -giving her advice in so important a matter. - -If in the midst of this employment some one knocks or rings at the door, -and a young gentleman is announced, she is not at all embarrassed, but -perhaps hastens to the parlor with her delicate hands covered with -dough, and with an air of complacency and self-satisfaction, says—“Good -morning, Frank—how do you do? I am just engaged in making some cake—I -hope you will excuse me for a few moments.” - -All this shows that she regards the quality of her cake as of very great -importance, and considers it not only perfectly respectable but highly -_genteel_, for a young lady to be employed in making cake. But in regard -to bread and bread-making, everything is very different; there is none -of this early curiosity to learn how to make good bread. Young ladies do -not on every occasion when they find excellent bread, carefully and -minutely inquire how it was made, baked, &c., and write down the -recipe;—but when a batch of bread is to be made for the family, they -either leave it for Mother or some domestic to make, or go about it -themselves as some irksome and disreputable piece of drudgery; and -consequently they turn the task off their hands with as much despatch -and as little trouble as possible. If all things happen to be as they -should be, it is well; if not, they must answer for the present. If the -yeast happens to be lively and sweet, very lucky. If otherwise, still it -must be used. If the dough rises well and is got into the oven before it -becomes sour, very fortunate; if not, why, “nobody can avoid -mistakes—and bread will sometimes be poor in spite of the greatest -care;”—and if a batch of miserable bread is the result of such an -operation, then all that remains to be done is to eat it up as soon as -possible, and hope for better the next time. - -If Frank or Charles or Edward should call while the young lady is -engaged in making bread, she is perhaps quite disconcerted, and would -not for the world have him know what she is doing;—she sends word to -him, either that she is out, or that she is particularly engaged, and -begs he will excuse her;—or if by any means she happens unexpectedly to -be caught at her employment, she is greatly embarrassed, and makes the -best apology she can for being engaged in such menial services. - -As a matter of course, while such are the views and feelings entertained -on this subject, and while such is the manner in which this duty is -performed, it will ever be a mere accident if good bread is made; and a -mere accident if such girls ever become good bread-makers when they are -wives and mothers. - -But if parents, and especially mothers, could view this matter in its -true light, how differently would they educate their children. They -would then feel that, grateful as it is to a mother’s heart to see her -daughters highly refined and elegantly accomplished, and able to “make -the instrument discourse most eloquent music,” and to transfer living -nature, with all its truth and beauty and sublimity, to the canvass, -still the art of bread-making, when considered in all its relations and -intimate connections with human health, and prosperity, and virtue, and -happiness, and with reference to the natural responsibilities and duties -of woman, is actually one of the highest and noblest accomplishments -that can adorn the female character. And then, too, would they consider -it of exceedingly great importance, that their daughters should possess -this accomplishment, even though they may never be in circumstances -which will require the exercise of it. - -Some eight or nine years since, I spent several months in the delightful -village of Belvidere, on the banks of the Delaware, in Pennsylvania. -While there, I enjoyed for a number of weeks the kind hospitality of S― -S―, Esq., a lawyer, and a gentleman of great moral excellence. Mrs. S. -was born and brought up, I believe, in Philadelphia. Her father was a -man of wealth, and she was the only daughter, and—almost as a matter of -course—was indulged in all that she desired. But there were so many of -the elements of a good wife and mother in her natural composition, that -as soon as she entered into those interesting and important relations, -she began to devote herself to the duties of them with a sincerity and -conscientiousness which could not fail of success. Surrounded as she -was, with wealth, and every comfort and convenience of life, and all of -its luxuries that she desired, still she was industrious in her habits, -and vigilantly attentive to all the concerns of her household. She -usually kept three female domestics, who, by her kind maternal -deportment towards them, were warmly attached to her. She had no -difficulty in procuring nor in keeping help, because she always treated -them in such a manner that they loved to stay with her; and she took -much pains to qualify them for the proper discharge of their duties. -They evidently loved her, and were sincerely desirous of performing all -their services in such a manner as would be pleasing to her. Yet with -all these advantages to justify her leaving such a duty to her -domestics, Mrs. S. invariably made the family bread with her own hands. -Regularly as the baking day came, she went into her kitchen and took her -stand beside the bread trough, and mixed and kneaded the dough, and put -it in its proper place for rising, and, in due time, moulded it into the -loaf and baked it. - -Do you always make your bread, madam? I inquired one day, as she -returned from the performance of that task. “Invariably,” she replied: -“that is a duty I trust no other person to do for me.” - -But cannot your domestics make good bread? I asked. “I have excellent -domestics,” answered Mrs. S., “and they can, perhaps, make as good bread -as I can; for they have been with me several years, and I have taken -pains to learn them how to do my work; and they are exceedingly faithful -and affectionate, and are always willing to do all they can to please -me; but they cannot feel for my husband and my children as I do, and -therefore they cannot feel that interest which I do, in always having -such bread as my husband and my children will love and enjoy. Besides, -if it were certain their care and vigilance and success in bread-making -would be always equal to mine, yet it is wholly uncertain how long they -will remain with me. Various circumstances may take place, which may -cause them to leave me, and bring me into dependence upon those who know -not how to make good bread; and therefore I choose to keep my own hand -in. But, apart from all other considerations, there is a pleasure -resulting from the performance of this duty, which richly rewards me for -all the labor of it. When my bread is made and brought upon the table, -and I see my husband and children eat it and enjoy it, and hear them -speak of its excellence, it affords me much satisfaction, and I am glad -to know that I have contributed so much to their health and happiness; -for, while my bread is so good that they prefer it to anything else upon -the table, there is little danger of their indulging, to any injurious -extent, in those articles of food which are less favorable to their -health.” - -I need not say that this lady invariably had excellent bread upon her -table. But instances of this kind are, I regret to say, extremely rare, -even in christian communities; and therefore when such cases are known, -they ought to be held up as most noble examples of female virtue, and -receive such high commendations as their intrinsic merit deserves, and -such as will be calculated to beget in the minds of others an exalted -sense of the dignity and importance of such duties, and prompt every -wife and mother to the intelligent and affectionate performance of them. - -For it should ever be remembered that, though our children, while they -depend on us for protection, are also properly the subjects of our -government, yet as soon as they are capable of appreciating our -authority and our influence, they are, like ourselves, moral agents, and -ought, in all respects, to be governed and nurtured as such; and -therefore it is not enough that we can give them such bread as we think -best for them, and _compel_ them to eat it; but the grand point at which -the mother should always aim, in this matter, is, to place before her -children such bread as is the very best for them, and at the same time, -to make it the most agreeable to them, and thereby make their duty and -their enjoyment perfectly coincide. - -Let no one therefore say she cannot always have good bread, until she -can truly affirm that she has fairly made the experiment; that she has, -in view of all its relations and bearings, accurately estimated the -importance of the quality of her bread in regard to the welfare of her -household, and, with a proper sense of her responsibilities as a wife -and mother, has _at all times_ felt that interest and exercised that -care and attention which so important a duty demands, and without which -it must ever be a mere accident whether her bread is good or bad. - -They that will have good bread, not only for a single time, but -uniformly, must make the quality of their bread of sufficient -importance, in their estimation and feelings, to secure the requisite -attention to the means by which alone such an end can be made certain. -They must not suffer themselves, through carelessness, to get entirely -out of bread unexpectedly, and thus be obliged, without due preparation, -to make up a batch of such materials as they may happen to have at hand, -and bake it in haste, and hurry it to the table. But they must exercise -providence and foresight: they must know, beforehand, when their supply -of bread will probably be out, and when they will need to make another -batch; and they must see beforehand that measures are taken to secure a -proper supply of all the requisite materials—see that they are furnished -with good meal or flour; and they must be sure to have the best of yeast -or leaven, when they need it—and when the time comes for them to make -their bread, if by any means the yeast should not be good, let them -throw it away and make good, before they proceed to make their bread; -for it is infinitely better that the family should even do without bread -one day, and eat roasted potatoes, than that they should eat poor bread -three or four days; and if, from any cause, the bread should be poor, it -is incomparably better to throw it away, than to set it upon the table, -to disgust the whole family with bread, and drive them to make most of -their meal on something else. - -If a lady can ever find a good excuse for having poor bread, she -certainly can find none, except perhaps extreme poverty, for setting her -poor bread on the table the second time. Yet, too generally, women seem -to think that, as a matter of course, if they, by carelessness or any -other means, have been so unlucky as to make a batch of poor bread, -their family and friends must share their misfortune, and help them eat -it up; and, by this means, many a child has had its health seriously -impaired, and its constitution injured, and perhaps its moral character -ruined—by being driven, in early life, into pernicious dietetic habits. - -It was observed many years ago, by one of the most eminent and extensive -practitioners in New England, that, during a practice of medicine for -thirty years, he had always remarked that, in those families where the -children were most afflicted with worms, he invariably found poor bread; -and that, as a general fact, the converse of this was true; that is, in -those families where they uniformly had heavy, sour, ill-baked bread, he -generally found that the children were afflicted with worms. - -A careful and extensive observation for a few years, would convince -every intelligent mind that there is a far more intimate relation -between the quality of the bread and the moral character of a family, -than is generally supposed. - -“Keep that man at least ten paces from you, who eats no bread with his -dinner,” said Lavater, in his “Aphorisms on Man.” This notion appears to -be purely whimsical at first glance; but Lavater was a shrewd observer, -and seldom erred in the moral inferences which he drew from the -voluntary habits of mankind; and depend upon it, a serious contemplation -of this apparent whim, discloses a deeper philosophy than is at first -perceived upon the surface. - -Whatever may be the cause which turns our children and ourselves away -from the dish of bread, and establishes an habitual disregard for it, -the effect, though not perhaps in every individual instance, yet, as a -general fact, is certainly, in some degree, unfavorable to the physical, -and intellectual, and moral, and religious, and social, and civil and -political interests of man. - -Of all the artificially prepared articles of food which come upon our -table, therefore, bread should be that one which, as a general fact, is -uniformly preferred by our children and our household,—that one, the -absence of which they would notice soonest, and feel the most,—that one -which—however they may enjoy for a time the little varieties set before -them—they would be most unwilling to dispense with—and which, if they -were driven to the necessity, they would prefer to any other dish, as a -single article of subsistence. - -To effect this state of things, it is obvious that the quality of the -bread must be uniformly excellent; and to secure this, I say again, -there must be a judgment, an experience, a skill, a care, a vigilance, -which can only spring from the sincere affections of a devoted wife and -mother, who accurately perceives and duly appreciates the importance of -these things, and, in the lively exercise of a pure and delicate moral -sense, feels deeply her responsibilities, and is prompted to the -performance of her duties. - -Would to God that this were all true of every wife and mother in our -country—in the world!—that the true relations, and interests, and -responsibilities of life were understood and felt by every human being, -and all the duties of life properly and faithfully performed! - - - - - VARIETIES OF BREAD. - -Rye bread. Indian meal bread. Use of sour milk, or butter-milk. Acids. - Family grinding. - - -I have thus far spoken almost entirely of wheaten bread, because I -consider that the most wholesome kind of bread for ordinary use—for -“daily bread.” When bread is made of superfine flour, the same general -rules should be observed. - -Rice, barley, oats, rye, Indian corn, and many other farinaceous -products of the vegetable kingdom, may also be manufactured into bread, -but none of them will make so good bread as wheat. Good rye, raised on a -sandy soil, when cleansed and ground in the manner I have already -described, and prepared in all respects according to the rules I have -laid down, will make very excellent bread. Rye, coarsely ground, without -bolting, and mixed with Indian meal, makes very wholesome bread, when it -is well made. Good rye and Indian bread is far more wholesome for common -or every-day use, than that made of superfine flour. - -There are various ways of preparing Indian meal bread; and when such -bread is well made, it is very wholesome—much more so, for every-day -use, than superfine flour bread. “In a memoir lately read before the -French Academy,” says the Journal of Health, “the author undertook to -show that maize (Indian corn) is more conducive to health than any other -grain; and, as a proof of this, the fact was adduced that, in one of the -departments in which this grain was most abundantly and universally -used, the inhabitants were remarkable for their health and vigor.” - -One great drawback to the wholesomeness of Indian meal bread, however, -is, that it is almost universally eaten hot, and too generally, pretty -well oiled with butter, or some other kind of animal fat or oil. But -Indian meal bread can be prepared in such a manner as to obviate these -difficulties, and render it very wholesome. - -Barley and oats may be manufactured into very wholesome bread; but they -are little used for such purposes in this country. - -Rice, peas, beans, potatoes, &c., may also, by mixing them with a -portion of wheat or rye flour, be manufactured into bread; but, as I -have already stated, there is no other kind of grain or farinaceous -vegetable substance from which so good loaf bread can be made, as good -wheat. - -In making bread from Indian meal, and other kinds of farinaceous -substances containing little or no gluten, yeast or leaven is rarely if -ever used to make it light. More generally sour milk or butter-milk and -saleratus or soda are used for this purpose; and they who do not well -understand the principle upon which these substances make their bread -light, often greatly impair their own success by their mismanagement. - -It is, perhaps, most common for them to mix their sour milk or -butter-milk and saleratus together, and wait till the effervescence is -over, before they stir in their meal. But by this means they lose the -greater part of the gas or air by which their dough should be made -light. - -The true way is, to take their sour milk or butter-milk, and stir meal -into it till a thin batter is formed, and then dissolve their saleratus -or soda, and stir that quickly and thoroughly into the batter, and then -hastily add meal till the batter or dough is brought into the -consistency desired. - -If, instead of sour milk or butter-milk, a solution of muriatic or -tartaric acid is used, the bread will be equally light. In this case, -the batter should be first made with a solution of saleratus or soda, -and then the solution of acid should be stirred in as above described. -Batter cakes are made in this manner very light and very promptly. When -from any cause batter or dough mixed with yeast fails to rise according -to expectations, the thorough mixing in, first the solution of muriatic -or tartaric acid, and then the solution of saleratus or soda, will, in a -few minutes, make the whole mass very light; but such cakes and bread -are not so sweet and savory as those raised with good sweet yeast. - -I have said that recently ground meal makes far sweeter and richer -bread, than that which has been ground a considerable time; but as it is -not convenient for many families to send to a mill as often as they -would like to have fresh meal, they are obliged generally to use staler -meal or flour than they would choose. Yet every family might easily be -furnished with a modern patent hand-mill, constructed after the plan of -a coffee mill, with which they could at all times, with great ease, -grind their wheat, and rice, and corn, as they want it, for bread and -other purposes. With these mills they can grind their stuff as finely or -coarsely as they wish, for bread or hominy, and always have it very -fresh and sweet. - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - LIGHT & STEARNS, - - PUBLISHERS AND BOOKSELLERS, - - 1 Cornhill, Facing Washington Street, - - BOSTON, - -Keep constantly on hand a general assortment of SCHOOL, THEOLOGICAL and -MISCELLANEOUS BOOKS, for sale on the most reasonable terms, at wholesale -and retail—together with a good assortment of STATIONARY. Among the -works published by them, they would ask particular attention to the -following: - - ------- - - DR. ALCOTT’S WORKS. - -We have made arrangements to publish a regular series of works by DR. -ALCOTT, of which these are a part: - - THE YOUNG MOTHER, - - OR - - THE PHYSICAL EDUCATION OF CHILDREN. - - _Second Edition—Embellished by a Vignette._ - - BY DR. WM. A. ALCOTT. - -The “Young Mother” is designed as an every-day manual for those who are -desirous of conducting the physical education of the young—from the very -first—on such principles as Physiology and Chemistry indicate. It -inculcates the great importance of preventing evil—especially physical -evil—by implanting good habits. We believe it to be the only work of a -popular character, written by a medical man, on this subject, and that -it is, on this account, doubly valuable. It is recommended by the Boston -Medical and Surgical Journal, and by the Press generally, as a work -which should be possessed by every family. The following remarks by the -editor of the Portland Christian Mirror, will give some idea of the -manner in which it has been noticed in various parts of the country, -though many of the best periodicals have spoken of it in still stronger -terms of approbation: - -“The subject of this book is of vital interest to the whole human -family, and is treated by Dr. Alcott with the most intelligible -simplicity. We hope it will find its way into the hands of all who are -entrusted with the training and rearing of children; and that its sound -views will supplant many of those hurtful maxims and practices which are -lamentably prevalent, and that the existing generation of mankind will -be succeeded by a more healthy and a more moral race.” - -Price 75 cts.—By the dozen, 62 1-2 cts. - - ------- - - THE HOUSE I LIVE IN, - - OR - - THE HUMAN BODY. - - _Second Edition—entirely re-written, enlarged and improved._ - - FOR THE USE OF FAMILIES AND SCHOOLS. - - BY DR. ALCOTT. - -The great difficulty of making a subject which has hitherto been deemed -dry and unintelligible, at once agreeable and interesting to the young -mind, has led the author of this volume to describe the human body as a -HOUSE. - -The work treats, first, on the FRAME—consisting of the bones, muscles, -tendons, &c.; secondly, of the COVERING—consisting of the skin, hair, -nails, eyes, ears, &c.; and thirdly, of the APARTMENTS and FURNITURE—by -which are meant the interior cavities and organs. Nearly every -anatomical and physiological term which appears in the work is so used -or so explained, as to be at once clearly understood and apprehended. -The subject is illustrated by numerous engravings. - -The best recommendation of this work is, that it has been universally -approved of by the families and schools where it has been introduced, -and by all medical men who have examined it. It has also received the -entire approbation of the Press, and is selling rapidly. - -Prices:—50 cts. single—$5.40 a dozen. - - ------- - - WAYS - - OF - - LIVING ON SMALL MEANS. - - A CHEAP MANUAL ON HEALTH AND ECONOMY. - - _Fifth Edition—Enlarged and Improved._ - - BY DR. ALCOTT. - -This work was prepared to meet the demand of the present exigency. -Thousands of families, in the poorer and middling classes of society, -are suffering from their unwise attempts to live in the style of those -persons whose means are far greater than their own. The author has -endeavored to convince them—in a brief manner—that a very few things -only, are really indispensable to physical and even intellectual comfort -and happiness—and that both these are within the reach of all, even in -times like the present, would they be content to live in a manner at -once rational, simple and healthful. It discusses the following -subjects: - -Estates and Business; Houses and Furniture; Equipage and Servants; -Dress; Food and Drink; Medicine and Physicians; Books and Schools; -Customs and Habits; Society; and gives several interesting Examples of -living on small means. - -With the emendations and improvements made in this edition, it is -believed the work cannot fail to be regarded by every unprejudiced mind, -as one of the most useful manuals of the day. Four editions, of 1000 -copies each, were sold in a few weeks. - -Prices:—25 cts. single—$2.50 a dozen—$20 a hundred. - - ------- - - Will soon be ready, - - THE YOUNG WIFE. - - _Stereotyped—and Embellished by a beautiful Plate and Vignette._ - - BY DR. ALCOTT. - -This work is based on the principle, that the great business of the wife -is Education—the education of herself and her family. It therefore -exhibits the duties of a wife, especially to her husband, in a manner at -once original and striking. The author presupposes her to have set out -in matrimony with christian principles and purposes; and hence proceeds -to inculcate what he deems the best methods of applying them in the -routine of daily life and conversation. We believe that no one can rise -from the perusal of this volume without a higher respect for female -character, as well as a higher confidence in the divine wisdom of -matrimony. - -The price will probably be the same as that of the Young Mother. - - ------- - - LIBRARY OF HEALTH, - - AND - - TEACHER ON THE HUMAN CONSTITUTION. - - _Monthly—Price $1 a Year, in advance._ - - DR. ALCOTT, EDITOR. - -This is a Periodical work, originally called the “Moral Reformer and -Teacher on the Human Constitution.” It is published in numbers of 32 -pages each, in neat book style for binding into a volume, illustrated by -engravings, and is now on the third year of its publication. The numbers -of the two past years are for sale, bound in two neat volumes. - -This work discusses, in a familiar manner, all subjects connected with -physical education and self-management. It treats on the connection of -LIGHT, AIR, TEMPERATURE, CLEANLINESS, EXERCISE, SLEEP, FOOD, DRINK, -CLIMATE, the PASSIONS, AFFECTIONS, &c., with HEALTH, HAPPINESS and -LONGEVITY. The editor takes the ground that a proper understanding of -the constitutional laws of the human body, and of all its organs and -functions, and a strict obedience thereto, are indispensable to the -highest perfection and happiness—present and future—of every living -human being. He deems this knowledge more and more indispensable in -proportion to the progress of civilization and refinement. The work is -pledged to support no system nor set of principles, any farther than -that system and those principles can be proved to be based on the laws -of Physiology, and revealed truth, and on human experience; and -consequently its pages are always open to fair and temperate discussion. - -The work has recently been warmly approved of by GEORGE COMBE, (author -of the “Constitution of Man,”) as well as a large number of -distinguished men of this country, among whom are the following: - -Dr. John C. Warren, Dr. S. B. Woodward, Rev. Dr. Humphrey, Rev. S. R. -Hall, Rev. Hubbard Winslow, Rev. R. Anderson, Rev. Baron Stow, Rev. B. -B. Wisner, R. H. Gillet, Esq., Rev. Wm. Hague, Roberts Vaux, Esq., Dr. -John M. Keagy, Dr. R. D. Mussey, Prof. E. A. Andrews, Rev. L. F. Clark, -Rev. M. M. Carll, Rev. Dr. Fay, Dr. Sylvester Graham. - -These recommendations are similar to the following, received from Dr. -WARREN: - -“The Library of Health, is, in my opinion, an excellent publication. It -seems to be well adapted to aid in the great reform in habits and -customs which is now going on in this country and Great Britain; and -which, it may be hoped, will extend to other parts of the world. I beg -leave to recommend this little work to all who are desirous of promoting -their health of body and tranquillity of mind.” - -Many of the most respectable Journals in the country, have also given -their testimony in its favor. The following are a very few of them: - -Boston Medical and Surgical Journal, Annals of Education, Abbott’s -Religious Magazine, Boston Recorder, Christian Register, Christian -Watchman, Zion’s Herald, New York Farmer. - -We feel entire confidence in offering this publication to all who are -interested in the improvement which Dr. Alcott is endeavoring to -promote. - - ------- - - THE YOUNG MAN’S GUIDE. - - BY DR. ALCOTT. - -We keep a good supply of this work on hand at all times, for sale at -wholesale and retail, at the publishers’ lowest prices. It is too -extensively known to need comment. - - -------------------------------------------------- - - DR. GRAHAM’S WORKS. - - ------- - - A LECTURE TO YOUNG MEN, - - ON - - CHASTITY. - - INTENDED ALSO FOR THE SERIOUS CONSIDERATION OF - - PARENTS AND GUARDIANS. - - _Second Edition—Enlarged and Improved, with Notes._ - - BY DR. SYLVESTER GRAHAM. - -The second edition of this important work is nearly double the size of -the first, although the price is increased but a trifle. It is selling -rapidly. Notwithstanding its value is extensively known, we cannot -forbear to insert two or three - - TESTIMONIALS. - -The following remarks, from the Annals of Education for 1834, are from -the pen of WILLIAM C. WOODBRIDGE; whose long and zealous devotion to the -cause of education, and whose extensive travels and researches both in -Europe and America, and special attention to the subject of which he -here speaks, pre-eminently qualify him to judge accurately in the -matter: - -“We are rejoiced to see a work published in our country, on a topic in -physiology which the ‘artificial modesty’ to which we have formerly -alluded, has covered up, until a solitary, but fatal vice is spreading -desolation through our _schools_ and _families_, unnoticed or unknown. -The experience of teachers, the case-books of physicians, and the -painful exposures which accident, or the dreadful diseases which follow -in its train, have occasionally produced, have at length forced it upon -public attention; and we hope it will not again be forgotten. The work -before us is the result of extensive observation and study; its -usefulness has been tested by its influence as a lecture; and its views -of this evil are in accordance with the experience of the few teachers -whom we have known possessed of the moral courage to encounter it. We -would offer it to those who have earnestly desired a work on this -subject, as one adapted to their purposes. We would recommend its -perusal to every _parent_ and _teacher_. We would warn them that those -who have been most confident of the safety of their charge, have often -been most deceived; and that the youthful bashfulness which seems to -shrink from the bare mention of the subject, is _sometimes_ the blush of -shame for concealed crime. We feel bound to add, what abundant and -decisive evidence has shown, that ignorance on this subject is no -protection from the vice—nay, that it is often the original cause or -encouragement of it; that it gives tenfold power to the evil example and -influence which are so rarely escaped; and that a cure can be effected -only by the most careful instruction and long continued discipline, both -physical and moral, directed by sad experience, as is presented in this -work.” - -The following brief but highly valuable testimony is from the -distinguished superintendent of the Massachusetts Lunatic Hospital at -Worcester: - - “DEAR SIR:—The subject of your Lecture to Young Men, has been much -neglected, although of great importance. - -This lecture, while it sounds the alarm to the young, will not fail to -awaken the attention of parents, if once perused. It is couched in -language as delicate as the nature of the subject will admit, and may be -read with propriety and benefit by all. - -The evil of which it treats, if I mistake not, is more extensively -sapping the foundation of _physical vigor_ and _moral purity_, in the -rising generation, than is generally apprehended, even by those who are -awake to the danger, and who have witnessed the deplorable influence of -it upon its victims. - - Yours, with respect, - - S. B. WOODWARD.” - -The following is from Dr. ALCOTT; author of the works advertised on the -preceding pages—addressed to Dr. GRAHAM. - - “DEAR SIR:—The subject of your Lecture to Young Men is one of immense -importance, and demands the profound attention of every friend of man. -It is vain longer to shuffle it off, when those whose opportunities best -qualify them to give an opinion, do not hesitate to say that solitary -vice is rapidly gaining ground among us. It is a subject which must be -met. - -In this view, I rejoice to find that an increasing demand for your -little work has justified the publication of a second edition. I -rejoice, especially, to see such sound principles in physiology -inculcated and warmly enforced. I have no hesitation in saying that it -ought to be circulated throughout our country. It would thus not only -save many a young person from the murderous fangs of quackery, but—what -is much better—it would prevent the necessity of his applying either to -quacks or physicians for relief from a situation in which he ought never -to be placed.” - -The following is an extract from a letter written by the chaplain of one -of our New England State Prisons to a brother clergyman in a neighboring -state: - -“I have read the book _three_ times, and derived more benefit from the -last, than from either of the other readings. I like this book. Why is -it not in the hands of every young man, especially in cities, to -counteract the influence of indecent pictures and corrupting books? - -One excellence in Graham’s Lecture, as it strikes me, is, that it is so -purely philosophical. Even an atheist might see force in his statements. -A man must deny many of the best established principles of science, -before he can deny most of the conclusions to which the lecturer comes.” - -The Boston Recorder, and several other valuable periodicals, coincide -with these testimonials. - -Prices:—62 1-2 cts. single—$6 a dozen—$45 a hundred. - - ------- - - A TREATISE - - ON - - BREAD AND BREAD-MAKING. - - BY DR. GRAHAM. - -There has been for some time a considerable demand for this work, and it -will doubtless have a wide circulation among all classes of society. - -Prices:—37 1-2 cts. single—$4 a dozen—$30 a hundred. - - -------------------------------------------------- - - MISCELLANEOUS WORKS. - -We would call attention to the following valuable and interesting works, -by popular writers: - -THE BOSTON BOOK, for 1836 and 1837, being Specimens of Metropolitan -Literature. Edited by H. T. TUCKERMAN, and B. B. THATCHER. Elegantly -executed, and embellished by Vignettes of the Great Tree and -Tri-Mountain. - -THE ITALIAN SKETCH BOOK. By H. T. TUCKERMAN. Second edition—revised and -enlarged, with a plate. - -THE PARENT’S PRESENT. Edited by the author of Peter Parley’s Tales. A -handsome present for youth; with cuts. - -MOGG MEGONE—a Poem, descriptive of New England and its early -inhabitants. By JOHN GREENLEAF WHITTIER. Pocket Edition. - -BOSTON MECHANIC, and Journal of the Useful Arts and Sciences. The matter -furnished by Practical Men. Valuable for mechanics and manufacturers; -numerous Cuts. - -SCIENTIFIC TRACTS, for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. Complete in -one volume. By B. B. Thatcher, Dr. Alcott, Dr. C. T. Jackson, Dr. -Sylvester Graham, William Ladd, Lieut. R. Park, and others. - -THE MORAL REFORMER, and Teacher on the Human Constitution. Edited by Dr. -ALCOTT. This work contains a large quantity of matter on Health and -Morals, as connected with the education of the Body. With cuts. - -REMAINS OF MELVILLE B. COX, (Missionary to Africa,) with a MEMOIR. -Published under the superintendence of his brother, GERSHOM F. COX. With -a Portrait, and death-bed autograph. - -SLAVERY AND THE DOMESTIC SLAVE-TRADE IN THE UNITED STATES. Letters -addressed to the American Union for the Relief and Improvement of the -Colored Race. By Prof. E. A. ANDREWS. - -THE CARPENTER AND HIS FAMILY: ALSO, PRIDE SUBDUED. By the author of the -“Black Velvet Bracelet,” &c. An excellent book for youth. - -SKETCHES FROM SACRED HISTORY; containing the Story of the Moabitess—the -Story of the Queen—and the Story of the Priest. A good book for youth. - -MEMOIR OF WILLIAM WILBERFORCE. By THOMAS PRICE. Second American, from -the London Edition. With an elegant Portrait, and an Appendix (not in -the first edition.) - -MEMOIR OF REV. S. OSGOOD WRIGHT, late Missionary to Liberia. By B. B. -THATCHER. With a Portrait. - -MEMOIR AND POEMS OF PHILLIS WHEATLEY. The Memoir written by a Relative -of the Mistress of Phillis. The Poems from the best English Edition. -With a Portrait. - - ------- - - SCIENTIFIC & LITERARY JOURNAL - - FOR THE - - DIFFUSION OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. - - _Semi-Monthly—$2 a Year, in advance._ - -This work is so well known (it being a continuation of the SCIENTIFIC -TRACTS,) that recommendation is unnecessary. The first volume commenced -January 1, this year. We believe all who want a scientific work which -can be depended upon for its accuracy as well as general value, would be -highly gratified with this periodical. - - ------- - -N. B.—The most favorable terms will be offered to those who may wish to -purchase any of the preceding works by the quantity, for gratuitous -circulation or for any other purpose—and a liberal discount will be made -for cash. - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - FOOTNOTES. - - -Footnote A: - - In this same manner the Sandwich Islanders cooked all their food, when - they were first discovered. - -Footnote B: - - An aged and very respectable member of the Society of Friends, in New - York, who had long been extensively engaged in the flour business in - that city, and who had always had his family bread made in his own - house, was one day asked by his daughter, why he never used the - baker’s bread:—“Because, my child,” replied he, “I know what it is - made of.” - -Footnote C: - - See Memoirs of Philadelphia Agricultural Society. Vol. I. p. 226. - - - - - TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE. - - -This eBook makes the following corrections to the printed text: - - ● Pg iv - ○ sour milk or buttermilk - ○ sour milk or butter-milk - - ● Pg 38 - ○ their bread stuff before it is ground - ○ their bread-stuff before it is ground - - ● Pg 44 - ○ the well being of those who have been the consumers - ○ the well-being of those who have been the consumers - - ● Pg 49 - ○ there are indviduals in every city - ○ there are individuals in every city - - ● Pg 77 - ○ stir in good indian meal - ○ stir in good Indian meal - - ● Pg 88 - ○ In order to this - ○ In order to do this - - ● Pg 124 - ○ “Keep ... no bread with his dinner, - ○ “Keep ... no bread with his dinner,” - - ● Pg 130 - ○ first the solution of muriatic or tartartic acid - ○ first the solution of muriatic or tartaric acid - - ● Advertisements - ○ MANUAL ON HEALTH AND ECOMOMY - ○ MANUAL ON HEALTH AND ECONOMY - - ● Advertisements - ○ SCIENFITIC TRACTS - ○ SCIENTIFIC TRACTS - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A TREATISE ON BREAD, AND -BREAD-MAKING *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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