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| author | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-01-22 12:59:06 -0800 |
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| committer | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-01-22 12:59:06 -0800 |
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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..bc83207 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #66524 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/66524) diff --git a/old/66524-0.txt b/old/66524-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 72cf2af..0000000 --- a/old/66524-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,10776 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Wine Press and the Cellar, by Emmet -Hawkins Rixford - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: The Wine Press and the Cellar - A Manual for the Wine-Maker and the Cellar-Man - -Author: Emmet Hawkins Rixford - -Release Date: October 12, 2021 [eBook #66524] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -Produced by: Tim Lindell and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at - https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images - generously made available by The Internet Archive/American - Libraries.) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE WINE PRESS AND THE CELLAR *** - - - - -Transcriber’s Notes: - - Underscores “_” before and after a word or phrase indicate _italics_ - in the original text. - Equal signs “=” before and after a word or phrase indicate =bold= - in the original text. - Small capitals have been converted to SOLID capitals. - Illustrations have been moved so they do not break up paragraphs. - Typographical and punctuation errors have been silently corrected. - The corrections listed in the ERRATA have been applied to the text. - - - - - THE - WINE PRESS - AND - THE CELLAR. - - A MANUAL FOR - THE WINE-MAKER AND THE CELLAR-MAN. - - By E. H. RIXFORD. - - SAN FRANCISCO: NEW YORK: - PAYOT, UPHAM & CO. D. VAN NOSTRAND. - 1883. - - Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1883, - by E. H. RIXFORD, - In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, - at Washington. - - C. W. GORDON, - Steam Book and Job Printer, - San Francisco, Cal. - -[Illustration] - - - - -PREFACE. - - -In 1876 the Mission grape sold in California for from $7.50 to $10 -per ton, and foreign varieties for from $14 to $18 per ton, and -consequently many vineyardists in districts remote from the market -turned their hogs into the vineyard to gather the fruit. At this -time farmers concluded that it would not pay to grow grapes, and the -vines were rooted out of many vineyards, and the land devoted to the -production of more profitable crops. In 1878, however, the prices -were better, and the Mission grape brought from $12 to $14 per ton, -and the foreign varieties from $22 to $26, and under a growing demand -for California wines, the wine makers in the counties of Sonoma and -Napa have paid during the past three seasons of 1880, 1881, and 1882, -prices ranging from $16 to $22 per ton for Mission, and from $22 to -$35 for other foreign varieties, and in some cases even as high as -$40 per ton for wine grapes of the best varieties; the extremes in -prices depending upon the activity of the competition in the different -localities. Although in California we are accustomed to speak of the -“Mission grape” and the “foreign varieties” in contradistinction, it -may not be amiss to state for the benefit of other than California -readers, that the “Mission” is undoubtedly a grape of European origin, -and was cultivated by the Spanish priests at the missions existing in -the country at the advent of the Americans, and hence the name. And -notwithstanding the existence of our grape, _Vitis Californica_, the -names “native” and “California grape” have been applied to the Mission, -but the word “foreign” is never used in describing it. - -The increase in the price of grapes has followed closely upon the -increase in the demand for our wines, and the production has kept pace -with the demand. - -The annual shipments of wine and brandy from California, commencing -with 1875, according to the reports published from time to time, are as -follows, in gallons: - - Year. Wine. Brandy. - 1875 1,031,507 42,318 - 1876 1,115,045 59,993 - 1877 1,462,792 138,992 - 1878 1,812,159 129,119 - 1879 2,155,944 163,892 - 1880 2,487,353 189,098 - 1881 2,845,365 209,677 - -The figures for 1882, as published, are larger than those for 1881, but -the figures furnished by Mr. Stone, the statistician of the Merchants -Exchange, give wine 2,721,428, brandy, 218,792; from which I am led to -believe that those for 1881 are too large. - -The total production of wine for 1878 has been stated to be from -6,000,000 to 7,000,000 gallons, for 1879, 7,790,000, for 1880, -10,000,000 to 12,000,000 gallons. Notwithstanding the increased acreage -of our vineyards, the product in 1881 fell off one or two million -gallons, and in the second annual report of the State Viticultural -Commission, just published, the loss is estimated at one-third of the -crop, making the product 9,000,000 gallons, or a little less. That of -1882 is about 10,000,000 gallons. - -In 1880 we had about 60,000 acres of vineyards in the State, and -according to Mr. Haraszthy’s report as President of the Viticultural -Commission, contained in the report of the commission last mentioned, -the increase during the first two years after the first organization -of the commission in 1880, amounts to 40,000 acres. Since the date -of his report, April 19, 1882, the acreage must have been largely -increased, and making a liberal allowance for errors, we must have at -least 100,000 acres in vineyards in the State at the present time, -which ought to produce, at a small estimate, 20,000,000 gallons of wine -in five years from now, and in five years more, with the increased -product from the greater age of the vines, and from those planted in -the meantime, the yield ought to be doubled. - -Among those who are now planting vineyards are many who have had -no experience in wine making; and in order that such may have the -advantage of the experience of those of other countries who have spent -their whole lives in perfecting the art, and have had the benefit of -the knowledge derived from generations before them, the author has -prepared the following work, in which he has attempted to lay before -the reader an account of the methods followed in those portions of -Europe, especially France, where the finest wines of the world are -produced. - -What is here given is the result of research on the part of the author -chiefly for his own benefit; and in going over the literature of -the subject of wine making, he failed to find a work in the English -language which is adequate to the needs of the practical wine maker, or -one who intends to become such. There are many good books in the French -language, and, in fact, the principal works on the subject are to be -found in that language. But the authors of many of them have hobbies, -and the practice indicated in a certain connection by one often differs -from that pointed out by another. It, therefore, became necessary to -compare the writings of various authors, and where they differed in -points of practice, to try and find out the reason therefor. This was -not always an easy task; but the author confidently hopes that the -beginner will always find a safe course pointed out to him in the -following pages, and that the experienced viniculturist will have -brought to his mind many things forgotten in the multitude of affairs, -and the experimentalist, to whom we all are looking for further light, -will here find many hints which may assist him in finding out what are -the best methods under the conditions in which we find ourselves in the -infancy of this absorbing industry. - -What forcibly strikes one in reading the works of different authors on -the subject of vinification is, that, notwithstanding the variations in -the methods, there are but few _material_ differences in the practices -in different localities in making a given kind of wine. It is true -that one method makes a red wine, a different one makes a white wine, -that grapes of one degree of ripeness and the corresponding practice -in vinification produces a sweet wine, and another a dry wine, but the -author is convinced that the method and practice which will produce the -best result in a given case in one locality will also produce the best -result in any other. - -If it is found that in the northern and central portions of France it -is insisted that the casks be always kept full, and that in Spain they -are left with a vacant space, it will also be found that this practice -depends upon the alcoholic strength and robustness of the wine. When -the grapes of the more northern regions are artificially matured till -their saccharine strength approaches that of grapes of more southern -climes, then the wine made from their must may safely be treated -according to methods prevailing in the latter regions. If, on the -other hand, the grapes of hot countries are gathered as soon as their -must indicates a density of 20 to 24 per cent., the wine made from -them would be absolutely ruined, if treated as the wine from overripe -grapes, and it must be cared for as the weaker wines of the northern -climes. - -The essentials, then, of good wine making, which include the treatment -in the cellar, are everywhere the same, and they only vary with the -varieties of wine that are to be produced. - -The general climate of California corresponds in many respects with -that of the more southern wine-producing regions of Europe; and the -percentage of sugar carried in the grapes grown in the southern and -interior portions of our State is about the same as that of the musts -of those regions. The musts produced in the central coast counties and -the bay counties of the State, in average seasons, equal, if they do -not exceed, in density the musts of the central and northern portions -of France in their very best seasons. - -The following tables will afford the figures necessary for a comparison -between our wines and those of other countries, as to alcoholic -strength and acidity. The first table is useful as illustrating an -advance in wine making in this State. The earlier wine makers, guided -by the experience derived from residence in the northern viticultural -regions of Europe, or by the information from writers of those -countries, allowed their grapes to arrive at an advanced state of -maturity without considering the different conditions of climate. -Musts, therefore, that were fit only for sweet wines, were treated -according to dry wine methods, and no wonder they were found heady, -used as table wines, with so high a percentage of alcohol. - -The second table shows that we have learned to produce lighter wines, -which means, not only that we are growing grapes that carry less sugar -than the Mission, but chiefly that we do not allow the berries to -become overripe, dried up, under the ardent rays of our constant sun. - -The first figures are from a paper read by the late Major Snyder before -the Napa Wine Growers’ Association, and published in the _Rural Press_, -August 3, 1871, Vol. IV, p. 66. - - Vol. per cent. - Color. Name of Maker. Year. of Alcohol. - White Craig 1867 Foreign grapes 14.4 - “ “ 1870 Mission 13.4 - “ Dresel & Gundlach 1861 14.4 - “ “ 1870 13.3 - “ “ 1862 12.5 - “ “ 1867 13.6 - “ J. R. Snyder 1865 Mission 12.5 - “ “ 1860 12.6 - “ “ 1867 13.3 - “ “ 1868 12.8 - “ A. F. Haraszthy 1871 Foreign 11.5 - “ “ 1870 “ 12.6 - Red Buena Vista Ass’n 1866 16.5 - White “ “ 1871 11.5 - Red “ “ 1871 12.6 - White H. Winkle 1869 Mission 13.2 - “ “ 1871 “ 12.5 - “ L. Goss 1871 Zinfandel 12.8 - -The following figures are from the Report of the Commissioner of -Agriculture of the United States, for 1880, report of the Chemist. It -will be observed that where the name is followed by a †, it is that of -the Eastern dealer, and not that of the maker. - - - DRY RED WINES. - - Per cent. Total - by vol. of acid as - Name. alcohol. Glucose. tartaric. Maker. - - Sonoma Mission, ’79 10.03 None .722 Gretsch & Mayer.† - “ Zinfandel, ’79 9.78 Trace .693 “ “ - Mission 9.29 do .917 B. Dreyfus & Co. - Zinfandel 11.35 do .768 “ “ - Zinfandel, ’78 10.30 do .825 Dresel & Co. - Zinfandel, ’79 11.08 do .798 “ “ - Zinfandel 12.31 do .814 Geo. Hamlin & Co.† - California Claret 10.56 do .903 - Zinfandel 13.24 0.18 .726 - - - DRY WHITE WINES. - - White Hock 17.37 0.09 .855 - White Hock 12.87 0.09 .767 - Muscatel 13.34 0.12 .767 - Sonoma Hock 12.05 0.13 .422 Perkins, Stern & Co.† - Riesling 11.26 Trace .846 Dresel & Co. - Hock 11.35 do .785 “ “ - Dry Muscat 11.44 do .619 Dreyfus & Co. - Zinfandel 11.26 do .590 “ “ - Riesling 12.05 do .696 “ “ - Gutedel 11.70 do .756 “ “ - Hock 9.70 do .723 “ “ - Sonoma Mission, ’78 10.56 do .619 Gretsch & Mayer.† - “ Riesling, ’77(?) 13.15 do .695 “ “ - “ “ ’79 13.15 do .575 “ “ - “ Mission, ’79 10.38 do .619 “ “ - “ Gutedel, ’79 11.87 do .589 “ “ - Dry Muscat ’74(?) 12.40 do .816 “ “ - Zinfandel, ’78 11.96 do .761 “ “ - “ ’79 11.00 do .740 “ “ - - PORT. SWEET WINES. - - California Port 21.89 8.60 .790 - “ “ 20.89 5.78 .510 Kohler & Frohling. - “ “ 18.88 4.49 .755 Dreyfus & Co. - “ “ 19.87 5.88 .370 “ “ - “ “ 15.49 8.60 .486 Perkins, Stern & Co. - “Sunny Slope“ 15.12 11.57 .433 “ “ - Los Angeles 16.52 11.39 .508 Gretsch & Mayer.† - - SHERRY. - - California Sherry. 17.96 .61 .532 - “ “ 16.15 2.45 .721 Dreyfus & Co. - “ “ 16.80 2.20 .573 “ “ - - CHAMPAGNES. - - “Grand Prize“ med. dry 12.49 8.21 .821 Arpad Haraszthy. - “Eclipse,“ extra dry 11.87 6.51 .885 “ “ - - MISCELLANEOUS. - - Gerke’s White 14.74 2.21 .673 Henry Gerke. - Sweet Muscatel 18.58 25.37 .753 Perkins, Stern & Co. - “ “ 22.36 11.59 .366 Dreyfus & Co. - “ “ 22.46 16.94 .331 “ “ - Los Angeles Muscatel 17.08 13.44 .533 Gretsch & Mayer.† - Angelica 11.79 12.48 .489 - “ 13.90 13.25 .347 Perkins, Stern & Co. - “ 18.14 14.81 .430 Dreyfus & Co. - “ 18.78 16.20 .466 Gretsch & Mayer.† - California Malaga 17.70 8.59 .659 Henry Gerke. - -What is particularly striking in the figures last quoted, is the -remarkably high percentage of acid, which far exceeds what we had -hitherto supposed the acidity of our wines to be. Yet as a large -proportion of the total acids was volatile, it may be that the wines -had contracted acidity from improper methods of keeping. - -From Prof. Hilgard’s report of the work done in the viticultural -laboratory of the College of Agriculture of the University of -California, during the years 1881 and 1882, we extract Table V given -in the appendix. The figures for the averages are our own. This report -contains much valuable and interesting information regarding the -work done in the laboratory, and gives many details of the analyses -of these wines, which the limits of this volume will not permit us -to give in full. And those who wish to see the results of the most -complete analysis of California wines ever before made, are referred to -the report itself. - -It will be noticed that the average total acidity of the different -wines mentioned in the table is much lower than that found by the -chemist of the Department of Agriculture. The wines in this table were -furnished by the producer in nearly every case, a few of them having -been produced at the University, and were undoubtedly pure, and in -a fair condition, as samples of badly kept wine would not likely be -furnished by the maker for the purpose of analysis; and the condition -of those analyzed by the chemist at Washington is, at least, doubtful. - -From analyses by R. Fresenius and E. Borgman, tabulated in the _Journal -of the Chemical Society_, London, for April, 1883, from _Zeits. Anal. -Chem._, XXII, 46-58, we extract the following figures, the alcoholic -strength being reduced to volume per cent. as nearly as could be done -from the per cent. by weight in volume without the specific gravity: - - Red White White Red - Main. Main. Hocks. French. French. Moselle. - { Max. 11.76 12.54 12.77 12.17 11.52 10.77 - Alcohol { Min. 11.73 11.00 8.00 11.18 9.91 8.77 - { Aver. 11.75 11.76 10.83 11.67 10.58 10.02 - - { Max. .62 .80 1.01 .71 .58 .95 - Acid { Min. .54 .54 .48 .54 .48 .64 - { Aver. .58 .69 .66 .62 .54 .79 - -And from the analyses given in the work of Thudichum and Dupré, we -deduce the following: - - - THIRTY-FIVE GERMAN WINES. - Vol. per cent. { Maximum 14.45 Acid as { Maximum .823 - Alcohol. { Minimum 9.15 tartaric.{ Minimum .416 - { Average 10.00 { Average .543 - - SIX FRENCH CLARETS. - { Maximum 12.38 { Maximum .645 - Alcohol { Minimum 10.42 Acid { Minimum .548 - { Average 10.95 { Average .593 - - FOUR BURGUNDIES. - { Maximum 14.97 { Maximum .668 - Alcohol { Minimum 11.54 Acid { Minimum .495 - { Average 12.78 { Average .562 - - ELEVEN SHERRIES. - { Maximum 22.75 { Maximum .626 - Alcohol { Minimum 17.03 Acid { Minimum .372 - { Average 20.93 { Average .476 - - SIX SO-CALLED NATURAL SHERRIES. - { Maximum 18.87 { Maximum .510 - Alcohol { Minimum 16.60 Acid { Minimum .397 - { Average 17.37 { Average .454 - - ELEVEN PORT WINES. - { Maximum 23.34 { Maximum .510 - Alcohol { Minimum 18.04 Acid { Minimum .398 - { Average 21.50 { Average .424 - - TEN HUNGARIAN WINES. - { Maximum 14.55 { Maximum .716 - Alcohol { Minimum 11.55 Acid { Minimum .570 - { Average 12.85 { Average .637 - -The analyses of many other wines are given, and many other details -which would be of little use to the practical man, belonging rather to -the domain of the chemistry of wines. - -There is a vast field open to the wine maker of this State, for we -have differences of soil and climate suitable for the production of a -wonderful variety of wines. But every man must decide for himself what -kind of wine his soil and situation are best adapted to produce, and -his aim then should be to produce the best of that kind. - -Thanks to the work of the State Viticultural Commission, we are -beginning to learn what varieties of grapes are best suited to the -different districts of the State. It is true that only a beginning -has been made, and the actual work of experimenting in this direction -can only be carried on by the practical viticulturists themselves. -It is for the Commission to bring order out of chaos, and furnish -for the information of the public the results of the labors of the -experimenters in the field. - -Through the endeavors of the Commission, and especially of its chief -executive Viticultural officer, Mr. Charles A. Wetmore, who has an -extended knowledge of the different varieties of grapes grown in the -State, and where they are produced, the viticulturists are beginning -to compare notes, and an exchange of knowledge is now going on, which -without the Commission would be impossible. - -It is not within the scope of this work to enter into the details of -vine planting, or to point out what particular varieties of grapes -should be planted in the different sections, and probably the time to -produce a work which would convey definite and satisfactory information -on the latter subject has not yet arrived. As fast as reliable -information is acquired, it will undoubtedly be made known by the -Commission, and every intended vine grower should carefully study its -reports, as well as to keep himself familiar with the discussions of -the local viticultural societies, and those of the general conventions. - -If every grower in the State will only devote a portion of his ground -to the cultivation of the choicest varieties of grapes, making sure -that he knows what he is cultivating, will use the best methods of -vinification, preserve each kind of wine by itself, or keep a careful -record of his blends, and will age and rear the different products -according to the best and most intelligent methods, the writer -confidently expects that favored spots will be found in time which -will produce wines that will compare favorably with the fine wines of -Europe; and we may even venture to hope that some lucky individual will -find that he is possessed of a vineyard that will make his name famous -as the producer of a grand wine equal to the most renowned wines of the -world. - -The writer lays claim to but very little originality in the following -pages. What the intended wine maker wants is not new, untried theories, -but the results of the experience of others who have already labored in -the field, in order that he may not spend his time in inventing methods -which, later he learns, have already been tried by the laborers before -him. - -In this connection, the author makes his acknowledgments to the -following authors and their productions, as well as to others -mentioned in the body of the work. And if, in some cases, he has -failed to give credit where it is due, it is because the information -remains, but the source is forgotten. - - A. DU BREUIL, Les Vignobles et les Arbres et - Fruits à Cidre, Paris, 1875. - - DR. JULES GUYOT, Culture de la Vigne et - Vinification, Paris, 1861. - - HENRI MACHARD, Traité Pratique sur les Vins, - Bensançon, 1874. - - RAIMOND BOIREAU, Culture de la Vigne, - Traitement des Vins, Vinification, Distillation, etc., - 2 vols., Bordeaux, 1876. - - A. HARASZTHY, Grape Culture, Wines, and - Wine Making, New York, 1862, including translations - of JOHANN CARL LEUCHS on Wine Making, and - DR. L. GALL, Improvement in Wine Making. - - L. PASTEUR, on Fermentation, Annales de - Chimie, 3 Series, Vol. LVIII, p. 330. - - JOSEPH BOUSSINGAULT, Sur la Fermentation des - Fruits á Noyau Annales de Chimie, 4 Series, Vol. VIII, p. 210. - - M. BOUSSINGAULT, Expériences pour constater - la perte en sucre dans le sucrage du moût de du marc de - raisin. Annales de Chimie, 5 Series, Vol. VII, p. 433. - - ANDRE PELLICOT, Le Vigneron Provençal, - Montpellier, 1866. - - HENRY VIZITELLI, Facts about Sherry, London, - 1876; Facts about Port and Madeira, London, 1880. - - J. L. W. THUDICHUM and AUGUST - DUPRE, Origin, Nature, and Varieties of Wine, - London, 1872. - - N. BASSET, Guide Théorique et Pratique du - Frabricant d’Alcool et du Distillateur. - - J. J. GRIFFIN, Chemical Testing of Wines and - Liquors, London. - - L. F. DUBIEF, Traité Complet Théorique et - Pratique de Vinification ou Art de Faire du Vin, 4 Ed., Paris. - - P. SCHUTZENBERGER, On Fermentation, - International Scientific Series, New York, 1876. - - E. J. MAUMENE, Traité Théorique et Pratique - du Travail des Vins, Paris, 1874. - - M. W. MAIGNE, Nouveau Manuel Complet du - Sommelier et du Marchand de Vins (Manuels-Roret), - Paris, 1874. - - DON PEDRO VERDAD, From Vineyard to Decanter, - a Book about Sherry, London, 1876. - - GEN. E. D. KEYES, Letter to Major J. R. - Snyder, on Sherry making, published in San Francisco - _Daily Evening Bulletin_, May 29, 1877. - - PROF. E. W. HILGARD, Report of work done - in the Viticultural Laboratory under the charge of - F. W. Morse, University of California, College of Agriculture; - Report of 1882, State Printer, Sacramento, 1883. - - August, 1883. - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - PREFACE. - - Prices of grapes in California from 1876 to 1882, the - Mission grape, v; annual shipments of wine and - brandy from California, annual production of wine, - acreage of vines, probable future production of - wine, vi; objects of this book, want of works on - the subject in English, method of vinification - varies with kind of wine rather than with locality - or climate, vii; climate of California and density - of must similar to those of southern Europe, viii; - comparison between California and European wines, - viii-xiii; State Viticultural Commission, xiii; - advice to grape growers, xiv; acknowledgments by - the author, list of authorities, xv. - - CHAPTER I. - GATHERING THE GRAPES—MATURITY. - Utensils for picking, number of pickers necessary, - when to commence, 1; when to gather, successive - gathering, 2; sorting the grapes, requisite degree - of maturity, 3; signs of ripeness, gathering before - complete maturity, 4; gathering after complete - maturity, ripeness according to required strength, 5. - - CHAPTER II. - MUST. - Composition, grape sugar, 6; must-scale, 7; testing for - sugar, 8; correcting for temperature, 10; sugar and - alcohol, alcohol in wine, 11. - - CHAPTER III. - SUGARING AND WATERING MUST. - Sugaring, 13; nothing gained by adding sugar, 15; cost - of glucose wine, 16; experiment with glucose, the - use of glucose condemned, 17; watering, 18. - - CHAPTER IV. - STEMMING AND CRUSHING. - Diversity of opinion on stemming, effect of stemming, - proper practice, 20; to estimate tannin, stemmers, - 21; how to remove the stems, crushing, methods of - crushing, 22; aerating the must, crushers, 23; - rapidity of operation, special practice, 24. - - CHAPTER V. - FERMENTATION—ITS CAUSES. - Several different kinds of fermentation, alcoholic - fermentation, the yeast plant, 25; functions of - yeast, normal conditions of the life of yeast, 26; - action of various chemical and physical agents, - 28; viscous or mannitic fermentation, lactic - fermentation, 29; acetic fermentation, 30; origin - of ferments, 31; ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION IN WINE - MAKING: vinous or alcoholic fermentation, - sugar, 32; alcohol by weight and by volume, 33; - fermentation, its products, per cent., sugar to per - cent. alcohol, different authors, 34; limits of - sugar and spirit, 36; temperature, 37; fermenting - houses, 38. - - CHAPTER VI. - RED WINE. - Coloring matter, fermenting tanks or vats, filling the - tanks, 39; open vats, closed vats, 40; the best - practice, 41; hermetically sealed tanks, practice - in the Médoc, stirring the pomace in the vat, 42; - when to draw from the vat, 43; the objections to - long vatting, in making fine wines, 44; how to know - when to draw from the vat, method of drawing from - the vat and filling the casks, 45; wine presses, - 46; pressing and press wine, special practice - for fine wines, TREATMENT OF RED WINES: - insensible fermentation, 47; ulling or filling up, - 48; summary of the rules for the treatment of new - red wines, 50; treatment of old red wines, 51; - summary of rules for the care of old red wines, 53. - - CHAPTER VII. - WHITE WINE. - Made from both red and white grapes, differences - between red and white wine, hygienic effect of - red and white wine, 54; process of making, the - barrels, filling the barrels during fermentation, - 55; pressing and filling, different kinds of white - wine, dry white wines, mellow white wines, 56; - sweet white wines, grand white wines, 57; treatment - of white wines, to keep sweet, 58; dry white wines, - mellow white wines, 59; summary of rules, racking, 60. - - CHAPTER VIII. - CASKS. - Different woods, oak wood, storing casks, 61; new - casks, 62; old casks, rinsing chain, visitor to - examine the inside of a cask, 63; empty casks, - washing, sulphuring casks, condition to be - examined, 64; flatness in the cask, acidity, mouldy - casks, 65; rottenness, brandy casks, caution as to - sulphuring, cask borers, 66; size of casks, 67. - - CHAPTER IX. - SULPHURING. ARRESTING FERMENTATION. - Sulphuring casks, must and wine, sulphurous oxide or - sulphur dioxide, the sulphurer or sulphur burner, - 69; sulphur matches or bands, to sulphur a cask, - 70; to sulphur wine, sulphuring should be avoided - in certain cases, 71; arresting fermentation, - unfermented must, prepared in two ways, 72; - clarification and care of unfermented must, - sulphur flavor, 73; other substances to arrest - fermentation, burning alcohol, aqueous solution of - sulphurous acid, bisulphite of lime, 74; salicylic acid, 75. - - CHAPTER X. - AGING.—EFFECTS OF VARIOUS INFLUENCES. - General considerations, how new wine differs from - old, development of bouquet and flavor, old wine, - characteristics of, 76; color, aroma, flavor, - influences which develop, also destroy, influence - of the air, 77; variations of temperature, - influence of heat, 78; aging by heat, 79; - preserving wine by heat, 80; influence of cold, - treatment of frozen wine, 81; influence of light, - aging by sunlight, effect of motion of voyages, - wines suitable for shipment, 82; shipping new - wine, 83; other motions, aging by fining, aging - generally, 84; wines which gain the most by aging - processes, 85. - - CHAPTER XI. - GENERAL TREATMENT—CELLARS. - Unfortified or table wines, deposits, lees, etc., - 86; to prevent degeneration, CELLARS: - temperature, 87; dampness, ventilation, - evaporation, 88; other precautions, supports for - casks and tuns, 89. - - CHAPTER XII. - RACKING. - Object of, time for, conditions indispensable for - a good racking, 91; new red wines, 92; old red - wines, new white wines, first racking, subsequent - rackings, 93; care to be observed, other - precautions, 94; different methods of racking, - implements for tipping the cask, 95; racking - without contact with the air, pumps and siphons, 97. - - CHAPTER XIII. - CLARIFICATION—FINING. - Objects of fining, different substances employed, - gelatinous substances, 99; gelatine, its - preparation, isinglass, fish glue, or ichthyocol, - 100; albuminous substances, blood, milk, white of - eggs, 101; clarifying powders, gum arabic, addition - of salt, addition of alcohol, addition of tannin, - preparation, 102; method of operation, implements - for stirring, 103. - - CHAPTER XIV. - SWEET WINES—FORTIFIED WINES. - Generally, to increase sugar in must, without - fermentation, care required, 105; clarification, - boiling must, left on the lees, 106; sweet - muscat, pressing, marc of sweet wines, amount - of alcohol to be added, density, furmint wine, - 107; straw wine, PORT WINE in the Upper - Douro: the must, lagars, etc., 108; treading, - fermentation, Vizitelli’s description, 109; lodges - or storehouses, mixing, port loses color in wood, - alcoholic strength and loss by evaporation, 112; - MADEIRA: making, casks, treatment, heating - house, heating, 113; solera system, ullage, - alcohol, 114; SHERRY: climate, vintage, - crushing, gypsum, 115; pressing, 116; plastering, - fermenting, adding spirit, 117; bodegas or - storehouses, changes in the wine, fino, oloroso, - basto, flowers, 118; sweet wine, vino dulce, color - wine, vino de color, arrope, 119; mature wine, - THE SOLERA SYSTEM: establishing a solera, - 120; standard soleras and their foundation, 121; - blending for shipment, 122; formulas, fining, 124. - - CHAPTER XV. - DEFECTS AND DISEASES. - Divided into two classes, general considerations, - 125; NATURAL DEFECTS: earthy flavor, its - causes, 126; how prevented, treatment, 127; wild - taste and grassy flavor, greenness, causes, 128; - prevention, treatment, 129; roughness, causes, not - a fault, disappears in time, how avoided, 130; - how removed, bitterness, causes, how prevented, - treatment, taste of the stems, 131; sourness, - causes, how prevented, treatment, 132; alcoholic - weakness, how avoided, treatment, 133; want of - color, causes, how guarded against, treatment, - dull, bluish, lead-colored wine and flavor of - the lees, causes, 134; treatment, 135; putrid - decomposition, causes, 136; how avoided, treatment, - different defects together, ACQUIRED DEFECTS - AND DISEASES: flat wines, flowers, causes, - 137; prevention, 138; treatment, 139; sourness, - acidity, pricked wine, causes, what wine liable - to, 140; how prevented, treatment, 141; experiment - before treatment, 142; Machard’s treatment, other - methods, 144; cask flavor, barrel flavor, causes, - 145; treatment, 146; mouldy flavor, causes, - prevention and treatment, foreign flavors, 147; - ropiness, causes, treatment, ropy wines in bottles, - and other treatment, 148; acrity, treatment, - bitterness, 149; treatment, two kinds according - to Maumené, 150; fermentation, taste of the lees, - yeasty flavor, 151; how prevented, treatment, - degeneration, putrid fermentation, duration of - different wines, 152; treatment, 153. - - CHAPTER XVI. - WINE IN BOTTLES. - When ready for bottling, how long to remain in wood, - 154; how prepared for bottling, the most favorable - time for bottling, 155; bottles, 156; filling - the bottles, 157; corks, 158; corking machines, - 159; preparation of the corks, driving in corks, - 160; sealing corks, sealing wax, applying the - same, coloring same, 161; capsules, capsuling, - piling bottles, 162; racks and bins for bottles, - 164; treatment of wine in bottles, fermentation - in bottles, 165; deposits and turbidity, 166; - bitterness and acrity, ropiness, degeneration - and putridity, 167; decantation, 168; operation, - instrument, 169. - - CHAPTER XVII. - CUTTING OR MIXING WINES. - Most French wines mixed, when necessary, effect of, - 171; wines of same nature should be used, fine - wines, 173; ordinary wines, must be allowed - sufficient time, large quantities, new and old - wine, green wines, 174; white and red wines, - diseased wines, mixing grapes, precaution, 175. - - CHAPTER XVIII. - WINE LEES, MARC, AND PIQUETTE. - Pomace and lees often placed in the still, WINE - LEES: the lees should be cared for, quantity - of wine in lees, constituents of dry lees, - analysis, vary, 176; treatment of lees, 177; - extraction of wine from the lees, 178; fining the - wine from the lees, 179; red wine from lees, white - wine from lees, pressing the sediment, 180; use - of dry lees, MARC OR POMACE—PIQUETTE: - unfermented marc of white wine or of red wine not - entirely fermented, fermented marc of red wine, - washing the marc, Pezeyre’s method, 183. - - CHAPTER XIX. - THE COMPOSITION OF WINE. - Generally, 185; table of substances recognized, - 186; alcohol, estimate of, 187; ethers, sugar, - estimate of, 190; mannite, mucilage and mellowness, - 191; pectose, pectin, fatty matter, glycerin, - coloring matter, aldehydes, 192; acids, tartaric, - malic, citric, pectic, tannic, carbonic, 193; - acetic, lactic, valeric, succinic, total acids, - the bouquet, artificial bouquet, 194; Maumené’s - experiment, 195; different substances employed, - iris, 196; strawberry, gillyflower or stockgilly, - 197; vine flowers, mignonette, nutmeg, bitter - almonds and fruit pits, sassafras, 198; other - aromas, effects, 199. - - CHAPTER XX. - GENERAL CHAPTER—MISCELLANEOUS. - Proportion of juice to marc, 200; proportion of wine - to grapes, 201; wooden and metal utensils, 202; - cleanliness, 203; different cellar utensils, 204, - 205; USEFUL RULES: to ascertain the - weight of a given number of gallons of a liquid, - for reducing must, for sugaring must, 206; for - fortifying and reducing wines, to reduce with - water, 207; to reduce with weaker or fortify with - stronger wine or alcohol, PLASTERING, - 208; common practice in Spain and southern France, - objects, chemical effects, 209; effects on health, - 210; plastering sherry, quantity used, 212; by - adding water, sherry flavor, 213. - - APPENDIX. - Sugar tables: Table I, Balling’s degrees (per cent. - sugar), corresponding degrees Baumé, and specific - gravity at 63½° F., 215; Table II, Baumé’s - degrees, corresponding degrees Balling (per cent. - sugar), and specific gravity at 63½° F. 216; - Table III, Baumé’s degrees and corresponding per - cent. sugar, at 60° F. 217; Alcohol table, Table - IV, showing per cent. by volume for every one-tenth - per cent. from 0.1 to 30 per cent., corresponding - per cent. by weight, and specific gravity, 218-19; - Table V, showing amount of alcohol and acid in - different California wines, 220-23. - - - - -LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. - - - Fig. Page. - 1. HYDROMETER 8 - 2. HYDROMETER-JAR 9 - 3. WOODEN STEMMER 21 - 4. CRUSHER 23 - 5. FERMENTING VAT 41 - 6. WINE PRESSES 46 - 7. } ULLING POTS } 49 - 8. } } - 9. } Z FUNNELS } 49 - 10.} } - 11. RINSING CHAIN } 63 - 12. VISITOR FOR EXAMINING THE INSIDE OF A CASK } - 13. SULPHURER } 69 - 14. MAUMENE’S SULPHURER } - 15. CASK AND SUPPORT 89 - 16. JACK FOR TIPPING A CASK } 95 - 17. FORK FOR TIPPING A CASK } - 18. } IMPLEMENTS FOR TIPPING A CASK } 96 - 19. } } - 20. A METHOD OF RACKING } 97 - 21. } SIPHONS } - 22. } } - 23. ROTARY FORCE PUMP 98 - 24. } } - 25. } IMPLEMENTS FOR STIRRING } 103 - 26. } } - 27. BOTTLE WASHER } - 28. } BOTTLE DRAINERS } 156 - 29. } } - 30. RESERVOIRS FOR FILLING BOTTLES 157 - 31. BUNG SCREW 158 - 32. CORKING MACHINES 159 - 33. CORKING MACHINES AND NEEDLES 160 - 34. PINCERS FOR REMOVING WAX } 162 - 35. CAPSULER } - 36. PILING BOTTLES 163 - 37. } BOTTLE RACKS } 164 - 38. } } - 39. BURROW’S SLIDER BIN 165 - 40. DECANTING BASKET } - 41. CORKSCREWS } 169 - 42. DECANTING INSTRUMENT } - - - - -ERRATA - - - On page 216, Table II, read 63½° F, instead of 93½° F. - - On page 218, Table IV, opposite 13.6 by volume, read - 11.00 per cent. by weight, instead of 10.10. - - On page 219, Table IV, opposite 17.03 by weight, read - 20.9 by volume, instead of 20.7; and opposite 23.4 by - volume, read .97251 specific gravity, instead of .96251. - - On page 222 read Tienturier instead of Tenturier. - - - - -THE WINE PRESS AND THE CELLAR. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -GATHERING THE GRAPES—MATURITY. - - -The first step in wine making proper, is the gathering of the grapes, -or “picking,” as it is usually termed in California. - -=Utensils for Picking.=—Knives, scissors, and pruning shears are used -to cut the stems, and every one will adopt the tool that he finds most -convenient in practice; but if the berries are inclined to drop off, -scissors or pruning shears are preferable. Some authors give minute -descriptions of receptacles of various sizes and forms in which to -gather the grapes, but the practice in that respect usually followed -in this State will be found the most convenient. The grapes here are -generally picked directly into boxes holding about fifty pounds. The -box is provided with an oblong hole at each end near the top, or three -or four holes bored with an inch auger, by which the picker can easily -move it from vine to vine, and one man can carry it with both hands -to the wagon. These boxes are piled on the wagon without emptying, -transported to the wine house, and brought back empty, to be filled -again. - -=Number of Pickers necessary—When to Commence.=—There ought to be a -sufficient number of men employed in picking to fill at least one -fermenting vat in a day, in making red wine. If, however, circumstances -render this impossible, it would be well to pile up the grapes on a -good clean floor, under cover, till sufficient are gathered to fill -the tank, and then crush them, and fill the tank in one day. (See _Red -Wine_.) Picking ought to commence as soon as the grapes are of a fair -average ripeness, beginning with the earliest and ending with the -latest variety. In the chapter on musts, we shall endeavor to indicate -the requisite maturity of the grapes, and it will there appear that -they may become too ripe by remaining too long on the vine, so that -it is very important that a sufficient number of pickers should be -employed to finish the gathering as promptly as possible, and before -too much sugar is developed. (See _Musts_.) - -=When to Gather.=—It is of little importance at what time of the day -the grapes are picked, whether in the cool of the morning or the heat -of mid-day, or whether the dew is on or off, as long as they are ripe. -In some countries, however, and in what are known as bad years, the -grapes do not arrive at complete maturity, and therefore great care -is taken to gather them only in dry weather, and after the dew has -disappeared. (See _Fermentation—Temperature_.) If they are picked -during the heat of the day, fermentation will commence sooner than if -picked in the cool of the morning; and for this reason, in making white -wine from colored grapes, care should be taken to pick and press them -when cool, if it is desired that the wine should be free from color; -for if the slightest fermentation sets in before pressing, as it is apt -to do if the grapes are warm, some of the coloring matter is pretty -sure to be extracted from the skins and will discolor the wine. - -=Successive Gathering.=—It is sometimes recommended that the grapes -should be gathered as they ripen, by going over a vineyard two or three -times, and picking off not only the bunches that are ripe, leaving the -green ones, but even picking off separately three or four grapes from -each bunch where it is not evenly ripened, and this is the practice -that is followed to-day in making the great white wines of France and -Germany; but it certainly will not be adopted in this State while labor -is as dear, and wine is as cheap as it is at present. Instead, that -practice will be followed which is recommended by those writers who -advise that the grapes of each variety be left on the vines till they -are all fairly ripe, and that they be gathered clean at one picking. -Where, however, different varieties are planted in the same vineyard, -which ripen at different periods, those only should be picked at the -same time which ripen together. Gather the early ones first, and the -later ones successively as they ripen, but pick clean. The same rule -also applies to grapes of the same variety, but grown on different -soils and in different situations, as it is well known that the same -variety of vine will ripen its grapes on high land and poor soil, -earlier than on low land and rich soil. - -=Sorting the Grapes.=—It will frequently happen, however, that there -are some bunches of green grapes, and they should always be thrown -aside, if picked with the others. Sometimes, also, there is what is -called a second crop, which ripens so much later than the main one that -two gatherings are necessary. In that case it would be injurious to the -grapes of the earlier crop to leave them on the vine till the complete -maturity of those of the second. Careful wine makers, therefore, will -find it to their advantage, either to leave the green grapes upon the -vines for a second picking, or, if all are picked together, to throw -the green ones into a separate receptacle, or to sort them out from the -ripe ones before crushing. Those who wish to take extra care will even -have the unripe, rotten, and dried berries clipped from the bunches -with scissors. These extra precautions are those which are observed -in making the great wines of Europe; but they are not suggested here -in the expectation that they will be generally followed by the wine -makers of California, but rather for the purpose of indicating the best -practices to those who may find out that on account of the varieties -they cultivate, and of the situation and soil of their vineyards, they -too can produce such wines by using the same care. - -=Requisite Degree of Maturity.=—It is insisted by all intelligent -writers on the subject, that, with possible exceptions, which will be -mentioned, the grapes should not be gathered till they have arrived -at a state of complete maturity. Without this, wines from the finest -varieties of grapes would not possess that beauty of color, that -delicious flavor, that fragrant bouquet, and that alcoholic strength -which they possess in so eminent a degree. And if it is so necessary -that the grapes of fine varieties should be thoroughly ripe, it is -quite as important that those of the poorer varieties should be equally -so. For these latter are generally wanting in sugar, and consequently -their wines are feeble in strength, and as the sugar increases directly -with the degree of maturity of the grape, so the quantity of alcohol in -their wines increases accordingly, and thus by ripeness they make up -for their natural defects. - -=Signs of Ripeness.=—Complete maturity of the grape is indicated by the -concurrence of the following signs: - - 1. The stem of the bunch changes from green to brown. - 2. The bunch becomes pendant. - 3. The berry has lost its firmness; the skin has become - thin and translucent. - 4. The berries are easily separated from the stem. - 5. The juice of the grape has acquired an agreeable - flavor; has become sweet, thick, and glutinous. - 6. The seeds have become void of glutinous substances. - -These are the signs given by several French authors, and are here -taken from Prof. Du Breuil, who says, nevertheless, that, under some -circumstances the grapes should be gathered before arriving at the -state of maturity indicated by these signs, and under other conditions -should be gathered even later. He says: - -=Gathering before Complete Maturity.=—1. In certain localities north of -the viticultural region the grape hardly ever arrives at the degree of -maturity just indicated. Yet the crop must be gathered, or otherwise it -would rot on the vines. Under these circumstances, the only thing that -can be done is to leave the grapes on the vine as long as they derive -any benefit from it. - -2. Grapes intended to make sparkling wine should also be gathered -before the moment of absolute maturity. - -3. In the southern part of France, white grapes intended for the making -of dry wines, ought to be picked before reaching the last degree of -maturity. Otherwise, in that hot climate, the quantity of sugar in the -grape would increase to such an extent that it would be impossible to -make a dry wine. This is the practice in making the dry white wines of -Lunel, of Coudrieux, of the Hermitage, and of Saint Peray. - -4. For all the ordinary red wines of the region inhabited by the -olive, if the gathering of the grapes is delayed till the last degree -of ripeness, the must will contain more sugar than can be transformed -into alcohol by fermentation. The result will be that these wines -will undergo a sort of continuous fermentation, which will make its -appearance whenever they are moved, and which will soon change into -acetic fermentation. The only way to cure this tendency and to render -the wines capable of shipment, is to strongly fortify them by the -addition of spirits. To prevent this difficulty in the first place, the -grapes should be gathered before complete maturity. - -Some very respectable authors, whose experience has been confined to -the colder wine making regions, tell us that in all cases the grapes -should be allowed to remain on the vine as long as they gain in sugar, -and that in order to correct the excess that they would thus in many -cases acquire, they recommend that the must be reduced by water. (See -_Watering Musts_.) - -=Gathering after Complete Maturity.=—To make sweet wines, the grapes -should remain on the vine until they have developed the greatest -possible quantity of sugar. For this purpose the grapes are not only -allowed to shrivel before gathering, but also artificial means are -resorted to, such as twisting the stem, or drying them on straw after -picking, and even applying heat to them in various ways. (See _Sweet -Wines_.) - -=Ripeness according to Required Strength.=—If the wine maker will -first determine how strong in alcohol he wishes his wines to be, he -may anticipate the result approximately by testing from time to time -the amount of sugar contained in the grapes, and by gathering them -at the period when the sugar in the juice shows that, fermented, it -will produce the desired percentage of spirit. This testing is easily -performed by the use of the must-scale or the saccharometer; and for -information on this subject, the reader is referred to the chapter on -musts. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -MUST. - - -Must is the name applied to the juice of the grape before fermentation. - -=Composition.=—A good, average must, contains in 100 parts by weight, -the following ingredients, and in the proportions as indicated, by -weight, according to Dr. Guyot; but the amount of sugar would be -considered too small in California: - - Pure water, 78 - Grape sugar (glucose), 20 - Free acids (tartaric, tannic, etc.), 00.25 - Salts, or organic acids (bitartrate), 1.50 - Mineral salts, 0.20 - Nitrogenous, fermentive matter, } - Essential oils, } .05 - Mucilaginous and starchy substances, } - -These constituents vary, however, according to variety of grape, -degree of maturity, soil, climate, etc.; and some of them may rise in -amount to double the average quantity given, or may even, under some -circumstances, descend to the one-fourth of it. Although all these -ingredients doubtless have important effects upon the quality of the -wine produced by fermentation, the acid giving zest and freshness of -taste, and the other minor ingredients, smoothness or harshness, as -the case may be, yet the principal one that we have to deal with is -the sugar, and it is the only one that the practical wine maker will -give much attention to, although in those countries where the grape in -some seasons does not ripen, the amount of acid is an important element -to be taken into consideration in testing the specific gravity of the -must. (See _Composition of Wines_, for further details.) - -=Grape Sugar=, or glucose, as it is known in chemical language, as -already remarked, is the most important element entering into the -composition of must, and upon its quantity depends directly the amount -of alcohol contained in the wine. The intelligent wine maker, then, who -wishes to know what will be the alcoholic strength of the wine produced -by the must which he is about to subject to the action of fermentation, -will test the must to ascertain what percentage of sugar it contains. -This is very easily done by the use of an instrument prepared for the -purpose. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 1._ Hydrometer.] - -=Must-Scale.=—A certain quantity of sugar being heavier than the same -volume of water—pure cane sugar weighing about one and six-tenths to -one of water—it follows that the more sugar there is added to a given -quantity of water the heavier it becomes, and the more it will bear up -anything floating on it; or, as it is generally stated, the less of the -liquid will be displaced by the floating body. On this principle, the -specific gravity of liquids, or their weight as compared with water, is -ascertained. The instrument employed is known by the general name of -areometer, but it is now more commonly called a hydrometer, and various -specific names are given to it according to the uses for which it is -intended. When constructed for testing the strength of sugar syrups it -is called a syrup-scale, saccharometer, _pèse-sirop_, etc., and those -especially for testing musts are called must-scales, _pèse-moût_, etc. -These latter are constructed on the theory that the liquid contains -only cane sugar and water—the difference in specific gravity between -cane sugar and grape sugar being disregarded—and that its density -depends on the quantity of sugar; and although the density of must is -somewhat affected by other solid matters than sugar contained in it, -yet these instruments, whether syrup-scales or must-scales proper, -will give results sufficiently accurate for the purposes of the wine -maker, a small allowance being made for the other solids, as hereafter -mentioned. There are three instruments which are the most generally -used in this country: Oechsle’s must-scale, Balling’s saccharometer or -syrup-scale, and Baumé’s syrup-scale, or _pèse-sirop_. The degrees of -Oechsle’s instrument indicate specific gravity in the manner mentioned -under Table I; Balling’s indicates percentages of sugar directly; and -Baumé’s degrees are arbitrary. (See Tables II and III.) There are -other instruments used in France—the gleuco-œnometer, reading upwards -for spirit and down for sugar on the same stem, corresponding in -degrees to Baumé’s—and the gleucometer, which indicates at once the -percentage of alcohol which the wine will contain after fermentation. -Baumé’s and Balling’s instruments are better suited for use in -California, where the musts often show a specific gravity higher than -is indicated by Oechsle’s scale, which frequently is graduated only -up to 80 deg., or 19.75 per cent. of sugar. They are all made on the -same general plan, and are usually constructed of glass. The instrument -consists of a tube about the size of a pipe-stem, terminating below -in a bulb or expansion, weighted at the bottom so that it will stand -upright and float when placed in a liquid. The scale is marked on the -stem, commencing at the top and numbering downward. The first mark is -zero, and shows how far the hydrometer sinks in pure water. (Fig. 1.) -As hydrometers are not always accurate, it is safer before using one -to have it tested by a chemist or a gauger, as but few others have the -necessary skill or the instruments requisite for that purpose. If, -however, an instrument which has been tested is accessible, another one -can be easily compared with that by ascertaining if both sink to the -same point in the same sugar solutions. - - -TESTING FOR SUGAR. - -Any person, provided with one of the hydrometers mentioned, can easily -ascertain the percentage of sugar contained in any must with tolerable -accuracy, providing the grapes from which it is pressed are ripe; for -if they are green, and contain an undue amount of acid, the density -will be materially affected by that. There is no occasion, however, for -making wine from green grapes in this State. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 2._ Hydrometer-Jar.] - -In addition to the hydrometer, it is necessary to be provided with -a thermometer with which to ascertain the temperature of the must. -Besides the hydrometer and the thermometer, the only other article -necessary is a glass tube closed at the bottom and provided with a -foot, so that it will stand upright, called the hydrometer-jar. (Fig. -2.) This jar should have a diameter a little greater than that of the -bulb of the hydrometer, and must be of such a height that the latter -instrument will stand upright and float freely in it, when filled -with a liquid. In the absence of the hydrometer-jar, an empty fruit -jar, or a tall tin cup or can will answer its purpose. In performing -the operation, see that all the articles used are perfectly clean, -more particularly the hydrometer, for anything that would slightly -affect its weight would render the result of the test useless. Having -taken this precaution, press the juice from a small quantity of -grapes and strain it through a cloth, and pour sufficient into the -hydrometer-jar, that when the hydrometer is plunged into it, it will -just bring the level of the liquid to the upper edge of the vessel, or -to such a height that the figure on the stem can easily be read. Now -place the thermometer in the must and ascertain its temperature, for -the instruments are intended to be used at a certain degree of heat, -although three or four degrees variation either way will not materially -affect the result. Baumé’s instrument, as originally constructed, -was graduated for a temperature of 10° Reamur, which corresponds -with 54½° F.; but as constructed now-a-days, is generally graduated -for a temperature of 58° or 60° F.; and Balling’s and Oechsle’s for -a temperature of 63½° F. Some of Balling’s instruments sold in the -market are graduated for 62° F. If it is found that the temperature is -above or below the degree indicated, it may be lowered by cooling, or -raised by warming, till about the right temperature is reached. Then -the hydrometer, being clean, should be taken by the stem at the top -and gradually lowered into the must until it floats. Press it down -slightly with the finger and let it come to equilibrium, being careful -that there is not a drop of water on the stem above the surface of -the liquid, nor a bubble of air below. On looking at the stem where it -meets the surface, it will be seen that the liquid there curves upwards -around the instrument, and that the top of this curve marks one degree -higher than the general surface. If the reading is taken from the point -marked by the top of the curve (the figures reading downwards), add one -degree, or in other words, ascertain the mark on the stem corresponding -to the general surface of the liquid. If Balling’s scale is used, -the number at this mark shows the percentage of sugar which the must -contains; if Baumé’s is used, consult Table II or III, and opposite -this number will be found the corresponding per cent. of sugar. If -Oechsle’s scale is used, find from Table I or II the specific gravity -and the corresponding sugar per cent. Under Table I instructions will -be found for reading Oechsle’s scale. If Baumé’s instrument is used, -and a table is not at hand, multiply the observed figure by 1.8, and -the product will be nearly the per cent. of sugar. - -=Correction for Temperature.=—It is known that a sugar solution or -a must expands as the temperature increases, and contracts as it -diminishes; and nice experiments have been performed to show the -amount of dilatation and contraction at different temperatures, and -the consequent variation in the specific gravity of the liquid, but -there is considerable difference in the results of the researches of -different authors, and it would seem that further experiments are -necessary; but a rule may be deduced which may be used instead of -changing the temperature of the must to make it correspond with that -for which the instrument is graduated, and although not strictly -correct, is sufficient for our purpose; and that is to add one-half per -cent. to the sugar per cent. indicated by the hydrometer for every 15° -F. above the standard temperature, and subtract ½ per cent. for every -15° below. For instance, if Baumé’s instrument shows 22½ per cent. of -sugar at 75° F., the actual strength is 23 per cent., and it would mark -that at 60°. If the same instrument shows 23½ per cent. at 45° F., the -real strength is 23 per cent. In using Balling’s scale graduated at -63½° F., the 15° in our example would make 78½° for the first supposed -case, and 48½° for the second. - -In most cases the variation in temperature will be so little that it -may be disregarded; but if the test is made soon after the grapes have -been exposed to a hot sun, the must may show a temperature of 90° or -95° F., and it would indicate one per cent. less than its real sugar -strength. But the temperature would go below the freezing point of -water before the must would mark one per cent. too much. - -As the must contains a small quantity of acids and extractive matter -which affect its density, some authors recommend that from one-tenth to -one-fifteenth of the figures indicating the density by Baumé should be -deducted, calling the remainder sugar, and this is about equivalent to -deducting one for every twelve per cent. of sugar. But if the grapes -are ripe and the must is strained, for all practical purposes all of -the solid matter may be called sugar, considering that we make a pretty -liberal allowance of sugar for one per cent. of alcohol. Fresh must -should always be taken for the purpose of testing for sugar, for as -alcohol is much lighter than water, if fermentation has commenced, it -will be impossible to ascertain the amount of sugar by means of the -hydrometer. - -=Sugar and Alcohol.=—It will be shown in the chapter on fermentation -that, in actual practice, it takes about two per cent. of sugar, -as indicated by the hydrometer, to produce one per cent. by volume -of alcohol; therefore, divide the percentage of sugar contained in -the must, as shown by the hydrometer, by two, and the quotient is -approximately the per cent. of alcohol which will be contained in the -wine after complete fermentation. - -=Alcohol in Wine.=—A good, saleable dry wine ought to contain from -eleven to twelve or thirteen per cent. of alcohol; and to produce such -a wine the must should indicate from 22 to 26 per cent. of sugar by -the hydrometer. A wine which is soon to be consumed at home does not -require that degree of strength necessary for shipment abroad and for -keeping, and may contain only ten per cent. of alcohol, and even less, -and be found a very palatable drink, and less “heady” than that of a -higher degree of spirit. And a wine may contain as much as 14 per cent. -of spirit, and be very acceptable to the wine merchant for mixing with -weaker wines. - -A must which does not contain more than 24 per cent. of sugar per -hydrometer, if properly managed, will complete its fermentation, and if -it does not contain less than 22 per cent., will make a good, sound, -shipping wine, which will keep in almost any climate. Mr. Crabb, a -well known wine maker of Oakville, in this State, writes me that such -a must will ferment dry in six days, but that if it contains more -than 24 per cent. of sugar, fermentation is likely to be arrested by -the amount of alcohol, when it amounts to 12 per cent. This gentleman -is an intelligent viniculturist and a practical man, and it would be -safe to follow his advice. Mr. Arpad Haraszthy, who is noted in this -connection, in his lecture on fermentation before the convention of -wine growers, held at San Francisco in September, 1882, indicated 22 -per cent. as a proper degree of sugar in the must; and it is reported -that the wine makers of Los Angeles county, in fixing the prices of -grapes in 1882, adopted 23 per cent. as the standard. Undoubtedly the -fermentation will be finished sooner, and will be less troublesome, -if the must contains sugar within the limits of 22 and 24 per cent., -than if allowed to go beyond. (See _Maturity_.) If it should go to 26 -per cent. and beyond, the chances are that the fermentation will be -incomplete, and that a portion of the sugar will remain in the wine, -which will cause it to ferment when exposed to changes of temperature; -it may become _milk sour_, and there will be danger of rapid -deterioration. From which it follows that, except for making sweet -wines, the grapes should be gathered before they develop much more -than 24 per cent. of sugar. Supposing, however, that picking commences -as soon as the must shows 22 per cent., sufficient force should be -employed to finish before it goes beyond the limit indicated. For the -writer has seen grapes gathered at the beginning of the season and made -into wine which showed 11 per cent. of alcohol, when the wine made from -grapes of the same vineyard, gathered too late, either on account of -lack of pickers or of fermenting tanks, contained 14.5 per cent., and -was still sweet. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -SUGARING AND WATERING MUST. - - -=Sugaring.=—As early as 1776, Macquer, in France, found that by adding -sugar to the must of green grapes, he could make wine; and since his -time many authors, notably Chaptal, Gall, and Petiot, have recommended -the addition of sugar to the must of bad years when the grapes did -not ripen; and had the practice been limited to the addition of -sufficient sugar of good quality to a must which was deficient in that -respect, but little harm would have been done. The next step, however, -was to take the must of partly ripe grapes which contained an undue -quantity of acid, and reduce it by the addition of water till the acid -corresponded in quantity to that contained in a must of ripe grapes, -and then to add sufficient sugar to bring it up again to the necessary -degree of sweetness. This may be permissible in those countries where -in some years the grapes do not ripen, and in order to make a drinkable -wine, water to reduce the acid, and sugar to give sweetness, must -be added. But this did not satisfy the greed of the artificial wine -makers; they found, so they say, that they could press the juice from -the grapes, ferment it by itself, then add to the marc water and sugar -enough to bring it back to its original quantity and sugar strength, -draw off the artificial juice slightly colored by the skins, and repeat -the operation, and so make three and four times the quantity of wine -that could otherwise be made, and _all good wine_. - -It was thought that wine making in Europe would be revolutionized, -and untold wealth would pour into the coffers of the wine makers. It -was found, however, that cane sugar was too expensive, but artificial -glucose could be made from grain and potatoes at a very small cost, -and by reason of its cheapness its use was forthwith recommended; and -to such an extent was the matter carried, that one would suppose that -in order to make good wine, it was only necessary to soak a few grape -skins in a quantity of sweetened water and let it ferment! - -The practice, however, to the extent mentioned, did not commend itself -to sensible men, and wine making did not become revolutionized. Yet it -was to some extent adopted, and the effect upon the wines of Burgundy -is shown by Dubrunfaut in his work on _Sucrage de Moûts_. He says that -starch-sugar (glucose) factories were established in Burgundy, and -from 1825 to 1845, this material was used to strengthen the musts. But -complaints arose in France and elsewhere against Burgundy wines; they -had a new flavor, and unexpected changes in many respects had come over -them. A congress of wine makers was held at Dijon in 1845, at which -the abandonment of the use of glucose was decreed upon the report of a -committee of merchants and proprietors of Beaune, which was in effect -as follows: that the long extolled and generally practiced system of -sugaring, and against which a reaction set in some years ago, ought to -be completely abandoned, as being fatal (_funeste_) to Burgundy. He -considers, however, as do some others who condemn the use of glucose, -that the use of refined cane sugar is unobjectionable if used in small -quantities and merely to fortify the must when it needs it. There are -many authors, however, who speak highly of the wines produced by the -addition of sugar and water to the skins after the juice has been drawn -off, but it does not seem reasonable that a good wine can be made in -that manner. If a good must contained only water, sugar, and acids, -then there would be reason for believing that the wine so made would be -good. But it is well known that many other ingredients enter into the -composition of the juice of the grape which, in some unknown manner, -have a very important influence upon the wine made from it. Attempts -have been made to produce an artificial must, which is carrying the -process but little farther than it is carried by some of the writers on -the subject; but Mr. Boireau says that what is produced resembles cider -rather than wine. He gives the following composition as approaching -very nearly a must for common white wine: - - Refined Sugar, 25 kilog. - Tincture of tannin, 20 gr. - Crystals of tartaric acid, 500 gr. - Gum arabic, 1 kilog. - Vine leaves and fresh twigs chopped, 5 kilog. - Distilled or filtered water, 1 hectol. - -The author last quoted is a practical man, and his opinion is valuable. -He says, when the fermentation of this artificial must is most active, -it has analogies with ordinary white wine, but it costs much more than -the natural wine; and when its fermentation is complete, it has not a -bad taste, and there is nothing hurtful in its composition, but that -it has not the _taste of white wine_; and the only time when it has -any analogy to white wine is during the tumultuous fermentation as -already mentioned. Many attempts have been made to vary the formula, -but without important results. Tolerably agreeable drinks are obtained, -_but they are not wine_. M. Boussingault gives his experience in -sugaring and watering must; and the wine produced lacked acid, color, -astringency, and was very inferior to the wine first made from the pure -juice; it lacked the fixed substances and aromatic principles. He says -that some would prefer it to cider, but that it only differed from -_piquette_ in having a greater degree of alcohol. - -To give even a summary of what has been written upon this subject would -occupy a volume, but the results arrived at by the more intelligent -modern writers and experimenters may be summed up as follows: - - 1. That good wine can be made only from the pure - juice of the grape. - - 2. That in case the grapes do not ripen sufficiently - to make a drinkable wine, water may be added to reduce - the acid, and then sugar enough to bring it up to the - average sugar strength; but in no case should any but - the refined cane sugar be used; artificial glucose, never. - -=Nothing gained by adding Sugar.=—Aside from the question of quality, -it may not be amiss to add a few remarks for the benefit of intended -wine makers who may have been led to believe, by mistaken authors, -that the profits of wine making may be increased by adding sugar -and water, and thereby augmenting the quantity. Assuming that it is -permissible to use only refined sugar, it can easily be shown that it -is as cheap, if not cheaper, to make wine from grapes than from sugar, -as long as grapes can be bought for $30 per ton. - -A gallon of dry wine of average specific gravity, containing 10 per -cent. by weight, or 12.4 by volume, of alcohol, weighs about 8¼ pounds, -and contains about .825 of a pound of pure alcohol. To produce a pound -of alcohol requires about 2¼ lbs. of pure grape sugar, or 2.138 lbs. of -pure cane sugar, in practice, according to the chapter on fermentation; -so that to produce the .825 lbs. of alcohol in one gallon of wine, -requires about 1.80 lbs. of pure cane sugar. But refined crystalized -sugar is not pure sugar (anhydrous), as it contains about 10 per -cent. of water; so, to make our 1.8 of pure sugar, requires 2 lbs. of -ordinary refined sugar. At 10 cents per pound, which would be cheap for -this market, it would cost 20 cents to make the must for a gallon of -wine. - -Supposing that a ton of grapes costs $30, and produces 150 gallons of -wine, each gallon would cost 20 cents. So that there is nothing to be -gained by adding sugar at 10 cents a pound, even if a ton of grapes -costs $30 a ton, for the same facts would apply to every pound of sugar -added to a must, as well as in the case supposed, where all the sugar -was supplied. - -=Cost of Glucose Wine.=—Supposing that artificial glucose contains 80 -per cent. of pure (anhydrous) sugar, it would require 2⅓ lbs. to make -our gallon of wine; and if it could be laid down here at 5 cents a -pound, the gallon of wine would cost nearly 12 cents, and this would be -equivalent to paying $18 a ton for grapes. - -When we take into consideration that every pound of glucose and -water added to a must will diminish the price of every gallon of -wine produced, it is probable that but little, if anything, could be -gained even by the use of this article; for the product will not bring -the price of an honest wine, and in the long run will destroy the -reputation of our wines, and reflect injury upon every wine maker in -the State. - -=Experiment with Glucose.=—Mr. Crabb, of Oakville, gave his experience -with glucose in a paper read before the St. Helena Vinicultural Club, -in July, 1882, as follows: I took three packages of equal size, one -containing pure grape juice, the two others containing each equal parts -of the same juice and glucose water, all showing 23 per cent. sugar by -Balling’s saccharometer. The pure juice was dry in 15 days (the room -being cold). One package of the mixture was dry in 30 days; the other -continued in fermentation 60 days, both emitting a rank offensive odor -during the process, arising from the amount of chalk and sulphuric acid -required in its (glucose) manufacture. Racking at this time appeared -to remove the greater part of the offensive odor, and in 30 days the -wine was clear and bright enough to pass for a two-years’-old wine. I -now thought it contained a very superior fining principle, and if a -small enough quantity would answer the purpose, it might be a valuable -acquisition. But this was its most favorable period; it had reached -its zenith, and while the pure juice was now beginning to develop its -vinous properties, the mixture commenced to deteriorate, becoming flat -and insipid, as any grape juice would by being one-half water, and the -sulphuric acid and chalk (sulphate of lime) developing a disagreeable -after-taste. Notwithstanding that I have racked it again and fined -it to a perfect condition, there is not the least improvement, and I -believe as it becomes more dry with age, that the bitter, nauseous -after-taste will become more and more pronounced, so that one glass of -it will leave such a lasting impression on the palate as to never want -any more; whereas, the package of pure juice is now vinous, sprightly, -refreshing and inviting. - -=The use of Glucose condemned.=—On the 16th day of July, 1881, the -St. Helena Vinicultural Association adopted resolutions condemning -in the strongest terms the use of glucose in the making of wine and -brandy, and promising to expose all parties importing or receiving the -substance by publishing their names, and pledging the Society to use -all honorable means to prevent the adulteration of the product of our -vineyards. The resolutions passed unanimously, and were published in -the different newspapers. One man in the district, notwithstanding the -warning, did cause to be shipped to him a quantity of glucose, and the -President and Secretary of the Society published in several different -newspapers, in December, 1881, over their own signatures, and in the -name of the Association, a notice reciting the resolutions, and stating -that a person (giving his name) “imported eighty barrels of grape -sugar, made from corn, commonly called glucose, and used the same, or -the greater part of it, in the manufacture of wine during the last -vintage.” - -We believe that this was an exceptional case, and that its use in this -State has been exceedingly rare. - -=Watering.=—Another question which has been a good deal discussed -is, whether it is better to pick the grapes as soon as they develop -sufficient sugar, or leave them on the vine till they develop an -excess, and then reduce the must with water. Dr. Guyot having laid it -down as a fundamental principle in wine making in France, that the -grapes should be left on the vine as late as possible, and until they -have reached the highest point of maturity, except, _perhaps_, in some -of the most extreme southern portions, he is consistent in counseling -the addition of water to the must. But the only reason given by him -for it is that it is consonant with _his principle_ previously stated. -Du Breuil is also of the same opinion. Both are men of high authority, -but it does not appear that either of them ever made wine in a warm -climate, where the grapes would develop so much sugar as to require -the addition of water, if left upon the vine as late as possible. We -have, on the other hand, the testimony of Boireau, who, speaking on the -subject, says that it is probable that the theoreticians who are in -favor of the practice have never made wine of _must too rich in sugar -and of water_. He says, it is true that the quantity is increased, and -fermentation is complete, but that the wine so made is only fit for the -still, will not keep and readily turns sour. The Greeks have followed -this practice from time immemorial in the Archipelago, where he tasted -their wine so made in 1865, and which they can keep with difficulty for -one year, in spite of the addition of a large quantity of rosin, which -they introduce during fermentation. And yet, these wines are not weak, -having an average of 10½ to 11 per cent. of alcohol. He says that but -few grapes give musts too rich in sugar, if they are gathered as soon -as ripe; for even in viticultural countries situated farthest south, as -the south of France, Spain, Italy, Greece, and Africa, the grape _just -ripe_ gives a must which does not exceed 14° Baumé, unless left on the -vine until part of the water of vegetation has evaporated. - -Having alluded to both sides of the question, it would seem to be a -fair inference from the foregoing that the safest course would be, -in a hot climate, to gather the grapes as soon as fairly ripe. This -may easily be done, where each grape grower makes his own wine, and -has immediate supervision of the picking, and has sufficient men to -finish it with promptness. But in the case of large manufacturers who -buy their grapes and cannot supervise or order the gathering in the -numerous vineyards whose crops they purchase, it may sometimes be -necessary, when the grapes come in overripe, and it is not desirable to -make sweet wine, to add a small quantity of water to insure prompt and -complete fermentation. When the necessity arises, great caution should -be used, and the necessity should be avoided when possible. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -STEMMING AND CRUSHING. - - -=Diversity of Opinion on Stemming.=—There is no subject connected with -wine making upon which there is a greater difference of opinion than -that of stemming. And it would seem that the diversity of practice -is not always caused by the different conditions and exigencies of -location, variety of grapes, etc.; but among the different wine makers -in the same locality, some remove the stems, and others do not; from -which Dr. Guyot infers that the practice cannot be classed among the -essential principles governing vinification, but is a mere matter -of detail, and that stemming may be practiced or omitted without -materially affecting the wine. But Machard, a writer of the Jura, lays -it down imperiously as one of the very essentials of good wine making -that the grapes should be fermented with the stems, and calls stemming -a pernicious practice. - -=Effect of Stemming.=—All agree, however, that the stems, during -fermentation, if not removed, yield tannin to the wine, and thereby -give it astringency. It is also said to increase fermentation, by -furnishing to the must additional germs of fermentation adhering to -the stems, and perhaps acting also in a mechanical way, by presenting -many salient points, and exposing a greater surface to the action of -the ferment.[1] They also add a certain amount of acid to the wine, -if green. It is evident that they increase the labor of pressing, by -adding to the mass of marc. - -[1] Pasteur, in his Studies on Beer, says that the reason has not yet -been discovered, but that he has no doubt that it may be attributed, -principally, to the fact that the interstices between the grapes, and -the spaces which the bunch leaves throughout, considerably increase the -volume of air placed at the service of the germs of ferment. - -=Proper Practice.=—If, therefore, by reason of the variety of grapes -cultivated, or the soil, or situation, your wine is too soft, lacks -life and astringency, ferment with all or a portion of the stems; but -if your wine is rough, too astringent, it will be found beneficial to -stem the grapes. If your grapes lack the fermentive principle, and -fermentation is slow and incomplete, leave the grapes on the stem; and -in the same way the fermentation will be assisted, if the grapes are -overripe. - -When the grapes are fermented with the stems, care must be taken that -they do not remain too long in the vat, or the wine may acquire a -bitter, disagreeable flavor, called by the French _goût de râpe_, or -stem flavor, which is caused by the bitter principle contained therein, -and which is dissolved out by maceration. - -=To Estimate Tannin.=—A certain amount of tannin is necessary to the -proper clearing of the wine, which is brought about by the tannin -combining with albuminous matters, and they are then precipitated, and -the wine may be drawn off, leaving them at the bottom of the cask. It -is on the application of this well known principle that Maumené gives a -very simple method of ascertaining whether the grapes should be stemmed -or not. He says: First make a small quantity of wine without the stems, -and add tannin, or, what is better, a decoction made by boiling a -quantity of stems, and if sensible precipitation is produced, it is -better to ferment with the stems, for tannin is wanting; but if the -precipitation is not formed, the grapes should be stemmed. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 3._ Wooden Stemmer.] - -=Stemmers.=—This is usually effected in California by the use of the -common hand stemmer, though some large establishments are using a -stemmer run by steam or horse-power. The common stemmer consists of an -oblong shallow box or frame, six or eight feet long by two wide, or any -convenient size, and about six inches deep, with a coarse wire netting -or grating stretched across the bottom. This grating is usually made -of heavy galvanized iron wire, with ¾ inch or inch meshes. Instead of -having the grating extend the whole length, a portion at one end may -be floored with wood, upon which a box of grapes can be placed without -injuring the grating. The only objection to this stemmer is that the -grape juice comes in contact with the metal of the grating, and it is -a well known fact that nearly, if not all, of the baser metals are -corroded by the acids; it would be better to replace the wire with a -wooden grating, as in France (Fig. 3.). - -=How to Remove the Stems.=—The grapes are dumped from the boxes -directly into the stemmer, and the workman seizes as many as he can -easily manage with both hands, and rubs and rolls them to and fro upon -the wire grating, and the berries, as they are rubbed off, fall through -the meshes, and the stems remain in the hand. The few grapes that may -remain are removed by raising the mass of stems and forcibly throwing -them two or three times upon the grating. Sometimes the stems, with the -few grapes clinging to them, are turned over to another workman, who, -with a hay fork, tosses them about upon another grating till all the -berries are removed. The stemmer ought to be situated over the hopper -of the crusher, so that the grapes will fall directly into it, as they -are separated from the stems. - -=Crushing.=—It is generally considered essential to crush the grapes -whether stemmed or not, although in some special cases, to be hereafter -noted, crushing is omitted. - -=Methods of Crushing.=—It is well known that in Europe the grapes -are usually crushed by being trodden with the feet of men, usually -barefooted, but sometimes in wooden shoes, and many of the best writers -of to-day are of the opinion that the wine is better when the grapes -have been well trodden with the bare feet, for by thoroughly rubbing -the skins and pounding them into a pulp without breaking the seeds, -they think that more color and aroma are developed than can be obtained -by simply crushing them, as in a machine, and afterwards fermenting. -Although the practice of treading is the more common one in Europe, -yet there are exceptions, and in some places the crushing is done by -rollers and with satisfactory results. In California we are accustomed -to regard the treading of grapes as an antiquated practice, and a relic -of a past age, and it is almost universally discarded, being practiced -only occasionally and by Europeans, who have not yet wholly fallen into -our methods of practice. Those who are fastidious in this matter may -rest assured, that if they will drink California wine, they run but -very small risk of imbibing a liquid which a man has had his feet in. - -=Aerating the Must.=—There seems to be some confusion on this subject, -for some claim that the must is better exposed to the air, and prepared -for fermentation, by treading. This may be true of _treading in the -vat_ during fermentation, but simply treading the grapes to crush them -does not aerate the must as much as crushing with rollers, for in the -latter case the juice falls through a considerable distance in a finely -divided form, which thoroughly exposes it to the air. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 4._ Crusher.] - -=Crushers.=—The machine generally employed consists of two rollers -made of wood, iron, or other suitable material, 6 or 8, or even more, -inches in diameter, geared together so that they revolve in opposite -directions and towards each other, and so that the grapes will be -drawn between them from above. The rollers run near each other, but do -not touch, so that the grapes will be crushed, and the seeds remain -unbroken. It is operated by one man turning a crank, either attached to -one of the rollers or to a pinion. Figure 4 represents such a crusher, -except that in the figure the rollers are open-work, instead of solid, -as they should be. It is surmounted by a hopper which allows the grapes -to fall between the rollers as they revolve, and the whole apparatus -should be so placed that the pomace may fall into the fermenting vats, -or be easily conveyed to them or to the press, accordingly as it is to -be made into red or white wine. - -Some stemmers have corrugated instead of plain rollers, but there is -no advantage in this, and unless they are very nicely adjusted to the -motion of the cog wheels, they may break the seeds, which is always -considered injurious to the wine. - -=Rapidity of Operation.=—Five men—one to handle the boxes of grapes, -two to stem, standing on opposite sides of the stemmer, one to operate -the crusher, and one to take the stems and remove the remaining grapes -and to make himself generally useful—can stem and crush with these hand -machines twenty tons of grapes per day, enough to make three thousand -gallons of wine. And the work can be done much more rapidly by the use -of the stemmer and crusher combined, which is to some extent used in -the largest establishments. - -=Special Practice.=—Boireau says that it has been observed that of -the Médoc wines, those made without crushing the grapes have less -color than those made from grapes of the same crop which have been -crushed, but that they have a more refined and delicate taste (_plus -fins de goût_), and that consequently many of the proprietors of the -_grands crûs_ of the Médoc in those years which are favorable to the -maturity of the grape do not crush; they only do it in inferior years, -when the grapes have not become sufficiently ripe, and when they fear -that the wine may not have a suitable color. And in another place he -tells us that in those grand wines which are intended to be bottled, a -superabundance of tannin and its consequent roughness may be avoided by -complete stemming, fermenting the whole berries, and by drawing from -the fermenting vat at just the right time. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -FERMENTATION—ITS CAUSES. - - -It is with some hesitancy that I attempt to give a brief summary of -the results of scientific investigation into this subject, for fear of -going beyond the legitimate limits of a practical work, as this book -is intended preëminently for practical men. But as the work would be -incomplete without it, and as a knowledge of the general phenomena of -fermentation, and of the different influences to which it is subject, -are of vast importance to those who will intelligently apply their -principles, I give the following as but a brief _resumé_, and will put -it as plainly as the subject will permit. Most of the ideas given below -are extracted from Schutzenberger’s work on fermentation. - -=There are several different kinds of Fermentation=, as (1) vinous, -alcoholic or spirituous fermentation; (2) mucous or viscous -fermentation; (3) lactic fermentation; (4) ammoniacal fermentation; (5) -butyric fermentation; (6) putrifaction; and (7) acetic fermentation, or -fermentation by oxidation, and others. - -=Alcoholic Fermentation= is that which sugar undergoes under the -influence of the ferment or yeast; and it is now agreed that this -ferment consists principally of an aggregation of living organisms, or -an assemblage of microscopic cells. - -=The Yeast Plant.=—Our author gives them the name of _saccharomyces -cerevisiæ_, following those who consider it to be a species of fungus, -and states that it is now very generally admitted that ferments are -fungi, although by some they have been considered animal in their -nature. These cells are round or oval, and are from .00031 to .00035 -of an inch in their greatest diameter. “They are formed of a thin -and elastic membrane of colorless cellulose, and of a protoplasm, -also colorless, sometimes homogeneous, sometimes composed of small -granulations.” The cells are separate or united two by two. When they -are deposited in a fermentable liquid, as a sugar solution or a must, -small prominences are seen to arise at one or rarely two points, the -interior of which is filled with protoplasm from the mother cell; -these prominences grow until they have attained the size of the -original cell, when the base contracts, forming a kind of neck, and -immediately they separate from the mother cell, and under favorable -conditions one cell produces several generations, but by degrees it -loses all its protoplasm, which at last unites in granules swimming in -super-abundant cellular juice. The cell ceases to produce, and dies; -the membrane is ruptured, and the granular contents are diffused in the -liquid. In the manufacture of beer the fermentation is of two kinds: -surface fermentation and sedimentary fermentation, depending upon a -high or a low degree of heat. The surface _saccharomyces_ develop more -rapidly than the others, are larger, and they bud so rapidly that -the cells which issue from each other do not separate, but remain -attached, forming ramified chains of from six to twelve or more buds. -The bubbles of rising gas have a greater hold on these chaplets than -on single cells, which causes the newly formed yeast to rise to the -surface during active fermentation. These organisms or fungi produce -spores which are sown on the surface of fruits, and get into the juice -by crushing, when they commence their reproduction by budding. So -that the basis or cause of the phenomena which we call fermentation -is the growth and reproduction of yeast or ferment, which is made up -principally of the minute organisms just described. - -=Functions of Yeast.=—Yeast is a living organism, belonging to the -family of _fungi_, genus _Saccharomyces_, destitute of mycelium, -capable of reproduction, like all the elementary fungi, by buds and -spores. Its composition singularly resembles that of other vegetable -tissues, and especially the plants of the same family. It does not -differ essentially from other elementary cells, unprovided with -chlorophyll. - -=Normal Conditions of the Life of Yeast.=—The conditions which our -author calls normal in the life-history of yeast, are those in which it -develops itself and increases with the greatest activity and energy. -They are of two orders, physical and chemical. - -With respect to _physical conditions_, it is only necessary to notice -the temperature. That most favorable to the nutrition of yeast, and -that which is found advantageous to other cellular vegetable organisms, -is between 25° C. and 35° C. (77° and 95° F.) Above and below these -limits, the vital manifestations do not cease until we descend below 9° -C. (48.2° F.), or rise above 60° C. (140° F.), the temperature at which -albuminoid principles begin to coagulate. - -With regard to the _chemical conditions_, our author says that the most -favorable medium is that which contains the most appropriate nutritive -elements. And as yeast contains water, mineral salts, especially -potassium, magnesium, and calcium phosphates, therefore water and -the alkaline and alkaline-earthy phosphates will be necessary. We -find, besides, a great proportion of nitrogenous substances, either -albuminous or otherwise; and therefore the food of yeast must contain -nitrogen. It is supposed, however, that the cells are not directly -nourished by albuminoids in the juices of fruits, the wort of beer, -or yeast water, but by analogous compounds contained in them, which -have the property of passing by osmose through the membranes; for the -albuminoids themselves, it is said, cannot pass through. Pasteur has -shown by his experiments, that mineral salts are absolutely necessary -to the development and nutrition of the yeast cell; and Mayer follows -him with details as follows: Preparations of iron, in small quantities, -seem to have no influence; in larger proportions, they are injurious. -Potassium phosphate is indispensable, and the absence of lime has -little effect. Magnesium, on the contrary, appeared to be very useful, -if not indispensable. The combinations of sodium present no material -effects. - -Sugar is one of the most important elements in the nourishment of the -yeast cells, and Pasteur has shown that, in alcoholic fermentation, a -part of the sugar is fixed in the yeast, in the state of cellulose or -some analogous body, for, when the fermentation is completed, it is -found that more yeast is present than at the commencement. Water is -necessary, and the yeast cell manifests its activity, develops and is -nourished within the limits of 40 and 80 per cent. of water, though -yeast, dried with precaution, may regain its power when moistened. And -the fact that a solution containing over 35 per cent. of sugar will not -ferment, is explained on the theory that such a solution takes from the -cells by osmose a sufficient quantity of water to lower their hydration -below 40 per cent. The cells of the _Saccharomyces cerevisiæ_, -introduced into a liquid medium, absorb oxygen with great rapidity, and -develop a corresponding quantity of carbon dioxide. This constitutes -respiration, comparable to that of animals. By careful experiments -it has been shown that yeast breathes when placed in contact with -dissolved oxygen, and the respiration is more active than that of -fishes, and it plays as important a part in the life of those minute -vegetable cells as in the higher forms of vegetable and animal life. -Oxygen is furnished by atmospheric air, and fermentation is more rapid -when a large surface of the liquid is exposed, and then the budding is -more active. - -=Action of various Chemical and Physical Agents.=—“It has long been -known that certain chemical compounds, especially those which coagulate -albuminous substances, and disorganize the tissues, or which, by -their presence in sufficient quantities, are incompatible with life, -are opposed to fermentation; such are the acids and alkalies in -suitable proportions, silver nitrate, chlorine, iodine, the soluble -iron, copper, and lead salts, tannin, phenol, creosote, chloroform, -essence of mustard, alcohol when its strength is above 20 per cent., -hydrocyanic and oxalic acids, even in very small quantities. - - “An excess of neutral alkaline salts or sugar acts in - the same manner, by diminishing in the interior of the - cell the minimum quantity of water, which is necessary - to the manifestation of its vital activity. - - “The red mercury oxide, calomel, manganese peroxide, - the alkaline sulphites and sulphates, the essences of - turpentine and of lemon, etc., also interfere with, and - destroy alcoholic fermentation. - - “Phosphoric and arsenious acids are, on the contrary, - inactive.” - -Experiments have shown that sparks of electricity passing through -yeast do not modify its power of changing cane sugar into glucose, nor -its activity as an alcoholic ferment. Fermentation is slower in the -dark, and also in a vacuum. Flour of sulphur did not sensibly affect -fermentation, but the carbonic acid evolved contained sulphuretted -hydrogen. Sulphurous acid, however, arrests fermentation. Yeast is -always acid, but an addition of an excess of different acids arrests -the decomposition of sugar. If one hundred times the amount of acid -contained in the yeast is added, fermentation does not take place. - -M. Dumas has shown the action of various salts on yeast, but the -subject has little if any interest for the wine maker. - -=Viscous or Mannitic Fermentation= is also excited, according to -Pasteur, by special ferment acting on glucose, transforming it into a -kind of gum or dextrin, mannite, and carbon dioxide. This ferment is -also formed of small globules united as in a necklace, whose diameter -varies from .000047 to .000055 of an inch. These globules, sown in a -saccharine liquid containing nutritive nitrogenous matter and mineral -substances, always give rise to viscous fermentation. One hundred parts -of cane sugar give: mannite, 51.09; gum, 45.48; and carbon dioxide, -6.18. The liquids which are most apt to produce viscous fermentation -can also undergo lactic and butyric fermentation, but in this case the -organized forms of life which are developed in the liquid are of a -different nature. The conditions of action necessary to these gummy and -mannitic ferments are the same as those which suit alcoholic ferment. -The most favorable temperature is 30° C. (86° F.) This fermentation -is what gives rise to the disease of wines, called by the French _la -graisse_, or ropiness. White wine is more subject to it than red, and -it is generally due to the want of tannin. (See _Ropiness_.) - -=Lactic Fermentation= is the transformation which certain sugars, as -sugar of milk and grape sugar, undergo, and by which they are changed -into lactic acid. This takes place in the souring of milk. The most -favorable temperature for it seems to be about 95° F. This also depends -on a special ferment. Sugar solutions are also capable of _butyric -fermentation_ and _putrefaction_, and we generally see viscous, lactic, -and butyric fermentation appear in succession. - -=Acetic Fermentation= is to the wine maker and wine dealer, after -alcoholic fermentation, the most important. - -Fermentable matter and ferment are also concerned in it, but oxygen -also is necessary. - -It has long been known that the alcohol contained in fermented liquids, -such as wine, beer, etc., will disappear under certain circumstances, -and give place to vinegar or acetic acid, and that the air, or rather -its oxygen, plays a part in this reaction. - -To the chemist the reaction is simple, and is formulated thus: - - Alcohol. Water. Acetic Acid. - C₂H₆O + O₂ = H₂O + C₂H₄O₂, - -or the oxidation may take place by two reactions, with the production -of an intermediate product, aldehyde: - - Alcohol. Aldehyde. - C₂H₆O + O = H₂O + C₂H₄O, - - Aldehyde. Acetic Acid. - C₂H₄O + O = C₂H₄O₂ - -According to Pasteur, the oxidation of alcohol is the consequence -of the action of a ferment or cryptogam, _Mycoderma aceti_, and it -makes its appearance on the surface of liquids, while in acetic -fermentation, in the form of a continuous membrane, mother of vinegar, -either wrinkled or smooth, which is generally formed of very minute -elongated cells, whose greater diameter varies from .000059 to .000118 -of an inch; these cells are united in chains, or in the form of curved -rods. Multiplication seems to be effected by the transverse division -of the fully developed cells. The conditions of nutrition are similar -to those suitable to the alcoholic ferment, the hydro-carbon matter -being supplied by dilute alcohol. It may, however, be supplemented by -the acetic acid itself; for if the process is left too long to itself, -the vinegar loses its strength by being consumed. The most favorable -temperature is between 76° and 82° F. - -Antiseptic agents, which arrest the development of beer yeast, act in -the same manner on the _Mycoderma aceti_. Sulphurous acid is especially -active in this manner; hence the use of the sulphur match in sulphuring -wine casks. - -There is another ferment, _Mycoderma vini_, or flowers of wine, -which is found in wine and other alcoholic liquids exposed to the -air when fermentation is over or has become languid, which resembles -in many respects the acetic ferment. It has the power of producing -alcoholic fermentation, and is supposed by some to be derived from -the _Saccharomyces_. Like the _Mycoderma aceti_, it is developed on -the surface of fermented alcoholic liquors, in the form of smooth or -wrinkled films or membranes, but thicker and more compact. It grows -with great rapidity, and it has been calculated that one cell would, -in forty-eight hours, produce about 35,378 cells. These cells are -of various forms, ovoid, ellipsoidal, and cylindrical, with rounded -extremities. The ovoid cells have their greater diameter about .000236, -and their smaller one, .000157 of an inch. The cylinders have their -diameters .00047 × .000118 in. The nutritive principles are the same -as those of the mother of vinegar: alcohol, salts and nitrogenous -compounds. It also appears capable of utilizing for nutrition the -secondary products of alcoholic fermentation, such as succinic acid and -glycerine. Its development is most active between 61° and 86° F. (See -_Sherry_.) - -=Origin of Ferments.=—In order to produce the different kinds of -fermentation, the necessary ferment must be added, unless it is already -contained in the fermentable matter or in the air. In the manufacture -of beer and bread, yeast must be used; the other kinds of fermentation, -except alcoholic, can generally be produced by the ferments or their -spores furnished by the atmosphere; but Pasteur, in the course of his -investigations, never produced alcoholic fermentation from spores found -in the air. But the germs of the _Saccharomyces cerevisiæ_ and of -_Mycoderma vini_ seem to be found only on the surface of fruits, and -their stems.[2] - -[2] Ferment cells, however, occur in considerable numbers in the -neighborhood of places where alcoholic fermentation is carried on, and -the germs, perhaps, may be found in the atmosphere near a vineyard, and -in those cases the ferments and their germs may be borne about to some -extent by the wind. - -These different germs, however, are all found in the must of grapes, -and in wine, and are ready to develop whenever favorable conditions -offer themselves, and produce diseases in the wine. It is found that -these germs are killed by raising the temperature of the liquid to 140° -F., and hence the process of heating wines to preserve them (_which -see_). - -Leaving the germ theory of fermentation, we will pass to what is of -more practical importance. - - -ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION IN WINE MAKING. - -=Vinous or Alcoholic Fermentation= transforms the juice of the grape -into wine, and, as already shown, is caused by the yeast or ferment, -which finds its way into the must; and by this fermentation the sugar -of the grape is changed principally into alcohol, and carbon dioxide, -or carbonic acid gas. And in order to show the relations between the -sugar and the alcohol produced, it is necessary to say something about -the chemical constituents of each. - -=Sugar.=—In general terms, cane sugar may be expressed by the chemical -formula, C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁, or, in other words, one molecule contains 12 atoms -of carbon, 22 of hydrogen, and 11 of oxygen. - -And the general term glucose, or grape sugar, may be expressed by the -formula C₆H₁₂O₁₆, or one molecule contains 6 atoms of carbon, 12 of -hydrogen, and 6 of oxygen. - -If, instead of using the word atoms, we use the word pounds, the -chemical formula may be made clear to the unscientific. Taking the -formula for cane sugar, already given, it simply means that 342 pounds -contain the following ingredients, in the following proportions: - - lbs. lbs. - 12 parts carbon, each weighing 12, 144 - 22 “ hydrogen, “ 1, 22 - 11 “ oxygen, “ 16, 176 - ——— - 342 - -And the formula for glucose means that 180 pounds contain: - - lbs. lbs. - 6 parts of carbon, @ 12, 72 - 12 “ of hydrogen, “ 1, 12 - 6 “ of oxygen, “ 16, 96 - ——— - 180 - -And the formula for water means that 18 pounds contain: - - lbs. lbs. - 2 parts of hydrogen, @ 1, 2 - 1 part “ oxygen, “ 16, 16 - —— - 18 - -In fermentation, it is glucose which is immediately transformed, -although cane sugar ferments also; but, before doing so, it becomes -changed or inverted into glucose, and one molecule takes up a molecule -of water, and produces two of glucose, thus: - - Cane Sugar. Water. Glucose. - C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁ + H₂O = 2 C₆H₁₂O₆ - 342 + 18 = 2 × 180 = 360. - -Or, in the production of alcohol, 100 lbs. of pure cane sugar are equal -to 105.26 lbs. of pure grape sugar. - -The general formula for alcohol is C₂H₆O, and for carbonic acid CO₂. - -=Alcohol by Weight and by Volume.=—The quantity of alcohol contained -in a given mixture of alcohol and water may be expressed as per cent. -by weight, or per cent. by volume. The first method is usually used by -chemists, and the second in commerce. If we have 100 lbs. of a mixture -of alcohol and water of which 10 lbs. are alcohol and 90 lbs. water, -it contains 10 per cent. of alcohol by _weight_. If, however, we have -100 gallons of a mixture in which there are 10 gallons of alcohol and -90 gallons of water, we say that it contains 10 per cent. by _volume_ -of alcohol. This will serve to illustrate the meaning of the terms per -cent. by volume and by weight, although it is well known that, owing to -shrinkage, 10 gallons of alcohol and 90 gallons of water do not produce -quite 100 gallons of mixture. - -Whenever merchants and wine makers use the term per cent. of alcohol, -they mean per cent. by volume or measure; and whenever the expression -is used in this work, it is used in that sense, unless otherwise -expressed. - -=Fermentation—Its Products.—Per cent. Sugar to per cent. Alcohol.=—In -theory, glucose, during the process of fermentation, is entirely -changed into alcohol and carbonic acid; the two substances produced -containing the same elements as glucose, and no others. If there was no -loss of sugar, or degeneration, as it is called, the reaction would be -exactly expressed as follows: - - Glucose. Alcohol. Carbonic Acid. - C₆H₁O₆ = 2 C₂H₆O + 2 CO₂ - 180 = 92 + 88 - -And the old authorities said, if 180 parts of glucose produce 92 of -alcohol, 100 will produce 51.1111, thus: - - 180 : 92 :: 100 : _x_ = 51.1111, - - leaving the balance to be accounted for by carbonic acid 48.8889 - ———————— - 100 - -And again, if it takes 100 parts of glucose to produce 51.1111 alcohol, -how much does it take to produce 1 per cent. by weight? - - 51.1111 : 1 :: 100 : _x_ = 1.9565. - -These figures are now true only of that part of the sugar which is -transformed into alcohol and carbon dioxide. - -=Different Authors.=—Pasteur has shown that a portion of the glucose -was changed into succinic acid and glycerine, and as the result of one -of the experiments which he gives, out of a large number, it appears -that 100 parts of glucose produce about 48.46 of alcohol, and it would -require 2.063 to produce 1 per cent. of alcohol by weight, and 1.65 to -produce 1 per cent. by volume. - -But this eminent chemist’s experiments were conducted in the -laboratory, and under the most favorable circumstances, so that no loss -by evaporation could occur—conditions under which fermentation on a -large scale is never carried on. - -Dr. Guyot states that it takes about 1.5 per cent. of grape sugar to -produce 1 per cent. of alcohol, which is even less than is required -according to Pasteur, and is manifestly too little. And the statement -has been made, that a must containing 20 per cent. of sugar will -produce 13 per cent. of alcohol, which is impossible. - -J. J. Griffin quotes Pasteur, and estimating the average loss to be -4½ per cent. of the sugar, deduces the figures .4881 as the per cent. -by weight of alcohol produced by 1 per cent. of grape sugar. Dubief -says that it takes 1.7 per cent. of cane sugar to produce 1 per cent. -of alcohol by volume. Mr. Joseph Boussingault gives his experiments -on musts fermented in small vessels under conditions similar to those -under which fermentation is carried on in wine making on a large scale; -and the result of his researches is that the product in alcohol is -about 90 per cent. of what the chemical theory calls for: say, .46 by -weight for 1 of sugar, or 1.7 + glucose for 1 per cent. of alcohol by -volume. Mr. M. Boussingault gives it as the result of his experiment, -that it takes 1.8 per cent. of sugar to produce 1 per cent. of alcohol. - -So that it is pretty safe to say that it takes on an average about -1.8 of sugar to make 1 of alcohol, making some allowance for loss by -evaporation, etc. - -As has already been stated in the chapter on Musts, 1 per cent. for -every 12 should be deducted from the percentage of sugar shown by the -hydrometer for other matters than sugar. - -If, therefore, we have a must which shows 24° by the saccharometer, -we will deduct two, and call the remainder 22, sugar. Although it is -not strictly correct to say that 22 divided by 1.8 will give the per -cent. of alcohol which may be expected after fermentation, owing to the -well known variation between per cent. by weight and by volume, as the -figures increase, yet it is sufficient for all practical purposes. - -Let us then divide 22, the supposed sugar in the must, by 1.8, the -amount required to produce 1 per cent. of alcohol, and we obtain 12 -and a fraction. Now the total indication by the saccharometer was 24 -per cent.; if we divide this by two we get the same result in round -numbers. - -Hence the rule: one-half of the figure indicating the total per cent. -by the saccharometer (hydrometer) is approximately the per cent. of -alcohol to be expected in the wine. - -Owing to the fact that the loss by evaporation and degeneration may -vary greatly in different cases, this will be only a rough estimate, -but it will prove as satisfactory as any method that can be adopted, -and it corresponds very closely with the statement made by N. Basset, -that in actual practice, a must of 20 per cent. gives only 7.88 per -cent. of alcohol by weight, which corresponds with 10 per cent. by -volume, nearly; and it is the rule given by Petiot and Dr. Gall for a -natural must. - -It seems, however, from what follows below, that this is only true of -a normal must, but that a different rule applies to one of a very high -degree of sugar. - -=Limits of Sugar and Spirit.=—It is said that when a solution or a must -contains over 35 per cent. of sugar, it will not ferment; nor will a -wine or other alcoholic mixture which contains 20 per cent. of spirit -ferment. Boireau says that the maximum of alcohol which a wine can -attain by the fermentation of the richest must is between 15 and 16 per -cent., and those wines which show a higher degree have been fortified. -He says that the highest degree of spirit ever observed by him in a -natural red wine was 15.4 per cent., when it was a year old; from that -time the strength diminished, but the wine always remained sweet. - -There is, however, a remarkable case given, and which seems to be well -authenticated, of an Australian wine which contained naturally, by -fermentation, 32.4° of British proof spirit, which is equal to about -18.21 per cent. And Vizitelli states that Mr. Ellis, of the firm of -Graham & Co., asserts that perfectly fermented Alto Douro wine will -develop 32° proof spirit, or 18 per cent. of alcohol, and when made -exclusively from the Bastardo grape, as much as 34°, or about 19 per -cent. of spirit. And Mr. Vizitelli adds that he is satisfied from what -he saw at Jerez, that sherry wines which have had merely 1 or 2 per -cent. of spirit added to them will in the course of time indicate 34°. -To produce these results would seem to require more than 35 per cent. -of sugar, according to our rule; but while it is approximately correct -to say that 2 per cent. of sugar produces 1 per cent. of alcohol as -long as we are dealing with a must of 24 or 25 per cent. and under, it -may not be true of a must of 30 to 35 per cent., for the other solid -matters probably do not increase in proportion to the sugar. Therefore, -to reconcile this high degree of alcohol with the statement that a must -containing over 35 per cent. of sugar will not ferment, we must use -Pasteur’s figures, and then we will find that by them 35 per cent. of -sugar is capable of producing over 20 per cent. of alcohol. - -=Temperature.=—The temperature most favorable to fermentation—that is, -at which it commences most promptly, and goes on the most rapidly—is -between 77° and 95° F., and it does not cease until the temperature -descends below 49°, or rises above 140°. If the temperature is -favorable, fermentation ought to commence in ten or twelve hours from -the time the pomace is put into the vat, or the juice into the barrel. -In countries where the weather is cold at the wine making season, it is -necessary that the grapes should be gathered in the heat of the day, or -fermentation will be long in commencing; and if the weather continues -unfavorable, so that the grapes do not become warmed by the sun, it is -even necessary to heat a portion of the must artificially, and pour it -into the vats or casks, or to raise the temperature of the fermenting -house. - -Mr. Maumené also recommends that the vats be surrounded with mats -of loose straw, four or five inches thick, to be kept in place by a -covering of linen cloth; and in this way the temperature produced by -the fermentation may be maintained in cool weather, without resorting -to fires in the fermenting house. - -It is not necessary, however, that the temperature of the surrounding -atmosphere should be as high as that indicated as most favorable to -fermentation; for it commences readily in a temperature of about 70°, -and the liquid will soon rise to 85° or 95°, by the heat developed -during the process; and unless the surrounding temperature descends -below 65°, this heat will be maintained, and the fermentation will -not be checked. Dr. Guyot says, however, that, to make fine wines, it -should be maintained at 68°, at least; and that, in other cases, it -should not be allowed to fall below 60°. - -=Fermenting Houses.=—It is important not only that fermentation should -commence promptly, but that it should be maintained regularly; and -although a great amount of heat is developed by fermentation, yet the -must is liable to cool during the night and cold days, unless the vats -and casks are protected from the change of temperature, whereby the -fermentation may be checked, to the injury of the wine. The natural -conclusion is that the must ought to be fermented in closed places. In -California, however, it is not necessary to construct the fermenting -house with the same care required in colder climates, where it is -deemed desirable to furnish them with double windows and doors. It -cannot be denied that good wine is made in this State, in places where -the vats remain out of doors, shaded only by trees; but the practice -is not to be encouraged, for the fermentation will be checked if the -temperature of the surrounding atmosphere goes to 60° and below. In -constructing a fermenting house, it ought to be so arranged, when -practicable, as to be on a lower level than that of the stemmer and -crusher, and higher than the cellar; for then the pomace and must -can be run immediately into the vats and casks, and, after the first -fermentation, the wine can be drawn off through a hose into the casks -in the cellar, thereby saving time and labor. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -RED WINE. - - -Red wines are made from colored grapes, and the color is extracted from -the skins during fermentation. The coloring matter is blue, but is -changed to red by the action of the acids in the must. (See _Coloring -Matter—Oenocyanine_.) In order to develop this color, the grapes are -fermented, skins and juice together, and the press is only brought into -requisition after the first fermentation is completed. - -=Fermenting Tanks or Vats.=—The tanks or vats in which red wine is -fermented, in France are generally made of oak, sometimes of masonry, -but in this State redwood has been almost universally adopted, and I am -not aware of any serious inconveniences from its use. It is advisable -before using them the first time, to steam them for several hours, or -thoroughly soak them to extract the coloring matter of the wood. - -The capacity depends upon the quantity of wine to be made in a season, -varying from 1000 gallons to 2500 gallons and more, and a sufficient -number should be provided that when wine making has commenced, it can -be carried on without interruption till the crop is worked up. The -number of workmen must be considered as well as the amount of grapes, -and everything ought to be so arranged that the fermentation will be -finished in the first tank filled, by the time the last one is full, so -that the first can be emptied and filled again, and then the second, -and so on. A hole must be bored in each vat two or three inches from -the bottom by which to draw the wine through a faucet. And some kind of -a strainer must be put over this hole inside to keep back the marc—a -piece of perforated tin, a grating of small sticks, or a bundle of -straw or vine cuttings kept in place by a stone. - -=Filling the Tanks.=—In order that the whole mass in one tank may be -equally fermented, it should receive its full complement of grapes in -one day. By putting in part of the grapes one day and part another, not -only will some of them complete their fermentation before the others, -but the addition of fresh grapes to the fermenting mass will interrupt -the fermentation, and prove injurious to the wine. The vats must not -be filled to their full capacity, for during violent fermentation the -marc, consisting of skins and seeds, or those with the stems, rises -to the top, brought up by the bubbles of carbonic acid which are -constantly rising, and a portion of the boiling and foaming mass may -be carried over the top, and much wine thereby be lost. They should -only be filled to within a foot or a foot and a half of the top, and -a little experience will show the proper practice. Guyot says that -they should only be filled to five-sixths of their capacity at most. -Another reason for not filling the tank is that a layer of carbonic -acid gas will occupy the space left vacant by the pomace, and prevent -the contact of the air and the consequent souring of the wine, by the -changing of a portion of the alcohol into acetic acid—vinegar. - -Red wine is fermented in open vats, vats loosely covered, or in vats -hermetically sealed, and good wine is made in each way. - -=In Open Vats=, other conditions being equally favorable, fermentation -commences more promptly and is sooner ended, owing to the free access -of the air, a certain amount of oxygen, as already shown, being -necessary to fermentation. Although fermentation will continue away -from the air when once started, it will be slow. The objections to -open vats are, that although there is a layer of carbonic acid resting -above the must, yet it is liable to be disturbed and become mixed with -the air, and if the fermentation is long continued, a portion of the -wine may become sour. Those who employ open tanks should also avail -themselves of those conditions under which the wine will complete its -fermentation in a few days, and should draw off promptly. - -=Closed Vats.=—By using closed vats fermentation will be longer in -commencing, and will proceed more slowly, but as already intimated, -the wine can with safety be left longer in them than in open tanks. -When it is necessary to develop much color, it would be advisable to -use covered tanks, for the longer the wine is left in contact with the -skins, the darker it becomes. The covering should be close enough to -prevent the immediate contact of the open air, and yet allow the escape -of gas—of close boards, but not luted, unless provided with a safety -valve. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 5._] - -[Illustration] - -=The Best Practice=, however, in all cases, whether the vats are closed -or not, is to have a false head resting directly upon the pomace, -and which will keep the latter submerged during the whole process of -fermentation. In this way good color will be developed, and the marc -will be kept from the air, and the danger of souring will be avoided. -In figure 5, _A_ represents a fermenting vat with the front half -removed, showing the false head in place. - -This head is made of several pieces which can be laid one by one upon -the pomace, and maybe perforated with auger holes as represented in -_C_, or may be a wooden grating, _D_. These pieces or sections together -constitute the head _B_, and are kept in place by two cross pieces, -_e e_, which are held down by blocks bolted or pinned to the inside -of the tank. _G_ is a stave with a block, _f_, attached, and _H_ the -same, showing the cross piece, _e_, slipped under it. When the tank is -filled to the required height, the false head is put in, resting on the -pomace, the ends of the cross pieces are slipped under the blocks, and -everything is ready. As soon as the fermentation becomes violent, the -whole will be submerged in the bubbling wine. - -=Hermetically Sealed Tanks.=—Closely covered tanks must be provided -with a safety valve or pipe for the discharge of carbonic acid gas, -leading and discharging into a vessel of water, which completely -prevents contact with the air. Under pressure the fermentation is much -slower, and is not so complete. Yet great advantages are claimed for -this method by some writers who maintain that by keeping the cover cool -with wet straw or cloth, or by using a safety tube in the form of a -worm passing through a condenser on the top of the vat, the vapors are -condensed and fall back into the liquid, preventing loss of alcohol, -and increasing the aroma, and that the wine acquires a superior -fineness and velvety smoothness under the pressure of the gas. Boireau -says that this latter quality is caused by the complete dissolution of -the mucilaginous matters; and Pasteur has shown that more glycerine is -produced when the fermentation is slow, which may contribute to the -mellowness and smoothness. - -=Practice in the Médoc.=—Mr. Boireau says that the greater part of the -grand red wines of the Médoc, the prime St. Emilion, and the prime -Graves, are fermented in closed vats; though a certain number of the -viniculturists still follow the old custom, and make their wine in open -vats. - -=Stirring the Pomace in the Vats.=—In Burgundy, and in some other parts -of France, it is considered necessary to give the mass a thorough -stirring (_foulage_) during the active fermentation, in order that all -parts may be equally exposed to the action of the ferment, and also -that a good color may be developed; and for this purpose men enter -into the vats and thoroughly mix the pomace and stir it about with -their naked bodies and limbs, a practice not only disgusting in the -extreme, but dangerous for the men, who are exposed to the poisonous -effects of carbonic acid. It is by no means a general practice, and is -of doubtful utility, even if it should be done by other agents than the -naked human body. - -It is evident that two opposing forces are at work when the must -is stirred during fermentation. By the aeration fermentation would -naturally be increased; but Dr. Guyot shows that stirring actually -diminishes its activity, and he advocates the practice in order -that the fermentation be not too tumultuous. The temperature of the -surrounding atmosphere being lower than that of the fermenting mass, -aeration by stirring must, by lowering the temperature, diminish the -activity of the fermentation. Mr. Haraszthy, in his lecture before -the Convention of Viniculturists in 1882, recommended that the mass -be stirred when the fermentation commences to lag, on the theory that -by thus mixing again the yeast with the liquid, so exposing it again -completely to the action of the ferment, fermentation would start again -with renewed vigor. It can easily be stirred with poles provided with -shoulders or short cross pieces. - -It has already been stated that the must is sufficiently aerated by -crushing the grapes with rollers, and where the vats are provided -with a false head to keep the pomace submerged, the wine will have -sufficient color without the stirring; and it would seem that the wine -would clear sooner if the lees were not stirred into it near the end of -fermentation. _Where the vats are not covered, and the grapes are not -stemmed and not kept submerged_, a crust or cap is formed on the top of -the fermenting mass, which sours and rots if long exposed to the air, -and the mixing of this with the liquid has a most deleterious effect -upon the wine. - -=When to Draw from the Vats.=—When the first or active fermentation -in the vats is completed, the new wine must be drawn off into pipes, -and thus be separated from the marc, consisting of skins, seeds, and -sometimes stems, and also from the heavy lees which has settled in the -vats, and it is important to know the proper time to do this. - -The duration of active fermentation depends upon several causes and -conditions as already indicated, such as heat, the amount of sugar -contained in the must, whether the vats are covered or open, the -immersion of the marc, and whether the grapes are stemmed, etc. It may -be completed in four or five days, or it may continue for fifteen or -twenty days. In case of musts poor in sugar it may rarely terminate in -twenty-four hours. In some parts of France the grapes are allowed to -macerate for weeks and even months (for they cannot ferment actively -for that length of time), and what might be good wine, thus is often -spoiled. - -=The Objections to Long Vatting= are that the marc will absorb an undue -amount of alcohol, as is shown when it is submitted to distillation -in brandy making, for marcs which have remained long in the vats with -the wine yield more spirits, and, of course, the wine is deprived of -so much strength. This objection, however, would have but little force -where the grapes are stemmed. Another and more serious objection is, -that by a long exposure to the air which is apt to take place when the -vats are not closely covered, some of the alcohol will be changed to -vinegar, and the wine will rapidly degenerate, and become sour. Long -contact with the seeds, skins and stems also produces a foreign taste -in the wine known to the French as _goût de râpe_, stem flavor; and it -is obvious that if the marc is allowed to remain in the liquid till it -macerates and rots, it will acquire a still more disagreeable aroma and -flavor. It is also said that some varieties of grapes which will not -produce a wine with a bouquet, when allowed to remain long in the tank, -will develop it in a vatting of short duration. The only advantage to -be gained by leaving a wine in the vat after the active fermentation is -finished, is in the way of color. When it is desirable—if it ever is—to -produce a dark-colored wine at the expense of other good qualities, it -may be left in the vat to _soak_. Such wines have their use, and that -is to mix with those which lack color, but it is much better to mix in -a quantity of grapes which naturally produce good color. - -=In making Fine Wines=, a dark color is not looked for nor desired, but -rather a bright and lively red; and they should be allowed to remain -in the vat only long enough to convert the greater part of the sugar -into alcohol. - -=How to Know when to Draw from the Vat.=—It is said in general terms -that the wine should be drawn from the vat when the active fermentation -is finished. This is known by the taste of the wine by those long -familiar with the vinous flavor which takes the place of the sweet -taste of the sugar; it is also recognized by the cessation of the -production of carbonic acid and the consequent bubbling, the falling -of the temperature, the settling down of the marc, and by the clearing -of the liquid. If the must or new wine shows from 0° to 1° by Baumé’s -hydrometer, or from 0° to 2° by Balling’s saccharometer, nearly all -the sugar will have been converted into alcohol; I say nearly all, for -all the sugar is not converted till long after the wine is drawn from -the vat. Boireau says that the fermentation is yet incomplete when the -hydrometer marks several degrees of density, and the liquid is warm, -sweetish, and muddy. He says, moreover, that care should be taken that -active fermentation has entirely ceased before putting the wine in -pipes, for if it is still sweetish and fermenting, it will remain sweet -a long time, and ferments will often remain in suspension, which will -render the wine difficult to clear, and liable to ferment and become -sour. - -=Method of Drawing from Vats and filling Casks.=—If the pipes are on -the same level with the vat, or higher, the new wine is run from the -vat through a faucet into buckets and carried in them to the casks and -poured into these through a funnel, or is run into a large receptacle -or tub placed immediately under the faucet and pumped into the casks -by means of a force pump. But the more expeditious way is to have the -casks ranged on a level lower than the bottom of the fermenting tank, -and then to run the wine directly into them through a hose attached -to the faucet. Of course, careful men must be in attendance to watch -the operation, and close the faucet as soon as the cask is filled, and -immediately transfer the hose to an empty one, so that the wine may not -run over and waste. - -Where the wine is drawn from more than one vat, it should be equally -distributed through all the casks, so that the quality may be as nearly -uniform as possible. If the press wine is to be mixed with the vat -wine, the casks should only be filled to three-fourths or four-fifths -of their capacity, in order to leave room for the former. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 6._ Wine Presses.] - -=Wine Presses.=—Wine presses are constructed in several different -forms, and the force is applied by means of a simple lever, consisting -of a long timber weighted at the end and rigged with a rope and pulley -to raise and lower it, or by means of a large screw. Hydraulic presses -are also used in large establishments. It is not necessary here to give -a detailed description of a press of either kind, for the prospective -wine maker will examine the different ones and see them in action, -and choose according to his means and necessities. Fig. 6 represents -screw presses. A very simple one, however, and which can be made by -any carpenter, consists of a box two or three feet square, and a foot -or more high. This box, however, is made up of sections, each of which -is five or six inches high; and they should be constructed of strong -two-inch timber, well mortised together, and perforated with small -holes through which the wine may ooze out. The height, and consequently -the capacity of the box or receptacle will depend upon the number of -sections used. A broad board constitutes the bottom of the press and -should be larger than the receptacle itself, and be provided with a rim -open in the middle of the lower side, and having a shallow spout for -the wine to run through. This bottom is firmly placed so as to incline -slightly forward, the sections are placed on it, one on the other, -till the box is of the desired height, then the marc from the vat is -filled in and a head or follower fitted to the inside of the box is -placed on the marc, and pressure is applied with a lever. This lever -is a strong piece of timber with its fulcrum end placed in a mortise -in a large tree, or adjusted in any other suitable manner, allowing -free play to the other end to which is attached the rope and pulley to -facilitate its movement. - -=Pressing and Press Wine.=—In the manufacture of all but fine wines, -it is the usual practice to mix the press wine with the wine from -the vat. And as the wine remaining in the pomace is about one-fourth -of the whole, it will be equally distributed among all the casks by -filling with it the vacancy left in them. If a light pressure is first -applied, the wine of the first pressing will differ but little from the -vat wine. After this, however, the marc should be spaded and stirred -and pressure applied again, and the process repeated till the wine no -longer flows. During the last pressing it is necessary to apply so -much force that a great amount of coloring matter is pressed from the -skins, and tannin from the seeds, and also from the stems when not -removed, and the advantage of color may be more than counterbalanced by -the excess of tannin. There may be danger of giving the wine too much -astringency by mixing the last pressings. - -=Special Practice for Fine Wines.=—Mr. Boireau indicates the practice -in making common wines, as follows, as a warning to those who can make -fine wines. He says that the wine which the marc contains is removed by -pressing it almost to dryness, and that the wine thus obtained is very -muddy, very harsh, and sometimes sour, particularly when the upper part -of the crust has not been removed, where open vats are used and the -marc not submerged. The greater part of the proprietors of the ordinary -growths have the deplorable habit of mixing the press wine, without -clearing it, with the limpid part drawn from the vat. He says that it -should be kept separate, or otherwise the better part of the wine will -be made muddy and difficult to clear. - - -TREATMENT OF RED WINE. - -=Insensible Fermentation.=—After the wine has undergone its active -fermentation, has been drawn from the vat and been filled into casks, -the latter should be at once stored in a suitable place above ground -of even, moderate temperature, or in an underground cellar whose -temperature is not much below 60° F. The new wine still contains some -sugar, and a slow fermentation goes on, bubbles of gas are given off, -and sediment falls to the bottom. This is called the secondary or -insensible fermentation, and when this is finished and no more gas -arises, the wine has become clear. A good deal of the carbonic acid -that rises in bubbles is not produced by the insensible fermentation, -but has become dissolved in the wine during the active fermentation, -and is gradually given off with the new gas produced. While the gas is -produced in the cask, it must not be closely bunged, but the bung-holes -should be loosely covered with a vine leaf, a block, an inverted bung, -or a bag of sand, so that the gas may escape. Various patent bungs have -been devised with the same object. - -The wine should be tasted at each filling of the cask during this -period to ascertain whether the insensible fermentation has entirely -ceased, which may be known from the fact that it has lost the peculiar -pungent flavor of the carbonic acid. As soon as this fermentation is -ended, the casks should be tightly bunged with conical bungs, which can -be easily removed during the period when it is necessary to fill up -frequently. - -=Ulling or Filling Up.=—Owing to the escape of gas and to evaporation, -vacant spaces are rapidly formed in the casks which must be filled -with the same kind of wine as that contained in them. It is well to -keep a certain amount of the wine of each vintage in smaller vessels, -to be used for this purpose, such as barrels, kegs, demijohns, and -bottles, according to the extent of the vintage. If one vessel is -partly emptied, the remaining wine should be put into a smaller one. -It is absolutely necessary that all of the casks be kept full or the -wine will spoil. (See exceptions under _Sweet Wine_.) For this purpose, -during the first week they should be filled every day or two, then -two or three times the next week, and later, once a week, once in two -weeks, and finally once a month. This is governed a good deal by the -rapidity of the evaporation, which depends upon the cellar or place -of storage. This operation is performed by means of any vessel with -which the wine can easily be poured into the bung-hole; the convenient -utensil, however, is a vessel in the form of a small watering pot with -a long spout, with which the bung can easily be reached. (Figs. 7 and -8.) A good substitute is an ordinary tin funnel with a flexible rubber -tube attached to the small opening. Where the casks are piled up in the -cellar so that the bungs cannot otherwise be reached, a funnel called -the Z funnel (fig. 9) is used, which is provided with a long spout or -tube turning at right angles to the upper part, and whose tip turns -down, and which can easily be passed between the casks to the bung. If, -however, the bung cannot be reached, a small hole is bored in the upper -part of the head of the cask, and the wine put in with a Z funnel whose -tube turns at right angles but does not turn down at the tip (fig. 10.) -The vent is opened in the highest part of the bulge, and wine is poured -into the funnel whose tip is in the end hole till it rises to the vent, -which is then closed, and the funnel is removed and the hole closed. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 7._ _Fig. 8._ - -Ulling Pots.] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 9._ Z Funnel. - -_Fig. 10._ Z Funnel.] - -As some wine is liable to be lost in ulling a cask whose bung is out -of sight, to avoid this, an instrument in the form of a watering pot, -similar to figs. 7 and 8, has been devised, but whose top is entirely -covered, the wine being poured into it through a tube which is closed -with a cork when in use. The vent is near the tip of the spout on the -under side, so that the wine will run as long as the cask is not full, -but will stop as soon as the vent is covered by the wine rising in the -cask. It is convenient to have a stopcock on the spout. - -Many of these implements are provided with a socket to hold a candle. - -=Summary of the Rules for the Treatment of New Red Wines.= - - 1. Put the casks, well bunged, in a cellar or other - well closed place, and keep them constantly full, by - frequently and regularly filling them with wine of the - same kind. - - 2. Rack the wine as soon as the insensible - fermentation has ceased and the wine has become limpid, - _i. e._, about December; rack again before the - vernal equinox; towards the summer solstice; and also - near the autumnal equinox. Racking should always - be done, if possible, during cool weather. - (See _Racking_.) - - 3. To prevent secondary fermentations, draw off the wine - whenever by tasting you recognize by the flavor that it is - commencing to work. - -If the wines are bright, avoid fining, and so preserve their fruity -flavor; but if they remain muddy after the second racking, fine them -after the third drawing off with the whites of eggs, and leave them the -shortest possible time on the finings. - -Mr. Boireau says that by such treatment wines will be obtained limpid -and free from secondary fermentations, and that grand wines will so -preserve their fruity flavor; while if they are allowed to work again -after the cessation of the insensible fermentation, they will lose -their fruity flavor and mellowness, and become too dry. In order to -avoid this dryness produced by secondary fermentations, which will -considerably diminish the value of the wines, and especially of grand -wines, some wine makers place the casks with the bung on one side -after the June racking; this practice should not be followed, for the -elevation of the temperature at that season is liable to set them -fermenting. - -The idea is in all cases to avoid mixing the lees with the wine, and -if young wines are to be shipped before the arrival of the period of -the first racking, they should nevertheless be carefully drawn off, -if they have already become clear, for to mingle again the lees -with wine, predisposes it to secondary fermentations, and renders it -difficult to clarify. - -=Treatment of Old Red Wines.=—Wines after the fourth racking are -treated as old wines. When they have acquired a clean taste, are limpid -and no longer ferment, the casks should be carefully filled and tightly -bunged, and they should be stored in a suitable place, with the bung -turned to one side. The bung being thus constantly wet swells and -exactly fills the hole, the wine keeps better, there is less loss by -evaporation, and constant filling up is avoided. - -If it happens that by bad treatment the wines are not clear and behave -badly, they should receive the necessary treatment, and be clarified -before permanently put away with the bung at the side. - -In cellars and other well closed places, old red wine, clean-tasting, -bright and quiet, stored in good, well hooped casks, need only two -rackings per year, one in March and the other in September, unless for -some reason it loses its limpidity by entering again into fermentation, -which will be discovered by tasting from time to time. In that case, -it should immediately be drawn off without regard to the date of the -former racking, and then fined. - -Care should be taken not to leave ullage in the cask of old wine, by -frequent samplings and tastings. And when it occurs, in order to avoid -its effects, the wine may immediately be drawn into a smaller cask, -and this is necessary more frequently in airy storehouses where the -evaporation is greater than in cellars. - -Boireau says that if these rules are carefully observed the wines will -improve, and develop all the qualities which by their nature they are -susceptible of acquiring. The greater or less degree of fineness which -they acquire by aging under proper conditions results principally from -two causes: The first is the deposit of coloring matter and divers -salts which the new wine contains in dissolution, and which become -insoluble by entering into new combinations, and which in their turn -are removed at each racking, with the lees; the second cause is the -transformation of the tannin, which gives the wine a certain degree -of roughness, into gallic acid, and its extraction in the insoluble -combinations which it forms with the different principles contained in -the wine and with the finings which are introduced. It follows that old -wine loses part of its color and soluble salts, and a great part of the -tannin which it originally contained. Its taste is more delicate, its -flavor, which was masked by these different matters, comes out better, -its bouquet commences to develop, and its mellowness is more pronounced. - -These remarks are more particularly applicable to grand wines, for in -many of the ordinary ones the fruity flavor which they have when new -is lost before the end of the first year, because the mucilages and -pectine, which give them their mellowness, are either precipitated with -the lees or are destroyed by insensible fermentation. In general these -wines lack firmness, body and tannin, and many of them show a strong -tendency to lose their color. - -The time necessary for wines to remain in wood in order to acquire the -highest degree of perfection which they can acquire in casks, depends -upon the quality of the wine; wines of strength and body require more -time than feeble ones. - -Our author says that, on the average, the poorest wines of the Médoc -become bright about the end of two years, and if they are kept longer, -they lose their mellowness. But on the other hand, the firm and -full-bodied wines of the same localities require to remain in wood -a year longer to arrive at perfect maturity. Certain wines strongly -charged with tannin, coming from certain localities, and those made -from the _verdot_ grape, are long in developing, but they keep so much -the longer. - -When they have attained their entire development and the separation of -the lees is complete, they must be bottled, for they will lose their -qualities if left in casks. In bottles they arrive at perfection; they -acquire bouquet while they preserve their mellowness, but in casks, -they finally lose their fruity flavor and velvety smoothness, and -become dry. - -And he gives the following: - - =Summary of Rules for the Care of Old Red Wines.= - - 1. They should be kept in places perfectly closed, - and before turning the bung to one side, we should be - satisfied that they are perfectly bright, quiet, and - well behaved. - - 2. They should be drawn from the lees twice a year; - the casks should be kept full; and they should be kept - from secondary fermentations by watching and opportune - racking. - - 3. Keep down the loss by evaporation by all means - possible, and keep them in close cellars, in strong, - well hooped casks, and avoid ullage. - - 4. Bottle them before they lose their fruity flavor, - and as soon as they cease to deposit. - -Thus will they acquire all the qualities of which by their nature they -are susceptible. - -But if they are kept in places to which the air has free access, the -evaporation will be great; and if the casks are left with ullage caused -by too frequent sampling, or too infrequent racking, they will work, -become dry, lose their mellowness, and become slightly affected by -acetic acid, produced by contact with the air. - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -WHITE WINE. - - -=Made from both Red and White Grapes.=—As the color of grapes resides -entirely in the skins, with the exception of a few varieties such as -the _Tienturiers_ and the American variety _Lenoir_, which have colored -juice, with these exceptions, white wine may be made from both white -and colored grapes. - -=Differences between Red and White Wine.=—Instead of putting the -pomace into fermenting vats, it is taken immediately to the press, and -the juice is fermented by itself, free from stems, skins, and seeds, -and is therefore not only free from the coloring matter contained -in the skins, but also from the numerous matters that are contained -in red wine, extracted from the pomace during fermentation. It is -true that white wine may be made from white grapes by the process -that is employed in making red wine from colored grapes, but then it -ceases to be what is commonly called white wine, and possesses all -the characteristics of red wine except its color, which of itself has -little effect upon the wine, except to change its appearance; for -when white wine has been colored by the addition of a small quantity -of very dark wine, it remains white wine still in all its other -characteristics, and the difference is readily detected by experts. - -=Hygienic effects of Red and of White Wine.=—Dr. Guyot says that white -wines generally are diffusible stimulants of the nervous system; if -they are light, they act rapidly upon the human organism, and excite -all its functions. But they escape as readily by the skin and excretory -organs, and their effect is of short duration. Red wines, on the other -hand, are tonic and persistent stimulants of the nerves, muscles, and -digestive organs; their action is slower and more prolonged; they do -not increase perspiration or the excretions, and their action generally -is astringent, persistent, and concentrated. - -=Process of Making.=—As the must comes from the press it is either -immediately run into casks, or is first put into a vat to settle. In -the latter case it is allowed to stand in the settling vat from twelve -to twenty-four hours, and a large portion of the yeasty parts settle -to the bottom, a thick scum rises to the surface, and the must becomes -partially cleared. The scum is then skimmed from the top, and the -liquid is drawn off into casks, leaving the heavy lees. By this means -a great part of the fermentive matter is immediately removed, and the -wine does not ferment as thoroughly nor as rapidly as it otherwise -would, and retains a portion of its sugar and its sweetness longer. In -the Champagne districts the musts for sparkling wines are thus treated. -If the weather is very warm, it may not be practicable to do this, -because fermentation will set in before the must has time to settle. -If, however, it is desired to make a dry wine, the must is not put into -a settling vat, but is run from the press directly into the casks. - -=The Barrels= in which white wine is fermented and stored are generally -of small size, of a capacity of from 30 to 150 gallons, or say 50 or 60 -gallons on an average, and it is considered in France that it preserves -its good qualities in casks of moderate size better than in large ones. -It is to be understood, however, that it is considered advisable in -most parts of France that white wine should retain a portion of its -sweetness and be mellow rather than dry; but if it is desirable to make -a dry wine, larger casks may be used for fermenting and storing. (But -see _Summary of Rules_, below, and _Casks_.) - -=Filling the Barrels during Fermentation.=—A question upon which -there is some difference of opinion, is whether the casks should be -immediately filled to their full capacity and kept filled up during -the first fermentation, so that the scum and foam will be thrown out -of the bung, or whether a vacant space shall be left in each barrel, -so that all the matter thrown up by the fermentation shall remain. The -objections to allowing the wine to _boil over_ are that much good wine -is thereby lost, and the outside of the barrels and the floor of the -fermenting house or cellar becomes foul. When the active fermentation -ceases, whatever has been thrown up in the form of a dirty scum -will settle to the bottom with the rest of the lees, and is no more -injurious than the latter. If, however, the foam is allowed to run -over by keeping the barrels full, a portion of the yeasty parts will -be thrown out, fermentation will not go on as tumultuously nor be as -complete, and the wine will longer retain a portion of its sweetness. -So that the practice in this behalf, as in most others where there is a -diversity of practices in making white wine, depends upon whether it is -desired to make a very dry wine, or one that retains a portion of its -sugar. But in the Champagne districts, although they allow the marc to -settle, they do not allow it to run over in fermenting. - -=Pressing and Filling.=—The pomace is pressed in the same manner as -the marc of red wine, in two or three different pressings. The usual -practice is to fill the barrels with an equal amount of must from each -pressing, so that the contents of all shall be uniform in quality. If -it is known beforehand how much wine can be made from a given quantity -of grapes, the requisite number of barrels will be provided for each -lot, and the must of each pressing will be equally distributed in all. -(See _General Chapter_.) - -=Different kinds of White Wine.=—Boireau divides white wines into -three classes: dry, mellow, and sweet, whose characteristics depend -essentially upon the density of their musts. - -=In Dry White Wines= fermentation is complete, and all the sugar that -is appreciable by the taste or the hydrometer, except the small amount -changed into other substances, is transformed into alcohol and carbonic -acid. The grapes are gathered as soon as ripe, and are not allowed to -shrivel. The density of the must rarely exceeds 13° Baumé. - -=Mellow White Wines= are those which preserve a small quantity of sugar -after the tumultuous fermentation has ceased, and which gives them -mellowness and unctuosity. To produce these wines, it is necessary to -increase the density of the must, which is accomplished in the Gironde -by leaving the grapes upon the vines until they shrivel and turn brown -(white grapes are used), and they are gathered by several successive -pickings. The density of the must is from 12° to 15° Baumé. These wines -occupy the place between dry wines and sweet wines. - -=White Sweet Wines= (=vins de liqueur=) are those which preserve a -considerable portion of their sugar, which renders them very sweet. And -in order that they may retain their sweetness in aging, the must should -mark 15° to 20° Baumé. - -=The Grand White Wines= of France and Germany do not require any -different treatment from that already described, except that the -greatest care is exercised in assorting the grapes and allowing them -to arrive at the period of greatest maturity, and, of course, they are -made from the choicest varieties. - -In describing the condition in which the grapes are when gathered, the -French use the word _pourris_, which is usually translated _rotten_. -But Boireau says that it must not be supposed that the grapes are -spoiled (_gâtés_) because they are _pourris_; the condition which -is sought is a sort of natural dessication effected by the heat of -the sun, which evaporates a part of the water of vegetation and -concentrates the saccharine matter, as well as the savory and aromatic -principle, and bakes the grape, as it were. If the weather remains -dry, the grapes remain for a fortnight perfectly ripe without any -deterioration of the skin, but little by little it changes from yellow -or golden to brown, loses its consistency and _rots_, or rather cracks -and gives way. It is then that dessication commences; the rays of the -sun penetrate the thin pellicle and volatilize the water of vegetation. -In order to better accomplish this result a portion of the leaves are -removed from the vine when the grapes are nearly ripe. Those grapes -only are picked which are sufficiently shriveled; if only a part of the -cluster is ripe, a few grapes are removed at a picking. The vines are -usually gone over in this manner three times. At Barsac and Sauternes -the white wines are known by three different names, indicating in their -order their strength and sweetness: The first, or sweetest, are called -_têtes_; the second, _centres_; and the third, _queues_; or head -wines, middle wines, and tail wines. If the must does not indicate more -than 12°, 13°, or 14° Baumé, the wine cannot be expected to preserve -its sweetness and mellowness in aging. If it is desired to make the -sweet head wines, having the inimitable flavor (_goút de roti_) which -they get from the great maturity of the grapes, the density must be -allowed to increase till Baumé’s instrument marks 18° to 20°. Wines -from must of 16° Baumé will preserve their sweetness for a long time, -but as they develop a large amount of alcohol, it is preferable that -they be sweeter, and that the must mark 18° to 20°. As these wines do -not develop more than 15 to 16 per cent. of alcohol by fermentation, -they will not bear transportation through tropical climates with -safety, and it is necessary to add spirit enough to raise the strength -to 18 per cent. If, however, they are carefully managed, and kept in a -cool cellar, they will remain sweet. - -=Treatment of White Wines.=—During the active fermentation they should -be left in a moderately warm place of even temperature, and until the -foaming has ceased. Then, they may be stored in a cooler place if -desirable, or may be left where they are. But then the bungs should -be loosely closed with a chip or anything that will allow the escape -of gas, and the casks must be filled up every two or three days. When -the gas has ceased, they should be bunged tight, and filled up once or -twice a week, according to the rapidity of evaporation, until the first -racking. (_See below._) - -=To keep Sweet.=—If it is desired that the wine should preserve a -portion of its sweetness and remain mellow, care should be taken not to -disturb it after it has commenced depositing, for thereby the sediment -and ferment will be again mingled with the wine and its fermentation -rendered more active, all its sugar may be transformed, and the wine -become dry. Fermentation may be checked at any period by sulphuring, -as is described under the proper head (see _Sulphuring and Unfermented -Must_), and so the wines may be made dry or sweet at will; but if the -sweet ones contain less than 15 per cent. of alcohol they will ferment. -By sulphuring they may be kept sweet from one vintage to another, -even if the musts have not a high degree of sugar; but they must be -constantly kept under the influence of sulphurous acid and protected -from the air. But the frequent sulphuring and racking which they must -necessarily undergo gives them an odor and a flavor of sulphur; and if -they are not watched they ferment. - -The care to be given to white wines after the first racking depends -upon their character. - -=In the Case of Dry Wines=, whose sugar has all been transformed, the -same attentions are to be bestowed as in the case of new red wines, and -the rules laid down are referred to. (See _Red Wine_.) - -=Mellow White Wines=, that is, those which retain a portion of their -sweetness after the tumultuous fermentation, particularly if they do -not carry 15 per cent. of alcohol, require the greatest amount of -care in order to preserve their mellowness in aging; for if left to -themselves they will again enter into fermentation, and become dry. -Such wines should be preserved against all ulterior fermentations, -and should be made perfectly bright and freed from ferments, but this -should be done with as little fining or filtration as possible, which -diminishes their mellowness. - -It may be well to note that the less alcohol that mellow wines have, -the more susceptible they are to fermentation, and the consequent loss -of their mellowness. - -Those which have 15 per cent. and have kept their mellowness after the -first fermentation, do not lose it as readily as those of a lesser -degree. If they have less than 15 per cent. of spirit and are sweet, to -retain their sweetness, they must be completely clarified to free them -from ferments; and in some cases it is necessary not only to rack them, -but at the same time to sulphur them, and fine them with gelatine after -adding tannin. - -Such wines, not having naturally terminated their fermentation, which -was arrested by sulphurous acid, reiterated rackings, the extraction of -ferments, and the lowering of the temperature—have a natural tendency -to ferment; and the arrested fermentation readily recommences if the -wine is left to itself, if vigilance is relaxed, if the temperature -increases, or if subjected to the movement of transportation. - -On the contrary, in those which have acquired the largest amount of -alcohol possible by fermentation (between 15 and 16 per cent.), no new -spirit is formed at the expense of the sugar, except in case of loss of -strength by evaporation or other enfeebling cause. - -=Summary of Rules= for the treatment of mellow white wines, according -to Boireau: - - 1. They should be stored in perfectly closed places, - in strong, well hooped casks. - - 2. The casks should always be kept tightly bunged, - and constantly full, by frequent and regular ullings, - with bright wine of the same quality, and having the - same temperature. - - 3. They should become bright, be protected against - secondary fermentations, and freed from the yeast - which they contain by rackings during the first year, - according as their lees are deposited. Fining should - not be resorted to except when they cannot be cleared - by racking at the proper time (rigorously protected - from contact with the air) into a cask sulphured with a - double square of a sulphur match. - - 4. When they have been three or four years in wood, - if they are not then bottled, they should be racked and - transferred to tuns where they receive the same care; - the tuns should be first tempered with wines of the - same class. - - 5. They must be constantly watched and frequently - tasted to assure one’s self that they do not enter into - fermentation; if they do, they must be racked at once. - -=Racking.=—When they remain calm after the insensible fermentation is -terminated, whether they are old or young, they should be racked three -times each year; first, at the sprouting of the vine in the spring, in -March, before the equinox; secondly, at the flowering of the vine in -June, before the summer solstice; and thirdly, at the ripening of the -grape in September, before the autumnal equinox. (See _Racking_.) - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -CASKS. - - -Casks are almost universally made of oak, though other material has -been tried, but generally to be abandoned in favor of the first named. -Large, covered tanks of redwood are used to some extent in California -for storing red wine, being first well steamed to extract the coloring -matter of the wood, but they are not considered desirable, and had -better be replaced by oak casks. - -=Oak Wood.=—In France very nice distinctions used to be made as to -the kind and nationality of the wood used, the shook from the north, -Dantzig, Lubeck, Memel, Riga, and Stettin, taking the first rank, that -from America the second, and that known as Bosnian, from the southern -provinces of Austria and the north of Turkey in Europe, the third, and -that of France the fourth. That from America is the most pliable, but -is liable to be found worm-eaten. - -All kinds of oak wood contain in different proportions fourteen -different principles, several of which are dissolved by wine, and -among the most important of which are tannin, gallic acid, a bitter -extractive, mucilage, vegetable albumen, and several of pronounced -smell and taste. The Bosnian oak contains the most tannin and soluble -matter, and is suitable for highly colored wines. But now-a-days there -is not so much stress laid upon the quality of the wood as formerly. -Their extracts serve often to correct some of the defects of the wine, -and many of them are neutralized by the ingredients of the latter. By -the introduction of their tannin and albumen the clarification of wine -is facilitated; but none but new wine whose insensible fermentation is -not yet completed should be put into new casks, for they cause older -wines to lose their transparency, and give them a woody flavor which -may last a long time. Therefore, temper your new casks with new wine. - -=Storing Casks.=—Casks should be kept in a closed place, not so dry as -to cause much shrinkage, nor so damp as to cause mould. In California -during the summer, there is no danger from the latter, but the former -should be guarded against. In winter, the reverse is the rule. Where -casks are to be kept a long time empty, they should be sulphured and -tightly bunged, and the sulphuring should be repeated every six months. -But they must be carefully washed before putting wine into them. They -are less liable to be attacked by the borer if stored in a dark place. - -=New Casks.=—Before putting wine into a new cask, it is ordinarily -sufficient to give it a thorough washing with boiling water. Pour in -one or two gallons of hot water, bung it up, and roll it and shake it -about till it is thoroughly rinsed, letting it rest awhile on each end, -and not only will this sufficiently cleanse the cask, but will show if -there are any leaks. When the water is nearly cold, let it run out, and -thoroughly rinse with cold water, and turn down the bung-hole and leave -till well drained. - -Mr. Maigne recommends that a couple of pounds of salt be dissolved in -the first water, and that the second washing be made with a decoction -of peach leaves. Often the casks are soaked for a day with cold water, -then washed with lime water, prepared by adding four pounds of lime -to two gallons of boiling water for a 100-gallon cask. After thorough -agitation, it is washed with cold water. Sometimes, too, the cask is -washed with a gallon or so of boiling wine, but it is an unnecessary -waste. - -Mr. Boireau says that when it is necessary to put old or very delicate -wines into new casks, the greater part of the soluble matters can be -extracted in the following manner: Pour in about two gallons of boiling -lye made from ashes or potash, or other alkaline substance, such as -slacked lime or pulverized chalk, etc., for they will dissolve out more -of those soluble matters than pure water. After thoroughly agitating -the cask, pour out the lye, and repeat the process; afterwards rinse -with boiling water, and run it out before cold; then wash with cold -water acidulated with one-tenth part of sulphuric acid, which enfeebles -the solubility of these matters; finally, rinse with cold water and -drain. - -These latter operations may be avoided by first washing with hot water, -and then filling the casks with common wine of the color of that -intended to be put into them, and leaving them for about two weeks. - -And before filling them with a grand red wine, it will be well to -moisten the inner walls of the cask with a glass or so of good, old -brandy. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 11._ Rinsing Chain.] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 12._ Visitor.] - -=Old Casks=, or those which have been in use, should be well washed as -soon as emptied, and the washings should be repeated with clean water -until it runs out perfectly clear. Oftentimes the cask will have more -or less lees adhering to its inner walls, which cannot be removed by an -ordinary washing, but it will be necessary to make use of the _rinsing -chain_. This chain is about six feet long, consisting of links made of -square iron whose corners will more readily detach the lees. One end is -attached to a long conical bung to keep it from falling into the cask, -and the other is armed with a square block of iron of a size to easily -go into the bung-hole (fig. 11). After pouring in two or three gallons -of boiling water, leave the cask for a while so that the lees may -become softened, then introduce the chain by the bung-hole, and close -it with the bung at the other end of the instrument. Thoroughly roll -and agitate the cask until the chain and its iron block have removed -the lees so that they will run out with the water. Repeat the operation -with clean water as often as necessary, and rinse till the water runs -out limpid, and let the cask drain. - -=To Examine the Inside of a Cask=, an instrument called a _visitor_ is -used. This is simply a piece of heavy wire bent into a loop or handle -at the upper end, with the lower end turned up and bent around into the -form of a small ring into which a candle can be inserted (fig. 12). -Put a piece of a candle into this candlestick or socket, light it, -and lower it into the cask through the bung, and the interior can be -inspected. - -=Empty Casks should not be allowed to remain long without Washing=; -as soon as the lees are removed, they should be rinsed as already -mentioned, and they should not be put to drain in the sun, for the heat -will transform the alcohol remaining into vinegar in a few hours. - -=Sulphuring Casks.=—If the cask is to be kept empty for some time, -after it has been washed and then drained for a few minutes, it should -be sulphured by burning in it a piece of sulphur match about an inch -square, and it should then be left to drain dry. After twenty-four -hours, burn in it three or four inches of the match, and bung it up -with the gas in it. Store it in a suitable place as described for new -casks, and sulphur it every three months. (See _Sulphuring_.) - -=Condition to be Examined.=—In using an old cask, as well as a new one, -the first thing to ascertain is if it leaks. If the hoops are loose, -they should be driven; then pour in two or three pails of water, and -stand the cask alternately on each end, and if it is found to leak, -soak it till it is tight. If the leaks cannot be stopped by driving the -hoops and by soaking, it must be repaired. - -The next thing to ascertain is, if the cask has become sour, mouldy, -or has been otherwise injuriously affected, as it is liable to be if -put away without being carefully washed and cared for. This can be -ascertained by examining with the _visitor_, or by smelling. If, when -the candle or a piece of lighted sulphur match is lowered into the -cask, it ceases to burn, the cask probably contains a noxious gas, -which must be expelled. This may be done by blowing in the bung-hole -with a hand-bellows till the air is changed, or by standing the cask on -its lower end with the hole in the upper head open, and the open bung -turned towards the wind. If, however, it is in the condition which the -French call _eventé_, which corresponds with that diseased condition of -wine called by the same name and which we call flatness, the gas being -carbonic acid, and heavier than air, will run out of its own accord -if the open bung is turned down and the cask left for a while in that -position. - -=Flatness in the Cask=, as we will call it for want of a better term, -Boireau says, consists in the disengagement of carbonic acid gas which -is produced in the interior, and is generally found in casks which -have been bunged up without washing, and which gives them an odor of -stagnant lees with slight acidity, and will extinguish the sulphur -match. After the bad air has been expelled the cask should be well -washed with the use of the chain. A cask which has contained wine that -has become flat should receive the same treatment. If a large tun is to -be treated, the foul air should be expelled, and a man should not enter -till a light will burn in it. (See _the disease, Flatness_.) - -=Acidity= will be found in the cask if it is left for several days -uncared for; the alcohol contained in the wine remaining on the inside -of the cask acidifies in contact with the oxygen of the air, and is -soon changed into acetic acid, and the change is much more rapid in a -high temperature. Instead of being simply flat, the cask is now really -sour, and smells of vinegar. The treatment consists in either removing -or neutralizing the acid. The first can be done by steam. Turn the -bung-hole down, and conduct a jet of steam into the cask either through -the faucet-hole or the bung; the water condensed from the steam charged -with acid runs out at the bung-hole, and the process must be continued -till the water no longer has an acid flavor. - -Where it is not convenient to use steam, rinse the cask by using the -chain, and scald it out with hot lye made from wood ashes or potash, or -with quicklime dissolved in hot water. Give it several rinsings with -the alkaline solution without allowing it to cool, and, if possible, -fill it with cold water and let it soak three or four days, and rinse -as usual. If the water is allowed to remain longer in the cask it may -become stagnant. - -=Mouldy Casks.=—Casks may become mouldy inside when left in a damp -place, if the bungs are left out, or if they are leaky through -defective staves or hoops, sometimes even when they have been -sulphured, and much more if they have not been. This condition is -recognized by a mouldy smell. The surest way to treat a mouldy cask -is to take out the head, and give it a thorough scrubbing with a -stiff broom and water. If after removing the mould the staves resume -the color of wine-stained wood, it is proof that the wood has not been -affected, and the head may be replaced, and the cask rinsed in the -usual way. If, however, after removing the mould, the wood is found to -be of a brown color, it is more or less rotten. - -=Rottenness= is due to the same causes as mouldiness, and when the -inside of a cask is decayed, it is no longer fit for wine. If, however, -the mouldy cask is brown only in spots, they should be entirely scraped -off, and then it may be used. But it is best not to put good wine into -such casks, for there is danger of spoiling it. - -=Brandy Casks=, when emptied, should simply be bunged up, without -washing, as the alcohol remaining will have a preservative effect. They -should not be kept in a place which is too damp. - -=Do not Sulphur Old Brandy or Whisky Casks= which have recently been -emptied or in which any alcohol remains, or you may cause a disastrous -explosion. In preparing new casks for the reception of brandy, they -should be washed and left to drain for twenty-four hours and until -they are dry, and if they are to be kept some time, throw in a glass -or two of brandy, bung tightly, and roll and shake till the inside is -moistened with the liquor. If they are to be used at once, they ought -to be first soaked with water for three or four days to remove the -woody taste. - -Boireau says that common wines may be put into brandy barrels, or -even oil barrels which have not become rancid (olive oil barrels, I -presume), but that fine wines should never be put into them. He also -adds that wine should not be put into casks which have been used for -rum, kirsch, vinegar, absinthe, vermouth, or any other liquor having -a strong odor, traces of which will be preserved in the pores of the -wood, even after the staves have been scraped. - -=Cask Borers.=—There is a beetle which is very destructive of casks -in California, which Mr. J. J. Rivers, curator of the museum of the -University, describes as _Sinoxlylon declive_ of the family of -_Bostrichidae_. In a paper read before the Anthrozoic Club, and -reported in the _Rural Press_, Vol. XX, p. 153, 1880, he states that -at the request of Mr. Schram, of Napa county, he experimented with the -insect in order to ascertain a remedy for the ruin caused by it. He -says that “Its primary mischief is caused by the habit of the parent -insect boring a hole three or more inches for the purpose of depositing -eggs. As casks are usually much less than three inches in thickness, -the beetle taps the liquid contents, and loss accrues by leakage. The -remedy I first thought of was to select some species of wood suitable -for cask making that would be unpalatable to this insect. My endeavors -in that way have resulted in failure for the reason that this beetle -appears to have no particular dislike to oak, chesnut, pine, whitewood, -and several of the eucalypti. The next step was to saturate the outside -of the cask with a strong solution of alum water applied hot, and when -dry, a coat of linseed oil, this latter to prevent the alum from being -washed out, as it would be in time. This proved a success, for all the -examples treated with the solution were untouched, while the unprepared -were riddled by the borer.” The insect is more destructive to casks -stored in light places; it is therefore better to keep them in the dark. - -=The Size of the Casks= is a matter of a good deal of importance. For -shipping, the ordinary pipe or puncheon holding from 150 to 200 gallons -is of a convenient size for handling, but for storing it is better -to use as large a vessel as possible, and where the quantity stored -is large, tuns of from 1000 to 3000 gallons or more in size are far -preferable. In the first place, it is a well known fact that wine made -at the same time, of grapes of like varieties, from the same vineyard, -and under the same apparent conditions, turns out quite differently in -different casks, and the contents of one cask may far excel in quality -that of another. In order to insure uniformity in a large quantity of -wine, it is necessary to store it in large receptacles. - -Another, and perhaps still more important consideration, is that there -is much less loss by evaporation when the wine is stored in large -casks. The evaporation in a small barrel will be almost as great as in -a cask three or four times the size, and to keep the small one full -will require about the same amount of wine at each ulling, which must -be performed nearly as often. There are two reasons for this: first, -because the staves of small casks are thinner, and secondly, because in -them a greater surface of wine is exposed to evaporation, according to -the volume, than in the case of the larger vessel. - -Guyot says, however, that the larger the receptacles, other conditions -being equal, the more rapid the development of the wines, and the -sooner they go through the periods of their life, and arrive at -decrepitude. He says that the greater part of wines, especially light -wines and white wines, cannot endure a long sojourn in tuns, vats, and -cisterns. They go through the phases of their life with a rapidity -fatal to their good qualities; nevertheless, this fact may be utilized -to hasten the epoch when wine may be used or put upon the market; -also to produce dry wines, to vinify sweet ones, and to age those of -good body. If, therefore, his theory is well founded—and we know that -fermentation once established is more active, if the mass is great—the -intelligent man will act in this behalf as circumstances require. It -would seem, however, that a large mass would be less affected by sudden -changes of temperature, and therefore, better protected from their -consequent ill effects. - -And Boireau recommends that white wines be stored in tuns, when mature, -as already mentioned. (See _Aging_.) - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -SULPHURING—ARRESTING FERMENTATION. - - -Casks are sulphured for the purpose of destroying the activity of the -ferments contained in the lees which may remain in them, and thereby to -prevent their moulding or souring, and must and wine are sulphured to -prevent or to check fermentation, and white wine also to keep it from -turning yellow. - -=Sulphurous Oxide, or Sulphur Dioxide=, is produced by burning sulphur. -It is a colorless gas, of a suffocating odor, and is composed of equal -weights of sulphur and oxygen, or, one part of the former and two of -the latter, SO₂, and with water becomes sulphurous acid. It arrests -fermentation in two ways: first, it absorbs oxygen with avidity, and -thereby removes what may be in the must or wine, or in the cask, thus -taking away one of the conditions necessary to the life and activity -of the ferment. (See _Fermentation_.) In the second place, by the -absorption of oxygen, sulphuric acid is formed from the sulphurous -acid, in a highly concentrated state, which is destructive of the life -of the ferment. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 13._ Sulphurer.] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 14._ Maumené’s Sulphurer.] - -=The Sulphurer, or Sulphur Burner=, the instrument used for the -purpose indicated, consists of a wire with a hook at one end, and the -other attached to the centre of a long, conical bung (fig. 13). It -is convenient to have the upper end pass entirely through the bung, -allowing the latter to move up and down on the wire, so that the hook -can be raised or lowered, according to the position to be occupied -in the cask. This is used by attaching the sulphur match to the hook -and lowering it into the cask, after lighting it. The objection to -this form of instrument is, that the coal or cinder left on the hook, -after burning the match, may fall into the cask and give the wine an -unpleasant flavor. To avoid this, Mr. Maumené invented a sulphurer, -provided with a deep perforated porcelain cup, into which the match is -placed and in which it burns, and which retains the carbonized linen -(fig. 14). A piece of wire cloth bent into a cup of a similar form and -attached to the lower end of the wire answers the purpose very well. - -=Sulphur Matches or Bands= may be purchased, or they may be easily -manufactured. To make them, melt roll brimstone (stick brimstone), or -what is better, flowers of sulphur, over a slow fire (sulphur melts at -115° C. or 239° F.); tear linen or cotton cloth into strips an inch -and a half wide and 10 or 12 inches long, and dip them into the melted -sulphur, and lay them aside to cool. Then dip again, and repeat the -process, dipping and cooling, till the coating of sulphur is of the -required thickness, and they should be thickly coated, or it may be -necessary to burn too much linen to get sufficient gas. If the sulphur -is overheated, the match will be dark-colored. - -Sweet scented powders are often added to the sulphur, whose essential -oils are disengaged when the sulphur is burned, and the cask is -perfumed by their vapors. The substances usually employed are ginger, -cinnamon, the flowers of the stock gilly, iris, lavender, thyme, -violet, etc., and the matches prepared with the addition of them is -generally preferred. - -Mr. Maumené says that the smallest amount of this volatile oil gives a -perfume to the wine, which is generally advantageous, but Boireau is -of opinion, however, that these substances check the combustion of the -sulphur, and in a measure neutralize its action, and he prefers the -sulphur pure. - -=To Sulphur a Cask=, take a piece of the sulphur match and light it and -lower it into the middle of the cask by means of the sulphur burner, -and lightly put in the bung of the instrument. By applying the ear to -the staves, it can be ascertained if the match is burning. If the air -is foul in the cask, and the match will not burn, the noxious gas must -be expelled as described under the head of _Casks_. When the fire is -extinguished the burner is withdrawn, care being taken, if the hook is -used, not to drop any of the carbonized linen into the cask. If that -should happen, the cask must be washed again. As the burning sulphur -fills the cask with gas, which exerts considerable pressure, care -should be taken that the bung is not blown out into the face of the -operator. - -Sometimes a strip of the sulphured cloth is lighted at one end and -lowered into the cask, the other end being secured by putting in the -bung. This is objectionable, because it leaves the debris of the match -sticking to the bung and the stave, which may give a disagreeable -flavor to the wine. As already mentioned under the head of _Casks_, -never burn a match in a cask containing alcohol. - -=To Sulphur Wine=, if the cask is only partly full, operate the same -as in sulphuring an empty cask, only care must be taken not to lower -the match into the wine. Here the sulphur burner with a movable bung -comes in play. If the cask is full, the gas may be drawn in by burning -a match close to a hole bored in the head of the cask somewhat higher -than the faucet, drawing from the latter at the same time. It is -evident that while the wine runs from the lower hole, the gas will -be drawn in at the vent. Where it is necessary to leave a cask with -a vacancy in it for some time, flowers and souring may be prevented -by burning in it a piece of sulphur match and bunging it up, and the -process should be repeated every two weeks, and besides as often as the -bung is removed for any purpose. It is better always to keep the cask -full, for in time the sulphurous gas will communicate a disagreeable -taste to the wine, which it takes a long time to remove. - -=Sulphuring should be Avoided in Certain Cases.=—Ropy wines should not -be sulphured, for the presence of oxygen is necessary in order to help -their fermentation; nor should those wines be sulphured which it is -desirable to keep in a state of effervescence. Sulphur should be very -sparingly used in connection with red wines, as it causes them to lose -a portion of their color by rendering insoluble the coloring matter, -and precipitating it; and for the same reason it is used for bleaching -white wines, and it prevents the latter from turning yellow. Liqueur -wines which are slow of fermentation should not be sulphured, for they -need all the natural aids to fermentation. - -=Fermentation is Arrested=, sometimes, in the manufacture of white -wines, by drawing them off into well sulphured casks, using two or -three squares of the match, if the fermentation is not very tumultuous; -but if it is very active, it may be treated as mentioned below for -musts. And in most cases the proper practice is, where wine needs -sulphuring, to draw it off into the sulphured cask, and in this way the -oxygen contained in the wine is more thoroughly exposed to the action -of the gas. - -=Unfermented Must.=—By sulphuring the must, fermentation is prevented, -and thereby is produced what the French call _mute wine_; and it is the -must of white grapes as it comes from the press that is more generally -subjected to the process. It is first allowed to settle as described in -the chapter on white wine, but it must be drawn from the vat as soon -as signs of fermentation appear, and bubbles of carbonic acid rise to -the surface. And to have the must clear, it must be closely watched, -for as soon as fermentation sets in, it becomes turbid. The must should -be freed from all fragments of stems, skins, seeds, etc., and should -therefore be strained as it runs from the press. - -=It is Prepared in Two Different Ways.=—First, the cask must be -scalded, rinsed, and drained in the usual way, and then as much sulphur -must be burned in it as can be consumed, or until the match goes out -for want of oxygen. Then the cask must be rapidly made half full of -the must, and closely bunged. It should then be rolled and thoroughly -shaken until the gas has been well absorbed by the juice. The must is -then drawn off without allowing it to come in contact with the air -(See _Racking_), and into another cask which has been sulphured in the -same manner, and is treated as before. While the second cask is being -agitated, sulphur is again burned in the one just emptied, until it -goes out, and then the must is transferred back in the same manner, -and is again shaken. It is subjected to this operation four times, -and the cask is finally filled with must treated in the same way, and -tightly bunged. The more successful will the operation be, the more the -liquid is kept from contact with the air, and therefore this method -is preferable to the next. The second method is as follows: burn in -an empty cask matches representing a couple of ounces of sulphur; pour -in about five gallons of must, bung it up and thoroughly shake; take -out the bung and put in another lighted match; if it will not burn for -want of oxygen, the air must be renewed by blowing in the cask with a -bellows. Then burn the match in the cask, and afterwards pour in five -gallons more of must, bung and shake as before. Continue the process -till the cask lacks about five gallons of being full. Then five gallons -must be sulphured in another cask, and the cask filled up with this and -tightly bunged. Of course, the sulphur burner must be shortened as the -cask fills up. - -Must treated in this manner may be kept for a long time if well -clarified, and the cask is well sulphured at each racking, or a portion -sulphured when it commences to ferment. - -If it is only necessary to keep the must a short time, a portion only, -say one-third, need be sulphured. In that case there will be less odor -of sulphur, and it will soon pass away. - -=Clarification and Care of Unfermented Must.=—It should be kept in -good, strong casks, well hooped and well bunged, in closed cellars -of a constant temperature. The casks should be filled every few days -with sulphured must; and they should be frequently racked to free them -from ferments. They should not be exposed to the air when racking, and -should be racked into well sulphured casks. Boireau says that the must -may be completely clarified _before sulphuring_, by introducing about -one ounce of tannin per 100 gallons of must, and pouring into the casks -before completely filling about a quart of water in which has been -dissolved about four tablets of gelatine, and which has become cold. - -=A Sulphur Flavor= is sometimes communicated to must treated as above, -and is also sometimes acquired by wines which are put into casks which -have been sulphured for some time, without first washing them, and also -by allowing the debris of the sulphur match to fall into the cask; -this flavor is apt to pass away with time if not very pronounced, or -in that case may be removed by racking into a clean cask. But if the -wine has a very decided sulphur flavor, it must be disinfected by wood -charcoal. Several large pieces[3] of coal well cleaned and well dried -are introduced into the cask and soaked in the wine, from which they -can be withdrawn by strings attached before putting them in the cask. -Forty-eight hours are generally sufficient to remove the flavor; but -if necessary, the process may be repeated, by changing the charcoal. -In operating on white wines, a large amount of charcoal may be used -without inconvenience, but in the case of red wine, there seems to be -some danger of depriving it of a portion of its color. Mr. Maumené -says, however, that the charcoal is liable to deprive the wine of the -carbonic acid dissolved in it, it being an absorbent of that gas, and -thereby rendering the wine more subject to the action of oxygen. - -[3] Machard says about 125 grammes to a tonneau, or 4 or 5 ounces to -250 gallons of wine. - -=Other Substances have been recommended to Prevent Fermentation -in a Must=, but notwithstanding the disagreeable flavor which is -communicated by an excessive use of sulphur, no other agent has been -found which is as satisfactory, on the whole. - -=By Burning Alcohol in the Cask=, the oxygen may be removed, but the -ferments are not destroyed. Care must be taken to avoid an explosion. -Therefore, the spirit must not be poured into the cask and lighted, but -must be placed in a small vessel and lowered in through the bung, as in -the case of sulphuring. - -=The Concentrated Aqueous Solution of Sulphurous Acid= has been -recommended, but Maumené says that not only is its preservation very -difficult, but its management is more difficult than the sulphur match, -and the chances of its being mixed with dangerous substances are -considerable; and therefore no one should think of using it. - -=The Bisulphite of Lime= has been used to prevent fermentation in -wine and cider, but it does not always give satisfactory results, -and the salt is difficult to keep, and the use for wine, at least, -has generally been abandoned. In the experiments of Proust, given by -Maumené, the smallest quantity used was 15 grammes to 100 kilogrammes -of must, or about one-half ounce to 23 gallons. - -=Salicylic Acid= has been much recommended within the past few years, -but like everything else, it affects the flavor, if sufficient is used -to prevent fermentation. The quantity necessary depends upon the amount -of alcohol, ferments, etc., contained in the wine. Prof. Neubauer, -quoted by H. Endemann in _American Chemist_, says that wine which is -yet fermenting should not receive any salicylic acid, since too large -quantities of the substance are required for effective use, but that -it may be used in wine when made to prevent after-fermentation; that -it will prevent disease, but will not cure wine when diseased. Though -infallible rules as to quantity cannot be given, experiments should be -made with from .02 to .06 gramme per litre, or say from 1.165 to 3.5 -grains per gallon. A solution of 2 grammes (30.864 grains) of salicylic -acid to 100 c.c. (3.38 fluid ounces) of alcohol of 80° is employed; 1 -c.c. = 0.02 grammes; 3 c.c. = 0.06 grammes; 61.44 minims or a little -more than one fluidram = 1.165 grains, and 3.7 fluidrams = 3.5 grains. -Salicylic acid being but sparingly soluble in water, it is preferable -to dissolve in strong alcohol, and these are convenient proportions. - -It is said that 100 grammes (3½ Ap. ounces) will stop the fermentation -of 1000 litres (about 264 gals.) of must, when nearly completed; -800 grammes are necessary when in active fermentation; and 400 will -preserve the wine when made. - -But now the intelligence comes that salicylic acid has an injurious -effect upon the teeth and bones, it having an affinity for calcareous -salts (_Boston Journal of Chemistry_, Vol. XI, 143), and the French -Minister of Agriculture and Commerce, on the report of the Committee -of Public Hygiene, recommends that the sale of articles of food -adulterated with it be prohibited as injurious to the public health. -(_Ib._ Vol. XV., 45.) - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -AGING—EFFECTS OF VARIOUS INFLUENCES. - - -=General Considerations.=—Wines, from the time of their first -fermentation down to the time of their degeneration and decay, are -constantly undergoing change. Until they have acquired a certain age, -varying in each case with the quality and nature of the liquid, they -do not possess those qualities which make them an agreeable, healthful -beverage. The care to be bestowed upon them in their general treatment -not only includes what is necessary for their preservation, but also -what is necessary to _age_ them by developing in them all the good -qualities of which they are susceptible, and the means of preventing -and remedying their defects and diseases. - -=A New Wine=, when first fermented, is quite different from one even -a few months old, in respect to color, flavor, and aroma. But the -quality which it may acquire depends upon the proportion of different -substances which it contains. Some wines, poor in alcohol and deficient -in tannin, will develop their best qualities and begin to degenerate -very soon after fermentation. Such should be consumed as soon as their -insensible fermentation is completed; it is useless to attempt to age -them; while those which are stout, firm and full-bodied must be kept -several years to be completely developed. - -=The Bouquet and Distinctive Flavor= of a wine, according to Mr. -Boireau, generally, are not perfectly developed until defecation is -complete—that is to say, until, after several months’ repose under -proper conditions, they have ceased to deposit insoluble matters, and -no longer mineral and vegetable salts, ferments, and coloring matter -are precipitated. - -=Old Wine=, then, differs from a new wine of the same origin by its -color, its aroma, and flavor, and the difference is due to several -causes. - -=The Color= of old red wine is less dark on account of the -precipitation of a part of the coloring matter, which, rendered -insoluble by the formation of different combinations, has been carried -down with the lees. The red color becomes tawny in time. - -=The Aroma= of old wine is more agreeable, being largely due to ethers -which are formed by a combination of the alcohol with the acids, and -because the other aromatic principles are no longer masked by the -carbonic acid which is disengaged when the wine has been recently -fermented. - -=The Difference in Flavor= is due to several causes, such as the loss -of a great part of the mineral and vegetable salts, which have become -insoluble by combination with the tartaric, acetic, and malic acid, and -their consequent precipitation, and also to the deposit of a portion of -the coloring matter. - -So that when a wine is old, having been well cared for, it contains -less coloring matter, vegetable and mineral salts, acids free and -combined, tannin, ferments, mucilage, alcohol, etc., than when first -fermented. - -=Influences which Develop, also Destroy.=—Pellicot, quoting Béchamp, -says that a wine ages and improves under influences analogous to those -which spoil it, and he, himself, carries the idea a little farther, -and adds, that the influence which produces the amelioration in a -wine—which ages it—will, after having brought about the improvement, -cause it to deteriorate, unless its action is opportunely suspended. - -It must also be understood that certain influences which will greatly -improve a strong, alcoholic, or a sweet wine, might in a short time -entirely ruin a weaker one, or a dry wine. - -=Influence of the Air.=—When a wine of ordinary strength, a table wine, -comes into immediate contact with the air, a portion of its alcohol -evaporates, it loses its bouquet and flavor, and if long exposed, a -whitish scum is formed on its surface, called _flowers_. These have -already been described in the chapter on fermentation as _micoderma -vini_ and _micoderma aceti_. A disagreeable flavor is communicated -to the wine which the French call _goût d’ évent_, and the wine is -said to be _éventé_, or flat; and it becomes turbid, and loses its -transparency. Sometimes when the wine still contains sugar the flowers -are not formed, but a second alcoholic fermentation sets in, and it -works. If the wine is not immediately freed from contact with the -air, it acidifies, becomes pricked, and by degrees turns to vinegar. -(See _Acetic Fermentation_.) And if still longer exposed, putrid -fermentation sets in. - -Sweet wines, whose alcoholic strength exceeds 16 per cent., and which -contain a good deal of sugar, are not so liable to be injured by -the influence of the air. Not only does their high degree of spirit -interfere with acetic and putrid fermentation, but an insensible -alcoholic fermentation sometimes takes place, and the supply of alcohol -is kept up. But in time, as the sugar disappears, the alcohol becomes -enfeebled by evaporation, and then acetic fermentation sets in, as in -the weaker wines. - -In the sherry countries it is considered necessary that the wine should -be exposed to the action of the air, and therefore the casks are not -kept full, and flowers are considered a good sign. In a few instances, -where the wines are strong enough to bear it, aging may be hastened by -some exposure to the air, but great care must be taken that they are -not left too long under its influence, or disorganization may ensue. It -must, however, be laid down as an almost universal rule, that the casks -must be kept full and well bunged. (See _Ulling_.) - -=Variations of Temperature= affect wines like other liquids by -contraction and expansion. When a full cask is put in a cold place, the -wine contracts and leaves a vacant space; then it must be filled up or -the wine drawn into a smaller cask. If the temperature of the wine in a -full cask is raised, the liquid expands, and is apt to cause leaks; the -sediment is liable to rise and give the wine a flavor of the lees. - -=Influence of Heat.=—Guyot says that the higher the degree of heat to -which wines are exposed, the greater their internal activity. Those -subjected to 15, 20, 30 degrees, Celsius, (59°, 68°, 86° F.), sooner -arrive at maturity, if young, at old age, if ripe, and at decrepitude, -if old, than they would at a temperature of 10° C. (50° F.) From which -the conclusion is drawn, that wines which have nearly or quite reached -their maturity must be protected from heat, or at least from that of an -elevated temperature, and that old wines should be kept in as cool a -place as possible. - -=Aging by Heat.=—On the other hand, if we wish to hasten the maturity -of our wines, we can do so by keeping them in a warm place rather than -in a cool cellar. The younger the wines, and the more sugar and alcohol -they contain, the more they will gain, and the less risk will they -run if subjected to a temperature of from 60° to 86° F. For example, -sweet wines which are only ripe at thirty or forty years will mature -in fifteen or twenty years, at 68° of heat, and in five or ten years, -at 86°; a Bordeaux or a Hermitage wine which at 50° would be made in -eight or ten years, would certainly be made in four or five years at -from 59° to 68°, and in two or three years at 77° or 86° of heat. He -says that a temperature between 40° and 90° C. (104° and 194° F.) will -disorganize many kinds of wine, particularly red wines and those which -have remained long in the fermenting vat, though it will not have that -effect upon all wines. - -It is well known that the inhabitants of many southern countries are -accustomed to expose their wines to a considerable degree of heat to -hasten their maturity, and different methods are employed for the -purpose, and it is important to know what kind of wine will be improved -and what injured by the practice. On this subject Boireau says, that -after many experiments, he can affirm that if the heat exceeds 30° C. -(86° F.), it is injurious to the grand _mellow_ wines of the Gironde; -also to wines of a delicate bouquet whose alcoholic strength does not -exceed 12 per cent. Fine wines which possess both an aromatic taste and -bouquet, a fruity flavor, and a pronounced mellowness, by heat take -on a certain tawny flavor of worn out wine; but they become dry, lose -their mellowness, and coolness, and acquire a cooked flavor, which -changes their nature and gives them an analogy with the wines of the -south of France. This taste covers their natural flavor and renders -them common. - -He goes on to say that wines subjected to the action of heat in direct -contact with the air, loss by evaporation a part of their alcohol; the -oxygen deprives them of a part of their color, and if the influence is -prolonged, they become weak and greatly deteriorated. Exposed to heat -in imperfectly closed vessels, they deposit, and take the tawny flavor -(_goût de rancio_) if their alcoholic strength exceeds 16 per cent.; -but if feeble in spirit, and they remain long in this condition, the -oxygen transforms a part of their alcohol into vinegar. In receptacles -kept full and well stopped, they undergo but few constitutional -changes, if the heat does not exceed 158° F.; but, nevertheless, a -small part of their coloring matter is precipitated, and their taste is -sensibly changed. A flavor of cooked wine is found, and a slight odor -of the lees, no matter how quick the heating. - -Whatever the kind of wine operated upon, care must be taken not to -carry the heat too high, for it will decompose and precipitate certain -principles in dissolution in the wine, and change its natural flavor. -After cooling, voluminous deposits will be found, and the cooking -will give the wine a disagreeable flavor and an odor of the residue -of a still. The extreme limits of from 113° to 158° F. should not be -exceeded, and the greater the heat the shorter should be the exposure -to it. - -Generally speaking, the wines which gain the most by heating, either -by artificial means or by leaving them in casks well bunged, but in -ullage, in warm store rooms, are strongly fortified liqueur wines. -And in order that they be not injured under those conditions, _they -should contain at least 18 per cent. of pure alcohol_. And as they will -gradually lose a little of their spirit by evaporation, their alcoholic -strength should be taken from time to time, and they should be kept up -to the indicated degree by fortifying. - -=Preserving Wine by Heat.=—Aside from the question of aging wine by -the effect of heat, Pasteur has attempted to show that wines can be -kept without change, if the temperature is raised for a short time to -130° or 140° F. This is on the theory that wines become flat, pricked, -turned, or rotten, owing to secondary fermentations, and that each -change is due to the action of a particular ferment, as stated in -the chapter on fermentation; and that this degree of heat destroys -the action of these ferments—in fact, kills them. It is owing to the -presence of the alcohol, that they are destroyed by this degree of -heat, for a must which has been raised to the boiling point still -ferments according to the experience of Boireau and of Pellicot. The -first named gives the results of his experiments in heating wines -according to Pasteur’s plan. The wine was in bottles, and the heat was -gradually raised to 52° C. (125.6° F.) In comparing the wines treated -with unheated wines kept under the same conditions, he found that the -wine which had been heated could support contact with the air with -less injury than the unheated, but that nevertheless it became flat, -covered with flowers, and acidified even in closed vessels which were -not completely full; also that fine wines generally are injured by the -process. The wines experimented upon had from 10 to 10½ per cent. of -alcohol. - -It is a costly process to subject wine to a high artificial heat, and -owing to the doubt which yet seems to attend the matter, but few are -likely to go to the expense. - -=Influence of Cold.=—Most authors have something to say on the subject -of congealed wines, and undoubtedly the liquid may be concentrated by -freezing a portion of the water, and drawing off the remaining liquid. -Those living in cold countries can try the experiment, but it will -certainly not be practiced in California. - -Mr. Boireau says that the liquid remaining acquires a flavor similar -to that possessed by wines which have been heated; that fine wines of -a delicate bouquet and flavor acquire a commoner flavor than those in -their normal state. - -=Treatment of Frozen Wines.=—It may not be amiss to indicate what -treatment a wine should receive in case it has been frozen and has -thawed again. It becomes turbid, loses part of its color, and several -matters are precipitated, or remain in suspension, and it is liable to -ferment when the temperature rises. The last named author says that it -should be put in a place of even temperature, and if necessary, it -should be fined; in which case it should be fortified with a strong -wine of the same nature, or a small amount of brandy. - -=Influence of Light.=—Guyot says that the direct light of the sun -causes wine to work, especially red wine, and that it has an injurious -effect upon its composition and color; and the coloring matter being -decomposed, or modified, acts upon the other elements and makes the -wine turn. And hence the wisdom of putting wine in colored bottles. It -is only the direct light of the sun, however, that is to be avoided, -for a dim light, light reflected or polarized, and moonlight and -artificial light are not sufficiently powerful to produce a sensible -effect. - -=Aging by Sunlight.=—Exposure to the rays of the sun has been resorted -to for the purpose of aging wine, but Boireau says that it is not -favorable to all, and is least suited to those whose alcoholic -strength does not exceed 15 per cent. He says that the direct rays -of the sun falling upon bottled wines will promptly precipitate the -coloring matter, and that the effect is greater where the bottles are -not completely filled and corked with the needle. If the bottles are -wrapped in paper, or if the wine is in casks, the aging is less rapid. -He shows by experiment that insolation is advantageous only to wines of -more than 15 per cent. of alcohol, to sweet wines, and wines fortified -up to 18°, intended to be treated as the wines of Madeira, _i. e._, -baked. But wines of about 10 per cent. of spirit will not endure this -method of aging without more or less deterioration by souring. - -=Effect of the Motion of Voyages.=—Wines age more rapidly if kept in -motion, and hence, in part, the good effect of a long voyage. Strong, -sweet wines, are undoubtedly greatly improved by the motion consequent -on transportation, as well as by the heat, but constant agitation will -cause weak ones to go rapidly through the periods of their existence, -and degenerate. - -=Wines Suitable for Shipment.=—And Dr. Guyot adds that a wine which -does not contain 12 per cent. of alcohol and 6 per cent. of sugar, -crosses the equator with great difficulty, even in bottles. In wood it -should be young and contain 20 per cent. of spirit, or sufficient sugar -to make up that amount. For a voyage in Europe, or to America direct, -he says that the wines of Bordeaux, Burgundy, and of Champagne, of 10 -to 12 per cent. of spirit and 2 to 4 per cent. of sugar, behave well if -young or in bottles. - -Mr. Boireau, however, says that wines proper for exportation, and which -will keep in tropical climates, where good cellars and good care are -generally wanting, are those which possess naturally or by addition a -high alcoholic title, a solid, but bright and handsome color, a clean -taste, and perfect limpidity. Sweet, fortified wines best fulfil these -conditions. He says that liqueur wines, for shipping to the tropics, -should have at least 18 per cent. of pure alcohol; below that they -ferment, their saccharine matter is transformed into alcohol, their -strength diminishes, and they end by becoming pricked. Dry wines, to -be sent to those countries, should have the same strength, unless the -casks are kept full. He adds, however, that these remarks only apply -to those wines which on their arrival do not receive the usual care, -such as filling the casks, clarifying and racking, and are not kept -in suitable places; and that a good firm wine of the south of France, -which has naturally at least 12 per cent. of alcohol, can be shipped -without fortifying. - -The motion and the high temperature to which wines are subjected -in transportation also cause a loss of color by precipitation, -particularly if they lack tannin. Wines which are sufficiently strong -in alcohol, but from lack of tannin want firmness and body, are liable -to acidify. Therefore, wines too poor in tannin should not be shipped -abroad. The greater part of the wines of the Gironde having plenty of -tannin, can be safely shipped if fortified to 11 per cent., and the -grand wines of less alcohol are safe if shipped in bottles. - -=In Shipping a New Wine=, whose sensible fermentation is finished, the -motion often causes a new disengagement of carbonic acid, and sometimes -in sufficient force to burst out a head of the cask, unless vented. -Of course, such wine should not be shipped, except under conditions -which admit of careful supervision. If transported short distances, a -small gimlet hole should be kept open near the bung, in which three or -four straws may be placed with the heads or spikes on, or a small tin -tube with a button at the top may be placed in the hole and bent inside -the stave, having sufficient play to allow the gas to escape. Must is -shipped in the same way. - -=Other Motion, such as Jarring and Trembling=, produced by loud noises -and bypassing teams and by factories, act injuriously upon wines, -causing them to behave badly and to deteriorate. Guyot also says -what may be by some deemed fanciful, that musical sounds hasten the -development of wine; and that most old wines will turn in a cellar -transformed into a music hall. - -=Fining= is also resorted to for the purpose of aging wine, producing -results somewhat similar to the effects of time. But it should be -performed with the care and subject to the conditions mentioned in the -proper place. (See _Fining_.) - -=Aging Generally.=—Before subjecting a wine to any of the processes -for artificial aging, care should be taken, says Mr. Boireau, to -precipitate the matters held in suspension, and to render it perfectly -limpid. - -Grand wines, however, should never be subjected to the treatment, for -if a premature development of bouquet is obtained, it is at the expense -of that precious quality, mellowness. For to-day, _gourmets_ and -consumers of refined taste do not select wines which have a bouquet, -if they are also dry and harsh to the palate; such wines are only too -plenty. They esteem above all those wines which in aging have kept -their fruity flavor, their velvety smoothness, that unctuosity which -can only be preserved in keeping them in a place having a regular -temperature (averaging 60°), in well closed receptacles, by bringing -about the defecation of their lees and the deposit of their ferments by -opportune rackings without contact with the air, and by fining them as -little as possible. - -If, for want of care or suitable places, the wines work, enter into -fermentation, their mellowness diminishes, and when neglected they -become dry. - -=The Wines which Gain the Most by the Aging Processes= mentioned, are: -1st, Wines excessively rough and overcharged with color; 2d, fortified -wines, whose minimum degree of alcohol is 18 per cent.; 3d, sweet wines -fortified to 18 or 20 per cent. - -Those which remain too harsh should be fined with a strong dose of -gelatine; continued agitation after this will make them smoother. - -Fortified wines, dry or sweet, age very quickly, if subjected to -agitation and afterwards to insolation, if followed by a complete -clarification; but it is important to fortify them anew, for the -alcohol evaporates, and below 15 per cent. they would sour instead of -acquiring bouquet. It is also sometimes necessary to add sugar to sweet -wines so treated. - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - -GENERAL TREATMENT—CELLARS. - - -=Unfortified, or Table Wines.=—After what has been said in the last -chapter of the different effects produced by the various influences -to which wine may be subjected, it remains to point out the proper -care and treatment to be bestowed upon unfortified table wines, whose -alcoholic strength does not exceed 15 per cent. The three essential -conditions indicated by Mr. Boireau are: - - 1. They should be protected from the contact of the air. - 2. They should be kept in a uniform temperature. - 3. They should be freed from their lees, ferments, and - deposits; they must become perfectly clear, and their - degeneration be prevented. - -It is very important to taste them, and keep close watch over them by -frequent visiting, in order to prevent secondary fermentations and -their consequent injurious results, particularly in the case of mellow -wines, which thereby transform into alcohol the mucilages and pectines -which they contain, and lose their fruity flavor. (See _Red Wine_, -_White Wine_, _etc._) - -=Deposits, Lees, etc.=—It is important that they should be freed from -ferments and deposits, for muddy, troubled wines are predisposed to -secondary fermentations, alcoholic or acetic; they readily contract -the bad taste of the lees, bitterness, etc. In all wines, the work -of clearing is constantly going on; different matters, among others, -coloring matter, several mineral and vegetable salts, etc., which were -dissolved in the wine, become insoluble, and these with a portion of -the tannin are precipitated to the bottom of the vessel or remain in -suspension. It is these matters with the ferments which constitute the -lees. Wines deposit more or less, according to their nature and the -care bestowed in their making. The most voluminous deposits take place -during the first year, and they diminish in volume and consistency at -each racking, if properly cared for. When they have become well settled -and bright, and have achieved their complete development, the deposit -is almost nothing. But it increases anew when the wine declines and -begins to degenerate. - -=To Prevent this Degeneration=, and to keep fully developed wines, they -must be put into bottles. (See _Wine in Bottles_.) - - -CELLARS. - -What has been said in the preceding chapter naturally leads us to the -subject of the proper place for storing wine after it has completed -its active fermentation. Cellars proper are constructed entirely under -ground, and should have vaulted roofs of masonry. If the cellar is -under a building, the arch can safely come within two or three feet of -the level of the ground, but if no building is over it to protect it -from the heat of the sun, it should be four or five feet under ground. -Many storehouses for wine are constructed partly above and partly below -ground, and others again, entirely above. Undoubtedly those below -ground are the best adapted for keeping wines which have arrived at -maturity, and for those of little alcoholic strength, but when it is -desired to rapidly develop and age an immature wine, it can be sooner -accomplished in a place of a higher temperature, and there also can a -strong wine be safely kept. - -=Temperature.=—Whatever the degree of temperature, all agree that it -should be as nearly uniform as possible; and to insure this, the cellar -should face the north or east when practicable. The outer door should -not open directly into the cellar or storehouse, but it is better to -have the entrance through an outbuilding, or at least with an outer and -an inner door, at a considerable distance. If the wine house is above -ground, its walls should be of sufficient thickness and of suitable -material to prevent changes of temperature, and it should have a loft -or room above, so that the wine may be protected from the effects of -the rays of the sun falling upon the roof; and it may also be shaded by -trees. Some of the older writers say that the proper temperature for -a cellar is 50° or 52° F., but so low a degree can only be obtained -in a well constructed cellar wholly under ground, and deep, and is not -likely to be obtained in this State. Boireau, however, says that in the -Gironde the average temperature of the cellars is from 15° to 17° C., -or 59° to 62½° F., and if a person can maintain the temperature of his -cellar or storehouse in this State uniformly at 60° he will do well. - -=Dampness.=—Formerly, when wooden hoops for casks were used, it was -necessary to guard against dampness, for they soon rotted, and required -to be frequently renewed; but now with the use of iron in place of -wood, less care is necessary in that respect. It is best, however, that -they should be sufficiently dry that mould will not form on the cask, -for a bad taste may thereby be communicated to the wine. Therefore, -cellars should not be constructed in very damp places, should have the -soil of the floor well compacted, should be well drained, and well -cemented, and if necessary, the floor may be covered with a bed a foot -deep composed of a mixture of lime, sand, and gravel, or cinders, -or the like, well beaten down, and the whole covered with dry sand. -Nothing should be left in the cellar which naturally gathers moisture. -All mould should be frequently removed, and the sand removed and -replaced with dry sand when necessary. Sawdust should not be used on -the floor. In San Francisco, the best cellars have a good asphaltum -floor, and I know of nothing better after the odor has passed away. - -=Ventilation= is necessary at times to prevent too much dampness, and -also to change the air which may become foul. Underground cellars can -be ventilated by means of a large tube, such as is used on shipboard, -provided with a broad opening at the top which can be turned in the -direction of the wind, conducting the air into the cellar. Storehouses -may have small, movable windows. In order to keep down the temperature, -the proper time to ventilate is during the coolest part of the night in -the warmer parts of this State. - -=Evaporation of the Wine=, however, must be guarded against, which -may vary from 3 to 10 per cent. per annum, according to whether the -place of storage is open or closed. In France the government makes an -allowance in favor of the wholesale merchant of 8 per cent., for loss. -And Boireau says that in dry storehouses where the air is continually -renewed by ventilation, the loss equals the allowed per cent., and -even exceeds it, particularly if the casks are weak and poor, hooped -in wood, and if the hoops are not driven when they become dry. The -loss may then reach 10 per cent., without extraordinary leakage. By -guarding against too free access of air and heat, not only will a very -considerable loss by evaporation be avoided, but also other defects -which may seriously affect the wine, such as acidity, bitterness, too -great dryness, etc. And moreover, in poor cellars the wines require -much more attention, such as ulling, racking, and frequent tasting, to -protect them from secondary fermentations. - -=Other Precautions.=—From what has been said concerning the influence -of light, motion, etc., it results that wine cellars should not be too -light, nor be situated under wagon roads where vehicles frequently -pass, nor near blacksmiths’ shops, or other noisy industries, such as -boiler making, etc. The vicinity of sinks, cesspools, sewers, and the -sources of noisome odors generally, should be avoided; and cellars -should not be used for storing milk, cheese, vinegar, or any matter -liable to ferment, such as fruit, vegetables, etc.; nor should new -wines be stored there until their active fermentation has ceased, for -these things may either communicate a bad odor and taste to the wine, -or set up in it secondary fermentations. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 15._ Cask and Support.] - -=The Casks and Tuns= should be supported by strong timbers or masonry, -and should be sufficiently elevated, so that the wine may be easily -drawn off, and should be securely blocked. Fig. 15 represents a cask -supported by timbers resting on brick work. Where the casks are -arranged in piles, those in the lower tier should have four blocks or -chocks each, for if they are blocked only on one side, they are liable -to be disturbed, and the outer ones should also have a large block -under the bulge. Of course, the outer blocks should be so adjusted -that they cannot be knocked out in passing by, and in rolling barrels, -etc. The casks of the upper tiers are rolled up on skids, or inclined -planes, and are then rolled along over scantlings, laid on the tier -below; and hoisting tackle is often of use in this connection. When, -however, the cellar is furnished with sufficient large tuns, the piling -of casks may be dispensed with. - - - - -CHAPTER XII. - -RACKING. - - -=The Racking of Wines=, or drawing off, is performed for the purpose -of freeing them from the lees. Some of the older writers recommend -that wine should be allowed to remain on the lees till February or -March, but the better practice is to draw it off as soon as it has -cleared. If it is allowed to remain long upon the lees, variations of -temperature and secondary fermentations, storms, etc., are apt to cause -it to become troubled and muddy, and acquire a flavor of the lees. -Boireau says that he has constantly observed that wines in general, -and especially those which have been fined, if racked as soon as well -cleared, say from two weeks to a month after fining, according to the -kind of finings used, place of storage, nature of the wine, etc., are -generally more limpid, have a cleaner taste, and are much less liable -to work than if left on the finings for six months, from one racking to -another. Wines not fined, which have become clear naturally by repose, -exhibit the same results; those which are racked as soon as bright, -are, in every respect, of a quality superior to those which have been -left upon their lees from one equinox to another. - -=The Conditions Indispensable to Good Racking= are stated by Mr. -Machard as follows: - - 1. To perform the operation when the weather is dry and - clear, and if possible during a north wind, for it is - only during such weather that the precipitation of the - lees can be really complete. - - 2. To avoid the operation during damp and rainy - weather, and while violent winds are blowing from the - south. - - 3. Not to proceed during a storm, because then the - lighter parts of the lees rise and produce fermentive - movements which are always to be guarded against. - - 4. Never to draw off a troubled or muddy wine, for then - it must be racked again; and in that condition the - deposits are always mixed with the wine. - - 5. Moreover, never rack at the following periods of the - vegetation of the vine: when the buds begin to swell, - at the time of flowering, and especially at the time - when the fruit commences to change color, in ripening. - - 6. Never to proceed during the heat of the day, or a - south wind, but always in the cool of the morning and - during a north wind. - - 7. To always make use of the sulphur match. - - 8. Never to leave the wine long exposed to the air. - - 9. Not to allow the wine to fall too far, so as not - to deprive it of its carbonic acid, which exerts a - conservative effect, and thus also to avoid too great - agitation, which may be prejudicial. - - 10. Finally, to use the greatest care to free it from - the least traces of sediment. - -I have repeated nearly the language of the author quoted, at the -expense of some repetition, because the rules are laid down by him more -minutely than by the other authors who agree with him in general terms. - -It is agreed that the most critical periods for wine on the lees are -the different periods of the vegetation above mentioned, which vary -somewhat in different climates, and they should therefore be racked -before these epochs arrive. - -=New Red Wines=, says Mr. Boireau, which have been properly made, which -are clear, which do not work, and which are kept in closed cellars, -should be drawn off four times during the first year; the first racking -is performed as soon as the insensible fermentation has ceased, and -the wine has become clear, _i. e._, during the first cold weather of -December; the second in March, before the sprouting of the vine, or -at the vernal equinox; the third before the flowering of the vine, in -June; and the fourth at the autumnal equinox, in September. Machard -considers that no racking is so important as that of March, and he -insists upon it that it should never be omitted, and that it should be -well done, for if the lees are all removed then, it may even go safely -till the next vintage, and the June or July racking be omitted, except -in warm climates; and then, as before observed, it should be done in -the cool of the day. Instead of waiting till September, the operation -is often performed in August, when the grape begins to turn. Of course, -the periods change somewhat in different climates, as already observed, -so that the cellar-man must familiarize himself with the conduct of the -wine in his locality, and govern himself accordingly, racking before -the period arrives when the wine usually works. - -=Old Red Wines= are racked only twice a year, in the spring and fall, -before the equinoxes, except in case of their becoming turbid by -secondary fermentations, when they must be racked, whatever the time -of year, except also in case of certain diseases. If, however, the -wine has not been well made or properly cared for, it may show signs -of fermentation and alteration, and need racking at periods different -from those above mentioned. If the wine does not clear of itself by -the time it should be drawn off, it may be necessary to clarify it by -fining (which see). But if well made and properly cared for, it will -ordinarily clear itself. - -=New White Wines= are racked as soon as they become clear, and no -precise epoch can be fixed for the operation, because the duration -of the fermentation depends essentially upon the density of the must -and the temperature. In any case, it is much more prolonged than -that of red wines. It often happens that it continues till the month -of February, when the must is very rich in sugar, especially if the -weather is cold late in the fall; while wines made of grapes from the -same vineyard, made in the same way, but less rich in the saccharine -principle, may terminate their fermentation in December. - -The racking should always be performed before the weather becomes warm, -for the elevation of the temperature will set the wine working, and the -lees will become mixed with it. Ordinarily the most favorable time is -the month of February. - -=Subsequent Rackings.=—White wine, new or old, requires to be racked -three times a year, as stated in the chapter on White Wine; _first_, -in March, at the time of the sprouting of the vine, before the equinox; -_secondly_, at the flowering of the vine, in June, before the summer -solstice; and _thirdly_, in September, at the ripening of the grape, -before the autumnal equinox. (See _White Wine, Racking_.) - -=Care to be Observed.=—Contact with the air should be carefully avoided -during the operation. The same care should be observed as in racking -red wine, and the operation is performed in the same manner, always -keeping in view that what may be essential to keep a mellow wine in -condition, may to a certain extent be neglected where dryness is -desired. - -A sulphur match ought always to be burned in the cask before wine, -either red or white, is racked into it, for thus the germs of -fermentation which may be in the cask will be rendered inactive by -the sulphurous acid formed, and which will also absorb with avidity -the oxygen, and thereby in two ways tend to prevent fermentation. The -cask, however, should not be sulphured till well drained, or the water -remaining will be impregnated with the gas, which is liable to give a -disagreeable sulphur taste to the wine which will not disappear for -some time. (See _Sulphuring_.) A cask which has been put away sulphured -must for the same reason be washed before using; and in fact no cask -should be used without washing. - -=Other Precautions.=—Great care must be taken in all cases not to -disturb the sediment by moving the cask, by pounding on the stave to -loosen the bung, or by driving in the faucet. The latter ought to be -opened before inserting it, so as to allow the air contained in it to -escape, and not to force itself into the cask and trouble the wine, -which it is liable to do by contraction and expansion, forcing in the -faucet. It should be closed as soon as the wine begins to run. It is -hardly necessary to say that an empty bucket should be kept under, when -putting in the faucet, to catch the wine that may escape. Care must -also be taken that the cask to be filled, and all the utensils used -in and about the racking, are scrupulously clean, and buckets, hose, -funnels, siphons, etc., must be washed carefully every day, for if -allowed to stand with wine in them, they will become sour. Siphons and -short tubes can be scoured by means of a brush, such as is used for -cleaning bottles and lamp chimneys, by attaching it to a long, stiff -wire. - -=Different Methods of Racking.=—The commonest way is to draw the wine -through a faucet into a bucket, and pour it into the empty cask by -means of a funnel. The faucet is placed in a hole bored in the end of -the cask, an inch or more above the lower stave. After the faucet has -been placed in position, vent the cask of wine, but not before. When -the wine no longer runs, the cask should be slightly tipped forward, -but by a very easy and gradual movement, so as not to disturb the lees. -This may be done by a man carefully lifting the rear end. A kind of -hoisting-jack (fig. 16) is used for this purpose. The lower end rests -on the ground, near the rear end of the cask, and the upper end of the -movable rod is placed under the upper chime. On turning the crank the -cask is tipped gently forward, and a ratchet catches the pinion and -prevents the return. If there is not sufficient space between the wall -and the cask to operate in the manner stated, one end of the jack is -placed against the wall above the cask, and the power is applied to -the upper forward part of the cask by placing the other end behind a -forward hoop. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 16._ Jack for tipping a Cask.] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 17._ Fork for tipping a Cask.] - -The fork (fig. 17) is used in the same way, being lengthened by means -of the screw. Fig. 18 represents another contrivance for the same -purpose. - -If only one man is employed, a lever supported above the cask by two -legs straddling it, and forming the fulcrum, the rear end provided -with a hook which hooks under the chime, and the other end extending -forward beyond the front, may be used (fig. 19). The workman, by -bearing down on the lever, or by pulling the strap at the end, tips -the cask forward. When the wine has nearly all run out, it should -frequently be examined by holding a small quantity to the light in a -small, thin glass, and as soon as the slightest appearance of lees -presents itself, the operation should cease, and none of the muddy wine -should be poured into the other cask. This method has its advantages, -in that the first appearance of cloudiness can be detected, for -the liquid is always under the eye of the operator, but it has the -disadvantage of greatly exposing the wine to the air. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 18._ Implement for tipping a Cask.] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 19._ Implement for tipping a Cask.] - -Another method which avoids the last objection, is to securely connect -the faucet of the cask of wine with the faucet of the empty one, to -open them both, and let the wine run from one to the other. If they -are both on the same, or nearly the same level, a portion only will be -transferred, and then the rest may be forced over by connecting the -tube of a hand-bellows tightly with the bung-hole of the cask of wine, -and blowing into it. This is easily done by attaching the bellows by -means of a hose to a long, hollow, conical bung. (See fig. 20.) As soon -as the air is heard in the tube, close the faucet, and before removing -it, bung the cask tight. The remaining wine is removed as in the first -method. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 20._ A Method of Racking.] - -=Pumps and Siphons= are very useful where wine is to be merely -transferred from one cask to another, but they are not well suited -for racking it from the lees, for it is difficult to make use of them -without disturbing the sediment, and thereby troubling the liquid. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 21._ Siphon.] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 22._ Siphon.] - -Figs. 21 and 22 represent two forms of siphons. They may also consist -simply of a bent tube. - -Fig. 21 shows an exhausting tube attached, by which the air is sucked -out with the mouth. - -Fig. 23 shows a rotary force pump for transferring wine from one cask -to another. Lever force pumps are also used for the same purpose. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 23._ Rotary Force Pump.] - - - - -CHAPTER XIII. - -CLARIFICATION—FINING. - - -=When Necessary.=—Wines do not always acquire the desirable state -of brightness and limpidity by repose and racking, and it becomes -necessary to clarify them. They may become cloudy through secondary -fermentations, which cause the lees once deposited to rise and become -again mixed with the liquid, or through changes of temperature, by -transportation, by careless racking, etc., and by mixing different -kinds together; or they may fail to clear naturally, because not -possessed of sufficient tannin or albumen to precipitate the -different matters held in suspension. Weak wines of poor years may -contain ferments in excess of their sugar, which may be removed by -clarification, and so fermentation be checked or retarded. Wines, -however, which are well made and properly cared for, ought to become -bright without recourse to clarification, and such will be found -preferable to, and will possess more fruitness, unctuosity, and color, -than those which have been clarified by several finings. And for -these reasons—although it may be necessary to fine such wines as do -not naturally clear themselves—care must be observed not to carry the -process too far, and deprive them of the tannin necessary to their -preservation, as well as of too much of their color, fruity flavor, and -mellowness. - -=The Different Substances Employed for Clarifying= act either -chemically and mechanically, or simply mechanically. Among the latter -are blotting paper, either in sheets or in pulp, fine sand, and -powdered stone, which are placed in the cask, and which in falling, -carry down with them the matters which are held in suspension. Wine -is sometimes clarified by filtering it through woolen bags. Those -substances which act both chemically and mechanically are albumen and -gelatine, and similar substances. - -=Of Gelatinous Substances=, two kinds are used, gelatine, so-called, -and isinglass, or fish glue, and they act in two ways. They are not -entirely dissolved in water; thin, transparent pellicles remain in -suspension, which form a sort of network in the wine, and in settling -they carry with them other insoluble matters. Thus, their action is -mechanical. The portion which is fully dissolved is pure gelatine, and -acts chemically. It combines with the tannin of the wine and forms an -insoluble substance, tannate of gelatine, which is readily precipitated. - -=Gelatine=, so-called, is prepared from the bones, skin, and tendons -of animals, and is sold in tablets or sheets, and is sometimes chipped -or broken into small fragments. It is one of the most powerful of -finings, and causes a loss by precipitation of a considerable portion -of the tannin and of the coloring matter of the wine. It should -not, therefore, be used in clarifying red wines, except when it is -desirable to deprive them of a portion of their roughness caused by -an excess of tannin, or of a portion of their color; and it should -always be employed with caution. It produces more sediment than the -two substances next named, and leaves a bad taste in the wine, unless -perfectly fresh matters have been used in its preparation. For the -latter reason, wine clarified with it should be racked from the finings -as soon as cleared. It may be profitably used to clarify common white -wines; and if they are difficult to clarify, tannin should be added as -described below. - -=Preparation.=—Take about two tablets, or one ounce, for one hundred -gallons, or double the quantity, if the greatest possible effect is -desired. Dissolve it in a dish over the fire with a little water, -constantly stirring, and do not allow the water to boil. If previously -soaked a few hours in water, it will dissolve all the more easily. Use -as directed below. - -=Isinglass, Fish Glue, or Ichthyocol= (_Ichthyocolla_ of the -pharmacists), is prepared from the swimming bladder of the sturgeon, -and usually comes from Russia. It acts in the same way as gelatine, -mechanically, and also by combining with the tannin. This is -preëminently the fining for white wine. One ounce or more maybe used -for 100 gallons. It should be broken up by pounding it with a hammer -on a block of wood, and should be chopped into small fragments, so -that it may be easily dissolved. Put it in a vessel of crockery, and -pour over it of the wine to be clarified sufficient to cover it. Add -another glass or two of the wine in a few hours, when the first has -been absorbed. After about twenty-four hours it forms a jelly. This -should be thinned by adding more wine or warm water, and it should be -thoroughly worked with the hand until completely dissolved, and then be -strained through a piece of linen, using sufficient pressure to squeeze -out the mucilage. It should be thoroughly whipped or beaten, and more -wine is added if too thick. After being prepared, it may be kept for -some time in bottles, by adding a little brandy. In clarifying sweet -white wines, it is recommended that an ounce or two of cream of tartar -be added, which must first be dissolved in warm water. - -=Albuminous Substances.=—Among these are mentioned the _blood of -animals_, dried or fresh, and it is a powerful clarifier. About two -quarts to 100 gallons are used, beaten up with an equal quantity of -wine. It is liable to deprive the wine of a portion of its color, and -sometimes conveys a disagreeable flavor, particularly unless used when -quite fresh. It should not be used to clarify old or fine wines, but -may be employed for new and common ones. It is of use in clarifying -white wines which have turned yellow, for it effectually removes this -color. It should be used sparingly, if at all, for red wines, and the -wine should be drawn from the finings as promptly as possible. - -=Milk= is also used in the same way and in the same quantity as blood. -It is liable to sour, and a small quantity is apt to remain in the -wine. By its use sugar of milk is introduced, which is liable to -undergo lactic and butyric fermentations, and the flavor of sour milk -and rancid butter may be communicated to the wine. This may also be -used to decolor white wine which has become yellow. - -=The White of Eggs= is the best of the albuminous substances used for -clarifying. It is coagulated by the alcohol and tannin, and forms a -precipitate heavier than the liquid, and as it falls, carries with -it the matters remaining in suspension. If the eggs are fresh, as -they always must be, there is no danger of communicating any foreign -flavor to the wine by their use; but it is not advisable to use the -yolks, for they injure the wine by decoloring it, and the sulphur -contained in them may communicate the odor of sulphuretted hydrogen. -This is preëminently the fining for red wine. It is also used for the -clarification of white wine, but Machard says that it is subject to be -condensed in the form of splinters (_esquilles_), which obscure rather -than clarify the liquid. The whites of ten or a dozen eggs are used for -100 gallons. They are beaten up in a small quantity of wine or water -before using. - -=Clarifying Powders.=—In addition to the substances mentioned, there -are special preparations in the form of powders, sold for the purpose, -which are highly recommended by some authors. They are supposed to -consist mainly of dried blood; directions for using are given on the -package. - -=Gum Arabic=, about 10 ounces to 100 gallons, is also used, but it is -not readily precipitated, and is apt to remain in dissolution in the -wine. - -=Salt= is often added to the different finings, by first dissolving a -small handful in water. It renders them heavier, and as it is insoluble -in alcohol, it becomes precipitated, and thus acts in two ways. Many -authors recommend its use, but Boireau says it should only be employed -in clarifying common or very turbid wines. - -=Alcohol= is added with great advantage if the wines are so weak in -spirit that the finings do not act. - -=Tannin=, however, more frequently requires to be added, for upon -it and the alcohol depends the action of the substances employed. -If the wine is not lacking in alcohol, and the finings do not act, -sufficient tannin must be added to produce the desired effect. If the -ordinary tannic acid of commerce is employed, one-half to one ounce for -100 gallons may be used. Dissolve ½ lb. in a quart of the strongest -alcohol, 95°, by thoroughly shaking in a bottle of double the size. -After standing twenty-four hours it is filtered, and one gill of the -solution contains one ounce of tannic acid. This preparation of tannin, -which is prepared from nutgalls, is used for tannifying sparkling -wines, because it does not adhere to the inside of the bottle. It is -preferable, however, in general to employ the tannin derived from the -vine itself. For this purpose a strong decoction is made by steeping -grape seeds, which have not undergone fermentation, in water. They -should be coarsely broken, or bruised, and boiled for several hours. By -adding from one-fourth to one-fifth of its volume of strong alcohol of -85 per cent., it can be kept for future use. The liquor may be filtered -before adding the alcohol. Instead of the seeds, sometimes a handful -of stems are steeped, and the liquid is used. Tannified wine may be -prepared by soaking 50 or 60 lbs. of the bruised seeds in 100 gallons -of white wine, for one or two months. It is cared for as white wine. -If only one cask is to be treated, say 100 gallons, one-half pound of -grape seed may be reduced to powder and put in. - -It is difficult to lay down a definite rule as to the amount of either -preparation to use, for the reason that the amount of tannin contained -in the wine itself varies. Three or four gallons of the tannified -wine are recommended for 100 gallons, and a much smaller quantity of -the first mentioned decoction would be equivalent in its effects, on -account of its additional strength. If, however, it is found that -sufficient has not been used, the wine must be clarified anew, and -tannin added again. By experimenting on a small quantity of the wine, -the proper quantity may be ascertained. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 24._] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 25._] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 26._ Implements for stirring.] - -=Method of Operation.=—After preparing the finings as described under -the head of each of the substances already mentioned, two or three -gallons of wine are drawn from the bung by the aid of a siphon, pump, -or other suitable implement, the finings are poured in, and the wine -is stirred until thoroughly mixed with them. This may be done with a -stick split at the end into three or four prongs (fig. 24), or by a -sort of brush consisting of several small bundles of bristles inserted -in a stick and at right angles to each other (fig. 25), or with a -sort of bent paddle, pierced with holes, called a whip (fig. 26). The -wine drawn out should then be replaced in the cask, which should be -completely filled, and left to rest till the wine is bright. In filling -a cask which has recently been agitated, or into which finings have -been put, a good deal of froth is frequently found which will run out -at the bung before the cask is full, and will prevent the operator from -filling it. A few smart blows on the bung stave with a bung starter -will break the bubbles and remove the foam. The time required to -clarify a cask of wine depends somewhat upon the quality of the wine -itself, and also upon the kind of finings used. The usual time is from -two weeks to a month. In no case, however, should it be allowed to -remain on the finings after it has cleared and has ceased to deposit, -for the sediment may work up again and cloud the wine, and if left too -long in contact with the deposit, the wine may acquire a disagreeable -flavor. - -If, after leaving the wine a suitable time, it still remains turbid and -continues to deposit, it should be racked into a clean cask and fined -again, adding tannin, if necessary. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV. - -SWEET WINES—FORTIFIED WINES. - - -=Generally.=—The French give the name _vins de liqueur_, liqueur -wines, to sweet wines, and it is also sometimes applied to fortified -dry wines. Sweet wines are those which, after terminating their active -fermentation, still retain a quantity of sugar. In order to produce -natural sweet wines, it is necessary that the must should contain a -large amount of sugar; Boireau says, from 16° to 25° Baumé, or about 29 -to 46 per cent. It would seem that the latter figure is too high for a -_natural_ sweet _wine_, for it probably would not ferment at all, and -to make _a wine_ from a must containing over 35 per cent. of sugar, -the alcohol must be added. (See _Musts_.) He goes on to say that these -wines will contain from 15 to 16 per cent. of natural alcohol, without -addition; the sugar which they contain makes them heavier than water. - -=To Increase Sugar.=—In order to augment the amount of sugar, the -grapes are left on the vine till they become excessively ripe; in some -places the stem of the bunch is twisted on the vine to interrupt the -rising of the sap; the must is also sometimes concentrated by boiling; -sometimes the grapes are picked and exposed to the sun on screens or -straw mats, until they become shriveled, and sometimes they are dried -in ovens. - -=Without Fermentation.=—Sometimes sweet wines are made without allowing -the must to ferment at all, by adding alcohol till it contains 18 or -20 per cent. of spirit; thus all the sugar is preserved. Again, they -are made by mixing with dry wines grape syrup or concentrated must, and -fortifying. - -=Care Required.=—It has already been stated in the chapter on keeping -wine that these wines require less care than weaker ones. But Mr. -Boireau says that wines, whether sweet or dry, whose strength does not -exceed 16 per cent., require the same care as ordinary wines. - -In order that sweet and fortified wines may be kept in storehouses -subject to great changes of temperature, in bottles upright, or in -casks in ullage—in other words, under the conditions in which brandy -can be kept, they must contain 18 or 20 per cent. of alcohol. They age -sooner in casks than in bottles. (See _Aging_.) - -=Clarification= of these wines is effected by fining or by filtering. -The best finings for the purpose are those containing albumen, such as -the whites of eggs, though fresh blood may be used, but only for the -commoner wines. If they are very pasty, tannin should be added, and -then they should be clarified with a strong dose of gelatine. - -Small quantities of wine may be filtered through paper or flannel, in -closed filters. - -These wines should always be allowed to rest for a while, and then be -racked before shipping, for it is rare that they do not make a deposit. -(See _Fining_.) - -=Boiling Must.=—Pellicot says that the common practice in making sweet -wines, is to reduce the volume of the must by one-third, or even -one-half, by boiling. They clear sooner, and retain less of the cooked -flavor if only a part is boiled, that is, if, after boiling, one-fourth -to one-third of the volume is added of must from the sweetest varieties -of grapes. In this way the wines are more agreeable, and sooner -matured. When the boiled must is taken from the cauldron, it must be -briskly stirred with a bunch of twigs, or the like, till it ceases to -smoke, in order to remove a disagreeable flavor which wines so made may -contract. He gives it as his opinion that the greater part of the sweet -wines, even of southern countries, are made by boiling the whole or a -portion of the must, in spite of allegations to the contrary; and he -considers it an innocent and legitimate operation, the only objection -being the cooked flavor, which disappears with age. He excepts, -however, wine made from very sweet varieties, which are ripened -artificially. He also recommends that when kept in a large cask, the -lees should not be removed, as they contain a good deal of sugar. As a -certain quantity is drawn off, it may be filled each year with new wine -of the same quality. - -=Sweet Muscat.=—In making sweet Muscat, fermentation should be checked -by the addition of alcohol, for if allowed to continue too long, the -Muscat flavor will disappear. And this is usually necessary, as before -stated, to keep the wines sweet. - -=Pressing.=—Where the grapes are quite ripe, and somewhat dry, it may -be difficult to extract the juice without a very powerful press; under -such circumstances Machard recommends that, after crushing, the grapes -be put into a vat for twenty-four or forty-eight hours, according to -the temperature, and until fermentation commences, which fluidifies the -must and makes it run more freely from the press. - -=The Marc of Sweet Wines= is useful to mix with poor white wines to -give them more sugar and more strength. - -=The amount of Alcohol to be added= varies from two to five per cent., -or more, depending upon the amount developed by fermentation, and the -degree of sweetness desired. If the must is not allowed to ferment at -all, it must be fortified up to 18 or 20 per cent.; if, however, it is -so sweet that it will not ferment, it may be kept without the addition -of alcohol, but it will be syrup, and not wine. - -=Density.=—Dubief says that sweet wines should mark a density of from -4° to 5° Baumé, and the best of them even 7°. - -=Furmint Wine.=—The following is the method given by Pellicot as -practiced by him in making wine from the Furmint grape. He gathers the -grapes when they are very ripe, and the small berries are half dried, -and then exposes them to the rays of the sun for six or eight days, -upon screens. When ready to crush, he takes the screens to the crusher. -The dryest berries are then removed by shaking the frame, or with the -hand, and put by themselves; and the remainder are crushed in the usual -manner. Then the dry ones are crushed as well as possible, and the two -kinds are mixed together and fermented. Owing to the syrupy nature of -the must, it ferments for a long time, and without much effervescence. -When it acquires a suitable flavor, it is drawn off, and is then racked -several times till clear. - -Where the grapes are trodden, it is probably necessary to separate the -dry grapes from the rest, and crush them by themselves, in order that -they may be well crushed; but if a good crusher is used, it would seem -entirely unnecessary. - -=Straw Wines=, according to Machard, are made as follows: The ripest -bunches are chosen, and preferably from old vines. They are gathered -when the weather is warm and dry. They are spread upon straw, or hung -up in the upper room of a house. They are visited from time to time, -and the rotten berries removed. They are thus left till February or -March, the time when straw wine is usually made. Some, however, press -in December, but the wine has not the quality of that made later.[4] -When sufficiently dried the grapes are stemmed, and the remaining -rotten berries are removed. They are then crushed and pressed. The -pressings are all mixed together. To arrive at perfection, such a wine, -he says, must be kept ten, twelve, or more years; that it need not be -racked, nor the casks made full, and that it requires no fining. - -[4] It must be remembered that he is writing for the cold climate of -the Jura, where the grapes do not naturally acquire that degree of -maturity necessary for sweet wines. - - -PORT WINE. - -=The Musts= of the port wine grapes grown in the Upper Douro, Portugal, -show from 24 to 29 per cent. of sugar, according to the variety. There -are others cultivated in the district which contain less sugar. The -sweetest of all is the Bastardo. The fermentation takes place under -cover, in what is called a _lagar_, which is a large stone vat, about -three feet deep. According to Dr. Bleasdale, it is necessary to gather -the grapes as soon as they are completely ripe; that the _lagar_ or -fermenting vat should be filled as promptly as possible; that the -mass should be thoroughly stirred; that the fermentation should be -tumultuous and uninterrupted, and that the wine should be drawn off -when it has developed a vinous smell and flavor, and astringency and -roughness to the taste, though all the sugar has not been fermented. -The defective grapes are picked out, and only good ones put into the -vat. As soon as the fermenting vat is filled, a sufficient number of -men enter into it to complete the treading. Three men to each 120 -gallons of must are employed, who with bare feet tread and dance upon -the grapes. If fermentation is slow in starting, more men are put -in to impart warmth, or a quantity of warm must is added. The first -treading lasts, in the instance given by Dr. Bleasdale, six hours -during the first night, and is continued next day with two men, where -three were employed the first night. Men enter again during the active -fermentation and tread to keep down the pomace, and to extract as much -coloring matter as possible. Then the treaders leave the _lagar_, but -the fermentation is closely watched. - -The following graphic description, which differs in no essential -respect from that of Dr. Bleasdale, is from Vizitelli: - -“When the mid-day meal is over, the grapes having been already spread -perfectly level in the lagar, a band of sixty men is told off to tread -them. The _casa dos lagares_[5] is a long building with a low pointed -roof, lighted with square openings along one side, and contains four -lagares, in the largest of which sufficient grapes can be trodden at -one time to produce thirty pipes of wine.[6] As is universally the case -in the Upper Douro, these lagares are of stone, and about three feet -in depth. In front of each, and on a lower level, is a small stone -reservoir, called a dorno, into which the expressed juice flows after -the treading of the grapes is concluded, and which communicates by -pipes with the huge tonels[7] in the adega below, although not beneath -the lagares, being in fact in the face of the reservoirs, but on a -level some twelve feet lower, with a long, wooden staircase leading to -it. In front of the lagares runs a narrow stone ledge, to which ascent -is gained by a few steps, and here while the treading is going on the -overseers post themselves, long staves in hand, in order to see that -every one performs his share of labor. The treaders, with their white -breeches well tucked up, mount into the lagar, where they form three -separate rows of ten men each on either side of the huge, overhanging -beam, and placing their arms on each other’s shoulders, commence work -by raising and lowering their feet alternately, calling out as they do -so, ‘_Direita, esquerda!_’ (Right, left!) varying this after a time -with songs and shoutings in order to keep the weaker and lazier ones -up to the work, which is quite as irksome and monotonous as either -treadmill or prison crank, which tender-hearted philanthropists regard -with so much horror. But the lagariros have something more than singing -or shouting to encourage them. Taking part with them in the treading -is a little band of musicians, with drum, fife, fiddle, and guitar, -who strike up a lively tune, while their comrades chime in, some by -whistling, others with castanets. Occasionally, too, nips of brandy are -served out, and the overseers present cigarettes all round, whereupon -the treaders vary their monotonous movements with a brisker measure. -This first treading, the ‘sovar o vinho,’ or beating the wine, as it is -called, lasts, with occasional respites and relays of fresh men, for -eighteen hours. A long interval now ensues, and then the treading or -beating is resumed. By this time the grapes are pretty well crushed, -and walking over the pips and stalks strewn at the bottom of the -lagar, becomes something like the pilgrimages of old, when the devout -trudged wearily along with hard peas packed between the soles of their -feet and the soles of their shoes. The lagariros, with their garments -more or less bespattered with grape juice, move slowly about in their -mauve-colored mucilaginous bath in a listless kind of way, now smoking -cigarettes, now with their arms folded, or thrown behind their backs, -or with their hands tucked in their waistcoat pockets, or raised up -to their chins, while they support the elbow of the one arm with the -hand of the other. The fiddle strikes up anew, the drum sounds, the -fife squeaks, the guitar tinkles, and the overseers drowsily upbraid. -But all to no purpose. Music has lost its inspiration, and authority -its terrors, and the men, dead beat, raise one purple leg languidly -after the other. In the still night time, with a few lanterns dimly -lighting up the gloomy casa dos lagares, such a scene as I have here -attempted to sketch has something almost weird about it. By the time -the treading is completed, the violent fermentation of the must has -commenced, and is left to follow its course.[8] Accordingly, as the -grapes are moderately or overripe, and the atmospheric temperature is -high or low, and it is intended that the wine shall be sweet or dry, -this fermentation will be allowed to continue for a shorter or a longer -period, varying from fifteen hours to several days, during which time -the husks and stalks of the grapes, rising to the surface, form a thick -incrustation. To ascertain the proper moment for drawing off the wine -into tonels, recourse is usually had to the saccharometer, when, if -this marks four or five degrees, the farmer knows that the wine will be -sweet; if a smaller number of degrees are indicated, the wine will be -moderately sweet, while zero signifies that the wine will be dry. Some -farmers judge the state of the fermentation by the appearance of the -wine on the conventional white porcelain saucer, and the vinous smell -and flavor which it then exhibits. When it is ascertained that the wine -is sufficiently fermented, it is at once run off into the large tonels, -holding their 10 to 30 pipes each, the mosto extracted from the husks -of the grapes by the application of the huge beam press being mixed -with the expressed juice resulting from the treading. It is now that -brandy—not poisonous Berlin potato spirit, but distilled from the juice -of the grape—is added at the rate of 5½ to 11 gallons per pipe,[9] -if it is desired that the wine should retain its sweetness. Should, -however, the wine be already dry, the chances are that it will receive -no spirit at all. The bungs are left out of the tonels till November, -when they are tightly replaced, and the wine remains undisturbed until -the cold weather sets in, usually during the month of December. By this -time the wine has cleared and become of a dark purple hue. It is now -drawn off its lees, and returned again to the tonel, when it receives -about 5 gallons of brandy per pipe.[10] In the following March it will -be racked into pipes preparatory to being sent down the Douro to the -wine shippers’ lodges at Villa Nova de Gaia,” a suburb of Oporto. - -[5] Fermenting house. - -[6] A pipe is 138 wine gallons, or 115 Imperial. - -[7] Tuns. - -[8] It will be noticed that Dr. Bleasdale says that the treading is -repeated during active fermentation. Probably different practices -prevail in different localities. - -[9] About 4¾ to 9½ per cent—say 5 to 10. - -[10] 4.35 per cent. - -=These Lodges or Storehouses= are large, one-story buildings above -ground, dimly lighted through small windows, for Mr. Vizitelli informs -us that it is considered that ports mature less perfectly when subject -to the influence of the light. But like other fortified wines, exposure -to the air is considered beneficial to them; and in racking, they are -drawn off into a wooden pitcher holding about five gallons, and poured -into the cask to be filled, coming freely in contact with the air. - -=All Wines of Similar Character are Blended together= at the lodge, by -mixing in large vats, sometimes stirred with a large fan operated by -machinery. The blending is also performed in casks, by pouring into -each one successively a certain number of gallons of each kind of wine, -so that the contents of all the casks will be uniform. A small quantity -of spirit is usually added at the time of cutting. After blending the -wine is racked every three months, until in a condition for shipment, -which may be in from fifteen to twenty-four months, according to -quality. - -=Port loses its Color rapidly in Wood=, and much of its fullness, and -wines five years old cease to be regarded as shipping wines, and are -then kept in store and used to give age and character to younger wines. -It is then a valuable, old, mellow, and tawny wine, which the merchants -of Oporto themselves drink. - -=Port Wine Contains from 18 to 23 per cent. of absolute Alcohol= after -fortifying, the amount of spirit added depending upon how much is -developed by fermentation, and the amount of sugar in the grapes. It -is customary to add a small amount whenever it is racked, and before -shipping. The object of these frequent additions is to keep up the -necessary strength, for a certain amount of alcohol is constantly -evaporating while the wine is in casks, and it may fall below the -required strength if these additions are not made. - -Mr. Vizitelli has fallen into the error of stating that in dry climates -wine becomes stronger by the evaporation of its _watery parts_; but -this is impossible, for alcohol is more volatile than water, and -whenever there is evaporation in a wine, it becomes weaker from the -loss of alcohol; and whenever a wine gains strength by keeping, it is -because the sugar contained in it has been transformed into alcohol, -etc., by fermentation, as stated in other parts of this work. - - -MADEIRA. - -=Making.=—In the island of Madeira it is the practice, according to Mr. -Vizitelli, to tread the grapes thoroughly in a large, square wooden -trough, or lagar, in which they are also pressed, as in sherry making. -A great part of the juice is extracted by treading, being strained -through a basket as it runs off into casks. After the grapes have been -thoroughly trodden, the pomace is gathered together and piled in the -centre of the lagar, and pressed and patted with the hands to extract -the must, and this is repeated three times, and finally the pomace is -again raised in a mound, wound with a rope, and pressed by means of a -heavy beam suspended over the lagar. This primitive method, however, -can have but little interest for the wine maker, as the essential -practice in making Madeira, or rather in the aging of it, is the -application of heat. - -=Casks, Treatment.=—The must is fermented, the wine racked and heated, -in casks holding 130 gallons. After heating, it is stored in casks -holding about 400 gallons. It is fermented in these smaller casks with -the bung open, simply covered by a leaf, till the month of November. -Either before or after the fermentation, a small quantity of brandy is -added, varying in quantity according to the quality of the must, but -seldom exceeding three per cent. When the wine has well cleared, it is -racked and lotted, according to quality, and forwarded to the heating -house, or estufa. - -=Heating House, Heating.=—One of these at Funchal, described by -Vizitelli, consists of a block of buildings of two stories, divided -into four compartments. “In the first of these, common wines are -subjected to a temperature of 140°F., derived from flues heated with -anthracite coal, for the space of three months. In the next compartment -wines of an intermediate quality are heated up to 130° for a period -of four and a half months, while the third is set apart for superior -wines, heated variously from 110° to 120° for the term of six months. -The fourth compartment, known as the ‘calor,’ possesses no flues, -but derives its heat, varying from 90° to 100°, exclusively from the -compartments adjacent; and here only high-classed wines are placed.” -They receive a further addition of spirit, after leaving the estufa, -varying in quantity from one to three gallons per cask, presumably to -supply what has evaporated during the heating. Wines are also heated by -exposing them to the rays of the sun in glass houses. In the day time a -temperature of 120° to 130° is secured, which becomes considerably less -during the night, which change is by many considered detrimental. Some -again, put the casks out of doors in the full sunshine. In the estufas -mentioned, the pipes are placed on end in stacks of four, with smaller -casks on the top, a gangway being left between the different stacks. -The casks are vented with a small hole during the process. Leaking is -common during the exposure to so great a heat, and it is necessary to -inspect the casks once during every day and once during the night. - -Each compartment is provided with double doors, and after it is filled -with wine, the inner door is plastered so as to stop all the cracks. In -entering the estufa, only the outer door is opened, entrance through -the inner one being made through a small door for the purpose. The man -who examines the casks, coming out after a stay of an hour, drinks a -tumblerful of wine, and cools off in a tight room provided for the -purpose. From 10 to 15 per cent. of the wine is lost by evaporation -while it remains in the heating house. - -=General Treatment—Alcoholic Strength.=—The solera system is somewhat -in vogue in Madeira, as in the sherry country. The practice also of -leaving the casks in ullage prevails—a vacant space of ten or a dozen -gallons is left. On the south side of the island 5 per cent. is the -largest amount of alcohol added, and on the north side a little more, -which is added at different times. Most Madeira is dry, or nearly so, -and contains about 18 per cent. of alcohol on the average. - - -SHERRY. - -=Climate.=—According to General Keyes, the climate of the sherry -districts of Spain is a trifle warmer in winter and about the same in -summer as that of Napa Valley. But the seasons are not so distinctly -wet and dry as in California, and the grapes are sometimes rained on -while growing, and are frequently wet while ripening. Neverthless, the -south of Spain is a dry country. - -=The Vintage= begins in the early part of September, at which time the -grapes are ripe, but by no means overripe, but sweet and luscious. The -grapes are picked in the early part of the day, and spread upon mats in -the sun, where they remain till the evening of the same day, when they -are crushed. General Keyes says that they are invariably crushed in the -evening of the same day, but Mr. Vizitelli states that they remain on -the straw mats from one to three days. As both write from observation, -it would seem that the practice varies, the time of the exposure to -the sun probably depending upon the degree of maturity when picked. -The defective berries are carefully removed. The cool of the night -for crushing is preferred to the heat of the day, and to avoid the -precipitation of fermentation. - -=Crushing.=—Mr. Vizitelli’s description is as follows: “The pressing -commenced between seven and eight o’clock, and was accomplished in -a detached building under a low tiled roof, but entirely open in -front. Passing through the gateway, and stumbling in the dim light -afforded by an occasional lamp fixed against the wall, over a rudely -paved court-yard, we found ourselves beside a row of large, stout -wooden troughs, some ten feet square and a couple of feet deep, raised -about three feet from the ground, and known in the vernacular of the -vineyards as lagares. The bottoms of these receptacles were already -strewn with grapes, lightly sprinkled over with yeso (gypsum), which -if spread over the whole of the bunches, would not have been greatly -in excess of the amount of dust ordinarily gathered by a similar -quantity of grapes conveyed in open baskets on the backs of mules from -the vineyards to the pressing places in the towns. At Torre Breva, the -sixty or more arrobas of grapes (1500 lbs.) required to make each butt -of wine, were having from two to four pounds of yeso sprinkled over -them, or about half the quantity which would be used in a moist season. -I was assured that at last year’s vintage here not a single ounce of -yeso was employed in the manufacture of upwards of 700 butts of wine. -* * * Rising perpendicularly in the centre of each of the four lagares -to a height of about seven feet, is a tolerably powerful screw, which -is only brought into requisition after the grapes have been thoroughly -trodden. A couple of swarthy, bare-legged pisadores leap into each -lagar, and commence spreading out the bunches with wooden shovels; and -soon the whole eight of them, in their short drawers, blue-striped -shirts, little caps, red sashes, and hob-nailed shoes, are dancing a -more or less lively measure, ankle-deep in newly-crushed grapes. They -dance in couples, one on each side of the screw, performing certain -rapid, pendulum-like movements which are supposed to have the virtue -of expressing the juice more satisfactorily from the fruit than can -be accomplished by mere mechanical means. Their saltatory evolutions -ended, the trodden grapes are heaped up on one side and well patted -about with the shovel, like so much newly mixed mortar. This causes the -expressed juice to flow out in a dingy, brown, turgid stream through -the spout fixed in front of the lagar, into a metal strainer, and -thence into the vat placed beneath to receive it. Fresh grapes are -now spread over the bottom of the lagar, and, after being duly danced -upon, are shoveled on one side; and this kind of thing goes on until -sufficient trodden murk has been accumulated to make what is called a -pile.” - -=Pressing.=—His description goes on to show that the treaders give -place to the pressers, who, with wooden shovels, build up a mound of -marc under the screw, conical in form, some five feet high, which is -neatly dressed and trimmed, and then wound around with a straw rope or -band, about four inches wide, from base to summit. A circular piece of -wood is placed on the top, and the pressure is applied by means of the -screw, the must passing through the interstices of the straw band. - -Treading and pressing goes on nightly for fourteen hours, with -occasional intervals for refreshment. - -The wine from the press is invariably fermented separately from that of -the first run during the treading. - -All agree that the grapes are crushed without stemming, but it seems -that the practice of pressing with the stems on is not uniform. General -Keyes says that he made careful inquiry on this subject, and was -informed that only a few of the larger stems were removed, while Mr. -Vizitelli states that the sherry wine maker is so much afraid of tannin -and roughness in the wine, that the stems are all removed before the -pomace is pressed. This is not important, however, as the press wine is -inferior, and is usually distilled. - -It is almost a universal custom to sprinkle each pressing of grapes -with two or three handfuls of gypsum, or from two to six pounds to a -butt of wine of 130 gallons, and in wet seasons, even more. Gen. Keyes -gives an instance of one wine maker who made several casks of sherry -one year without the use of gypsum, and he found no material difference -in the product, but he still follows the custom of the country. (See -_Plastering_.) - -=Fermenting.=—The must is run into casks of about 150 gallons capacity, -which are filled only to within ten or fifteen gallons of their full -capacity, and is left to ferment in a cool shed, or in a place separate -from the storehouse or bodega; new wine is not fermented in the same -room with the old. - -As soon as the wine falls bright, which it does at any time from -January to April, it is racked and placed in the bodega, with still -a vacant space in the cask, and brandy is added equal to one or two -per cent. to the stronger wines, and three or four per cent. to the -commoner ones. - -If the wine is deficient in sugar, it may clear by January, but -if rich, it may not become bright till April. During the active -fermentation, the bungs, of course, are left open, and in the bodega -they are left loose, or laid over the hole. - -Sometimes the wine is left undisturbed in the bodega until required -for shipment, when it is racked, clarified, and again fortified. It is -considered best, however, to rack it once a year. The wine is now well -fermented, and dry, or nearly so, and the sugar that may be found in -it after shipment, has been put in by adding a small quantity of sweet -wine. - -=The Bodegas, or Storehouses=, in which these wines are stored, are -entirely above ground, have very thick walls and double doors, the roof -is covered with tiles, and the floor may consist only of a mixture of -sand and loam, which, when moistened, is not muddy, and when dry, is -not very dusty. They are kept well ventilated, even at the expense of a -good deal of loss by evaporation, and are comparatively cool, the rays -of the sun being excluded by shutters. As only old or seasoned casks -are used for shipment, the new ones are used for fermenting the must, -and so they are seasoned. - -=Changes in the Wine.=—The young wine in the bodega now, during the -first two years, undergoes extraordinary changes. That made from the -same vineyard and of the same varieties of grapes, crushed at the same -time, placed in casks side by side, receiving apparently identical -treatment, develops totally different characters in different butts, -and is classed according to these several characters, as Fino, Oloroso, -and Basto. - -The best is _fino_, of a delicate, soft, mellow flavor, and pale in -color, and only from ten to twenty per cent. take this form. The -_fino_, at times, develops into a still finer quality, producing what -is known as _amontillado_, the most valued of all. - -_Oloroso_ is a nutty flavored development rather deeper in color, and -of a stouter character; when old, it is of great body, and perfectly -dry. - -The coarse, inferior kind is called _basto_. - -There are still other casks which by bad behavior, poor fermentation, -or weakness, are only fit for the still. - -=Flowers.=—Sherry produces the phenomenon known as flowers of wine -(_micoderma vini_), of which a writer under the assumed name of Pedro -Verdad, whom I have frequent occasion to quote, says: “At every period, -about the flowering of the vine, and at about vintage time, the wine -begins to ‘breed;’ that is, throw up a _flor_ (flower), which remains -for some time on the surface, and then falls in sediment to the bottom, -when the wine once more becomes bright. This phenomenon is looked for -with great anxiety in the bodegas, for if it does not occur, the wine -may be assuming some other and less valued character. Strange as it may -appear,” he says, “I have seen the actual _flor_ rise in a bottle in -England, just as in the butt in Spain.” - -=Vino Dulce, or Sweet Wine=, is made from the sweeter kinds of grapes, -especially the Pedro Jimenes. The grapes are exposed to the sun, -sometimes for a fortnight, and till they almost become raisins, and -they then go through the ordinary modes of crushing and fermentation. -To each butt of this wine about six or seven gallons of spirit are -added, while the must of other grapes have as much as twenty gallons -mixed with each cask of must to check the fermentation, and keep the -wine sweet. One-third of the spirit is poured in as soon as a small -portion of the must has been put into the cask, a third when the cask -is half full, and a third when nearly three-quarters full. The reason -is obvious, as the spirit is lighter than the must, and would otherwise -remain on the top. Soleras of _vino dulce_ are of a sweet, luscious -flavor, and of an oily and slightly glutinous consistency. The finer -kinds resemble a liqueur, and are of great value. - -Vizitelli says that sweet wine is used to give softness and roundness -to old and pungent wines, as well as to the cruder, youthful growths, -and it is remarkable how very small a quantity suffices perceptibly to -modify these opposite characteristics. As little as one per cent. of -dulce will impart a softness to the drier wines, which otherwise they -only acquire after being several years in bottle. - -=Color Wine= (=Vino de Color=) is composed of a mixture of white wine -and _arrope_. The latter is a must of white grapes boiled down over -a slow fire till it is reduced to one-fifth or one-sixth of its -original quantity, great care being taken to skim it while boiling. -This is a dark-colored, almost black fluid, of a bitterish taste. It -is mixed with from three to five times its volume of white wine, and -the “color” is formed.[11] It is chiefly used for giving color to young -and undeveloped wines. With great age, the solera of this wine is very -valuable, being of a deep brown color, and a perfect essence. - -[11] Vizitelli says the arrope is mixed with nine parts of must, and -fermented to make the color, but the other authors say “white wine,” -instead of “must.” - -=Mature Wines.=—When the wines have assumed their distinctive -characters—and this requires from three to five, or even more, -years—they are used to replenish the soleras. In the shippers’ bodega -are kept many soleras, each containing a given number of butts. A -solera, whether classed as _fino_, _oloroso_, or otherwise, has its -distinctive quality required in the preparation of a wine for shipment. -It has been reared and nursed for years with careful attention; each -butt has been tasted from time to time, and any cask in which a -material deterioration has been detected is rejected from the solera, -and probably fortified with spirits, or distilled. - - -THE SOLERA SYSTEM. - -The distinctive feature in the production of sherry is the _solera_, -which signifies foundation, and means old wine kept in casks, which -are never moved as long as the solera exists, and on the foundation of -which younger wines are reared. - -The casks are arranged in groups, piled in tiers, and the groups into -scales. The distinctive feature of the system is a series, commencing -with a very old wine, followed by a younger one, and so on down the -scale to the youngest, so that when wine for blending and shipment is -drawn from the group of casks constituting the oldest solera, they -are replenished from the group of casks of the next younger solera, -and these again from those of the next younger, and so on through the -scale, thus keeping up the characters of the soleras. - -=Establishing a Solera.=—The following from the address of Mr. -Pohndorff before the Viticultural Convention held at San Francisco in -September, 1882, gives a good idea of how to establish a solera: - -Select the finest wines of a year’s vintage, put them away by -themselves, and carefully care for them and nurse them by racking, -etc., during the year. The next year, separate the finest wines from -the vintage, always leaving ullage in the casks of three to five -gallons, according to size, and the bungs loose, simply laid over -the hole. Go on in this way for five years. Now a fifth of this -five-year-old wine may be drawn off for, and used to establish another -solera, and the casks refilled from the four-year-old wine, which, of -course, must be as nearly as possible of the same nature. With the -younger wines, you may do the same, except those of one and two years -old, which are not yet soleras, but young wines. You have then a solera -of this five-year-old wine, which is one-fifth four-year-old wine, and -this may be called the mother solera. At the end of ten years more, -you can say that you have a solera fifteen years of age; though during -the period, you have drawn off periodically a small portion of it and -replaced it with the next younger, always providing that the younger -wine is similar, for this quality is of much greater importance than -the difference of a year or two in age, for wine a year or two younger -or older, if of the same kind, will not injure the solera, but its -character may be destroyed by mixing with it wine of a different nature. - -A solera, then, really consists of a mixture of wines of different -years. The head of each cask is inscribed with the distinguishing mark -of its solera, and the number of butts of which it is composed. - -“=The Standard Soleras=,” says Gen. Keyes, “are those from which -the wine is drawn for shipment, and their contents have rested in, -and permeated through, a series of groups called feeders”—a solera -sometimes dating back a century, it is said. “At every stage the wine -is graded, so that the best young wine passes ultimately into the -oldest and highest priced solera. When there is only a small number -of feeders, say two or three, in the group next behind the standard -solera, the wine ought not be drawn out for shipment oftener than twice -a year; but when there are many, say twelve, the wine for shipment -may be drawn out every two months. To make myself understood in this -complicated process, I must explain the principle upon which it is -founded. When wine is needed for shipment, a portion is drawn out by -siphons from the standard soleras. The amount which may be drawn out -with safety, and the kind of younger wines which are to replace it in -the old solera, requires great skill and experience, and, I may say, -a natural aptness for the business. The end in view is to draw off -from a standard solera such a number of gallons, that, being replaced -by an equal number of gallons of the younger wines, the standard of -the solera may remain intact. If too much is drawn out, or if it is -replaced from the wrong feeders, the standard may be injured, or even -destroyed. But if the proper number of gallons are drawn out and -replaced by the right sorts from the other casks, the old solera soon -transmutes the younger wines to its standard, the bodega retains its -reputation, and the owner grows rich.” He quotes Mr. Davis, of Jerez, -as follows: “The age of the first step of a solera scale depends -entirely upon the character and price of the oldest grade of that -particular solera. For instance, the first group of wine in a scale of -six, ending in a medium priced sherry, might be two years old; whereas, -the first group of wine to permeate through a scale of, say four, -ending in a wine of great age or value, would, perhaps, require to be -fifteen or twenty years old. In proportion to the number of the scale -behind the final solera, so is the frequency with which the wine can -be drawn determined. In a scale of twelve, the final solera might be -drawn, perhaps, every two months. In a scale of three feeders, perhaps -twice a year.” - -=Blending for Shipment.=—In the cellar a book is kept in which is -recorded the blend of each shipment made, the history of the shipment, -and all the facts necessary to its identification, and a sample bottle -of every shipment is also preserved. When an order is received for a -quantity of wine of the same kind as a former shipment, reference is -made to the blend book, and recourse is had to the sample bottle, due -allowance being made for the bottle flavor acquired by the sample, and -the blend is prepared accordingly, the necessary quantity being taken -from each solera, of which there are many in a shipping bodega, and -allowance is also made for the change that may have occurred in the -solera by replenishing. It is needless to add that only experience and -natural aptitude fit a man for this delicate operation. - -If the order is by a sample whose blend is not known, the sample is -brought into the tasting office, and the blend glass brought into -requisition. It is a graduated glass tube, with forty markings, -corresponding to the number of _jarras_, or jars, which a butt -contains, all shipments being by the butt. The shipping butt contains -130 gallons, and the cask for storing is about 20 gallons larger. - -The cellar-man dips out and puts into the graduated glass amounts -corresponding to the number of jars to be taken from each solera, -sweet wine being added for sweetness, and color wine for color. As the -sugar added in the sweet wine would excite fermentation, sufficient -_aguardiente_, spirit, must be added to bring its alcoholic strength up -to at least 18 per cent. - -The right blend having been ascertained, it is left for a while, and -tasted once or twice to make sure that it is correct. If it does not -match the sample, a little of this and that solera is added till it -exactly corresponds. The blend is then entered in the blend book, which -gives the number of butts required, and the amount to be taken from -each solera. The book is then handed in to the bodega for the execution -of the blend. Supposing it to be a ten-butt shipment, ten butts are -brought into the cellar, having been most carefully examined and rinsed -out with spirit. If ten jars are required from a solera of fifty butts, -two jars would be drawn from each of the fifty butts of the solera, and -put into the ten butts, and so on from each solera; whatever the number -of butts in a solera, an equal quantity of wine is drawn from each -cask. - -The following samples of blends are given by Verdad: - - ORDINARY PALE SHERRY. - Pale soleras, 20 jarras - Fino soleras, 16 “ - Vino dulce, 3 “ - Aguardiente, 1 “ - —— - 40 jarras - - ORDINARY GOLDEN SHERRY. - Pale soleras, 22 jarras - Oloroso soleras, 8½ “ - Vino de color, 2 “ - Vino dulce, 6 “ - Aguardiente, 1½ “ - ——— - 40 jarras - - ORDINARY BROWN SHERRY. - Pale soleras, 23 jarras - Oloroso, 4 “ - Vino de color, 5 “ - Vino dulce, 6 “ - Aguardiente, 2 “ - —— - 40 jarras - -=Fining.=—After the blend is complete, the wine is fined with the -whites of eggs and fuller’s earth, a kind of earth found at Lebrija, -near Jerez, and called _Tierra de Lebrija_. For a butt of wine, a -handful of this earth is made into a paste with the whites of ten eggs. -The paste is thrown into the cask, and the wine is stirred in the usual -manner. (See _Fining_.) - - - - -CHAPTER XV. - -DEFECTS AND DISEASES. - - -=These are Divided= by Boireau into _two classes_: 1. Those defects due -to the nature of the soil, to fertilizers employed, to bad processes in -wine making, and to the abundance of common, poor varieties of grapes. -It is evident that defects of this class may exist in the wines from -the moment when they leave the fermenting vat, or the press, and they -are as follows: earthy flavor, greenness, roughness, bitterness, flavor -of the stems, acidity, want of alcohol, lack of color, dull, bluish, -leaden color, flavor of the lees, and tendency to putrid decomposition. -2. Those vices which wines acquire after fermentation, and of which -the greater part are due to want of care, or uncleanness of the casks, -and they are: flatness, flowers, acidity (pricked wine), cask flavor, -mouldiness, bad flavors communicated by the accidental introduction -of foreign soluble matters, ropiness, bitterness, acrity, flavor of -fermentation, degeneracy, and putrid fermentation. - -=General Considerations.=—Before entering on the subject of the -correction and cure of defects and diseases, it is proper to say, that -whatever be the nature of the malady or defect, especially if the bad -taste is very pronounced, wine once hurt, however completely cured of -the disease, will never be worth as much as a wine of the same nature -which has always had the correct flavor. - -It is, therefore, wiser and more prudent, says our author, to seek to -prevent the maladies of wines, than to wait for them to become diseased -in order to cure them. - -Of course, the wine maker should use every endeavor to remedy the -natural defects of his wines. And as for the wine merchant and the -consumer, they should reject all vitiated wines, unless they can be -used immediately, for they lose quality instead of gaining by keeping. - -Moreover, when a wine has a very pronounced defect, it can rarely be -used alone, either because deficient in spirit or in color, or because -the vice cannot be entirely destroyed. - -It would also be a mistake to suppose that the flavor of a diseased -wine would be rendered inappreciable by mixing and distributing it -throughout a large number of casks of sound wine; oftener the latter -would be more or less injured by the operation. The defect of such a -wine should first be removed by treating it by itself, and then it -should be mixed only with the commonest wine in the cellar. - -Each defect and disease will be treated under its proper name, the -cause indicated, with the means to be employed to prevent, diminish, or -to remove it. - -The doses in all cases, unless otherwise indicated, are according to -Mr. Boireau, who gives what is required to treat 225 litres, but we -have increased the dose to what is necessary for 100 gallons of wine in -each case. - -Any one can first try the experiment on a gallon or less by taking a -proportional amount of the substances indicated, leaving the sample -corked, in a cool place, for at least two days in ordinary cases, or -for eight days in case the wine is fined. - - -NATURAL DEFECTS. - -=Earthy Flavor—Its Causes.=—It is a natural defect in the wine, and -consists of a bad taste by which the pulp and the skins of the grapes -are affected before fermentation. It occurs in wine made from grapes -grown on low, wet, swampy land, and on land too heavily manured, or -fertilized with substances which communicate a bad flavor. He says that -this must not be confounded with the natural flavor and bouquet of the -wine. Contrary to the opinion of those œnologues who attribute this -defective flavor to the presence of essential oils, he believes that -there is a sensible difference between the natural flavor (_séve_) and -the earthy flavor. In fact, the flavor and bouquet of wines made from -grapes of the same variety, but grown in different vineyards, present -considerable differences, which are due to the different natures of -the soils, to the different processes in wine making, to climate, -exposure, age of the wine, etc. On the other hand, the taste and odor -produced by the natural flavor and bouquet are not entirely developed -till the wine is old, and the clearing is complete; while the bad -taste transmitted from the soil through the sap, instead of increasing -with age, diminishes, and often finally disappears. The reason is that -this taste being communicated principally by the coloring matters of -the skins, diminishes with the deposit of these matters, according as -the wine becomes clear. It follows that certain wines may have a good -flavor, and even acquire a bouquet in aging, which while young had a -disagreeable earthy flavor. - -He instances the wines of several crops, treated by him, having a fine -color, mellowness, and 10 per cent. of alcohol, which in their early -years had an earthy flavor so pronounced that it might almost have been -taken for a mouldy taste. This taste diminished gradually, with proper -care, and finally disappeared toward the third year; the natural flavor -then developed itself, and the wines acquired an agreeable bouquet in -bottles. - -Grapes from young vines planted in moist land, have an earthy -flavor more pronounced than those from older vines, grown in the -same situations, and this flavor is generally more developed in the -heavy-yielding common varieties than in the fine kinds. - -=How Prevented.=—This flavor may be sometimes diminished or destroyed -by draining the soil of the vineyard, aerating the vines when too -crowded, and by avoiding the planting of trees in the vineyard. If it -comes from too much manure, less should be used, and less wood left on -the vines. - -Great care should be taken to draw such wines from the fermenting vat, -as soon as the active fermentation is finished, for a long sojourn in -the tank with the stems and skins aggravates the defect. - -=The Treatment= of wines so affected differs according to their origin, -their nature, and their promise of the future; but the condition -necessary in all cases is to promptly obtain their defecation or -clarification, and never to allow them to remain on the lees. They -should therefore be drawn off as soon as clear, and frequently racked -to prevent the formation of voluminous deposits. - -Red wines, which in spite of this defect, have a future, and may -acquire quality with age, should be racked at the beginning of winter, -again in the beginning of March, and after the second racking should be -fined with the whites of 12 eggs to 100 gallons of wine; they are then -racked again two weeks after fining. - -Common red wines, without a future, dull and poor in color, and weak -in spirit, are treated in the same manner, but before fining, a -little more than a quart of alcohol of 60 to 90 per cent. is added to -facilitate the coagulation of the albumen. - -In treating wines which are firm, full-bodied, and charged with color, -after the two rackings, an excellent result is obtained by an energetic -fining with about three ounces of gelatine. - -Earthy white wines should be racked after completing their -fermentation, and after the addition of about an ounce of tannin -dissolved in alcohol, or the equivalent of tannified white wine. After -racking, they should be fined with about three ounces of gelatine. - -These rackings and finings precipitate the insoluble matters, and part -of the coloring matter, which is strongly impregnated with the earthy -taste, and the result is a sensible diminution of the flavor. When not -very pronounced, it is removed little by little at each racking. But -if it is very marked, the wine after the first racking should have a -little less than a quart of olive oil thoroughly stirred into it. After -a thorough agitation, the oil should be removed by filling the cask. -The oil removes with it a portion of those matters in the wine which -cause the bad flavor. The wine is afterwards fined as above. - -Some writers recommend that wine having an earthy flavor should be -mixed with wine of a better taste, as the best method of correcting -the defect; but from what has been said in the preceding part of this -chapter, it would seem to be an unsafe practice. - -=The Wild Taste and Grassy Flavor= are due to the same causes, and are -removed in the same way. - -=Greenness—Its Causes.=—This is due to the presence of tartaric acid, -which it contains in excess. It gives a sour, austere taste to the -wine, which also contains malic acid, but in a less quantity. When -tasted, it produces the disagreeable sensation of unripe fruit to the -palate, sets the teeth on edge, and contracts the nervous expansions of -the mouth. - -Greenness, as the term imports, is caused by want of maturity of the -grapes. We all know that acids abound in unripe fruit, and it is only -at the time of maturity, and under the influence of the heat of the -sun, that they disappear and are changed into glucose or grape sugar. - -A green wine, then, is an imperfect wine, which, besides this defect, -generally lacks alcohol, body, mellowness, firmness, bouquet, and -color, because the incompletely matured grapes contain much tartaric -and malic acid, and but little grape sugar and other mucilaginous -matter, and because the matters destined to give color to the skins, as -well as the aromatic principles, are not completely elaborated. - -=The only way to Prevent this Defect= is to resort to means necessary -to increase the maturity of the grape, or to add sugar to the must, -neither of which will scarcely ever be found necessary in California, -where the defect is not likely to exist, if the grapes are not picked -too green. - -=Treatment.=—Where the sourness is not insupportable, the wine may be -ameliorated by adding a quart or two of old brandy for each 100 gallons. - -The wine as it comes from the vat contains much more free tartaric -acid than it contains after the insensible fermentation in the cask, -because it combines with the tartrate of potash in the wine and forms -the bitartrate of potash, or cream of tartar, which is deposited with -the lees, or attaches itself to the sides of the cask. It follows that -the wine will be less green after insensible fermentation, at the first -racking, than when it was new; but if the greenness is excessive after -the insensible fermentation, the wine still contains much free acid. -The excess of acid may be neutralized in wines which are very green by -adding the proper amount of tartrate of potash, which combines with a -part of the tartaric acid to form the bitartrate, which after a few -days falls to the bottom, or adheres to the cask. The dose varies -from 10 to 24 ounces per 100 gallons of wine. Five or six gallons of -wine are drawn out of the cask, and the tartrate of potash is thrown -in by the handful, stirring the while as in the case of fining. This -treatment does not always succeed; hence, the necessity of preventing -the defect when possible. - -When the greenness is not very marked, the wine may also be mixed with -an older wine, which contains but little acid and plenty of spirit. - -Lime and other alkaline substances will surely neutralize the acid, but -they injure the wine and render it unhealthy, and should never be used. - -Machard lays great stress upon the addition of brandy to such wines, -because, he says, the alcohol will precipitate the excess of acids, -and will also combine with them to form ethers which give a delicate, -balsamic odor to the wine, which is most agreeable. (See _Ethers, -Bouquet_.) - -=Roughness= is due to the astringency given to the wine by the -tannin when in excess. Tannin is useful for the preservation and the -clarification of wines, and those which contain much, with an equal -amount of alcohol, keep much longer than those which contain less, and -undergo transportation better, and are considered more healthful. - -=Roughness is Not a Fault=, it is rather an excess of good quality, if -the rough wines have no after-taste of the stems, bitterness, earthy -flavor, acrity, and possess a high degree of spirit, a fruity flavor, -and a good color. Such wines are precious for fortifying, and to -assist in aging those which are too feeble to keep a long time without -degenerating. When kept without cutting, they last a long time, and end -well. But they are long in developing. - -=The Roughness Disappears in Time=, because the tannin is transformed -into gallic acid, and besides is precipitated by other principles -contained in the wine, and by finings. - -=An Excess of Tannin is Avoided= in strong, dark-colored, full-bodied -wines by removing all the stems, and by early drawing from the tank. -If the wines are inclined to be soft, weak, and with but little spirit, -no attempt should be made to avoid roughness. - -When wines are put into new casks, their roughness is increased by the -tannin derived from the oak wood of which they are made; but during -insensible fermentation a good deal of the tannin is thrown down with -the vegetable albumen contained in the new wine. - -=How Removed.=—If the wines are of good body and color, the roughness -may be removed by fining them with a strong dose of gelatine, two or -three ounces to 100 gallons. As this removes a portion of the color, it -should only be resorted to in the case of rough and dark-colored wines, -to hasten their maturity. - -=Bitterness and Taste of the Stems—Causes.=—Bitterness is a -disagreeable taste which, _in new wines_ attacked by it, comes from the -dissolution of a bitter principle contained in the stems, a principle -entirely different from tannin. Sometimes it is communicated by the -skins of certain varieties of grapes. - -=This is Prevented= by allowing the grapes to reach complete maturity, -and above all by stemming them all, and by not leaving the wine too -long in the fermenting vat. - -=The Treatment= is the same as for the earthy flavor, and also -afterwards pouring in a quart or more of old brandy. - -The bitterness here mentioned is only that met with in new wines, and -its cause is entirely different from that found in old wines, which is -described further on. - -=The Taste of the Stems=, which often accompanies bitterness, is due -to a prolonged immersion of the stems in the wine. It is supposed that -this defect, which gives the wine a wild and common flavor, comes -from an aromatic principle contained in the stems. It is prevented -by stemming, and like natural bitterness, diminishes with time. The -treatment is the same. - -An unreasonably long vatting is one of the principal causes of -bitterness and stem flavor. - -=Sourness—Its Causes.=—Sourness, or heated flavor, as it is also -called, is due to the presence of acetic acid in the wine. All wines, -even the mellowest, the best made, and the best cared for, contain some -acetic acid, but in so small a quantity as to be inappreciable to the -taste. Acetic acid is produced in wines during their fermentation in -open tanks, and is due to the contact of the air with the crust of the -pomace. This crust or cap, formed of skins and stems, brought to the -surface by bubbles of carbonic acid rising from the liquid, is exposed -directly to the air, and the alcoholic fermentation of the liquid part -is soon completed, and under the influence of the air and ferments, -the alcohol is transformed into acetic acid. This transformation is -so rapid that when the vatting is too prolonged, and the temperature -is high, the exterior crust rapidly passes from acetic to putrid -fermentation. - -As long as the tumultuous fermentation continues, the crust is kept up -above the surface by the bubbles of rising gas, but when it ceases, -the cap falls, and settles down into the liquid, and the wine becomes -impregnated with the acetic acid. The wine also, by simple contact with -the crust, acquires a vinegar smell and taste. - -Wines which become pricked by contact with the air after fermentation -are treated further on under the head of _Pricked Wines_. - -=How Prevented.=—The formation of acetic acid during fermentation is -prevented by fermenting the wines in closed or partly closed vats, by -avoiding contact of the air, by keeping the pomace submerged, and by -confining the carbonic acid in the vat. If open vats are used, they -should be only three-fourths full, so that a layer of gas may rest -upon the pomace and protect it from the atmosphere; or the cap may be -covered with a bed of straw as soon as formed. Care should be taken to -draw off as soon as fermentation is complete. - -=Treatment.=—Wines affected in this manner cannot be expected to -acquire good qualities with age. They may be rendered potable, but -their future is destroyed. Therefore, every precaution should be taken -to guard against the defect. They should be separated from their -first lees as soon as possible; consequently, they should be drawn -off as soon as the gas ceases to rise. If they are still turbid, -they should be clarified by an energetic fining, and they should be -racked from the finings the very moment they are clear. They should -be afterwards racked to further free them from ferments. If the wines -are only _heated_, the odor of acetic acid will be sensibly diminished -by the above operation; but if they are decidedly pricked, the means -to neutralize their acid when drawn from the vat, as indicated for -_Pricked Wines_, should be resorted to. - -=Alcoholic Weakness= is due to a want of sufficient spirit, caused by -an excess of water of vegetation, and the consequent lack of sugar in -the grapes. In France this defect is generally found in wines coming -from young vines planted in very fertile soils, or from the common -varieties, pruned with long canes, and producing a great quantity of -large, watery grapes. When wines weak in alcohol contain but little -tannin and color, they rapidly degenerate, often commencing their -decline during their first year, and before their clarification is -completed. - -=How Avoided.=—This defect can be corrected by planting the proper -varieties of vines, and by avoiding rich soils; but in the climate of -California there is but little danger of the wines being too weak, -unless the grapes are late varieties, and grown in very unfavorable -situations. - -=The Treatment= of weak wines is to rid them of their ferments as soon -as possible, in order to avoid acid and putrid degeneration, to which -they are quite subject. This result is obtained by drawing them off as -soon as the lees are deposited. If they remain turbid after the second -racking, they should be gently fined with the whites of nine or ten -eggs to 100 gallons. The coagulation of the albumen will be facilitated -by adding one or more quarts of strong alcohol to the wine before -fining, and by adding to the eggs a handful of common salt dissolved in -a little water. But as these wines, by themselves, are short lived, -it is necessary, in order to prolong their existence, to mix them with -firm wines, strong in body and rich in color. By adding alcohol, they -are still left dry and without fruity flavor, while if mixed with a -wine of a flavor as nearly like their own as possible, and having a -fruity flavor, and being firm and full-bodied, but not fortified, they -will acquire mellowness as well as strength. - -=Want of Color—Causes.=—As coloring matter is not found in the skins -of grapes till they are ripe, green wines produced in years when the -grapes do not ripen well, lack color. - -The amount of color may be diminished if by excess of maturity the -skins of the grapes decay. - -The method of fermentation also influences more or less the richness of -the color. Those wines, in the fermentation of which the pomace is kept -constantly immersed in the liquid, dissolve out more coloring matter -than those fermented in open vats in which the crust is raised above -the surface of the must. - -Some kinds of grapes naturally develop more color than others. - -=How Guarded Against.=—It is therefore obvious, that the lack of color -may be guarded against by gathering the grapes when they are just ripe, -planting the proper varieties, and keeping the pomace submerged during -fermentation, stirring it up, if necessary. - -=The Treatment= should be such as to avoid as much as possible the -precipitation of the coloring matter. They should, therefore, be fined -as little as possible, and gelatine should be carefully avoided. -If they must be fined, use the whites of eggs and in the quantity -mentioned for weak wines—10 to 100 gallons. - -Of course, their color may be increased by mixing them with darker -colored wines, but in order not to affect their natural flavor, they -should be mixed only with wines of the same nature and of the same -growth. - -It is not to be supposed that any one will resort to artificial -coloring of any kind. - -=Dull, Bluish, Lead-colored Wine, and Flavor of the -Lees—Causes.=—Certain wines remain turbid, and preserve a dull, leaden -color, even after insensible fermentation. This state may be due to -several causes. Oftentimes young wines remain turbid because, for want -of racking at proper times, and for want of storing in proper places, -secondary fermentation has set in, which has stirred up the lees which -had been deposited at the bottom of the cask. This also takes place -when new wines are moved before racking. - -=Treatment.=—In these cases, put them into a cellar of a constant -temperature, leave them quiet for a couple of weeks, and see if they -settle naturally. If not, clarify them by using the finings appropriate -to their nature. - -If they are turbid on account of an unseasonable fermentation, the -first thing to do is to stop the working by racking, sulphuring, etc. -When, in spite of all the cares that have been bestowed upon them, -they still remain dull and difficult to clarify, while undergoing no -fermentation, the cause must be sought in the want of tannin or alcohol. - -If the difficulty is due simply to lack of spirit, the treatment -consists in adding two or three quarts of strong alcohol to each 100 -gallons, mixing with the wine a fifth or a tenth of a good-bodied wine -of like natural flavor, and then by fining it with eggs as mentioned -for weak wines. - -If the dull wine has sufficient alcohol, as shown by a pronounced -color, add about an ounce of tannin dissolved in alcohol, or the -equivalent of tannified wine, and fine it with one to two ounces of -gelatine. - -Bluish or violet color, accompanied by a flavor of the lees, often -occurs in wines of southern countries, and is due to an abundance of -coloring matter and a lack of tartaric acid. When the violet-colored -wine has a good deal of color, and more than nine per cent. of alcohol, -the color may be changed to red by mixing with it from one-sixth to -one-fourth of green wine, which contains an excess of tartaric acid, -the natural blue color of the grape being changed to red by the action -of the acid; then about an ounce of tannin, or the equivalent of -tannified wine, should be added, that the color may become fixed, and -that clarification may subsequently take place in a proper manner. In -default of green wine, crystalized tartaric acid may be used, which is -very soluble in wine. A small amount should be first experimented with, -in order to learn just how much to use to change the blue of the wine -to red, for we must not forget that this acid gives greenness to the -wine and thereby renders it less healthful. - -If the wines are so weak in alcohol that they have but little color, -and that is blue and dull, they have a tendency to putridity. In this -case, the blue color is in fact only a commencement of decomposition. -It is due to an internal reaction which transforms a part of the -tartrate of potash into carbonate of potash. Such wines have a slightly -alkaline flavor, and left to themselves in contact with the air, they -become rapidly corrupt, without completely acidifying. These wines -are of the poorest quality. This disease, which is very rare, may be -prevented by using the proper methods of vinification, and by rendering -them firmer and full-bodied by the choice of good varieties of vines. -In the treatment of such wines, some propose the use of tartaric acid -to restore them. This will turn the blue color to red, but will not -prevent the threatened decomposition. Mr. Boireau prefers the use of -about one-sixth of green wine, which contains an abundance of the acid, -and the subsequent mixing with a strong, full-bodied wine. - -=Putrid Decomposition—Causes.=—Wines are decomposed and become -putrid, on account of little spirituous strength and lack of tannin. -The weakness in alcohol is due to want of sufficient sugar in the -grapes—to the excess of water of vegetation. We see, then, that wine is -predisposed to putridity when it is wanting in these two conservative -principles, alcohol and tannin. Such wine quickly loses its color; it -never becomes brilliant and limpid; it remains turbid, and never clears -completely, but continues to deposit. The tendency to decomposition -is announced by a change of color, which becomes tawny and dull, -which gives it, though young, an appearance of worn out, turbid, old -wine. Its red color is in great part deposited, and it retains only -the yellow. If the defect is not promptly remedied by fortifying, it -acquires a nauseous, putrid flavor of stagnant water; and it continues -turbid, and is decomposed, without going squarely into acetous -fermentation. - -=How Avoided.=—To avoid this tendency, which is rare, means should be -employed to increase the natural sugar in the must, and by planting -proper varieties of grapes, which will produce good, firm wines, and -by choosing proper situations for the vineyard, and employing the best -methods of vinification. - -=Treatment.=—Decomposition may be retarded in several ways: First, -by fortifying the wines, by adding tannin to them, and by adding a -sufficient quantity of rough, firm, alcoholic wine; second, in default -of a strong, full-bodied wine, brandy may be added, or better, the -tannin prepared with alcohol, so as to give them a strength of at least -ten per cent.; third, fining should be avoided as much as possible, -especially the use of finings which precipitate the coloring matter, -such as gelatine; albumen should be used in preference, as for weak -wines; fourth, the movements of long journeys, and drawing off by the -use of pumps, should be avoided, for they are apt to increase the -deposition of the coloring matter. - -The treatment mentioned will retard the decomposition, but will not -arrest it, and such wines can never endure a long voyage unless heavily -brandied. - -=Several Different Natural Vices and Defects= may attack the same wine, -when it should be treated for that which is most prominent. - - -ACQUIRED DEFECTS AND DISEASES. - -=Flat Wine—Flowers—Causes.=—Flowers of wine are nothing but a kind of -mould, in the form of a whitish scum or film, composed of microscopic -fungi, the _mycoderma vini_ and _mycoderma aceti_, already mentioned -under the head of _Fermentation_, and which develop on the surface -of wine left in contact with the air. This mould, or _mother_, -communicates to the wine a disagreeable odor and flavor, and also a -slight acidity, which the French call _évent_ odor, or flavor _éventé_, -and which may be called _flatness_. The development of these organisms -is due principally to the direct exposure of the wine to the air, which -favors their growth by the evaporation of a portion of the alcohol -which exists at the surface of the liquid which is exposed, and a -commencement of oxidation of that which remains. The result is that -the surface of the wine becomes very weak in alcohol, and having lost -its conservative principle, it moulds. This mould consists, as before -remarked, of a vast number of small fungi. They have a bad flavor, and -are impregnated with an acidity which comes from the action of the -oxygen of the air upon the alcohol, converting it into acetic acid. - -This disease develops more or less rapidly, according to the alcoholic -strength of the wine and the temperature of the place where it is kept. -Those common, weak wines, which have only from 7 to 8½ per cent. of -alcohol, are the first attacked; on them flowers are developed in three -or four days. Stronger wines, which contain from 10 to 11 per cent. of -spirit, resist twice as long as the weaker ones. Fine wines of an equal -strength resist better than the common kinds; and wines which contain -more than 15 per cent. are not affected. During summer they are much -sooner affected. - -Machard is of the opinion that this flavor is due to the commencement -of disorganization of the ferments remaining in the wine, which, as -they begin to putrify, give off ammoniacal emanations. Maumené says -that it is due to the loss of carbonic acid. - -=To Prevent Flatness=, all agree that wines should be protected from -the air; for this purpose they should be kept in casks constantly -full, or in well corked bottles lying in a horizontal position. When -it is necessary to leave ullage in the cask, a sulphur match must be -burned, and the cask tightly bunged. (See _General Treatment_, _Wine in -Bottles_, _Sulphuring_, _etc._) - -In frequently drawing from the cask, the deterioration is retarded by -taking care to admit the least possible amount of air, just enough to -let the wine run, but the evil cannot be entirely prevented in this -way; and by frequent sulphuring the wine will acquire a disagreeable -sulphur flavor; therefore, ullage should never be left when it is -possible to avoid it. - -=Treatment.=—When the wines show flowers, but have not yet become -flat, as in the case of new wines which have been neglected, and have -not been filled up for a week or more, and are only affected at the -surface, by filling up, the flowers may be caused to flow out at the -bung. The cask must then be well bunged. It must afterwards be kept -well filled, for besides the flat flavor that the flowers may give -the wine, they will render it turbid on account of the acid ferments -introduced, and cause it to become pricked in the end. - -Wine badly flowered, and which has acquired a decided flavor of -flatness, without being actually sour, should be filled up, and the -flowers should be allowed to pass out of the bung; it should then be -racked into a well sulphured cask, which must be completely filled. -The flowers must not be allowed to become mixed with the wine. After -racking, two or three quarts of old brandy to each 100 gallons should -be added, or a few gallons of firm, full-bodied wine, as near as -possible of the same natural flavor. It should then be well fined, -using in preference the whites of eggs (one dozen for 100 gallons, and -a handful of salt dissolved in a little water), and then it must be -racked again as soon as clear. - -The object of this treatment is to extract from the wine by racking the -mould which causes the bad taste; to replace by fortifying, the alcohol -lost by evaporation; and finally, by fining, to remove in the lees the -acid ferments, which have developed in the form of flowers. - -Yet those wines which have become badly affected through negligence are -never completely restored, and if they are fine, delicate wines, they -lose a large part of their value. Therefore, great care should be taken -to prevent this disease, which in the end produces acidity, for, often, -neglected wines are at the same time _flat_ and _pricked_. - -Some authors recommend that such a wine should be again mixed with a -good, sound, fresh pomace, which has not been long in the vat, and -allowed to ferment a second time; this is called _passing it over the -marc_. Of course, this can only be done in the wine making season, and -cannot be resorted to by those who do not make wine themselves, or who -are at a distance from a wine maker. - -When all else fails, they recommend that several large pieces of dry, -fresh charcoal be suspended in the wine, attached to cords to draw them -out by, Maigne says, for forty-eight hours, and Machard says, one or -two weeks, renewing the charcoal from time to time till the taste is -removed. - -If the wine has already become acid, charcoal will not remove the -flavor. - -=Sourness, Acidity, Pricked Wine—Causes.=—Acidity is a sour taste -caused by the alcohol of the wine being in part changed to acetic acid -by the oxygen of the air. It is due to long contact with the air, and -it is the oxygen which produces the change, as described under the head -of _Acetic Fermentation_, and it is the more rapid, according as the -temperature is more elevated, and the wine contains more ferments. - -_What Wines Liable to._—All wines whose fermentation is completed, and -which have been fermented under ordinary circumstances—that is, those -which have received no addition of alcohol, and no longer contain -saccharine matter, are subject to this affection when left exposed to -the air. - -When they have been fortified up to 18 per cent. of alcohol, whether -sweet or not, they do not sour until the alcohol has been enfeebled by -evaporation. - -If they contain sugar, although not fortified, a new fermentation takes -place, and they do not acidify until the greater part of the sugar has -been transformed into alcohol. Machard, however, says that wines which -contain a good deal of sugar do often acidify, and in the experience -of others, there is a continuous fermentation, which renders them very -liable to become pricked. - -As the acetic acid is formed at the expense of the alcohol, the more -the wine contains of the former the less will it have of the latter. - -=Acidity is Prevented= by giving wines proper care and attention, -and by keeping them in suitable places, and by using the precautions -indicated for _flat_ or _flowered wines_, _i.e._, by avoiding long -contact with the air. Flowers are the forerunners of acidity; yet -they do not always appear before the wine is pricked, especially if -the temperature is elevated, and the alcoholic strength considerable. -In general, wines become pricked without producing flowers when they -are exposed to the air at a temperature of 77° to 100° F.; acidity is -produced under these conditions in a very rapid manner; and this is why -extra precautions should be taken during hot weather. It should also -be remembered that this vice comes _either from the negligence of the -cellar-man to guard the wines from contact with the air, or from the -bad state of the casks, and storing in unsuitable places_. - -=Treatment.=—Acetic acid in wine may be in great part neutralized by -several alkaline substances; but, if used, there remain in solution -in the wine certain salts (acetates and tartrates) formed by the -combination of the acetic and tartaric acid with the alkaline bases -introduced. These alkaline substances not only neutralize the acetic -acid, but also the vegetable acids contained in the wine. These neutral -salts are not perfectly wholesome, being generally laxative in their -nature. Moreover, the acetic acid cannot be completely neutralized by -the employment of caustic alkalies (potash, soda, quicklime), and these -bases decompose the wine and cause the dissolution and precipitation -of the coloring matter, and render it unfit to drink by reason of the -bitterness which they communicate. It is necessary, therefore, to -choose for the treatment of pricked wines, those alkaline matters which -are the most likely to neutralize the excess of acetic acid without -altering the constitution of the wine, without precipitating their -color, and which produce by combination the least soluble and least -unwholesome salts. - -Those which should be employed in preference to others are, carbonate -of magnesium, tartrate of potassium, and lime water. - -The following substances should only be employed when it is impossible -to obtain those last mentioned, for the reason that the salts -remaining in solution in the wine may cause loss of color, and even -decomposition, if used in large doses, _i. e._, wood ashes (ashes -from vine cuttings being preferred as containing much of the salts of -potash); powdered chalk and marble (composed of the sub-carbonates of -lime, marble dust being the purer); solutions of the sub-carbonates of -potash, and of the sub-carbonates of soda, and plaster. - -=In Using the Substances=, it is always best to experiment with a small -quantity of wine, being careful to employ a dose proportioned to the -extent of the degree of acidity. Thus, to a quart of wine add 15 or 20 -grains of carbonate of magnesia (1 or 2 grammes per litre), little by -little, shaking the bottle the while; again, but only when the wine is -badly pricked, slack a suitable quantity of quicklime in water, and let -it settle till the surface water becomes clear. Then add to the wine -which has already received the carbonate of magnesia, 5 or 6 fluidrams -of the lime water (2 centilitres), and shake the mixture; then pour in -2 or 3 fluidrams of alcohol (1 centilitre), and finally clarify it with -albumen, using fresh milk in preference, from 1½ to 3 fluidrams to a -quart (½ to 1 centilitre to a litre); cork the bottle, shake it well, -and let it rest for three or four days, when by comparing the sample -treated with the pricked wine, the effect will be seen. - -This treatment varies according to the nature of the wine. If it is -green and pricked, add 15 grains (1 gramme per litre) of tartrate of -potassium to the magnesia; and if the wine has a dull color, after -having added the milk, put in about 3 grains (22 centigrammes) of -gelatine dissolved in about a fluidram (½ centilitre) of water; if the -wine is turbid and hard to clarify, add a little more than a grain -(8 centigrammes) of tannin in powder, before putting in the milk and -gelatine. - -Of course, the same proportion should be used in operating upon a -larger quantity of wine. - -If carbonate of magnesium, which is preferable to all others, cannot -be obtained, the dose of lime water may be doubled, and in default -of lime, powdered chalk, or marble and vine ash may be used, but -with great prudence, and in smaller proportions, or solutions of the -sub-carbonates of potash and soda. Great care should be exercised as -to the quantity of the latter used, and they should not be employed in -treating wine slightly attacked. - -Mr. Boireau prefers the carbonate of magnesium to any other alkaline -substance, because it affects the color less, and does not give -bitterness to the pricked wines, nor render them unwholesome, as do -the salts formed by alkalies with a potash, lime, or soda base. In -medicine, carbonate of magnesium is used to correct sourness of the -stomach (so also, we might add, is carbonate of sodium). For the same -reason, decanted lime water is preferred to the sub-carbonate of lime, -employed in the form of marble dust and powdered chalk; nevertheless, -lime water in large doses makes a wine weak and bitter. - -Brandy is added to these wines in order to replace the alcohol lost -in the production of acetic acid. The preference given to milk for -fining is founded upon the fact that it is alkaline, and therefore -assists in removing the acid flavor of the wine while clarifying it. -It is alkaline, however, only when it is fresh; skim-milk a day old -is acid, and should not be used. Finally, the tartrate and carbonate -of potassium employed to treat green and pricked wines, are used to -neutralize the tartaric acid, and gelatine and tannin to facilitate the -clarification and the precipitation of acid ferments. - -Wines whose acid has been neutralized should be clarified, and then -racked as soon as perfectly clear, according to the methods pointed out. - -The acetic acid being formed at the expense of alcohol, the more acid -the less alcohol, and hence the necessity of adding spirit, or, if -the acidity is not too pronounced, of mixing with a full-bodied but -ordinary wine; but those wines should not be kept, as they always -retain acid principles, become dry, and turn again at the least contact -with the air. If they are very bad, and their alcoholic strength much -enfeebled, they had better be made into vinegar. - -=Machard’s Treatment.=—Machard says that the most successful treatment -for sour wine employed by him, is that founded upon the affinity of -vegetable substances for acids, and that he has succeeded beyond his -hopes in completely removing the acid from a wine which was so sour -that it could not be drank without seriously disagreeing with the -person drinking it. This is his method of proceeding. - -He formed a long chaplet, six feet or so in length, by cutting carrots -into short, thin pieces, and stringing them on a cord. This he -suspended in the wine through the bung for six weeks, and at the end -of the time he did not find the least trace of acetic acid, thereby -accomplishing what he had for a long time in vain attempted. He says -that this is the only treatment that succeeded with him, and he -confidently recommends it to others. But he advises that the carrots be -left in the wine at least a month and a half, protecting the wine from -the air. And he says that there is no danger of injuring the wine by -long contact with the carrots, or by using a large quantity of them. - -=Other Methods.=—Maigne says that if the wine is only affected at the -surface from leaving ullage in the cask, the bad air should be expelled -by using a hand-bellows; when a piece of sulphur match will burn in -the cask, the air has been purified. Then take a loaf of bread, warm -as it comes from the oven, and place it upon the bung in such a way -as to close it. When the loaf has become cold, remove it, rack the -wine into a well sulphured cask, being careful to provide the faucet -with a strainer of crape or similar fabric, so as to keep the flowers -from becoming mixed with the wine. It will be observed that the bread -absorbs a good deal of the acid, and the operation should be repeated -as often as necessary. - -Another plan is to take the meats of 60 walnuts for 100 gallons of -wine, break each into four pieces, and roast them as you would coffee; -throw them, still hot, into the cask, after having drawn out a few -quarts of wine. Fine the wine, and rack when clear, and if the acidity -is very bad, repeat the operation. - -A half pound of roasted wheat will produce the same effect. - -He also gives the following method for using marble dust. - -Take of - - White marble, 12 lbs. - Sugar, 18 lbs. - Animal charcoal, washed with boiling water, 6 ozs. - -Take of this from 3 to 6 lbs. to 100 gallons of wine, according to the -degree of acidity; dissolve it in two or three gallons of the wine and -pour into the cask. Shake it well, and continue the agitation from time -to time, for twenty-four or thirty-six hours, till the wine has lost -its acidity, taking care to leave the bung open to allow the escape of -the carbonic acid which is generated. At the end of the time, add of -cream of tartar one-half as much as the dose employed; shake again, -from time to time, and at the end of five or six hours, draw the wine -off and fine it. If, at the end of the first twenty-four hours, the -wine is still acid, add a little more of the powder before putting in -the cream of tartar. - -In answer to the objections that the charcoal removes the color and -bouquet of the wine, and that the acetate of potassium formed injures -the wine, he says that the charcoal would not hurt a white wine, and -would have but little effect upon a red wine; and as to the bouquet, -that wines which have become sour have none, and that the acetate of -potassium has no perceptible effect upon the health. - -Instead of the preceding powder, the following may be employed: - - White marble, in fine powder, 12 lbs. - { for ordinary wine, 4 ozs. - Animal charcoal { - { for fine wine, 2 ozs. - Sugar, 1 lb. - -From 5 to 7 lbs. of this are used for 100 gallons of wine, and one-half -the quantity of cream of tartar in fine powder is then added, in the -manner above mentioned. - -=Cask Flavor, or Barrel Flavor—Causes.=—This, says Mr. Boireau, should -not be confounded with the _wood flavor_ derived from oak wood, and -which wines habitually contract when stored in new casks, and which -comes from aromatic principles contained in the oak. This barrel flavor -is a bad taste, which appears to come from an essence of a disagreeable -taste and smell, and which is the result of a special decay of the wood -of the cask. This vice is rare. It is impossible for the cooper to -prevent it, for he cannot recognize the staves so affected, so as to -reject them. For those pieces of wood which have a disagreeable smell -when worked, or show reddish veins, blotched with white, often produce -casks which give no bad taste to the wine, while other staves selected -with the utmost care, sometimes produce that effect, and even in the -latter case it is impossible to point out the staves which cause the -trouble. When such a cask is found, the only way is to draw off the -wine, and not use the cask a second time. - -=The Treatment= for wines which have contracted a bad taste of the -cask, is to rack them into a sweet cask, previously sulphured, to -remove them from contact with the wood which has caused the trouble. -The bad taste may be lessened by mixing in the wine a quart or two of -sweet oil, and thoroughly stirring it for five minutes, first removing -a few quarts of wine from the cask to permit of the agitation. The oil -is removed from the surface by means of a taster, or pipette, as the -cask is filled up. The wine should then be thoroughly fined, either -with whites of eggs or gelatine, according to its nature, and racked at -the end of one or two weeks. - -The reason for the treatment is that the fixed oil takes up the -volatile essential oil, which apparently produces the bad flavor. The -olive oil used contracts a decided flavor of the cask. - -This treatment diminishes the cask flavor, but rarely entirely removes -it. - -Maigne says that to succeed well by this process, the oil should be -frequently mixed with the wine, by stirring it often for two or three -minutes at a time, during a period of eight days. It is also necessary -that the oil be fresh, inodorous, and of good quality, and of the last -crop. - -The same author gives another process, that of mixing with the wine -sufficient sugar or must to set up active fermentation. After the -fermentation has ceased, fine and rack. - -This author also mentions other methods of treatment, but as olive oil -is the remedy more generally used, it is not worth while to give them -at length; suffice it to say, that the substances recommended are, a -roasted carrot suspended in the wine for a week; a couple of pounds of -roasted wheat suspended in the wine for six or eight hours in a small -sack; the use of roasted walnuts, as mentioned for sourness; and two or -three ounces of bruised peach pits, soaked two weeks in the wine. - -=Mouldy Flavor—Bad Taste Produced by Foreign Matters.=—Wine contracts a -musty or mouldy flavor by its sojourn in casks which have become mouldy -inside, on account of negligence and want of proper care, as by leaving -them empty without sulphuring and bunging. (See _Casks_.) The mould in -empty casks is whitish, and consists of microscopic fungi, which are -developed under the influence of humidity and darkness. The bad flavor -appears to be due to the presence of an essential oil of a disagreeable -taste and smell. - -=Prevention and Treatment.=—It is prevented by carefully examining -the casks before filling them, and by avoiding the use of those which -have a mouldy smell. Wines affected by this flavor require the same -treatment as those affected with cask flavor. - -Maigne says that this taste may also be corrected by applying a loaf of -warm bread to the open bung, or by suspending in the wine a half-baked -loaf of milk bread. The operation should be repeated in three or four -days. - -=Foreign Flavors.=—Wines which have contracted foreign flavors, either -by being kept in casks which have been used for liquors of decided -flavors and odors, such as anisette, absinthe, rum, etc., or from -contact with substances having good or bad odors, owe their taste to -the dissolution in them of a part of the essential oil which those -substances contain, and should be treated in the same manner. The -chief thing is to remove the cause, by changing the cask, for if the -foreign taste and smell become very marked, they cannot be completely -destroyed; they can only be rendered tolerable by mixing them with -sound wines. - -=Ropiness= is the name applied to a viscous fermentation which takes -place in wine, making it slimy in appearance. It is met with more -particularly in white wines, which contain albuminous matters in -suspension, and but little tannin. It is not a very serious difficulty, -for it can be easily corrected. It is only necessary to tannify the -wine by adding 12 or 15 quarts of tannified wine, well stirred in with -a whip as in fining, or an ounce or two of tannin dissolved in alcohol -for each 100 gallons. The tannin combines with the viscous matter and -precipitates it, so that in removing the ropiness the wine is fined at -the same time. It should be racked from the finings after about two -weeks’ repose. - -And we may add that grapes which produce wines predisposed to ropiness -ought not to be stemmed, or the must should be fermented with at least -a portion of the stems. - -Mr. Machard says that this disease is also due sometimes to lack of -tartaric acid, and that it may be cured by supplying this substance, -and setting up fermentation again. For 100 gallons of wine, about a -pound of tartaric acid should be dissolved in hot water, to which the -same quantity of sugar is added, and when dissolved, the whole is -poured warm into the cask containing the ropy wine. Then replace the -bung, and give the cask a thorough rolling for six or eight minutes. A -small hole is previously bored near the bung and closed with a spigot, -which is removed after rolling the cask, to allow the gas to escape. -After resting two or three days, the wine, which we suppose to be a -white wine, should be fined with isinglass. - -=Ropy Wines in Bottles= generally cure themselves, but they must not be -disturbed until the deposit changes color and takes a brownish tinge. -Then is the time to decant them for drinking. - -=Ropiness may also be Cured= by passing the wine over the marc again. -But only good, fresh pomace should be used, which is but a few days -old. This is done by mixing the wine with the marc of three times the -quantity of wine, and stirring from time to time till fermentation is -established. After the fermentation, the press wine may be mixed with -the rest. - -The author does not state whether this is to be done in the case of -white wine or red wine, or both, but it is apparent that it would be -subjecting a white wine to a very unusual operation. Fresh lees may -also be mixed with the wine instead of the marc. Sometimes it is only -necessary to let the wine fall into one vessel from another at a little -height, several times, or to give it a thorough agitation by stirring -it, or by driving it about for a few hours in a vehicle over a rough -road. - -Alum has been sometimes recommended, but it is now condemned as -unwholesome. - -Other means have been suggested, but these will suffice; and it is -agreed by all that tannin is the sovereign remedy. - -It is best to avoid the use of sulphur in treating ropy wines, for -fermentation is to be encouraged rather than checked. - -=Acrity.=—An acrid taste, with which certain wines are affected as -they grow old, is a sign of degeneration. Mr. Boireau says that he has -reason to believe that this disease is due to the presence of acetic -acid, coupled with the precipitation of the mucilages which give the -mellow flavor to wine. It is more often observed in old, dry wine, -improperly cared for, and consequently deprived of its fruity flavor. - -=The Proper Treatment= is to remove the acetic acid by using a -gramme or two per litre (60 to 120 grains to a gallon) of carbonate -of magnesium. (See _Sourness, Pricked Wines_.) If the acrity is not -too great, wines may be fortified, or mixed with a strong, young, -clean-tasting wine of the same nature, after which they should be fined. - -=Bitterness=, which is often a natural defect (which has already been -considered), becomes an accidental defect when developed in old wines -which were previously sound. It is almost always a commencement -of degeneration. This bitter taste comes principally from those -combinations which are formed by the dissolution of the coloring -matter, and by the precipitation of the mucilaginous substances, the -pectines, which give the wine unctuosity and its fruity flavor. - -=Treatment.=—The way to diminish this bitterness is to fortify and -regenerate the bitter wine which has entered on its decline, by mixing -it with wine of the same nature, but young, stout, and full-bodied, and -which have not yet reached maturity. The mixture should be fined with -albumen, and racked after resting a fortnight. The wine may be improved -in this way, but the bitterness will reappear in a few months. It -should, therefore, be used as soon as possible. - -Machard recommends the following: Fine the wine with eggs, and let it -rest till clear. Burn in a clean cask a quarter or a half of a sulphur -match (for 60 gallons), and pour in the bitter wine at once with the -smoke in the cask, after having added to each litre of the wine about -one gramme of tartaric acid (say 60 grains to the gallon), dissolved in -warm water. It must then be mixed with from a fourth to a half of old -wine, firm and well preserved. He says that a new wine to mix with it -is not suitable, not having sufficient affinity for the old. - -Where there is such a difference of opinion as there is between these -two authors, one recommending the mixture of new wine, and the other -forbidding it, every one had better experiment for himself with a small -quantity, and after the cut wines have become thoroughly amalgamated, a -choice can be made. - -And yet, Mr. Machard says that if the bitterness is not very great, it -is better to give them no other treatment than simply mixing them with -younger ones, but which have a tendency to become sour, or are already -slightly pricked. - -=Mr. Maumene Distinguishes Two Kinds of Bitterness=: 1. The nitrogenous -matters, under certain circumstances not well understood, appear to -be changed into a bitter product, and entirely spoil the best wine. -This effect depends especially upon the elevation of the temperature -and the old age of the wine. He says that he knows of but one way to -remove this bitterness, and that is to add a small quantity of lime. -For example, 25 to 50 centigrammes per litre (say 15 to 30 grains per -gallon). The lime should be perfectly new and fresh. It is slacked in -a little water or wine, and poured into the cask; after stirring well, -it is left to rest for two or three days, and then racked and fined. -Probably the lime combines with the nitrogenous matters, gives an -insoluble compound, which separates from the wine, and restores to it -its former flavor. The wine ought to remain acid after this treatment. -He says that it has succeeded with him a great number of times. 2. -Another cause of bitterness appears to him to be the formation of the -_brown resin_ of ammoniacal aldehyde, under the influence of oxygen. -The ferment which adheres to the inside of the cask gives a little -ammonia by decomposition. - -We see how the wine, under the influence of the air, produces a -little aldehyde, the ammoniacal aldehyde, and finally the very bitter -brown resin, whose formation was made known by Liebig. It is under -these circumstances that sulphuring may be employed as a remedy. The -sulphurous acid destroys the resinous matter in taking its oxygen to -become sulphuric. There is then made sulphate of ammonia and pure -aldehyde. These two substances by no means communicate to the wine the -disagreeable flavor of the brown resin from which they are derived. - -Another origin of bitterness is given, that of the oxidation of the -coloring matter, but there is no positive proof of this any more than -there is of the two causes mentioned by him. Unfortunately, the whole -matter is hypothetical. - -=Fermentation and Taste of the Lees—Yeasty Flavor.=—By the term -_fermentation_ in this connection we mean the malady which is known in -different parts of France by various names, such as _la pousse_, _vins -montés_, _tournés_, _tarés_, _à l’échaud_. It generally attacks those -wines which are grown in low places, which come from poor varieties of -grapes, or are produced in bad seasons, are weak, full of ferments, and -thereby liable to work. - -Mr. Boireau gives it the name of _goût de travail_, working taste, or -fermentation flavor. He says that the taste is due to the presence of -carbonic acid, disengaged during secondary alcoholic fermentation, by -reason of saccharine matter contained in the wine, or of mucilaginous -matters which give them their mellowness. The principal cause of -fermentation is the presence of these matters joined with ferments, and -takes place in an elevated temperature. - -The _yeasty flavor_ comes from the mixture in the wine of the lees -and deposits already precipitated, and which are again brought into -suspension by the movement of fermentation. - -=How Prevented.=—Fermentation and the consequent taste of the lees are -prevented by making and fermenting the wines under proper conditions, -keeping them in an even temperature, and by separating them from their -lees by well-timed rackings, as detailed in the chapters on _General -Treatment_, _Racking_, _etc._ - -=Treatment.=—The working is stopped by racking the wines into sulphured -casks, and placing them in cellars of a cool and even temperature. (See -_Sulphuring, etc._) If they have become turbid, they must be fined, and -they must be left on the finings only as long as is strictly necessary -for their clarification. - -Machard recommends that about a quart of alcohol for 100 gallons of -wine, or its equivalent of old brandy, be introduced into the sulphured -cask before drawing the wine into it, and that it be fined in all cases. - -=Degeneration—Putrid Fermentation.=—We are warned of degeneration in -wines a long time in advance, in divers manners: by the loss of their -fruity flavor, by bitterness, acrity, etc.; but the true symptoms in -old wine are, the more abundant precipitation of their blue coloring -matter, a heavy and tawny aspect, with a slightly putrid flavor. The -principal causes are the same as those mentioned in speaking of the -putrid decomposition in new wines, that is, feebleness in alcohol, and -lack of tannin. - -We know that by the time the tannin is transformed into gallic acid, -the alcohol is diminished by slow evaporation, and it follows that -wines which are too old have lost a part of those principles which give -them their keeping qualities, alcohol and tannin. - -=The Duration of Different Wines= is exceedingly unequal, and, like -animate beings, they display marked differences in constitution. There -are very feeble wines, as we have already seen, which are in the way of -degeneration the first year, while others, firm and full-bodied, gain -in quality for four, six, ten, and more years. As soon as it is seen -that a wine, by its taste and appearance, has commenced to degenerate, -it is important to arrest the degeneration at once. - -=Treatment.=—Degeneration may be retarded by adding tannin, but it is -preferable, in most cases, to mix the wine with younger wines of the -same nature, firm, full-bodied, which are improving, and consequently -possess an excess of those qualities which are wanting in the -degenerating wine. (See _Wine in Bottles_.) - - - - -CHAPTER XVI. - -WINE IN BOTTLES. - - -=When Ready for Bottling.=—Wines should not be bottled till their -insensible fermentation is entirely completed, have become entirely -freed from deposits, excess of color, salts, and ferments, and have -become perfectly bright. If they are bottled before these conditions -are fulfilled, deposits are made in the bottles, the wines may contract -bitterness and a taste of the lees, and if fermentation is violent, the -bottles may burst. When they are bottled too young they are sure to -deposit, and then they must be decanted. - -=The Length of Time that They Require to Remain in Wood= before being -ready for bottling, depends upon the strength and quality of the wines, -and the conditions under which they are kept. - -Weak wines, feeble in color and spirit, mature rapidly, while firm, -full-bodied wines, rich in color and alcohol, require a longer time to -become sufficiently ripe to admit of bottling. - -The older writers say that wines should not be put into glass until -they have become fully ripe, and have become tawny (if red), and have -developed a bouquet. But Boireau says that this is not the proper -practice. He says that wine is fit for bottling when freed from its -sediment, and when there is hardly any deposit formed in the cask at -the semi-annual racking—when its color is bright, and it has lost its -roughness or harshness, which it possesses while young, and at the same -time preserves its mellowness. If left in the cask till a bouquet is -developed, wines will often be found to be in a decline by the time -they are bottled, and will not keep as long as those bottled previous -to the development of their bouquet, and while they still possess -their fruity flavor. But greater precautions must be taken to insure -their limpidity, or they will be liable to deposit heavily in the -bottle. And Machard, who indicates aroma and color as signs of proper -maturity, though laying more stress upon the taste, says that it is -always better to be a little too soon than to wait till the wine passes -the point. - -Some wines are fit for the bottle at one year old, others require to -be kept from two to six years, and some even ten years, or longer, in -wood. White wine, generally speaking, matures earlier than red. - -=How Prepared for Bottling.=—Although a wine may appear perfectly -limpid to the eye, yet, when bottled, it may make a considerable -deposit, and therefore, the only safety is to carefully rack and fine -it to get rid of the insoluble matters in suspension. If it is not -clear after one fining, it must be drawn off and the process repeated. -When fined and cleared, it is better to rack again into a cask slightly -sulphured, and allow it to rest for three or four weeks before drawing -into the bottles; for if drawn from a cask still containing the -finings, the sediment is liable to be stirred up by the movement of -the liquid. If this is not done, the faucet should be fixed in place -at the time of fining and before the wine has settled, and at the same -time the cask should be slightly inclined forward and blocked in that -position, and other precautions must be taken not to disturb the cask -after the wine has cleared. If the wine is too feeble to allow of -fining without injury, and one is sure of its perfect limpidity, the -fining had better be dispensed with. Very young wines may be bottled -after subjecting them to repeated finings, but it will deprive them of -some of their good qualities. (See _Fining_.) It often happens that a -well-covered, or dark-colored wine will deposit considerable color in -the bottle after one fining; such wine should be twice fined, and twice -racked before fining, say, once in December or January, and again in -March. - -=The Most Favorable Time for Bottling= is during cool, dry weather, -but in cellars of uniform temperature, it may be done at any time. It -is better, if possible, to avoid warm or stormy weather, and those -critical periods in the growth of the vine referred to in the chapter -on Racking. Of course, the wine should not be bottled if it shows signs -of fermentation. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 27._ Bottle Washer.] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 28._ _Fig. 29._ Bottle Drainers.] - -=Bottles= should always be carefully washed and drained before using. -They are best washed by the use of a machine made for the purpose, -which scrubs them inside—and sometimes, also, outside—with a brush -(fig. 27). If only a small number of bottles are to be cleaned, it -may be done by using the chain made for the purpose, or by putting in -coarse sand or gravel and water, and thoroughly shaking them. Shot must -not be used, for a portion of the lead will be dissolved by the water, -and if any remains in the bottle it will be acted upon by the wine, -and lead poisoning may result. In many cases it will be necessary only -to rinse them out with clean water. Whether new or second-hand, they -must be scrupulously clean before using. After the bottles are rinsed, -they should be allowed to drain by leaving them inverted for an hour or -two in a dry place; if they are left in a damp cellar, they are liable -to contract a musty flavor within. They may be drained by placing the -necks downward through holes bored in a plank, by inverting them in -boxes or baskets, or by placing them upon pegs or nails driven into a -post, and inclining upwards sufficiently to leave the opening of the -bottle down, when the neck is slipped over the peg or nail. Figs. 28 -and 29 show devices for the purpose. The bottles are sometimes rinsed -out with wine, or if intended to contain very poor, weak wine, with a -little brandy. This is done by pouring the liquor from one bottle to -another. - -It is best to use bottles uniform in size for each lot of wine, and -certainly to reject those which are cracked, have large blisters, and -those which are very thin. These latter, however, may be employed, if -but little pressure is used in corking, but they should be placed by -themselves, or on the top of the pile. No one would make use of such -bottles except to store wine for his own consumption. - -Clear and transparent bottles are used for white wine, and those -of colored glass for red. Hock, however, is often put in brownish -bottles, conical in shape. White wines which are perfectly limpid show -to advantage in clear bottles, but red wines, if stored in such, are -liable to lose their color by the action of light. - -It is important that the glass of which wine bottles are made should -not contain too much soda, potash, or lime, or they may combine with -the acids, and injure the wine. By the use of crude soda, alkaline -sulphites may be formed in the glass, and communicate an odor of -sulphuretted hydrogen to the wine. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 30._ Reservoir for filling Bottles.] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 31._ Bung Screw.] - -=Filling the Bottles.=—If the faucet has not previously been placed in -the cask, it must now be done with great care, so as not to disturb -any lees that may have remained at the last racking. The faucet should -be put into the cask _open_, as for racking, and with very light blows -of the hammer. A shallow dish or bucket is placed under the faucet in -which the bottle stands. An ordinary brass faucet may be used, or the -bottles may be filled much more rapidly by drawing the wine from the -cask into a reservoir provided with as many faucets or tubes as bottles -which it is desired to fill at the same time (fig. 30). The cask must -be vented either by making a gimlet hole or two near the bung, or the -bung must be removed. The latter, however, must not be done by blows -with the bung-starter, but by using the bung screw (fig. 31), or the -lees will be stirred up. The bottle should not be placed upright so -that the wine will fall directly to the bottom, but should be slightly -inclined so as to permit the wine to trickle down the inside, or a -foam will be formed, and it will be difficult to fill the bottle. The -workman having his empty bottles within reach, allows a little of the -first wine to run into the dish, or into a bottle, which is put aside, -as there may be some impurities in the faucet. The workman is seated in -front of the cask, and the empty bottles are placed one at a time under -the faucet as described. As soon as one bottle is filled, it is removed -and another put in its place, without closing the faucet, and without -loss of wine. The sediment would be disturbed by the shocks caused by -opening and shutting the faucet. - -If the needle is used in corking the bottles, they should be filled -within a little more than an inch of the top, and if corked in the -ordinary manner, only to within about two inches of the opening, -leaving an inch of vacancy below the cork; always, however, depending -somewhat upon the length of the corks used. This is continued, placing -the full bottles in a convenient place, until the wine ceases to run -at the faucet. The cask must then be slightly inclined forward, as -described in the case of racking. At this stage, great care must be -taken not to trouble the wine; and if a few bottles at the end contain -that which is not clear, they should be put aside, to be decanted after -settling. In drawing from the upper tiers of casks in piles, the basin -must be elevated sufficiently to bring the bottle placed in it up to -the faucet, or the latter may be connected with it by a hose. - -=Corks.=—Only good corks should be used. They are supple and uniform in -texture. Poor corks are sold in the market, in which is found a good -deal of the dark, hard portion of the bark, which are not only liable -to break the bottles by the great amount of pressure required to insert -them, but also to discolor the wine, affect its flavor, and to permit -it to leak out. Straight corks are used now-a-days, somewhat larger -than the neck of the bottle, and are forced in by means of - -[Illustration: _Fig. 32._ Corking Machines.] - -=Corking Machines.=—These machines are of different forms and make, but -are provided with a hollow cone through which the cork is forced by -a piston, compressing it so that it easily goes into the neck of the -bottle. Some work with a lever, and some with a crank. In the small -hand-machine, the piston is pushed by the hand. The bottles may be -made full enough so that the wine will touch the bottom of the cork, -leaving no vacant space, if the _needle_ is used in corking. This is -a small, tapering, half-round, steel instrument, one-tenth of an inch -in diameter, with a groove along the flat side. By placing this in the -neck with the groove next the glass, the cork may be forced down to -the wine, the air and surplus wine escaping by the groove. After the -cork is driven home, the needle is removed. A piece of wire, provided -with a handle, will answer the purpose. The handle of the needle -(either a ring, or like that of a gimblet), is attached by a hinge, -and turns down out of the way of the tube and piston of the machine. -Some bottling machines have a needle attachment. Bottles corked by the -use of this instrument do not contain a vacant space, and the wine -keeps better, not being exposed to the action of the air, which would -otherwise remain in the neck of the bottle, and not being shaken in -transportation. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 33._ Corking Machines.] - -Figures 32 and 33 show corking machines with and without needles. In -fig. 33 two needles are also shown. - -If the old-fashioned conical corks are used, they may be driven home -with a small mallet, or wooden paddle, but the cylindrical corks are -preferable, if the wine is to be kept long. - -=Preparation of the Corks.=—In order to render them more supple, they -are soaked for several hours in water. What is far better, however, is -to steam them for two or three hours, or soak them in hot water. They -should be allowed to drain, and then be dipped in wine like that to be -bottled. Some dip them in alcohol to render them more slippery, and -some again, put a drop or two of sweet oil on the surface of the water -in which they are wet. - -=The Corks may be Driven down Flush= with the opening of the bottle, or -they may be left projecting a quarter of an inch, and if much larger -than the neck of the bottle, a shoulder will be formed, as in the case -of sparkling wines. The object of leaving the corks projecting a third -of their length in bottling sparkling wines is, that they may be forced -out with an explosion; and the shoulder completely closes the bottle, -being wired down. - -=Sealing the Corks.=—If the bottles are stored in a damp place where -the corks are liable to rot, and also if they are to be kept more than -two years, it is well to cover the ends of the corks with wax. This -also prevents attacks by insects. - -=The Sealing Wax= used should be sufficiently adhesive, but not too -hard and brittle. Various receipts are given for its preparation, and -the following is given by Boireau: Melt common pitch or turpentine -over a slow fire, taking care not to allow it to boil over. When it -is well melted, remove whatever impurities it contains, add a little -tallow—a little less than an ounce of tallow to a pound of pitch. Its -natural color is reddish, and is used without addition of coloring -matter. Rosin may be substituted for the pitch. Instead of making this -preparation, the fruit wax of commerce may be used. About the same -quantity of tallow, however, should be added, if sealing wax is used, -or otherwise it will be too brittle. The tallow may be replaced by -beeswax with advantage. - -An excellent bottle wax is said to be made by melting together two -pounds rosin, one pound Burgundy pitch, one-fourth pound yellow wax, -and one-eighth pound red wax. The wax may be replaced by three ounces -of tallow. If too much tallow is added the cement will be too soft. - -=The Cement is Applied Hot.=—It must be melted, and the bottle reversed -and dipped into it, so that the wax will cover the end of the cork and -a small part of the neck of the bottle, say down to the ring. It is -entirely unnecessary to cover more of the neck of the bottle. - -=Coloring Matter= may be added to these different cements, and any -desired color produced. A little more than half an ounce of the -following named substances is stirred in to one pound of the melted wax. - -A brilliant red is produced by vermilion, a duller red by red ochre, -black with animal black, yellow with orpiment, dark yellow with yellow -ochre, and blue with Prussian blue. Green is made by mixing equal -parts of blue and yellow, and other shades may be made by mixing the -different colors to suit the taste. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 34._ Pincers for Removing Wax.] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 35._ Capsuler.] - -=Capsules= are now much used instead of wax. In preparing the bottled -wine for shipment, where the corks have previously been waxed for -storing in the cellar, capsules are also used. In this case, the wax is -removed before the capsule is put on by means of a pair of pincers with -roughened jaws (fig. 34). These capsules in different colors are sold -by dealers in corks. - -=They are Put on= by slipping one over the neck of the bottle as far -as it will go, and then pressing it down closely all round. For this -purpose, one turn is made around the end of the capsule with a stout -cord fastened at one end, and the bottle is pushed forward with one -hand, while the loose end of the string is pulled tight with the other, -thus sliding the loop over the capsule and the neck of the bottle, and -pressing it firmly in place. Instead of holding the cord with one hand, -it may be attached to a pedal worked by the foot. A machine (fig. 35) -is made with two posts or standards, one solid, to which one end of the -cord, _A_, is attached, and the other playing on a hinge, to which the -other end is fastened, and pulled tight by a pedal, _B_. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 36._ Piling Bottles.] - -=Piling of Bottles.=—Bottles may be stacked on the floor of the cellar -in piles consisting of a single or a double range. The bed should be -made level by arranging the soil, or by laying down strips of wood, and -leveling them. The bottles should be laid horizontal. If the neck is -down, the deposit will be on and near the cork, and will trouble the -wine as it runs from the bottle. If the bottom is lower than the neck, -the cork will not be kept wet, and the wine is liable to be injured by -the air, as the cork is not perfectly air-tight. The bottles should -be supported at two points, the neck and the bottom; the belly of the -bottle needs no support. If two tiers of bottles are put in a pile, the -bottoms are on the outside, with the necks at the middle of the pile. -Laths are used to support the bottles, about three-eighths of an inch -thick, and one inch or more wide. The lower row of one tier is made -by laying down at the outside of the pile two laths to support the -bottom end of the bottle, and one thick strip or sufficient laths are -laid down to support the neck, inside the ring, and keep the bottle -level. The next tier may be commenced by laying one or two laths on the -necks of the bottles of the first one to support the necks of those of -the other, the necks of the bottles of one tier lapping over those of -the bottles of the other; the bottoms of those of this tier must be -sufficiently elevated by laths to keep the bottles level. The next row -of bottles is supported by laths laid on those below, one or two near -the outer end of the lower ones, and a larger number on their necks. In -this case the necks all point in, the bottoms being together (fig. 36). -The bottles of each row should be sufficiently separated to allow those -of the next row above to be supported by the laths without touching -each other, and should be blocked after adjusting the distances. The -piles may be made from three to six feet high, and must be supported at -the ends, either by the cellar walls or posts. - -Each tier may be made entirely independent of the other, by supporting -the necks of the bottles of the next upper row on laths laid near the -bottoms of those of the first row, one row having the necks pointing -out, and the next one having them pointing the other way. In this case -the bottles in a row may be separated an inch or more from each other, -and blocked with bits of cork. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 37._ Bottle Rack.] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 38._ Bottle Rack.] - -=Racks and Bins for Bottles.=—Instead of piling the bottles, they may -be arranged in bins constructed for the purpose. The simplest is a -frame of wood or iron of the desired length and height, and deep enough -to accommodate one or two tiers of bottles. The lower bars on which the -first row of bottles rests, should be so arranged as to support them in -a level position, as already described for piling. If only one tier is -to be made, only two bars at the bottom are necessary, but if double -ranges are to be made, the frame must be deeper, and have a middle bar -to support the necks of the bottles, the bottoms all being outside. The -bottles are piled in these frames in the manner already described. - -Instead of piling them in simple frames with the use of laths, racks -are made with bars to support each row of bottles by itself, and so -that any one bottle can be taken out without disturbing the rest. If -the supports are of wood, they may be cut, or if of iron, bent in a -form to fit each bottle, that is, in small half-circles in which the -bottles rest, with smaller ones for the necks, or they may be straight. -These bins may be made portable, and of any size to suit. (Figs. 37 and -38.) - -Burrow’s Patent Slider Bin, made in England, has a separate compartment -for each bottle. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 39._ Burrow’s Slider Bin.] - -=Treatment of Wine in Bottles.=—Sometimes it will be found that wine -ferments in the bottle, becomes turbid, and makes a voluminous deposit, -or may contract various maladies, such as bitterness, harshness, -ropiness, or may become putrid. These effects result principally from -bottling the wine too young, before insensible fermentation and the -natural clearing has been completed, or they may be caused by changes -of temperature, or too great age. - -=Fermentation in the Bottles= is due to the same causes as fermentation -in casks—changes of temperature, contact of the air, etc. It may be -avoided by bottling at the proper time, carefully protecting the wine -from the air by corking the bottles hermetically by the use of the -needle, and keeping them in a cellar of even temperature. Boireau -says that sweet and mellow wines are liable to ferment in bottles, -especially if exposed to a high temperature, unless their alcoholic -strength exceeds 15 per cent. Still wines which ferment in the bottle -generally must be emptied into casks, and there treated as indicated -in the chapter on _Diseases_. Temporary relief may be given by putting -the bottles in a cooler place, and uncorking them for an hour or two to -allow the gas to escape. - -=Deposits and Turbidity.=—Wine, after being some time in glass, forms -more or less deposit, according to its age, quality, and degree of -limpidity at the time of bottling. The deposits consist almost entirely -of coloring matter, and vegetable and mineral salts; sometimes they -adhere to the sides of the bottle, and in some cases they render the -wine turbid, and again they present the appearance of gravel when the -wine contains much tartar. - -In wines bottled too young, or which are made by mixing those of -different natures, quite a voluminous deposit may be formed after they -have remained a few years in glass. But good, natural wines, of good -growth, well cared for, and bottled under proper conditions, scarcely -commence to deposit at the end of one or two years. The deposit, -however, will be increased, if the bottles are frequently disturbed, -are transported long distances, undergo changes of temperature, or are -kept so long that they begin to degenerate. If there is much deposit, -it is apt to give the wine a _bitter_ or _acrid_ flavor, or a _taste of -the lees_. Therefore, if the wines are of high quality, they should be -decanted. - -Mr. Boireau proceeds to say that if the deposit is small, and we are -dealing with grand wines in bottles, which have contracted no bad -taste, it is better not to decant them, for the operation is liable to -cause a loss of a portion of the bouquet, especially if not done with -proper precautions. - -These directions only apply to those bottled wines which have deposited -sediment, but which are nevertheless clear, and bright, and of a -lively color. Those, however, which become and remain turbid, must -be fined, and for this purpose they must be put into casks. If wines -containing sediment are brought to the table without decanting, they -are kept in nearly the same position as they occupied in the cellar, by -using small baskets contrived for the purpose. (See _Decantation_.) - -=Bitterness and Acrity=, when not caused by deposits, are due to loss -of the fruitiness and mellowness of the wine, which then has commenced -to decline. The only remedy in case of fine wines which have preserved -their bouquet, is to mix them with younger wines, mellow and perfectly -bright. This should be done by decanting without contact with the air; -but if they are seriously affected, they must be put into casks and -the operation there performed; then they should be well fined before -re-bottling. - -=Ropiness= in bottled wines, which is due to lack of tannin, generally -occurs in white wines which have been bottled before perfectly clear, -and while they contained considerable nitrogenous and albuminous -matters in suspension. The treatment is indicated elsewhere. - -In most cases, if the wines are worn out, it will be necessary to put -them into casks, and mix them with younger ones of the same quality. - -=Degeneration and Putridity.=—Wine may be kept and improved in bottles, -if properly treated, as long as its constituent principles remain -soluble and in combination; but with the lapse of time, varying with -different kinds, it begins to lose quality. This degeneration, says the -author last quoted, announces itself a long time in advance, in the -grand wines, by a loss of their unctuosity, of their fruity flavor, and -by a bitter and sometimes acrid taste; and if they are kept for several -years more, the fragrance of the bouquet is lost, and they contract -a _rancio_ or tawny flavor, which masks their natural flavor; they -rapidly lose color, and form a deposit much more considerable than in -the earlier years of their sojourn in bottles; and finally, when their -degeneracy is advanced, they give off a slightly putrid odor. - -As soon as high priced wines have attained their entire development in -bottles, in order to prevent their decline, they should be carefully -decanted into bottles with ground glass stoppers, previously rinsed -with wine of the same kind. - -Loss of color, joined with an abundant deposit, which is a sure sign -of degeneration in the wines of the Gironde, do not mean the same in -all other kinds. For instance, the red wines of Spain (and we may add, -Portugal), and the sweet wines of Roussillon, which have a very dark -color when young, almost entirely lose it after three or four years -in bottle; they become tawny, without degenerating; but, quite to the -contrary, their quality is improved. - -It is observed, however, that in wines of these latter classes, whose -alcoholic strength exceeds 15 per cent., the deposit is not so great, -compared with the amount of coloring matter precipitated, as in wines -of the first mentioned growth, and that the coloring matter adheres to -the sides of the bottle, instead of falling to the bottom. Some of our -California wines deposit a good deal of color in the bottle, even when -fined. Probably a double fining would be advantageous in many cases. - -As alcohol and tannin are the preservative principles of wines, those -last longest which are best provided with them. - -The cause of the degeneration of wine is the decomposition of -its constituent parts, which thereby become insoluble, and are -precipitated. The loss of tannin, which in time is transformed into -gallic acid, takes from feeble wines their best conservator, and causes -precipitation of the coloring matter. And it is observed in practice -that wines which contain a great quantity of tannin last longer than -those of the same alcoholic strength having less tannin. - -=Decantation= consists in drawing a wine from the bottle containing it, -so as to leave the sediment behind. It should be done without exposing -the wine to the air. - -The bottles should be brought from the cellar without changing their -position, for if the deposit is disturbed, and the wine becomes cloudy, -the bottles must rest till it has settled again. For this purpose they -are laid in a basket, or other suitable receptacle, where they are -inclined just enough so that the wine will not run out when the cork -is removed (fig. 40). The cork must be drawn without disturbing the -sediment, by using a corkscrew, which by means of a screw or lever, -gradually removes it, and without a shock (fig. 41). The wine is slowly -run into another clean bottle previously rinsed with the same kind of -wine. If the wine is in its decline, rinse the bottles with old brandy. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 40._ Decanting Basket.] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 41._ Corkscrews.] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 42._ Decanting Instrument.] - -=The Operation may be Performed= by carefully pouring the wine into -the empty bottle through a small funnel, which is provided with a -strainer. By means of a light placed below the bottle, the sediment can -be watched, and as soon as it is about to run out with the wine, the -operation must cease. The new bottle must be filled up with the same -kind of wine and immediately corked. In decanting in this manner, the -bubbling of the air passing into the bottle as the wine runs out, is -very apt to disturb the lees. This may be prevented by using a small -tube, slightly curved, which connects the air outside with the vacant -space in the bottle. In order to prevent access of the air, however, -an instrument is used consisting of two conical corks, connected by a -small rubber tube. Each cork is pierced with two holes; the one placed -in the bottle to be emptied, besides the hole which receives the rubber -hose through which the wine runs, is provided with one through which a -bent tube is placed to admit the air; the hose passes through the other -cork and conducts the wine into the other bottle, and this cork has -another hole for the escape of the air (fig. 42). - - - - -CHAPTER XVII. - -CUTTING OR MIXING WINES. - - -=Most French Wines Mixed.=—Maigne, speaking of the wines of France, -says, that of one hundred wines in the market, perhaps there are not -ten which are not produced by mixing several different kinds. Without -doubt, he says, we should as much as possible preserve the products of -the vine as they are given to us; but there are a multitude of cases -where it is absolutely impossible to render them drinkable without -mixing, or as wine men say, without _cutting_ them with other wines. - -=When Necessary—Effect of.=—In good years, almost all wines can be -drank in their natural condition, but when the grapes have not become -sufficiently ripe, the wines, even of good growths, lack quality, or -preserve for a long time a roughness more or less marked, and always -disagreeable. It is then necessary to mix them, especially if common -wines, with better ones, to make them tolerable. It is not always -necessary, however, that the season should be bad, in order that -cutting should be proper. Wines naturally have, for a certain time, -an earthy flavor and greenness which are unpleasant, which disappear -by mixing. This is why ordinary wines of a moderate price, which have -been mixed, are preferred by a great number of consumers to others -which are higher in price but left in a state of nature. For example, a -new, very dark-colored wine of good growth is not an agreeable drink; -but if an old white wine of an inferior growth, but of good taste and -constitution be added, it will be drank with pleasure. - -Mixing the wine produces results similar to those caused by mixing the -fruit, and it may be done by the wine maker as well as by the merchant. -As they come from the vat, wines manifest the qualities and defects -communicated by the vintage, and which are varied by a multitude of -circumstances, such as the nature of the soil, varieties of grapes, -temperature of the season, and the like. - -Wines endowed with qualities which fit them to be kept in their natural -condition, of course, are not mixed. But those which, on the other hand -(and they are in the majority), have too much or too little color, -are weak, flat, coarse, green, pasty, rough, lacking in bouquet, too -strong, or too light, cannot be put on the market till they have been -cut with other wines capable of giving them the qualities which they -lack, and of remedying their defects. It will be understood that the -mixture of a weak wine with a stronger one, of one lacking color with -one which has too much, a light wine with a generous one, of a hard -wine with a flat one, etc., a wine will be produced superior in quality -to any one of those used. - -For these reasons, in a viticultural district, when a producer cannot -sell his wine of a bad year, he mixes it with that of the following -year, if the latter is of a better quality; if he cannot mix it all, he -may use it for ullage. In the same way, if he has new white wines which -become discolored and turn yellow, he mingles them with very dark red -wines, which then become more agreeable to drink. - -It is said that the tithe wines used to be of superior quality. -In certain communes of France, the inhabitants contributed to the -priest’s cask a certain amount of their new wine, and this wine -which represented a mixture of all the wines of the commune, had the -reputation of being superior to any one of the others. - -And the following case, quoted by Maigne, is given for what it is -worth. A cask lay in a cellar into which they were accustomed to -throw the leavings of all kinds of wine, such as from broken bottles, -drippings, etc. It was intended to use the liquid upon diseased trees, -but it was for some time forgotten. When found and brought out, the -cellar-man tasted the singular mixture out of curiosity. It was found -to be a delicious liquor, which gave delight at dessert; and it was -with true grief that they saw its end approach! - -In order to perform the operation successfully, an experienced man is -required, who will be guided by his educated taste; and therefore, -precise rules cannot be laid down, but there are certain general -principles which it may be useful to state. - -=Wines of the same General Nature and Flavor= should be used, and -two of such wines may nevertheless be deficient in some particular -respects, so that by mixing, the defects of the two will be corrected. -Such wines are mixed, because they are said to _marry_ better, and -produce a more homogeneous liquid than those of different natures. - -=Fine Wines.=—All agree that fine wines which have a bouquet and a -future are best left in their natural condition, for their distinctive -character will be destroyed by mixing with wines of a different nature -and quality. Boireau says that experience proves that if such wines are -mixed while young, even with old wine of good quality, they will never -acquire that degree of fineness which they would have obtained if left -by themselves; that they sooner loose their fruity flavor, and are more -liable to make a deposit in the bottles. - -There are cases, however, when cutting becomes necessary, as when the -wine from being kept too long in casks, has commenced to decline, has -lost its fruity flavor, has become acrid and dry; when made in a bad, -cold season; and when they are too poor, green, or too feeble to keep -well. - -When wines are too old and worn out, they should be fortified with -young wines of the same kind, produced, if possible, from the same -vineyard, one or two, or at most, three years old, and possessing great -mellowness. The amount of new wine to be used will depend upon the -degree of degeneracy and the length of time they are to be kept. (See -_Degeneration_.) - -Poor, weak wines, whose keeping qualities are doubted, should be mixed -with young wine of a good year, firm and full-bodied, possessing as -nearly as possible the same natural flavor. - -The foregoing is intended to apply to feeble, delicate wines which have -a flavor and bouquet, but _which are not too green_. Wines which have a -future should not be sacrificed by using them to fortify others which -are both _feeble and green_, for the excess of tartaric acid contained -in the latter will totally destroy the mellowness of those used to -fortify them. To mix with such wines, clean-tasting wines of the south -should be used. - -If the wines are too green, a portion of the acid may be neutralized, -as described under the head of _Greenness_. - -=Ordinary Wines= should be treated in such a way as to give them as -much as possible the qualities sought in fine wines, and they should be -cut with suitable wines of the same age to give them bouquet, flavor, -and mellowness, or at least to remove their excessive dryness—a very -difficult thing to do. It may be accomplished, in part, by mixing them -with wines of the same growth, but whose bouquet and flavor are very -expansive, and by adding neutral, mellow wines. - -=Sufficient Time Must be Given= to the mixture to allow the different -wines employed to become intimately combined, or their different -flavors may be detected, which will not be the case when thoroughly -amalgamated. - -=When Large Quantities= of wine are used, the mixture is more nearly -perfect than if mingled, cask by cask; and by operating upon the whole -amount at one time in a large vat, a perfect uniformity will be insured. - -=An Entirely New Wine= should not be mixed with an old one, as there is -not sufficient affinity between them. - -In an old wine, says Machard, all the constituents are in a state -of complete quiet; they are well combined (melted) and homogeneous. -If there is mixed with it a wine whose principles are equally well -combined, no ulterior action will result. But if new principles are -introduced, elements of a different nature, the equilibrium will -be disturbed, there will infallibly result a reciprocal action and -disorganization. - -=Very Green Wines= should not be mixed with those containing much -sugar for similar reasons, for the mixture is liable to be thrown -into a state of violent fermentation, which it will be difficult to -arrest. The reason given is that the green wine contains a good deal -of ferment; but if both the wines are produced in the south, where -the ferment contained in the dry wine is not abundant, the mixture may -safely be made. So that, after all, we get back to the principle, that -wines of widely different natures and origins should not be mixed, but -keeping this in mind, a sweetish and a dry wine may be used to correct -each other. - -=White Wines= may sometimes be mixed with advantage with red ones, as -before mentioned, but the former should not be employed too liberally. - -=Diseased Wines= must not be mixed with sound ones, except in the -few cases mentioned under _Defects and Diseases_. It is especially -dangerous to cut a soured or pricked wine with a sound one, for the -whole mass is liable to be lost. - -=Mixing Grapes.=—It is doubtless always better, when practicable, to -correct defects by mixing the grapes and fermenting the different -kinds together, for then a more homogeneous wine will be formed; and, -therefore, the intelligent grape grower will find out the defects of -his wine, and remedy them by planting a sufficient quantity of other -varieties for the purpose. - -=Precautions.=—Care, however, must always be taken not to spoil a good -wine by cutting it with a very common one, nor by mixing poor varieties -with grapes of fine kinds. - -Cheap wines, however, for immediate consumption, may admit a certain -proportion of poor, common wine, into their composition, without -inconvenience. In that case, the ferments of the common sorts will not -have time to act and produce serious results. - -If, however, they are to be kept for some time, or bottled, the -effect will be bad, for the ferments always abundant in wines from -the commoner varieties, are liable to become decomposed, and cause a -disagreeable, nauseating flavor. - -Whenever there is a doubt in the mind of the cellar-man as to whether -certain wines should be mixed, it is always best to make a small sample -first, clarify it, and leave it for a sufficient length of time, and -judge of the result, before operating upon a large quantity. - - - - -CHAPTER XVIII. - -WINE LEES, MARC, AND PIQUETTE. - - -=The Residue of Wine Making=, pomace and lees, are often placed -immediately in the still, and their alcohol distilled off directly, -but the result is better if the wine is first extracted, and distilled -without putting the residue into the boiler, for it is liable to burn -and give a disagreeable burnt flavor to the brandy. - -I am indebted to Mr. Boireau, so often quoted, for what follows: - - -WINE LEES. - -=The Lees= should not be neglected, because, for want of proper care, -the wine which is extracted from them will contract a very disagreeable -taste, which is due to its too long sojourn on the deposit, and which -would be prevented by drawing it off in time. - -Therefore, in order that the wine extracted from them should not lose -all its value, the lees should receive particular attention, and be -stored in places free from variations of temperature. - -=The Quantity of Wine Contained in the Lees= varies from 30 to 90 per -cent. From those of fined wines an average of 70 per cent. may be -extracted without pressing. - -=The Dry Parts of the Sediment= contain a great quantity of insoluble -matters, tartar, or argol, several other vegetable and mineral salts, -divers compounds, ferments, mucilaginous matters, and the residue of -animal and vegetable matters (albumen and gelatine), which have been -employed in fining. - -=An Analysis of Dry Lees= by Mr. Braconnot, a distinguished chemist, -establishes the presence of the following substances: bitartrate of -potash (cream of tartar), tartrate of lime, tartrate of magnesia, -nitrogenous animal matter, fatty substances, coloring matter, gum, and -tannin. - -=The Composition of Dry Lees= varies with the age, nature, and quality -of the wine which produces them; but in all, the bitartrate of potash -or cream of tartar predominates. The lees of mellow wines contain -mucilages, and we find in the lees deposited by sweet wines great -quantities of saccharine matter which may be utilized. The different -uses to which dried lees may be put will be mentioned further on. - -=Treatment of the Lees.=—Lees will settle by repose, but the wine -which comes from them, if left long upon the heavy lees, contracts a -disagreeable flavor, owing to its contact with the insoluble matters -forming the sediment, and with the ferments found in the lees with the -residue of the substances used in fining. The surface wine is often -in a state of fermentation, and remains turbid, contracting at the -same time a disagreeable bitterness, unless soon withdrawn from the -influence of the ferments. - -By proper care and attention, not only can all the liquid be extracted -from the lees, but the wine so extracted will have no bad flavor, no -vice, in a word, will partake of the same qualities as the wine from -which the heavy lees were deposited. The casks into which they are to -be put should be washed in the same manner as those destined to contain -limpid wine, and double the quantity of a sulphur match employed in the -case of racking new red wines, should be burned in each. As fast as -the casks are emptied in drawing off, the lees are turned into a pail, -and immediately poured into the cask intended for them. In emptying -them into the pail, care should be taken not to introduce dirt, mould, -etc., and if there is debris around the bung-hole, it should be swept -away before removing the bung. As soon as the cask is full of lees, it -should be stored, bung up, in a proper place, as mentioned, and should -then be ulled and bunged, and the date of storing may be marked on it, -with the kind and age of the wine from which it came. - -When the casks are not completely filled the same day, and it is -necessary to leave them with ullage, they should be bunged tight, after -having again burned a square of a match in each, and the sulphuring -should be renewed as often as the lees are added, if left so for -several days, in order to avoid access of air, and to prevent the -action of ferments. In a word, casks containing lees, without being -full, should always be well bunged and sulphured, and guarded from -variations of temperature. - -The casks, when stored, should be regularly ulled once a week with -limpid wine, and re-bunged, and after two weeks’ repose, the first -drawing off takes place, and should be renewed once or twice every -month. All the clear wine will be drawn off at each racking, by -following the precautions indicated further on. By drawing off thus -frequently, fermentation, to which such wine is subject, will be -avoided, even in summer. Thus, also, will be avoided the disagreeable -taste of the lees, of acrity and bitterness, which wine contracts when -left long on the deposit, and moreover, much more clear wine will be -withdrawn. Lees from diseased wine should not be mixed with the rest, -but should be put aside and treated according to the malady by which -the wine was affected. - -=Extraction of Wine from the Lees.=—Lees preserved under the conditions -indicated naturally free themselves from a great part of the foreign -substances which they contain, by rest, for they are insoluble, and -specifically heavier than wine, and settle of their own accord. The -wine should not be fined till drawn from the heavy lees. - -The racking off of the clear wine may be performed in two ways, either -by the use of a glass siphon or of a faucet. For the first rackings -the glass siphon is most appropriate, and by its use the boring of -holes high up in the end of the cask is avoided. It is introduced about -eight inches into the full cask, a proper vessel to catch the wine is -placed under the end, with another vessel close at hand, and the wine -is started by the breath; but the siphon must be held with the hand, or -otherwise sustained so that it will not go too deep into the cask. By -holding a candle below, it can be seen if the wine is any way clear; -and as long as it runs sufficiently limpid, the siphon is lowered -into the cask, little by little, till the level of the turbid wine is -nearly reached. When one bucket is filled, the other is slipped under -the stream without stopping it. Two men are usually required, one to -attend the siphon, and the other to empty the buckets. As soon as the -wine runs muddy, it is stopped. If the cask of lees is sufficiently -elevated, the stem of the siphon may run into a funnel placed in the -empty cask. - -When the casks have all been drawn from, the remaining heavy lees are -filled into those containing the greater quantity, so as to transfer -the least quantity. Before filling, however, the casks should have a -double square of sulphur match burned in each, to prevent subsequent -fermentations. - -The use of the faucet is preferred, when the lees are thick, and the -casks which contain them are near the ground, and are only used for -storing lees. In the latter case, the injury to the cask by boring -holes in the head at several heights, is of little consequence. A -greater quantity of wine may be drawn off by the use of the faucet than -with the glass siphon, but it is generally less clear than if carefully -done with the latter; and one man can do the work. - -First, it is necessary to ascertain how far down the clear wine -reaches, by means of gimlet holes, and the faucet-hole should then be -bored just above the level of the heavy lees. If the faucet has been -placed too low, the sediment which runs through it at first may be put -aside. - -After the drawing of the clear wine has been repeated several times, -and the thick lees united as above mentioned, the casks should not be -filled until heavily sulphured, and they must not be disturbed, for the -least agitation may stir up the sediment already formed, and cause bad -flavor in the wine, and even produce putrid fermentation, especially in -those from fined wines which contain large quantities of animal matter -introduced in the finings. Casks emptied of heavy lees should be washed -with a chain, to remove the sediment clinging to the inside, which must -not be allowed to dry on. - -=Fining Wines Extracted from the Lees.=—These wines often are not -sufficiently clear; and they are generally more difficult to clarify -completely by the usual methods than the wines which produced the lees. - -It is noticeable that these wines have less color and less alcohol than -other wines produced in the ordinary way. - -The difficulty in obtaining their complete clarification arises from -the great quantity of insoluble matter which they still hold in -suspension, and their relative feebleness in alcohol and tannin. - -The want of color is due to the mechanical action of the insoluble -matters which the lees contain; these matters in precipitating carry -down a part of the coloring matter remaining in solution in the liquid. -It follows that the older the lees, and the oftener the wine has been -drawn from them, the feebler the color. - -=Red Wines= extracted from the lees, to be completely clarified, should -be fined with a heavy dose of albumen (the whites of 16 or 18 eggs to -100 gallons), previously well beaten up in a pint of water in which -half an ounce of sea salt has been dissolved to give it density. If the -alcoholic strength is below nine per cent, they should be fortified by -the addition of two or three quarts of brandy or alcohol to each 100 -gallons. Red wines from this source should not be fined with gelatine, -or it will diminish the color too much. - -=White Wines= of this kind may be fined with albumen also, if strong -in alcohol; but otherwise, they should be fined with a heavy dose of -gelatine, three tablets. But before fining they must be tannified by -adding 4 or 5 gallons of tannified wine, or an ounce of tannin for each -100 gallons. - -Wines from lees should remain on the finings only long enough to -precipitate the matters used, about ten days; after which they must be -carefully racked, and cared for like other wines. - -=Pressing the Thick Sediment.=—After the lees have undergone three or -four semi-monthly rackings, the rest of the wine which they contain may -be extracted by pressure, and this amounts on the average to fifty per -cent. More wine might be extracted by further racking, but by allowing -the wine to remain longer in contact with the finings and other -sediment, it will contract the disagreeable flavors already alluded -to, which may be avoided by pressing the lees after the first three or -four rackings; and an excellent result is obtained by using a filter -press after the first racking, and the wine obtained will have no bad -taste. - -The pressing is performed in small sacks about eighteen inches long. -They should be made of cotton cloth, as those made from hemp, even -after being used several times, give a disagreeable flavor to the wines -passed through them. - -It is not necessary to provide more than sacks enough for one cask of -lees. The cloth of which they are made should be fine, and of close and -regular texture. - -To make a cheap press, one head of a cask is removed, and the pieces of -this head are fastened together by nailing on two cross pieces to keep -it in form, and enough of the wood around the edge is removed to allow -it to pass freely into the cask as a follower. The cask is then placed -upright, and a hole is bored in one of the staves close to the lower -head, into which is placed a faucet. This cask, which is to contain -the sacks, may be placed high enough to allow the wine to run from the -faucet directly into the bung of another cask to hold the wine. If the -casks containing the lees are placed on a horse or platform, the latter -may be run from the faucet-hole directly into the sacks, which may be -fastened to the chime with small hooks, and be kept open with the hand -or a small hoop. A dish should be placed under before withdrawing the -spigot. Or, to avoid fouling the outside of the sack with the lees, -they may first be run into a tub, and dipped into the sacks, the tub -being provided with a sack-holder. As soon as a sack is sufficiently -filled, it should be strongly tied with a bow-knot which can be easily -untied, and laid in the cask provided; and a few small sticks should be -placed over the inner end of the faucet so that it may not be stopped -by a sack coming in contact with it. Sacks are placed in the cask till -it is full. The faucet is left open, so that the wine, as fast as -filtered, may run through a hose into a well washed and well sulphured -cask, placed in position to receive it. - -When the cask is full of sacks, the cover is placed on them and they -are allowed to drain for several hours, weights being gradually placed -upon the cover or follower. Further pressure is applied by means of a -lever rigged for the purpose, one end made firm, and the other having -weights attached. - -It is best that the pressure be gradually applied, leaving the sacks to -drain for several hours, then applying the lever, but loading it with -weights several hours later, or the next day. - -When the wine no longer runs, say twenty-four hours after loading the -lever, the sacks are removed. - -If the lees are not very thick, but little will be found in the sacks, -and they may be refilled without removing it, and subjected to a second -pressure. Then they must be thoroughly washed with water. Lye should -not be used. - -Where large quantities of lees are to be pressed, larger presses may be -used, vats being employed instead of casks. - -It is impossible to obtain all the wine by simple filtration without -pressure, owing to the fact that the filters soon become foul, and the -wine ceases to pass through. - -If the first wine which runs off is turbid, it may be put by itself, -and the clear wine caught separately. It is apt to run turbid when -additional weight is applied. - -=Use of Dry Lees.=—They have a certain value, and after being removed -from the sacks they may be sold to the manufacturers of cream of -tartar, if they are _virgin lees_. Lees from fined wines are of little -value for this purpose. They may be dried on well-aired floors, or in -the sun. They are also used for the production of pearlash by burning -them. The ash produced is of a greenish gray color, and is crude -pearlash. Good lees, perfectly dry, produce about 30 per cent. of this -alkali. - -Lees are also valuable as a fertilizer. Those from sweet wine contain -considerable sugar, which may be utilized by fermenting and distilling -the alcohol produced. This, however, will render them less valuable for -making cream of tartar, a portion of which will be dissolved by washing. - - -MARC, OR POMACE—PIQUETTE. - -=Marc, or Pomace=, is the residue remaining in the vat after the -fermentation of red wine, or in the press, in making white wine. After -being pressed, it is used in many parts of France to make a weak wine -called _piquette_, for the use of the laborers. For this purpose are -utilized all the soluble principles remaining in the marc, by the -following treatment: - -=1. The Unfermented Pomace of White or of Red Wine not Entirely -Fermented=, is well broken and crumbled up so as to finely divide it, -and introduced into tuns, which are then completely filled with water, -or into a fermenting vat, adding double its weight of water. After -giving it a thorough stirring and mixing, the first piquette is drawn -off. After a maceration of three or four days, renewing the water -several times, the saccharine matter and soluble salts which the marc -contains are completely removed. Piquette is fermented in casks and -cared for like new wine. The weakest is first consumed. - -Or the marc may be pressed and put into barrels, keeping it in as solid -a mass as possible; the surface is then covered with sand and the casks -closed air-tight. Piquette may then be made as needed, using the marc -of one cask, washing with water till it is exhausted. - -=2. The Fermented Marc of Red Wine= is treated as follows: After -pressing, it is immediately put into a large vat. Double its weight -of water is added, and after a complete stirring, it is allowed to -macerate one or two days at most. The first piquette is then drained -off, and water is put in several times till the soluble matters are -removed. - -Pressed marc is also used for forage, mixing it with half the quantity -of hay. - -As for making wine from marc by adding sweetened water. (See _Watering -and Sugaring Must_.) - -The following method of washing the marc is from an article on the -Distillation of Marc, by J. Pezeyre, printed in _Le Parfait Vigneron, -Almanach du Moniteur Vinicole_, 1881: - -Six vats or barrels are set up side by side, each provided with a -faucet, and a movable cover. The faucet is protected inside, as in the -case of the ordinary fermenting vat. - -To thoroughly exhaust the marc, it should be washed with six times its -weight of water, or 100 lbs. of pomace require 72 gallons of water. - -The vats being arranged, are charged with marc, which is pressed down -till it fills the vat to within about ten inches of the top. The marc -is kept submerged in the usual way, by a false, perforated head. - -The first vat is filled with cold water, and left to rest for two -hours. The liquid is then drawn off and filled into vat No. 2. No. 1 is -then refilled with fresh water. When the liquid in No. 2 has remained -for two hours, it is drawn off and put into No. 3. No. 1 is then -emptied into No. 2, and filled with water a third time. The maceration -in No. 3 having continued for two hours, its liquid is drawn off and -poured into No. 4; No. 3 is filled from No. 2, and this from No. 1, -which is filled the fourth time with water. No. 5 is filled from No. 4, -and each vat is filled from the preceding one, until No. 1 has received -in water six times the weight of the marc contained in it. - -The liquid from No. 5 is poured into No. 6, and after two hours is -drawn from this last vat into the still. - -When the wine has been drawn from the last vat, the marc in No. 1 -having been washed six times with its weight of water, is exhausted of -all its alcohol. It is then refilled with marc, and becomes No. 6 of -the series, and is filled with the liquid from No. 5. Each number is -thereby carried around the circle, becoming successively No. 6. - -In this way the pomace is, little by little, deprived of its alcohol, -and the liquid coming from No. 6 is rich in spirit, and when delivered -to the still is nearly equal in strength to the original wine. - -When there is but little marc to operate upon, the liquid may be drawn -off into buckets, and so filled into the vats; but time and labor may -be saved by using a pump and hose. - - - - -CHAPTER XIX. - -THE COMPOSITION OF WINE. - - -=Generally.=—Wine is not only composed of alcohol and water, which -are the two most prominent ingredients, but a great number of other -substances have been recognized, and others still are supposed to -exist. Some substances which are found in one wine may not exist in -another, or it may exist in a greater or less quantity. We know that -alcohol, water, and acids exist in all wines, in varying quantities; -that some are sweet, and contain sugar, and that others are dry, -thoroughly fermented, and contain none. We also know that the alcohol -in different wines may vary from 4 or 5 per cent. in piquette made -by washing the pomace with water, to 20 or 25 per cent. in the more -strongly fortified. And we know generally how a wine is modified as -to its taste and effect on the system, by such substances as water, -alcohol, sugar, and acid; but there are many substances whose effect -is but little known, and others again only known by their effects. The -science of chemistry has not yet been able to lay hold of them. - -=Substances Recognized.=—The following table from Maumené indicates -the different substances contained in different wines, the letter F -indicating those produced by fermentation, the others existing in -the juice of the grape. It will be observed that the amount of acid -tartrate of potash (cream of tartar) mentioned is 5.5 grammes per litre -at most, and this is the quantity contained in a new wine, old wines -containing only one or two grammes per litre, and even less. This salt -is contained in the grapes, and is soluble in water, but insoluble in -alcohol, and, therefore, the greater part of it is precipitated as the -alcohol increases by fermentation, and is deposited with the lees. The -Report of the University of California, Department of Agriculture, -referred to in the preface, shows the amount contained in different -California wines and their lees. - - Grammes. - {Water 9 volumes, 900 to 891 - {Common Alcohol (Absolute or Pure), F. 1 volume, 80 to 79 - {Other Alcohols (Butyric, Amylic, etc.) F.} - {Aldehydes (several?) F.} - {Ethers (Acetic, Butyric, œnanthic, etc.), } - { contributing principally to the bouquet F.} - {Essential Oils (several) } - {Grape Sugar (Dextrose and Levulose) } - {Mannite F.} - {Mucilage, Gum, and Dextrin } - {Pectin } - {Coloring Matters (œnocyanine) } - {Fatty Matters (and Wax?) } - {Glycerin F.} - {Nitrogenous Matters (Albumin, Gliadin, etc.) } - { Ferments } - { } - { {Acid Tartrate of Potash } - Neutral { { (5.5 grammes at most) } - Bodies. { { Neutral Tartrate of Lime } - { { “ “ Ammonia } - { { {Acid Tartrate of Alumina } - { { { (simple, or with Potash.) } - { {Vegetable.{Acid Tartrate of Iron (simple, } - { { { or with Potash.) } - { { {Racemates } - { { {Acetates, Propionates, } - { { { Butyrates, Lactates, etc. F.} 20-30 - { Salts.{ } - { { {Sulphates } } - { { {Nitrates } } - { {Mineral. {Phosphates} With a base of } - { { {Silicates } Potash, Soda, Lime,} - { { {Chlorides } Magnesia, Alumina, } - { { {Bromides } Oxide of Iron, } - { {Iodides } Ammonia } - { {Fluorides } } - { } - } - {Carbonic (2.5 grammes at most) F.} - {Tartaric and Racemic (Gluco-tartaric?) } - {Malic } - {Citric } - Free {Tannic } - Acids. {Metapectic F.} - {Acetic F.} - {Lactic F.} - {Succinic F.} - {Butyric F.}————————— - {Valeric? F.}1000-1000 - -A few of the more important ones will be briefly noticed. - -=Alcohol= is considerably lighter than water, and from the specific -gravity of any mixture of alcohol and pure water, the quantity of -spirit contained in it can readily be ascertained. (See Table IV.) - -[Illustration: _Fig. 43._ French Still.] - -=To Ascertain the Alcoholic Strength of Wine=, if it consisted of a -mixture of water and alcohol alone, it would only be necessary to learn -its specific gravity; but as all wines contain other substances which -affect the weight of the liquid, it becomes necessary to separate the -alcohol from the other matters by distillation; then by adding water -enough to make up the original volume of the wine assayed, we will have -simply a mixture of alcohol and water. - -Small stills are sold in the market, with the necessary instruments -accompanying them, with which to perform the operation. In the -accompanying figure (43), which shows a French still, _L_ is a spirit -lamp, _B_ a glass boiler with a perforated stopper, _S_ a worm, -contained in the cooler _D_, which is kept filled with cold water, -as a condenser; _t_ is a rubber tube connecting the boiler with the -condenser, tightly fitted to the stopper of the former, and also to -the end of the worm. _E_ is a small hydrometer-jar, of glass, with a -foot, for measuring the wine to be distilled, and for catching the -distillate as it runs from the worm. It has three marks—the upper -one, _m_, indicating the height to which it is to be filled with the -wine, and also a ½ mark and a ⅓ mark. Sometimes it is provided with -a groove along one side to carry the thermometer. _A_ represents -the hydrometer, or alcoholometer, being a spindle, usually of glass, -similar in form to the saccharometer (_which see_), except that the -zero mark to which the alcoholometer sinks in distilled water, is at -the lower end of the stem, and the degrees are numbered from zero to -the upper end, each figure representing one per cent. of alcohol. _T_ -is a thermometer, in its place in the jar with the hydrometer; _t′_ is -a small glass pipette to assist in filling the jar just to the mark. - -To make use of the instruments, measure in the jar, _E_, the wine to -be distilled, by filling it up exactly to the upper mark, _m_, using -the pipette, _t′_, by which a little of the liquid can be sucked up, -and let out, drop by drop, by increasing and diminishing the pressure -of the finger applied to the upper opening. The wine so measured is -poured into the boiler, _B_, draining out the last drop, or the little -remaining may be rinsed out with a little water, which is poured into -the boiler with the wine without affecting the result. The boiler is -then placed over the lamp and connected with the condenser by means of -the rubber tube, and the condenser filled with cold water. Light the -lamp, and place the now empty jar under the lower end of the worm. The -vapor of the alcohol first passing from the boiler through the rubber -tube into the condenser, will there condense, and the liquid running -from the worm into the test tube will be almost pure alcohol, but as -the process goes on, more and more water comes out with the alcohol, -till the spirit has all passed over. If the strength of the wine -does not exceed 14 or 15 per cent., the alcohol will all have passed -over when one-third of the wine has been distilled, as will be shown -when the distillate reaches the ⅓ mark on the glass. If the strength -exceeds the above limit, one-half of the wine should be distilled. If, -therefore, on testing the wine, it is found to contain 16 per cent. -or more of spirit, and only one-third was distilled, another quantity -should be distilled, and about one-half allowed to pass over. It is -always safer, unless the wine is very weak, to distil over a little -more than a third. If you are operating on a wine which foams to such -an extent that a portion may pass through the tube into the condenser, -which would spoil the effect of the operation, this may be prevented -by putting into the boiler with the wine a pinch of tannic acid. In -operating on a wine which contains an appreciable amount of acetic -acid—is pricked—the acid ought to be neutralized before distillation, -as it is volatile, and will go over with the alcohol and effect the -result. This is easily done by adding to the wine caustic soda in -drops, till it completely changes color, red wine becoming blue, and -white wine, brown. These precautions, however, are generally omitted in -analyses for commercial purposes. - -When the distillation is complete, add to the distillate sufficient -pure water (distilled water if possible), to make up the exact volume -of wine measured. To do this, take the jar containing the distillate -and hold it perpendicular, with the upper mark on a level with the eye, -and carefully let in the water, drop by drop, by means of the pipette. -The surface of the liquid will be seen to curve upward, owing to the -attraction of the glass, and the tube should be filled till the bottom -of the curve touches the mark; and the same precaution should be taken -in measuring the wine in the first place. - -Now we have a mixture corresponding in volume with the wine, and -containing all the alcohol originally contained in the wine, and a -certain amount of water, and nothing else. - -As the density of the liquid also depends upon the temperature, it -becomes necessary to have a fixed standard at which the test is made, -and this is 60° F. in this country, and I believe in all countries -except France, where it is 15° C., or 59° F. As the temperature affects -the volume, it is better to adjust it by cooling the distillate before -adding the last few drops of water, which may be done by dipping the -jar into cold water, or if it is too cold, by warming it with the hand. - -The hydrometer used will be adjusted to a temperature of 60° F., or 15° -C., which is generally shown by directions accompanying the still, or -will be marked on the instrument. Let the hydrometer be perfectly clean -and dry, no moisture on the stem. Take the tip of the stem between -the thumb and forefinger and lower it into the distillate till it -floats, press it down with the finger very slightly, and let it come to -equilibrium. Place the eye on a level with the surface of the liquid, -and see where it cuts the stem, and the mark shows the percentage of -alcohol contained in the wine. Remember that the mark to be taken is -the one corresponding with the general surface of the liquid, not the -top of the meniscus, or curve. With care, a result can be obtained -sufficiently accurate for all commercial purposes. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 44._ Monitor Still.] - -A table is usually sold with these stills, showing the corrections -for different temperatures, so that by its use the reduction of the -temperature to the standard may be avoided. - -Fig. 44 represents a still made in New York, called the Monitor Still. - -=Ethers= are formed by alcohol in presence of the different acids -contained in the wine, and they take names corresponding to the acids, -occurring as compound ethers, the most common one being acetic ether. -They have a powerful and characteristic odor, known as the etherous -odor, which is somewhat disagreeable in the pure ether, but becomes -agreeable and resembles the aroma of fruit and flowers when greatly -diluted. - -Among the important ethers contained in wine is _Oenanthic ether_, -which is said to give to wine its characteristic vinous smell, which -distinguishes it from any other fermented liquor. - -=Sugar= is contained in many wines, especially sweet wines, and -exercises an important influence upon the flavor. - -=To Estimate Sugar.=—The quantity of sugar contained in a sweet wine -may be estimated with sufficient accuracy, for commercial purposes, -in the following manner. A certain quantity of wine is measured in -the jar, and distilled in the same manner as in the estimation of -alcohol (_which see_), or the wine may be placed in a shallow dish on -a stove or over a lamp, and boiled slowly till the volume is reduced -one-half, when the alcohol will be all evaporated; then the original -volume should be restored by adding water. After it has rested for -a day or so, the greater part of the salts will crystallize and be -deposited, when the sugar strength can be ascertained by the use of the -saccharometer, in the usual way (_see page 8_). One degree, however, -should be deducted from the hydrometer reading. - -=Mannite=, or the essential principle of _manna_, is produced in wine -when sugar undergoes _viscous fermentation_. Its flavor is similar to -that of sugar, and its composition is but little different from that of -the same substance. - -=Mucilage.=—The grand red wines of the Médoc, and of some other -portions of the Gironde, and also the grand wines of Burgundy, says -Boireau, preserve in aging a pronounced fruity taste, an unctuosity, a -velvety mellowness, which, joined with their flavor and bouquet, make -these wines in good years the delight of the _gourmets_. This velvety -mellowness is found only in those seasons when the grapes ripen well. -In poor years, when the grapes do not become completely ripe, the -wines may have at times more or less distinctive flavor (_séve_), and -sometimes even a little bouquet, but they are dry, and the mellowness -is wanting. - -Many ordinary wines possess while young, if they have been well made, -and are produced in favorable years, a marked fruity flavor; but in the -greater part of the wines of this kind, this mellowness does not last, -and disappears gradually with age, while in the grand wines of good -years, the unctuosity is more appreciable after the defecation of their -lees than while they are new. - -The substance which in a measure produces this quality is called -_mucilage_ by Maumené and some others. Others, again, have given -it different names. Maumené says that it seems to be a sort of -intermediary substance between _cellulose_ and _dextrin_, and that its -nature is not yet known, but that it is a near neighbor of sugar. - -Mr. Boireau believes that the mellowness is produced by a modification -of grape sugar, because, when not properly cared for, mellow wines -undergo an insensible fermentation, especially if they are in their -first and second years, and still contain ferments. Very often at the -end of these secondary fermentations, the unctuosity has disappeared, -and the wines have become dry. It seems, accordingly, that the -substance is capable of undergoing the same transformations as sugar -under the influence of ferments and heat. - -=Pectose= is found in green grapes and other fruits, and by the acids -is changed into _pectin_, which is the gelatinizing principle, is -soluble in water, and may have some effect on the mellowness of wine. -Alcohol precipitates it in the form of jelly. - -=Fatty Matters= have been found in wine lees, which may be extracted -from the seeds by long contact during fermentation, for it is known -that the seeds yield such matters. - -=Glycerin= is mentioned among fatty matters, but it is known to be -produced by the fermentation of sugar, and is supposed to have its -influence on the flavor of wine. - -=The Coloring Matter= of red wine has received the name of -_œnocyanine_. In its pure state it is blue, but is changed to red by -acids. The yellow and brown color of some white wines is due to the -oxidation of some of the matters contained in them. The change of -color in red wines is also due to the oxidation of the tannic acid, -thereby forming an insoluble compound, tannomelanic acid, which is -precipitated, carrying down the œnocyanine, and the wine gradually -becomes tawny. - -=Aldehydes= are produced first in the transformation of alcohol into -an acid by oxidation, acetaldehyde occurring between alcohol and -acetic acid, as mentioned in Acetic Fermentation. When a weak wine is -exposed to the air it is gradually converted into vinegar, or acetic -acid. If free access of air is permitted, it may be converted at once -into acetic acid, but if the access of the air is very limited, or if -the wine is rich and strong, oxidation stops at the first stage, and -aldehyde is formed. It is a colorless liquid of a very suffocating -smell, having an etherous odor, and is supposed to have an important -influence on the flavor and bouquet of various wines. The strong wines -of southern countries which are kept in casks in ullage, exposed to the -action of the oxygen of the air, develop a certain amount of aldehyde -in time, and it is supposed that sherry owes some of its qualities to -this substance. - -=Acids.=—We can only allude briefly to the acids which have been -recognized in wines. The principal one is _tartaric acid_, found in -considerable quantities in grapes, and is contained in the argols, or -crude cream of tartar, _bitartrate of potash_, which is deposited on -the inner walls of the casks in which the wine is kept. This substance -principally gives the acid taste to wine. - -=Malic Acid=, or the acid of apples, is found; and of _citric acid_, or -the acid of lemons, traces have been recognized; also _pectic acid_, -derived from the pectose. - -=Tannic Acid= is a very important ingredient in wine, and is frequently -mentioned in this work. (See _Fining, Tannin_.) - -=Carbonic Acid.=—It has been shown in the chapter on Fermentation -that carbon dioxide is the gas produced by fermentation. This gas, -CO₂, was known to the old chemists as carbonic acid, or carbonic acid -gas, and the latter terms are frequently used in this work in the -sense of carbon dioxide, in accordance with common usage. But modern -chemistry teaches us that carbon dioxide, CO₂, is not an acid at all, -but in connection with water it takes up a molecule of the latter, -and becomes H₂CO₃, carbonic acid proper. The gas, however, as well -as the acid, exists in all wines, and to the former, sparkling wines -owe their effervescence. Its presence is important, exercising a -preservative effect by preventing their oxidation, and also by keeping -in dissolution substances which would otherwise cloud the wine. When -the wine is first fermented it is saturated with carbon dioxide, -and while it remains so, oxygen will not be absorbed, and hence its -preservative effect. Mr. Maumené even recommends resort to artificial -means to restore it, or to re-saturate the wine in case of its loss. -If, however, the precautions heretofore indicated for keeping table -wines are observed, the wine will be well preserved. - -=Acetic Acid= is the result of oxidation, or _acetic fermentation_ -(_which see_), and _lactic acid_ is derived from _lactic fermentation_, -but is regarded as accidental in wine, probably not existing in the -must, though it is found in some wines made from grapes which have been -bruised and broken a long time before using. - -=Butyric Acid= is the product of _butyric fermentation_. - -=Valeric Acid= is supposed to exist in wine from the distinctive odor -which is smelt in it under certain conditions. - -=Succinic Acid= has been referred to as one of the products of -alcoholic fermentation. - -=The Total Acids= in wine vary a good deal, but four or five per mille -is a fair average. - -Space will not permit of more details on the various substances -contained in wine, but those who desire further information are -referred to the work of Maumené in French, and that of Thudichum and -Dupré in English. - -=The Bouquet= proper of wines is a perfume containing different odors, -like that of a bouquet of flowers. It is very complex also in its -origin, and the matters contained in the wine which give rise to it are -but little known. It is variable, being different in different wines, -and all the odorous matters doubtless contribute to its existence, -such as œnanthic, and other ethers, the different alcohols, aldehydes, -and perhaps even certain essential oils. The varieties of grapes, the -season, and the soil, also have their effect, as well as the method of -vinification. It is believed, however, that the bouquet is principally -due to the ethers. - -=Artificial Bouquet.=—In this connection, the experiments of Mr. -Maumené will be found interesting. He prepared one litre of a liquid -similar to wine, but without a sensible odor, by adding distilled water -to the distillate from a red wine of Bordeaux. - -One drop of _aldehyde_ produced no appreciable odor. - -Six drops of _acetic ether_ produced no sensible effect. - -Nor did _crystallized acetic acid_ change the result. - -He then added 5 grs. 5 of _cream of tartar_, 0 gr. 18 of _succinic -acid_, and 20 grs. of _glycerin_, without producing any odor in the -liquid. - -On adding certain ethers a remarkable change was produced. - -By adding two small drops of _œnanthic ether_ (obtained by distilling -fresh wine lees), the liquid instantly gave an odor of wine. - -Then he added, drop by drop, one cubic centimetre (1000th part by -measure) of essence of pears, that is, the following mixture: - - 1 volume of valero-amylic ether. - 6 volumes of alcohol of 36 per cent. - -The first drops developed a bouquet which belongs to certain wines; -but by adding the whole amount mentioned, a pear odor was developed, -by which the liquid could be easily distinguished from wine. So he -prepared another litre of the liquid containing the same substances, -and added only two or three drops of essence of pears. He then added -two drops of ordinary butyric ether, and the bouquet resembled in a -remarkable degree that of a good Bouzy wine, and several persons took -it for a decolored wine. By varying the experiment, the bouquet of -wines can be imitated in a remarkable manner. - -For those who are curious in such matters, I translate the following -from Boireau: - -Artificial bouquets are produced by aromatic substances, or essential -oils, whose aroma is extracted or dissolved out by the help of alcohol. -The aromatic principle may be extracted either by a simple alcoholic -tincture, by digestion or distillation, by dissolving the oils -themselves, etc., and the process varies with the substance used. - -The aromatic substances most frequently employed to produce artificial -bouquets in non-fortified wines, commencing with those which form -the base and whose aromas are more dominant, are: iris, strawberry, -gillyflower, the flower of the vine, mignonette, nutmeg, bitter almond, -fruit pits, sassafras, etc. The latter are rarely employed alone, -and play a secondary part by mixing with the two first, iris and -strawberry, whose aromas are quite distinctive. - -=Iris.=—There are two varieties of this. The roots only are employed; -they are white, of an average diameter of 0 m. 02 (¾ in.), and of a -very irregular form. They are sold in pieces about 0 m. 05 (2 in.) -long, with the rootlets removed. They are largely employed in perfumery. - -The root of the so-called Florence iris, which grows in Italy and the -south of France, has a pronounced violet odor. Another variety, which -grows in the north of France and in Germany, is sold under the name of -German iris. An experienced person can distinguish the two. - -The perfume of the iris is with difficulty and incompletely extracted -by distillation; it is obtained by infusing the roots in alcohol, after -first reducing them to a powder by means of a grater. The operation -is long, but indispensable. The powder occurs in commerce, but in -that form the roots lose their aroma, and it is moreover liable to be -adulterated. - -The tincture is prepared in the following proportions: old spirit -of wine of 85 per cent., 10 litres (2½ gallons); Florence iris, 1 -kilogramme (2⅕ lb.), reduced to powder. - -Bung or cork the vessel containing it, stir it about for a few minutes, -and then put it in a place of at least 68° F., but which does not go -beyond 95°. Shake it occasionally during two weeks, and then press and -filter it. - -The tincture has a pronounced violet odor, and a harsh, bitter -after-taste. - -It may be employed alone, in a very small dose, rarely exceeding 5 -centilitres per hectolitre (13½ fluidrams to 26½ gallons). Oftener, -however, a few drops of the essential oil of gillyflower, etc., are -mixed with it. - -=Strawberry.=—The preparation of an alcoholic infusion of strawberries -is very simple. Take fully ripe berries, pick them over and hull them, -and put them in a keg with a large bung. Ten kilogrammes of fruit to -12 litres of old spirits of wine of 85 per cent. (22 lbs. to 3⅛ gals.) -are used. After macerating for twenty-four hours, the liquor is drawn -off and filtered. It is a rose-colored liquor of a very pleasant aroma. -Then the fruit is crushed, and brandy of 50 per cent. is added, and -the whole is allowed to macerate for a month, and then the marc is -pressed. The second tincture has an odor and flavor inferior to the -first, and has more color. It is filtered, or what is better, distilled -in a water bath. In the latter way spirit of strawberry is obtained. -It is preferable to employ the liquor of the first infusion. This -aroma is generally used alone, and is much employed in the manufacture -of sparkling wines. Sometimes a small quantity of other aromatic -substances are added, allowing the strawberry to predominate. It is the -best modifier of the aroma of young wines. - -The dose varies according to the degree of the aroma, from 2 to 10 -centilitres per hectolitre (⅛ to ⅚ of a gill, or 5.4 to 27 fluidrams to -26.4 gals.) - -=Gillyflower, or Stockgilly.=—The essential oil of this flower may be -extracted by pressure, by maceration, or by distillation, and is found -in commerce. To make the bouquet, the oil is used, or the concentrated -essence, which is produced by the distillation of the bruised flowers -with alcohol of 85 per cent., in the proportion of 300 grammes of -the flowers to 5 litres of alcohol (10½ oz. to 5¼ quarts). In the -absence of an alembic, the aroma may be extracted by infusion, as in -the case of iris, by macerating 100 grammes of the bruised flowers -to 1 litre of alcohol of 85 per cent. (3½ oz. to a quart) for eight -days, and filtering. Gillyflower is rarely used alone; but by adding -a very small quantity of it to iris, a good effect is produced, and -the perfume becomes more intimately mixed with the wine, for the oil -of gillyflower is heavier than water; but this aroma should never -predominate, and is best for old wines without bouquet. - -=Vine Flowers= are gathered and the petals infused in alcohol of 85 -per cent., in the proportion of 100 grammes of flowers to 5 litres of -alcohol (3½ oz. to 5¼ quarts). After macerating for eight days, it is -distilled in a water bath. This aroma, which is very volatile, is used -in the dose of 5 centilitres to a hectolitre (13.5 fluidrams to 26.4 -gals.) - -=Mignonette.=—The perfume of the mignonette, like that of many -other flowers, is obtained by picking the flowers from their stems, -bruising them, and placing them upon layers of cotton or pieces of -linen impregnated with fresh oil, or other sweet fats; oil of ben is -preferred. The flowers are renewed every four hours, till the cotton -or the cloth is charged with perfume. The oil or fat is removed by -pressure or otherwise, and the essential oil is dissolved out with -alcohol of 85 per cent., which is afterwards separated from the fixed -oil, and filtered. The extract of mignonette so obtained is employed -in the proportion of 1 to 5 centilitres to a hectolitre (2.7 to 13.5 -fluidrams to 26.4 gals.) but oftener it is mixed with other perfumes. - -=Nutmeg= is employed in the form of spirit distilled from the nuts over -the fire, 500 grammes of nuts to 10 litres of alcohol (1 lb. to 10½ -quarts), or in the form of a tincture made with the same proportions -of nuts and alcohol, or a small quantity of the essential oil is mixed -with other aromatic substances. This preparation, particularly the -tincture or the distilled spirit, has a good effect. Being heavier than -water, it assists the mixture. - -=Bitter Almonds and Fruit Pits.=—Their oil is found in commerce, and -its aroma is due to the hydrocyanic (prussic) acid contained in it, -which is poisonous, and therefore the oil should be employed in the -smallest doses. - -=Sassafras.=—The essential oil is extracted from the wood and bark by -distillation, and can be purchased in the market. It is heavier than -wine, and fixes the lighter perfumes. It is used only secondarily, and -in very small quantities. - -=Other Aromas= have been tried, but they can only be used as auxiliary -to the three first named, iris, gillyflower, and strawberry, because -their odors differ essentially from the natural bouquet of mellow wines. - -=Effects.=—These preparations give wines a bouquet or aroma which -partakes of the substances employed, but they do not give the -distinctive flavor (_séve_) which characterizes fine wines, and the -result only flatters the sense of smell. These perfumes are very -volatile, and it does not require a very delicate or a much experienced -palate to distinguish them from the natural bouquet of wine, and -persons of delicate sensibilities are disturbed by them, if too -pronounced. - -When a wine has been artificially perfumed, it still preserves its -taste and earthy flavor; it has simply changed its odor. Taste it -without smelling, and its distinctive flavor will be recognized. Mr. -Boireau says that, notwithstanding the contrary announcements of -interested manufacturers, they are not preserved like the natural -bouquets and flavors, but, little by little, they become enfeebled, and -are volatilized with time. - -He says that the trade is inundated with the announcements of pretended -œnologists, chemists, etc., manufacturers of bouquets decorated with -such pompous names as Médoc Flavoring (_Séve du Médoc_), Bouquet of -Bordeaux, of Pomard, Bordeaux Extract, etc., and all these humbugs are -advertised as giving the most ordinary wines the true Médoc flavor, -etc., which, happily for the producers of Médoc, cannot be done. - -It is better, as stated in the chapter on _Cutting Wines_, to improve -wines by mixing them with those having expansible flavors and odors, -rather than use these artificial bouquets. - - - - -CHAPTER XX. - -GENERAL CHAPTER—MISCELLANEOUS. - - -=The Proportion of Juice to Marc=, as stated in Thudichum and Dupré’s -work, has been found in various grapes as follows: - -White Chasselas, stems removed, gave by strong pressure, 97 per cent. -of juice; marc of skins and seeds, 3 per cent. - -Black Pinot grapes, stems removed, gave 94.8 per cent. of juice, and -5.2 per cent. of marc. - -Black Pinot, pressed with the stems, gave 91.8 per cent. of juice, and -8.2 per cent. of marc, including stems. - -Black Pinot, fermented with the stems and then pressed, gave 69.6 per -cent. of wine, and 30.4 per cent. of marc. - -In the latter case much wine is absorbed by the stems, which cannot be -removed by pressure. - -In the first three cases the pressure must have been such as to reduce -the marc to near dryness to obtain so high a percentage of juice. - -In the report of the work done in the Viticultural Laboratory of the -University, referred to in the preface, the following figures are -found, and are extracted from Table No. 1 of the report. Omitting the -two extremes—Feher Szagos, 203.2, and Lenoir, 118—we obtain the average -of 157 gallons of grape juice per ton of 2000 lbs. in twelve white -wines, and 174.8 gallons per ton in twelve red wines; the word “red” -being used in the table to designate the product obtained by fermenting -white grapes with the skins and seeds, as well as to designate “red -wine” proper. - -The report says: “The red wines, of course, produce very much less -pomace, which consists largely of skins and seeds only. The white -pomace has much more of the pulp of the grape, and consequently a much -larger amount of water. During the fermentation the internal structure -of the grape is destroyed, the sugar is fermented out, and only the -fibrous structure remains; even this is to a great extent broken up, -and runs out with the wine when pressed.” - - =================+=====+========+=======+======+======+=======+======= - | | | | | | |Gallons - | | Weight | | | Air- | |of Must - |Color|(pounds)| | |dried |Gallons|per ton - NAME. | of | of |Pomace,|Stems,|Pomace| of | of - |Wine.| Grapes.| % | % | % | Must.|Grapes - -----------------+-----+--------+-------+------+------+-------+------- - Mission-just ripe| Red | 71.75 | 13.50 | 3.05 | — | 6.38 | 177.8 - “ fully “ |White| 106.50 | 18.30 | 3.75 | — | 9.20 | 172.6 - “ “ “ | Red | 101.00 | 11.63 | 3.96 | — | 8.98 | 177.8 - “ |White| 85.80 | 24.10 | 3.07 | 8.71 | 6.84 | 159.4 - “ | Red | 73.92 | 12.20 | 2.91 | 5.26 | 6.30 | 170.5 - Zinfandel |White| 84.00 | 27.30 | 5.75 | — | 6.20 | 147.6 - “ | Red | 126.00 | 13.40 | 5.55 | — | 11.00 | 174.6 - “ |White| 87.78 | 29.07 | 4.51 | 7.31 | 6.32 | 144.0 - “ | Red | 84.26 | 10.96 | 4.02 | 4.94 | 7.30 | 173.4 - Malvoisie |White| 116.00 | 18.10 | 2.58 | — | 9.90 | 170.6 - “ | Red | 151.00 | 10.92 | 2.65 | — | 14.30 | 189.4 - Charbono |White| 97.00 | 30.92 | 6.18 | — | 7.00 | 144.2 - Burger |White| 74.00 | 22.00 | .97 | — | 6.40 | 172.8 - “ |“Red”| 95.00 | 12.10 | 7.36 | — | 8.25 | 173.6 - Chasselas |White| 103.84 | 31.35 | 2.96 | 5.93 | 7.47 | 143.8 - “ |“Red”| 70.40 | 13.75 | 2.92 | 3.74 | 5.97 | 169.6 - Golden Chasselas |“Red”| 139.70 | 12.28 | 4.56 | 3.15 | 12.90 | 184.6 - Prolific |White| 95.04 | 23.15 | 3.70 | 7.76 | 7.54 | 158.6 - “ |“Red”| 86.24 | 11.73 | 3.57 | 4.24 | 7.30 | 169.2 - Black Prince |White| 108.24 | 25.60 | 5.18 | 9.01 | 8.13 | 150.2 - “ “ | Red | 103.40 | 15.74 | 4.46 | 5.21 | 8.54 | 165.2 - Feher Szagos |White| 92.40 | 25.95 | 2.14 | 4.89 | 7.47 | 161.8 - “ “ | Red | 77.99 | 9.01 | 2.28 | 2.55 | 7.93 | 203.2 - Mataro |White| 131.67 | 21.40 | 6.69 | 6.26 | 10.46 | 158.9 - “ | Red | 90.20 | 12.19 | 5.60 | 5.02 | 7.76 | 172.0 - Lenoir | Red | 33.00 | 17.30 | 6.00 | 8.50 | 1.96 | 118.7 - =================+=====+========+=======+======+======+=======+======= - -This table contradicts the opinion held by some wine makers, that the -Mission grape yields a larger percentage of stems than other varieties. -The five lots of Mission grapes analyzed give an average of nearly 3.35 -per cent. of stems, which is less than the yield of every other variety -mentioned, except Malvoisie, Chasselas, and Feher Szagos. - -=The Proportion of Wine to Grapes.=—It is generally said that it takes -about 12 lbs. of grapes to produce a gallon of wine; some give the -number of pounds as low as 10; the product, however, is must, or new -wine, for nothing is taken into consideration for loss by evaporation, -etc., while aging. Some wine dealers here consider that it takes about -17 lbs. of grapes to produce a gallon of wine ready for consumption. - -At a meeting of the St. Helena Vinicultural Club, Napa Valley, in this -State, the following facts were stated, as reported in the newspapers. -Mr. Krug said that he had always thought that 14 lbs. of grapes would -give a gallon of good wine at the time of the second racking in March, -April, or May. Mr. Scheffler said he had made last year 135.6 gallons -of wine and 8 gallons of brandy to the ton of grapes. Counting each -gallon of brandy as equal to 5 of wine, it was equal to about 176 -gallons of wine. That was about the average of Riesling, Chasselas, -Zinfandel, Malvoisie, etc. The general average was 136 gallons of wine -and 8 of brandy, or 125 gallons of good wine and 10 of brandy. Mr. -Heyman said he was glad to get 145 gallons of clear, marketable wine -on the average. Mr. Pellet said that the very best grapes would make -150 gallons of wine at the first racking, and this is probably a fair -average. - -=Wooden and Metal Utensils.=—In European countries, and in all properly -ordered wine cellars, wooden utensils are used wherever practicable; -and it ought to be impressed upon the mind of every one who has -anything to do with the handling of the liquid, that metal should -never come in contact with wine, if it can be avoided, except it be -a precious metal like silver. The reason is that wine, on account of -the acids contained in it, has a powerful effect upon lead, copper, -zinc, iron, etc. Whenever such a metal is exposed to the influence -of the air, and of an acid liquor, the metal is readily oxidized, -and the oxide combines with the acid to form a salt. Therefore, Mr. -Maumene says that it is dangerous to keep wine for a few hours in -vessels of copper or lead, on account of the poisonous effects of their -compounds. It is bad even to leave it in iron, zinc, or tin. Among the -acids contained in wine, that which is the most capable of causing -oxidation of the metals is the tartaric acid and the crude tartar. So -the principal salts formed by the wine in metallic vessels are the -bi-tartrates of potash and the oxide of the metal. Iron wire wet with -wine, in a few days becomes covered with a very dark, brown pellicle, -the wine is reduced to a solution of tartrate of iron and potash, which -is of that color. A piece of iron in the wine produces the same result. -This salt however, is not poisonous. But if the acid acts energetically -on the iron, the water will be deprived of its oxygen, and the hydrogen -thereby set free may seriously affect the wine, by combining with -foreign bodies found in it, producing a detestable flavor and odor. A -cask of wine may be completely ruined by a nail. - -The salts of iron, therefore, are not to be feared on account of any -deleterious effect upon the system, but rather on account of the ill -effect which they may have upon the color, the flavor, and odor of -the wine. On the other hand, the salts of copper and lead are highly -poisonous, and should be carefully avoided. - -Zinc and galvanized iron are also affected by wine, to the extent -that when left in vessels made of either, it will cause serious -indisposition to those who drink it. - -Tin is also dissolved by wine, forming stannic oxide and stannic acid, -which combine with the coloring matter and render it insoluble, making -the wine cloudy at first, and finally rendering it nearly colorless. By -long contact with tin the wine develops a fetid odor. Every wine maker -knows how soon his tin vessels used about wine wear out, and the reason -is apparent. - -=Cleanliness.=—Whether wood or metal utensils are used, it is one of -the essentials in making good, wholesome wine, that they should be kept -scrupulously clean and neat. Stemmers, crushers, presses, buckets, -funnels, and in fact everything that comes in contact with the liquid -should be scrubbed and rinsed often enough to prevent their becoming -sour, or contracting any disagreeable flavor or odor. If metal vessels -_must be used_, by all means do not allow wine to stand in them. Run -water through the hose and the pumps after using, and also before using -again. For it is safe to assert that many of the bad odors and flavors -met with in wines made by inexperienced persons are often due to want -of care in these matters. The necessary care to be bestowed upon the -casks has already been mentioned in the proper place. - -=Different Cellar Utensils= which will be found convenient are -represented in the following figures: - -[Illustration: _Fig. 45._] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 46._ Tin Pitchers.] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 47._ Wooden Pitcher.] - -Figures 45 and 46 are tin pitchers, and 47 is of wood. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 48._ Wooden Vessels.] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 49._ Wooden Funnel.] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 50._ Adjustable Hoop.] - -Figure 48 shows wooden vessels not necessary to describe. - -Figure 49 is a wooden funnel for casks. Figure 50 is an adjustable -hoop, useful in case of leakage in a cask caused by the breaking of -hoops. It can be put around a cask and tightened with the screw till a -new hoop is put in place. Where, however, casks are well hooped with -iron, it is not likely to be needed. - -Figure 51 are baskets for carrying bottles. - -Every well ordered cellar should be provided with graduated measures -(figs. 52 and 53) in which to measure the respective proportions to be -taken of each kind of wine for cutting. They can be had of any desired -capacity, and graduated decimally, or otherwise, as needed. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 51._ Bottle Baskets.] - -Figure 54, instruments of tin for drawing from the bungs of casks in -tasting. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 52._ _Fig. 53._ Graduated Measures.] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 54._ Tin Tasters.] - -In the sherry districts, where the casks are not kept full; a narrow -cup attached to a stick is used to dip out the wine through the bung. -The practice of using a piece of hose for this purpose, by letting one -end into the cask and sucking on the other with the mouth till the wine -runs, as it is done in too many cellars in California, is not to be -commended to the fastidious. - -A pump in the form of figure 55 is sometimes useful for drawing wine -from casks in certain positions. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 55._ Hand Pump.] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 56._ For Removing Corks.] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 57._ Bucket.] - -Figure 56 represents wire implements for removing corks which have been -pushed inside a bottle. - - -USEFUL RULES. - -=To Ascertain the Weight of a Given Number of Gallons of a Liquid=, -multiply 8.33 by the specific gravity of the liquid, and the product -by the number of gallons. For instance, suppose we have 1000 gallons -of a must which shows 22 per cent. sugar. From Table I we obtain the -corresponding specific gravity, 1.0923 (the figure 1 is omitted except -at the top of the column), which shows how much heavier it is than -water, water being 1. Now, one gallon of water at 60° F. weighs 8.33 -lbs., and the temperature of the must should be about the same. (See -_Must—Testing for Sugar_.) 8.33 multiplied by 1.0923 = nearly 9.1, -which is the weight in pounds of one gallon of the must. One thousand -gallons would weigh nearly 9,100 lbs. If Beaumé’s hydrometer is used, -ascertain from Table II the specific gravity corresponding to the mark -on the stem. This rule applies to all liquids whose specific gravity is -known—syrup, wine, brandy, alcohol, etc. - -The specific gravity of a wine of 12 per cent. is .9843, and by our -rule, one gallon weighs about 8.2 lbs. a little less than a gallon of -water. - -=Rule for Reducing Must= from a higher to a lower percentage of sugar: -Multiply the number of gallons of the must by its specific gravity, -and the product by the difference between the given per cent. and the -required per cent., and divide by the required per cent. - -Suppose that we have 1000 gallons of a must of 27 per cent., how many -gallons of water are required to reduce it to 23 per cent? - -The specific gravity, by Table I, is 1.1154, and this multiplied by -1000 = 1115.4, which multiplied by 4, the difference between 27 and 23 -= 4461.6, which divided by 23 gives 194 gallons, in round numbers. - -=Rule for Sugaring Must.=—If crystallized sugar is used, dissolve it -and make a strong syrup, or sugar water, and the proposition is: Given -a must of a certain sugar per cent., and a syrup of a given per cent., -how much of the syrup for each gallon of must is required to produce a -must of any required strength, between the two? - - _First_—Multiply the required per cent. by the - corresponding specific gravity. - - _Second_—Multiply the per cent. of the must by - its specific gravity. - - _Third_—Multiply the per cent. of the syrup by - its specific gravity. - -Divide the difference between the first and second products by the -difference between the first and third, and the quotient will be the -fraction of a gallon required. - -Suppose that we have a must of only 10 per cent. of sugar, and a syrup -of 60 per cent.; how much of the second should be added to one gallon -of the first to produce a must of 23 per cent.? - - (23 × 1.0969) - (10 × 1.0401) - ———————————————————————————— = 0.284 of a gallon. - (60 × 1.2899) - (23 × 1.0969) - -Therefore, for every gallon of the must, we add 0.284 gallons of the -syrup. - -The same rule will apply to the mixing of a strong and a weak must. - -=Rules for Fortifying and Reducing Wines and Weak Liquors.=—In mixing -strong spirits, it is necessary to make an allowance for contraction, -and tables are prepared for the purpose, but in mixing wines and weak -spirits, it may be disregarded, and the following rules will be found -sufficient. - -=To Reduce with Water.=—Having a wine or a weak spirit of a certain per -cent. of alcohol, how much water is required for each gallon to reduce -it to any lower per cent.? - -Divide the difference between the given per cent. and the required per -cent., by the required per cent. - -Suppose a wine or other alcoholic solution of 15 per cent. by volume, -how much water is required for each gallon to produce one of 10 per -cent.? - - 15 - 10 - ———————— = ½ - 10 - -Therefore, add one-half gallon of water for each gallon of the wine or -weak spirit. - -=To Reduce with Weaker Wine, or to Fortify with Stronger Wine or -Alcohol.=—Having two wines or other weak liquors whose percentages of -alcohol are known, how much of the second is required for every gallon -of the first, to produce a wine of any required strength between the -two? - -Divide the difference between the per cent. of the first, and the -required per cent. by the difference between the per cent. of the -second and the required per cent. - -Having a wine, etc., of 18 per cent., and another of 8 per cent., how -much of the second is required for every gallon of the first to produce -one of 12 per cent.? - - (18 - 12) 6 - ————————— = - = 1½ - (12 - 8) 4 - -Or one and one-half gallons of the second for every gallon of the first. - -Or, suppose we have a wine of 15 per cent., how much brandy of 50 per -cent. must be used for every gallon of the first to produce a wine of -20 per cent.? - - (20 - 15) 5 1 - ————————— = —— = —— - (50 - 20) 30 6 - -Or one-sixth of a gallon of the brandy must be used for each gallon of -the wine. - - -PLASTERING. - -=It is a Common Practice= in Spain and in the southern part of France -to plaster the wines, by adding more or less gypsum, or plaster of -Paris. It is either thrown upon the grapes before or after crushing, -or is added to the must. Gypsum is known to chemists, when pure, as -calcium sulphate (sulphate of lime), but contains a certain amount of -water of crystallization, and is generally found associated with other -substances, such as rock salt, and calcium carbonate, or limestone. It -is the commonest impurity found in spring water, and gives water its -permanent hardness. Much has been written for and against the practice -of plastering, and both sides of the question have strong advocates. - -=Objects.=—There are many different reasons given for the practice, -some of which are fanciful. It is claimed that it retards fermentation, -and that red wines under its effects develop more color, because the -marc can be left longer in the fermenting vat; that the froth of -plastered wine is livelier and sooner disappears, which pleases the -merchants; and that it has a preservative effect upon the wine. It is -claimed by some that it renders the wine dryer and harsher, as it does, -if used to excess, and by others, that it unites with a portion of the -water of the juice, and renders the remaining juice richer in sugar. -Again, it is added to neutralize a portion of the acid contained in the -must. - -=Chemical Effects.=—Maumené says that it transforms the potassium salts -of the wine into insoluble lime salts and potassium sulphate, and this -may have an important effect upon fermentation, for some chemists -attribute to the acid potassium tartrate the property of holding -ferments in solution, and that potassium sulphate, even with the -freed tartaric acid, does not possess this power; that the carbonate -of lime contained in the plaster, in neutralizing the acidity of the -tartar, without doubt contributes to the precipitation of the ferment -which this salt held in solution; and that during the neutralization, -carbonic acid is disengaged, and the evaporation of the moisture -carried up by the gas somewhat lowers the temperature. He supposes that -all these causes combined retard the fermentation. - -P. Carles (_J. Pharm. Chim._ {5}, 6, 118-123), says that the calcium -sulphate acts on the potassium bitartrate in the juice of the grape, -forming calcium tartrate, tartaric acid, and potassium sulphate, a -large proportion of the last two bodies remaining in the wine. That -without plastering, wine contains about two grammes per litre of pure -tartaric acid, whilst after plastering, it contains double or treble -that amount, and even more, according to the quantity of potassium -bitartrate decomposed. - -In order to make clear what this chemist says, in ordinary language, -we will say that the gypsum acts upon the cream of tartar in the grape -juice, sets free a portion of the tartaric acid existing in combination -in it, and also forms tartrate of lime and sulphate of potash. - -At first sight, therefore, it would seem that the addition of gypsum, -or plaster of Paris, actually increases the acid, and this would be -true if the gypsum consisted of pure calcium sulphate, but it always -contains more or less calcium carbonate, and this substance, which is -but another name for chalk, limestone, or marble, precipitates the free -tartaric acid, and the carbonate of lime does what is generally claimed -for the gypsum—diminishes the acidity of the wine. But if the calcium -carbonate does not exist in sufficient quantity in the gypsum to -precipitate all the tartaric acid set free, the opposite effect would -be produced. Why not add marble dust at once? - -The experiments given in Thudichum and Dupré’s work show that the -amount of water withdrawn from must by the addition of even anhydrated -plaster is so small as to be unworthy of notice, being only one-fourth -the weight of the plaster used. - -=Effects on the Health.=—This question was examined at Montpellier, -in France, by a committee of chemists appointed by the court, and the -results of their inquiries are frequently cited by those who are in -favor of plastering: - - 1. That the plastered wine contains no new mineral substance. - - 2. That the quantity of plaster introduced into the - wine may be considered null, because it is entirely - changed into potassium sulphate, a slightly purgative - salt, analogous in this respect to tartar. - -Later, however, a commission was appointed by the _Conseil des Armées_, -who reported as follows: - - 1. That by the taste, plastered wines could not be - distinguished from the natural ones. - - 2. That plaster diminished the intensity of the color. - (This, of course, refers to the direct effect.) - - 3. That the potassium bitartrate, one of the most - useful principles contained in wine, is decomposed by - plaster, and that potassium sulphate is formed, which - remains in solution, and calcium tartrate, which is - precipitated. - - 4. That potassium phosphate, also one of the salts - naturally contained in wine, is equally decomposed - by plaster. - - 5. That plastering profoundly modifies the nature of - wines, by substituting for the potassium bitartrate a - purgative salt in the proportion of from 3 to more than - 7 grammes per litre. - -And they demand the exclusion of all wine containing more than 4 -grammes of the sulphate per litre. - -And Mr. Carles, above quoted, concludes that, owing to the purgative -effect of this salt, potassium sulphate, the quantity present should -not exceed 2 grammes per litre, or half as much as the army commission -allow. - -Still later, we have the instructions of the Minister of Justice of -France to the _procureurs Généraux_, issued in 1880, as follows: - -After several judicial decisions relative to the sale of plastered -wines, one of my predecessors expressed to the Minister of Agriculture -and Commerce the desire that new experiments should be made in order to -establish, if in the present state of science the immunity accorded to -plastered wines by the circular of July 21, 1858, should be maintained. - -Having examined the question, the consultation committee of public -hygiene issued the following notice: - - 1. That the absolute immunity which plastered wines - enjoy on account of the circular of the Minister of - Justice dated July 21, 1858, ought no longer to be - officially allowed. - - 2. That the presence of potassium sulphate in the wines - of commerce, which results from, plastering the must, - from the mixture of plaster or sulphuric acid with the - wine, or from cutting with plastered wines, should only - be tolerated to the maximum limit of 2 grammes per - litre (about 117 grains per gallon). - -In calling my attention to this notice, my colleague of agriculture and -commerce informs me that he completely concurs. - -He, therefore, instructs the officers to prosecute, under the laws -against adulterations, the dealers who shall sell wine containing more -than the quantity indicated of potassium sulphate, as dangerous to the -health of the consumers. - -=Plastering Sherry—Quantity Used.=—Mr. Vizitelli says that during his -stay at Jerez, he paid particular attention to the plastering question, -saw the gypsum applied in almost a hundred instances, and questioned -the overseers in scores of vineyards. He states that within his own -knowledge gypsum is by no means invariably used in the vinification -of sherry, as already stated under the head of _Sherry_. And although -applied in the majority of cases, but a few pounds per butt are used, -say 6 lbs. at most in a dry season, and a little more than double that -quantity in years when great dampness prevails. And he argues from -the Montpellier experiment, already mentioned, where the committee -added 40 grammes of gypsum to a litre of wine, and found only 1.240 -grammes of sulphate of potash per litre where pure calcium sulphate -was used, and 1.828 grammes where ordinary plaster was employed, -that when the Spaniards add the amount which they do to the must in -sherry making, no injury to the wine can occur. It may be proper to -suggest, however, for the benefit of future inquirers, that wine, -after insensible fermentation, contains but a small proportion of the -potassium bitartrate which was contained in the grape, the greater -part of it having been deposited with the lees and the marc. Wines do -not contain tartar enough to furnish 2 grammes per litre of potassium -sulphate, nor enough to act upon 1 gramme of pure gypsum. But it is -far otherwise with grape juice. Now 6 lbs. of gypsum to one butt of -wine of 108 Imperial gallons would be the same as about 5.5 grammes per -litre, and if pure, ought to produce, on being fully satisfied with the -acid potassium tartrate, as much as 8 grammes per litre of potassium -sulphate, and Mr. Carles, above quoted, says that it does amount to -from 4 to 7.5 grammes per litre in plastered wines. - -Supposing the following to be the correct reaction, 1 gramme of pure -gypsum ought to produce, with 2.6 grammes of cream of tartar, 1.477 -grammes of sulphate of potash; and to produce the 2 grammes per litre -of the latter would only require 1.353 of the former; and but a little -more than 1 lb. of pure gypsum could safely be added to 100 gallons of -must: - - CaSO₄ + 2(C₄H₅KO₆) = C₄H₄CaO₆ + C₄H₆O₆ + K₂SO₄ - -As the gypsum is usually added to the pomace itself, or to the grapes -before crushing, it is unsafe to argue from the effects produced by -adding it to wine. - -=By Adding Water= to must, the effects of plastering may be produced, -if the water is hard by reason of the gypsum contained in it. - - -SHERRY FLAVOR. - -In many California wines a flavor called the “sherry flavor” is often -observed; and in the red wines may frequently be tasted what would with -equal propriety be called a “port flavor;” and the “sherry flavor” -would by some be called a “Madeira flavor.” - -Mr. Pohndorff stated at the State Viticultural Convention of 1882, that -he was of the opinion that this flavor was due to the oxidation of the -wine. If this is so, the remedy would be to use greater care in its -management, and avoid exposing it to the air, in fact, observe just the -treatment indicated in this book for all but sweet and fortified wines. - -Without attempting to say anything authoritative on the subject, -the author would suggest that in addition to the above cause, these -flavors are largely due, _first_, to our hot climate; _second_, -to over-maturity of the grapes; and _third_, to aging the wine in -too high a temperature; for these conditions all exist in southern -countries, whose wines are apt to have a peculiar flavor, called by -some writers the “cooked flavor,” which is unobjectionable in a sweet -wine. The first is not always within the control of the producer, but -the two last can always be controlled by the grape grower and the -cellar-man. - -[Illustration] - - - - -APPENDIX. - - - TABLE I. - - _Balling’s degrees (per cent. of sugar),_ - _corresponding degrees Baumé,_ - _and specific gravity at 63½° F.—Chas. Stammer._ - ========+=======+==========++=========+=======+========= - Balling | | || Balling | | - or per | | Specific || or per | | Specific - cent. | Baumé | Gravity || cent. | Baumé | Gravity - sugar | | || sugar | | - --------+-------+----------++---------+-------+--------- - 1 | 0.56 | 1.0039 || 26 | 14.35 | 1.1107 - 2 | 1.11 | .0078 || 27 | 14.90 | .1154 - 3 | 1.67 | .0117 || 28 | 15.44 | .1201 - 4 | 2.23 | .0157 || 29 | 15.99 | .1249 - 5 | 2.78 | .0197 || 30 | 16.53 | .1297 - 6 | 3.34 | .0234 || 31 | 17.07 | .1345 - 7 | 3.89 | .0278 || 32 | 17.61 | .1393 - 8 | 4.45 | .0319 || 33 | 18.15 | .1442 - 9 | 5.00 | .0360 || 34 | 18.69 | .1491 - 10 | 5.56 | .0401 || 35 | 19.23 | .1541 - 11 | 6.11 | .0443 || 36 | 19.77 | .1591 - 12 | 6.66 | .0485 || 37 | 20.30 | .1641 - 13 | 7.22 | .0528 || 38 | 20.84 | .1692 - 14 | 7.77 | .0570 || 39 | 21.37 | .1743 - 15 | 8.32 | .0613 || 40 | 21.91 | .1794 - 16 | 8.87 | .0657 || 41 | 22.44 | .1846 - 17 | 9.42 | .0700 || 42 | 22.97 | .1898 - 18 | 9.97 | .0744 || 43 | 23.50 | .1950 - 19 | 10.52 | .0787 || 44 | 24.03 | .2003 - 20 | 11.07 | .0833 || 45 | 24.56 | .2056 - 21 | 11.62 | .0878 || 46 | 25.09 | .2110 - 22 | 12.17 | .0923 || 47 | 25.62 | .2164 - 23 | 12.72 | .0969 || 48 | 26.14 | .2218 - 24 | 13.26 | .1015 || 49 | 26.67 | .2273 - 25 | 13.81 | .1061 || 50 | 27.19 | .2328 - ========+=======+==========++=========+=======+========= - Balling | | || Balling | | - or per | | Specific || or per | | Specific - cent. | Baumé | Gravity || cent. | Baumé | Gravity - sugar | | || sugar | | - --------+-------+----------++---------+-------+--------- - 51 | 27.71 | 1.2383 || 76 | 40.36 | 1.3894 - 52 | 28.24 | .2439 || 77 | 40.84 | .3959 - 53 | 28.75 | .2495 || 78 | 41.33 | .4025 - 54 | 29.27 | .2552 || 79 | 41.81 | .4092 - 55 | 29.79 | .2609 || 80 | 42.29 | .4159 - 56 | 30.31 | .2666 || 81 | 42.78 | .4226 - 57 | 30.82 | .2724 || 82 | 43.25 | .4293 - 58 | 31.34 | .2782 || 83 | 43.73 | .4361 - 59 | 31.85 | .2840 || 84 | 44.21 | .4430 - 60 | 32.36 | .2899 || 85 | 44.68 | .4499 - 61 | 32.87 | .2958 || 86 | 45.15 | .4568 - 62 | 33.38 | .3018 || 87 | 45.62 | .4638 - 63 | 33.89 | .3078 || 88 | 46.09 | .4708 - 64 | 34.40 | .3138 || 89 | 46.56 | .4778 - 65 | 34.90 | .3199 || 90 | 47.02 | .4849 - 66 | 35.40 | .3260 || 91 | 47.48 | .4920 - 67 | 35.90 | .3322 || 92 | 47.95 | .4992 - 68 | 36.41 | .3384 || 93 | 48.40 | .5064 - 69 | 36.91 | .3446 || 94 | 48.86 | .5136 - 70 | 37.40 | .3509 || 95 | 49.32 | .5209 - 71 | 37.90 | .3572 || 96 | 49.77 | .5281 - 72 | 38.39 | .3636 || 97 | 50.22 | .5355 - 73 | 38.89 | .3700 || 98 | 50.67 | .5429 - 74 | 39.38 | .3764 || 99 | 51.12 | .5504 - 75 | 39.87 | .3829 || 100 | 51.56 | .5578 - ========+=======+==========++=========+=======+========= - -OECHSLE’S MUST-SCALE indicates specific gravity to three decimal -places. When two figures are shown on the scale, a cipher before them -must be understood. For instance: 83 means 1.083, or 20 per cent., -Balling; and 106 means 1.106, or 25 per cent., Balling. - - TABLE II. - - _Baumé’s degrees, corresponding degrees,_ - _Balling (per cent. sugar,)_ - _and specific gravity at 63½° F._ - =======+=========+==========+=======+=========+========= - | Balling | | | Balling | - | or per | Specific | | or per | Specific - Baumé | cent. | Gravity | Baumé | cent. | Gravity - | sugar | | | sugar | - -------+---------+----------+-------+---------+--------- - 0.0 | 0.00 | 1.0000 | 13 | 23.52 | 1.0992 - 0.5 | 0.90 | .0035 | 13.5 | 24.43 | .1034 - 1 | 1.80 | .0070 | 14 | 25.35 | .1077 - 1.5 | 2.69 | .0105 | 14.5 | 26.27 | .1120 - 2 | 3.59 | .0141 | 15 | 27.19 | .1163 - 2.5 | 4.49 | .0177 | 15.5 | 28.10 | .1206 - 3 | 5.39 | .0213 | 16 | 29.03 | .1250 - 3.5 | 6.29 | .0249 | 16.5 | 29.95 | .1294 - 4 | 7.19 | .0286 | 17 | 30.87 | .1339 - 4.5 | 8.09 | .0323 | 17.5 | 31.79 | .1383 - 5 | 9.00 | .0360 | 18 | 32.72 | .1429 - 5.5 | 9.90 | .0397 | 18.5 | 33.65 | .1474 - 6 | 10.80 | .0435 | 19 | 34.58 | .1520 - 6.5 | 11.70 | .0473 | 19.5 | 35.50 | .1566 - 7 | 12.61 | .0511 | 20 | 36.44 | .1613 - 7.5 | 13.51 | .0549 | 20.5 | 37.37 | .1660 - 8 | 14.42 | .0588 | 21 | 38.30 | .1707 - 8.5 | 15.32 | .0627 | 21.5 | 39.24 | .1755 - 9 | 16.23 | .0667 | 22 | 40.17 | .1803 - 9.5 | 17.14 | .0706 | 22.5 | 41.11 | .1852 - 10 | 18.05 | .0746 | 23 | 42.05 | .1901 - 10.5 | 18.96 | .0787 | 23.5 | 42.99 | .1950 - 11 | 19.87 | .0827 | 24 | 43.94 | .2000 - 11.5 | 20.78 | .0868 | 24.5 | 44.88 | .2050 - 12 | 21.69 | .0909 | 25 | 45.83 | .2101 - 12.5 | 22.60 | .0951 | 25.5 | 46.78 | .2152 - =======+=========+==========+=======+=======-=+========= - | Balling | | | Balling | - | or per | Specific | | or per | Specific - Baumé | cent. | Gravity | Baumé | cent. | Gravity - | sugar | | | sugar | - -------+---------+----------+-------+---------+--------- - 26 | 47.73 | 1.2203 | 39 | 73.23 | 1.3714 - 26.5 | 48.68 | .2255 | 39.5 | 74.25 | .3780 - 27 | 49.63 | .2308 | 40 | 75.27 | .3846 - 27.5 | 50.59 | .2361 | 40.5 | 76.29 | .3913 - 28 | 51.55 | .2414 | 41 | 77.32 | .3981 - 28.5 | 52.51 | .2468 | 41.5 | 78.35 | .4049 - 29 | 53.47 | .2522 | 42 | 79.39 | .4118 - 29.5 | 54.44 | .2576 | 42.5 | 80.43 | .4187 - 30 | 55.47 | .2632 | 43 | 81.47 | .4267 - 30.5 | 56.37 | .2687 | 43.5 | 82.51 | .4328 - 31 | 57.34 | .2743 | 44 | 83.56 | .4400 - 31.5 | 58.32 | .2800 | 44.5 | 84.62 | .4472 - 32 | 59.29 | .2857 | 45 | 85.68 | .4545 - 32.5 | 60.27 | .2915 | 45.5 | 86.74 | .4619 - 33 | 61.25 | .2973 | 46 | 87.81 | .4694 - 33.5 | 62.23 | .3032 | 46.5 | 88.88 | .4769 - 34 | 63.22 | .3091 | 47 | 89.96 | .4845 - 34.5 | 64.21 | .3151 | 47.5 | 91.03 | .4922 - 35 | 65.20 | .3211 | 48 | 92.12 | .5000 - 35.5 | 66.19 | .3272 | 48.5 | 93.21 | .5079 - 36 | 67.19 | .3333 | 49 | 94.30 | .5158 - 36.5 | 68.19 | .3395 | 49.5 | 95.40 | .5238 - 37 | 69.19 | .3458 | 50 | 96.51 | .5319 - 37.5 | 70.20 | .3521 | 50.5 | 97.62 | .5401 - 38 | 71.20 | .3585 | 51 | 98.73 | .5484 - 38.5 | 72.22 | .3649 | 51.5 | 99.85 | .5568 - -------+---------+----------+-------+---------+--------- - - TABLE III. - - _Baumé’s degrees and corresponding per cent._ - _of sugar at 60° F._ - =======+=======+=======+=======+=======+=======+=======+======= - Baumé | Sugar | Baumé | Sugar | Baumé | Sugar | Baumé | Sugar - degrees| % |degrees| % |degrees| % |degrees| % - -------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- - 1 | 1.72 | 11 | 19.88 | 21 | 38.29 | 31 | 57.31 - 2 | 3.50 | 12 | 21.71 | 22 | 40.17 | 32 | 59.27 - 3 | 5.30 | 13 | 23.54 | 23 | 42.03 | 33 | 61.23 - 4 | 7.09 | 14 | 25.34 | 24 | 43.92 | 34 | 63.18 - 5 | 8.90 | 15 | 27.25 | 25 | 45.79 | 35 | 65.19 - 6 | 10.71 | 16 | 29.06 | 26 | 47.70 | 36 | 67.19 - 7 | 12.52 | 17 | 30.89 | 27 | 49.60 | 37 | 69.19 - 8 | 14.38 | 18 | 32.75 | 28 | 51.50 | 38 | 71.22 - 9 | 16.20 | 19 | 34.60 | 29 | 53.42 | 39 | 73.28 - 10 | 18.04 | 20 | 36.40 | 30 | 55.36 | 40 | 75.35 - =======+=======+=======+=======+=======+=======+=======+======= - - TABLE IV. - - Showing the specific gravities of mixtures of alcohol and water, - containing from 0.1 to 30 per cent. by volume, of absolute - alcohol, and corresponding per cent. by weight, for every 0.1 per - cent. by volume, compared with water at 60° F. - - The specific gravity of absolute alcohol according to U. S. - standard being .7939, referred to water at its greatest density - as unity, or .79461, referred to water at 60° F. - - ==========+===========+==========++===========+===========+========= - Per cent. | Per cent. | Specific || Per cent. | Per cent. | Specific - by volume | by weight | Gravity || by volume | by weight | Gravity - ----------+-----------+----------++-----------+-----------+--------- - 0.1 | 0.08 | .99986 || 3.8 | 3.04 | .99460 - 0.2 | 0.16 | .99972 || 3.9 | 3.12 | .99445 - 0.3 | 0.24 | .99957 || 4.0 | 3.20 | .99431 - 0.4 | 0.32 | .99943 || 4.1 | 3.28 | .99417 - 0.5 | 0.40 | .99929 || 4.2 | 3.36 | .99403 - 0.6 | 0.48 | .99915 || 4.3 | 3.44 | .99388 - 0.7 | 0.56 | .99901 || 4.4 | 3.52 | .99374 - 0.8 | 0.64 | .99886 || 4.5 | 3.60 | .99360 - 0.9 | 0.72 | .99872 || 4.6 | 3.68 | .99346 - 1.0 | 0.80 | .99858 || 4.7 | 3.76 | .99332 - 1.1 | 0.88 | .99844 || 4.8 | 3.84 | .99317 - 1.2 | 0.96 | .99830 || 4.9 | 3.92 | .99303 - 1.3 | 1.04 | .99815 || 5.0 | 4.00 | .99289 - 1.4 | 1.12 | .99801 || 5.1 | 4.08 | .99276 - 1.5 | 1.20 | .99787 || 5.2 | 4.16 | .99263 - 1.6 | 1.28 | .99773 || 5.3 | 4.24 | .99250 - 1.7 | 1.36 | .99759 || 5.4 | 4.32 | .99237 - 1.8 | 1.44 | .99744 || 5.5 | 4.40 | .99224 - 1.9 | 1.52 | .99730 || 5.6 | 4.49 | .99211 - 2.0 | 1.60 | .99716 || 5.7 | 4.57 | .99198 - 2.1 | 1.68 | .99702 || 5.8 | 4.65 | .99186 - 2.2 | 1.76 | .99688 || 5.9 | 4.73 | .99173 - 2.3 | 1.84 | .99673 || 6.0 | 4.81 | .99160 - 2.4 | 1.92 | .99659 || 6.1 | 4.89 | .99148 - 2.5 | 2.00 | .99645 || 6.2 | 4.97 | .99135 - 2.6 | 2.08 | .99631 || 6.3 | 5.05 | .99123 - 2.7 | 2.16 | .99617 || 6.4 | 5.13 | .99110 - 2.8 | 2.24 | .99602 || 6.5 | 5.21 | .99098 - 2.9 | 2.32 | .99588 || 6.6 | 5.29 | .99086 - 3.0 | 2.40 | .99574 || 6.7 | 5.37 | .99073 - 3.1 | 2.48 | .99560 || 6.8 | 5.45 | .99061 - 3.2 | 2.56 | .99546 || 6.9 | 5.54 | .99048 - 3.3 | 2.64 | .99531 || 7.0 | 5.62 | .99036 - 3.4 | 2.72 | .99517 || 7.1 | 5.70 | .99024 - 3.5 | 2.79 | .99503 || 7.2 | 5.78 | .99011 - 3.6 | 2.88 | .99488 || 7.3 | 5.86 | .98999 - 3.7 | 2.96 | .99474 || 7.4 | 5.94 | .98986 - ==========+===========+==========++===========+===========+========= - Per cent. | Per cent. | Specific || Per cent. | Per cent. | Specific - by volume | by weight | Gravity || by volume | by weight | Gravity - ----------+-----------+----------++-----------+-----------+--------- - 7.5 | 6.02 | .98974 || 11.2 | 9.03 | .98530 - 7.6 | 6.10 | .98961 || 11.3 | 9.11 | .98519 - 7.7 | 6.18 | .98949 || 11.4 | 9.20 | .98508 - 7.8 | 6.26 | .98936 || 11.5 | 9.28 | .98497 - 7.9 | 6.35 | .98924 || 11.6 | 9.36 | .98486 - 8.0 | 6.43 | .98911 || 11.7 | 9.44 | .98475 - 8.1 | 6.51 | .98899 || 11.8 | 9.52 | .98463 - 8.2 | 6.59 | .98886 || 11.9 | 9.60 | .98452 - 8.3 | 6.67 | .98874 || 12.0 | 9.69 | .98441 - 8.4 | 6.75 | .98861 || 12.1 | 9.77 | .98430 - 8.5 | 6.83 | .98849 || 12.2 | 9.85 | .98419 - 8.6 | 6.91 | .98837 || 12.3 | 9.93 | .98408 - 8.7 | 7.00 | .98824 || 12.4 | 10.01 | .98397 - 8.8 | 7.08 | .98812 || 12.5 | 10.10 | .98386 - 8.9 | 7.16 | .98799 || 12.6 | 10.18 | .98375 - 9.0 | 7.24 | .98787 || 12.7 | 10.26 | .98364 - 9.1 | 7.32 | .98775 || 12.8 | 10.34 | .98352 - 9.2 | 7.40 | .98762 || 12.9 | 10.42 | .98341 - 9.3 | 7.48 | .98750 || 13.0 | 10.51 | .98330 - 9.4 | 7.57 | .98737 || 13.1 | 10.59 | .98319 - 9.5 | 7.65 | .98725 || 13.2 | 10.67 | .98308 - 9.6 | 7.73 | .98713 || 13.3 | 10.75 | .98297 - 9.7 | 7.81 | .98700 || 13.4 | 10.83 | .98286 - 9.8 | 7.89 | .98688 || 13.5 | 10.92 | .98275 - 9.9 | 7.97 | .98675 || 13.6 | 11.00 | .98264 - 10.0 | 8.05 | .98663 || 13.7 | 11.08 | .98253 - 10.1 | 8.14 | .98652 || 13.8 | 11.16 | .98242 - 10.2 | 8.22 | .98641 || 13.9 | 11.24 | .98231 - 10.3 | 8.30 | .98630 || 14.0 | 11.33 | .98220 - 10.4 | 8.38 | .98619 || 14.1 | 11.41 | .98209 - 10.5 | 8.46 | .98608 || 14.2 | 11.49 | .98199 - 10.6 | 8.54 | .98597 || 14.3 | 11.57 | .98188 - 10.7 | 8.62 | .98586 || 14.4 | 11.65 | .98178 - 10.8 | 8.71 | .98574 || 14.5 | 11.74 | .98167 - 10.9 | 8.79 | .98563 || 14.6 | 11.82 | .98156 - 11.0 | 8.87 | .98552 || 14.7 | 11.90 | .98146 - 11.1 | 8.95 | .98541 || 14.8 | 11.98 | .98135 - ==========+===========+==========++===========+===========+========= - Per cent. | Per cent. | Specific || Per cent. | Per cent. | Specific - by volume | by weight | Gravity || by volume | by weight | Gravity - ----------+-----------+----------++-----------+-----------+--------- - 14.9 | 12.07 | .98125 || 18.7 | 15.21 | .97733 - 15.0 | 12.15 | .98114 || 18.8 | 15.29 | .97722 - 15.1 | 12.23 | .98104 || 18.9 | 15.37 | .97712 - 15.2 | 12.32 | .98094 || 19.0 | 15.46 | .97702 - 15.3 | 12.40 | .98083 || 19.1 | 15.54 | .97692 - 15.4 | 12.49 | .98073 || 19.2 | 15.62 | .97682 - 15.5 | 12.57 | .98063 || 19.3 | 15.70 | .97671 - 15.6 | 12.65 | .98053 || 19.4 | 15.78 | .97661 - 15.7 | 12.73 | .98042 || 19.5 | 15.87 | .97651 - 15.8 | 12.82 | .98032 || 19.6 | 15.95 | .97641 - 15.9 | 12.90 | .98021 || 19.7 | 16.04 | .97631 - 16.0 | 12.98 | .98011 || 19.8 | 16.12 | .97620 - 16.1 | 13.06 | .98001 || 19.9 | 16.20 | .97610 - 16.2 | 13.14 | .97990 || 20.0 | 16.29 | .97600 - 16.3 | 13.22 | .97980 || 20.1 | 16.37 | .97590 - 16.4 | 13.31 | .97969 || 20.2 | 16.45 | .97580 - 16.5 | 13.39 | .97959 || 20.3 | 16.51 | .97569 - 16.6 | 13.47 | .97949 || 20.4 | 16.62 | .97559 - 16.7 | 13.55 | .97938 || 20.5 | 16.70 | .97549 - 16.8 | 13.63 | .97928 || 20.6 | 16.79 | .97539 - 16.9 | 13.71 | .97917 || 20.7 | 16.87 | .97529 - 17.0 | 13.80 | .97907 || 20.8 | 16.95 | .97518 - 17.1 | 13.88 | .97897 || 20.9 | 17.03 | .97508 - 17.2 | 13.96 | .97887 || 21.0 | 17.12 | .97498 - 17.3 | 14.05 | .97876 || 21.1 | 17.20 | .97488 - 17.4 | 14.13 | .97866 || 21.2 | 17.28 | .97478 - 17.5 | 14.21 | .97856 || 21.3 | 17.37 | .97467 - 17.6 | 14.29 | .97846 || 21.4 | 17.45 | .97457 - 17.7 | 14.38 | .97835 || 21.5 | 17.53 | .97447 - 17.8 | 14.46 | .97825 || 21.6 | 17.62 | .97437 - 17.9 | 14.54 | .97814 || 21.7 | 17.70 | .97427 - 18.0 | 14.62 | .97804 || 21.8 | 17.78 | .97416 - 18.1 | 14.71 | .97794 || 21.9 | 17.87 | .97406 - 18.2 | 14.79 | .97784 || 22.0 | 17.95 | .97396 - 18.3 | 14.87 | .97773 || 22.1 | 18.03 | .97386 - 18.4 | 14.96 | .97763 || 22.2 | 18.12 | .97375 - 18.5 | 15.04 | .97753 || 22.3 | 18.20 | .97365 - 18.6 | 15.12 | .97743 || 22.4 | 18.28 | .97354 - ==========+===========+==========++===========+===========+========= - Per cent. | Per cent. | Specific || Per cent. | Per cent. | Specific - by volume | by weight | Gravity || by volume | by weight | Gravity - ----------+-----------+----------++-----------+-----------+--------- - 22.5 | 18.37 | .97344 || 26.3 | 21.55 | .96950 - 22.6 | 18.45 | .97334 || 26.4 | 21.64 | .96939 - 22.7 | 18.53 | .97323 || 26.5 | 21.72 | .96928 - 22.8 | 18.62 | .97313 || 26.6 | 21.81 | .96017 - 22.9 | 18.70 | .97302 || 26.7 | 21.89 | .96906 - 23.0 | 18.78 | .97292 || 26.8 | 21.98 | .96896 - 23.1 | 18.87 | .97282 || 26.9 | 22.06 | .96885 - 23.2 | 18.95 | .97272 || 27.0 | 22.15 | .96874 - 23.3 | 19.04 | .97261 || 27.1 | 22.23 | .96863 - 23.4 | 19.12 | .97251 || 27.2 | 22.32 | .96853 - 23.5 | 19.20 | .97241 || 27.3 | 22.40 | .96842 - 23.6 | 19.29 | .97231 || 27.4 | 22.48 | .96832 - 23.7 | 19.37 | .97221 || 27.5 | 22.57 | .96821 - 23.9 | 19.54 | .97200 || 27.7 | 22.74 | .96799 - 24.0 | 19.62 | .97190 || 27.8 | 22.82 | .96789 - 24.1 | 19.71 | .97180 || 27.9 | 22.91 | .96778 - 24.2 | 19.79 | .97170 || 28.0 | 22.99 | .96767 - 24.3 | 19.87 | .97159 || 28.1 | 23.07 | .96756 - 24.4 | 19.96 | .97149 || 28.2 | 23.16 | .96745 - 24.5 | 20.04 | .97139 || 28.3 | 23.24 | .96733 - 24.6 | 20.13 | .97129 || 28.4 | 23.33 | .96722 - 24.7 | 20.21 | .97118 || 28.5 | 23.41 | .96711 - 24.8 | 20.29 | .97108 || 28.6 | 23.50 | .96700 - 24.9 | 20.38 | .97097 || 28.7 | 23.58 | .96689 - 25.0 | 20.46 | .97087 || 28.8 | 23.67 | .96677 - 25.1 | 20.55 | .97076 || 28.9 | 23.75 | .96666 - 25.2 | 20.63 | .97066 || 29.0 | 23.84 | .96655 - 25.3 | 20.71 | .97055 || 29.1 | 23.93 | .96644 - 25.4 | 20.80 | .97045 || 29.2 | 24.01 | .96632 - 25.5 | 20.88 | .97034 || 29.3 | 24.10 | .96621 - 25.6 | 20.97 | .97023 || 29.4 | 24.18 | .96609 - 25.7 | 21.05 | .97013 || 29.5 | 24.27 | .96598 - 25.8 | 21.13 | .97002 || 29.6 | 24.35 | .96587 - 25.9 | 21.22 | .96992 || 29.7 | 24.44 | .96575 - 26.0 | 21.30 | .96981 || 29.8 | 24.52 | .96564 - 26.1 | 21.39 | .96970 || 29.9 | 24.61 | .96552 - 26.2 | 21.47 | .96960 || 30.0 | 24.69 | .96541 - ----------+-----------+----------++-----------+-----------+--------- - The basis of the foregoing table is Table III of the U. S. Manual - for Inspectors of spirits, giving the respective volumes of - absolute alcohol and water in 100 volumes of spirits of different - strengths, for every 0.5 per cent. by volume, and the specific - gravities, referred to water at 60° F. - - -TABLE V. - - =============+================+===========+=====+=====+======+===== - | | | |Color| | - Variety | Name of | Locality. |Vin- | of | AV% | AAT - of Wine. | Contributor. | |tage.|Wine.| | - -------------+----------------+-----------+-----+-----+------+----- - Mission, | | | | | | - just ripe|Dr. J. Strentzel|Martinez | 1880|White| 10.0 |.5370 - “ “ “ | “ | “ | “ | Red | 8.5 |.5400 - “ fully “ | “ | “ | “ |White| 12.8 |.3490 - “ “ “ | “ | “ | “ | Red | 13.3 |.3300 - “ |George West |Stockton | 1881|White| 11.9 |.6690 - “ | “ | “ | “ | Red | 12.6 |.5590 - “ |Prof. G. Husman |Napa ? | “ |White| 13.0 |.4297 - “ |I. De Turk |Santa Rosa | 1880| “ | 11.9 |.3900 - “ | “ | “ | 1881| “ | 13.1 |.4500 - “ |Chas. Lefranc |San Jose | “ | Red | 12.0 |.4245 - “ |J. DeBarth Shorb|San Gabriel| 1873|White| 15.2 |.7395 - “ | “ | “ | 1881| “ | 12.4 |.4897 - “ |I. De Turk |Santa Rosa | 1878| “ | 12.0 |.5347 - Black Prince |George West |Stockton | 1881| “ | 14.9 |.7020 - “ “ | “ | “ | “ | Red | 15.2 |.6450 - Malvoisie |Chas. Krug |St. Helena | 1880|White| 16.7 |.4270 - (Malvasia?)| “ | “ | “ | Red | 14.5 |.2460 - “ |R. Hasty |Clayton | “ | “ | 13.8 | ... - “ |G. Husman |Napa ? | 1881|White| 14.0 |.4635 - “ | “ |Napa ? | “ | Red | 13.5 |.5430 - “ |T. F. Eisen |Fresno | 1878|White| 13.7 |.6622 - “ | “ | “ | 1880| “ | 17.2 |.5197 - Zinfandel |Chas. Krug |St. Helena | “ | “ | 12.6 |.6000 - “ | “ | “ | “ | Red | 12.9 |.3900 - “ |Geo. West |Stockton | 1881|White| 14.1 |.4200 - “ | “ | “ | “ | Red | 14.3 |.4370 - “ |Gundlach & Co. |Sacramento | ... | “ | 11.9 |.6750 - “ |I. De Turk |Santa Rosa | 1879| “ | 13.4 |.6495 - “ | “ | “ | 1881| “ | 13.2 |.6750 - “ |G. Husman |Napa ? | “ | “ | 13.2 |.4777 - “ |I. De Turk |Santa Rosa | 1880| “ | 12.7 |.6900 - =============+================+===========+=====+=====+======+===== - | | | |Color| | - Variety | Name of | Locality. |Vin- | of | AV% | AAT - of Wine. | Contributor. | |tage.|Wine.| | - -------------+----------------+-----------+-----+-----+------+----- - Zinfandel |B. Dreyfus & Co.| | | Red | 12.4 |.7170 - Charbono |General Naglee | San Jose | 1880|White| 8.1 |.4750 - “ | “ | “ | “ | Red | 6.5 |.4420 - “ |J. T. Doyle |Santa Clara| | “ | 12.5 |.4320 - | | Co. ? | | | | - Mataro |Chas. Lefranc | San Jose | 1880|White| 14.1 |.4245 - “ | “ | “ | “ | Red | 12.4 |.5250 - Grenache | “ | “ | 1876| “ | 11.6 |.7920 - “ | “ | “ | 1881| “ | 12.5 |.3450 - California | “ | “ | | “ | 10.8 |.7500 - Burgundy| | | | | | - Lenoir |H. W. Crabb | Oakville | 1881| “ | 11.1 |.8070 - “ | “ | “ | “ | “ | 11.9 |.5145 - Chasselas |J. Gundlach | Sonoma | “ |White| 13.5 |.6337 - “ | “ | “ | “ | WS | 11.7 |.6495 - “ |Dresel & Co. | “ | |White| 13.5 |.3375 - Rose Chasselas |G. Husman | Napa ? | 1881| “ | 12.0 |.3720 - Golden Chasselas|Chas. Krug | St. Helena| “ | W/S | 12.4 |.5925 - Riesling |Dresel & Co. | Sonoma | |White| 12.5 |.6180 - “ |B. Dreyfus & Co.| | | “ | 12.9 |.6750 - “ |J. DeBarth Shorb|San Gabriel| 1880| “ | 13.6 |.8325 - “ |Kramp & Bro. | Diamond | “ | “ | 12.6 |.7522 - | | Springs | | | | - Blanc Elba | | | | | | - (Elbling?)|J.De Barth Shorb|San Gabriel| 1881| “ | 13.1 |.6825 - Feher Szagos |G. Eisen | Fresno | “ | “ | 10.6 |.5625 - “ | “ | “ | “ | W/S | 10.2 |.5250 - Prolific |Geo. West | Stockton | “ |White| 14.5 |.6750 - “ | “ | “ | “ | W/S | 15.6 |.5347 - Sauvignon Vert|Chas. Lefranc | San Jose | 1875|White| 13.3 |.6187 - Burger |Chas. Krug | St. Helena| 1880| “ | 9.0 |.5620 - “ | “ | “ | “ | W/S | 9.2 |.5250 - “ |R. Hasty | Clayton | “ |White| 11.5 | ... - Elvira |H. W. Crabb | Oakville | 1881| “ | 11.9 |.5145 - “ |Kramp & Bro. | Diamond | 1880| “ | 14.1 |.5475 - | | Springs | | | | - =============+================+===========+=====+=====+======+===== - | | | |Color| | - Variety | Name of | Locality. |Vin- | of | AV% | AAT - of Wine. | Contributor. | |tage.|Wine.| | - -------------+----------------+-----------+-----+-----+------+----- - Malaga |T. F. Eisen | Fresno | 1877|White| 14.6 |.6525 - “ | “ | “ | 1881| “ | 17.9 |.2175 - Madeira |B. Dreyfus & Co.| | “ | “ | 18.2 | ... - Muscat |I. De Turk | Santa Rosa| “ | “ | 11.5 |.5775 - “ |T. F. Eisen | Fresno | 1876| “ | 16.7 |.5325 - “ | “ | “ | 1881| “ | 17.2 |.2250 - Port, Zinfandel| “ | “ | “ | Red | 18.4 |.3450 - “ “ | “ | “ | 1878| “ | 21.0 |.4957 - Port |J. DeParth Shorb|San Gabriel| 1875| “ | 22.1 |.3525 - “ | “ | “ | 1881| “ | 22.9 |.2048 - Port, Tienturier|T. F. Eisen | Fresno | “ | “ | 18.8 |.3975 - Angelica |J. DeBarth Shorb|San Gabriel| 1875|White| 18.3 |.3825 - “ | “ | “ | 1881| “ | 21.8 |.1448 - Sherry | | | | | | - (Feher Szagos)|T. F. Eisen | Fresno | 1877| “ | 18.8 |.3600 - “ “ dry| “ | “ | 1878| “ | 16.1 |.5550 - =============+================+===========+=====+=====+======+===== - AV% = per cent. alcohol by volume. - AAT = Acid As Tartaric. - W/S = With Skins - Where the name of the locality is followed by (?), - it was omitted from the report. - - =Averages.=—In thirteen Mission wines: - Alcohol—maximum, 15.2; minimum, 8.5; average, 12.2. - Acid—maximum, .7395; minimum, .3300; average, .4955. - - In seven Malvoisie wines: - Alcohol—maximum, 17.2; minimum, 13.5; average, 14.77. - Acid in six—maximum, .6622; minimum, .2460; average, .4769. - - In ten Zinfandel wines: - Alcohol—maximum, 14.3; minimum, 11.9; average, 13.07. - Acid—maximum, .7170; minimum, .3900; average, .5731. - - In four Riesling wines: - Alcohol—maximum, 13.6; minimum, 12.5; average, 12.6. - Acid—maximum, .8325; minimum, .6180; average, .7194. - - In four Port wines, including two Zinfandel: - Alcohol—maximum, 22.9; minimum, 18.4; average, 21.1. - Acid—maximum, .4057; minimum, .2048; average, .3270. - - - - -INDEX. - - - Page. - Acetic acid, 194 - fermentation, 30 - Acid in California wines, x, 220 - in European wines, xii - increased by stems, 20 - in wine, x, xi, xii, 193, 220 - see acetic, carbonic, citric, - tartaric, malic, pectic, tannic, - salicylic, lactic, valeric, - succinic and plastering. - Acidity, disease, see sourness. - in casks, 65 - Acquired defects and diseases, 137 - Acrity, 149 - in bottles, 167 - Adjustable hoop, see utensils. - Aerating must, 23 - stirring pomace, 42 - see treading, air, influence of. - port wine, 112 - Age, effect on wine, 51, 52 - Aging wine—effect of various influences, 76 - general considerations, 76 - requisite to make agreeable and healthful, 76 - care to age and preserve, 76 - new wine, 76 - different wines require different periods, 76 - development of bouquet and flavor, 76 - old wine, characteristics of, 76 - color, aroma and flavor, 77 - influences which develop, also destroy, 77 - influences on weak wine and strong wine, 77 - influence of the air, see aerating, 77 - variations of temperature, 78 - influence of heat, 78 - aging by heat, 79 - preserving by heat, 80 - influence of cold and frozen wines, 81 - influence of light, 82 - aging by sunlight, insolation, 82 - effect of motion and voyages, 82-84 - wines suitable for shipment, 82 - aging by fining, 84 - generally, 84 - fine before aging, 84 - what wines gain the most by the processes, 85 - heating Madiera, 113 - see casks, size of - Air, influence of, 77 - see port, aerating - Albumen, see fining. - Alcohol in California wines, ix, x, 220 - in European wines, xii - relation to sugar, 11, 28, 34 - required in dry wine, 11 - to keep wine sweet, 58, 59, 106, 107 - in aging by heat, 80 - required in aging by sunlight, 82 - for shipping wines, 82 - by weight and by volume, 33 - burning to arrest fermentation, 74 - lost by evaporation, 112 - natural in sweet wines, 105 - adding in fining, 102 - to sweet wines, 105, 106, 107 - to port, 111, 112 - to sherry, 117, 123 - to Madeira, 114 - see rules. - amount in port, 112 - in Madeira, 115 - in sherry, 123 - estimation of, 187 - limits by fermentation, 36 - Alcoholic weakness, 133 - fermentation, see fermentation. - Aldehyde, 30 - Almonds, bitter, see bouquet, artificial - Analysis of dry lees, 176 - Areometer, 7 - Aroma, see bouquet. - Arresting fermentation, 72 - see sulphuring, sulphurous acid - by burning alcohol, 74 - aqueous sulphurous acid, 74 - bisulphite of lime, 74 - salicylic acid, 75 - Arrope, 119 - Artificial must, 14 - - Balling’s saccharometer, 7, 8, 9 - Barrels, see casks. - Barrel flavor, 145 - Basket, decanting, 169 - bottle, 205 - Bastardo grape, see port. - Basto, see sherry. - Baumé’s saccharometer, 7, 8 - Bins for bottles, 164 - Bisulphite of lime, 74 - Bitartrate of potash, see cream of tartar - Bitter almonds, see bouquet, artificial. - Bitterness, 131, 149 - in bottles, 167 - Blending, see cutting. - sherry, 122 - Blood, see fining. - Blotting paper, see fining. - Bluish wines, 134 - Boiling must, 106 - Borers of casks, 66 - Bottles, wine in, bottling, etc., - see wine in bottles. - washer, drainers, 156 - piling, 163 - racks and bins, 164 - baskets, 205 - Bouquet, short vatting promotes, 44 - development of, by age, 76, 77 - how lost, 77 - generally, 194 - artificial, 194 - substances used, 196 - iris, 196 - strawberry, 197 - gillyflower, stock gilly, 197 - vine flowers, 198 - mignonette, 198 - nutmeg, 198 - bitter almonds and fruit pits, 198 - sassafras, 198 - other aromas, 199 - effects, 199 - Brandy, shipments of California, vi - casks, empty, 66 - casks for, 66 - Bung turned to one side, 51, 53 - screw, 158 - Butyric fermentation, 29 - - California, prices of grapes, vi - exports of wine and brandy, vi - product of wine, vi - wines, alcohol and acid in, ix, x, 220 - wines compared, ix, x, 220 - musts, viii - Capsules and capsuling, 162 - Carbonic acid produced by fermentation, 34 - in wine, 193 - Carbon dioxide, see carbonic acid. - Casks, 61 - redwood, 61 - oak, different kinds, principles contained in, 61 - temper with new wine, 61 - storing, 61 - sulphured before storing, 62 - new, preparing, washing, 62 - old, washing, 63 - to remove lees, rinsing chain, 63 - to examine inside, visitor, 63 - wash empty ones at once, 64 - do not leave in the sun, 64 - examine to ascertain condition, 64 - leaky, to expel bad air, 64 - flatness in, acidity in, mouldy, 65 - rottenness, 66 - brandy, do not sulphur, 66 - for brandy, 66 - oil casks, 66 - which have contained aromatic liquors, 66 - borers, 66 - size of, 67 - see different wines. - large, preferable, 67 - why sulphured, 69 - how sulphured, 70 - caution in sulphuring, 71 - filling from vats, 45 - of new wine loosely closed, 48 - must be kept full, 48 - bung to one side, old wine, 51, 53 - for white wine, 55 - small for sweet, large for dry, 55 - filling during fermentation of white, 55 - see froth, racking. - flavor, 145 - how long wine to remain in, 154 - supporting and arranging, 89 - implements for tipping, 95 - Cellars, 87 - temperature, 87 - dampness, floors, 88 - ventilation, evaporation, 88 - other precautions, 89 - supporting and arranging casks, 89 - for port, 112 - for sherry, 118 - utensils, 204 - Cement for corks, see wax. - Centres, see white wine. - Chain for washing casks, 63 - Charcoal to remove sulphur flavor, 74 - deprives wine of color and carbonic acid, 74 - Citric acid, 193 - Clarification, clarifying powders, see fining. - Cleanliness about wine making, 94, 203 - Climate of sherry districts, 115 - Coal, see charcoal. - Cold, influence of on wine, 81 - Color, increased by long vatting, 44 - dark, not necessary to fine wines, 44 - precipitated by sulphur, 71 - by blood, 101 - removed by charcoal, 74 - changed by age, 77 - affected by light, 82 - heat and motion, 83 - weakened by fining, 99 - want of, 134 - dull, bluish, lead-colored wines, 134 - see port, tawny. - wine, see sherry. - Coloring matter in red wine, 39 - Composition of wine, 185 - cream of tartar, 185 - not composed of alcohol and water alone, 185 - alcohol, acid, and sugar generally, 185 - table of substances recognized, 186 - alcohol and estimation of, 187 - stills for and operation, 187 - monitor still, 190 - ethers, 190 - sugar and estimation, 190 - mannite, 191 - mucilage and mellowness, 191 - pectose, pectin, 192 - Composition of wine, 185 - fatty matters, 192 - glycerin, 192 - coloring matter, œnocyanine, 192 - aldehydes, 192 - acids, 193 - tartaric, 193 - malic, 193 - citric, 193 - pectic, 193 - tannic, 193 - carbonic, 193 - acetic, 194 - lactic, 194 - butyric, 194 - valeric, 194 - succinic, 194 - total, 194 - bouquet, natural and artificial, 194 - Copper affected by wine, 202 - Corks, 158 - preparation of, 160 - sealing for, 161 - utensils to remove, see utensils. - Corking machines, corking, 159, 160 - Corkscrews, 169 - Cream of tartar, see plastering, lees, - composition of wine, fining. - Crushing and methods of, 22 - aerating must by, 23 - Crushing and stemming, rapidity, 24 - special practice in the Médoc, 24 - effect of, 24 - dry grapes, 108 - Crushers, 23 - Cutting wines, 171 - most French wines mixed, 171 - when necessary, effect, 171 - tithe wines, singular case, 171 - no precise rules, 171 - mix wines of same nature, 173 - fine wines, 173 - ordinary wines, 174 - time must be allowed, 174 - quantity to mix, 174 - mixing new and old wines, 174 - green wine, 174 - white and red wine, 175 - diseased wines, 125, 126, 175 - mixing grapes, 175 - precaution, 175 - - Dampness, see cellars. - Decanting wine from bottles, 188 - basket, 169 - instrument, 169 - Decomposition of wine, see diseases. - Defects and diseases, 125 - division, general considerations, 125 - better avoided than cured, 125 - not always cured by mixing, 126 - doses in treating, 126 - natural defects, 126 - earthy flavor and causes, 126 - how prevented, treatment, 127 - wild taste, grassy flavor, 128 - greenness and causes, 128 - how prevented, treatment, 129 - roughness, 130 - not a fault, disappears in time, 130 - to avoid excess of tannin, 130 - how removed, 131 - bitterness and causes in new wine, 131 - how prevented, treatment, 131 - stem flavor, 131 - sourness and causes, 132 - how prevented, treatment, 132 - alcoholic weakness, 133 - how avoided, treatment, 133 - want of color and causes, 134 - how guarded against, treatment, 134 - dull, bluish, lead-colored wine, - flavor of lees, and causes, 134 - how avoided, treatment, 135 - putrid decomposition and causes, 136 - how avoided, treatment, 137 - several natural defects combined, 137 - acquired defects and diseases, 137 - flat wines, flowers, and causes, 137 - prevention, 138 - treatment, 139 - sourness, acidity, pricked wine and causes, 140 - what wines liable to, 140 - how prevented, treatment, 141 - pricked wine, experiments with substances - in treating, 142 - Machard’s treatment, 144 - other methods, 144 - cask flavor, barrel flavor, and causes, 145 - treatment, 146 - mouldy flavor, 147 - prevention, treatment, 147 - foreign flavors, 147 - ropiness, causes and treatment, 148 - in bottled wines, 148, 167 - other treatment, 148 - acrity and treatment, 149 - in bottles, 167 - bitterness, 149 - treatment, 150 - according to Maumené, 150 - in bottles, 167 - fermentation, taste of the lees, - yeasty flavor, 151 - how prevented, treatment, 152 - in bottles, 165 - degeneration, putrid fermentation, 87, 152 - in bottles, 167 - duration of different wines, 152 - treatment, 153 - deposits and turbidity in bottles, 166 - Degeneration of wines, 87, 152 - see diseases. - Density of sweet wines, 107 - musts, see musts, different wines, sugar. - Deposits, see diseases, lees, wine in bottles. - Diseases and defects, 125 - Drainers for bottles, 156 - Drawing off, see racking. - from vats, 43, 44, 45 - Dry grapes, crushing, 108 - wines, see white, red, treatment casks for, 55 - Dull-colored wine, 134 - Duration of different wines, 152 - of fermentation, see fermentation, - different wines. - - Earthy flavor, 126 - _Echaud_, 151 - Effervescent wines not to be sulphured, 71 - Eggs, see fining. - Empty casks, see casks. - Estufa, see Madeira, heating house. - Ethers, 190 - European wines, alcohol and acid in, xii - Evaporation of wine in cellars, 88 - weakens wine, 112 - see casks, size of. - _Event_, _éventé_, see flatness. - Exports of California Wine and brandy, vi - Exportation, see shipping. - - Fatty matters in wine, 192 - Ferments, origin of, 31 - destroyed by heat, 81 - see yeast, _saccharomyces_. - Fermentation, its causes, 25 - kinds of, 25 - alcoholic generally, 25 - yeast plant, _saccharomyces cerevisiæ_, 25 - functions of yeast, 26 - normal conditions of the life of, 26 - surface and sedimentary, 26 - physical conditions, temperature, 27 - chemical conditions, 27 - action of various chemical and - physical agents, 28 - viscous or mannitic, 29 - lactic, 29 - butyric and putrefactive, 29, 136, 152, 167 - acetic, aldehyde, 30 - _mycoderma aceti_, mother of vinegar, 30 - _mycoderma vini_, flowers of wine, 31 - origin of ferments, 31 - alcoholic, in wine making, 32 - sugar, cane, grape or glucose, 32 - alcohol by weight and by volume, 33 - its products, per cent. sugar to - per cent. alcohol, 34 - different authors, 34 - limits of sugar and spirit, 36 - temperature, 37 - surrounding vats with straw, 37 - fermenting houses, 38 - duration of in red wine, 44 - in white wine, 93 - insensible, 47, 48 - arresting, see sulphuring, arresting. - by burning alcohol, 74 - aqueous solution of sulphurous acid, 74 - bisulphite of lime, 74 - salicylic acid, 75 - increased by stems, 20 - by open vats, 40 - slow in closed vats, 40 - under pressure and not so complete, 42 - disease, 151, 165 - in bottles, 165 - see white wine, filling casks, different wines, - plastering, effects of. - Fermenting houses, 38, 109 - tanks or vats, 39, 41, 108 - material, size, number, arrangement of, 39 - surrounding with straw, 37 - filling, 39, 40, 108 - open, closed, 40 - best practice, 41 - hermetically sealed, cooled with condenser, 42 - practice in the Médoc, 42 - stirring pomace in, 42, 108 - drawing from, 43, 44 - Filling vats, 39, 40 - casks from vats, 45 - during fermentation of white wine, 55 - see froth, ulling. - Filtering, see fining. - Fining, 99 - when necessary, objects of, 99 - best avoided unless necessary, 91, 99 - caution, 99 - substances employed, 99 - which act mechanically, blotting paper, - fine sand, powdered stone, 99 - filtration, 99 - substances which act chemically and - mechanically, 99 - gelatinous substances, 99 - gelatine proper, 100 - its preparation, 100 - isinglass, fish glue, ichthyocol, 100 - its preparation, 100 - adding cream of tartar for white wine, 100 - albuminous substances, 101 - blood, milk, 101 - white of eggs, 101 - the fining for red wine, 101 - clarifying powders, 102 - gum arabic, 102 - addition of salt, 102 - addition of alcohol, 102 - addition of tannin, 102 - method of operation, 103 - implements for stirring, 103 - time necessary for, 103 - new wines, 50 - sweet wines, 106 - sherry, 124 - to age wine, 84 - before aging, 84 - wines extracted from lees, 179, 180 - Finings, see fining. - leaving wine on, 91, 104 - _Fino_, see sherry. - Fish Glue, see fining. - Flatness, influence of air, 78 - in casks, 65 - Flat wine, 137 - Flavor developed by aging, 76, 77 - how lost, 77 - causes of change of, 77 - sulphur, causes and removal, 73 - foreign, 147 - barrel, cask, 145 - sherry, madeira, port, 213 - fruity, see fruity flavor. - Flowers on wine, 31, 77, 118, 137 - Fortified wines, see sweet wines. - Fortifying, see alcohol. - rule for, 208 - Foul casks, 64 - French wines generally mixed, 171 - alcohol and acid in, xii - Froth in filling a cask, 104 - Frozen wine, 81 - Fruity flavor, how lost, 50, 52, 99 - preferred by _gourmets_, 84 - Fruit pits, see bouquet, artificial. - Funnels, see utensils. - Furmint wine, 107 - - Gallons of must per ton of grapes, 200, 201 - of wine per ton of grapes, 201 - of liquid, weight of, 206 - Galvanized iron affected by wine, 203 - Gas in empty casks, 64 - Gathering grapes, maturity, utensils, 1 - number of pickers, 1, 12 - when to commence, 1 - time of, successive gathering, 2 - before complete maturity, 4 - after complete maturity, 5 - Gelatine, see fining. - General treatment of table wines, 86 - sweet wines, 105 - see different wines - Gillyflower, see bouquet, artificial. - Glass, materials in, 157 - Gleucometer, gleuco-œnometer, 8 - Glucose, must, 6 - for a gallon of wine, 16 - cost of glucose wine, 16 - effect on Burgundy, 14 - experiment, 17 - use condemned, 17 - name of user published, 18 - grape sugar, generally, 32 - Glue, fish, see fining - Glycerine, produced by fermentation, 34 - in wine, 186, 192 - _Gourmets_, wine preferred by, 84 - _Gout d’évent_, see flatness. - _de travail_, 151 - Graduated measures, see utensils. - Grand wines should not be aged artificially, 84 - see different practices and treatment, - red wine, white wine. - Grapes, prices in California, v - Mission, v - picking, 1 - see gathering, maturity. - sorting, 3 - tons stemmed and crushed in a day, 24 - gallons of wine per ton of, 201 - juice, see must. - per cent. of stems in different, 201 - sugar, 6, 32 - Grassy flavor, 128 - Green wine, mixing, 174 - Greenness, 128 - Gum arabic, see fining. - Gypsum, see plastering. - - Head wines, see white wines. - Heat, influence on wine, 78 - aging by, 79 - preserving by, 80 - destroys ferment germs, 81 - see fermentation. - Heating Madeira, 113 - Hoop, adjustable, see utensils. - Houses, fermenting, 38, 109 - Hydrometer, 7, 8, 9 - tables, see appendix. - Hygienic effects of red and white wine, 54 - - Ichthyocol, see fining. - Implements, see utensils. - Influences, effect of various on wine, 76 - which develop, also destroy, 77 - Ingredients in wine, see composition. - Insensible fermentation, 47 - when finished, 48 - Insolation, see sunlight. - Iris, see bouquet, artificial. - Iron affected by wine, 202, 203 - Isinglass, see fining. - - Juice, grape, proportion to marc, 200 - see must. - - Lactic fermentation, 29 - acid, 186, 194 - see milk, fining. - _Lagar_, see port, sherry. - Lead affected by wine, 202 - Lead-colored wine, 134 - Leaky casks, see casks. - Lees, marc, piquette, 176 - residues often put in the still, 176 - wine, 176 - should not be neglected, 176 - quantity of wine contained in, 176 - contents of dry parts, analysis, 176 - composition varies, 176 - treatment of, 177 - wine should not be left long in - contact with, 178, 180 - except sweet, 106 - casks for, barreling, 177 - sulphuring, storing, ulling, 177 - how often to draw wine from, 178 - from diseased wine, put by themselves, 178 - extracting wine from with siphon, 178 - extracting wine from with faucet, 179 - fining wine extracted from, 179 - wines from lack color, difficult to clarify, 180 - red wine from, to fine, 180 - white wine from, to fine, 180 - pressing thick sediment, 180 - sacks for, 181 - press for, 181 - applying pressure, 182 - to remove from casks, 63 - use of dry, 182 - flavor of, 134, 151, 165 - see racking, fining, etc. - marc or pomace, piquette, 182 - unfermented and partly fermented pomace, 183 - fermented marc, 183 - Pezeyre’s method of washing, 183 - deposits, 86, 166 - Light, influence on wine, 82 - port, 112 - aging by, 82 - Liqueur wines, see sweet wines. - Liquid, to ascertain weight of, 206 - Lime, bisulphite, 74 - see diseases. - Loss by evaporation, see cellars, casks, size of. - - Madeira, 113 - making, casks, treatment, 113 - adding alcohol, 113 - heating, heating houses, 113 - general treatment, 114 - solera system, ullage, 114 - alcoholic strength, 115 - flavor, 213 - Malic acid, 186, 193 - Mannite, 186, 191 - Mannitic fermentation, 29 - Marc of sweet wine, use of, 107 - passing wine over, 139 - proportion of juice to, 200 - see lees, marc, piquette. - Matches, sulphur, 70 - Matters in wine, see composition. - Maturity of grapes, 3 - signs of, 4 - gathering before complete, 4 - gathering after complete, 5 - according to required strength, 5 - for port, 108 - Maturity for sherry, 115 - of wine, see white, red wine, aging. - Maumené’s sulphurer, 69 - Mellowness, how lost, 52, 84 - cause of, 191 - see white, red wine. - Measures, graduated, see utensils. - Metal utensils, wood preferable, 202 - affected by wine, 202 - Middle wines, see white wines, _centres_. - Mignonette, see bouquet, artificial. - Milk, see fining. - Miscellaneous chapter, 200 - Mission grape, v - Mixing pressings, 45, 47 - see red, white, port. - wines, see cutting. - _Monté, vin_, 151 - Mother of vinegar, 30 - Motion, effect of, aging, 82, 84 - shipping, 83 - Mouldy casks, 65 - flavor, 147 - Mucilage, 186, 191 - Muscat, sweet, 107 - Must, composition of, 6 - grape sugar, glucose, 6 - scale, saccharometer, 7, 8 - testing for sugar, 8 - proper amount of sugar, 11, 12 - sugaring, 13 - nothing gained by, 15 - artificial, 14 - cost of, 16 - glucose, experiment with, 17 - condemned, 17 - watering, 18 - when allowable, 16 - aerating, 23, 43 - rule for reducing, 206 - why sulphured, 69 - unfermented, sulphuring, 72 - clarifying, care of, 72 - prepared in two ways, 72 - proportion of to marc, 200 - shipping, 83 - of sweet wine, 57, 58, 105 - of dry white wine, density, 56 - of mellow wine, 57, 58 - of port, 108 - boiling, 101 - per ton of grapes, 201 - California, viii - Musty, see mouldy. - Mute wine, 72 - _Mycoderma aceti_, 30 - _Mycoderma vini_, 31 - see flowers. - - Natural defects, 126 - New red wine, treatment of, 47 - summary of rules, 50 - white wine, 58, 60 - wine differs from old, 76 - influence of heat, 78, 79 - shipping, 83 - see racking, fining. - Nutmeg, see bouquet, artificial. - - Oakwood, see casks, vats. - Oechsle’s must-scale, 7, 8, 9, 10 - Oenocyanine, 192 - Old red wine, treatment, 51 - characteristics, 52, 76, 77 - wine, influence of heat, 78, 79 - see racking, albuminous substances, fining. - _Oloroso_, see sherry. - - Passing wine over marc, 139 - Pedro Jimenes grape, 119 - Pectic acid, 193 - Pectin, 192 - Pectose, 192 - _Pèse-sirop_, _pèse mout_, 7 - Picking grapes, 1 - see gathering. - Piling bottles, 163 - Piquette, see lees, marc, piquette. - Pitchers, see utensils. - Plastering, 208 - common in Spain and South of France, 208 - objects, 209 - chemical effects, 209 - effects on health, 210 - report of committee at Montpellier, 210 - of _conseil des armées_, 211 - instructions of French Minister of justice, 211 - sherry and quantity added, 115, 212 - chemical reaction, 213 - by adding water, 213 - Pomace, per cent. in different grapes, 200, 201 - see lees, marc, piquette. - stirring in vat, 42 - Port wine, 108 - must, fermentation, maturity of grapes, 108 - filling lagar, stirring, drawing off, - sorting grapes, 108 - treading, 109 - Vizitelli’s description, 109 - adding alcohol, 111, 112 - storing, racking, 111 - storehouses, 112 - mixing, 112 - loses color in wood, 112 - alcoholic strength of, 112 - becomes weaker by evaporation, 112 - flavor, 213 - _Pousse_, 151 - Powdered stone, see fining. - Powders, clarifying, see fining. - Preserving by heat, 80 - Pressing and press wine, red, 47 - white wine, 56 - sweet wine, 107 - sediment, 180 - see different wines. - Pressings, mixing, different, 46, 47 - Presses, wine, 46 - for lees, 181 - Prices of grapes in California, v - Pricked wine, 140 - Proportion of juice to marc, 200 - wine to grapes, 201 - Pumps, 97, 98 - hand, see utensils. - Putrefaction, putrid fermentation, - decomposition, 29, 87, 136, 152, 167 - - _Queues_, see white wine. - - Racking, objects of, 91 - first time, 91, 92 - leaving wine on finings, 91 - rules for, 91, 92 - new red wines, 50, 92 - before shipping, 50 - old red wine, 51, 53, 93 - new white wine, 93 - subsequent rackings, 60, 93 - care to be observed, other precautions, 94 - lees must not be disturbed, 94 - different methods, 95 - by bucket and funnel, 95 - implements for tipping cask, 95 - without contact with air, 97 - pumps and siphons, 97 - see different wines. - Racks for bottles, 164 - _Rancio_ flavor caused by heat, 80 - in bottles, 167 - Red wine, 39 - coloring matter, 39 - fermenting tanks, or vats, filling same, 39 - open vats, closed vats, 40 - best practice, 41 - hermetically sealed vats, 42 - practice in the Médoc, 42 - stirring pomace in vat, 42 - souring of the crust, 43 - when to draw from vats, 43 - duration of fermentation, 44 - objections to long vatting, fine wines, 44 - how to know when to draw from vats, 45 - method of drawing from vats, filling casks, 45 - wine presses, 46 - pressing and press wine, 47 - practice for fine wines, 47 - treatment of new, 47 - insensible fermentation, 47 - storing new, 48 - tasting, filling up or ulling, 48 - summary of rules for treatment of, 50 - of old, 51 - characteristics of age, 51, 52 - grand and common characteristics, 52 - how soon bright, 52 - summary of rules for, 53 - hygienic effects of, 54 - how differs from white, 54 - should be sparingly sulphured, 71 - fining, see gelatine, 100 - see blood, milk, white of eggs, 101 - red wine extracted from lees, 180 - put in colored bottles, 157 - with earthy flavor, 128 - see racking, fining, etc. - Reducing must and wine, see rules. - Redwood, see casks, vats. - Rinsing chain for casks, 63 - Ripeness, signs of, 4 - see maturity. - Ropiness, viscous fermentation, 29, 148, 167 - Ropy wines should not be sulphured, 71 - Rotten casks, 66 - Roughness, 130 - improved by aging, 85 - Rules to ascertain weight of liquid, 206 - for reducing must, 206 - for sugaring must, 206 - for fortifying and reducing wine, 207 - to reduce with water, 207 - weaker wine, 208 - to fortify with stronger wine or alcohol, 208 - - Saccharometer, 7, 8 - _Saccharomyces cerevuisiæ_, 25 - conditions of life, 26 - action of chemical and physical agents, 28 - destroyed by heat and alcohol, 81 - Sacks for pressing lees, 181 - Salt in clarifying, see fining. - Salicylic acid, 75 - Sand, see fining. - Sassafras, see bouquet artificial. - Sealing wax for casks, 161 - to remove, 162 - Sea voyage, effect of, see aging. - Seeds should not be broken in crushing, 23 - tannin from, 103 - yield fatty matters, 192 - Settling and skimming must for white wine, 75 - Sherry, 115 - climate, vintage, crushing gypsum, 115 - pressing, 116 - stemming, fermenting, racking, 117 - fortifying, 117, 123 - casks in ullage and open, 117 - a nearly dry wine, 118 - _bodegas_ or storehouses, 118 - seasoned casks alone used, 118 - changes in the wine, 118 - _fino_, _oloroso_, _basto_, 118 - flowers, 118 - _vino dulce_, or sweet wine, - and preparation, 119 - _vino de color_, or color wine, - and preparation, _arrope_, 119 - mature wine, 120 - solera system, 120 - establishing a solera, 120 - standard soleras, 121 - drawing the wine, 122 - blending for shipment, 122 - formulas, fining, 123 - influence of air, 78 - flavor, 213 - Shipments of wine and brandy from California, vi - Shipping, rack before, 50, 106 - wine suitable for, 12, 82 - new wine or must, 83 - Shot, do not clean bottles with, 156 - Siphons, 97 - of glass, 178 - to clean, 95 - Skimming and settling must (white wine), 55 - Smoothness increased by pressure, 42 - Solera, see sherry. - Sorting grapes, 3, 108 - for grand white wines, 57 - Sour casks, 65 - Sourness, 132, 140 - Spirit, see alcohol, see tables in appendix. - Stems, effect on fermentation, 20 - how to remove, 22 - when to ferment with, 20, 21 - increase tannin, 20, 21 - when to remove, 20, 21 - effect of too long contact, 21 - flavor, 21, 44, 131 - per cent. in different grapes, 201 - Stemmers, 21 - Stemming, diversity of opinion, 20 - effect of, 20 - proper practice, 20 - see sherry, 117 - and crushing, 20 - rapidity of operation, 24 - special practice, 24 - Stills, assay, 187, 190 - Stirring implements, fining, 103 - pomace, see aerating, treading, vats, port. - Stockgilly, see bouquet, artificial. - Stone, powdered, see fining. - Storing casks, 61 - wine, see different wines, cellars. - casks for, 67 - Straw wines, 108 - Strawberry, see bouquet artificial. - Substances in wine, see composition. - Succinic acid, 34, 194 - Sugar, grape, 6 - testing for in must, 8 - in wine, 190 - correction for temperature, 10 - and alcohol, 11, 34 - in must of dry wines, 11, 12, 56 - sweet wines, 57, 105 - weight of for a pound of alcohol, 16 - for a gallon of wine, 16 - crystalized, purity of, 16 - and glucose generally, 32 - limits of in fermentation, 36 - necessary to growth of yeast, 27 - not all converted by first fermentation, 45 - to increase in grapes, 105 - in must, to reduce, rules, 206 - see must, tables in appendix. - Sugaring and watering must, 13 - carried too far, 13 - effect on burgundy, 14 - artificial must, 14 - nothing gained by sugaring, 15 - cost of glucose wine, 16 - experiment with glucose, 17 - glucose condemned, 17 - rule for sugaring, 206 - watering, 18 - rule for, 207 - Sulphur matches or bands, how made, 70 - flavor, how caused, 73 - how removed, 74 - Sulphurer or sulphur burner, 69 - Sulphuring casks, 62, 69, 70 - caution, 71 - partly empty, 73 - wine, 69, 71 - when to avoid, 71 - from lees, 177 - must, 69, 72 - white wine to arrest fermentation, 69, 72 - Sulphurous acid, 69 - arrests fermentation in two ways, 69 - aqueous solution of, 74 - see acetic fermentation, 31 - Sunlight, influence on wine, 82 - aging by, 82 - Sweet, fortified, liqueur wines, 105 - defined, 105 - sweetness of must for, 57, 105 - natural alcohol in, 105 - increasing sugar in grapes, 105 - without fermentation, 105 - care required, 105 - alcohol necessary to keep, 105 - fining, rack before shipping, 106 - boiling must, 106 - to be kept on lees, 106 - sweet muscat, 107 - pressing, 107 - marc, use of, 107 - alcohol, amount to add, 107 - density of, 107 - Furmint wine, 107 - straw wines, 108 - should not be sulphured, 71 - influence of heat, aging, 79, 80 - of sunlight, 82 - casks for, 55 - see air, influence of, heat, influence of, - red wine, white wine, port, - Madeira, sherry. - - Table wines, see treatment. - of substances in wine, 186 - of sugar, density, alcohol, hydrometers, - see appendix. - Tail wines, see white wines. - Tanks, see fermenting tanks. - Tannin increased by stems, 20, 21 - how to know if sufficient, 21 - excess of, how avoided 130 - how removed, 100, 131 - when added in fining, 102 - tannic acid, 102, 193 - use and proportions, 102 - from the vine preferred, 103 - how prepared from seeds, 103 - from stems, 103 - tannified wine, 103 - soaking seeds in wine, 103 - _Taré, vin_, 151 - Tartaric acid, 193 - see wine, California, European, acid in. - Tasters, see utensils. - Tawny color by age, 77 - see old wine. - flavor by heat, 80 - in bottles, 167 - Temperature, correction for in sugar testing, 10 - effect on yeast, 27, 81 - in fermentation, 37 - variation of, aging, 78 - see heat, cellars, hydrometers. - Testing for sugar in must, 8 - in wine, 190 - _Têtes_, see white wines. - Tin, affected by wine, 203 - Tipping casks, implements for, 95 - Tithe wines, see cutting. - _Tourné, vin_, 151 - _Travail, goût de_, 151 - Treading in vat, 42, 109 - crushing, 22, 109, 113, 116 - aerating must, 23, 43 - Treatment, general, of table wines, 86 - sweet wines, 105 - deposits, lees, 86 - degeneration, 86 - of Madeira, 113 - of wine in bottles, 165 - see different wines, cellars, racking, - fining, aging, etc. - Tubes to clean, 95 - Tuns, see casks, cellars. - Turbidity in bottles, 166 - see lees, deposits, etc. - - Ulling the casks, 48 - utensils for, 49 - Unfermented must, 72 - clarifying, care of, 73 - Unfortified wines, see treatment. - Utensils, wooden or metal, 202 - effect of wine on metals, 202 - cleanliness necessary, 203 - different cellar, 204, 205 - pitchers of tin and wood, 204 - wooden vessels, 204 - wooden funnels, 204 - adjustable hoop, 204 - bottle baskets, 205 - graduated measures, 205 - tin tasters, 205 - hand pump, 205 - for removing corks, 205 - for stirring, fining, 103 - for ulling, 49 - bung screw, 158 - bottle washer, 156 - bottle drainers, 156 - reservoir for filling bottles, 157 - corking machines, needles, 159, 160 - to remove wax, 162 - capsuler, 162 - bottle racks and bins, 164 - decanting basket, 169 - instrument, 169 - corkscrews, 169 - presses, wine, 46 - lees, 181 - sacks for pressing lees, 181 - for tipping a cask, 95 - rinsing chain, 63 - visitor to examine casks, 63 - crushers, 23 - for racking, 95, 96, 97 - for picking grapes, 1 - - Variations of temperature, aging, 78 - Valeric acid, 194 - Vats, see fermenting vats. - Vatting, long, effects of, 44 - Ventilation, see cellars, 88 - Vessels, see utensils. - Vine flowers, see bouquet, artificial. - _Vin de liqueur_, see sweet wines. - _monté_, _taré_, _tourné_, 151 - _dulce_, see sherry. - Vinegar, mother of, 30 - see acetic acid, acetic fermentation. - Vineyards, acreage of in California, vi - Vinification, essentials the same everywhere, vii - Vinous fermentation, see alcoholic fermentation. - Viscous fermentation, 29 - Visitor to examine casks, 63 - Voyage, effect on wine, see aging. - - Water, necessary to growth of yeast, 27 - Watering must, 18 - when allowable, 19 - rule for, 206 - wine, rule for, 207 - Wax for sealing corks, 161 - how removed, 162 - Weakness in alcohol, 133 - Weight of a liquid, to ascertain, 206 - Whip for stirring, 103 - White of eggs, see fining. - White wine, 54 - from red and white grapes, 54 - how differs from red, 54 - hygienic effects, 54 - process of making, 55 - settling and skimming, 55 - to keep sweet, 55 - to make dry, 55 - barrels for, 55 - filling barrels during fermentation, 55 - pressing and filling casks, 56 - different kinds of, 56 - dry white wines, 56 - mellow white wines, 56 - sweet white wines, see sweet wines. 57 - grand white wines, 57 - ripening the grapes, _pourris_, 57 - _têtes_, _centres_, _queues_, - head, middle, tail, 57 - treatment of, 58 - density of must to keep sweet, 58 - dry wines, 59 - mellow wines, 59 - summary of rules, racking, 60 - sulphured to keep from turning yellow, 69, 71 - bleached with sulphur, 71 - with blood, milk, 101 - fermentation arrested by sulphuring, 72 - fining, see gelatine, 100 - isinglass, 100 - white of eggs, blood, milk, 101 - extracted from lees, 180 - with earthy flavor, 128 - matures earlier than red, 155 - mixing with red, 175 - in transparent bottles, 157 - Wild taste, 128 - Wine, California, shipments, vi - product, vi - alcohol and acid in, ix, x, 220 - European, alcohol and acid in, xii - Wine making, essentials everywhere the same, vii - plastering, 208 - grand and common, characteristics, 52, 84 - red, maturity of, 52 - new, treatment of, 47 - old, treatment of, 51, 53 - see red wine. - why sulphured, 69 - how sulphured, 71 - when to be sulphured, 71 - effect of heat, 78, 79, 80 - varies in different casks, 67 - dry strength of, 11 - constantly undergoing changes, 76 - influence of heat, 78 - preserving by heat, 80 - weak, see influence of air. - heat, sunlight, see aging. - suitable for shipment, 82 - shipping new, 83 - kinds preferred by _gourmets_, 84 - which gain most by aging processes, 85 - diseased, see defects and diseases. - what liable to sour, 140 - duration of, 152 - lees, see lees. - from lees, see lees. - composition of, 185 - proportion of to grapes, 201 - rules for reducing and fortifying, 207 - mixing, see cutting. - bad, often due to want of cleanliness, 203 - should not be left on the lees - and finings, 178, 180 - unless sweet, 106 - presses, 46 - tannified, 103 - see aging, white wine, red wine, sweet, - fortified, new wine, old wine, grand wine, - general treatment, frozen wine, - the different kinds. - Wine in bottles, bottling, 154 - when ready for bottling, 154 - how long to remain in wood, 154 - how prepared for bottling, 155 - most favorable time for, 155 - bottles, washing, bottle washer, etc., 156 - shot must not be used, 156 - draining, drainers, 156 - rinsing with wine, 156 - sorting, 157 - different kinds, 157 - materials in glass, 157 - filling, adjusting casks, etc., 157 - reservoirs for, 157 - corks, 158 - corking machines, needles, 159, 160 - preparing the corks, 160 - how far inserted, 160 - sealing corks, 161 - sealing wax for, how made, how applied, 161 - coloring the wax, 161 - capsules and capsuling, 162 - pincers for removing wax, 162 - capsuler, 162 - piling bottles, 162 - bottle racks and bins, 164 - treatment of wine in bottles, 165 - fermentation in the bottles, 165 - deposits, turbidity, 166 - bitterness, acrity, ropiness, 167 - degeneration and putridity, 167 - decantation, 168 - corkscrews, baskets, 169 - operation of decanting, 169 - decanting instrument, 169 - Wood, wine, how long to remain in, 154 - Wooden utensils preferable, 202 - - Yeast plant, 25 - functions of, 26 - surface and sedimentary, 26 - conditions of life, physical and chemical, 26 - temperature, 27 - action of chemical and physical agents, 28 - water, sugar, oxygen, etc., necessary, 27 - origin of ferments, 31 - Yeasty flavor, see lees, flavor of. - Yellows, see white wine, sulphuring. - Yield of juice by different grapes, 200 - wine per ton of grapes, 201 - - Zinc affected by wine, 202, 203 - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE WINE PRESS AND THE CELLAR *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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Rixford—A Project Gutenberg eBook - </title> - <link rel="coverpage" href="images/cover.jpg" /> - <style type="text/css"> - -body { margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; } - -h1,h2,h3 { text-align: center; clear: both; } -.h_subtitle{font-weight: normal; font-size: smaller;} - -p { margin-top: .51em; text-align: justify; text-indent: 1.5em; margin-bottom: .49em; } -p.no-indent { margin-top: .51em; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0em; margin-bottom: .49em;} -p.indent { text-indent: 1.5em;} -p.neg-indent { text-indent: -1.5em; margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 5%; padding-left: 1.5em;} -p.f120 { font-size: 120%; text-align: center; text-indent: 0em; } -p.f150 { font-size: 150%; text-align: center; text-indent: 0em; } - -.no-wrap {white-space: nowrap; } - -.fontsize_120 { font-size: 120%; } - -.space-above1 { margin-top: 1em; } -.space-above2 { margin-top: 2em; } -.space-above3 { margin-top: 3em; } -.space-below1 { margin-bottom: 1em; } -.space-below2 { margin-bottom: 2em; } - -hr.chap {width: 65%; margin-left: 17.5%; margin-right: 17.5%; margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em;} - @media print { hr.chap {display: none; visibility: hidden;} } -hr.r5 {width: 5%; margin-top: 0.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; - margin-left: 47.5%; margin-right: 47.5%;} - -div.chapter {page-break-before: always;} -h2.nobreak {page-break-before: avoid;} - -ul.index { list-style-type: none; } -li.ifrst { margin-top: 1em; } -li.isub1 {text-indent: 1em;} -li.isub3 {text-indent: 3em;} -li.isub4 {text-indent: 4em;} -li.isub6 {text-indent: 6em;} -li.isub12 {text-indent: 12em;} - -table { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; } - -.tdl {text-align: left;} -.tdr {text-align: right;} -.tdc {text-align: center;} -.tdl_ws1 {text-align: left; vertical-align: top; padding-left: 1em;} -.tdl_ws5 {text-align: left; vertical-align: top; padding-left: 0.5em;} -.tdl_ws1_c {text-align: left; vertical-align: middle; padding-left: 1em;} -.tdc_space-above2 {text-align: center; padding-top: 2em;} - -.pagenum { - position: absolute; - left: 92%; - font-size: smaller; - text-align: right; - font-style: normal; - font-weight: normal; - font-variant: normal; -} - -.blockquot { margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; } - -.bb {border-bottom: thin solid;} -.bt {border-top: thin solid;} -.br {border-right: thin solid;} -.bb2 {border-bottom: 2px solid;} -.bt2 {border-top: 2px solid;} -.br3 {border-right: 3px solid;} -.bbox {border: 2px solid;} - -.center {text-align: center;} -.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} -.allsmcap {font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase;} - -img { max-width: 100%; height: auto; } - -.figcenter { margin: auto; text-align: center; - page-break-inside: avoid; max-width: 100%; } - -.figleft { float: left; clear: left; margin-left: 0; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 1em; - margin-right: 1em; padding: 0; text-align: center; page-break-inside: avoid; - max-width: 100%; } - -.x-ebookmaker .figleft {float: left;} - -div.figcontainer { clear: both; margin: 0em auto; text-align: center; max-width: 100%;} -div.figsub { display: inline-block; margin: 1em 1em; vertical-align: top; max-width: 100%; text-align: center; } - -.footnotes {border: 1px dashed;} -.footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} -.footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} -.fnanchor { - vertical-align: super; - font-size: .8em; - text-decoration: - none; -} - -.transnote {background-color: #E6E6FA; - color: black; - font-size:smaller; - padding:0.5em; - margin-bottom:5em; - font-family:sans-serif, serif; } - -.ws2 {display: inline; margin-left: 0em; padding-left: 2em;} -.ws3 {display: inline; margin-left: 0em; padding-left: 3em;} -.ws6 {display: inline; margin-left: 0em; padding-left: 6em;} -.ws8 {display: inline; margin-left: 0em; padding-left: 8em;} - - </style> - </head> -<body> - -<div style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Wine Press and the Cellar, by Emmet Hawkins Rixford</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: The Wine Press and the Cellar</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:0;'>A Manual for the Wine-Maker and the Cellar-Man</p> - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Emmet Hawkins Rixford</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: October 12, 2021 [eBook #66524]</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Character set encoding: UTF-8</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Produced by: Tim Lindell and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)</div> - -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE WINE PRESS AND THE CELLAR ***</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<h1>THE<br />WINE PRESS<br />AND<br />THE CELLAR.</h1> -<hr class="r5 x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<p class="f120 space-above2 space-below2">A MANUAL FOR<br />THE WINE-MAKER AND<br />THE CELLAR-MAN.</p> -<hr class="r5 x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<p class="f120">By E. H. RIXFORD.</p> -<hr class="r5 x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<p class="center space-above2"><span class="smcap">San Francisco</span>: -<span class="ws6"> </span><span class="smcap">New York</span>:</p> -<p class="center">PAYOT, UPHAM & CO.<span class="ws2"> </span>D. VAN NOSTRAND.</p> -<hr class="r5 x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<p class="center">1883.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<p class="center">Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1883,<br /> -by E. H. RIXFORD,<br />In the Office of the Librarian of Congress,<br /> -at Washington.</p> - -<p class="center space-above2"><span class="smcap">C. W. Gordon</span>,<br /> -Steam Book and Job Printer,<br />San Francisco, Cal.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_iv.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="437" /> -</div> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak">PREFACE.</h2> -</div> - -<p>In 1876 the Mission grape sold in California for from $7.50 to $10 -per ton, and foreign varieties for from $14 to $18 per ton, and -consequently many vineyardists in districts remote from the market -turned their hogs into the vineyard to gather the fruit. At this -time farmers concluded that it would not pay to grow grapes, and the -vines were rooted out of many vineyards, and the land devoted to the -production of more profitable crops. In 1878, however, the prices -were better, and the Mission grape brought from $12 to $14 per ton, -and the foreign varieties from $22 to $26, and under a growing demand -for California wines, the wine makers in the counties of Sonoma and -Napa have paid during the past three seasons of 1880, 1881, and 1882, -prices ranging from $16 to $22 per ton for Mission, and from $22 to -$35 for other foreign varieties, and in some cases even as high as -$40 per ton for wine grapes of the best varieties; the extremes in -prices depending upon the activity of the competition in the different -localities. Although in California we are accustomed to speak of the -“Mission grape” and the “foreign varieties” in contradistinction, it -may not be amiss to state for the benefit of other than California -readers, that the “Mission” is undoubtedly a grape of European origin, -and was cultivated by the Spanish priests at the missions existing in -the country at the advent of the Americans, and hence the name. And -notwithstanding the existence of our grape, <i>Vitis Californica</i>, -the names “native” and “California grape” have been applied to the -Mission, but the word “foreign” is never used in describing it.</p> - -<p>The increase in the price of grapes has followed closely upon the -increase in the demand for our wines, and the production has kept pace -with the demand. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_vi">[Pg vi]</span></p> - -<p>The annual shipments of wine and brandy from California, commencing -with 1875, according to the reports published from time to time, are as -follows, in gallons:</p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Annual Shipments" cellpadding="0" > - <thead><tr> - <th class="tdc">  Year.  </th> - <th class="tdc">  Wine.  </th> - <th class="tdc">  Brandy.</th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdc">1875</td> - <td class="tdc">1,031,507</td> - <td class="tdc"> 42,318</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">1876</td> - <td class="tdc">1,115,045</td> - <td class="tdc"> 59,993</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">1877</td> - <td class="tdc">1,462,792</td> - <td class="tdc">138,992</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">1878</td> - <td class="tdc">1,812,159</td> - <td class="tdc">129,119</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">1879</td> - <td class="tdc">2,155,944</td> - <td class="tdc">163,892</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">1880</td> - <td class="tdc">2,487,353</td> - <td class="tdc">189,098</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">1881</td> - <td class="tdc">2,845,365</td> - <td class="tdc">209,677</td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p>The figures for 1882, as published, are larger than those for 1881, but -the figures furnished by Mr. Stone, the statistician of the Merchants -Exchange, give wine 2,721,428, brandy, 218,792; from which I am led to -believe that those for 1881 are too large.</p> - -<p>The total production of wine for 1878 has been stated to be from -6,000,000 to 7,000,000 gallons, for 1879, 7,790,000, for 1880, -10,000,000 to 12,000,000 gallons. Notwithstanding the increased acreage -of our vineyards, the product in 1881 fell off one or two million -gallons, and in the second annual report of the State Viticultural -Commission, just published, the loss is estimated at one-third of the -crop, making the product 9,000,000 gallons, or a little less. That of -1882 is about 10,000,000 gallons.</p> - -<p>In 1880 we had about 60,000 acres of vineyards in the State, and -according to Mr. Haraszthy’s report as President of the Viticultural -Commission, contained in the report of the commission last mentioned, -the increase during the first two years after the first organization -of the commission in 1880, amounts to 40,000 acres. Since the date -of his report, April 19, 1882, the acreage must have been largely -increased, and making a liberal allowance for errors, we must have at -least 100,000 acres in vineyards in the State at the present time, -which ought to produce, at a small estimate, 20,000,000 gallons of wine -in five years from now, and in five years more, with the increased -product from the greater age of the vines, and from those planted in -the meantime, the yield ought to be doubled. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</span></p> - -<p>Among those who are now planting vineyards are many who have had -no experience in wine making; and in order that such may have the -advantage of the experience of those of other countries who have spent -their whole lives in perfecting the art, and have had the benefit of -the knowledge derived from generations before them, the author has -prepared the following work, in which he has attempted to lay before -the reader an account of the methods followed in those portions of -Europe, especially France, where the finest wines of the world are -produced.</p> - -<p>What is here given is the result of research on the part of the author -chiefly for his own benefit; and in going over the literature of -the subject of wine making, he failed to find a work in the English -language which is adequate to the needs of the practical wine maker, or -one who intends to become such. There are many good books in the French -language, and, in fact, the principal works on the subject are to be -found in that language. But the authors of many of them have hobbies, -and the practice indicated in a certain connection by one often differs -from that pointed out by another. It, therefore, became necessary to -compare the writings of various authors, and where they differed in -points of practice, to try and find out the reason therefor. This was -not always an easy task; but the author confidently hopes that the -beginner will always find a safe course pointed out to him in the -following pages, and that the experienced viniculturist will have -brought to his mind many things forgotten in the multitude of affairs, -and the experimentalist, to whom we all are looking for further light, -will here find many hints which may assist him in finding out what are -the best methods under the conditions in which we find ourselves in the -infancy of this absorbing industry.</p> - -<p>What forcibly strikes one in reading the works of different authors on -the subject of vinification is, that, notwithstanding the variations -in the methods, there are but few <i>material</i> differences in the -practices in different localities in making a given kind of wine. It is -true that one method makes a red wine, a different one makes a white -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</span> -wine, that grapes of one degree of ripeness and the corresponding -practice in vinification produces a sweet wine, and another a dry -wine, but the author is convinced that the method and practice which -will produce the best result in a given case in one locality will also -produce the best result in any other.</p> - -<p>If it is found that in the northern and central portions of France it -is insisted that the casks be always kept full, and that in Spain they -are left with a vacant space, it will also be found that this practice -depends upon the alcoholic strength and robustness of the wine. When -the grapes of the more northern regions are artificially matured till -their saccharine strength approaches that of grapes of more southern -climes, then the wine made from their must may safely be treated -according to methods prevailing in the latter regions. If, on the -other hand, the grapes of hot countries are gathered as soon as their -must indicates a density of 20 to 24 per cent., the wine made from -them would be absolutely ruined, if treated as the wine from overripe -grapes, and it must be cared for as the weaker wines of the northern -climes.</p> - -<p>The essentials, then, of good wine making, which include the treatment -in the cellar, are everywhere the same, and they only vary with the -varieties of wine that are to be produced.</p> - -<p>The general climate of California corresponds in many respects with -that of the more southern wine-producing regions of Europe; and the -percentage of sugar carried in the grapes grown in the southern and -interior portions of our State is about the same as that of the musts -of those regions. The musts produced in the central coast counties and -the bay counties of the State, in average seasons, equal, if they do -not exceed, in density the musts of the central and northern portions -of France in their very best seasons.</p> - -<p>The following tables will afford the figures necessary for a comparison -between our wines and those of other countries, as to alcoholic -strength and acidity. The first table is useful as illustrating an -advance in wine making in this State. The earlier wine makers, guided -by the experience derived from residence in the northern viticultural -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</span> -regions of Europe, or by the information from writers of those -countries, allowed their grapes to arrive at an advanced state of -maturity without considering the different conditions of climate. -Musts, therefore, that were fit only for sweet wines, were treated -according to dry wine methods, and no wonder they were found heady, -used as table wines, with so high a percentage of alcohol.</p> - -<p>The second table shows that we have learned to produce lighter wines, -which means, not only that we are growing grapes that carry less sugar -than the Mission, but chiefly that we do not allow the berries to -become overripe, dried up, under the ardent rays of our constant sun.</p> - -<p class="space-below2">The first figures are from a paper read by -the late Major Snyder before the Napa Wine Growers’ Association, and -published in the <i>Rural Press</i>, August 3, 1871, Vol. IV, p. 66.</p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary=" " cellpadding="2" > - <thead><tr> - <th class="tdc">Color.</th> - <th class="tdl_ws1">Name of Maker.</th> - <th class="tdc">Year.</th> - <th class="tdr" colspan="2"><span class="ws2">Vol. per cent. of Alcohol.</span></th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl">White</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">Craig</td> - <td class="tdc">1867</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">Foreign grapes</td> - <td class="tdr">14.4</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> “</td> - <td class="tdc">1870</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">Mission</td> - <td class="tdr">13.4</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">Dresel & Gundlach</td> - <td class="tdc">1861</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> </td> - <td class="tdr">14.4</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"><span class="ws3">“</span></td> - <td class="tdc">1870</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> </td> - <td class="tdr">13.3</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"><span class="ws3">“</span></td> - <td class="tdc">1862</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> </td> - <td class="tdr">12.5</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"><span class="ws3">“</span></td> - <td class="tdc">1867</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> </td> - <td class="tdr">13.6</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">J. R. Snyder</td> - <td class="tdc">1865</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">Mission</td> - <td class="tdr">12.5</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"><span class="ws3">“</span></td> - <td class="tdc">1860</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> </td> - <td class="tdr">12.6</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"><span class="ws3">“</span></td> - <td class="tdc">1867</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> </td> - <td class="tdr">13.3</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"><span class="ws3">“</span></td> - <td class="tdc">1868</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> </td> - <td class="tdr">12.8</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">A. F. Haraszthy</td> - <td class="tdc">1871</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">Foreign</td> - <td class="tdr">11.5</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"><span class="ws3">“</span></td> - <td class="tdc">1870</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> “</td> - <td class="tdr">12.6</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Red</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">Buena Vista Ass’n</td> - <td class="tdc">1866</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> </td> - <td class="tdr">16.5</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">White</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"><span class="ws2">“</span><span class="ws3">“</span></td> - <td class="tdc">1871</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> </td> - <td class="tdr">11.5</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Red</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"><span class="ws2">“</span><span class="ws3">“</span></td> - <td class="tdc">1871</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> </td> - <td class="tdr">12.6</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">White</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">H. Winkle</td> - <td class="tdc">1869</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">Mission</td> - <td class="tdr">13.2</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdc">1871</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">  “</td> - <td class="tdr">12.5</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdc">1871</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">Zinfandel</td> - <td class="tdr">12.8</td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p class="space-above2 space-below2">The following figures are from the Report -of the Commissioner of Agriculture of the United States, for 1880, report -of the Chemist. It will be observed that where the name is followed by -a †, it is that of the Eastern dealer, and not that of the maker. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_x">[Pg x]</span></p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary=" " cellpadding="2" > - <thead><tr> - <th class="tdc" colspan="5">DRY RED WINES.</th> - </tr><tr> - <th class="tdc">Name.</th> - <th class="tdc">Per cent.<br /> by vol. of <br />alcohol.</th> - <th class="tdc">Glucose.</th> - <th class="tdc">Total<br />acid as<br /> tartaric. </th> - <th class="tdc">Maker.</th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl">Sonoma Mission, ’79</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">10.03</td> - <td class="tdc">None</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">.722</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">Gretsch & Mayer.†</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span>  Zinfandel, ’79</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 9.78</td> - <td class="tdc">Trace</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">.693</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"><span class="ws2">“</span><span class="ws3">“</span></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Mission</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 9.29</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">.917</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">B. Dreyfus & Co.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Zinfandel</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">11.35</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">.768</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"><span class="ws2">“</span><span class="ws3">“</span></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Zinfandel, ’78</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">10.30</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">.825</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">Dresel & Co.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Zinfandel, ’79</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">11.08</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">.798</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> “<span class="ws3">“</span></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Zinfandel</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">12.31</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">.814</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">Geo. Hamlin & Co.†</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">California Claret</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">10.56</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">.903</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Zinfandel</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">13.24</td> - <td class="tdc">0.18</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">.726</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc_space-above2" colspan="5"><b>DRY WHITE WINES.</b></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">White Hock</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">17.37</td> - <td class="tdc">0.09</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">.855</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">White Hock</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">12.87</td> - <td class="tdc">0.09</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">.767</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Muscatel</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">13.34</td> - <td class="tdc">0.12</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">.767</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Sonoma Hock</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">12.05</td> - <td class="tdc">0.13</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">.422</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">Perkins, Stern & Co.†</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Riesling</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">11.26</td> - <td class="tdc">Trace</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">.846</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">Dresel & Co.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Hock</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">11.35</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">.785</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> “<span class="ws3">“</span></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Dry Muscat</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">11.44</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">.619</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">Dreyfus & Co.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Zinfandel</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">11.26</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">.590</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> “<span class="ws3">“</span></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Riesling</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">12.05</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">.696</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> “<span class="ws3">“</span></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Gutedel</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">11.70</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">.756</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> “<span class="ws3">“</span></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Hock</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 9.70</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">.723</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> “<span class="ws3">“</span></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Sonoma Mission, ’78</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">10.56</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">.619</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">Gretsch & Mayer.†</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span>  Riesling, ’77(?)</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">13.15</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">.695</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"><span class="ws2">“</span><span class="ws3">“</span></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span><span class="ws3">“</span><span class="ws2">’79</span></td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">13.15</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">.575</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"><span class="ws2">“</span><span class="ws3">“</span></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span>  Mission, ’79</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">10.38</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">.619</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"><span class="ws2">“</span><span class="ws3">“</span></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span>  Gutedel, ’79</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">11.87</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">.589</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"><span class="ws2">“</span><span class="ws3">“</span></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Dry Muscat ’74(?)</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">12.40</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">.816</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"><span class="ws2">“</span><span class="ws3">“</span></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Zinfandel, ’78</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">11.96</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">.761</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"><span class="ws2">“</span><span class="ws3">“</span></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span><span class="ws2">’79</span></td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">11.00</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">.740</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"><span class="ws2">“</span><span class="ws3">“</span></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc_space-above2" colspan="5"><b>SWEET WINES.</b></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="5"><b>PORT.</b></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">California Port</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">21.89</td> - <td class="tdc">8.60</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">.790</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xi">[Pg xi]</span></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span><span class="ws2"> “</span></td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">20.89</td> - <td class="tdc">5.78</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">.510</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">Kohler & Frohling.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span><span class="ws2"> “</span></td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">18.88</td> - <td class="tdc">4.49</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">.755</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">Dreyfus & Co.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span><span class="ws2"> “</span></td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">19.87</td> - <td class="tdc">5.88</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">.370</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> “<span class="ws3">“</span></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span><span class="ws2"> “</span></td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">15.49</td> - <td class="tdc">8.60</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">.486</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">Perkins, Stern & Co.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">“Sunny Slope“</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">15.12</td> - <td class="tdc">11.57</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">.433</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> “<span class="ws3">“</span></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Los Angeles</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">16.52</td> - <td class="tdc">11.39</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">.508</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">Gretsch & Mayer.†</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="5"><br /><b>SHERRY.</b></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">California Sherry.</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">17.96</td> - <td class="tdc">  .61</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">.532</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span><span class="ws3">“</span></td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">16.15</td> - <td class="tdc"> 2.45</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">.721</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">Dreyfus & Co.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span><span class="ws3">“</span></td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">16.80</td> - <td class="tdc"> 2.20</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">.573</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> “<span class="ws3">“</span></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="5"><br /><b>CHAMPAGNES.</b></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">“Grand Prize“ med. dry</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">12.49</td> - <td class="tdc"> 8.21</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">.821</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">Arpad Haraszthy.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">“Eclipse,“ extra dry</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">11.87</td> - <td class="tdc"> 6.51</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">.885</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> “<span class="ws3">“</span></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="5"><br /><b>MISCELLANEOUS.</b></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Gerke’s White</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">14.74</td> - <td class="tdc"> 2.21</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">.673</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">Henry Gerke.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Sweet Muscatel</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">18.58</td> - <td class="tdc">25.37</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">.753</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">Perkins, Stern & Co.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">  “<span class="ws3">“</span></td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">22.36</td> - <td class="tdc">11.59</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">.366</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">Dreyfus & Co.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">  “<span class="ws3">“</span></td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">22.46</td> - <td class="tdc">16.94</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">.331</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> “<span class="ws3">“</span></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Los Angeles Muscatel</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">17.08</td> - <td class="tdc">13.44</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">.533</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">Gretsch & Mayer.†</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Angelica</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">11.79</td> - <td class="tdc">12.48</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">.489</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">13.90</td> - <td class="tdc">13.25</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">.347</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">Perkins, Stern & Co.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">18.14</td> - <td class="tdc">14.81</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">.430</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">Dreyfus & Co.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">18.78</td> - <td class="tdc">16.20</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">.466</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">Gretsch & Mayer.†</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">California Malaga</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">17.70</td> - <td class="tdc"> 8.59</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">.659</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">Henry Gerke.</td> - </tr> -</tbody> -</table> - -<p class="space-above2">What is particularly striking in the figures -last quoted, is the remarkably high percentage of acid, which far -exceeds what we had hitherto supposed the acidity of our wines to be. -Yet as a large proportion of the total acids was volatile, it may -be that the wines had contracted acidity from improper methods of keeping.</p> - -<p>From Prof. Hilgard’s report of the work done in the viticultural -laboratory of the College of Agriculture of the University of -California, during the years 1881 and 1882, we extract Table V given -in the appendix. The figures for the averages are our own. This report -contains much valuable and interesting information regarding the work -done in the laboratory, and gives many details of the analyses of these -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xii">[Pg xii]</span> -wines, which the limits of this volume will not permit us to give -in full. And those who wish to see the results of the most complete -analysis of California wines ever before made, are referred to the -report itself.</p> - -<p>It will be noticed that the average total acidity of the different -wines mentioned in the table is much lower than that found by the -chemist of the Department of Agriculture. The wines in this table were -furnished by the producer in nearly every case, a few of them having -been produced at the University, and were undoubtedly pure, and in -a fair condition, as samples of badly kept wine would not likely be -furnished by the maker for the purpose of analysis; and the condition -of those analyzed by the chemist at Washington is, at least, doubtful.</p> - -<p>From analyses by R. Fresenius and E. Borgman, tabulated in the -<i>Journal of the Chemical Society</i>, London, for April, 1883, from -<i>Zeits. Anal. Chem.</i>, XXII, 46-58, we extract the following -figures, the alcoholic strength being reduced to volume per cent. as -nearly as could be done from the per cent. by weight in volume without -the specific gravity:</p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary=" " cellpadding="2" > - <thead><tr> - <th class="tdc"> </th> - <th class="tdc"> </th> - <th class="tdc"> </th> - <th class="tdc">Red<br /> Main. </th> - <th class="tdc"> White <br />Main.</th> - <th class="tdc"> Hocks. </th> - <th class="tdc"> White <br />French.</th> - <th class="tdc">Red<br /> French. </th> - <th class="tdc"> Moselle.</th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl" rowspan="3">Alcohol</td> - <td class="tdc" rowspan="3"><img src="images/cbl-3.jpg" alt="" width="16" height="57" /></td> - <td class="tdl">Max.</td> - <td class="tdr">11.76</td> - <td class="tdr">12.54</td> - <td class="tdr">12.77</td> - <td class="tdr">12.17</td> - <td class="tdr">11.52</td> - <td class="tdr">10.77</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Min.</td> - <td class="tdr">11.73</td> - <td class="tdr">11.00</td> - <td class="tdr">8.00</td> - <td class="tdr">11.18</td> - <td class="tdr">9.91</td> - <td class="tdr">8.77</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Aver.</td> - <td class="tdr">11.75</td> - <td class="tdr">11.76</td> - <td class="tdr">10.83</td> - <td class="tdr">11.67</td> - <td class="tdr">10.58</td> - <td class="tdr">10.02</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" rowspan="3">Acid</td> - <td class="tdc" rowspan="3"><img src="images/cbl-3.jpg" alt="" width="16" height="57" /></td> - <td class="tdl">Max.</td> - <td class="tdr">.62</td> - <td class="tdr">.80</td> - <td class="tdr">1.01</td> - <td class="tdr">.71</td> - <td class="tdr">.58</td> - <td class="tdr">.95</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Min.</td> - <td class="tdr">.54</td> - <td class="tdr">.54</td> - <td class="tdr">.48</td> - <td class="tdr">.54</td> - <td class="tdr">.48</td> - <td class="tdr">.64</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Aver.</td> - <td class="tdr">.58</td> - <td class="tdr">.69</td> - <td class="tdr">.66</td> - <td class="tdr">.62</td> - <td class="tdr">.54</td> - <td class="tdr">.79</td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p class="space-above2 space-below2">And from the analyses given in the -work of Thudichum and Dupré, we deduce the following:</p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary=" " cellpadding="2" > - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdc" colspan="8">THIRTY-FIVE GERMAN WINES.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" rowspan="3">Vol. per cent.<br /> Alcohol.</td> - <td class="tdc" rowspan="3"><img src="images/cbl-3.jpg" alt="" width="16" height="57" /></td> - <td class="tdl">Maximum</td> - <td class="tdr">14.45</td> - <td class="tdl" rowspan="3"> Acid as<br /> tartaric.</td> - <td class="tdc" rowspan="3"><img src="images/cbl-3.jpg" alt="" width="16" height="57" /></td> - <td class="tdl">Maximum</td> - <td class="tdl">.823</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Minimum</td> - <td class="tdr"> 9.15</td> - <td class="tdl">Minimum</td> - <td class="tdl">.416</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Average</td> - <td class="tdr">10.00</td> - <td class="tdl">Average</td> - <td class="tdl">.543</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc" colspan="8"><br />SIX FRENCH CLARETS.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" rowspan="3">Alcohol.</td> - <td class="tdc" rowspan="3"><img src="images/cbl-3.jpg" alt="" width="16" height="57" /></td> - <td class="tdl">Maximum</td> - <td class="tdr">12.38</td> - <td class="tdl" rowspan="3"> Acid</td> - <td class="tdc" rowspan="3"><img src="images/cbl-3.jpg" alt="" width="16" height="57" /></td> - <td class="tdl">Maximum</td> - <td class="tdl">.645</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Minimum</td> - <td class="tdr">10.42</td> - <td class="tdl">Minimum</td> - <td class="tdl">.548</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Average</td> - <td class="tdr">10.95</td> - <td class="tdl">Average</td> - <td class="tdl">.593<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xiii">[Pg xiii]</span></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc" colspan="8"><br />FOUR BURGUNDIES.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" rowspan="3">Alcohol.</td> - <td class="tdc" rowspan="3"><img src="images/cbl-3.jpg" alt="" width="16" height="57" /></td> - <td class="tdl">Maximum</td> - <td class="tdr">14.97</td> - <td class="tdl" rowspan="3"> Acid</td> - <td class="tdc" rowspan="3"><img src="images/cbl-3.jpg" alt="" width="16" height="57" /></td> - <td class="tdl">Maximum</td> - <td class="tdl">.668</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Minimum</td> - <td class="tdr">11.54</td> - <td class="tdl">Minimum</td> - <td class="tdl">.495</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Average</td> - <td class="tdr">12.78</td> - <td class="tdl">Average</td> - <td class="tdl">.562</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc" colspan="8"><br />ELEVEN SHERRIES.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" rowspan="3">Alcohol.</td> - <td class="tdc" rowspan="3"><img src="images/cbl-3.jpg" alt="" width="16" height="57" /></td> - <td class="tdl">Maximum</td> - <td class="tdr">22.75</td> - <td class="tdl" rowspan="3"> Acid</td> - <td class="tdc" rowspan="3"><img src="images/cbl-3.jpg" alt="" width="16" height="57" /></td> - <td class="tdl">Maximum</td> - <td class="tdl">.626</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Minimum</td> - <td class="tdr">17.03</td> - <td class="tdl">Minimum</td> - <td class="tdl">.372</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Average</td> - <td class="tdr">20.93</td> - <td class="tdl">Average</td> - <td class="tdl">.476</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc" colspan="8"><br />SIX SO-CALLED NATURAL SHERRIES.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" rowspan="3">Alcohol.</td> - <td class="tdc" rowspan="3"><img src="images/cbl-3.jpg" alt="" width="16" height="57" /></td> - <td class="tdl">Maximum</td> - <td class="tdr">18.87</td> - <td class="tdl" rowspan="3"> Acid</td> - <td class="tdc" rowspan="3"><img src="images/cbl-3.jpg" alt="" width="16" height="57" /></td> - <td class="tdl">Maximum</td> - <td class="tdl">.510</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Minimum</td> - <td class="tdr">16.60</td> - <td class="tdl">Minimum</td> - <td class="tdl">.397</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Average</td> - <td class="tdr">17.37</td> - <td class="tdl">Average</td> - <td class="tdl">.454</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc" colspan="8"><br />ELEVEN PORT WINES.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" rowspan="3">Alcohol.</td> - <td class="tdc" rowspan="3"><img src="images/cbl-3.jpg" alt="" width="16" height="57" /></td> - <td class="tdl">Maximum</td> - <td class="tdr">23.34</td> - <td class="tdl" rowspan="3"> Acid</td> - <td class="tdc" rowspan="3"><img src="images/cbl-3.jpg" alt="" width="16" height="57" /></td> - <td class="tdl">Maximum</td> - <td class="tdl">.510</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Minimum</td> - <td class="tdr">18.04</td> - <td class="tdl">Minimum</td> - <td class="tdl">.398</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Average</td> - <td class="tdr">21.50</td> - <td class="tdl">Average</td> - <td class="tdl">.424</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc" colspan="8"><br />TEN HUNGARIAN WINES.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" rowspan="3">Alcohol.</td> - <td class="tdc" rowspan="3"><img src="images/cbl-3.jpg" alt="" width="16" height="57" /></td> - <td class="tdl">Maximum</td> - <td class="tdr">14.55</td> - <td class="tdl" rowspan="3"> Acid</td> - <td class="tdc" rowspan="3"><img src="images/cbl-3.jpg" alt="" width="16" height="57" /></td> - <td class="tdl">Maximum</td> - <td class="tdl">.716</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Minimum</td> - <td class="tdr">11.55</td> - <td class="tdl">Minimum</td> - <td class="tdl">.570</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Average</td> - <td class="tdr">12.85</td> - <td class="tdl">Average</td> - <td class="tdl">.637</td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p class="space-above2">The analyses of many other wines are given, and -many other details which would be of little use to the practical man, -belonging rather to the domain of the chemistry of wines.</p> - -<p>There is a vast field open to the wine maker of this State, for we -have differences of soil and climate suitable for the production of a -wonderful variety of wines. But every man must decide for himself what -kind of wine his soil and situation are best adapted to produce, and -his aim then should be to produce the best of that kind.</p> - -<p>Thanks to the work of the State Viticultural Commission, we are -beginning to learn what varieties of grapes are best suited to the -different districts of the State. It is true that only a beginning -has been made, and the actual work of experimenting in this direction -can only be carried on by the practical viticulturists themselves. -It is for the Commission to bring order out of chaos, and furnish -for the information of the public the results of the labors of the -experimenters in the field.</p> - -<p>Through the endeavors of the Commission, and especially of its chief -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xiv">[Pg xiv]</span> -executive Viticultural officer, Mr. Charles A. Wetmore, who has an -extended knowledge of the different varieties of grapes grown in the -State, and where they are produced, the viticulturists are beginning -to compare notes, and an exchange of knowledge is now going on, which -without the Commission would be impossible.</p> - -<p>It is not within the scope of this work to enter into the details of -vine planting, or to point out what particular varieties of grapes -should be planted in the different sections, and probably the time to -produce a work which would convey definite and satisfactory information -on the latter subject has not yet arrived. As fast as reliable -information is acquired, it will undoubtedly be made known by the -Commission, and every intended vine grower should carefully study its -reports, as well as to keep himself familiar with the discussions of -the local viticultural societies, and those of the general conventions.</p> - -<p>If every grower in the State will only devote a portion of his ground -to the cultivation of the choicest varieties of grapes, making sure -that he knows what he is cultivating, will use the best methods of -vinification, preserve each kind of wine by itself, or keep a careful -record of his blends, and will age and rear the different products -according to the best and most intelligent methods, the writer -confidently expects that favored spots will be found in time which -will produce wines that will compare favorably with the fine wines of -Europe; and we may even venture to hope that some lucky individual will -find that he is possessed of a vineyard that will make his name famous -as the producer of a grand wine equal to the most renowned wines of the -world.</p> - -<p>The writer lays claim to but very little originality in the following -pages. What the intended wine maker wants is not new, untried theories, -but the results of the experience of others who have already labored in -the field, in order that he may not spend his time in inventing methods -which, later he learns, have already been tried by the laborers before -him.</p> - -<p>In this connection, the author makes his acknowledgments to the -following authors and their productions, as well as to others mentioned -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xv">[Pg xv]</span> -in the body of the work. And if, in some cases, he has failed to give -credit where it is due, it is because the information remains, but the -source is forgotten.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p><span class="smcap">A. Du Breuil</span>, Les Vignobles et les Arbres -et Fruits à Cidre, Paris, 1875.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Dr. Jules Guyot</span>, Culture de la Vigne et -Vinification, Paris, 1861.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Henri Machard</span>, Traité Pratique sur les -Vins, Bensançon, 1874.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Raimond Boireau</span>, Culture de la Vigne, -Traitement des Vins, Vinification, Distillation, etc., 2 vols., -Bordeaux, 1876.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A. Haraszthy</span>, Grape Culture, Wines, -and Wine Making, New York, 1862, including translations of <span -class="smcap">Johann Carl Leuchs</span> on Wine Making, and <span -class="smcap">Dr. L. Gall</span>, Improvement in Wine Making.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">L. Pasteur</span>, on Fermentation, Annales de -Chimie, 3 Series, Vol. LVIII, p. 330.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Joseph Boussingault</span>, Sur la Fermentation -des Fruits á Noyau Annales de Chimie, 4 Series, Vol. VIII, p. 210.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">M. Boussingault</span>, Expériences pour -constater la perte en sucre dans le sucrage du moût de du marc de -raisin. Annales de Chimie, 5 Series, Vol. VII, p. 433.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Andre Pellicot</span>, Le Vigneron Provençal, -Montpellier, 1866.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Henry Vizitelli</span>, Facts about Sherry, -London, 1876; Facts about Port and Madeira, London, 1880.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">J. L. W. Thudichum</span> and <span -class="smcap">August Dupre</span>, Origin, Nature, and Varieties of -Wine, London, 1872.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">N. Basset</span>, Guide Théorique et Pratique du -Frabricant d’Alcool et du Distillateur.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">J. J. Griffin</span>, Chemical Testing of Wines -and Liquors, London.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">L. F. Dubief</span>, Traité Complet Théorique et -Pratique de Vinification ou Art de Faire du Vin, 4 Ed., Paris.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">P. Schutzenberger</span>, On Fermentation, -International Scientific Series, New York, 1876.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">E. J. Maumene</span>, Traité Théorique et -Pratique du Travail des Vins, Paris, 1874.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">M. W. Maigne</span>, Nouveau Manuel Complet du -Sommelier et du Marchand de Vins (Manuels-Roret), Paris, 1874. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xvi">[Pg xvi]</span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Don Pedro Verdad</span>, From Vineyard to -Decanter, a Book about Sherry, London, 1876.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Gen. E. D. Keyes</span>, Letter to Major J. R. -Snyder, on Sherry making, published in San Francisco <i>Daily Evening -Bulletin</i>, May 29, 1877.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Prof. E. W. Hilgard</span>, Report of work -done in the Viticultural Laboratory under the charge of F. W. Morse, -University of California, College of Agriculture; Report of 1882, State -Printer, Sacramento, 1883. August, 1883.</p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xvii">[Pg xvii]</span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak"> CONTENTS.</h2> -<hr class="r5 x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p class="f120 space-above1">PREFACE.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Prices of grapes in California from 1876 to -1882, the Mission grape, v; annual shipments of wine and brandy from -California, annual production of wine, acreage of vines, probable -future production of wine, vi; objects of this book, want of works on -the subject in English, method of vinification varies with kind of wine -rather than with locality or climate, vii; climate of California and -density of must similar to those of southern Europe, viii; comparison -between California and European wines, viii-xiii; State Viticultural -Commission, xiii; advice to grape growers, xiv; acknowledgments by the -author, list of authorities, xv.</p> - -<p class="f120 space-above1">CHAPTER I.</p> -<p class="center">GATHERING THE GRAPES—MATURITY.</p> -<p class="neg-indent">Utensils for picking, number of pickers -necessary, when to commence, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>; when to gather, successive gathering, -<a href="#Page_2">2</a>; sorting the grapes, requisite degree of maturity, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>; signs of -ripeness, gathering before complete maturity, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>; gathering after -complete maturity, ripeness according to required strength, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</p> - -<p class="f120 space-above1">CHAPTER II.</p> -<p class="center">MUST.</p> -<p class="neg-indent">Composition, grape sugar, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>; -must-scale, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>; testing for sugar, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>; -correcting for temperature, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>; sugar and -alcohol, alcohol in wine, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</p> - -<p class="f120 space-above1">CHAPTER III.</p> -<p class="center">SUGARING AND WATERING MUST.</p> -<p class="neg-indent">Sugaring, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>; -nothing gained by adding sugar, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>; -cost of glucose wine, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>; experiment with glucose, -the use of glucose condemned, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>; -watering, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</p> - -<p class="f120 space-above1">CHAPTER IV.</p> -<p class="center">STEMMING AND CRUSHING.</p> -<p class="neg-indent">Diversity of opinion on stemming, effect of -stemming, proper practice, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>; to estimate tannin, -stemmers, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>; how to remove the stems, crushing, -methods of crushing, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>; aerating the must, -crushers, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>; rapidity of operation, -special practice, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xviii">[Pg xviii]</span></p> - -<p class="f120 space-above1">CHAPTER V.</p> -<p class="center">FERMENTATION—ITS CAUSES.</p> -<p class="neg-indent">Several different kinds of fermentation, -alcoholic fermentation, the yeast plant, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>; functions of yeast, -normal conditions of the life of yeast, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>; action of various chemical -and physical agents, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>; viscous or mannitic fermentation, lactic -fermentation, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>; acetic fermentation, -<a href="#Page_30">30</a>; origin of ferments, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>; -<span class="allsmcap">ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION IN WINE MAKING</span>: -vinous or alcoholic fermentation, sugar, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>; alcohol by weight and -by volume, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>; fermentation, its products, per cent., sugar to per -cent. alcohol, different authors, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>; limits of sugar and spirit, -<a href="#Page_36">36</a>; temperature, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>; -fermenting houses, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</p> - -<p class="f120 space-above1">CHAPTER VI.</p> -<p class="center">RED WINE.</p> -<p class="neg-indent">Coloring matter, fermenting tanks or vats, -filling the tanks, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>; open vats, closed vats, -<a href="#Page_40">40</a>; the best practice, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>; -hermetically sealed tanks, practice in the Médoc, stirring the -pomace in the vat, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>; when to draw from the -vat, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>; the objections to long vatting, -in making fine wines, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>; how to know when to draw -from the vat, method of drawing from the vat and filling the casks, -<a href="#Page_45">45</a>; wine presses, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>; -pressing and press wine, special practice for fine wines, -<span class="allsmcap">TREATMENT OF RED WINES</span>: insensible -fermentation, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>; ulling or filling up, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>; -summary of the rules for the treatment of new red wines, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>; -treatment of old red wines, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>; summary of rules for -the care of old red wines, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</p> - -<p class="f120 space-above1">CHAPTER VII.</p> -<p class="center">WHITE WINE.</p> -<p class="neg-indent">Made from both red and white grapes, differences -between red and white wine, hygienic effect of red and white wine, -<a href="#Page_54">54</a>; process of making, the barrels, filling the barrels during -fermentation, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>; pressing and filling, different kinds of white wine, -dry white wines, mellow white wines, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>; sweet white wines, grand white -wines, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>; treatment of white wines, to keep sweet, -<a href="#Page_58">58</a>; dry white wines, mellow white wines, -<a href="#Page_59">59</a>; summary of rules, racking, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</p> - -<p class="f120 space-above1">CHAPTER VIII.</p> -<p class="center">CASKS.</p> -<p class="neg-indent">Different woods, oak wood, storing casks, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>; -new casks, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>; old casks, rinsing chain, visitor to examine the inside -of a cask, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>; empty casks, washing, sulphuring casks, condition to -be examined, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>; flatness in the cask, acidity, mouldy casks, -<a href="#Page_65">65</a>; rottenness, brandy casks, caution as to sulphuring, -cask borers, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>; size of casks, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xix">[Pg xix]</span></p> - -<p class="f120 space-above1">CHAPTER IX.</p> -<p class="center">SULPHURING. ARRESTING FERMENTATION.</p> -<p class="neg-indent">Sulphuring casks, must and wine, sulphurous -oxide or sulphur dioxide, the sulphurer or sulphur burner, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>; -sulphur matches or bands, to sulphur a cask, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>; -to sulphur wine, sulphuring should be avoided in certain cases, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>; -arresting fermentation, unfermented must, prepared in two ways, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>; -clarification and care of unfermented must, sulphur flavor, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>; -other substances to arrest fermentation, burning alcohol, aqueous solution of -sulphurous acid, bisulphite of lime, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>; -salicylic acid, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</p> - -<p class="f120 space-above1">CHAPTER X.</p> -<p class="center">AGING.—EFFECTS OF VARIOUS INFLUENCES.</p> -<p class="neg-indent">General considerations, how new wine differs -from old, development of bouquet and flavor, old wine, characteristics -of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>; color, aroma, flavor, influences which develop, also destroy, -influence of the air, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>; variations of temperature, influence of heat, -<a href="#Page_78">78</a>; aging by heat, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>; preserving wine by heat, -<a href="#Page_80">80</a>; influence of cold, treatment of frozen wine, -<a href="#Page_81">81</a>; influence of light, aging by sunlight, -effect of motion of voyages, wines suitable for shipment, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>; -shipping new wine, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>; other motions, aging by fining, -aging generally, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>; wines which gain the most by aging -processes, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</p> - -<p class="f120 space-above1">CHAPTER XI.</p> -<p class="center">GENERAL TREATMENT—CELLARS.</p> -<p class="neg-indent">Unfortified or table wines, deposits, lees, etc., -<a href="#Page_86">86</a>; to prevent degeneration, <span class="allsmcap">CELLARS</span>: -temperature, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>; dampness, ventilation, evaporation, -<a href="#Page_88">88</a>; other precautions, supports for casks and tuns, -<a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</p> - -<p class="f120 space-above1">CHAPTER XII.</p> -<p class="center">RACKING.</p> -<p class="neg-indent">Object of, time for, conditions indispensable for -a good racking, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>; new red wines, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>; -old red wines, new white wines, first racking, subsequent rackings, -<a href="#Page_93">93</a>; care to be observed, other precautions, -<a href="#Page_94">94</a>; different methods of racking, implements for tipping -the cask, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>; racking without contact with the air, -pumps and siphons, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</p> - -<p class="f120 space-above1">CHAPTER XIII.</p> -<p class="center">CLARIFICATION—FINING.</p> -<p class="neg-indent">Objects of fining, different substances employed, -gelatinous substances, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>; gelatine, its preparation, isinglass, fish -glue, or ichthyocol, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>; albuminous substances, blood, milk, white of -eggs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>; clarifying powders, gum arabic, addition of salt, addition -of alcohol, addition of tannin, preparation, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>; method of operation, -implements for stirring, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xx">[Pg xx]</span></p> - -<p class="f120 space-above1">CHAPTER XIV.</p> -<p class="center">SWEET WINES—FORTIFIED WINES.</p> -<p class="neg-indent">Generally, to increase sugar in must, without -fermentation, care required, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>; clarification, boiling must, left -on the lees, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>; sweet muscat, pressing, marc of sweet wines, amount -of alcohol to be added, density, furmint wine, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>; straw wine, -<span class="allsmcap">PORT WINE</span> in the Upper Douro: the must, lagars, -etc., <a href="#Page_108">108</a>; treading, fermentation, Vizitelli’s description, -<a href="#Page_109">109</a>; lodges or storehouses, mixing, port loses color in wood, -alcoholic strength and loss by evaporation, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>; -<span class="allsmcap">MADEIRA</span>: making, casks, treatment, heating house, -heating, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>; solera system, ullage, alcohol, -<a href="#Page_114">114</a>; <span class="allsmcap">SHERRY</span>: climate, -vintage, crushing, gypsum, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>; pressing, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>; -plastering, fermenting, adding spirit, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>; bodegas -or storehouses, changes in the wine, fino, oloroso, basto, flowers, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>; -sweet wine, vino dulce, color wine, vino de color, arrope, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>; -mature wine, <span class="allsmcap">THE SOLERA SYSTEM</span>: establishing a solera, -<a href="#Page_120">120</a>; standard soleras and their foundation, -<a href="#Page_121">121</a>; blending for shipment, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>; -formulas, fining, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</p> - -<p class="f120 space-above1">CHAPTER XV.</p> -<p class="center">DEFECTS AND DISEASES.</p> -<p class="neg-indent">Divided into two classes, general considerations, -<a href="#Page_125">125</a>; <span class="allsmcap">NATURAL DEFECTS</span>: earthy flavor, -its causes, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>; how prevented, treatment, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>; -wild taste and grassy flavor, greenness, causes, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>; -prevention, treatment, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>; roughness, causes, not a fault, -disappears in time, how avoided, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>; -how removed, bitterness, causes, how prevented, treatment, taste of -the stems, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>; sourness, causes, how prevented, -treatment, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>; alcoholic weakness, how avoided, treatment, -<a href="#Page_133">133</a>; want of color, causes, how guarded against, treatment, -dull, bluish, lead-colored wine and flavor of the lees, causes, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>; -treatment, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>; putrid decomposition, -causes, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>; how avoided, treatment, different defects together, -<span class="allsmcap">ACQUIRED DEFECTS AND DISEASES</span>: flat wines, -flowers, causes, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>; prevention, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>; -treatment, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>; sourness, acidity, pricked wine, causes, -what wine liable to, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>; how prevented, -treatment, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>; experiment before treatment, -<a href="#Page_142">142</a>; Machard’s treatment, other methods, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>; -cask flavor, barrel flavor, causes, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>; treatment, -<a href="#Page_146">146</a>; mouldy flavor, causes, prevention and treatment, -foreign flavors, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>; ropiness, causes, treatment, -ropy wines in bottles, and other treatment, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>; acrity, -treatment, bitterness, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>; treatment, two -kinds according to Maumené, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>; fermentation, taste of the lees, -yeasty flavor, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>; how prevented, treatment, degeneration, putrid -fermentation, duration of different wines, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>; -treatment, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</p> - -<p class="f120 space-above1">CHAPTER XVI.</p> -<p class="center">WINE IN BOTTLES.</p> -<p class="neg-indent">When ready for bottling, how long to remain in -wood, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>; how prepared for bottling, the most favorable time for -bottling, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>; bottles, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>; -filling the bottles, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>; corks, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>; -corking machines, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>; preparation of the corks, driving in corks, -<a href="#Page_160">160</a>; sealing corks, sealing wax, applying the same, coloring same, -<a href="#Page_161">161</a>; capsules, capsuling, piling bottles, -<a href="#Page_162">162</a>; racks and bins for bottles, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>; -treatment of wine in bottles, fermentation in bottles, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>; -deposits and turbidity, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>; bitterness and acrity, ropiness, -degeneration and putridity, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>; decantation, -<a href="#Page_168">168</a>; operation, instrument, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xxi">[Pg xxi]</span></p> - -<p class="f120 space-above1">CHAPTER XVII.</p> -<p class="center">CUTTING OR MIXING WINES.</p> -<p class="neg-indent">Most French wines mixed, when necessary, effect -of, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>; wines of same nature should be used, -fine wines, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>; ordinary wines, must be allowed -sufficient time, large quantities, new and old wine, green wines, -<a href="#Page_174">174</a>; white and red wines, diseased wines, mixing -grapes, precaution, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</p> - -<p class="f120 space-above1">CHAPTER XVIII.</p> -<p class="center">WINE LEES, MARC, AND PIQUETTE.</p> -<p class="neg-indent">Pomace and lees often placed in the still, -<span class="allsmcap">WINE LEES</span>: the lees should be cared -for, quantity of wine in lees, constituents of dry lees, analysis, -vary, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>; treatment of lees, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>; -extraction of wine from the lees, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>; fining the wine -from the lees, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>; red wine from lees, white -wine from lees, pressing the sediment, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>; use of dry lees, -<span class="allsmcap">MARC OR POMACE—PIQUETTE</span>: unfermented marc of -white wine or of red wine not entirely fermented, fermented marc of red -wine, washing the marc, Pezeyre’s method, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</p> - -<p class="f120 space-above1">CHAPTER XIX.</p> -<p class="center">THE COMPOSITION OF WINE.</p> -<p class="neg-indent">Generally, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>; table of substances -recognized, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>; alcohol, estimate of, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>; -ethers, sugar, estimate of, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>; mannite, mucilage and mellowness, -<a href="#Page_191">191</a>; pectose, pectin, fatty matter, -glycerin, coloring matter, aldehydes, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>; acids, tartaric, malic, -citric, pectic, tannic, carbonic, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>; acetic, lactic, valeric, -succinic, total acids, the bouquet, artificial bouquet, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>; -Maumené’s experiment, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>; different substances employed, iris, -<a href="#Page_196">196</a>; strawberry, gillyflower or stockgilly, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>; -vine flowers, mignonette, nutmeg, bitter almonds and fruit pits, sassafras, -<a href="#Page_198">198</a>; other aromas, effects, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</p> - -<p class="f120 space-above1">CHAPTER XX.</p> -<p class="center">GENERAL CHAPTER—MISCELLANEOUS.</p> -<p class="neg-indent">Proportion of juice to marc, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>; -proportion of wine to grapes, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>; wooden and metal utensils, -<a href="#Page_202">202</a>; cleanliness, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>; -different cellar utensils, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>; -<span class="allsmcap">USEFUL RULES</span>: to ascertain the weight of a given number of -gallons of a liquid, for reducing must, for sugaring must, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>; -for fortifying and reducing wines, to reduce with water, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>; -to reduce with weaker or fortify with stronger wine or alcohol, -<span class="allsmcap">PLASTERING</span>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>; -common practice in Spain and southern France, objects, chemical effects, -<a href="#Page_209">209</a>; effects on health, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>; -plastering sherry, quantity used, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>; by adding water, -sherry flavor, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xxii">[Pg xxii]</span></p> - -<p class="f120 space-above1">APPENDIX.</p> -<p class="neg-indent">Sugar tables: <a href="#TABLE_1">Table I</a>, Balling’s degrees -(per cent. sugar), corresponding degrees Baumé, and specific gravity at 63½° F., -215; <a href="#TABLE_2">Table II</a>, Baumé’s degrees, corresponding -degrees Balling (per cent. sugar), and specific gravity at 63½° F. -216; <a href="#TABLE_3">Table III</a>, Baumé’s degrees and -corresponding per cent. sugar, at 60° F. 217; Alcohol table, -<a href="#TABLE_4">Table IV</a>, showing per cent. by volume for every one-tenth per -cent. from 0.1 to 30 per cent., corresponding per cent. by weight, and -specific gravity, 218-19; <a href="#TABLE_5">Table V</a>, -showing amount of alcohol and acid in different California wines, -220-23.</p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xxiii">[Pg xxiii]</span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak">LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</h2> -<hr class="r5 x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -</div> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="LOI" cellpadding="0" > - <thead><tr> - <th class="tdr">Fig.</th> - <th class="tdc" colspan="3"> </th> - <th class="tdr">Page.</th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdr">1.</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="3">HYDROMETER</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#FIG_1"> 8</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">2.</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="3">HYDROMETER-JAR</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#FIG_2"> 9</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">3.</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="3">WOODEN STEMMER</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#FIG_3">21</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">4.</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="3">CRUSHER</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#FIG_4">23</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">5.</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="3">FERMENTING VAT</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#FIG_5">41</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">6.</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="3">WINE PRESSES</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#FIG_6">46</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">7.</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1" rowspan="2"><img src="images/cbr-2.jpg" alt="" width="9" height="32" /></td> - <td class="tdl_ws1_c" rowspan="2">ULLING POTS</td> - <td class="tdc" rowspan="2"><img src="images/cbr-2.jpg" alt="" width="9" height="32" /></td> - <td class="tdr" rowspan="2"><a href="#FIG_7">49</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">8.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">9.</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1" rowspan="2"><img src="images/cbr-2.jpg" alt="" width="9" height="32" /></td> - <td class="tdl_ws1_c" rowspan="2">Z FUNNELS</td> - <td class="tdc" rowspan="2"><img src="images/cbr-2.jpg" alt="" width="9" height="32" /></td> - <td class="tdr" rowspan="2"><a href="#FIG_9">49</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">10.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">11.</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="2">RINSING CHAIN</td> - <td class="tdc" rowspan="2"><img src="images/cbr-2.jpg" alt="" width="9" height="32" /></td> - <td class="tdr" rowspan="2"><a href="#FIG_11">63</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">12.</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="2">VISITOR FOR EXAMINING THE INSIDE OF A CASK </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">13.</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="2">SULPHURER</td> - <td class="tdc" rowspan="2"><img src="images/cbr-2.jpg" alt="" width="9" height="32" /></td> - <td class="tdr" rowspan="2"><a href="#FIG_13">69</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">14.</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="2">MAUMENE’S SULPHURER</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">15.</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="3">CASK AND SUPPORT</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#FIG_15">89</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">16.</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="2">JACK FOR TIPPING A CASK</td> - <td class="tdc" rowspan="2"><img src="images/cbr-2.jpg" alt="" width="9" height="32" /></td> - <td class="tdr" rowspan="2"><a href="#FIG_16">95</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">17.</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="2">FORK FOR TIPPING A CASK</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">18.</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1" rowspan="2"><img src="images/cbr-2.jpg" alt="" width="9" height="32" /></td> - <td class="tdl_ws1_c" rowspan="2">IMPLEMENTS FOR TIPPING A CASK</td> - <td class="tdc" rowspan="2"><img src="images/cbr-2.jpg" alt="" width="9" height="32" /></td> - <td class="tdr" rowspan="2"><a href="#FIG_18">96</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">19.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">20.</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="2">A METHOD OF RACKING</td> - <td class="tdc" rowspan="3"><img src="images/cbr-3.jpg" alt="" width="16" height="57" /></td> - <td class="tdr" rowspan="3"><a href="#FIG_20">97</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">21.</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1" rowspan="2"><img src="images/cbr-2.jpg" alt="" width="9" height="32" /></td> - <td class="tdl_ws1_c" rowspan="2">SIPHONS</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">22.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">23.</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="3">ROTARY FORCE PUMP</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#FIG_23">98</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">24.</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1" rowspan="3"><img src="images/cbr-3.jpg" alt="" width="16" height="57" /></td> - <td class="tdl_ws1_c" rowspan="3">IMPLEMENTS FOR STIRRING </td> - <td class="tdc" rowspan="3"><img src="images/cbr-3.jpg" alt="" width="16" height="57" /></td> - <td class="tdr" rowspan="3"><a href="#FIG_24">103</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">25.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">26.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">27.</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="2">BOTTLE WASHER</td> - <td class="tdc" rowspan="3"><img src="images/cbr-3.jpg" alt="" width="16" height="57" /></td> - <td class="tdr" rowspan="3"><a href="#FIG_27">156</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">28.</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1" rowspan="2"><img src="images/cbr-2.jpg" alt="" width="9" height="32" /></td> - <td class="tdl_ws1_c" rowspan="2">BOTTLE DRAINERS</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">29.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">30.</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="3">RESERVOIRS FOR FILLING BOTTLES</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#FIG_30">157</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">31.</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="3">BUNG SCREW</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#FIG_31">158</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">32.</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="3">CORKING MACHINES</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#FIG_32">159</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">33.</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="3">CORKING MACHINES AND NEEDLES</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#FIG_33">160</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">34.</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="2">PINCERS FOR REMOVING WAX</td> - <td class="tdc" rowspan="2"><img src="images/cbr-2.jpg" alt="" width="9" height="32" /></td> - <td class="tdr" rowspan="2"><a href="#FIG_34">162</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">35.</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="2">CAPSULER</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">36.</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="3">PILING BOTTLES</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#FIG_36">163</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">37.</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1" rowspan="2"><img src="images/cbr-2.jpg" alt="" width="9" height="32" /></td> - <td class="tdl_ws1_c" rowspan="2">BOTTLE RACKS</td> - <td class="tdc" rowspan="2"><img src="images/cbr-2.jpg" alt="" width="9" height="32" /></td> - <td class="tdr" rowspan="2"><a href="#FIG_37">164</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">38.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">39.</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="3">BURROW’S SLIDER BIN</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#FIG_39">165</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">40.</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="2">DECANTING BASKET</td> - <td class="tdc" rowspan="3"><img src="images/cbr-3.jpg" alt="" width="16" height="57" /></td> - <td class="tdr" rowspan="3"><a href="#FIG_40">169</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">41.</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="2">CORKSCREWS</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">42.</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="2">DECANTING INSTRUMENT</td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xxiv">[Pg xxiv]</span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak">ERRATA</h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p class="no-indent">On page 216, Table II, read 63½° F, instead of -93½° F.</p> - -<p class="no-indent">On page 218, Table IV, opposite 13.6 by volume, -read 11.00 per cent. by weight, instead of 10.10.</p> - -<p class="no-indent">On page 219, Table IV, opposite 17.03 by weight, -read 20.9 by volume, instead of 20.7; and opposite 23.4 by volume, read -.97251 specific gravity, instead of .96251.</p> - -<p class="no-indent">On page 222 read Tienturier instead of -Tenturier.</p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</span></p> -<p class="f150"><b>THE WINE PRESS AND<br /> THE CELLAR.</b></p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.<br /> -<span class="h_subtitle">GATHERING THE GRAPES—MATURITY.</span></h2> -</div> - -<p>The first step in wine making proper, is the gathering of the grapes, -or “picking,” as it is usually termed in California.</p> - -<p><b>Utensils for Picking.</b>—Knives, scissors, and pruning shears -are used to cut the stems, and every one will adopt the tool that he -finds most convenient in practice; but if the berries are inclined to -drop off, scissors or pruning shears are preferable. Some authors give -minute descriptions of receptacles of various sizes and forms in which -to gather the grapes, but the practice in that respect usually followed -in this State will be found the most convenient. The grapes here are -generally picked directly into boxes holding about fifty pounds. The -box is provided with an oblong hole at each end near the top, or three -or four holes bored with an inch auger, by which the picker can easily -move it from vine to vine, and one man can carry it with both hands -to the wagon. These boxes are piled on the wagon without emptying, -transported to the wine house, and brought back empty, to be filled again.</p> - -<p><b>Number of Pickers necessary—When to Commence.</b>—There ought to -be a sufficient number of men employed in picking to fill at least one -fermenting vat in a day, in making red wine. If, however, circumstances -render this impossible, it would be well to pile up the grapes on a -good clean floor, under cover, till sufficient are gathered to fill the -tank, and then crush them, and fill the tank in one day. (See <a href="#CHAPTER_VI"><i>Red -Wine</i></a>.) Picking ought to commence as soon as the grapes are of a -fair average ripeness, beginning with the earliest and ending with the -latest variety. In the chapter on musts, we shall endeavor to indicate -the requisite maturity of the grapes, and it will there appear that -they may become too ripe by remaining too long on the vine, so that -it is very important that a sufficient number of pickers should be -employed to finish the gathering as promptly as possible, and before -too much sugar is developed. (See <a href="#CHAPTER_II"><i>Musts</i></a>.) -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</span></p> - -<p><b>When to Gather.</b>—It is of little importance at what time of the -day the grapes are picked, whether in the cool of the morning or the -heat of mid-day, or whether the dew is on or off, as long as they are -ripe. In some countries, however, and in what are known as bad years, -the grapes do not arrive at complete maturity, and therefore great care -is taken to gather them only in dry weather, and after the dew has -disappeared. (See <a href="#Page_37"><i>Fermentation</i></a>—<a href="#Page_38"> -<i>Temperature</i></a>.) If they are picked during the heat of the day, -fermentation will commence sooner than if picked in the cool of the -morning; and for this reason, in making white wine from colored grapes, -care should be taken to pick and press them when cool, if it is -desired that the wine should be free from color; for if the slightest -fermentation sets in before pressing, as it is apt to do if the grapes -are warm, some of the coloring matter is pretty sure to be extracted -from the skins and will discolor the wine.</p> - -<p><b>Successive Gathering.</b>—It is sometimes recommended that the -grapes should be gathered as they ripen, by going over a vineyard two -or three times, and picking off not only the bunches that are ripe, -leaving the green ones, but even picking off separately three or four -grapes from each bunch where it is not evenly ripened, and this is -the practice that is followed to-day in making the great white wines -of France and Germany; but it certainly will not be adopted in this -State while labor is as dear, and wine is as cheap as it is at present. -Instead, that practice will be followed which is recommended by those -writers who advise that the grapes of each variety be left on the vines -till they are all fairly ripe, and that they be gathered clean at one -picking. Where, however, different varieties are planted in the same -vineyard, which ripen at different periods, those only should be picked -at the same time which ripen together. Gather the early ones first, and -the later ones successively as they ripen, but pick clean. The same -rule also applies to grapes of the same variety, but grown on different -soils and in different situations, as it is well known that the same -variety of vine will ripen its grapes on high land and poor soil, -earlier than on low land and rich soil. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</span></p> - -<p><b>Sorting the Grapes.</b>—It will frequently happen, however, that -there are some bunches of green grapes, and they should always be -thrown aside, if picked with the others. Sometimes, also, there is -what is called a second crop, which ripens so much later than the -main one that two gatherings are necessary. In that case it would be -injurious to the grapes of the earlier crop to leave them on the vine -till the complete maturity of those of the second. Careful wine makers, -therefore, will find it to their advantage, either to leave the green -grapes upon the vines for a second picking, or, if all are picked -together, to throw the green ones into a separate receptacle, or to -sort them out from the ripe ones before crushing. Those who wish to -take extra care will even have the unripe, rotten, and dried berries -clipped from the bunches with scissors. These extra precautions are -those which are observed in making the great wines of Europe; but they -are not suggested here in the expectation that they will be generally -followed by the wine makers of California, but rather for the purpose -of indicating the best practices to those who may find out that on -account of the varieties they cultivate, and of the situation and soil -of their vineyards, they too can produce such wines by using the same care.</p> - -<p><b>Requisite Degree of Maturity.</b>—It is insisted by all intelligent -writers on the subject, that, with possible exceptions, which will be -mentioned, the grapes should not be gathered till they have arrived -at a state of complete maturity. Without this, wines from the finest -varieties of grapes would not possess that beauty of color, that -delicious flavor, that fragrant bouquet, and that alcoholic strength -which they possess in so eminent a degree. And if it is so necessary -that the grapes of fine varieties should be thoroughly ripe, it is -quite as important that those of the poorer varieties should be equally -so. For these latter are generally wanting in sugar, and consequently -their wines are feeble in strength, and as the sugar increases directly -with the degree of maturity of the grape, so the quantity of alcohol in -their wines increases accordingly, and thus by ripeness they make up -for their natural defects. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</span></p> - -<p><b>Signs of Ripeness.</b>—Complete maturity of the grape is indicated -by the concurrence of the following signs:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>1. The stem of the bunch changes from green to brown.</p> - -<p>2. The bunch becomes pendant.</p> - -<p>3. The berry has lost its firmness; the skin has become thin and -translucent.</p> - -<p>4. The berries are easily separated from the stem.</p> - -<p>5. The juice of the grape has acquired an agreeable flavor; has -become sweet, thick, and glutinous.</p> - -<p>6. The seeds have become void of glutinous substances.</p> -</div> - -<p>These are the signs given by several French authors, and are here -taken from Prof. Du Breuil, who says, nevertheless, that, under some -circumstances the grapes should be gathered before arriving at the -state of maturity indicated by these signs, and under other conditions -should be gathered even later. He says:</p> - -<p><b>Gathering before Complete Maturity.</b>—1. In certain localities -north of the viticultural region the grape hardly ever arrives at the -degree of maturity just indicated. Yet the crop must be gathered, or -otherwise it would rot on the vines. Under these circumstances, the -only thing that can be done is to leave the grapes on the vine as long -as they derive any benefit from it.</p> - -<p>2. Grapes intended to make sparkling wine should also be gathered -before the moment of absolute maturity.</p> - -<p>3. In the southern part of France, white grapes intended for the making -of dry wines, ought to be picked before reaching the last degree of -maturity. Otherwise, in that hot climate, the quantity of sugar in the -grape would increase to such an extent that it would be impossible to -make a dry wine. This is the practice in making the dry white wines of -Lunel, of Coudrieux, of the Hermitage, and of Saint Peray.</p> - -<p>4. For all the ordinary red wines of the region inhabited by the -olive, if the gathering of the grapes is delayed till the last degree -of ripeness, the must will contain more sugar than can be transformed -into alcohol by fermentation. The result will be that these wines -will undergo a sort of continuous fermentation, which will make its -appearance whenever they are moved, and which will soon change into -acetic fermentation. The only way to cure this tendency and to render -the wines capable of shipment, is to strongly fortify them by the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</span> -addition of spirits. To prevent this difficulty in the first place, the -grapes should be gathered before complete maturity.</p> - -<p>Some very respectable authors, whose experience has been confined to -the colder wine making regions, tell us that in all cases the grapes -should be allowed to remain on the vine as long as they gain in sugar, -and that in order to correct the excess that they would thus in many -cases acquire, they recommend that the must be reduced by water. -(See <a href="#CHAPTER_III"><i>Watering Musts</i></a>.)</p> - -<p><b>Gathering after Complete Maturity.</b>—To make sweet wines, the -grapes should remain on the vine until they have developed the greatest -possible quantity of sugar. For this purpose the grapes are not only -allowed to shrivel before gathering, but also artificial means are -resorted to, such as twisting the stem, or drying them on straw after -picking, and even applying heat to them in various ways. -(See <a href="#CHAPTER_XIV"><i>Sweet Wines</i></a>.)</p> - -<p><b>Ripeness according to Required Strength.</b>—If the wine maker will -first determine how strong in alcohol he wishes his wines to be, he -may anticipate the result approximately by testing from time to time -the amount of sugar contained in the grapes, and by gathering them -at the period when the sugar in the juice shows that, fermented, it -will produce the desired percentage of spirit. This testing is easily -performed by the use of the must-scale or the saccharometer; and for -information on this subject, the reader is referred to the chapter on -musts.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.<br /> -<span class="h_subtitle">MUST.</span></h2> -</div> - -<p>Must is the name applied to the juice of the grape before fermentation.</p> - -<p><b>Composition.</b>—A good, average must, contains in 100 parts by -weight, the following ingredients, and in the proportions as indicated, -by weight, according to Dr. Guyot; but the amount of sugar would be -considered too small in California:</p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Must Contents" cellpadding="0" > - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Pure water,</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">78</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Grape sugar (glucose),</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">20</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Free acids (tartaric, tannic, etc.),</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">00.25</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Salts, or organic acids (bitartrate),</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 1.50</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Mineral salts,</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 0.20</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2"></td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Nitrogenous, fermentive matter,</td> - <td class="tdc" rowspan="3"><img src="images/cbr-3.jpg" alt="" width="16" height="57" /></td> - <td class="tdl_ws1_c" rowspan="3">  .05</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Essential oils,</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Mucilaginous and starchy substances, </td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p>These constituents vary, however, according to variety of grape, -degree of maturity, soil, climate, etc.; and some of them may rise in -amount to double the average quantity given, or may even, under some -circumstances, descend to the one-fourth of it. Although all these -ingredients doubtless have important effects upon the quality of the -wine produced by fermentation, the acid giving zest and freshness of -taste, and the other minor ingredients, smoothness or harshness, as -the case may be, yet the principal one that we have to deal with is -the sugar, and it is the only one that the practical wine maker will -give much attention to, although in those countries where the grape in -some seasons does not ripen, the amount of acid is an important element -to be taken into consideration in testing the specific gravity of the -must. (See <a href="#CHAPTER_XIX"><i>Composition of Wines</i></a>, -for further details.)</p> - -<p><b>Grape Sugar</b>, or glucose, as it is known in chemical language, -as already remarked, is the most important element entering into the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</span> -composition of must, and upon its quantity depends directly the amount -of alcohol contained in the wine. The intelligent wine maker, then, who -wishes to know what will be the alcoholic strength of the wine produced -by the must which he is about to subject to the action of fermentation, -will test the must to ascertain what percentage of sugar it contains. -This is very easily done by the use of an instrument prepared for the -purpose.</p> - -<div id="FIG_1" class="figleft"> - <p class="f120"><i>Fig. 1.</i></p> - <img src="images/i_008.jpg" alt="" width="100" height="381" /> - <p class="center">Hydrometer.</p> -</div> - -<p><b>Must-Scale.</b>—A certain quantity of sugar being heavier than -the same volume of water—pure cane sugar weighing about one and -six-tenths to one of water—it follows that the more sugar there is -added to a given quantity of water the heavier it becomes, and the -more it will bear up anything floating on it; or, as it is generally -stated, the less of the liquid will be displaced by the floating body. -On this principle, the specific gravity of liquids, or their weight as -compared with water, is ascertained. The instrument employed is known -by the general name of areometer, but it is now more commonly called -a hydrometer, and various specific names are given to it according to -the uses for which it is intended. When constructed for testing the -strength of sugar syrups it is called a syrup-scale, saccharometer, -<i>pèse-sirop</i>, etc., and those especially for testing musts are -called must-scales, <i>pèse-moût</i>, etc. These latter are constructed -on the theory that the liquid contains only cane sugar and water—the -difference in specific gravity between cane sugar and grape sugar being -disregarded—and that its density depends on the quantity of sugar; -and although the density of must is somewhat affected by other solid -matters than sugar contained in it, yet these instruments, whether -syrup-scales or must-scales proper, will give results sufficiently -accurate for the purposes of the wine maker, a small allowance being -made for the other solids, as hereafter mentioned. There are three -instruments which are the most generally used in this country: -Oechsle’s must-scale, Balling’s saccharometer or syrup-scale, and -Baumé’s syrup-scale, or <i>pèse-sirop</i>. The degrees of Oechsle’s -instrument indicate specific gravity in the manner mentioned under -Table I; Balling’s indicates percentages of sugar directly; and Baumé’s -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</span> -degrees are arbitrary. (See Tables <a href="#TABLE_2">II</a> and <a href="#TABLE_3">III</a>.) -There are other instruments used in France—the gleuco-œnometer, reading upwards -for spirit and down for sugar on the same stem, corresponding in degrees to -Baumé’s—and the gleucometer, which indicates at once the percentage -of alcohol which the wine will contain after fermentation. Baumé’s and -Balling’s instruments are better suited for use in California, where -the musts often show a specific gravity higher than is indicated by -Oechsle’s scale, which frequently is graduated only up to 80 deg., -or 19.75 per cent. of sugar. They are all made on the same general -plan, and are usually constructed of glass. The instrument consists -of a tube about the size of a pipe-stem, terminating below in a bulb -or expansion, weighted at the bottom so that it will stand upright -and float when placed in a liquid. The scale is marked on the stem, -commencing at the top and numbering downward. The first mark is zero, -and shows how far the hydrometer sinks in pure water. (<a href="#FIG_1">Fig. 1</a>.) -As hydrometers are not always accurate, it is safer before using one to -have it tested by a chemist or a gauger, as but few others have the -necessary skill or the instruments requisite for that purpose. If, -however, an instrument which has been tested is accessible, another one -can be easily compared with that by ascertaining if both sink to the -same point in the same sugar solutions.</p> - -<h3>TESTING FOR SUGAR.</h3> - -<p>Any person, provided with one of the hydrometers mentioned, can easily -ascertain the percentage of sugar contained in any must with tolerable -accuracy, providing the grapes from which it is pressed are ripe; for -if they are green, and contain an undue amount of acid, the density -will be materially affected by that. There is no occasion, however, for -making wine from green grapes in this State. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</span></p> - -<div id="FIG_2" class="figleft"> - <p class="f120"><i>Fig. 2.</i></p> - <img src="images/i_009.jpg" alt="" width="150" height="292" /> - <p class="center">Hydrometer-Jar.</p> -</div> - -<p>In addition to the hydrometer, it is necessary to be provided with -a thermometer with which to ascertain the temperature of the must. -Besides the hydrometer and the thermometer, the only other article -necessary is a glass tube closed at the bottom and provided with a -foot, so that it will stand upright, called the hydrometer-jar. (<a href="#FIG_2">Fig. 2</a>.) -This jar should have a diameter a little greater than that of the -bulb of the hydrometer, and must be of such a height that the latter -instrument will stand upright and float freely in it, when filled -with a liquid. In the absence of the hydrometer-jar, an empty fruit -jar, or a tall tin cup or can will answer its purpose. In performing -the operation, see that all the articles used are perfectly clean, -more particularly the hydrometer, for anything that would slightly -affect its weight would render the result of the test useless. Having -taken this precaution, press the juice from a small quantity of -grapes and strain it through a cloth, and pour sufficient into the -hydrometer-jar, that when the hydrometer is plunged into it, it will -just bring the level of the liquid to the upper edge of the vessel, or -to such a height that the figure on the stem can easily be read. Now -place the thermometer in the must and ascertain its temperature, for -the instruments are intended to be used at a certain degree of heat, -although three or four degrees variation either way will not materially -affect the result. Baumé’s instrument, as originally constructed, -was graduated for a temperature of 10° Reamur, which corresponds -with 54½° F.; but as constructed now-a-days, is generally graduated -for a temperature of 58° or 60° F.; and Balling’s and Oechsle’s for -a temperature of 63½° F. Some of Balling’s instruments sold in the -market are graduated for 62° F. If it is found that the temperature is -above or below the degree indicated, it may be lowered by cooling, or -raised by warming, till about the right temperature is reached. Then -the hydrometer, being clean, should be taken by the stem at the top and -gradually lowered into the must until it floats. Press it down slightly -with the finger and let it come to equilibrium, being careful that there -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</span> -is not a drop of water on the stem above the surface of the liquid, -nor a bubble of air below. On looking at the stem where it meets the -surface, it will be seen that the liquid there curves upwards around -the instrument, and that the top of this curve marks one degree higher -than the general surface. If the reading is taken from the point marked -by the top of the curve (the figures reading downwards), add one -degree, or in other words, ascertain the mark on the stem corresponding -to the general surface of the liquid. If Balling’s scale is used, -the number at this mark shows the percentage of sugar which the must -contains; if Baumé’s is used, consult Table II or III, and opposite -this number will be found the corresponding per cent. of sugar. If -Oechsle’s scale is used, find from Table I or II the specific gravity -and the corresponding sugar per cent. Under Table I instructions will -be found for reading Oechsle’s scale. If Baumé’s instrument is used, -and a table is not at hand, multiply the observed figure by 1.8, and -the product will be nearly the per cent. of sugar.</p> - -<p><b>Correction for Temperature.</b>—It is known that a sugar solution -or a must expands as the temperature increases, and contracts as it -diminishes; and nice experiments have been performed to show the -amount of dilatation and contraction at different temperatures, and -the consequent variation in the specific gravity of the liquid, but -there is considerable difference in the results of the researches of -different authors, and it would seem that further experiments are -necessary; but a rule may be deduced which may be used instead of -changing the temperature of the must to make it correspond with that -for which the instrument is graduated, and although not strictly -correct, is sufficient for our purpose; and that is to add one-half per -cent. to the sugar per cent. indicated by the hydrometer for every 15° -F. above the standard temperature, and subtract ½ per cent. for every -15° below. For instance, if Baumé’s instrument shows 22½ per cent. of -sugar at 75° F., the actual strength is 23 per cent., and it would mark -that at 60°. If the same instrument shows 23½ per cent. at 45° F., the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</span> -real strength is 23 per cent. In using Balling’s scale graduated at -63½° F., the 15° in our example would make 78½° for the first supposed -case, and 48½° for the second.</p> - -<p>In most cases the variation in temperature will be so little that it -may be disregarded; but if the test is made soon after the grapes have -been exposed to a hot sun, the must may show a temperature of 90° or -95° F., and it would indicate one per cent. less than its real sugar -strength. But the temperature would go below the freezing point of -water before the must would mark one per cent. too much.</p> - -<p>As the must contains a small quantity of acids and extractive matter -which affect its density, some authors recommend that from one-tenth to -one-fifteenth of the figures indicating the density by Baumé should be -deducted, calling the remainder sugar, and this is about equivalent to -deducting one for every twelve per cent. of sugar. But if the grapes -are ripe and the must is strained, for all practical purposes all of -the solid matter may be called sugar, considering that we make a pretty -liberal allowance of sugar for one per cent. of alcohol. Fresh must -should always be taken for the purpose of testing for sugar, for as -alcohol is much lighter than water, if fermentation has commenced, it -will be impossible to ascertain the amount of sugar by means of the -hydrometer.</p> - -<p><b>Sugar and Alcohol.</b>—It will be shown in the chapter on -fermentation that, in actual practice, it takes about two per cent. -of sugar, as indicated by the hydrometer, to produce one per cent. by -volume of alcohol; therefore, divide the percentage of sugar contained -in the must, as shown by the hydrometer, by two, and the quotient is -approximately the per cent. of alcohol which will be contained in the -wine after complete fermentation.</p> - -<p><b>Alcohol in Wine.</b>—A good, saleable dry wine ought to contain -from eleven to twelve or thirteen per cent. of alcohol; and to produce -such a wine the must should indicate from 22 to 26 per cent. of sugar -by the hydrometer. A wine which is soon to be consumed at home does not -require that degree of strength necessary for shipment abroad and for -keeping, and may contain only ten per cent. of alcohol, and even less, -and be found a very palatable drink, and less “heady” than that of a -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</span> -higher degree of spirit. And a wine may contain as much as 14 per cent. -of spirit, and be very acceptable to the wine merchant for mixing with -weaker wines.</p> - -<p>A must which does not contain more than 24 per cent. of sugar per -hydrometer, if properly managed, will complete its fermentation, and if -it does not contain less than 22 per cent., will make a good, sound, -shipping wine, which will keep in almost any climate. Mr. Crabb, a -well known wine maker of Oakville, in this State, writes me that such -a must will ferment dry in six days, but that if it contains more -than 24 per cent. of sugar, fermentation is likely to be arrested by -the amount of alcohol, when it amounts to 12 per cent. This gentleman -is an intelligent viniculturist and a practical man, and it would be -safe to follow his advice. Mr. Arpad Haraszthy, who is noted in this -connection, in his lecture on fermentation before the convention of -wine growers, held at San Francisco in September, 1882, indicated 22 -per cent. as a proper degree of sugar in the must; and it is reported -that the wine makers of Los Angeles county, in fixing the prices of -grapes in 1882, adopted 23 per cent. as the standard. Undoubtedly the -fermentation will be finished sooner, and will be less troublesome, if -the must contains sugar within the limits of 22 and 24 per cent., than -if allowed to go beyond. (See <a href="#CHAPTER_I"><i>Maturity</i></a>.) -If it should go to 26 per cent. and beyond, the chances are that the -fermentation will be incomplete, and that a portion of the sugar will -remain in the wine, which will cause it to ferment when exposed to -changes of temperature; it may become <i>milk sour</i>, and there will -be danger of rapid deterioration. From which it follows that, except -for making sweet wines, the grapes should be gathered before they -develop much more than 24 per cent. of sugar. Supposing, however, that -picking commences as soon as the must shows 22 per cent., sufficient -force should be employed to finish before it goes beyond the limit -indicated. For the writer has seen grapes gathered at the beginning of -the season and made into wine which showed 11 per cent. of alcohol, -when the wine made from grapes of the same vineyard, gathered too late, -either on account of lack of pickers or of fermenting tanks, contained -14.5 per cent., and was still sweet.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III.<br /> -<span class="h_subtitle">SUGARING AND WATERING MUST.</span></h2> -</div> - -<p><b>Sugaring.</b>—As early as 1776, Macquer, in France, found that -by adding sugar to the must of green grapes, he could make wine; and -since his time many authors, notably Chaptal, Gall, and Petiot, have -recommended the addition of sugar to the must of bad years when the -grapes did not ripen; and had the practice been limited to the addition -of sufficient sugar of good quality to a must which was deficient in -that respect, but little harm would have been done. The next step, -however, was to take the must of partly ripe grapes which contained -an undue quantity of acid, and reduce it by the addition of water -till the acid corresponded in quantity to that contained in a must of -ripe grapes, and then to add sufficient sugar to bring it up again to -the necessary degree of sweetness. This may be permissible in those -countries where in some years the grapes do not ripen, and in order -to make a drinkable wine, water to reduce the acid, and sugar to give -sweetness, must be added. But this did not satisfy the greed of the -artificial wine makers; they found, so they say, that they could press -the juice from the grapes, ferment it by itself, then add to the marc -water and sugar enough to bring it back to its original quantity and -sugar strength, draw off the artificial juice slightly colored by the -skins, and repeat the operation, and so make three and four times the -quantity of wine that could otherwise be made, and <i>all good wine</i>.</p> - -<p>It was thought that wine making in Europe would be revolutionized, -and untold wealth would pour into the coffers of the wine makers. It -was found, however, that cane sugar was too expensive, but artificial -glucose could be made from grain and potatoes at a very small cost, -and by reason of its cheapness its use was forthwith recommended; and -to such an extent was the matter carried, that one would suppose that -in order to make good wine, it was only necessary to soak a few grape -skins in a quantity of sweetened water and let it ferment! -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</span></p> - -<p>The practice, however, to the extent mentioned, did not commend itself -to sensible men, and wine making did not become revolutionized. Yet it -was to some extent adopted, and the effect upon the wines of Burgundy -is shown by Dubrunfaut in his work on <i>Sucrage de Moûts</i>. He says -that starch-sugar (glucose) factories were established in Burgundy, and -from 1825 to 1845, this material was used to strengthen the musts. But -complaints arose in France and elsewhere against Burgundy wines; they -had a new flavor, and unexpected changes in many respects had come over -them. A congress of wine makers was held at Dijon in 1845, at which -the abandonment of the use of glucose was decreed upon the report of a -committee of merchants and proprietors of Beaune, which was in effect -as follows: that the long extolled and generally practiced system of -sugaring, and against which a reaction set in some years ago, ought to -be completely abandoned, as being fatal (<i>funeste</i>) to Burgundy. -He considers, however, as do some others who condemn the use of -glucose, that the use of refined cane sugar is unobjectionable if used -in small quantities and merely to fortify the must when it needs it. -There are many authors, however, who speak highly of the wines produced -by the addition of sugar and water to the skins after the juice has -been drawn off, but it does not seem reasonable that a good wine can -be made in that manner. If a good must contained only water, sugar, -and acids, then there would be reason for believing that the wine so -made would be good. But it is well known that many other ingredients -enter into the composition of the juice of the grape which, in some -unknown manner, have a very important influence upon the wine made from -it. Attempts have been made to produce an artificial must, which is -carrying the process but little farther than it is carried by some of -the writers on the subject; but Mr. Boireau says that what is produced -resembles cider rather than wine. He gives the following composition as -approaching very nearly a must for common white wine: -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</span></p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Artificial Must" cellpadding="0" > - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl">Refined Sugar,</td> - <td class="tdr">25</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">kilog.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Tincture of tannin,</td> - <td class="tdr">20</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">gr.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Crystals of tartaric acid,</td> - <td class="tdr">500</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">gr.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Gum arabic,</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">kilog.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Vine leaves and fresh twigs chopped,  </td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">kilog.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Distilled or filtered water,</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">hectol.</td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p>The author last quoted is a practical man, and his opinion is valuable. -He says, when the fermentation of this artificial must is most active, -it has analogies with ordinary white wine, but it costs much more than -the natural wine; and when its fermentation is complete, it has not a -bad taste, and there is nothing hurtful in its composition, but that -it has not the <i>taste of white wine</i>; and the only time when it -has any analogy to white wine is during the tumultuous fermentation as -already mentioned. Many attempts have been made to vary the formula, -but without important results. Tolerably agreeable drinks are obtained, -<i>but they are not wine</i>. M. Boussingault gives his experience in -sugaring and watering must; and the wine produced lacked acid, color, -astringency, and was very inferior to the wine first made from the pure -juice; it lacked the fixed substances and aromatic principles. He says -that some would prefer it to cider, but that it only differed from -<i>piquette</i> in having a greater degree of alcohol.</p> - -<p>To give even a summary of what has been written upon this subject would -occupy a volume, but the results arrived at by the more intelligent -modern writers and experimenters may be summed up as follows:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>1. That good wine can be made only from the pure juice of the -grape.</p> - -<p>2. That in case the grapes do not ripen sufficiently to make a -drinkable wine, water may be added to reduce the acid, and then sugar -enough to bring it up to the average sugar strength; but in no case -should any but the refined cane sugar be used; artificial glucose, never.</p> -</div> - -<p><b>Nothing gained by adding Sugar.</b>—Aside from the question of -quality, it may not be amiss to add a few remarks for the benefit of -intended wine makers who may have been led to believe, by mistaken -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</span> -authors, that the profits of wine making may be increased by adding -sugar and water, and thereby augmenting the quantity. Assuming that it -is permissible to use only refined sugar, it can easily be shown that -it is as cheap, if not cheaper, to make wine from grapes than from -sugar, as long as grapes can be bought for $30 per ton.</p> - -<p>A gallon of dry wine of average specific gravity, containing 10 per -cent. by weight, or 12.4 by volume, of alcohol, weighs about 8¼ pounds, -and contains about .825 of a pound of pure alcohol. To produce a pound -of alcohol requires about 2¼ lbs. of pure grape sugar, or 2.138 lbs. of -pure cane sugar, in practice, according to the chapter on fermentation; -so that to produce the .825 lbs. of alcohol in one gallon of wine, -requires about 1.80 lbs. of pure cane sugar. But refined crystalized -sugar is not pure sugar (anhydrous), as it contains about 10 per -cent. of water; so, to make our 1.8 of pure sugar, requires 2 lbs. of -ordinary refined sugar. At 10 cents per pound, which would be cheap for -this market, it would cost 20 cents to make the must for a gallon of wine.</p> - -<p>Supposing that a ton of grapes costs $30, and produces 150 gallons of -wine, each gallon would cost 20 cents. So that there is nothing to be -gained by adding sugar at 10 cents a pound, even if a ton of grapes -costs $30 a ton, for the same facts would apply to every pound of sugar -added to a must, as well as in the case supposed, where all the sugar -was supplied.</p> - -<p><b>Cost of Glucose Wine.</b>—Supposing that artificial glucose -contains 80 per cent. of pure (anhydrous) sugar, it would require 2⅓ -lbs. to make our gallon of wine; and if it could be laid down here at 5 -cents a pound, the gallon of wine would cost nearly 12 cents, and this -would be equivalent to paying $18 a ton for grapes.</p> - -<p>When we take into consideration that every pound of glucose and -water added to a must will diminish the price of every gallon of -wine produced, it is probable that but little, if anything, could be -gained even by the use of this article; for the product will not bring -the price of an honest wine, and in the long run will destroy the -reputation of our wines, and reflect injury upon every wine maker in -the State. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</span></p> - -<p><b>Experiment with Glucose.</b>—Mr. Crabb, of Oakville, gave his -experience with glucose in a paper read before the St. Helena -Vinicultural Club, in July, 1882, as follows: I took three packages of -equal size, one containing pure grape juice, the two others containing -each equal parts of the same juice and glucose water, all showing 23 -per cent. sugar by Balling’s saccharometer. The pure juice was dry in -15 days (the room being cold). One package of the mixture was dry in 30 -days; the other continued in fermentation 60 days, both emitting a rank -offensive odor during the process, arising from the amount of chalk -and sulphuric acid required in its (glucose) manufacture. Racking at -this time appeared to remove the greater part of the offensive odor, -and in 30 days the wine was clear and bright enough to pass for a -two-years’-old wine. I now thought it contained a very superior fining -principle, and if a small enough quantity would answer the purpose, -it might be a valuable acquisition. But this was its most favorable -period; it had reached its zenith, and while the pure juice was now -beginning to develop its vinous properties, the mixture commenced to -deteriorate, becoming flat and insipid, as any grape juice would by -being one-half water, and the sulphuric acid and chalk (sulphate of -lime) developing a disagreeable after-taste. Notwithstanding that -I have racked it again and fined it to a perfect condition, there -is not the least improvement, and I believe as it becomes more dry -with age, that the bitter, nauseous after-taste will become more and -more pronounced, so that one glass of it will leave such a lasting -impression on the palate as to never want any more; whereas, the -package of pure juice is now vinous, sprightly, refreshing and inviting.</p> - -<p><b>The use of Glucose condemned.</b>—On the 16th day of July, 1881, -the St. Helena Vinicultural Association adopted resolutions condemning -in the strongest terms the use of glucose in the making of wine and -brandy, and promising to expose all parties importing or receiving the -substance by publishing their names, and pledging the Society to use -all honorable means to prevent the adulteration of the product of our -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</span> -vineyards. The resolutions passed unanimously, and were published in -the different newspapers. One man in the district, notwithstanding the -warning, did cause to be shipped to him a quantity of glucose, and the -President and Secretary of the Society published in several different -newspapers, in December, 1881, over their own signatures, and in the -name of the Association, a notice reciting the resolutions, and stating -that a person (giving his name) “imported eighty barrels of grape -sugar, made from corn, commonly called glucose, and used the same, or -the greater part of it, in the manufacture of wine during the last vintage.”</p> - -<p>We believe that this was an exceptional case, and that its use in this -State has been exceedingly rare.</p> - -<p><b>Watering.</b>—Another question which has been a good deal discussed -is, whether it is better to pick the grapes as soon as they develop -sufficient sugar, or leave them on the vine till they develop an -excess, and then reduce the must with water. Dr. Guyot having laid it -down as a fundamental principle in wine making in France, that the -grapes should be left on the vine as late as possible, and until they -have reached the highest point of maturity, except, <i>perhaps</i>, -in some of the most extreme southern portions, he is consistent in -counseling the addition of water to the must. But the only reason -given by him for it is that it is consonant with <i>his principle</i> -previously stated. Du Breuil is also of the same opinion. Both are -men of high authority, but it does not appear that either of them -ever made wine in a warm climate, where the grapes would develop so -much sugar as to require the addition of water, if left upon the vine -as late as possible. We have, on the other hand, the testimony of -Boireau, who, speaking on the subject, says that it is probable that -the theoreticians who are in favor of the practice have never made wine -of <i>must too rich in sugar and of water</i>. He says, it is true that -the quantity is increased, and fermentation is complete, but that the -wine so made is only fit for the still, will not keep and readily turns -sour. The Greeks have followed this practice from time immemorial in -the Archipelago, where he tasted their wine so made in 1865, and which -they can keep with difficulty for one year, in spite of the addition of -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</span> -a large quantity of rosin, which they introduce during fermentation. -And yet, these wines are not weak, having an average of 10½ to 11 per -cent. of alcohol. He says that but few grapes give musts too rich in -sugar, if they are gathered as soon as ripe; for even in viticultural -countries situated farthest south, as the south of France, Spain, -Italy, Greece, and Africa, the grape <i>just ripe</i> gives a must -which does not exceed 14° Baumé, unless left on the vine until part of -the water of vegetation has evaporated.</p> - -<p>Having alluded to both sides of the question, it would seem to be -a fair inference from the foregoing that the safest course would be, -in a hot climate, to gather the grapes as soon as fairly ripe. This -may easily be done, where each grape grower makes his own wine, and -has immediate supervision of the picking, and has sufficient men to -finish it with promptness. But in the case of large manufacturers who -buy their grapes and cannot supervise or order the gathering in the -numerous vineyards whose crops they purchase, it may sometimes be -necessary, when the grapes come in overripe, and it is not desirable to -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</span> -make sweet wine, to add a small quantity of water to insure prompt and -complete fermentation. When the necessity arises, great caution should -be used, and the necessity should be avoided when possible.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV.<br /> -<span class="h_subtitle">STEMMING AND CRUSHING.</span></h2> -</div> - -<p><b>Diversity of Opinion on Stemming.</b>—There is no subject connected -with wine making upon which there is a greater difference of opinion -than that of stemming. And it would seem that the diversity of practice -is not always caused by the different conditions and exigencies of -location, variety of grapes, etc.; but among the different wine makers -in the same locality, some remove the stems, and others do not; from -which Dr. Guyot infers that the practice cannot be classed among the -essential principles governing vinification, but is a mere matter -of detail, and that stemming may be practiced or omitted without -materially affecting the wine. But Machard, a writer of the Jura, lays -it down imperiously as one of the very essentials of good wine making -that the grapes should be fermented with the stems, and calls stemming -a pernicious practice.</p> - -<p><b>Effect of Stemming.</b>—All agree, however, that the stems, during -fermentation, if not removed, yield tannin to the wine, and thereby -give it astringency. It is also said to increase fermentation, by -furnishing to the must additional germs of fermentation adhering to -the stems, and perhaps acting also in a mechanical way, by presenting -many salient points, and exposing a greater surface to the action of -the ferment.<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> -They also add a certain amount of acid to the wine, if green. It is -evident that they increase the labor of pressing, by adding to the -mass of marc.</p> - -<p><b>Proper Practice.</b>—If, therefore, by reason of the variety of -grapes cultivated, or the soil, or situation, your wine is too soft, -lacks life and astringency, ferment with all or a portion of the stems; -but if your wine is rough, too astringent, it will be found beneficial -to stem the grapes. If your grapes lack the fermentive principle, and -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</span> -fermentation is slow and incomplete, leave the grapes on the stem; and -in the same way the fermentation will be assisted, if the grapes are -overripe.</p> - -<p>When the grapes are fermented with the stems, care must be taken that -they do not remain too long in the vat, or the wine may acquire a -bitter, disagreeable flavor, called by the French <i>goût de râpe</i>, -or stem flavor, which is caused by the bitter principle contained -therein, and which is dissolved out by maceration.</p> - -<p><b>To Estimate Tannin.</b>—A certain amount of tannin is necessary to -the proper clearing of the wine, which is brought about by the tannin -combining with albuminous matters, and they are then precipitated, and -the wine may be drawn off, leaving them at the bottom of the cask. It -is on the application of this well known principle that Maumené gives a -very simple method of ascertaining whether the grapes should be stemmed -or not. He says: First make a small quantity of wine without the stems, -and add tannin, or, what is better, a decoction made by boiling a -quantity of stems, and if sensible precipitation is produced, it is -better to ferment with the stems, for tannin is wanting; but if the -precipitation is not formed, the grapes should be stemmed.</p> - -<div id="FIG_3" class="figcenter"> - <p class="f120"><i>Fig. 3.</i></p> - <img src="images/i_021.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="443" /> - <p class="f120">Wooden Stemmer.</p> -</div> - -<p><b>Stemmers.</b>—This is usually effected in California by the use of -the common hand stemmer, though some large establishments are using a -stemmer run by steam or horse-power. The common stemmer consists of an -oblong shallow box or frame, six or eight feet long by two wide, or any -convenient size, and about six inches deep, with a coarse wire netting -or grating stretched across the bottom. This grating is usually made of -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</span> -heavy galvanized iron wire, with ¾ inch or inch meshes. Instead of -having the grating extend the whole length, a portion at one end may -be floored with wood, upon which a box of grapes can be placed without -injuring the grating. The only objection to this stemmer is that the -grape juice comes in contact with the metal of the grating, and it is -a well known fact that nearly, if not all, of the baser metals are -corroded by the acids; it would be better to replace the wire with a -wooden grating, as in France (<a href="#FIG_3">Fig. 3</a>.).</p> - -<p><b>How to Remove the Stems.</b>—The grapes are dumped from the boxes -directly into the stemmer, and the workman seizes as many as he can -easily manage with both hands, and rubs and rolls them to and fro upon -the wire grating, and the berries, as they are rubbed off, fall through -the meshes, and the stems remain in the hand. The few grapes that may -remain are removed by raising the mass of stems and forcibly throwing -them two or three times upon the grating. Sometimes the stems, with the -few grapes clinging to them, are turned over to another workman, who, -with a hay fork, tosses them about upon another grating till all the -berries are removed. The stemmer ought to be situated over the hopper -of the crusher, so that the grapes will fall directly into it, as they -are separated from the stems.</p> - -<p><b>Crushing.</b>—It is generally considered essential to crush the -grapes whether stemmed or not, although in some special cases, to be -hereafter noted, crushing is omitted.</p> - -<p><b>Methods of Crushing.</b>—It is well known that in Europe the grapes -are usually crushed by being trodden with the feet of men, usually -barefooted, but sometimes in wooden shoes, and many of the best writers -of to-day are of the opinion that the wine is better when the grapes -have been well trodden with the bare feet, for by thoroughly rubbing -the skins and pounding them into a pulp without breaking the seeds, -they think that more color and aroma are developed than can be obtained -by simply crushing them, as in a machine, and afterwards fermenting. -Although the practice of treading is the more common one in Europe, -yet there are exceptions, and in some places the crushing is done by -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</span> -rollers and with satisfactory results. In California we are accustomed -to regard the treading of grapes as an antiquated practice, and a relic -of a past age, and it is almost universally discarded, being practiced -only occasionally and by Europeans, who have not yet wholly fallen into -our methods of practice. Those who are fastidious in this matter may -rest assured, that if they will drink California wine, they run but -very small risk of imbibing a liquid which a man has had his feet in.</p> - -<p><b>Aerating the Must.</b>—There seems to be some confusion on this -subject, for some claim that the must is better exposed to the air, and -prepared for fermentation, by treading. This may be true of <i>treading -in the vat</i> during fermentation, but simply treading the grapes to -crush them does not aerate the must as much as crushing with rollers, -for in the latter case the juice falls through a considerable distance -in a finely divided form, which thoroughly exposes it to the air.</p> - -<div id="FIG_4" class="figleft"> - <p class="f120"><i>Fig. 4.</i></p> - <img src="images/i_023.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="181" /> - <p class="center">Crusher.</p> -</div> - -<p><b>Crushers.</b>—The machine generally employed consists of two -rollers made of wood, iron, or other suitable material, 6 or 8, or -even more, inches in diameter, geared together so that they revolve in -opposite directions and towards each other, and so that the grapes will -be drawn between them from above. The rollers run near each other, but -do not touch, so that the grapes will be crushed, and the seeds remain -unbroken. It is operated by one man turning a crank, either attached to -one of the rollers or to a pinion. <a href="#FIG_4">Figure 4</a> represents such -a crusher, except that in the figure the rollers are open-work, instead of solid, -as they should be. It is surmounted by a hopper which allows the grapes -to fall between the rollers as they revolve, and the whole apparatus -should be so placed that the pomace may fall into the fermenting vats, -or be easily conveyed to them or to the press, accordingly as it is to -be made into red or white wine.</p> - -<p>Some stemmers have corrugated instead of plain rollers, but there is -no advantage in this, and unless they are very nicely adjusted to the -motion of the cog wheels, they may break the seeds, which is always -considered injurious to the wine. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</span></p> - -<p><b>Rapidity of Operation.</b>—Five men—one to handle the boxes of -grapes, two to stem, standing on opposite sides of the stemmer, one to -operate the crusher, and one to take the stems and remove the remaining -grapes and to make himself generally useful—can stem and crush with -these hand machines twenty tons of grapes per day, enough to make three -thousand gallons of wine. And the work can be done much more rapidly by -the use of the stemmer and crusher combined, which is to some extent -used in the largest establishments.</p> - -<p><b>Special Practice.</b>—Boireau says that it has been observed that -of the Médoc wines, those made without crushing the grapes have less -color than those made from grapes of the same crop which have been -crushed, but that they have a more refined and delicate taste (<i>plus -fins de goût</i>), and that consequently many of the proprietors of -the <i>grands crûs</i> of the Médoc in those years which are favorable -to the maturity of the grape do not crush; they only do it in inferior -years, when the grapes have not become sufficiently ripe, and when they -fear that the wine may not have a suitable color. And in another place -he tells us that in those grand wines which are intended to be bottled, -a superabundance of tannin and its consequent roughness may be avoided -by complete stemming, fermenting the whole berries, and by drawing from -the fermenting vat at just the right time.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V.<br /> -<span class="h_subtitle">FERMENTATION—ITS CAUSES.</span></h2> -</div> - -<p>It is with some hesitancy that I attempt to give a brief summary of -the results of scientific investigation into this subject, for fear of -going beyond the legitimate limits of a practical work, as this book -is intended preëminently for practical men. But as the work would be -incomplete without it, and as a knowledge of the general phenomena of -fermentation, and of the different influences to which it is subject, -are of vast importance to those who will intelligently apply their -principles, I give the following as but a brief <i>resumé</i>, and will -put it as plainly as the subject will permit. Most of the ideas given -below are extracted from Schutzenberger’s work on fermentation.</p> - -<p><b>There are several different kinds of Fermentation</b>, as (1) -vinous, alcoholic or spirituous fermentation; (2) mucous or viscous -fermentation; (3) lactic fermentation; (4) ammoniacal fermentation; (5) -butyric fermentation; (6) putrifaction; and (7) acetic fermentation, or -fermentation by oxidation, and others.</p> - -<p><b>Alcoholic Fermentation</b> is that which sugar undergoes under the -influence of the ferment or yeast; and it is now agreed that this -ferment consists principally of an aggregation of living organisms, or -an assemblage of microscopic cells.</p> - -<p><b>The Yeast Plant.</b>—Our author gives them the name of -<i>saccharomyces cerevisiæ</i>, following those who consider it to be -a species of fungus, and states that it is now very generally admitted -that ferments are fungi, although by some they have been considered -animal in their nature. These cells are round or oval, and are from -.00031 to .00035 of an inch in their greatest diameter. “They are -formed of a thin and elastic membrane of colorless cellulose, and of a -protoplasm, also colorless, sometimes homogeneous, sometimes composed -of small granulations.” The cells are separate or united two by two. -When they are deposited in a fermentable liquid, as a sugar solution or -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</span> -a must, small prominences are seen to arise at one or rarely two -points, the interior of which is filled with protoplasm from the mother -cell; these prominences grow until they have attained the size of the -original cell, when the base contracts, forming a kind of neck, and -immediately they separate from the mother cell, and under favorable -conditions one cell produces several generations, but by degrees it -loses all its protoplasm, which at last unites in granules swimming in -super-abundant cellular juice. The cell ceases to produce, and dies; -the membrane is ruptured, and the granular contents are diffused in the -liquid. In the manufacture of beer the fermentation is of two kinds: -surface fermentation and sedimentary fermentation, depending upon a -high or a low degree of heat. The surface <i>saccharomyces</i> develop -more rapidly than the others, are larger, and they bud so rapidly that -the cells which issue from each other do not separate, but remain -attached, forming ramified chains of from six to twelve or more buds. -The bubbles of rising gas have a greater hold on these chaplets than -on single cells, which causes the newly formed yeast to rise to the -surface during active fermentation. These organisms or fungi produce -spores which are sown on the surface of fruits, and get into the juice -by crushing, when they commence their reproduction by budding. So -that the basis or cause of the phenomena which we call fermentation -is the growth and reproduction of yeast or ferment, which is made up -principally of the minute organisms just described.</p> - -<p><b>Functions of Yeast.</b>—Yeast is a living organism, belonging to -the family of <i>fungi</i>, genus <i>Saccharomyces</i>, destitute of -mycelium, capable of reproduction, like all the elementary fungi, by -buds and spores. Its composition singularly resembles that of other -vegetable tissues, and especially the plants of the same family. It -does not differ essentially from other elementary cells, unprovided -with chlorophyll.</p> - -<p><b>Normal Conditions of the Life of Yeast.</b>—The conditions which -our author calls normal in the life-history of yeast, are those in -which it develops itself and increases with the greatest activity and -energy. They are of two orders, physical and chemical. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</span></p> - -<p>With respect to <i>physical conditions</i>, it is only necessary to -notice the temperature. That most favorable to the nutrition of yeast, -and that which is found advantageous to other cellular vegetable -organisms, is between 25° C. and 35° C. (77° and 95° F.) Above and -below these limits, the vital manifestations do not cease until we -descend below 9° C. (48.2° F.), or rise above 60° C. (140° F.), the -temperature at which albuminoid principles begin to coagulate.</p> - -<p>With regard to the <i>chemical conditions</i>, our author says -that the most favorable medium is that which contains the most -appropriate nutritive elements. And as yeast contains water, mineral -salts, especially potassium, magnesium, and calcium phosphates, -therefore water and the alkaline and alkaline-earthy phosphates will -be necessary. We find, besides, a great proportion of nitrogenous -substances, either albuminous or otherwise; and therefore the food of -yeast must contain nitrogen. It is supposed, however, that the cells -are not directly nourished by albuminoids in the juices of fruits, the -wort of beer, or yeast water, but by analogous compounds contained -in them, which have the property of passing by osmose through the -membranes; for the albuminoids themselves, it is said, cannot pass -through. Pasteur has shown by his experiments, that mineral salts are -absolutely necessary to the development and nutrition of the yeast -cell; and Mayer follows him with details as follows: Preparations -of iron, in small quantities, seem to have no influence; in larger -proportions, they are injurious. Potassium phosphate is indispensable, -and the absence of lime has little effect. Magnesium, on the contrary, -appeared to be very useful, if not indispensable. The combinations of -sodium present no material effects.</p> - -<p>Sugar is one of the most important elements in the nourishment of the -yeast cells, and Pasteur has shown that, in alcoholic fermentation, a -part of the sugar is fixed in the yeast, in the state of cellulose or -some analogous body, for, when the fermentation is completed, it is -found that more yeast is present than at the commencement. Water is -necessary, and the yeast cell manifests its activity, develops and is -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</span> -nourished within the limits of 40 and 80 per cent. of water, though -yeast, dried with precaution, may regain its power when moistened. And -the fact that a solution containing over 35 per cent. of sugar will not -ferment, is explained on the theory that such a solution takes from the -cells by osmose a sufficient quantity of water to lower their hydration -below 40 per cent. The cells of the <i>Saccharomyces cerevisiæ</i>, -introduced into a liquid medium, absorb oxygen with great rapidity, and -develop a corresponding quantity of carbon dioxide. This constitutes -respiration, comparable to that of animals. By careful experiments -it has been shown that yeast breathes when placed in contact with -dissolved oxygen, and the respiration is more active than that of -fishes, and it plays as important a part in the life of those minute -vegetable cells as in the higher forms of vegetable and animal life. -Oxygen is furnished by atmospheric air, and fermentation is more rapid -when a large surface of the liquid is exposed, and then the budding is -more active.</p> - -<p><b>Action of various Chemical and Physical Agents.</b>—“It has long -been known that certain chemical compounds, especially those which -coagulate albuminous substances, and disorganize the tissues, or which, -by their presence in sufficient quantities, are incompatible with -life, are opposed to fermentation; such are the acids and alkalies in -suitable proportions, silver nitrate, chlorine, iodine, the soluble -iron, copper, and lead salts, tannin, phenol, creosote, chloroform, -essence of mustard, alcohol when its strength is above 20 per cent., -hydrocyanic and oxalic acids, even in very small quantities.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>“An excess of neutral alkaline salts or sugar acts in the same -manner, by diminishing in the interior of the cell the minimum quantity -of water, which is necessary to the manifestation of its vital -activity.</p> - -<p>“The red mercury oxide, calomel, manganese peroxide, the alkaline -sulphites and sulphates, the essences of turpentine and of lemon, etc., -also interfere with, and destroy alcoholic fermentation.</p> - -<p>“Phosphoric and arsenious acids are, on the contrary, inactive.”</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</span> -Experiments have shown that sparks of electricity passing through -yeast do not modify its power of changing cane sugar into glucose, nor -its activity as an alcoholic ferment. Fermentation is slower in the -dark, and also in a vacuum. Flour of sulphur did not sensibly affect -fermentation, but the carbonic acid evolved contained sulphuretted -hydrogen. Sulphurous acid, however, arrests fermentation. Yeast is -always acid, but an addition of an excess of different acids arrests -the decomposition of sugar. If one hundred times the amount of acid -contained in the yeast is added, fermentation does not take place.</p> - -<p>M. Dumas has shown the action of various salts on yeast, but the -subject has little if any interest for the wine maker.</p> - -<p><b>Viscous or Mannitic Fermentation</b> is also excited, according to -Pasteur, by special ferment acting on glucose, transforming it into a -kind of gum or dextrin, mannite, and carbon dioxide. This ferment is -also formed of small globules united as in a necklace, whose diameter -varies from .000047 to .000055 of an inch. These globules, sown in a -saccharine liquid containing nutritive nitrogenous matter and mineral -substances, always give rise to viscous fermentation. One hundred parts -of cane sugar give: mannite, 51.09; gum, 45.48; and carbon dioxide, -6.18. The liquids which are most apt to produce viscous fermentation -can also undergo lactic and butyric fermentation, but in this case the -organized forms of life which are developed in the liquid are of a -different nature. The conditions of action necessary to these gummy and -mannitic ferments are the same as those which suit alcoholic ferment. -The most favorable temperature is 30° C. (86° F.) This fermentation is -what gives rise to the disease of wines, called by the French <i>la -graisse</i>, or ropiness. White wine is more subject to it than red, -and it is generally due to the want of tannin. -(See <a href="#ROPE"><i>Ropiness</i></a>.)</p> - -<p><b>Lactic Fermentation</b> is the transformation which certain sugars, -as sugar of milk and grape sugar, undergo, and by which they are -changed into lactic acid. This takes place in the souring of milk. -The most favorable temperature for it seems to be about 95° F. This -also depends on a special ferment. Sugar solutions are also capable of -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</span> -<i>butyric fermentation</i> and <i>putrefaction</i>, and we generally -see viscous, lactic, and butyric fermentation appear in succession.</p> - -<p><b>Acetic Fermentation</b> is to the wine maker and wine dealer, after -alcoholic fermentation, the most important.</p> - -<p>Fermentable matter and ferment are also concerned in it, but oxygen -also is necessary.</p> - -<p>It has long been known that the alcohol contained in fermented liquids, -such as wine, beer, etc., will disappear under certain circumstances, -and give place to vinegar or acetic acid, and that the air, or rather -its oxygen, plays a part in this reaction.</p> - -<p>To the chemist the reaction is simple, and is formulated thus:</p> - -<table class="fontsize_120 no-wrap" border="0" cellspacing="2" summary="Wine Vinegar" cellpadding="2" > - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl"><b>Alcohol.</b></td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"><b>Water.</b></td> - <td class="tdl"> <b>Acetic Acid.</b></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">C₂H₆O +</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">O₂ =</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">H₂O +</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">C₂H₄O₂,</td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p class="no-indent">or the oxidation may take place by two reactions, with the production -of an intermediate product, aldehyde:</p> - -<table class="fontsize_120 no-wrap" border="0" cellspacing="2" summary="Wine Vinegar" cellpadding="2" > - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl"><b>Alcohol.</b></td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdl"> <b>Aldehyde.</b></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">C₂H₆O +</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">O =</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">H₂O +</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">C₂H₄O,</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc" colspan ="4"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><b>Aldehyde.</b></td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> <b>Acetic Acid.</b></td> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">C₂H₄O +</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">O =</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">C₂H₄O₂</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> </td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p class="space-above1">According to Pasteur, the oxidation of -alcohol is the consequence of the action of a ferment or cryptogam, -<i>Mycoderma aceti</i>, and it makes its appearance on the surface of -liquids, while in acetic fermentation, in the form of a continuous -membrane, mother of vinegar, either wrinkled or smooth, which is -generally formed of very minute elongated cells, whose greater diameter -varies from .000059 to .000118 of an inch; these cells are united in -chains, or in the form of curved rods. Multiplication seems to be -effected by the transverse division of the fully developed cells. The -conditions of nutrition are similar to those suitable to the alcoholic -ferment, the hydro-carbon matter being supplied by dilute alcohol. It -may, however, be supplemented by the acetic acid itself; for if the -process is left too long to itself, the vinegar loses its strength by -being consumed. The most favorable temperature is between 76° and 82° F. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</span></p> - -<p>Antiseptic agents, which arrest the development of beer yeast, act -in the same manner on the <i>Mycoderma aceti</i>. Sulphurous acid is -especially active in this manner; hence the use of the sulphur match in -sulphuring wine casks.</p> - -<p>There is another ferment, <i>Mycoderma vini</i>, or flowers of wine, -which is found in wine and other alcoholic liquids exposed to the -air when fermentation is over or has become languid, which resembles -in many respects the acetic ferment. It has the power of producing -alcoholic fermentation, and is supposed by some to be derived from the -<i>Saccharomyces</i>. Like the <i>Mycoderma aceti</i>, it is developed -on the surface of fermented alcoholic liquors, in the form of smooth -or wrinkled films or membranes, but thicker and more compact. It grows -with great rapidity, and it has been calculated that one cell would, -in forty-eight hours, produce about 35,378 cells. These cells are -of various forms, ovoid, ellipsoidal, and cylindrical, with rounded -extremities. The ovoid cells have their greater diameter about .000236, -and their smaller one, .000157 of an inch. The cylinders have their -diameters .00047 × .000118 in. The nutritive principles are the same -as those of the mother of vinegar: alcohol, salts and nitrogenous -compounds. It also appears capable of utilizing for nutrition the -secondary products of alcoholic fermentation, such as succinic acid and -glycerine. Its development is most active between 61° and 86° F. -(See <a href="#Page_115"><i>Sherry</i></a>.)</p> - -<p><b>Origin of Ferments.</b>—In order to produce the different kinds of -fermentation, the necessary ferment must be added, unless it is already -contained in the fermentable matter or in the air. In the manufacture -of beer and bread, yeast must be used; the other kinds of fermentation, -except alcoholic, can generally be produced by the ferments or their -spores furnished by the atmosphere; but Pasteur, in the course of his -investigations, never produced alcoholic fermentation from spores found -in the air. But the germs of the <i>Saccharomyces cerevisiæ</i> and of -<i>Mycoderma vini</i> seem to be found only on the surface of fruits, -and their stems.<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</span> -These different germs, however, are all found in the must of grapes, -and in wine, and are ready to develop whenever favorable conditions -offer themselves, and produce diseases in the wine. It is found that -these germs are killed by raising the temperature of the liquid to 140° -F., and hence the process of heating wines to preserve them (<i>which see</i>).</p> - -<p>Leaving the germ theory of fermentation, we will pass to what is of -more practical importance.</p> - -<h3>ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION<br /> IN WINE MAKING.</h3> - -<p><b>Vinous or Alcoholic Fermentation</b> transforms the juice of the -grape into wine, and, as already shown, is caused by the yeast or -ferment, which finds its way into the must; and by this fermentation -the sugar of the grape is changed principally into alcohol, and carbon -dioxide, or carbonic acid gas. And in order to show the relations -between the sugar and the alcohol produced, it is necessary to say -something about the chemical constituents of each.</p> - -<p><b>Sugar.</b>—In general terms, cane sugar may be expressed by the -chemical formula, C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁, or, in other words, one molecule contains -12 atoms of carbon, 22 of hydrogen, and 11 of oxygen.</p> - -<p>And the general term glucose, or grape sugar, may be expressed by the -formula C₆H₁₂O₁₆, or one molecule contains 6 atoms of carbon, 12 of -hydrogen, and 6 of oxygen.</p> - -<p>If, instead of using the word atoms, we use the word pounds, the -chemical formula may be made clear to the unscientific. Taking the -formula for cane sugar, already given, it simply means that 342 pounds -contain the following ingredients, in the following proportions:</p> - -<table class="fontsize_120" border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Annual Shipments" cellpadding="0" > - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdc" colspan="4"> </td> - <td class="tdr">lbs.</td> - <td class="tdr">lbs.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc"> 12 </td> - <td class="tdc">parts</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">carbon, each</td> - <td class="tdc"> weighing </td> - <td class="tdr">12, </td> - <td class="tdr"> 144</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">22</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">hydrogen,</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdr">1, </td> - <td class="tdr"> 22</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">11</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">oxygen,</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdr">16, </td> - <td class="tdr bb2">176</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc" colspan="5"> </td> - <td class="tdr">342</td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</span> -And the formula for glucose means that 180 pounds contain:</p> - -<table class="fontsize_120" border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Annual Shipments" cellpadding="0" > - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdc" colspan="4"> </td> - <td class="tdr"> lbs. </td> - <td class="tdr">lbs.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">6</td> - <td class="tdc">parts</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">of carbon,</td> - <td class="tdc"> @ </td> - <td class="tdr">12, </td> - <td class="tdr">72</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc"> 12 </td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">hydrogen,</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdr">1, </td> - <td class="tdr">12</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">6</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">oxygen,</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdr">16, </td> - <td class="tdr bb2">96</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc" colspan="5"> </td> - <td class="tdr">180</td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p>And the formula for water means that 18 pounds contain:</p> - -<table class="fontsize_120" border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Annual Shipments" cellpadding="0" > - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdc" colspan="4"> </td> - <td class="tdr"> lbs. </td> - <td class="tdr">lbs.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc"> 2 </td> - <td class="tdc">parts</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">of hydrogen,</td> - <td class="tdc"> @ </td> - <td class="tdr">1, </td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">1</td> - <td class="tdc">part </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">“ oxygen,</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdr">16, </td> - <td class="tdr bb2">16</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc" colspan="5"> </td> - <td class="tdr">18</td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p>In fermentation, it is glucose which is immediately transformed, -although cane sugar ferments also; but, before doing so, it becomes -changed or inverted into glucose, and one molecule takes up a molecule -of water, and produces two of glucose, thus:</p> - -<table class="fontsize_120 no-wrap" border="0" cellspacing="2" summary="Glucose" cellpadding="2" > - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl"><b>Cane Sugar.</b></td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"><b>Water.</b></td> - <td class="tdc"> <b>Glucose.</b></td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁</td> - <td class="tdl"> + </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">H₂O =</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"><b>2</b> C₆H₁₂O₆</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">342</td> - <td class="tdc">+</td> - <td class="tdc"> 18   =</td> - <td class="tdc"> 2 × 180 =</td> - <td class="tdc"> 360.</td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p>Or, in the production of alcohol, 100 lbs. of pure cane sugar are equal -to 105.26 lbs. of pure grape sugar.</p> - -<p>The general formula for alcohol is <b>C₂H₆O</b>, and for carbonic acid <b>CO₂</b>.</p> - -<p><b>Alcohol by Weight and by Volume.</b>—The quantity of alcohol -contained in a given mixture of alcohol and water may be expressed -as per cent. by weight, or per cent. by volume. The first method is -usually used by chemists, and the second in commerce. If we have 100 -lbs. of a mixture of alcohol and water of which 10 lbs. are alcohol and -90 lbs. water, it contains 10 per cent. of alcohol by <i>weight</i>. -If, however, we have 100 gallons of a mixture in which there are 10 -gallons of alcohol and 90 gallons of water, we say that it contains 10 -per cent. by <i>volume</i> of alcohol. This will serve to illustrate -the meaning of the terms per cent. by volume and by weight, although it -is well known that, owing to shrinkage, 10 gallons of alcohol and 90 -gallons of water do not produce quite 100 gallons of mixture. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</span></p> - -<p>Whenever merchants and wine makers use the term per cent. of alcohol, -they mean per cent. by volume or measure; and whenever the expression -is used in this work, it is used in that sense, unless otherwise -expressed.</p> - -<p><b>Fermentation—Its Products.—Per cent. Sugar to per cent. -Alcohol.</b>—In theory, glucose, during the process of fermentation, -is entirely changed into alcohol and carbonic acid; the two substances -produced containing the same elements as glucose, and no others. If -there was no loss of sugar, or degeneration, as it is called, the -reaction would be exactly expressed as follows:</p> - -<table class="fontsize_120 no-wrap" border="0" cellspacing="2" summary="Glucose" cellpadding="2" > - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdc"><b>Glucose.</b></td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"><b>Alcohol.</b></td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"><b>Carbonic<br /> Acid.</b></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">C₆H₁O₆</td> - <td class="tdc">=</td> - <td class="tdc"><b>2</b> C₂H₆O</td> - <td class="tdc">+</td> - <td class="tdc"><b>2</b> CO₂</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">180</td> - <td class="tdc">=</td> - <td class="tdc">92</td> - <td class="tdc">+</td> - <td class="tdc">88</td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p>And the old authorities said, if 180 parts of glucose produce -92 of alcohol, 100 will produce 51.1111, thus:</p> - -<p class="f120">180 : 92 :: 100 : <i>x</i> = 51.1111,</p> - -<table class="no-wrap" border="0" cellspacing="2" summary="Glucose" cellpadding="2" > - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl">leaving the balance to be accounted for by carbonic acid</td> - <td class="tdl bb2">48.8889</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">100</td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p>And again, if it takes 100 parts of glucose to produce 51.1111 alcohol, -how much does it take to produce 1 per cent. by weight?</p> - -<p class="f120">51.1111 : 1 :: 100 : <i>x</i> = 1.9565.</p> - -<p>These figures are now true only of that part of the sugar which is -transformed into alcohol and carbon dioxide.</p> - -<p><b>Different Authors.</b>—Pasteur has shown that a portion of the -glucose was changed into succinic acid and glycerine, and as the result -of one of the experiments which he gives, out of a large number, it -appears that 100 parts of glucose produce about 48.46 of alcohol, and -it would require 2.063 to produce 1 per cent. of alcohol by weight, and -1.65 to produce 1 per cent. by volume.</p> - -<p>But this eminent chemist’s experiments were conducted in the -laboratory, and under the most favorable circumstances, so that no loss -by evaporation could occur—conditions under which fermentation on a -large scale is never carried on. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</span></p> - -<p>Dr. Guyot states that it takes about 1.5 per cent. of grape sugar to -produce 1 per cent. of alcohol, which is even less than is required -according to Pasteur, and is manifestly too little. And the statement -has been made, that a must containing 20 per cent. of sugar will -produce 13 per cent. of alcohol, which is impossible.</p> - -<p>J. J. Griffin quotes Pasteur, and estimating the average loss to be -4½ per cent. of the sugar, deduces the figures .4881 as the per cent. -by weight of alcohol produced by 1 per cent. of grape sugar. Dubief -says that it takes 1.7 per cent. of cane sugar to produce 1 per cent. -of alcohol by volume. Mr. Joseph Boussingault gives his experiments -on musts fermented in small vessels under conditions similar to those -under which fermentation is carried on in wine making on a large scale; -and the result of his researches is that the product in alcohol is -about 90 per cent. of what the chemical theory calls for: say, .46 by -weight for 1 of sugar, or 1.7 + glucose for 1 per cent. of alcohol by -volume. Mr. M. Boussingault gives it as the result of his experiment, -that it takes 1.8 per cent. of sugar to produce 1 per cent. of alcohol.</p> - -<p>So that it is pretty safe to say that it takes on an average about -1.8 of sugar to make 1 of alcohol, making some allowance for loss by -evaporation, etc.</p> - -<p>As has already been stated in the chapter on Musts, 1 per cent. for -every 12 should be deducted from the percentage of sugar shown by the -hydrometer for other matters than sugar.</p> - -<p>If, therefore, we have a must which shows 24° by the saccharometer, -we will deduct two, and call the remainder 22, sugar. Although it is -not strictly correct to say that 22 divided by 1.8 will give the per -cent. of alcohol which may be expected after fermentation, owing to the -well known variation between per cent. by weight and by volume, as the -figures increase, yet it is sufficient for all practical purposes.</p> - -<p>Let us then divide 22, the supposed sugar in the must, by 1.8, the -amount required to produce 1 per cent. of alcohol, and we obtain 12 and -a fraction. Now the total indication by the saccharometer was 24 per -cent.; if we divide this by two we get the same result in round numbers. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</span></p> - -<p>Hence the rule: one-half of the figure indicating the total per cent. -by the saccharometer (hydrometer) is approximately the per cent. of -alcohol to be expected in the wine.</p> - -<p>Owing to the fact that the loss by evaporation and degeneration may -vary greatly in different cases, this will be only a rough estimate, -but it will prove as satisfactory as any method that can be adopted, -and it corresponds very closely with the statement made by N. Basset, -that in actual practice, a must of 20 per cent. gives only 7.88 per -cent. of alcohol by weight, which corresponds with 10 per cent. by -volume, nearly; and it is the rule given by Petiot and Dr. Gall for a -natural must.</p> - -<p>It seems, however, from what follows below, that this is only true of -a normal must, but that a different rule applies to one of a very high -degree of sugar.</p> - -<p><b>Limits of Sugar and Spirit.</b>—It is said that when a solution or -a must contains over 35 per cent. of sugar, it will not ferment; nor -will a wine or other alcoholic mixture which contains 20 per cent. of -spirit ferment. Boireau says that the maximum of alcohol which a wine -can attain by the fermentation of the richest must is between 15 and -16 per cent., and those wines which show a higher degree have been -fortified. He says that the highest degree of spirit ever observed by -him in a natural red wine was 15.4 per cent., when it was a year old; -from that time the strength diminished, but the wine always remained sweet.</p> - -<p>There is, however, a remarkable case given, and which seems to be well -authenticated, of an Australian wine which contained naturally, by -fermentation, 32.4° of British proof spirit, which is equal to about -18.21 per cent. And Vizitelli states that Mr. Ellis, of the firm of -Graham & Co., asserts that perfectly fermented Alto Douro wine will -develop 32° proof spirit, or 18 per cent. of alcohol, and when made -exclusively from the Bastardo grape, as much as 34°, or about 19 per -cent. of spirit. And Mr. Vizitelli adds that he is satisfied from what -he saw at Jerez, that sherry wines which have had merely 1 or 2 per -cent. of spirit added to them will in the course of time indicate 34°. -To produce these results would seem to require more than 35 per cent. of -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</span> -sugar, according to our rule; but while it is approximately correct -to say that 2 per cent. of sugar produces 1 per cent. of alcohol as -long as we are dealing with a must of 24 or 25 per cent. and under, it -may not be true of a must of 30 to 35 per cent., for the other solid -matters probably do not increase in proportion to the sugar. Therefore, -to reconcile this high degree of alcohol with the statement that a must -containing over 35 per cent. of sugar will not ferment, we must use -Pasteur’s figures, and then we will find that by them 35 per cent. of -sugar is capable of producing over 20 per cent. of alcohol.</p> - -<p><b>Temperature.</b>—The temperature most favorable to -fermentation—that is, at which it commences most promptly, and goes -on the most rapidly—is between 77° and 95° F., and it does not cease -until the temperature descends below 49°, or rises above 140°. If -the temperature is favorable, fermentation ought to commence in ten -or twelve hours from the time the pomace is put into the vat, or the -juice into the barrel. In countries where the weather is cold at the -wine making season, it is necessary that the grapes should be gathered -in the heat of the day, or fermentation will be long in commencing; -and if the weather continues unfavorable, so that the grapes do not -become warmed by the sun, it is even necessary to heat a portion of the -must artificially, and pour it into the vats or casks, or to raise the -temperature of the fermenting house.</p> - -<p>Mr. Maumené also recommends that the vats be surrounded with mats -of loose straw, four or five inches thick, to be kept in place by a -covering of linen cloth; and in this way the temperature produced by -the fermentation may be maintained in cool weather, without resorting -to fires in the fermenting house.</p> - -<p>It is not necessary, however, that the temperature of the surrounding -atmosphere should be as high as that indicated as most favorable to -fermentation; for it commences readily in a temperature of about 70°, -and the liquid will soon rise to 85° or 95°, by the heat developed -during the process; and unless the surrounding temperature descends -below 65°, this heat will be maintained, and the fermentation will not -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</span> -be checked. Dr. Guyot says, however, that, to make fine wines, it -should be maintained at 68°, at least; and that, in other cases, it -should not be allowed to fall below 60°.</p> - -<p><b>Fermenting Houses.</b>—It is important not only that fermentation -should commence promptly, but that it should be maintained regularly; -and although a great amount of heat is developed by fermentation, yet -the must is liable to cool during the night and cold days, unless the -vats and casks are protected from the change of temperature, whereby -the fermentation may be checked, to the injury of the wine. The natural -conclusion is that the must ought to be fermented in closed places. In -California, however, it is not necessary to construct the fermenting -house with the same care required in colder climates, where it is -deemed desirable to furnish them with double windows and doors. It -cannot be denied that good wine is made in this State, in places where -the vats remain out of doors, shaded only by trees; but the practice -is not to be encouraged, for the fermentation will be checked if the -temperature of the surrounding atmosphere goes to 60° and below. In -constructing a fermenting house, it ought to be so arranged, when -practicable, as to be on a lower level than that of the stemmer and -crusher, and higher than the cellar; for then the pomace and must -can be run immediately into the vats and casks, and, after the first -fermentation, the wine can be drawn off through a hose into the casks -in the cellar, thereby saving time and labor.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI.<br /> -<span class="h_subtitle">RED WINE.</span></h2> -</div> - -<p>Red wines are made from colored grapes, and the color is extracted from -the skins during fermentation. The coloring matter is blue, but is -changed to red by the action of the acids in the must. -(See <a href="#Page_39"><i>Coloring Matter</i></a>—<a href="#Page_192"><i>Oenocyanine</i></a>.) -In order to develop this color, the grapes are fermented, skins and -juice together, and the press is only brought into requisition after -the first fermentation is completed.</p> - -<p><b>Fermenting Tanks or Vats.</b>—The tanks or vats in which red -wine is fermented, in France are generally made of oak, sometimes of -masonry, but in this State redwood has been almost universally adopted, -and I am not aware of any serious inconveniences from its use. It is -advisable before using them the first time, to steam them for several -hours, or thoroughly soak them to extract the coloring matter of the wood.</p> - -<p>The capacity depends upon the quantity of wine to be made in a season, -varying from 1000 gallons to 2500 gallons and more, and a sufficient -number should be provided that when wine making has commenced, it can -be carried on without interruption till the crop is worked up. The -number of workmen must be considered as well as the amount of grapes, -and everything ought to be so arranged that the fermentation will be -finished in the first tank filled, by the time the last one is full, so -that the first can be emptied and filled again, and then the second, -and so on. A hole must be bored in each vat two or three inches from -the bottom by which to draw the wine through a faucet. And some kind of -a strainer must be put over this hole inside to keep back the marc—a -piece of perforated tin, a grating of small sticks, or a bundle of -straw or vine cuttings kept in place by a stone.</p> - -<p><b>Filling the Tanks.</b>—In order that the whole mass in one tank may -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</span> -be equally fermented, it should receive its full complement of grapes -in one day. By putting in part of the grapes one day and part another, -not only will some of them complete their fermentation before the -others, but the addition of fresh grapes to the fermenting mass will -interrupt the fermentation, and prove injurious to the wine. The -vats must not be filled to their full capacity, for during violent -fermentation the marc, consisting of skins and seeds, or those with the -stems, rises to the top, brought up by the bubbles of carbonic acid -which are constantly rising, and a portion of the boiling and foaming -mass may be carried over the top, and much wine thereby be lost. They -should only be filled to within a foot or a foot and a half of the top, -and a little experience will show the proper practice. Guyot says that -they should only be filled to five-sixths of their capacity at most. -Another reason for not filling the tank is that a layer of carbonic -acid gas will occupy the space left vacant by the pomace, and prevent -the contact of the air and the consequent souring of the wine, by the -changing of a portion of the alcohol into acetic acid—vinegar.</p> - -<p>Red wine is fermented in open vats, vats loosely covered, or in vats -hermetically sealed, and good wine is made in each way.</p> - -<p><b>In Open Vats</b>, other conditions being equally favorable, -fermentation commences more promptly and is sooner ended, owing to the -free access of the air, a certain amount of oxygen, as already shown, -being necessary to fermentation. Although fermentation will continue -away from the air when once started, it will be slow. The objections to -open vats are, that although there is a layer of carbonic acid resting -above the must, yet it is liable to be disturbed and become mixed with -the air, and if the fermentation is long continued, a portion of the -wine may become sour. Those who employ open tanks should also avail -themselves of those conditions under which the wine will complete its -fermentation in a few days, and should draw off promptly.</p> - -<p><b>Closed Vats.</b>—By using closed vats fermentation will be longer -in commencing, and will proceed more slowly, but as already intimated, -the wine can with safety be left longer in them than in open tanks. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</span> -When it is necessary to develop much color, it would be advisable to -use covered tanks, for the longer the wine is left in contact with the -skins, the darker it becomes. The covering should be close enough to -prevent the immediate contact of the open air, and yet allow the escape -of gas—of close boards, but not luted, unless provided with a safety valve.</p> - -<div class="figcontainer"> - <div class="figsub"> - <p class="f120"><i>Fig. 5.</i></p> - <img id="FIG_5" src="images/i_041a.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="389" /> - </div> - <div class="figsub"> - <img src="images/i_041b.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="232" /> - </div> -</div> -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_041c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="234" /> -</div> - -<p><b>The Best Practice</b>, however, in all cases, whether the vats -are closed or not, is to have a false head resting directly upon the -pomace, and which will keep the latter submerged during the whole -process of fermentation. In this way good color will be developed, and -the marc will be kept from the air, and the danger of souring will be -avoided. In <a href="#FIG_5">figure 5</a>, <i>A</i> represents a fermenting -vat with the front half removed, showing the false head in place.</p> - -<p>This head is made of several pieces which can be laid one by one upon -the pomace, and maybe perforated with auger holes as represented in -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</span> -<i>C</i>, or may be a wooden grating, <i>D</i>. These pieces or sections -together constitute the head <i>B</i>, and are kept in place by two -cross pieces, <i>e e</i>, which are held down by blocks bolted or -pinned to the inside of the tank. <i>G</i> is a stave with a block, -<i>f</i>, attached, and <i>H</i> the same, showing the cross piece, -<i>e</i>, slipped under it. When the tank is filled to the required -height, the false head is put in, resting on the pomace, the ends -of the cross pieces are slipped under the blocks, and everything is -ready. As soon as the fermentation becomes violent, the whole will be -submerged in the bubbling wine.</p> - -<p><b>Hermetically Sealed Tanks.</b>—Closely covered tanks must be -provided with a safety valve or pipe for the discharge of carbonic acid -gas, leading and discharging into a vessel of water, which completely -prevents contact with the air. Under pressure the fermentation is much -slower, and is not so complete. Yet great advantages are claimed for -this method by some writers who maintain that by keeping the cover cool -with wet straw or cloth, or by using a safety tube in the form of a -worm passing through a condenser on the top of the vat, the vapors are -condensed and fall back into the liquid, preventing loss of alcohol, -and increasing the aroma, and that the wine acquires a superior -fineness and velvety smoothness under the pressure of the gas. Boireau -says that this latter quality is caused by the complete dissolution of -the mucilaginous matters; and Pasteur has shown that more glycerine is -produced when the fermentation is slow, which may contribute to the -mellowness and smoothness.</p> - -<p><b>Practice in the Médoc.</b>—Mr. Boireau says that the greater part -of the grand red wines of the Médoc, the prime St. Emilion, and the -prime Graves, are fermented in closed vats; though a certain number of -the viniculturists still follow the old custom, and make their wine in -open vats.</p> - -<p><b>Stirring the Pomace in the Vats.</b>—In Burgundy, and in some other -parts of France, it is considered necessary to give the mass a thorough -stirring (<i>foulage</i>) during the active fermentation, in order that -all parts may be equally exposed to the action of the ferment, and also -that a good color may be developed; and for this purpose men enter into -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</span> -the vats and thoroughly mix the pomace and stir it about with their -naked bodies and limbs, a practice not only disgusting in the extreme, -but dangerous for the men, who are exposed to the poisonous effects of -carbonic acid. It is by no means a general practice, and is of doubtful -utility, even if it should be done by other agents than the naked human body.</p> - -<p>It is evident that two opposing forces are at work when the must -is stirred during fermentation. By the aeration fermentation would -naturally be increased; but Dr. Guyot shows that stirring actually -diminishes its activity, and he advocates the practice in order -that the fermentation be not too tumultuous. The temperature of the -surrounding atmosphere being lower than that of the fermenting mass, -aeration by stirring must, by lowering the temperature, diminish the -activity of the fermentation. Mr. Haraszthy, in his lecture before -the Convention of Viniculturists in 1882, recommended that the mass -be stirred when the fermentation commences to lag, on the theory that -by thus mixing again the yeast with the liquid, so exposing it again -completely to the action of the ferment, fermentation would start again -with renewed vigor. It can easily be stirred with poles provided with -shoulders or short cross pieces.</p> - -<p>It has already been stated that the must is sufficiently aerated by -crushing the grapes with rollers, and where the vats are provided -with a false head to keep the pomace submerged, the wine will have -sufficient color without the stirring; and it would seem that the wine -would clear sooner if the lees were not stirred into it near the end -of fermentation. <i>Where the vats are not covered, and the grapes are -not stemmed and not kept submerged</i>, a crust or cap is formed on the -top of the fermenting mass, which sours and rots if long exposed to -the air, and the mixing of this with the liquid has a most deleterious -effect upon the wine.</p> - -<p><b>When to Draw from the Vats.</b>—When the first or active -fermentation in the vats is completed, the new wine must be drawn off -into pipes, and thus be separated from the marc, consisting of skins, -seeds, and sometimes stems, and also from the heavy lees which has -settled in the vats, and it is important to know the proper time to do this. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</span></p> - -<p>The duration of active fermentation depends upon several causes and -conditions as already indicated, such as heat, the amount of sugar -contained in the must, whether the vats are covered or open, the -immersion of the marc, and whether the grapes are stemmed, etc. It may -be completed in four or five days, or it may continue for fifteen or -twenty days. In case of musts poor in sugar it may rarely terminate in -twenty-four hours. In some parts of France the grapes are allowed to -macerate for weeks and even months (for they cannot ferment actively -for that length of time), and what might be good wine, thus is often spoiled.</p> - -<p><b>The Objections to Long Vatting</b> are that the marc will absorb -an undue amount of alcohol, as is shown when it is submitted to -distillation in brandy making, for marcs which have remained long in -the vats with the wine yield more spirits, and, of course, the wine is -deprived of so much strength. This objection, however, would have but -little force where the grapes are stemmed. Another and more serious -objection is, that by a long exposure to the air which is apt to take -place when the vats are not closely covered, some of the alcohol will -be changed to vinegar, and the wine will rapidly degenerate, and become -sour. Long contact with the seeds, skins and stems also produces a -foreign taste in the wine known to the French as <i>goût de râpe</i>, -stem flavor; and it is obvious that if the marc is allowed to remain -in the liquid till it macerates and rots, it will acquire a still more -disagreeable aroma and flavor. It is also said that some varieties -of grapes which will not produce a wine with a bouquet, when allowed -to remain long in the tank, will develop it in a vatting of short -duration. The only advantage to be gained by leaving a wine in the vat -after the active fermentation is finished, is in the way of color. -When it is desirable—if it ever is—to produce a dark-colored wine -at the expense of other good qualities, it may be left in the vat to -<i>soak</i>. Such wines have their use, and that is to mix with those -which lack color, but it is much better to mix in a quantity of grapes -which naturally produce good color.</p> - -<p><b>In making Fine Wines</b>, a dark color is not looked for nor -desired, but rather a bright and lively red; and they should be allowed -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</span> -to remain in the vat only long enough to convert the greater part of -the sugar into alcohol.</p> - -<p><b>How to Know when to Draw from the Vat.</b>—It is said in general -terms that the wine should be drawn from the vat when the active -fermentation is finished. This is known by the taste of the wine by -those long familiar with the vinous flavor which takes the place of the -sweet taste of the sugar; it is also recognized by the cessation of the -production of carbonic acid and the consequent bubbling, the falling -of the temperature, the settling down of the marc, and by the clearing -of the liquid. If the must or new wine shows from 0° to 1° by Baumé’s -hydrometer, or from 0° to 2° by Balling’s saccharometer, nearly all -the sugar will have been converted into alcohol; I say nearly all, for -all the sugar is not converted till long after the wine is drawn from -the vat. Boireau says that the fermentation is yet incomplete when the -hydrometer marks several degrees of density, and the liquid is warm, -sweetish, and muddy. He says, moreover, that care should be taken that -active fermentation has entirely ceased before putting the wine in -pipes, for if it is still sweetish and fermenting, it will remain sweet -a long time, and ferments will often remain in suspension, which will -render the wine difficult to clear, and liable to ferment and become sour.</p> - -<p><b>Method of Drawing from Vats and filling Casks.</b>—If the pipes are -on the same level with the vat, or higher, the new wine is run from the -vat through a faucet into buckets and carried in them to the casks and -poured into these through a funnel, or is run into a large receptacle -or tub placed immediately under the faucet and pumped into the casks -by means of a force pump. But the more expeditious way is to have the -casks ranged on a level lower than the bottom of the fermenting tank, -and then to run the wine directly into them through a hose attached -to the faucet. Of course, careful men must be in attendance to watch -the operation, and close the faucet as soon as the cask is filled, and -immediately transfer the hose to an empty one, so that the wine may not -run over and waste. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</span></p> - -<p>Where the wine is drawn from more than one vat, it should be equally -distributed through all the casks, so that the quality may be as nearly -uniform as possible. If the press wine is to be mixed with the vat -wine, the casks should only be filled to three-fourths or four-fifths -of their capacity, in order to leave room for the former.</p> - -<div id="FIG_6" class="figcontainer"> - <p class="f120"><i>Fig. 6.</i></p> - <div class="figsub"> - <img src="images/i_046a.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="201" /> - </div> - <div class="figsub"> - <img src="images/i_046b.jpg" alt="" width="250" height="223" /> - </div> - <p class="f120">Wine Presses.</p> -</div> - -<p><b>Wine Presses.</b>—Wine presses are constructed in several different -forms, and the force is applied by means of a simple lever, consisting -of a long timber weighted at the end and rigged with a rope and pulley -to raise and lower it, or by means of a large screw. Hydraulic presses -are also used in large establishments. It is not necessary here to give -a detailed description of a press of either kind, for the prospective -wine maker will examine the different ones and see them in action, -and choose according to his means and necessities. <a href="#FIG_6">Fig. 6</a> -represents screw presses. A very simple one, however, and which can be made -by any carpenter, consists of a box two or three feet square, and a foot -or more high. This box, however, is made up of sections, each of which -is five or six inches high; and they should be constructed of strong -two-inch timber, well mortised together, and perforated with small -holes through which the wine may ooze out. The height, and consequently -the capacity of the box or receptacle will depend upon the number of -sections used. A broad board constitutes the bottom of the press and -should be larger than the receptacle itself, and be provided with a rim -open in the middle of the lower side, and having a shallow spout for -the wine to run through. This bottom is firmly placed so as to incline -slightly forward, the sections are placed on it, one on the other, till -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</span> -the box is of the desired height, then the marc from the vat is filled -in and a head or follower fitted to the inside of the box is placed on -the marc, and pressure is applied with a lever. This lever is a strong -piece of timber with its fulcrum end placed in a mortise in a large -tree, or adjusted in any other suitable manner, allowing free play to -the other end to which is attached the rope and pulley to facilitate -its movement.</p> - -<p><b>Pressing and Press Wine.</b>—In the manufacture of all but fine -wines, it is the usual practice to mix the press wine with the wine -from the vat. And as the wine remaining in the pomace is about -one-fourth of the whole, it will be equally distributed among all the -casks by filling with it the vacancy left in them. If a light pressure -is first applied, the wine of the first pressing will differ but little -from the vat wine. After this, however, the marc should be spaded and -stirred and pressure applied again, and the process repeated till the -wine no longer flows. During the last pressing it is necessary to apply -so much force that a great amount of coloring matter is pressed from -the skins, and tannin from the seeds, and also from the stems when not -removed, and the advantage of color may be more than counterbalanced by -the excess of tannin. There may be danger of giving the wine too much -astringency by mixing the last pressings.</p> - -<p><b>Special Practice for Fine Wines.</b>—Mr. Boireau indicates the -practice in making common wines, as follows, as a warning to those who -can make fine wines. He says that the wine which the marc contains -is removed by pressing it almost to dryness, and that the wine thus -obtained is very muddy, very harsh, and sometimes sour, particularly -when the upper part of the crust has not been removed, where open -vats are used and the marc not submerged. The greater part of the -proprietors of the ordinary growths have the deplorable habit of mixing -the press wine, without clearing it, with the limpid part drawn from -the vat. He says that it should be kept separate, or otherwise the -better part of the wine will be made muddy and difficult to clear.</p> - -<h3>TREATMENT OF RED WINE.</h3> - -<p><b>Insensible Fermentation.</b>—After the wine has undergone its active -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</span> -fermentation, has been drawn from the vat and been filled into casks, -the latter should be at once stored in a suitable place above ground -of even, moderate temperature, or in an underground cellar whose -temperature is not much below 60° F. The new wine still contains some -sugar, and a slow fermentation goes on, bubbles of gas are given off, -and sediment falls to the bottom. This is called the secondary or -insensible fermentation, and when this is finished and no more gas -arises, the wine has become clear. A good deal of the carbonic acid -that rises in bubbles is not produced by the insensible fermentation, -but has become dissolved in the wine during the active fermentation, -and is gradually given off with the new gas produced. While the gas is -produced in the cask, it must not be closely bunged, but the bung-holes -should be loosely covered with a vine leaf, a block, an inverted bung, -or a bag of sand, so that the gas may escape. Various patent bungs have -been devised with the same object.</p> - -<p>The wine should be tasted at each filling of the cask during this -period to ascertain whether the insensible fermentation has entirely -ceased, which may be known from the fact that it has lost the peculiar -pungent flavor of the carbonic acid. As soon as this fermentation is -ended, the casks should be tightly bunged with conical bungs, which can -be easily removed during the period when it is necessary to fill up -frequently.</p> - -<p><b>Ulling or Filling Up.</b>—Owing to the escape of gas and to -evaporation, vacant spaces are rapidly formed in the casks which must -be filled with the same kind of wine as that contained in them. It is -well to keep a certain amount of the wine of each vintage in smaller -vessels, to be used for this purpose, such as barrels, kegs, demijohns, -and bottles, according to the extent of the vintage. If one vessel is -partly emptied, the remaining wine should be put into a smaller one. It -is absolutely necessary that all of the casks be kept full or the wine -will spoil. (See exceptions under <a href="#CHAPTER_XIV"><i>Sweet Wine</i></a>.) -For this purpose, during the first week they should be filled every day or -two, then two or three times the next week, and later, once a week, once in -two weeks, and finally once a month. This is governed a good deal by the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</span> -rapidity of the evaporation, which depends upon the cellar or place -of storage. This operation is performed by means of any vessel with -which the wine can easily be poured into the bung-hole; the convenient -utensil, however, is a vessel in the form of a small watering pot with -a long spout, with which the bung can easily be reached. (Figs. <a href="#FIG_7">7</a> -and <a href="#FIG_8">8</a>.) A good substitute is an ordinary tin funnel with a -flexible rubber tube attached to the small opening. Where the casks are piled up -in the cellar so that the bungs cannot otherwise be reached, a funnel called -the Z funnel (<a href="#FIG_9">fig. 9</a>) is used, which is provided with a long -spout or tube turning at right angles to the upper part, and whose tip turns -down, and which can easily be passed between the casks to the bung. If, -however, the bung cannot be reached, a small hole is bored in the upper -part of the head of the cask, and the wine put in with a Z funnel whose -tube turns at right angles but does not turn down at the tip (<a href="#FIG_10">fig. 10</a>.) -The vent is opened in the highest part of the bulge, and wine is poured -into the funnel whose tip is in the end hole till it rises to the vent, -which is then closed, and the funnel is removed and the hole closed.</p> - -<div class="figcontainer"> - <div class="figsub"> - <p id="FIG_7" class="f120"><i>Fig. 7.</i></p> - <img src="images/i_049a.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="245" /> - </div> - <div class="figsub"> - <p id="FIG_8" class="f120"><i>Fig. 8.</i></p> - <img src="images/i_049b.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="199" /> - </div> - <p class="f120 space-below2">Ulling Pots.</p> -</div> - -<div class="figcontainer"> - <div class="figsub"> - <p id="FIG_9" class="f120"><i>Fig. 9.</i></p> - <img src="images/i_049c.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="113" /> - <p class="f120">Z Funnel.</p> - </div> - <div class="figsub"> - <p id="FIG_10" class="f120"><i>Fig. 10.</i></p> - <img src="images/i_049d.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="101" /> - <p class="f120">Z Funnel.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p>As some wine is liable to be lost in ulling a cask whose bung is out -of sight, to avoid this, an instrument in the form of a watering pot, -similar to figs. <a href="#FIG_7">7</a> and <a href="#FIG_8">8</a>, has been devised, -but whose top is entirely covered, the wine being poured into it through a tube which -is closed with a cork when in use. The vent is near the tip of the spout on the -under side, so that the wine will run as long as the cask is not full, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</span> -but will stop as soon as the vent is covered by the wine rising in the -cask. It is convenient to have a stopcock on the spout.</p> - -<p>Many of these implements are provided with a socket to hold a candle.</p> - -<p><b>Summary of the Rules for the Treatment of New Red Wines.</b></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>1. Put the casks, well bunged, in a cellar or other well closed -place, and keep them constantly full, by frequently and regularly -filling them with wine of the same kind.</p> - -<p>2. Rack the wine as soon as the insensible fermentation has ceased -and the wine has become limpid, <i>i. e.</i>, about December; rack -again before the vernal equinox; towards the summer solstice; and also -near the autumnal equinox. Racking should always be done, if possible, -during cool weather. (See <a href="#CHAPTER_XII"><i>Racking</i></a>.)</p> - -<p>3. To prevent secondary fermentations, draw off the wine whenever by -tasting you recognize by the flavor that it is commencing to work.</p> -</div> - -<p>If the wines are bright, avoid fining, and so preserve their fruity -flavor; but if they remain muddy after the second racking, fine them -after the third drawing off with the whites of eggs, and leave them the -shortest possible time on the finings.</p> - -<p>Mr. Boireau says that by such treatment wines will be obtained limpid -and free from secondary fermentations, and that grand wines will so -preserve their fruity flavor; while if they are allowed to work again -after the cessation of the insensible fermentation, they will lose -their fruity flavor and mellowness, and become too dry. In order to -avoid this dryness produced by secondary fermentations, which will -considerably diminish the value of the wines, and especially of grand -wines, some wine makers place the casks with the bung on one side -after the June racking; this practice should not be followed, for the -elevation of the temperature at that season is liable to set them fermenting.</p> - -<p>The idea is in all cases to avoid mixing the lees with the wine, and if -young wines are to be shipped before the arrival of the period of the -first racking, they should nevertheless be carefully drawn off, if they -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</span> -have already become clear, for to mingle again the lees with wine, -predisposes it to secondary fermentations, and renders it difficult to -clarify.</p> - -<p><b>Treatment of Old Red Wines.</b>—Wines after the fourth racking -are treated as old wines. When they have acquired a clean taste, are -limpid and no longer ferment, the casks should be carefully filled and -tightly bunged, and they should be stored in a suitable place, with the -bung turned to one side. The bung being thus constantly wet swells and -exactly fills the hole, the wine keeps better, there is less loss by -evaporation, and constant filling up is avoided.</p> - -<p>If it happens that by bad treatment the wines are not clear and behave -badly, they should receive the necessary treatment, and be clarified -before permanently put away with the bung at the side.</p> - -<p>In cellars and other well closed places, old red wine, clean-tasting, -bright and quiet, stored in good, well hooped casks, need only two -rackings per year, one in March and the other in September, unless for -some reason it loses its limpidity by entering again into fermentation, -which will be discovered by tasting from time to time. In that case, -it should immediately be drawn off without regard to the date of the -former racking, and then fined.</p> - -<p>Care should be taken not to leave ullage in the cask of old wine, by -frequent samplings and tastings. And when it occurs, in order to avoid -its effects, the wine may immediately be drawn into a smaller cask, -and this is necessary more frequently in airy storehouses where the -evaporation is greater than in cellars.</p> - -<p>Boireau says that if these rules are carefully observed the wines will -improve, and develop all the qualities which by their nature they are -susceptible of acquiring. The greater or less degree of fineness which -they acquire by aging under proper conditions results principally from -two causes: The first is the deposit of coloring matter and divers -salts which the new wine contains in dissolution, and which become -insoluble by entering into new combinations, and which in their turn -are removed at each racking, with the lees; the second cause is the -transformation of the tannin, which gives the wine a certain degree of -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</span> -roughness, into gallic acid, and its extraction in the insoluble -combinations which it forms with the different principles contained in -the wine and with the finings which are introduced. It follows that old -wine loses part of its color and soluble salts, and a great part of the -tannin which it originally contained. Its taste is more delicate, its -flavor, which was masked by these different matters, comes out better, -its bouquet commences to develop, and its mellowness is more pronounced.</p> - -<p>These remarks are more particularly applicable to grand wines, for in -many of the ordinary ones the fruity flavor which they have when new -is lost before the end of the first year, because the mucilages and -pectine, which give them their mellowness, are either precipitated with -the lees or are destroyed by insensible fermentation. In general these -wines lack firmness, body and tannin, and many of them show a strong -tendency to lose their color.</p> - -<p>The time necessary for wines to remain in wood in order to acquire the -highest degree of perfection which they can acquire in casks, depends -upon the quality of the wine; wines of strength and body require more -time than feeble ones.</p> - -<p>Our author says that, on the average, the poorest wines of the Médoc -become bright about the end of two years, and if they are kept longer, -they lose their mellowness. But on the other hand, the firm and -full-bodied wines of the same localities require to remain in wood -a year longer to arrive at perfect maturity. Certain wines strongly -charged with tannin, coming from certain localities, and those made -from the <i>verdot</i> grape, are long in developing, but they keep so -much the longer.</p> - -<p>When they have attained their entire development and the separation of -the lees is complete, they must be bottled, for they will lose their -qualities if left in casks. In bottles they arrive at perfection; they -acquire bouquet while they preserve their mellowness, but in casks, -they finally lose their fruity flavor and velvety smoothness, and -become dry. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</span></p> - -<p>And he gives the following:</p> - -<p><b>Summary of Rules for the Care of Old Red Wines.</b></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>1. They should be kept in places perfectly closed, and before -turning the bung to one side, we should be satisfied that they are -perfectly bright, quiet, and well behaved.</p> - -<p>2. They should be drawn from the lees twice a year; the casks should -be kept full; and they should be kept from secondary fermentations by -watching and opportune racking.</p> - -<p>3. Keep down the loss by evaporation by all means possible, and -keep them in close cellars, in strong, well hooped casks, and avoid -ullage.</p> - -<p>4. Bottle them before they lose their fruity flavor, and as soon as -they cease to deposit.</p> -</div> - -<p>Thus will they acquire all the qualities of which by their nature they -are susceptible.</p> - -<p>But if they are kept in places to which the air has free access, the -evaporation will be great; and if the casks are left with ullage caused -by too frequent sampling, or too infrequent racking, they will work, -become dry, lose their mellowness, and become slightly affected by -acetic acid, produced by contact with the air.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII.<br /> -<span class="h_subtitle">WHITE WINE.</span></h2> -</div> - -<p><b>Made from both Red and White Grapes.</b>—As the color of grapes -resides entirely in the skins, with the exception of a few varieties -such as the <i>Tienturiers</i> and the American variety <i>Lenoir</i>, -which have colored juice, with these exceptions, white wine may be made -from both white and colored grapes.</p> - -<p><b>Differences between Red and White Wine.</b>—Instead of putting the -pomace into fermenting vats, it is taken immediately to the press, and -the juice is fermented by itself, free from stems, skins, and seeds, -and is therefore not only free from the coloring matter contained -in the skins, but also from the numerous matters that are contained -in red wine, extracted from the pomace during fermentation. It is -true that white wine may be made from white grapes by the process -that is employed in making red wine from colored grapes, but then it -ceases to be what is commonly called white wine, and possesses all -the characteristics of red wine except its color, which of itself has -little effect upon the wine, except to change its appearance; for -when white wine has been colored by the addition of a small quantity -of very dark wine, it remains white wine still in all its other -characteristics, and the difference is readily detected by experts.</p> - -<p><b>Hygienic effects of Red and of White Wine.</b>—Dr. Guyot says that -white wines generally are diffusible stimulants of the nervous system; -if they are light, they act rapidly upon the human organism, and excite -all its functions. But they escape as readily by the skin and excretory -organs, and their effect is of short duration. Red wines, on the other -hand, are tonic and persistent stimulants of the nerves, muscles, and -digestive organs; their action is slower and more prolonged; they do -not increase perspiration or the excretions, and their action generally -is astringent, persistent, and concentrated. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</span></p> - -<p><b>Process of Making.</b>—As the must comes from the press it is -either immediately run into casks, or is first put into a vat to -settle. In the latter case it is allowed to stand in the settling vat -from twelve to twenty-four hours, and a large portion of the yeasty -parts settle to the bottom, a thick scum rises to the surface, and the -must becomes partially cleared. The scum is then skimmed from the top, -and the liquid is drawn off into casks, leaving the heavy lees. By this -means a great part of the fermentive matter is immediately removed, and -the wine does not ferment as thoroughly nor as rapidly as it otherwise -would, and retains a portion of its sugar and its sweetness longer. In -the Champagne districts the musts for sparkling wines are thus treated. -If the weather is very warm, it may not be practicable to do this, -because fermentation will set in before the must has time to settle. -If, however, it is desired to make a dry wine, the must is not put into -a settling vat, but is run from the press directly into the casks.</p> - -<p><b>The Barrels</b> in which white wine is fermented and stored are -generally of small size, of a capacity of from 30 to 150 gallons, or -say 50 or 60 gallons on an average, and it is considered in France that -it preserves its good qualities in casks of moderate size better than -in large ones. It is to be understood, however, that it is considered -advisable in most parts of France that white wine should retain a -portion of its sweetness and be mellow rather than dry; but if it is -desirable to make a dry wine, larger casks may be used for fermenting -and storing. (But see <a href="#Page_60"><i>Summary of Rules</i></a>, -below, and <a href="#CHAPTER_VIII"><i>Casks</i></a>.)</p> - -<p><b>Filling the Barrels during Fermentation.</b>—A question upon which -there is some difference of opinion, is whether the casks should be -immediately filled to their full capacity and kept filled up during -the first fermentation, so that the scum and foam will be thrown out -of the bung, or whether a vacant space shall be left in each barrel, -so that all the matter thrown up by the fermentation shall remain. The -objections to allowing the wine to <i>boil over</i> are that much good -wine is thereby lost, and the outside of the barrels and the floor of -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</span> -the fermenting house or cellar becomes foul. When the active -fermentation ceases, whatever has been thrown up in the form of a dirty -scum will settle to the bottom with the rest of the lees, and is no -more injurious than the latter. If, however, the foam is allowed to run -over by keeping the barrels full, a portion of the yeasty parts will -be thrown out, fermentation will not go on as tumultuously nor be as -complete, and the wine will longer retain a portion of its sweetness. -So that the practice in this behalf, as in most others where there is a -diversity of practices in making white wine, depends upon whether it is -desired to make a very dry wine, or one that retains a portion of its -sugar. But in the Champagne districts, although they allow the marc to -settle, they do not allow it to run over in fermenting.</p> - -<p><b>Pressing and Filling.</b>—The pomace is pressed in the same manner -as the marc of red wine, in two or three different pressings. The usual -practice is to fill the barrels with an equal amount of must from each -pressing, so that the contents of all shall be uniform in quality. If -it is known beforehand how much wine can be made from a given quantity -of grapes, the requisite number of barrels will be provided for each -lot, and the must of each pressing will be equally distributed in all. -(See <a href="#CHAPTER_XX"><i>General Chapter</i></a>.)</p> - -<p><b>Different kinds of White Wine.</b>—Boireau divides white wines into -three classes: dry, mellow, and sweet, whose characteristics depend -essentially upon the density of their musts.</p> - -<p><b>In Dry White Wines</b> fermentation is complete, and all the sugar -that is appreciable by the taste or the hydrometer, except the small -amount changed into other substances, is transformed into alcohol and -carbonic acid. The grapes are gathered as soon as ripe, and are not -allowed to shrivel. The density of the must rarely exceeds 13° Baumé.</p> - -<p><b>Mellow White Wines</b> are those which preserve a small quantity of -sugar after the tumultuous fermentation has ceased, and which gives -them mellowness and unctuosity. To produce these wines, it is necessary -to increase the density of the must, which is accomplished in the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</span> -Gironde by leaving the grapes upon the vines until they shrivel and -turn brown (white grapes are used), and they are gathered by several -successive pickings. The density of the must is from 12° to 15° Baumé. -These wines occupy the place between dry wines and sweet wines.</p> - -<p><b>White Sweet Wines</b> (<b>vins de liqueur</b>) are those which -preserve a considerable portion of their sugar, which renders them very -sweet. And in order that they may retain their sweetness in aging, the -must should mark 15° to 20° Baumé.</p> - -<p><b>The Grand White Wines</b> of France and Germany do not require -any different treatment from that already described, except that the -greatest care is exercised in assorting the grapes and allowing them -to arrive at the period of greatest maturity, and, of course, they are -made from the choicest varieties.</p> - -<p>In describing the condition in which the grapes are when gathered, -the French use the word <i>pourris</i>, which is usually translated -<i>rotten</i>. But Boireau says that it must not be supposed that the -grapes are spoiled (<i>gâtés</i>) because they are <i>pourris</i>; the -condition which is sought is a sort of natural dessication effected by -the heat of the sun, which evaporates a part of the water of vegetation -and concentrates the saccharine matter, as well as the savory and -aromatic principle, and bakes the grape, as it were. If the weather -remains dry, the grapes remain for a fortnight perfectly ripe without -any deterioration of the skin, but little by little it changes from -yellow or golden to brown, loses its consistency and <i>rots</i>, or -rather cracks and gives way. It is then that dessication commences; the -rays of the sun penetrate the thin pellicle and volatilize the water -of vegetation. In order to better accomplish this result a portion of -the leaves are removed from the vine when the grapes are nearly ripe. -Those grapes only are picked which are sufficiently shriveled; if only -a part of the cluster is ripe, a few grapes are removed at a picking. -The vines are usually gone over in this manner three times. At Barsac -and Sauternes the white wines are known by three different names, -indicating in their order their strength and sweetness: The first, or -sweetest, are called <i>têtes</i>; the second, <i>centres</i>; and the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</span> -third, <i>queues</i>; or head wines, middle wines, and tail wines. If -the must does not indicate more than 12°, 13°, or 14° Baumé, the wine -cannot be expected to preserve its sweetness and mellowness in aging. -If it is desired to make the sweet head wines, having the inimitable -flavor (<i>goút de roti</i>) which they get from the great maturity -of the grapes, the density must be allowed to increase till Baumé’s -instrument marks 18° to 20°. Wines from must of 16° Baumé will preserve -their sweetness for a long time, but as they develop a large amount of -alcohol, it is preferable that they be sweeter, and that the must mark -18° to 20°. As these wines do not develop more than 15 to 16 per cent. -of alcohol by fermentation, they will not bear transportation through -tropical climates with safety, and it is necessary to add spirit enough -to raise the strength to 18 per cent. If, however, they are carefully -managed, and kept in a cool cellar, they will remain sweet.</p> - -<p><b>Treatment of White Wines.</b>—During the active fermentation they -should be left in a moderately warm place of even temperature, and -until the foaming has ceased. Then, they may be stored in a cooler -place if desirable, or may be left where they are. But then the bungs -should be loosely closed with a chip or anything that will allow the -escape of gas, and the casks must be filled up every two or three days. -When the gas has ceased, they should be bunged tight, and filled up -once or twice a week, according to the rapidity of evaporation, until -the first racking. (<i>See below.</i>)</p> - -<p><b>To keep Sweet.</b>—If it is desired that the wine should preserve a -portion of its sweetness and remain mellow, care should be taken not to -disturb it after it has commenced depositing, for thereby the sediment -and ferment will be again mingled with the wine and its fermentation -rendered more active, all its sugar may be transformed, and the wine -become dry. Fermentation may be checked at any period by sulphuring, as -is described under the proper head (see <a href="#CHAPTER_IX"><i>Sulphuring and -Unfermented Must</i></a>), and so the wines may be made dry or sweet at will; -but if the sweet ones contain less than 15 per cent. of alcohol they will -ferment. By sulphuring they may be kept sweet from one vintage to -another, even if the musts have not a high degree of sugar; but they -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</span> -must be constantly kept under the influence of sulphurous acid and -protected from the air. But the frequent sulphuring and racking which -they must necessarily undergo gives them an odor and a flavor of -sulphur; and if they are not watched they ferment.</p> - -<p>The care to be given to white wines after the first racking depends -upon their character.</p> - -<p><b>In the Case of Dry Wines</b>, whose sugar has all been transformed, -the same attentions are to be bestowed as in the case of new red wines, -and the rules laid down are referred to. (See <a href="#CHAPTER_VI"><i>Red Wine</i></a>.)</p> - -<p><b>Mellow White Wines</b>, that is, those which retain a portion of -their sweetness after the tumultuous fermentation, particularly if they -do not carry 15 per cent. of alcohol, require the greatest amount of -care in order to preserve their mellowness in aging; for if left to -themselves they will again enter into fermentation, and become dry. -Such wines should be preserved against all ulterior fermentations, -and should be made perfectly bright and freed from ferments, but this -should be done with as little fining or filtration as possible, which -diminishes their mellowness.</p> - -<p>It may be well to note that the less alcohol that mellow wines have, -the more susceptible they are to fermentation, and the consequent loss -of their mellowness.</p> - -<p>Those which have 15 per cent. and have kept their mellowness after the -first fermentation, do not lose it as readily as those of a lesser -degree. If they have less than 15 per cent. of spirit and are sweet, to -retain their sweetness, they must be completely clarified to free them -from ferments; and in some cases it is necessary not only to rack them, -but at the same time to sulphur them, and fine them with gelatine after -adding tannin.</p> - -<p>Such wines, not having naturally terminated their fermentation, which -was arrested by sulphurous acid, reiterated rackings, the extraction of -ferments, and the lowering of the temperature—have a natural tendency -to ferment; and the arrested fermentation readily recommences if the -wine is left to itself, if vigilance is relaxed, if the temperature -increases, or if subjected to the movement of transportation. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</span></p> - -<p>On the contrary, in those which have acquired the largest -amount of alcohol possible by fermentation (between 15 and -16 per cent.), no new spirit is formed at the expense of the -sugar, except in case of loss of strength by evaporation or other -enfeebling cause.</p> - -<p><b>Summary of Rules</b> for the treatment of mellow white wines, -according to Boireau:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>1. They should be stored in perfectly closed places, in strong, well -hooped casks.</p> - -<p>2. The casks should always be kept tightly bunged, and constantly -full, by frequent and regular ullings, with bright wine of the same -quality, and having the same temperature.</p> - -<p>3. They should become bright, be protected against secondary -fermentations, and freed from the yeast which they contain by rackings -during the first year, according as their lees are deposited. Fining -should not be resorted to except when they cannot be cleared by racking -at the proper time (rigorously protected from contact with the air) -into a cask sulphured with a double square of a sulphur match.</p> - -<p>4. When they have been three or four years in wood, if they are not -then bottled, they should be racked and transferred to tuns where they -receive the same care; the tuns should be first tempered with wines of -the same class.</p> - -<p>5. They must be constantly watched and frequently tasted to assure -one’s self that they do not enter into fermentation; if they do, they -must be racked at once.</p> -</div> - -<p><b>Racking.</b>—When they remain calm after the insensible -fermentation is terminated, whether they are old or young, they should -be racked three times each year; first, at the sprouting of the vine in -the spring, in March, before the equinox; secondly, at the flowering -of the vine in June, before the summer solstice; and thirdly, at the -ripening of the grape in September, before the autumnal equinox. -(See <a href="#CHAPTER_XII"><i>Racking</i></a>.)</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII.<br /> -<span class="h_subtitle">CASKS.</span></h2> -</div> - -<p>Casks are almost universally made of oak, though other material has -been tried, but generally to be abandoned in favor of the first named. -Large, covered tanks of redwood are used to some extent in California -for storing red wine, being first well steamed to extract the coloring -matter of the wood, but they are not considered desirable, and had -better be replaced by oak casks.</p> - -<p><b>Oak Wood.</b>—In France very nice distinctions used to be made as -to the kind and nationality of the wood used, the shook from the north, -Dantzig, Lubeck, Memel, Riga, and Stettin, taking the first rank, that -from America the second, and that known as Bosnian, from the southern -provinces of Austria and the north of Turkey in Europe, the third, and -that of France the fourth. That from America is the most pliable, but -is liable to be found worm-eaten.</p> - -<p>All kinds of oak wood contain in different proportions fourteen -different principles, several of which are dissolved by wine, and -among the most important of which are tannin, gallic acid, a bitter -extractive, mucilage, vegetable albumen, and several of pronounced -smell and taste. The Bosnian oak contains the most tannin and soluble -matter, and is suitable for highly colored wines. But now-a-days there -is not so much stress laid upon the quality of the wood as formerly. -Their extracts serve often to correct some of the defects of the wine, -and many of them are neutralized by the ingredients of the latter. By -the introduction of their tannin and albumen the clarification of wine -is facilitated; but none but new wine whose insensible fermentation is -not yet completed should be put into new casks, for they cause older -wines to lose their transparency, and give them a woody flavor which -may last a long time. Therefore, temper your new casks with new wine.</p> - -<p><b>Storing Casks.</b>—Casks should be kept in a closed place, not so -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</span> -dry as to cause much shrinkage, nor so damp as to cause mould. In -California during the summer, there is no danger from the latter, but -the former should be guarded against. In winter, the reverse is the -rule. Where casks are to be kept a long time empty, they should be -sulphured and tightly bunged, and the sulphuring should be repeated -every six months. But they must be carefully washed before putting wine -into them. They are less liable to be attacked by the borer if stored -in a dark place.</p> - -<p><b>New Casks.</b>—Before putting wine into a new cask, it is -ordinarily sufficient to give it a thorough washing with boiling water. -Pour in one or two gallons of hot water, bung it up, and roll it and -shake it about till it is thoroughly rinsed, letting it rest awhile on -each end, and not only will this sufficiently cleanse the cask, but -will show if there are any leaks. When the water is nearly cold, let -it run out, and thoroughly rinse with cold water, and turn down the -bung-hole and leave till well drained.</p> - -<p>Mr. Maigne recommends that a couple of pounds of salt be dissolved in -the first water, and that the second washing be made with a decoction -of peach leaves. Often the casks are soaked for a day with cold water, -then washed with lime water, prepared by adding four pounds of lime -to two gallons of boiling water for a 100-gallon cask. After thorough -agitation, it is washed with cold water. Sometimes, too, the cask is -washed with a gallon or so of boiling wine, but it is an unnecessary waste.</p> - -<p>Mr. Boireau says that when it is necessary to put old or very delicate -wines into new casks, the greater part of the soluble matters can be -extracted in the following manner: Pour in about two gallons of boiling -lye made from ashes or potash, or other alkaline substance, such as -slacked lime or pulverized chalk, etc., for they will dissolve out more -of those soluble matters than pure water. After thoroughly agitating -the cask, pour out the lye, and repeat the process; afterwards rinse -with boiling water, and run it out before cold; then wash with cold -water acidulated with one-tenth part of sulphuric acid, which enfeebles -the solubility of these matters; finally, rinse with cold water and drain. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</span></p> - -<p>These latter operations may be avoided by first washing with hot water, -and then filling the casks with common wine of the color of that -intended to be put into them, and leaving them for about two weeks.</p> - -<p>And before filling them with a grand red wine, it will be well to -moisten the inner walls of the cask with a glass or so of good, old brandy.</p> - -<div class="figcontainer"> - <div class="figsub"> - <p id="FIG_11" class="f120"><i>Fig. 11.</i></p> - <img src="images/i_063a.jpg" alt="" width="175" height="308" /> - <p class="f120">Rinsing Chain.</p> - </div> - <div class="figsub"> - <p id="FIG_12" class="f120"><i>Fig. 12.</i></p> - <img src="images/i_063b.jpg" alt="" width="150" height="307" /> - <p class="f120">Visitor.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p><b>Old Casks</b>, or those which have been in use, should be well -washed as soon as emptied, and the washings should be repeated with -clean water until it runs out perfectly clear. Oftentimes the cask -will have more or less lees adhering to its inner walls, which cannot -be removed by an ordinary washing, but it will be necessary to make -use of the <i>rinsing chain</i>. This chain is about six feet long, -consisting of links made of square iron whose corners will more readily -detach the lees. One end is attached to a long conical bung to keep it -from falling into the cask, and the other is armed with a square block -of iron of a size to easily go into the bung-hole (<a href="#FIG_11">fig. 11</a>). -After pouring in two or three gallons of boiling water, leave the cask for a -while so that the lees may become softened, then introduce the chain -by the bung-hole, and close it with the bung at the other end of the -instrument. Thoroughly roll and agitate the cask until the chain and -its iron block have removed the lees so that they will run out with the -water. Repeat the operation with clean water as often as necessary, and -rinse till the water runs out limpid, and let the cask drain.</p> - -<p><b>To Examine the Inside of a Cask</b>, an instrument called a -<i>visitor</i> is used. This is simply a piece of heavy wire bent into -a loop or handle at the upper end, with the lower end turned up and -bent around into the form of a small ring into which a candle can be -inserted (<a href="#FIG_12">fig. 12</a>). Put a piece of a candle into this -candlestick or socket, light it, and lower it into the cask through the bung, -and the interior can be inspected. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</span></p> - -<p><b>Empty Casks should not be allowed to remain long without -Washing</b>; as soon as the lees are removed, they should be rinsed as -already mentioned, and they should not be put to drain in the sun, for -the heat will transform the alcohol remaining into vinegar in a few hours.</p> - -<p><b>Sulphuring Casks.</b>—If the cask is to be kept empty for some -time, after it has been washed and then drained for a few minutes, it -should be sulphured by burning in it a piece of sulphur match about an -inch square, and it should then be left to drain dry. After twenty-four -hours, burn in it three or four inches of the match, and bung it up -with the gas in it. Store it in a suitable place as described for new -casks, and sulphur it every three months. (See <a href="#CHAPTER_IX"><i>Sulphuring</i></a>.)</p> - -<p><b>Condition to be Examined.</b>—In using an old cask, as well as a -new one, the first thing to ascertain is if it leaks. If the hoops are -loose, they should be driven; then pour in two or three pails of water, -and stand the cask alternately on each end, and if it is found to leak, -soak it till it is tight. If the leaks cannot be stopped by driving the -hoops and by soaking, it must be repaired.</p> - -<p>The next thing to ascertain is, if the cask has become sour, mouldy, -or has been otherwise injuriously affected, as it is liable to be if -put away without being carefully washed and cared for. This can be -ascertained by examining with the <i>visitor</i>, or by smelling. If, -when the candle or a piece of lighted sulphur match is lowered into -the cask, it ceases to burn, the cask probably contains a noxious gas, -which must be expelled. This may be done by blowing in the bung-hole -with a hand-bellows till the air is changed, or by standing the cask -on its lower end with the hole in the upper head open, and the open -bung turned towards the wind. If, however, it is in the condition which -the French call <i>eventé</i>, which corresponds with that diseased -condition of wine called by the same name and which we call flatness, -the gas being carbonic acid, and heavier than air, will run out of its -own accord if the open bung is turned down and the cask left for a -while in that position. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</span></p> - -<p><b>Flatness in the Cask</b>, as we will call it for want of a better -term, Boireau says, consists in the disengagement of carbonic acid gas -which is produced in the interior, and is generally found in casks -which have been bunged up without washing, and which gives them an odor -of stagnant lees with slight acidity, and will extinguish the sulphur -match. After the bad air has been expelled the cask should be well -washed with the use of the chain. A cask which has contained wine that -has become flat should receive the same treatment. If a large tun is to -be treated, the foul air should be expelled, and a man should not enter -till a light will burn in it. (See <i>the disease, <a href="#Page_65">Flatness</a></i>.)</p> - -<p><b>Acidity</b> will be found in the cask if it is left for several days -uncared for; the alcohol contained in the wine remaining on the inside -of the cask acidifies in contact with the oxygen of the air, and is -soon changed into acetic acid, and the change is much more rapid in a -high temperature. Instead of being simply flat, the cask is now really -sour, and smells of vinegar. The treatment consists in either removing -or neutralizing the acid. The first can be done by steam. Turn the -bung-hole down, and conduct a jet of steam into the cask either through -the faucet-hole or the bung; the water condensed from the steam charged -with acid runs out at the bung-hole, and the process must be continued -till the water no longer has an acid flavor.</p> - -<p>Where it is not convenient to use steam, rinse the cask by using the -chain, and scald it out with hot lye made from wood ashes or potash, or -with quicklime dissolved in hot water. Give it several rinsings with -the alkaline solution without allowing it to cool, and, if possible, -fill it with cold water and let it soak three or four days, and rinse -as usual. If the water is allowed to remain longer in the cask it may -become stagnant.</p> - -<p><b>Mouldy Casks.</b>—Casks may become mouldy inside when left in a -damp place, if the bungs are left out, or if they are leaky through -defective staves or hoops, sometimes even when they have been -sulphured, and much more if they have not been. This condition is -recognized by a mouldy smell. The surest way to treat a mouldy cask is -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</span> -to take out the head, and give it a thorough scrubbing with a stiff -broom and water. If after removing the mould the staves resume the -color of wine-stained wood, it is proof that the wood has not been -affected, and the head may be replaced, and the cask rinsed in the -usual way. If, however, after removing the mould, the wood is found to -be of a brown color, it is more or less rotten.</p> - -<p><b>Rottenness</b> is due to the same causes as mouldiness, and when the -inside of a cask is decayed, it is no longer fit for wine. If, however, -the mouldy cask is brown only in spots, they should be entirely scraped -off, and then it may be used. But it is best not to put good wine into -such casks, for there is danger of spoiling it.</p> - -<p><b>Brandy Casks</b>, when emptied, should simply be bunged up, without -washing, as the alcohol remaining will have a preservative effect. They -should not be kept in a place which is too damp.</p> - -<p><b>Do not Sulphur Old Brandy or Whisky Casks</b> which have recently -been emptied or in which any alcohol remains, or you may cause a -disastrous explosion. In preparing new casks for the reception of -brandy, they should be washed and left to drain for twenty-four hours -and until they are dry, and if they are to be kept some time, throw in -a glass or two of brandy, bung tightly, and roll and shake till the -inside is moistened with the liquor. If they are to be used at once, -they ought to be first soaked with water for three or four days to -remove the woody taste.</p> - -<p>Boireau says that common wines may be put into brandy barrels, or -even oil barrels which have not become rancid (olive oil barrels, I -presume), but that fine wines should never be put into them. He also -adds that wine should not be put into casks which have been used for -rum, kirsch, vinegar, absinthe, vermouth, or any other liquor having -a strong odor, traces of which will be preserved in the pores of the -wood, even after the staves have been scraped.</p> - -<p><b>Cask Borers.</b>—There is a beetle which is very destructive of -casks in California, which Mr. J. J. Rivers, curator of the museum of -the University, describes as <i>Sinoxlylon declive</i> of the family of -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</span> -<i>Bostrichidae</i>. In a paper read before the Anthrozoic Club, and -reported in the <i>Rural Press</i>, Vol. XX, p. 153, 1880, he states -that at the request of Mr. Schram, of Napa county, he experimented with -the insect in order to ascertain a remedy for the ruin caused by it. He -says that “Its primary mischief is caused by the habit of the parent -insect boring a hole three or more inches for the purpose of depositing -eggs. As casks are usually much less than three inches in thickness, -the beetle taps the liquid contents, and loss accrues by leakage. The -remedy I first thought of was to select some species of wood suitable -for cask making that would be unpalatable to this insect. My endeavors -in that way have resulted in failure for the reason that this beetle -appears to have no particular dislike to oak, chesnut, pine, whitewood, -and several of the eucalypti. The next step was to saturate the outside -of the cask with a strong solution of alum water applied hot, and when -dry, a coat of linseed oil, this latter to prevent the alum from being -washed out, as it would be in time. This proved a success, for all the -examples treated with the solution were untouched, while the unprepared -were riddled by the borer.” The insect is more destructive to casks -stored in light places; it is therefore better to keep them in the dark.</p> - -<p><b>The Size of the Casks</b> is a matter of a good deal of importance. -For shipping, the ordinary pipe or puncheon holding from 150 to 200 -gallons is of a convenient size for handling, but for storing it is -better to use as large a vessel as possible, and where the quantity -stored is large, tuns of from 1000 to 3000 gallons or more in size -are far preferable. In the first place, it is a well known fact that -wine made at the same time, of grapes of like varieties, from the same -vineyard, and under the same apparent conditions, turns out quite -differently in different casks, and the contents of one cask may -far excel in quality that of another. In order to insure uniformity -in a large quantity of wine, it is necessary to store it in large -receptacles.</p> - -<p>Another, and perhaps still more important consideration, is that there -is much less loss by evaporation when the wine is stored in large -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</span> -casks. The evaporation in a small barrel will be almost as great as in -a cask three or four times the size, and to keep the small one full -will require about the same amount of wine at each ulling, which must -be performed nearly as often. There are two reasons for this: first, -because the staves of small casks are thinner, and secondly, because in -them a greater surface of wine is exposed to evaporation, according to -the volume, than in the case of the larger vessel.</p> - -<p>Guyot says, however, that the larger the receptacles, other conditions -being equal, the more rapid the development of the wines, and the -sooner they go through the periods of their life, and arrive at -decrepitude. He says that the greater part of wines, especially light -wines and white wines, cannot endure a long sojourn in tuns, vats, and -cisterns. They go through the phases of their life with a rapidity -fatal to their good qualities; nevertheless, this fact may be utilized -to hasten the epoch when wine may be used or put upon the market; also -to produce dry wines, to vinify sweet ones, and to age those of good -body. If, therefore, his theory is well founded—and we know that -fermentation once established is more active, if the mass is great—the -intelligent man will act in this behalf as circumstances require. It -would seem, however, that a large mass would be less affected by sudden -changes of temperature, and therefore, better protected from their -consequent ill effects.</p> - -<p>And Boireau recommends that white wines be stored in tuns, when mature, -as already mentioned. (See <a href="#CHAPTER_X"><i>Aging</i></a>.)</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX.<br /> -<span class="h_subtitle">SULPHURING—ARRESTING<br /> FERMENTATION.</span></h2> -</div> - -<p>Casks are sulphured for the purpose of destroying the activity of the -ferments contained in the lees which may remain in them, and thereby to -prevent their moulding or souring, and must and wine are sulphured to -prevent or to check fermentation, and white wine also to keep it from -turning yellow.</p> - -<p><b>Sulphurous Oxide, or Sulphur Dioxide</b>, is produced by burning -sulphur. It is a colorless gas, of a suffocating odor, and is composed -of equal weights of sulphur and oxygen, or, one part of the former -and two of the latter, SO₂, and with water becomes sulphurous acid. -It arrests fermentation in two ways: first, it absorbs oxygen with -avidity, and thereby removes what may be in the must or wine, or in -the cask, thus taking away one of the conditions necessary to the life -and activity of the ferment. (See <a href="#Page_37"><i>Fermentation</i></a>.) -In the second place, by the absorption of oxygen, sulphuric acid is formed from the -sulphurous acid, in a highly concentrated state, which is destructive -of the life of the ferment.</p> - -<div class="figcontainer"> - <div class="figsub"> - <p id="FIG_13" class="f120"><i>Fig. 13.</i></p> - <img src="images/i_069a.jpg" alt="" width="150" height="304" /> - <p class="f120">Sulphurer.</p> - </div> - <div class="figsub"> - <p id="FIG_14" class="f120"><i>Fig. 14.</i></p> - <img src="images/i_069b.jpg" alt="" width="150" height="312" /> - <p class="f120">Maumené’s<br /> Sulphurer.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p><b>The Sulphurer, or Sulphur Burner</b>, the instrument used for the -purpose indicated, consists of a wire with a hook at one end, and the -other attached to the centre of a long, conical bung (<a href="#FIG_13">fig. 13</a>). -It is convenient to have the upper end pass entirely through the bung, -allowing the latter to move up and down on the wire, so that the hook -can be raised or lowered, according to the position to be occupied -in the cask. This is used by attaching the sulphur match to the hook -and lowering it into the cask, after lighting it. The objection to -this form of instrument is, that the coal or cinder left on the hook, -after burning the match, may fall into the cask and give the wine an -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</span> -unpleasant flavor. To avoid this, Mr. Maumené invented a sulphurer, -provided with a deep perforated porcelain cup, into which the match is -placed and in which it burns, and which retains the carbonized linen -(<a href="#FIG_14">fig. 14</a>). A piece of wire cloth bent into a cup of a similar -form and attached to the lower end of the wire answers the purpose very well.</p> - -<p><b>Sulphur Matches or Bands</b> may be purchased, or they may be easily -manufactured. To make them, melt roll brimstone (stick brimstone), or -what is better, flowers of sulphur, over a slow fire (sulphur melts at -115° C. or 239° F.); tear linen or cotton cloth into strips an inch -and a half wide and 10 or 12 inches long, and dip them into the melted -sulphur, and lay them aside to cool. Then dip again, and repeat the -process, dipping and cooling, till the coating of sulphur is of the -required thickness, and they should be thickly coated, or it may be -necessary to burn too much linen to get sufficient gas. If the sulphur -is overheated, the match will be dark-colored.</p> - -<p>Sweet scented powders are often added to the sulphur, whose essential -oils are disengaged when the sulphur is burned, and the cask is -perfumed by their vapors. The substances usually employed are ginger, -cinnamon, the flowers of the stock gilly, iris, lavender, thyme, -violet, etc., and the matches prepared with the addition of them is -generally preferred.</p> - -<p>Mr. Maumené says that the smallest amount of this volatile oil gives a -perfume to the wine, which is generally advantageous, but Boireau is -of opinion, however, that these substances check the combustion of the -sulphur, and in a measure neutralize its action, and he prefers the -sulphur pure.</p> - -<p><b>To Sulphur a Cask</b>, take a piece of the sulphur match and light -it and lower it into the middle of the cask by means of the sulphur -burner, and lightly put in the bung of the instrument. By applying the -ear to the staves, it can be ascertained if the match is burning. If -the air is foul in the cask, and the match will not burn, the noxious -gas must be expelled as described under the head of <i>Casks</i>. When -the fire is extinguished the burner is withdrawn, care being taken, -if the hook is used, not to drop any of the carbonized linen into the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</span> -cask. If that should happen, the cask must be washed again. As the -burning sulphur fills the cask with gas, which exerts considerable -pressure, care should be taken that the bung is not blown out into the -face of the operator.</p> - -<p>Sometimes a strip of the sulphured cloth is lighted at one end -and lowered into the cask, the other end being secured by putting -in the bung. This is objectionable, because it leaves the debris -of the match sticking to the bung and the stave, which may give a -disagreeable flavor to the wine. As already mentioned under the head of -<i>Casks</i>, never burn a match in a cask containing alcohol.</p> - -<p><b>To Sulphur Wine</b>, if the cask is only partly full, operate the -same as in sulphuring an empty cask, only care must be taken not to -lower the match into the wine. Here the sulphur burner with a movable -bung comes in play. If the cask is full, the gas may be drawn in by -burning a match close to a hole bored in the head of the cask somewhat -higher than the faucet, drawing from the latter at the same time. It -is evident that while the wine runs from the lower hole, the gas will -be drawn in at the vent. Where it is necessary to leave a cask with -a vacancy in it for some time, flowers and souring may be prevented -by burning in it a piece of sulphur match and bunging it up, and the -process should be repeated every two weeks, and besides as often as the -bung is removed for any purpose. It is better always to keep the cask -full, for in time the sulphurous gas will communicate a disagreeable -taste to the wine, which it takes a long time to remove.</p> - -<p><b>Sulphuring should be Avoided in Certain Cases.</b>—Ropy wines -should not be sulphured, for the presence of oxygen is necessary in -order to help their fermentation; nor should those wines be sulphured -which it is desirable to keep in a state of effervescence. Sulphur -should be very sparingly used in connection with red wines, as it -causes them to lose a portion of their color by rendering insoluble the -coloring matter, and precipitating it; and for the same reason it is -used for bleaching white wines, and it prevents the latter from turning -yellow. Liqueur wines which are slow of fermentation should not be -sulphured, for they need all the natural aids to fermentation. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</span></p> - -<p><b>Fermentation is Arrested</b>, sometimes, in the manufacture of white -wines, by drawing them off into well sulphured casks, using two or -three squares of the match, if the fermentation is not very tumultuous; -but if it is very active, it may be treated as mentioned below for -musts. And in most cases the proper practice is, where wine needs -sulphuring, to draw it off into the sulphured cask, and in this way the -oxygen contained in the wine is more thoroughly exposed to the action -of the gas.</p> - -<p><b>Unfermented Must.</b>—By sulphuring the must, fermentation is -prevented, and thereby is produced what the French call <i>mute -wine</i>; and it is the must of white grapes as it comes from the press -that is more generally subjected to the process. It is first allowed to -settle as described in the chapter on white wine, but it must be drawn -from the vat as soon as signs of fermentation appear, and bubbles of -carbonic acid rise to the surface. And to have the must clear, it must -be closely watched, for as soon as fermentation sets in, it becomes -turbid. The must should be freed from all fragments of stems, skins, -seeds, etc., and should therefore be strained as it runs from the press.</p> - -<p><b>It is Prepared in Two Different Ways.</b>—First, the cask must be -scalded, rinsed, and drained in the usual way, and then as much sulphur -must be burned in it as can be consumed, or until the match goes out -for want of oxygen. Then the cask must be rapidly made half full of -the must, and closely bunged. It should then be rolled and thoroughly -shaken until the gas has been well absorbed by the juice. The must is -then drawn off without allowing it to come in contact with the air -(See <a href="#CHAPTER_XII"><i>Racking</i></a>), and into another cask -which has been sulphured in the same manner, and is treated as before. -While the second cask is being agitated, sulphur is again burned in the -one just emptied, until it goes out, and then the must is transferred -back in the same manner, and is again shaken. It is subjected to this -operation four times, and the cask is finally filled with must treated -in the same way, and tightly bunged. The more successful will the -operation be, the more the liquid is kept from contact with the air, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</span> -and therefore this method is preferable to the next. The second method -is as follows: burn in an empty cask matches representing a couple of -ounces of sulphur; pour in about five gallons of must, bung it up and -thoroughly shake; take out the bung and put in another lighted match; -if it will not burn for want of oxygen, the air must be renewed by -blowing in the cask with a bellows. Then burn the match in the cask, -and afterwards pour in five gallons more of must, bung and shake as -before. Continue the process till the cask lacks about five gallons of -being full. Then five gallons must be sulphured in another cask, and -the cask filled up with this and tightly bunged. Of course, the sulphur -burner must be shortened as the cask fills up.</p> - -<p>Must treated in this manner may be kept for a long time if well -clarified, and the cask is well sulphured at each racking, or a portion -sulphured when it commences to ferment.</p> - -<p>If it is only necessary to keep the must a short time, a portion only, -say one-third, need be sulphured. In that case there will be less odor -of sulphur, and it will soon pass away.</p> - -<p><b>Clarification and Care of Unfermented Must.</b>—It should be kept -in good, strong casks, well hooped and well bunged, in closed cellars -of a constant temperature. The casks should be filled every few days -with sulphured must; and they should be frequently racked to free them -from ferments. They should not be exposed to the air when racking, and -should be racked into well sulphured casks. Boireau says that the must -may be completely clarified <i>before sulphuring</i>, by introducing -about one ounce of tannin per 100 gallons of must, and pouring into the -casks before completely filling about a quart of water in which has -been dissolved about four tablets of gelatine, and which has become cold.</p> - -<p><b>A Sulphur Flavor</b> is sometimes communicated to must treated as -above, and is also sometimes acquired by wines which are put into casks -which have been sulphured for some time, without first washing them, -and also by allowing the debris of the sulphur match to fall into the -cask; this flavor is apt to pass away with time if not very pronounced, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</span> -or in that case may be removed by racking into a clean cask. But if the -wine has a very decided sulphur flavor, it must be disinfected by wood -charcoal. Several large pieces<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> -of coal well cleaned and well dried are introduced into the cask -and soaked in the wine, from which they can be withdrawn by strings -attached before putting them in the cask. Forty-eight hours are -generally sufficient to remove the flavor; but if necessary, the -process may be repeated, by changing the charcoal. In operating -on white wines, a large amount of charcoal may be used without -inconvenience, but in the case of red wine, there seems to be some -danger of depriving it of a portion of its color. Mr. Maumené says, -however, that the charcoal is liable to deprive the wine of the -carbonic acid dissolved in it, it being an absorbent of that gas, and -thereby rendering the wine more subject to the action of oxygen.</p> - -<p><b>Other Substances have been recommended to Prevent Fermentation -in a Must</b>, but notwithstanding the disagreeable flavor which is -communicated by an excessive use of sulphur, no other agent has been -found which is as satisfactory, on the whole.</p> - -<p><b>By Burning Alcohol in the Cask</b>, the oxygen may be removed, -but the ferments are not destroyed. Care must be taken to avoid an -explosion. Therefore, the spirit must not be poured into the cask and -lighted, but must be placed in a small vessel and lowered in through -the bung, as in the case of sulphuring.</p> - -<p><b>The Concentrated Aqueous Solution of Sulphurous Acid</b> has been -recommended, but Maumené says that not only is its preservation very -difficult, but its management is more difficult than the sulphur match, -and the chances of its being mixed with dangerous substances are -considerable; and therefore no one should think of using it.</p> - -<p><b>The Bisulphite of Lime</b> has been used to prevent fermentation -in wine and cider, but it does not always give satisfactory results, -and the salt is difficult to keep, and the use for wine, at least, has -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</span> -generally been abandoned. In the experiments of Proust, given by -Maumené, the smallest quantity used was 15 grammes to 100 kilogrammes -of must, or about one-half ounce to 23 gallons.</p> - -<p><b>Salicylic Acid</b> has been much recommended within the past few -years, but like everything else, it affects the flavor, if sufficient -is used to prevent fermentation. The quantity necessary depends upon -the amount of alcohol, ferments, etc., contained in the wine. Prof. -Neubauer, quoted by H. Endemann in <i>American Chemist</i>, says -that wine which is yet fermenting should not receive any salicylic -acid, since too large quantities of the substance are required for -effective use, but that it may be used in wine when made to prevent -after-fermentation; that it will prevent disease, but will not cure -wine when diseased. Though infallible rules as to quantity cannot be -given, experiments should be made with from .02 to .06 gramme per -litre, or say from 1.165 to 3.5 grains per gallon. A solution of 2 -grammes (30.864 grains) of salicylic acid to 100 c.c. (3.38 fluid -ounces) of alcohol of 80° is employed; 1 c.c. = 0.02 grammes; 3 c.c. -= 0.06 grammes; 61.44 minims or a little more than one fluidram = -1.165 grains, and 3.7 fluidrams = 3.5 grains. Salicylic acid being but -sparingly soluble in water, it is preferable to dissolve in strong -alcohol, and these are convenient proportions.</p> - -<p>It is said that 100 grammes (3½ Ap. ounces) will stop the fermentation -of 1000 litres (about 264 gals.) of must, when nearly completed; -800 grammes are necessary when in active fermentation; and 400 will -preserve the wine when made.</p> - -<p>But now the intelligence comes that salicylic acid has an injurious -effect upon the teeth and bones, it having an affinity for calcareous -salts (<i>Boston Journal of Chemistry</i>, Vol. XI, 143), and the -French Minister of Agriculture and Commerce, on the report of the -Committee of Public Hygiene, recommends that the sale of articles of -food adulterated with it be prohibited as injurious to the public -health. (<i>Ib.</i> Vol. XV., 45.)</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X.<br /> -<span class="h_subtitle">AGING—EFFECTS OF<br /> VARIOUS INFLUENCES.</span></h2> -</div> - -<p><b>General Considerations.</b>—Wines, from the time of their first -fermentation down to the time of their degeneration and decay, are -constantly undergoing change. Until they have acquired a certain age, -varying in each case with the quality and nature of the liquid, they -do not possess those qualities which make them an agreeable, healthful -beverage. The care to be bestowed upon them in their general treatment -not only includes what is necessary for their preservation, but also -what is necessary to <i>age</i> them by developing in them all the good -qualities of which they are susceptible, and the means of preventing -and remedying their defects and diseases.</p> - -<p><b>A New Wine</b>, when first fermented, is quite different from one -even a few months old, in respect to color, flavor, and aroma. But the -quality which it may acquire depends upon the proportion of different -substances which it contains. Some wines, poor in alcohol and deficient -in tannin, will develop their best qualities and begin to degenerate -very soon after fermentation. Such should be consumed as soon as their -insensible fermentation is completed; it is useless to attempt to age -them; while those which are stout, firm and full-bodied must be kept -several years to be completely developed.</p> - -<p><b>The Bouquet and Distinctive Flavor</b> of a wine, according to Mr. -Boireau, generally, are not perfectly developed until defecation is -complete—that is to say, until, after several months’ repose under -proper conditions, they have ceased to deposit insoluble matters, and -no longer mineral and vegetable salts, ferments, and coloring matter -are precipitated.</p> - -<p><b>Old Wine</b>, then, differs from a new wine of the same origin by -its color, its aroma, and flavor, and the difference is due to several causes. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</span></p> - -<p><b>The Color</b> of old red wine is less dark on account of the -precipitation of a part of the coloring matter, which, rendered -insoluble by the formation of different combinations, has been carried -down with the lees. The red color becomes tawny in time.</p> - -<p><b>The Aroma</b> of old wine is more agreeable, being largely due to -ethers which are formed by a combination of the alcohol with the acids, -and because the other aromatic principles are no longer masked by the -carbonic acid which is disengaged when the wine has been recently fermented.</p> - -<p><b>The Difference in Flavor</b> is due to several causes, such as the -loss of a great part of the mineral and vegetable salts, which have -become insoluble by combination with the tartaric, acetic, and malic -acid, and their consequent precipitation, and also to the deposit of a -portion of the coloring matter.</p> - -<p>So that when a wine is old, having been well cared for, it contains -less coloring matter, vegetable and mineral salts, acids free and combined, -tannin, ferments, mucilage, alcohol, etc., than when first fermented.</p> - -<p><b>Influences which Develop, also Destroy.</b>—Pellicot, quoting -Béchamp, says that a wine ages and improves under influences analogous -to those which spoil it, and he, himself, carries the idea a little -farther, and adds, that the influence which produces the amelioration -in a wine—which ages it—will, after having brought about the improvement, -cause it to deteriorate, unless its action is opportunely suspended.</p> - -<p>It must also be understood that certain influences which will greatly -improve a strong, alcoholic, or a sweet wine, might in a short time -entirely ruin a weaker one, or a dry wine.</p> - -<p><b>Influence of the Air.</b>—When a wine of ordinary strength, -a table wine, comes into immediate contact with the air, a portion -of its alcohol evaporates, it loses its bouquet and flavor, and -if long exposed, a whitish scum is formed on its surface, called -<i>flowers</i>. These have already been described in the chapter on -fermentation as <i>micoderma vini</i> and <i>micoderma aceti</i>. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</span> -A disagreeable flavor is communicated to the wine which the French call -<i>goût d’ évent</i>, and the wine is said to be <i>éventé</i>, or -flat; and it becomes turbid, and loses its transparency. Sometimes -when the wine still contains sugar the flowers are not formed, but -a second alcoholic fermentation sets in, and it works. If the wine -is not immediately freed from contact with the air, it acidifies, -becomes pricked, and by degrees turns to vinegar. (See <a href="#Page_30"><i>Acetic -Fermentation</i></a>.) And if still longer exposed, putrid fermentation -sets in.</p> - -<p>Sweet wines, whose alcoholic strength exceeds 16 per cent., and which -contain a good deal of sugar, are not so liable to be injured by -the influence of the air. Not only does their high degree of spirit -interfere with acetic and putrid fermentation, but an insensible -alcoholic fermentation sometimes takes place, and the supply of alcohol -is kept up. But in time, as the sugar disappears, the alcohol becomes -enfeebled by evaporation, and then acetic fermentation sets in, as in -the weaker wines.</p> - -<p>In the sherry countries it is considered necessary that the wine should -be exposed to the action of the air, and therefore the casks are not -kept full, and flowers are considered a good sign. In a few instances, -where the wines are strong enough to bear it, aging may be hastened by -some exposure to the air, but great care must be taken that they are -not left too long under its influence, or disorganization may ensue. It -must, however, be laid down as an almost universal rule, that the casks -must be kept full and well bunged. (See <a href="#Page_48"><i>Ulling</i></a>.)</p> - -<p><b>Variations of Temperature</b> affect wines like other liquids by -contraction and expansion. When a full cask is put in a cold place, the -wine contracts and leaves a vacant space; then it must be filled up or -the wine drawn into a smaller cask. If the temperature of the wine in a -full cask is raised, the liquid expands, and is apt to cause leaks; the -sediment is liable to rise and give the wine a flavor of the lees.</p> - -<p><b>Influence of Heat.</b>—Guyot says that the higher the degree of -heat to which wines are exposed, the greater their internal activity. -Those subjected to 15, 20, 30 degrees, Celsius, (59°, 68°, 86° F.), -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</span> -sooner arrive at maturity, if young, at old age, if ripe, and at -decrepitude, if old, than they would at a temperature of 10° C. (50° -F.) From which the conclusion is drawn, that wines which have nearly or -quite reached their maturity must be protected from heat, or at least -from that of an elevated temperature, and that old wines should be kept -in as cool a place as possible.</p> - -<p><b>Aging by Heat.</b>—On the other hand, if we wish to hasten the -maturity of our wines, we can do so by keeping them in a warm place -rather than in a cool cellar. The younger the wines, and the more sugar -and alcohol they contain, the more they will gain, and the less risk -will they run if subjected to a temperature of from 60° to 86° F. For -example, sweet wines which are only ripe at thirty or forty years will -mature in fifteen or twenty years, at 68° of heat, and in five or ten -years, at 86°; a Bordeaux or a Hermitage wine which at 50° would be -made in eight or ten years, would certainly be made in four or five -years at from 59° to 68°, and in two or three years at 77° or 86° of -heat. He says that a temperature between 40° and 90° C. (104° and 194° -F.) will disorganize many kinds of wine, particularly red wines and -those which have remained long in the fermenting vat, though it will -not have that effect upon all wines.</p> - -<p>It is well known that the inhabitants of many southern countries are -accustomed to expose their wines to a considerable degree of heat to -hasten their maturity, and different methods are employed for the -purpose, and it is important to know what kind of wine will be improved -and what injured by the practice. On this subject Boireau says, that -after many experiments, he can affirm that if the heat exceeds 30° -C. (86° F.), it is injurious to the grand <i>mellow</i> wines of the -Gironde; also to wines of a delicate bouquet whose alcoholic strength -does not exceed 12 per cent. Fine wines which possess both an aromatic -taste and bouquet, a fruity flavor, and a pronounced mellowness, by -heat take on a certain tawny flavor of worn out wine; but they become -dry, lose their mellowness, and coolness, and acquire a cooked flavor, -which changes their nature and gives them an analogy with the wines of -the south of France. This taste covers their natural flavor and renders -them common. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</span></p> - -<p>He goes on to say that wines subjected to the action of heat in direct -contact with the air, loss by evaporation a part of their alcohol; the -oxygen deprives them of a part of their color, and if the influence -is prolonged, they become weak and greatly deteriorated. Exposed to -heat in imperfectly closed vessels, they deposit, and take the tawny -flavor (<i>goût de rancio</i>) if their alcoholic strength exceeds -16 per cent.; but if feeble in spirit, and they remain long in this -condition, the oxygen transforms a part of their alcohol into vinegar. -In receptacles kept full and well stopped, they undergo but few -constitutional changes, if the heat does not exceed 158° F.; but, -nevertheless, a small part of their coloring matter is precipitated, -and their taste is sensibly changed. A flavor of cooked wine is found, -and a slight odor of the lees, no matter how quick the heating.</p> - -<p>Whatever the kind of wine operated upon, care must be taken not to -carry the heat too high, for it will decompose and precipitate certain -principles in dissolution in the wine, and change its natural flavor. -After cooling, voluminous deposits will be found, and the cooking -will give the wine a disagreeable flavor and an odor of the residue -of a still. The extreme limits of from 113° to 158° F. should not be -exceeded, and the greater the heat the shorter should be the exposure to it.</p> - -<p>Generally speaking, the wines which gain the most by heating, either -by artificial means or by leaving them in casks well bunged, but in -ullage, in warm store rooms, are strongly fortified liqueur wines. -And in order that they be not injured under those conditions, <i>they -should contain at least 18 per cent. of pure alcohol</i>. And as they -will gradually lose a little of their spirit by evaporation, their -alcoholic strength should be taken from time to time, and they should -be kept up to the indicated degree by fortifying.</p> - -<p><b>Preserving Wine by Heat.</b>—Aside from the question of aging wine -by the effect of heat, Pasteur has attempted to show that wines can be -kept without change, if the temperature is raised for a short time to -130° or 140° F. This is on the theory that wines become flat, pricked, -turned, or rotten, owing to secondary fermentations, and that each -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</span> -change is due to the action of a particular ferment, as stated in -the chapter on fermentation; and that this degree of heat destroys -the action of these ferments—in fact, kills them. It is owing to -the presence of the alcohol, that they are destroyed by this degree -of heat, for a must which has been raised to the boiling point still -ferments according to the experience of Boireau and of Pellicot. The -first named gives the results of his experiments in heating wines -according to Pasteur’s plan. The wine was in bottles, and the heat was -gradually raised to 52° C. (125.6° F.) In comparing the wines treated -with unheated wines kept under the same conditions, he found that the -wine which had been heated could support contact with the air with -less injury than the unheated, but that nevertheless it became flat, -covered with flowers, and acidified even in closed vessels which were -not completely full; also that fine wines generally are injured by the -process. The wines experimented upon had from 10 to 10½ per cent. of alcohol.</p> - -<p>It is a costly process to subject wine to a high artificial heat, and -owing to the doubt which yet seems to attend the matter, but few are -likely to go to the expense.</p> - -<p><b>Influence of Cold.</b>—Most authors have something to say on -the subject of congealed wines, and undoubtedly the liquid may be -concentrated by freezing a portion of the water, and drawing off -the remaining liquid. Those living in cold countries can try the -experiment, but it will certainly not be practiced in California.</p> - -<p>Mr. Boireau says that the liquid remaining acquires a flavor similar -to that possessed by wines which have been heated; that fine wines of -a delicate bouquet and flavor acquire a commoner flavor than those in -their normal state.</p> - -<p><b>Treatment of Frozen Wines.</b>—It may not be amiss to indicate what -treatment a wine should receive in case it has been frozen and has -thawed again. It becomes turbid, loses part of its color, and several -matters are precipitated, or remain in suspension, and it is liable to -ferment when the temperature rises. The last named author says that -it should be put in a place of even temperature, and if necessary, it -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</span> -should be fined; in which case it should be fortified with a strong -wine of the same nature, or a small amount of brandy.</p> - -<p><b>Influence of Light.</b>—Guyot says that the direct light of the sun -causes wine to work, especially red wine, and that it has an injurious -effect upon its composition and color; and the coloring matter being -decomposed, or modified, acts upon the other elements and makes the -wine turn. And hence the wisdom of putting wine in colored bottles. It -is only the direct light of the sun, however, that is to be avoided, -for a dim light, light reflected or polarized, and moonlight and artificial -light are not sufficiently powerful to produce a sensible effect.</p> - -<p><b>Aging by Sunlight.</b>—Exposure to the rays of the sun has been -resorted to for the purpose of aging wine, but Boireau says that it -is not favorable to all, and is least suited to those whose alcoholic -strength does not exceed 15 per cent. He says that the direct rays -of the sun falling upon bottled wines will promptly precipitate the -coloring matter, and that the effect is greater where the bottles -are not completely filled and corked with the needle. If the bottles -are wrapped in paper, or if the wine is in casks, the aging is less -rapid. He shows by experiment that insolation is advantageous only to -wines of more than 15 per cent. of alcohol, to sweet wines, and wines -fortified up to 18°, intended to be treated as the wines of Madeira, -<i>i. e.</i>, baked. But wines of about 10 per cent. of spirit will -not endure this method of aging without more or less deterioration -by souring.</p> - -<p><b>Effect of the Motion of Voyages.</b>—Wines age more rapidly if -kept in motion, and hence, in part, the good effect of a long voyage. -Strong, sweet wines, are undoubtedly greatly improved by the motion -consequent on transportation, as well as by the heat, but constant -agitation will cause weak ones to go rapidly through the periods of -their existence, and degenerate.</p> - -<p><b>Wines Suitable for Shipment.</b>—And Dr. Guyot adds that a wine -which does not contain 12 per cent. of alcohol and 6 per cent. of -sugar, crosses the equator with great difficulty, even in bottles. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</span> -In wood it should be young and contain 20 per cent. of spirit, or -sufficient sugar to make up that amount. For a voyage in Europe, or -to America direct, he says that the wines of Bordeaux, Burgundy, and -of Champagne, of 10 to 12 per cent. of spirit and 2 to 4 per cent. of -sugar, behave well if young or in bottles.</p> - -<p>Mr. Boireau, however, says that wines proper for exportation, and which -will keep in tropical climates, where good cellars and good care are -generally wanting, are those which possess naturally or by addition a -high alcoholic title, a solid, but bright and handsome color, a clean -taste, and perfect limpidity. Sweet, fortified wines best fulfil these -conditions. He says that liqueur wines, for shipping to the tropics, -should have at least 18 per cent. of pure alcohol; below that they -ferment, their saccharine matter is transformed into alcohol, their -strength diminishes, and they end by becoming pricked. Dry wines, to -be sent to those countries, should have the same strength, unless the -casks are kept full. He adds, however, that these remarks only apply -to those wines which on their arrival do not receive the usual care, -such as filling the casks, clarifying and racking, and are not kept -in suitable places; and that a good firm wine of the south of France, -which has naturally at least 12 per cent. of alcohol, can be shipped -without fortifying.</p> - -<p>The motion and the high temperature to which wines are subjected -in transportation also cause a loss of color by precipitation, -particularly if they lack tannin. Wines which are sufficiently strong -in alcohol, but from lack of tannin want firmness and body, are liable -to acidify. Therefore, wines too poor in tannin should not be shipped -abroad. The greater part of the wines of the Gironde having plenty of -tannin, can be safely shipped if fortified to 11 per cent., and the -grand wines of less alcohol are safe if shipped in bottles.</p> - -<p><b>In Shipping a New Wine</b>, whose sensible fermentation is finished, -the motion often causes a new disengagement of carbonic acid, and -sometimes in sufficient force to burst out a head of the cask, unless -vented. Of course, such wine should not be shipped, except under -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</span> -conditions which admit of careful supervision. If transported short -distances, a small gimlet hole should be kept open near the bung, in -which three or four straws may be placed with the heads or spikes on, -or a small tin tube with a button at the top may be placed in the hole -and bent inside the stave, having sufficient play to allow the gas to -escape. Must is shipped in the same way.</p> - -<p><b>Other Motion, such as Jarring and Trembling</b>, produced by loud -noises and bypassing teams and by factories, act injuriously upon -wines, causing them to behave badly and to deteriorate. Guyot also -says what may be by some deemed fanciful, that musical sounds hasten -the development of wine; and that most old wines will turn in a cellar -transformed into a music hall.</p> - -<p><b>Fining</b> is also resorted to for the purpose of aging wine, -producing results somewhat similar to the effects of time. But it -should be performed with the care and subject to the conditions -mentioned in the proper place. (See <a href="#CHAPTER_XIII"><i>Fining</i></a>.)</p> - -<p><b>Aging Generally.</b>—Before subjecting a wine to any of the -processes for artificial aging, care should be taken, says Mr. Boireau, -to precipitate the matters held in suspension, and to render it -perfectly limpid.</p> - -<p>Grand wines, however, should never be subjected to the treatment, for -if a premature development of bouquet is obtained, it is at the expense -of that precious quality, mellowness. For to-day, <i>gourmets</i> and -consumers of refined taste do not select wines which have a bouquet, -if they are also dry and harsh to the palate; such wines are only too -plenty. They esteem above all those wines which in aging have kept -their fruity flavor, their velvety smoothness, that unctuosity which -can only be preserved in keeping them in a place having a regular -temperature (averaging 60°), in well closed receptacles, by bringing -about the defecation of their lees and the deposit of their ferments by -opportune rackings without contact with the air, and by fining them as -little as possible.</p> - -<p>If, for want of care or suitable places, the wines work, enter into -fermentation, their mellowness diminishes, and when neglected they -become dry. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</span></p> - -<p><b>The Wines which Gain the Most by the Aging Processes</b> mentioned, -are: 1st, Wines excessively rough and overcharged with color; 2d, -fortified wines, whose minimum degree of alcohol is 18 per cent.; 3d, -sweet wines fortified to 18 or 20 per cent.</p> - -<p>Those which remain too harsh should be fined with a strong dose of -gelatine; continued agitation after this will make them smoother.</p> - -<p>Fortified wines, dry or sweet, age very quickly, if subjected to -agitation and afterwards to insolation, if followed by a complete -clarification; but it is important to fortify them anew, for the -alcohol evaporates, and below 15 per cent. they would sour instead of -acquiring bouquet. It is also sometimes necessary to add sugar to sweet -wines so treated.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI.<br /> -<span class="h_subtitle">GENERAL TREATMENT—CELLARS.</span></h2> -</div> - -<p><b>Unfortified, or Table Wines.</b>—After what has been said in -the last chapter of the different effects produced by the various -influences to which wine may be subjected, it remains to point out -the proper care and treatment to be bestowed upon unfortified table -wines, whose alcoholic strength does not exceed 15 per cent. The three -essential conditions indicated by Mr. Boireau are:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>1. They should be protected from the contact of the air.</p> - -<p>2. They should be kept in a uniform temperature.</p> - -<p>3. They should be freed from their lees, ferments, and deposits; -they must become perfectly clear, and their degeneration be prevented.</p> -</div> - -<p>It is very important to taste them, and keep close watch over them by -frequent visiting, in order to prevent secondary fermentations and -their consequent injurious results, particularly in the case of mellow -wines, which thereby transform into alcohol the mucilages and pectines -which they contain, and lose their fruity flavor. (See <a href="#CHAPTER_VI"><i>Red Wine</i></a>, -<a href="#CHAPTER_VII"><i>White Wine</i></a>, <i>etc.</i>)</p> - -<p><b>Deposits, Lees, etc.</b>—It is important that they should be freed -from ferments and deposits, for muddy, troubled wines are predisposed -to secondary fermentations, alcoholic or acetic; they readily contract -the bad taste of the lees, bitterness, etc. In all wines, the work -of clearing is constantly going on; different matters, among others, -coloring matter, several mineral and vegetable salts, etc., which were -dissolved in the wine, become insoluble, and these with a portion of -the tannin are precipitated to the bottom of the vessel or remain in -suspension. It is these matters with the ferments which constitute the -lees. Wines deposit more or less, according to their nature and the -care bestowed in their making. The most voluminous deposits take place -during the first year, and they diminish in volume and consistency at -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</span> -each racking, if properly cared for. When they have become well settled -and bright, and have achieved their complete development, the deposit -is almost nothing. But it increases anew when the wine declines and -begins to degenerate.</p> - -<p><b>To Prevent this Degeneration</b>, and to keep fully developed wines, -they must be put into bottles. (See <a href="#CHAPTER_XVI"><i>Wine in Bottles</i></a>.)</p> - -<h3>CELLARS.</h3> - -<p>What has been said in the preceding chapter naturally leads us to the -subject of the proper place for storing wine after it has completed -its active fermentation. Cellars proper are constructed entirely under -ground, and should have vaulted roofs of masonry. If the cellar is -under a building, the arch can safely come within two or three feet of -the level of the ground, but if no building is over it to protect it -from the heat of the sun, it should be four or five feet under ground. -Many storehouses for wine are constructed partly above and partly below -ground, and others again, entirely above. Undoubtedly those below -ground are the best adapted for keeping wines which have arrived at -maturity, and for those of little alcoholic strength, but when it is -desired to rapidly develop and age an immature wine, it can be sooner -accomplished in a place of a higher temperature, and there also can a -strong wine be safely kept.</p> - -<p><b>Temperature.</b>—Whatever the degree of temperature, all agree -that it should be as nearly uniform as possible; and to insure this, -the cellar should face the north or east when practicable. The outer -door should not open directly into the cellar or storehouse, but it is -better to have the entrance through an outbuilding, or at least with an -outer and an inner door, at a considerable distance. If the wine house -is above ground, its walls should be of sufficient thickness and of -suitable material to prevent changes of temperature, and it should -have a loft or room above, so that the wine may be protected from the -effects of the rays of the sun falling upon the roof; and it may also -be shaded by trees. Some of the older writers say that the proper -temperature for a cellar is 50° or 52° F., but so low a degree can only -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</span> -be obtained in a well constructed cellar wholly under ground, and deep, -and is not likely to be obtained in this State. Boireau, however, says -that in the Gironde the average temperature of the cellars is from -15° to 17° C., or 59° to 62½° F., and if a person can maintain the -temperature of his cellar or storehouse in this State uniformly at 60° -he will do well.</p> - -<p><b>Dampness.</b>—Formerly, when wooden hoops for casks were used, it -was necessary to guard against dampness, for they soon rotted, and -required to be frequently renewed; but now with the use of iron in -place of wood, less care is necessary in that respect. It is best, -however, that they should be sufficiently dry that mould will not form -on the cask, for a bad taste may thereby be communicated to the wine. -Therefore, cellars should not be constructed in very damp places, -should have the soil of the floor well compacted, should be well -drained, and well cemented, and if necessary, the floor may be covered -with a bed a foot deep composed of a mixture of lime, sand, and gravel, -or cinders, or the like, well beaten down, and the whole covered with -dry sand. Nothing should be left in the cellar which naturally gathers -moisture. All mould should be frequently removed, and the sand removed -and replaced with dry sand when necessary. Sawdust should not be used -on the floor. In San Francisco, the best cellars have a good asphaltum -floor, and I know of nothing better after the odor has passed away.</p> - -<p><b>Ventilation</b> is necessary at times to prevent too much dampness, -and also to change the air which may become foul. Underground cellars -can be ventilated by means of a large tube, such as is used on -shipboard, provided with a broad opening at the top which can be turned -in the direction of the wind, conducting the air into the cellar. -Storehouses may have small, movable windows. In order to keep down the -temperature, the proper time to ventilate is during the coolest part of -the night in the warmer parts of this State.</p> - -<p><b>Evaporation of the Wine</b>, however, must be guarded against, which -may vary from 3 to 10 per cent. per annum, according to whether the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</span> -place of storage is open or closed. In France the government makes an -allowance in favor of the wholesale merchant of 8 per cent., for loss. -And Boireau says that in dry storehouses where the air is continually -renewed by ventilation, the loss equals the allowed per cent., and -even exceeds it, particularly if the casks are weak and poor, hooped -in wood, and if the hoops are not driven when they become dry. The -loss may then reach 10 per cent., without extraordinary leakage. By -guarding against too free access of air and heat, not only will a very -considerable loss by evaporation be avoided, but also other defects -which may seriously affect the wine, such as acidity, bitterness, too -great dryness, etc. And moreover, in poor cellars the wines require -much more attention, such as ulling, racking, and frequent tasting, to -protect them from secondary fermentations.</p> - -<p><b>Other Precautions.</b>—From what has been said concerning the -influence of light, motion, etc., it results that wine cellars -should not be too light, nor be situated under wagon roads where -vehicles frequently pass, nor near blacksmiths’ shops, or other -noisy industries, such as boiler making, etc. The vicinity of sinks, -cesspools, sewers, and the sources of noisome odors generally, should -be avoided; and cellars should not be used for storing milk, cheese, -vinegar, or any matter liable to ferment, such as fruit, vegetables, -etc.; nor should new wines be stored there until their active -fermentation has ceased, for these things may either communicate a bad -odor and taste to the wine, or set up in it secondary fermentations.</p> - -<div id="FIG_15" class="figcenter"> - <p class="f120 space-above2"><i>Fig. 15.</i></p> - <img src="images/i_089.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="383" /> - <p class="f120">Cask and Support.</p> -</div> - -<p><b>The Casks and Tuns</b> should be supported by strong timbers or -masonry, and should be sufficiently elevated, so that the wine may be -easily drawn off, and should be securely blocked. <a href="#FIG_15">Fig. 15</a> -represents a cask supported by timbers resting on brick work. Where the casks -are arranged in piles, those in the lower tier should have four blocks or -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</span> -chocks each, for if they are blocked only on one side, they are liable -to be disturbed, and the outer ones should also have a large block -under the bulge. Of course, the outer blocks should be so adjusted -that they cannot be knocked out in passing by, and in rolling barrels, -etc. The casks of the upper tiers are rolled up on skids, or inclined -planes, and are then rolled along over scantlings, laid on the tier -below; and hoisting tackle is often of use in this connection. When, -however, the cellar is furnished with sufficient large tuns, the piling -of casks may be dispensed with.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII.<br /> -<span class="h_subtitle">RACKING.</span></h2> -</div> - -<p><b>The Racking of Wines</b>, or drawing off, is performed for the -purpose of freeing them from the lees. Some of the older writers -recommend that wine should be allowed to remain on the lees till -February or March, but the better practice is to draw it off as soon -as it has cleared. If it is allowed to remain long upon the lees, -variations of temperature and secondary fermentations, storms, etc., -are apt to cause it to become troubled and muddy, and acquire a flavor -of the lees. Boireau says that he has constantly observed that wines -in general, and especially those which have been fined, if racked as -soon as well cleared, say from two weeks to a month after fining, -according to the kind of finings used, place of storage, nature of the -wine, etc., are generally more limpid, have a cleaner taste, and are -much less liable to work than if left on the finings for six months, -from one racking to another. Wines not fined, which have become clear -naturally by repose, exhibit the same results; those which are racked -as soon as bright, are, in every respect, of a quality superior to -those which have been left upon their lees from one equinox to another.</p> - -<p><b>The Conditions Indispensable to Good Racking</b> are stated by Mr. -Machard as follows:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>1. To perform the operation when the weather is dry and clear, and -if possible during a north wind, for it is only during such weather -that the precipitation of the lees can be really complete.</p> - -<p>2. To avoid the operation during damp and rainy weather, and while -violent winds are blowing from the south.</p> - -<p>3. Not to proceed during a storm, because then the lighter parts of -the lees rise and produce fermentive movements which are always to be -guarded against. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</span></p> - -<p>4. Never to draw off a troubled or muddy wine, for then it must be -racked again; and in that condition the deposits are always mixed with -the wine.</p> - -<p>5. Moreover, never rack at the following periods of the vegetation -of the vine: when the buds begin to swell, at the time of flowering, -and especially at the time when the fruit commences to change color, in -ripening.</p> - -<p>6. Never to proceed during the heat of the day, or a south wind, but -always in the cool of the morning and during a north wind.</p> - -<p>7. To always make use of the sulphur match.</p> - -<p>8. Never to leave the wine long exposed to the air.</p> - -<p>9. Not to allow the wine to fall too far, so as not to deprive it of -its carbonic acid, which exerts a conservative effect, and thus also to -avoid too great agitation, which may be prejudicial.</p> - -<p>10. Finally, to use the greatest care to free it from the least -traces of sediment.</p> -</div> - -<p>I have repeated nearly the language of the author quoted, at the -expense of some repetition, because the rules are laid down by him more -minutely than by the other authors who agree with him in general terms.</p> - -<p>It is agreed that the most critical periods for wine on the lees are -the different periods of the vegetation above mentioned, which vary -somewhat in different climates, and they should therefore be racked -before these epochs arrive.</p> - -<p><b>New Red Wines</b>, says Mr. Boireau, which have been properly made, -which are clear, which do not work, and which are kept in closed -cellars, should be drawn off four times during the first year; the -first racking is performed as soon as the insensible fermentation has -ceased, and the wine has become clear, <i>i. e.</i>, during the first -cold weather of December; the second in March, before the sprouting -of the vine, or at the vernal equinox; the third before the flowering -of the vine, in June; and the fourth at the autumnal equinox, in -September. Machard considers that no racking is so important as that of -March, and he insists upon it that it should never be omitted, and that -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</span> -it should be well done, for if the lees are all removed then, it may -even go safely till the next vintage, and the June or July racking -be omitted, except in warm climates; and then, as before observed, -it should be done in the cool of the day. Instead of waiting till -September, the operation is often performed in August, when the grape -begins to turn. Of course, the periods change somewhat in different -climates, as already observed, so that the cellar-man must familiarize -himself with the conduct of the wine in his locality, and govern -himself accordingly, racking before the period arrives when the wine -usually works.</p> - -<p><b>Old Red Wines</b> are racked only twice a year, in the spring and -fall, before the equinoxes, except in case of their becoming turbid by -secondary fermentations, when they must be racked, whatever the time -of year, except also in case of certain diseases. If, however, the -wine has not been well made or properly cared for, it may show signs -of fermentation and alteration, and need racking at periods different -from those above mentioned. If the wine does not clear of itself by -the time it should be drawn off, it may be necessary to clarify it by -fining (which see). But if well made and properly cared for, it will -ordinarily clear itself.</p> - -<p><b>New White Wines</b> are racked as soon as they become clear, and -no precise epoch can be fixed for the operation, because the duration -of the fermentation depends essentially upon the density of the must -and the temperature. In any case, it is much more prolonged than -that of red wines. It often happens that it continues till the month -of February, when the must is very rich in sugar, especially if the -weather is cold late in the fall; while wines made of grapes from the -same vineyard, made in the same way, but less rich in the saccharine -principle, may terminate their fermentation in December.</p> - -<p>The racking should always be performed before the weather becomes warm, -for the elevation of the temperature will set the wine working, and the -lees will become mixed with it. Ordinarily the most favorable time is -the month of February.</p> - -<p><b>Subsequent Rackings.</b>—White wine, new or old, requires to be -racked three times a year, as stated in the chapter on White Wine; -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</span> -<i>first</i>, in March, at the time of the sprouting of the vine, -before the equinox; <i>secondly</i>, at the flowering of the vine, in -June, before the summer solstice; and <i>thirdly</i>, in September, at -the ripening of the grape, before the autumnal equinox. (See <a href="#CHAPTER_VII"><i>White -Wine</i></a>, <a href="#CHAPTER_XII"><i>Racking</i></a>.)</p> - -<p><b>Care to be Observed.</b>—Contact with the air should be carefully -avoided during the operation. The same care should be observed as in -racking red wine, and the operation is performed in the same manner, -always keeping in view that what may be essential to keep a mellow wine -in condition, may to a certain extent be neglected where dryness is desired.</p> - -<p>A sulphur match ought always to be burned in the cask before wine, -either red or white, is racked into it, for thus the germs of -fermentation which may be in the cask will be rendered inactive by -the sulphurous acid formed, and which will also absorb with avidity -the oxygen, and thereby in two ways tend to prevent fermentation. The -cask, however, should not be sulphured till well drained, or the water -remaining will be impregnated with the gas, which is liable to give a -disagreeable sulphur taste to the wine which will not disappear for -some time. (See <a href="#CHAPTER_IX"><i>Sulphuring</i></a>.) A cask which has -been put away sulphured must for the same reason be washed before using; and in fact -no cask should be used without washing.</p> - -<p><b>Other Precautions.</b>—Great care must be taken in all cases not -to disturb the sediment by moving the cask, by pounding on the stave -to loosen the bung, or by driving in the faucet. The latter ought to -be opened before inserting it, so as to allow the air contained in it -to escape, and not to force itself into the cask and trouble the wine, -which it is liable to do by contraction and expansion, forcing in the -faucet. It should be closed as soon as the wine begins to run. It is -hardly necessary to say that an empty bucket should be kept under, when -putting in the faucet, to catch the wine that may escape. Care must -also be taken that the cask to be filled, and all the utensils used -in and about the racking, are scrupulously clean, and buckets, hose, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</span> -funnels, siphons, etc., must be washed carefully every day, for if -allowed to stand with wine in them, they will become sour. Siphons and -short tubes can be scoured by means of a brush, such as is used for -cleaning bottles and lamp chimneys, by attaching it to a long, stiff wire.</p> - -<p><b>Different Methods of Racking.</b>—The commonest way is to draw the -wine through a faucet into a bucket, and pour it into the empty cask by -means of a funnel. The faucet is placed in a hole bored in the end of -the cask, an inch or more above the lower stave. After the faucet has -been placed in position, vent the cask of wine, but not before. When -the wine no longer runs, the cask should be slightly tipped forward, -but by a very easy and gradual movement, so as not to disturb the lees. -This may be done by a man carefully lifting the rear end. A kind of -hoisting-jack (<a href="#FIG_16">fig. 16</a>) is used for this purpose. The lower -end rests on the ground, near the rear end of the cask, and the upper end of the -movable rod is placed under the upper chime. On turning the crank the -cask is tipped gently forward, and a ratchet catches the pinion and -prevents the return. If there is not sufficient space between the wall -and the cask to operate in the manner stated, one end of the jack is -placed against the wall above the cask, and the power is applied to -the upper forward part of the cask by placing the other end behind a -forward hoop.</p> - -<div class="figcontainer"> - <div class="figsub"> - <p id="FIG_16" class="f120"><i>Fig. 16.</i></p> - <img src="images/i_095a.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="293" /> - <p class="f120">Jack for tipping a Cask.</p> - </div> - <div class="figsub"> - <p id="FIG_17" class="f120"><i>Fig. 17.</i></p> - <img src="images/i_095b.jpg" alt="" width="150" height="286" /> - <p class="f120">Fork for tipping a Cask.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p>The fork (<a href="#FIG_17">fig. 17</a>) is used in the same way, being -lengthened by means of the screw. <a href="#FIG_18">Fig. 18</a> represents -another contrivance for the same purpose.</p> - -<p>If only one man is employed, a lever supported above the cask by two -legs straddling it, and forming the fulcrum, the rear end provided with -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</span> -a hook which hooks under the chime, and the other end extending forward -beyond the front, may be used (<a href="#FIG_19">fig. 19</a>). The workman, by -bearing down on the lever, or by pulling the strap at the end, tips the cask -forward. When the wine has nearly all run out, it should frequently -be examined by holding a small quantity to the light in a small, thin -glass, and as soon as the slightest appearance of lees presents itself, -the operation should cease, and none of the muddy wine should be poured -into the other cask. This method has its advantages, in that the first -appearance of cloudiness can be detected, for the liquid is always -under the eye of the operator, but it has the disadvantage of greatly -exposing the wine to the air.</p> - -<div class="figcontainer"> - <div class="figsub"> - <p id="FIG_18" class="f120"><i>Fig. 18.</i></p> - <img src="images/i_096a.jpg" alt="" width="250" height="288" /> - <p class="f120">Implement for tipping a Cask.</p> - </div> - <div class="figsub"> - <p id="FIG_19" class="f120 space-above2"><i>Fig. 19.</i></p> - <img src="images/i_096b.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="249" /> - <p class="f120">Implement for tipping a Cask.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p>Another method which avoids the last objection, is to securely connect -the faucet of the cask of wine with the faucet of the empty one, to -open them both, and let the wine run from one to the other. If they -are both on the same, or nearly the same level, a portion only will be -transferred, and then the rest may be forced over by connecting the -tube of a hand-bellows tightly with the bung-hole of the cask of wine, -and blowing into it. This is easily done by attaching the bellows by -means of a hose to a long, hollow, conical bung. (See <a href="#FIG_20">fig. 20</a>.) -As soon as the air is heard in the tube, close the faucet, and before removing -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</span> -it, bung the cask tight. The remaining wine is removed as in the first -method.</p> - -<div id="FIG_20" class="figcenter"> - <p class="f120"><i>Fig. 20.</i></p> - <img src="images/i_097a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="368" /> - <p class="f120">A Method of Racking.</p> -</div> - -<p><b>Pumps and Siphons</b> are very useful where wine is to be merely -transferred from one cask to another, but they are not well suited -for racking it from the lees, for it is difficult to make use of them -without disturbing the sediment, and thereby troubling the liquid.</p> - -<div class="figcontainer"> - <div class="figsub"> - <p id="FIG_21" class="f120"><i>Fig. 21.</i></p> - <img src="images/i_097b.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="179" /> - <p class="f120">Siphon.</p> - </div> - <div class="figsub"> - <p id="FIG_22" class="f120"><i>Fig. 22.</i></p> - <img src="images/i_097c.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="160" /> - <p class="f120">Siphon.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p>Figs. <a href="#FIG_21">21</a> and <a href="#FIG_22">22</a> represent -two forms of siphons. They may also consist simply of a bent tube.</p> - -<p><a href="#FIG_21">Fig. 21</a> shows an exhausting tube attached, by which -the air is sucked out with the mouth. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</span></p> - -<p><a href="#FIG_23">Fig. 23</a> shows a rotary force pump for transferring wine -from one cask to another. Lever force pumps are also used for the same purpose.</p> - -<div id="FIG_23" class="figcenter"> - <p class="f120"><i>Fig. 23.</i></p> - <img src="images/i_098.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="399" /> - <p class="f120">Rotary Force Pump.</p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XIII">CHAPTER XIII.<br /> -<span class="h_subtitle">CLARIFICATION—FINING.</span></h2> -</div> - -<p><b>When Necessary.</b>—Wines do not always acquire the desirable -state of brightness and limpidity by repose and racking, and it -becomes necessary to clarify them. They may become cloudy through -secondary fermentations, which cause the lees once deposited to -rise and become again mixed with the liquid, or through changes of -temperature, by transportation, by careless racking, etc., and by -mixing different kinds together; or they may fail to clear naturally, -because not possessed of sufficient tannin or albumen to precipitate -the different matters held in suspension. Weak wines of poor years -may contain ferments in excess of their sugar, which may be removed -by clarification, and so fermentation be checked or retarded. Wines, -however, which are well made and properly cared for, ought to become -bright without recourse to clarification, and such will be found -preferable to, and will possess more fruitness, unctuosity, and color, -than those which have been clarified by several finings. And for these -reasons—although it may be necessary to fine such wines as do not -naturally clear themselves—care must be observed not to carry the -process too far, and deprive them of the tannin necessary to their -preservation, as well as of too much of their color, fruity flavor, -and mellowness.</p> - -<p><b>The Different Substances Employed for Clarifying</b> act either -chemically and mechanically, or simply mechanically. Among the latter -are blotting paper, either in sheets or in pulp, fine sand, and -powdered stone, which are placed in the cask, and which in falling, -carry down with them the matters which are held in suspension. Wine -is sometimes clarified by filtering it through woolen bags. Those -substances which act both chemically and mechanically are albumen and -gelatine, and similar substances.</p> - -<p><b>Of Gelatinous Substances</b>, two kinds are used, gelatine, -so-called, and isinglass, or fish glue, and they act in two ways. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</span> -They are not entirely dissolved in water; thin, transparent pellicles -remain in suspension, which form a sort of network in the wine, and -in settling they carry with them other insoluble matters. Thus, their -action is mechanical. The portion which is fully dissolved is pure -gelatine, and acts chemically. It combines with the tannin of the wine -and forms an insoluble substance, tannate of gelatine, which is readily -precipitated.</p> - -<p><b>Gelatine</b>, so-called, is prepared from the bones, skin, and -tendons of animals, and is sold in tablets or sheets, and is sometimes -chipped or broken into small fragments. It is one of the most powerful -of finings, and causes a loss by precipitation of a considerable -portion of the tannin and of the coloring matter of the wine. It should -not, therefore, be used in clarifying red wines, except when it is -desirable to deprive them of a portion of their roughness caused by -an excess of tannin, or of a portion of their color; and it should -always be employed with caution. It produces more sediment than the -two substances next named, and leaves a bad taste in the wine, unless -perfectly fresh matters have been used in its preparation. For the -latter reason, wine clarified with it should be racked from the finings -as soon as cleared. It may be profitably used to clarify common white -wines; and if they are difficult to clarify, tannin should be added as -described below.</p> - -<p><b>Preparation.</b>—Take about two tablets, or one ounce, for one -hundred gallons, or double the quantity, if the greatest possible -effect is desired. Dissolve it in a dish over the fire with a little -water, constantly stirring, and do not allow the water to boil. If -previously soaked a few hours in water, it will dissolve all the more -easily. Use as directed below.</p> - -<p><b>Isinglass, Fish Glue, or Ichthyocol</b> (<i>Ichthyocolla</i> -of the pharmacists), is prepared from the swimming bladder of the -sturgeon, and usually comes from Russia. It acts in the same way as -gelatine, mechanically, and also by combining with the tannin. This is -preëminently the fining for white wine. One ounce or more maybe used -for 100 gallons. It should be broken up by pounding it with a hammer -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</span> -on a block of wood, and should be chopped into small fragments, so that -it may be easily dissolved. Put it in a vessel of crockery, and pour -over it of the wine to be clarified sufficient to cover it. Add -another glass or two of the wine in a few hours, when the first has -been absorbed. After about twenty-four hours it forms a jelly. This -should be thinned by adding more wine or warm water, and it should be -thoroughly worked with the hand until completely dissolved, and then be -strained through a piece of linen, using sufficient pressure to squeeze -out the mucilage. It should be thoroughly whipped or beaten, and more -wine is added if too thick. After being prepared, it may be kept for -some time in bottles, by adding a little brandy. In clarifying sweet -white wines, it is recommended that an ounce or two of cream of tartar -be added, which must first be dissolved in warm water.</p> - -<p><b>Albuminous Substances.</b>—Among these are mentioned the <i>blood -of animals</i>, dried or fresh, and it is a powerful clarifier. About -two quarts to 100 gallons are used, beaten up with an equal quantity -of wine. It is liable to deprive the wine of a portion of its color, -and sometimes conveys a disagreeable flavor, particularly unless used -when quite fresh. It should not be used to clarify old or fine wines, -but may be employed for new and common ones. It is of use in clarifying -white wines which have turned yellow, for it effectually removes this -color. It should be used sparingly, if at all, for red wines, and the -wine should be drawn from the finings as promptly as possible.</p> - -<p><b>Milk</b> is also used in the same way and in the same quantity as -blood. It is liable to sour, and a small quantity is apt to remain in -the wine. By its use sugar of milk is introduced, which is liable to -undergo lactic and butyric fermentations, and the flavor of sour milk -and rancid butter may be communicated to the wine. This may also be -used to decolor white wine which has become yellow.</p> - -<p><b>The White of Eggs</b> is the best of the albuminous substances used -for clarifying. It is coagulated by the alcohol and tannin, and forms a -precipitate heavier than the liquid, and as it falls, carries with it -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</span> -the matters remaining in suspension. If the eggs are fresh, as they -always must be, there is no danger of communicating any foreign -flavor to the wine by their use; but it is not advisable to use the -yolks, for they injure the wine by decoloring it, and the sulphur -contained in them may communicate the odor of sulphuretted hydrogen. -This is preëminently the fining for red wine. It is also used for the -clarification of white wine, but Machard says that it is subject to be -condensed in the form of splinters (<i>esquilles</i>), which obscure -rather than clarify the liquid. The whites of ten or a dozen eggs are -used for 100 gallons. They are beaten up in a small quantity of wine or -water before using.</p> - -<p><b>Clarifying Powders.</b>—In addition to the substances mentioned, -there are special preparations in the form of powders, sold for the -purpose, which are highly recommended by some authors. They are -supposed to consist mainly of dried blood; directions for using are -given on the package.</p> - -<p><b>Gum Arabic</b>, about 10 ounces to 100 gallons, is also used, but it -is not readily precipitated, and is apt to remain in dissolution in the wine.</p> - -<p><b>Salt</b> is often added to the different finings, by first -dissolving a small handful in water. It renders them heavier, and as it -is insoluble in alcohol, it becomes precipitated, and thus acts in two -ways. Many authors recommend its use, but Boireau says it should only -be employed in clarifying common or very turbid wines.</p> - -<p><b>Alcohol</b> is added with great advantage if the wines are so weak -in spirit that the finings do not act.</p> - -<p id="TANNIN"><b>Tannin</b>, however, more frequently requires to be added, for -upon it and the alcohol depends the action of the substances employed. -If the wine is not lacking in alcohol, and the finings do not act, -sufficient tannin must be added to produce the desired effect. If the -ordinary tannic acid of commerce is employed, one-half to one ounce for -100 gallons may be used. Dissolve ½ lb. in a quart of the strongest -alcohol, 95°, by thoroughly shaking in a bottle of double the size. -After standing twenty-four hours it is filtered, and one gill of the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</span> -solution contains one ounce of tannic acid. This preparation of tannin, -which is prepared from nutgalls, is used for tannifying sparkling -wines, because it does not adhere to the inside of the bottle. It is -preferable, however, in general to employ the tannin derived from the -vine itself. For this purpose a strong decoction is made by steeping -grape seeds, which have not undergone fermentation, in water. They -should be coarsely broken, or bruised, and boiled for several hours. By -adding from one-fourth to one-fifth of its volume of strong alcohol of -85 per cent., it can be kept for future use. The liquor may be filtered -before adding the alcohol. Instead of the seeds, sometimes a handful -of stems are steeped, and the liquid is used. Tannified wine may be -prepared by soaking 50 or 60 lbs. of the bruised seeds in 100 gallons -of white wine, for one or two months. It is cared for as white wine. -If only one cask is to be treated, say 100 gallons, one-half pound of -grape seed may be reduced to powder and put in.</p> - -<p>It is difficult to lay down a definite rule as to the amount of either -preparation to use, for the reason that the amount of tannin contained -in the wine itself varies. Three or four gallons of the tannified -wine are recommended for 100 gallons, and a much smaller quantity of -the first mentioned decoction would be equivalent in its effects, on -account of its additional strength. If, however, it is found that -sufficient has not been used, the wine must be clarified anew, and -tannin added again. By experimenting on a small quantity of the wine, -the proper quantity may be ascertained.</p> - -<div class="figcontainer"> - <div class="figsub"> - <p id="FIG_24" class="f120"><i>Fig. 24.</i></p> - <img src="images/i_103a.jpg" alt="" width="100" height="513" /> - </div> - <div class="figsub"> - <p id="FIG_25" class="f120"><i>Fig. 25.</i></p> - <img src="images/i_103b.jpg" alt="" width="125" height="487" /> - </div> - <div class="figsub"> - <p id="FIG_26" class="f120"><i>Fig. 26.</i></p> - <img src="images/i_103c.jpg" alt="" width="150" height="491" /> - </div> - <p class="f120 space-below2">Implements for stirring.</p> -</div> - -<p><b>Method of Operation.</b>—After preparing the finings as described -under the head of each of the substances already mentioned, two or -three gallons of wine are drawn from the bung by the aid of a siphon, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</span> -pump, or other suitable implement, the finings are poured in, and the -wine is stirred until thoroughly mixed with them. This may be done with -a stick split at the end into three or four prongs (<a href="#FIG_24">fig. 24</a>), -or by a sort of brush consisting of several small bundles of bristles inserted -in a stick and at right angles to each other (<a href="#FIG_25">fig. 25</a>), or with a -sort of bent paddle, pierced with holes, called a whip (<a href="#FIG_26">fig. 26</a>). - The wine drawn out should then be replaced in the cask, which should be -completely filled, and left to rest till the wine is bright. In filling -a cask which has recently been agitated, or into which finings have -been put, a good deal of froth is frequently found which will run out -at the bung before the cask is full, and will prevent the operator from -filling it. A few smart blows on the bung stave with a bung starter -will break the bubbles and remove the foam. The time required to -clarify a cask of wine depends somewhat upon the quality of the wine -itself, and also upon the kind of finings used. The usual time is from -two weeks to a month. In no case, however, should it be allowed to -remain on the finings after it has cleared and has ceased to deposit, -for the sediment may work up again and cloud the wine, and if left too long -in contact with the deposit, the wine may acquire a disagreeable flavor.</p> - -<p>If, after leaving the wine a suitable time, it still remains turbid and -continues to deposit, it should be racked into a clean cask and fined -again, adding tannin, if necessary.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XIV">CHAPTER XIV.<br /> -<span class="h_subtitle">SWEET WINES—FORTIFIED WINES.</span></h2> -</div> - -<p><b>Generally.</b>—The French give the name <i>vins de liqueur</i>, -liqueur wines, to sweet wines, and it is also sometimes applied to -fortified dry wines. Sweet wines are those which, after terminating -their active fermentation, still retain a quantity of sugar. In order -to produce natural sweet wines, it is necessary that the must should -contain a large amount of sugar; Boireau says, from 16° to 25° Baumé, -or about 29 to 46 per cent. It would seem that the latter figure is too -high for a <i>natural</i> sweet <i>wine</i>, for it probably would not -ferment at all, and to make <i>a wine</i> from a must containing over -35 per cent. of sugar, the alcohol must be added. (See <a href="#CHAPTER_II"><i>Musts</i></a>.) -He goes on to say that these wines will contain from 15 to 16 per cent. -of natural alcohol, without addition; the sugar which they contain -makes them heavier than water.</p> - -<p><b>To Increase Sugar.</b>—In order to augment the amount of sugar, the -grapes are left on the vine till they become excessively ripe; in some -places the stem of the bunch is twisted on the vine to interrupt the -rising of the sap; the must is also sometimes concentrated by boiling; -sometimes the grapes are picked and exposed to the sun on screens or -straw mats, until they become shriveled, and sometimes they are dried -in ovens.</p> - -<p><b>Without Fermentation.</b>—Sometimes sweet wines are made without -allowing the must to ferment at all, by adding alcohol till it contains -18 or 20 per cent. of spirit; thus all the sugar is preserved. Again, -they are made by mixing with dry wines grape syrup or concentrated -must, and fortifying.</p> - -<p><b>Care Required.</b>—It has already been stated in the chapter on -keeping wine that these wines require less care than weaker ones. But -Mr. Boireau says that wines, whether sweet or dry, whose strength does -not exceed 16 per cent., require the same care as ordinary wines. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</span></p> - -<p>In order that sweet and fortified wines may be kept in storehouses -subject to great changes of temperature, in bottles upright, or in -casks in ullage—in other words, under the conditions in which brandy -can be kept, they must contain 18 or 20 per cent. of alcohol. They age -sooner in casks than in bottles. (See <a href="#CHAPTER_X"><i>Aging</i></a>.)</p> - -<p><b>Clarification</b> of these wines is effected by fining or by -filtering. The best finings for the purpose are those containing -albumen, such as the whites of eggs, though fresh blood may be used, -but only for the commoner wines. If they are very pasty, tannin should -be added, and then they should be clarified with a strong dose of gelatine.</p> - -<p>Small quantities of wine may be filtered through paper or flannel, in -closed filters.</p> - -<p>These wines should always be allowed to rest for a while, and then be -racked before shipping, for it is rare that they do not make a deposit. -(See <a href="#CHAPTER_XIII"><i>Fining</i></a>.)</p> - -<p><b>Boiling Must.</b>—Pellicot says that the common practice in making -sweet wines, is to reduce the volume of the must by one-third, or even -one-half, by boiling. They clear sooner, and retain less of the cooked -flavor if only a part is boiled, that is, if, after boiling, one-fourth -to one-third of the volume is added of must from the sweetest varieties -of grapes. In this way the wines are more agreeable, and sooner -matured. When the boiled must is taken from the cauldron, it must be -briskly stirred with a bunch of twigs, or the like, till it ceases to -smoke, in order to remove a disagreeable flavor which wines so made may -contract. He gives it as his opinion that the greater part of the sweet -wines, even of southern countries, are made by boiling the whole or a -portion of the must, in spite of allegations to the contrary; and he -considers it an innocent and legitimate operation, the only objection -being the cooked flavor, which disappears with age. He excepts, -however, wine made from very sweet varieties, which are ripened -artificially. He also recommends that when kept in a large cask, the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</span> -lees should not be removed, as they contain a good deal of sugar. As a -certain quantity is drawn off, it may be filled each year with new wine -of the same quality.</p> - -<p><b>Sweet Muscat.</b>—In making sweet Muscat, fermentation should be -checked by the addition of alcohol, for if allowed to continue too -long, the Muscat flavor will disappear. And this is usually necessary, -as before stated, to keep the wines sweet.</p> - -<p><b>Pressing.</b>—Where the grapes are quite ripe, and somewhat dry, it -may be difficult to extract the juice without a very powerful press; -under such circumstances Machard recommends that, after crushing, -the grapes be put into a vat for twenty-four or forty-eight hours, -according to the temperature, and until fermentation commences, which -fluidifies the must and makes it run more freely from the press.</p> - -<p><b>The Marc of Sweet Wines</b> is useful to mix with poor white wines -to give them more sugar and more strength.</p> - -<p><b>The amount of Alcohol to be added</b> varies from two to five per -cent., or more, depending upon the amount developed by fermentation, -and the degree of sweetness desired. If the must is not allowed to -ferment at all, it must be fortified up to 18 or 20 per cent.; if, -however, it is so sweet that it will not ferment, it may be kept -without the addition of alcohol, but it will be syrup, and not wine.</p> - -<p><b>Density.</b>—Dubief says that sweet wines should mark a density of -from 4° to 5° Baumé, and the best of them even 7°.</p> - -<p><b>Furmint Wine.</b>—The following is the method given by Pellicot as -practiced by him in making wine from the Furmint grape. He gathers the -grapes when they are very ripe, and the small berries are half dried, -and then exposes them to the rays of the sun for six or eight days, -upon screens. When ready to crush, he takes the screens to the crusher. -The dryest berries are then removed by shaking the frame, or with the -hand, and put by themselves; and the remainder are crushed in the usual -manner. Then the dry ones are crushed as well as possible, and the two -kinds are mixed together and fermented. Owing to the syrupy nature of -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</span> -the must, it ferments for a long time, and without much effervescence. -When it acquires a suitable flavor, it is drawn off, and is then racked -several times till clear.</p> - -<p>Where the grapes are trodden, it is probably necessary to separate the -dry grapes from the rest, and crush them by themselves, in order that -they may be well crushed; but if a good crusher is used, it would seem -entirely unnecessary.</p> - -<p><b>Straw Wines</b>, according to Machard, are made as follows: The -ripest bunches are chosen, and preferably from old vines. They are -gathered when the weather is warm and dry. They are spread upon straw, -or hung up in the upper room of a house. They are visited from time -to time, and the rotten berries removed. They are thus left till -February or March, the time when straw wine is usually made. Some, -however, press in December, but the wine has not the quality of that -made later.<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> -When sufficiently dried the grapes are stemmed, and the remaining -rotten berries are removed. They are then crushed and pressed. The -pressings are all mixed together. To arrive at perfection, such a wine, -he says, must be kept ten, twelve, or more years; that it need not be -racked, nor the casks made full, and that it requires no fining.</p> - -<h3>PORT WINE.</h3> - -<p><b>The Musts</b> of the port wine grapes grown in the Upper Douro, -Portugal, show from 24 to 29 per cent. of sugar, according to the -variety. There are others cultivated in the district which contain less -sugar. The sweetest of all is the Bastardo. The fermentation takes -place under cover, in what is called a <i>lagar</i>, which is a large -stone vat, about three feet deep. According to Dr. Bleasdale, it is -necessary to gather the grapes as soon as they are completely ripe; -that the <i>lagar</i> or fermenting vat should be filled as promptly -as possible; that the mass should be thoroughly stirred; that the -fermentation should be tumultuous and uninterrupted, and that the wine -should be drawn off when it has developed a vinous smell and flavor, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</span> -and astringency and roughness to the taste, though all the sugar has -not been fermented. The defective grapes are picked out, and only good -ones put into the vat. As soon as the fermenting vat is filled, a -sufficient number of men enter into it to complete the treading. Three -men to each 120 gallons of must are employed, who with bare feet tread -and dance upon the grapes. If fermentation is slow in starting, more -men are put in to impart warmth, or a quantity of warm must is added. -The first treading lasts, in the instance given by Dr. Bleasdale, six -hours during the first night, and is continued next day with two men, -where three were employed the first night. Men enter again during the -active fermentation and tread to keep down the pomace, and to extract -as much coloring matter as possible. Then the treaders leave the -<i>lagar</i>, but the fermentation is closely watched.</p> - -<p>The following graphic description, which differs in no essential -respect from that of Dr. Bleasdale, is from Vizitelli:</p> - -<p>“When the mid-day meal is over, the grapes having been already spread -perfectly level in the lagar, a band of sixty men is told off to tread -them. The <i>casa dos lagares</i><a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> -is a long building with a low pointed roof, lighted with square -openings along one side, and contains four lagares, in the largest of -which sufficient grapes can be trodden at one time to produce thirty -pipes of wine.<a id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> -As is universally the case in the Upper Douro, these lagares are of -stone, and about three feet in depth. In front of each, and on a lower -level, is a small stone reservoir, called a dorno, into which the -expressed juice flows after the treading of the grapes is concluded, -and which communicates by pipes with the huge tonels<a id="FNanchor_7" href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> -in the adega below, although not beneath the lagares, being in fact in -the face of the reservoirs, but on a level some twelve feet lower, with -a long, wooden staircase leading to it. In front of the lagares runs a -narrow stone ledge, to which ascent is gained by a few steps, and here -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</span> -while the treading is going on the overseers post themselves, long -staves in hand, in order to see that every one performs his share of -labor. The treaders, with their white breeches well tucked up, mount -into the lagar, where they form three separate rows of ten men each -on either side of the huge, overhanging beam, and placing their arms -on each other’s shoulders, commence work by raising and lowering -their feet alternately, calling out as they do so, ‘<i>Direita, -esquerda!</i>’ (Right, left!) varying this after a time with songs -and shoutings in order to keep the weaker and lazier ones up to the -work, which is quite as irksome and monotonous as either treadmill or -prison crank, which tender-hearted philanthropists regard with so much -horror. But the lagariros have something more than singing or shouting -to encourage them. Taking part with them in the treading is a little -band of musicians, with drum, fife, fiddle, and guitar, who strike up a -lively tune, while their comrades chime in, some by whistling, others -with castanets. Occasionally, too, nips of brandy are served out, and -the overseers present cigarettes all round, whereupon the treaders vary -their monotonous movements with a brisker measure. This first treading, -the ‘sovar o vinho,’ or beating the wine, as it is called, lasts, with -occasional respites and relays of fresh men, for eighteen hours. A -long interval now ensues, and then the treading or beating is resumed. -By this time the grapes are pretty well crushed, and walking over the -pips and stalks strewn at the bottom of the lagar, becomes something -like the pilgrimages of old, when the devout trudged wearily along with -hard peas packed between the soles of their feet and the soles of their -shoes. The lagariros, with their garments more or less bespattered with -grape juice, move slowly about in their mauve-colored mucilaginous -bath in a listless kind of way, now smoking cigarettes, now with their -arms folded, or thrown behind their backs, or with their hands tucked -in their waistcoat pockets, or raised up to their chins, while they -support the elbow of the one arm with the hand of the other. The fiddle -strikes up anew, the drum sounds, the fife squeaks, the guitar tinkles, -and the overseers drowsily upbraid. But all to no purpose. Music has -lost its inspiration, and authority its terrors, and the men, dead -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</span> -beat, raise one purple leg languidly after the other. In the still -night time, with a few lanterns dimly lighting up the gloomy casa dos -lagares, such a scene as I have here attempted to sketch has something -almost weird about it. By the time the treading is completed, the -violent fermentation of the must has commenced, and is left to follow -its course.<a id="FNanchor_8" href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> -Accordingly, as the grapes are moderately or overripe, and the -atmospheric temperature is high or low, and it is intended that the -wine shall be sweet or dry, this fermentation will be allowed to -continue for a shorter or a longer period, varying from fifteen hours -to several days, during which time the husks and stalks of the grapes, -rising to the surface, form a thick incrustation. To ascertain the -proper moment for drawing off the wine into tonels, recourse is usually -had to the saccharometer, when, if this marks four or five degrees, -the farmer knows that the wine will be sweet; if a smaller number of -degrees are indicated, the wine will be moderately sweet, while zero -signifies that the wine will be dry. Some farmers judge the state of -the fermentation by the appearance of the wine on the conventional -white porcelain saucer, and the vinous smell and flavor which it -then exhibits. When it is ascertained that the wine is sufficiently -fermented, it is at once run off into the large tonels, holding -their 10 to 30 pipes each, the mosto extracted from the husks of the -grapes by the application of the huge beam press being mixed with the -expressed juice resulting from the treading. It is now that brandy—not -poisonous Berlin potato spirit, but distilled from the juice of the -grape—is added at the rate of 5½ to 11 gallons per pipe,<a id="FNanchor_9" href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> -if it is desired that the wine should retain its sweetness. Should, -however, the wine be already dry, the chances are that it will receive -no spirit at all. The bungs are left out of the tonels till November, -when they are tightly replaced, and the wine remains undisturbed until -the cold weather sets in, usually during the month of December. By this -time the wine has cleared and become of a dark purple hue. It is now -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</span> -drawn off its lees, and returned again to the tonel, when it receives -about 5 gallons of brandy per pipe.<a id="FNanchor_10" href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> -In the following March it will be racked into pipes preparatory to -being sent down the Douro to the wine shippers’ lodges at Villa Nova de -Gaia,” a suburb of Oporto.</p> - -<p><b>These Lodges or Storehouses</b> are large, one-story buildings above -ground, dimly lighted through small windows, for Mr. Vizitelli informs -us that it is considered that ports mature less perfectly when subject -to the influence of the light. But like other fortified wines, exposure -to the air is considered beneficial to them; and in racking, they are -drawn off into a wooden pitcher holding about five gallons, and poured -into the cask to be filled, coming freely in contact with the air.</p> - -<p><b>All Wines of Similar Character are Blended together</b> at the -lodge, by mixing in large vats, sometimes stirred with a large fan -operated by machinery. The blending is also performed in casks, by -pouring into each one successively a certain number of gallons of each -kind of wine, so that the contents of all the casks will be uniform. A -small quantity of spirit is usually added at the time of cutting. After -blending the wine is racked every three months, until in a condition -for shipment, which may be in from fifteen to twenty-four months, -according to quality.</p> - -<p><b>Port loses its Color rapidly in Wood</b>, and much of its fullness, -and wines five years old cease to be regarded as shipping wines, and -are then kept in store and used to give age and character to younger -wines. It is then a valuable, old, mellow, and tawny wine, which the -merchants of Oporto themselves drink.</p> - -<p><b>Port Wine Contains from 18 to 23 per cent. of absolute Alcohol</b> -after fortifying, the amount of spirit added depending upon how much -is developed by fermentation, and the amount of sugar in the grapes. -It is customary to add a small amount whenever it is racked, and -before shipping. The object of these frequent additions is to keep up -the necessary strength, for a certain amount of alcohol is constantly -evaporating while the wine is in casks, and it may fall below the -required strength if these additions are not made. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</span></p> - -<p>Mr. Vizitelli has fallen into the error of stating that in dry climates -wine becomes stronger by the evaporation of its <i>watery parts</i>; -but this is impossible, for alcohol is more volatile than water, and -whenever there is evaporation in a wine, it becomes weaker from the -loss of alcohol; and whenever a wine gains strength by keeping, it is -because the sugar contained in it has been transformed into alcohol, -etc., by fermentation, as stated in other parts of this work.</p> - -<h3>MADEIRA.</h3> - -<p><b>Making.</b>—In the island of Madeira it is the practice, according -to Mr. Vizitelli, to tread the grapes thoroughly in a large, square -wooden trough, or lagar, in which they are also pressed, as in sherry -making. A great part of the juice is extracted by treading, being -strained through a basket as it runs off into casks. After the grapes -have been thoroughly trodden, the pomace is gathered together and piled -in the centre of the lagar, and pressed and patted with the hands to -extract the must, and this is repeated three times, and finally the -pomace is again raised in a mound, wound with a rope, and pressed by -means of a heavy beam suspended over the lagar. This primitive method, -however, can have but little interest for the wine maker, as the -essential practice in making Madeira, or rather in the aging of it, is -the application of heat.</p> - -<p><b>Casks, Treatment.</b>—The must is fermented, the wine racked and -heated, in casks holding 130 gallons. After heating, it is stored in -casks holding about 400 gallons. It is fermented in these smaller -casks with the bung open, simply covered by a leaf, till the month of -November. Either before or after the fermentation, a small quantity -of brandy is added, varying in quantity according to the quality of -the must, but seldom exceeding three per cent. When the wine has well -cleared, it is racked and lotted, according to quality, and forwarded -to the heating house, or estufa.</p> - -<p><b>Heating House, Heating.</b>—One of these at Funchal, described by -Vizitelli, consists of a block of buildings of two stories, divided -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</span> -into four compartments. “In the first of these, common wines are -subjected to a temperature of 140°F., derived from flues heated with -anthracite coal, for the space of three months. In the next compartment -wines of an intermediate quality are heated up to 130° for a period -of four and a half months, while the third is set apart for superior -wines, heated variously from 110° to 120° for the term of six months. -The fourth compartment, known as the ‘calor,’ possesses no flues, -but derives its heat, varying from 90° to 100°, exclusively from the -compartments adjacent; and here only high-classed wines are placed.” -They receive a further addition of spirit, after leaving the estufa, -varying in quantity from one to three gallons per cask, presumably to -supply what has evaporated during the heating. Wines are also heated by -exposing them to the rays of the sun in glass houses. In the day time a -temperature of 120° to 130° is secured, which becomes considerably less -during the night, which change is by many considered detrimental. Some -again, put the casks out of doors in the full sunshine. In the estufas -mentioned, the pipes are placed on end in stacks of four, with smaller -casks on the top, a gangway being left between the different stacks. -The casks are vented with a small hole during the process. Leaking is -common during the exposure to so great a heat, and it is necessary to -inspect the casks once during every day and once during the night.</p> - -<p>Each compartment is provided with double doors, and after it is filled -with wine, the inner door is plastered so as to stop all the cracks. In -entering the estufa, only the outer door is opened, entrance through -the inner one being made through a small door for the purpose. The man -who examines the casks, coming out after a stay of an hour, drinks a -tumblerful of wine, and cools off in a tight room provided for the -purpose. From 10 to 15 per cent. of the wine is lost by evaporation -while it remains in the heating house.</p> - -<p><b>General Treatment—Alcoholic Strength.</b>—The solera system is -somewhat in vogue in Madeira, as in the sherry country. The practice -also of leaving the casks in ullage prevails—a vacant space of ten or -a dozen gallons is left. On the south side of the island 5 per cent. is -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</span> -the largest amount of alcohol added, and on the north side a little -more, which is added at different times. Most Madeira is dry, or nearly -so, and contains about 18 per cent. of alcohol on the average.</p> - -<h3>SHERRY.</h3> - -<p><b>Climate.</b>—According to General Keyes, the climate of the sherry -districts of Spain is a trifle warmer in winter and about the same in -summer as that of Napa Valley. But the seasons are not so distinctly -wet and dry as in California, and the grapes are sometimes rained on -while growing, and are frequently wet while ripening. Neverthless, the -south of Spain is a dry country.</p> - -<p><b>The Vintage</b> begins in the early part of September, at which time -the grapes are ripe, but by no means overripe, but sweet and luscious. -The grapes are picked in the early part of the day, and spread upon -mats in the sun, where they remain till the evening of the same day, -when they are crushed. General Keyes says that they are invariably -crushed in the evening of the same day, but Mr. Vizitelli states that -they remain on the straw mats from one to three days. As both write -from observation, it would seem that the practice varies, the time of -the exposure to the sun probably depending upon the degree of maturity -when picked. The defective berries are carefully removed. The cool of -the night for crushing is preferred to the heat of the day, and to -avoid the precipitation of fermentation.</p> - -<p><b>Crushing.</b>—Mr. Vizitelli’s description is as follows: -“The pressing commenced between seven and eight o’clock, and was -accomplished in a detached building under a low tiled roof, but -entirely open in front. Passing through the gateway, and stumbling -in the dim light afforded by an occasional lamp fixed against the -wall, over a rudely paved court-yard, we found ourselves beside a row -of large, stout wooden troughs, some ten feet square and a couple -of feet deep, raised about three feet from the ground, and known in -the vernacular of the vineyards as lagares. The bottoms of these -receptacles were already strewn with grapes, lightly sprinkled over -with yeso (gypsum), which if spread over the whole of the bunches, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</span> -would not have been greatly in excess of the amount of dust ordinarily -gathered by a similar quantity of grapes conveyed in open baskets on -the backs of mules from the vineyards to the pressing places in the -towns. At Torre Breva, the sixty or more arrobas of grapes (1500 lbs.) -required to make each butt of wine, were having from two to four pounds -of yeso sprinkled over them, or about half the quantity which would -be used in a moist season. I was assured that at last year’s vintage -here not a single ounce of yeso was employed in the manufacture of -upwards of 700 butts of wine. * * * Rising perpendicularly in the -centre of each of the four lagares to a height of about seven feet, -is a tolerably powerful screw, which is only brought into requisition -after the grapes have been thoroughly trodden. A couple of swarthy, -bare-legged pisadores leap into each lagar, and commence spreading out -the bunches with wooden shovels; and soon the whole eight of them, in -their short drawers, blue-striped shirts, little caps, red sashes, and -hob-nailed shoes, are dancing a more or less lively measure, ankle-deep -in newly-crushed grapes. They dance in couples, one on each side of -the screw, performing certain rapid, pendulum-like movements which are -supposed to have the virtue of expressing the juice more satisfactorily -from the fruit than can be accomplished by mere mechanical means. Their -saltatory evolutions ended, the trodden grapes are heaped up on one -side and well patted about with the shovel, like so much newly mixed -mortar. This causes the expressed juice to flow out in a dingy, brown, -turgid stream through the spout fixed in front of the lagar, into a -metal strainer, and thence into the vat placed beneath to receive it. -Fresh grapes are now spread over the bottom of the lagar, and, after -being duly danced upon, are shoveled on one side; and this kind of -thing goes on until sufficient trodden murk has been accumulated to -make what is called a pile.”</p> - -<p><b>Pressing.</b>—His description goes on to show that the treaders -give place to the pressers, who, with wooden shovels, build up a mound -of marc under the screw, conical in form, some five feet high, which is -neatly dressed and trimmed, and then wound around with a straw rope or -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</span> -band, about four inches wide, from base to summit. A circular piece of -wood is placed on the top, and the pressure is applied by means of the -screw, the must passing through the interstices of the straw band.</p> - -<p>Treading and pressing goes on nightly for fourteen hours, with -occasional intervals for refreshment.</p> - -<p>The wine from the press is invariably fermented separately from that -of the first run during the treading.</p> - -<p>All agree that the grapes are crushed without stemming, but it seems -that the practice of pressing with the stems on is not uniform. General -Keyes says that he made careful inquiry on this subject, and was -informed that only a few of the larger stems were removed, while Mr. -Vizitelli states that the sherry wine maker is so much afraid of tannin -and roughness in the wine, that the stems are all removed before the -pomace is pressed. This is not important, however, as the press wine -is inferior, and is usually distilled.</p> - -<p>It is almost a universal custom to sprinkle each pressing of grapes -with two or three handfuls of gypsum, or from two to six pounds to a -butt of wine of 130 gallons, and in wet seasons, even more. Gen. Keyes -gives an instance of one wine maker who made several casks of sherry -one year without the use of gypsum, and he found no material difference -in the product, but he still follows the custom of the country. (See -<a href="#PLASTER"><i>Plastering</i></a>.)</p> - -<p><b>Fermenting.</b>—The must is run into casks of about 150 gallons -capacity, which are filled only to within ten or fifteen gallons of -their full capacity, and is left to ferment in a cool shed, or in a -place separate from the storehouse or bodega; new wine is not fermented -in the same room with the old.</p> - -<p>As soon as the wine falls bright, which it does at any time from -January to April, it is racked and placed in the bodega, with still -a vacant space in the cask, and brandy is added equal to one or two -per cent. to the stronger wines, and three or four per cent. to the -commoner ones.</p> - -<p>If the wine is deficient in sugar, it may clear by January, but if -rich, it may not become bright till April. During the active -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</span> -fermentation, the bungs, of course, are left open, and in the bodega -they are left loose, or laid over the hole.</p> - -<p>Sometimes the wine is left undisturbed in the bodega until required -for shipment, when it is racked, clarified, and again fortified. It is -considered best, however, to rack it once a year. The wine is now well -fermented, and dry, or nearly so, and the sugar that may be found in it -after shipment, has been put in by adding a small quantity of sweet wine.</p> - -<p><b>The Bodegas, or Storehouses</b>, in which these wines are stored, -are entirely above ground, have very thick walls and double doors, the -roof is covered with tiles, and the floor may consist only of a mixture -of sand and loam, which, when moistened, is not muddy, and when dry, is -not very dusty. They are kept well ventilated, even at the expense of a -good deal of loss by evaporation, and are comparatively cool, the rays -of the sun being excluded by shutters. As only old or seasoned casks -are used for shipment, the new ones are used for fermenting the must, -and so they are seasoned.</p> - -<p><b>Changes in the Wine.</b>—The young wine in the bodega now, during -the first two years, undergoes extraordinary changes. That made from -the same vineyard and of the same varieties of grapes, crushed at the -same time, placed in casks side by side, receiving apparently identical -treatment, develops totally different characters in different butts, -and is classed according to these several characters, as Fino, Oloroso, -and Basto.</p> - -<p>The best is <i>fino</i>, of a delicate, soft, mellow flavor, and pale -in color, and only from ten to twenty per cent. take this form. The -<i>fino</i>, at times, develops into a still finer quality, producing -what is known as <i>amontillado</i>, the most valued of all.</p> - -<p><i>Oloroso</i> is a nutty flavored development rather deeper in -color, and of a stouter character; when old, it is of great body, and -perfectly dry.</p> - -<p>The coarse, inferior kind is called <i>basto</i>.</p> - -<p>There are still other casks which by bad behavior, poor fermentation, -or weakness, are only fit for the still.</p> - -<p><b>Flowers.</b>—Sherry produces the phenomenon known as flowers of wine -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</span> -(<i>micoderma vini</i>), of which a writer under the assumed name of -Pedro Verdad, whom I have frequent occasion to quote, says: “At every -period, about the flowering of the vine, and at about vintage time, the -wine begins to ‘breed;’ that is, throw up a <i>flor</i> (flower), which -remains for some time on the surface, and then falls in sediment to -the bottom, when the wine once more becomes bright. This phenomenon is -looked for with great anxiety in the bodegas, for if it does not occur, -the wine may be assuming some other and less valued character. Strange -as it may appear,” he says, “I have seen the actual <i>flor</i> rise in -a bottle in England, just as in the butt in Spain.”</p> - -<p><b>Vino Dulce, or Sweet Wine</b>, is made from the sweeter kinds -of grapes, especially the Pedro Jimenes. The grapes are exposed to -the sun, sometimes for a fortnight, and till they almost become -raisins, and they then go through the ordinary modes of crushing and -fermentation. To each butt of this wine about six or seven gallons of -spirit are added, while the must of other grapes have as much as twenty -gallons mixed with each cask of must to check the fermentation, and -keep the wine sweet. One-third of the spirit is poured in as soon as -a small portion of the must has been put into the cask, a third when -the cask is half full, and a third when nearly three-quarters full. -The reason is obvious, as the spirit is lighter than the must, and -would otherwise remain on the top. Soleras of <i>vino dulce</i> are -of a sweet, luscious flavor, and of an oily and slightly glutinous -consistency. The finer kinds resemble a liqueur, and are of great value.</p> - -<p>Vizitelli says that sweet wine is used to give softness and roundness -to old and pungent wines, as well as to the cruder, youthful growths, -and it is remarkable how very small a quantity suffices perceptibly to -modify these opposite characteristics. As little as one per cent. of -dulce will impart a softness to the drier wines, which otherwise they -only acquire after being several years in bottle.</p> - -<p><b>Color Wine</b> (<b>Vino de Color</b>) is composed of a mixture of -white wine and <i>arrope</i>. The latter is a must of white grapes -boiled down over a slow fire till it is reduced to one-fifth or -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</span> -one-sixth of its original quantity, great care being taken to skim -it while boiling. This is a dark-colored, almost black fluid, of a -bitterish taste. It is mixed with from three to five times its volume -of white wine, and the “color” is formed.<a id="FNanchor_11" href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> -It is chiefly used for giving color to young and undeveloped wines. -With great age, the solera of this wine is very valuable, being of a -deep brown color, and a perfect essence.</p> - -<p><b>Mature Wines.</b>—When the wines have assumed their distinctive -characters—and this requires from three to five, or even more, -years—they are used to replenish the soleras. In the shippers’ bodega -are kept many soleras, each containing a given number of butts. A -solera, whether classed as <i>fino</i>, <i>oloroso</i>, or otherwise, -has its distinctive quality required in the preparation of a wine -for shipment. It has been reared and nursed for years with careful -attention; each butt has been tasted from time to time, and any cask in -which a material deterioration has been detected is rejected from the -solera, and probably fortified with spirits, or distilled.</p> - -<h3>THE SOLERA SYSTEM.</h3> - -<p>The distinctive feature in the production of sherry is the -<i>solera</i>, which signifies foundation, and means old wine kept in -casks, which are never moved as long as the solera exists, and on the -foundation of which younger wines are reared.</p> - -<p>The casks are arranged in groups, piled in tiers, and the groups into -scales. The distinctive feature of the system is a series, commencing -with a very old wine, followed by a younger one, and so on down the -scale to the youngest, so that when wine for blending and shipment is -drawn from the group of casks constituting the oldest solera, they -are replenished from the group of casks of the next younger solera, -and these again from those of the next younger, and so on through the -scale, thus keeping up the characters of the soleras. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</span></p> - -<p><b>Establishing a Solera.</b>—The following from the address of Mr. -Pohndorff before the Viticultural Convention held at San Francisco in -September, 1882, gives a good idea of how to establish a solera:</p> - -<p>Select the finest wines of a year’s vintage, put them away by -themselves, and carefully care for them and nurse them by racking, -etc., during the year. The next year, separate the finest wines from -the vintage, always leaving ullage in the casks of three to five -gallons, according to size, and the bungs loose, simply laid over -the hole. Go on in this way for five years. Now a fifth of this -five-year-old wine may be drawn off for, and used to establish another -solera, and the casks refilled from the four-year-old wine, which, of -course, must be as nearly as possible of the same nature. With the -younger wines, you may do the same, except those of one and two years -old, which are not yet soleras, but young wines. You have then a solera -of this five-year-old wine, which is one-fifth four-year-old wine, and -this may be called the mother solera. At the end of ten years more, -you can say that you have a solera fifteen years of age; though during -the period, you have drawn off periodically a small portion of it and -replaced it with the next younger, always providing that the younger -wine is similar, for this quality is of much greater importance than -the difference of a year or two in age, for wine a year or two younger -or older, if of the same kind, will not injure the solera, but its -character may be destroyed by mixing with it wine of a different nature.</p> - -<p>A solera, then, really consists of a mixture of wines of different -years. The head of each cask is inscribed with the distinguishing mark -of its solera, and the number of butts of which it is composed.</p> - -<p>“<b>The Standard Soleras</b>,” says Gen. Keyes, “are those from which -the wine is drawn for shipment, and their contents have rested in, -and permeated through, a series of groups called feeders”—a solera -sometimes dating back a century, it is said. “At every stage the wine -is graded, so that the best young wine passes ultimately into the -oldest and highest priced solera. When there is only a small number -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</span> -of feeders, say two or three, in the group next behind the standard -solera, the wine ought not be drawn out for shipment oftener than twice -a year; but when there are many, say twelve, the wine for shipment -may be drawn out every two months. To make myself understood in this -complicated process, I must explain the principle upon which it is -founded. When wine is needed for shipment, a portion is drawn out by -siphons from the standard soleras. The amount which may be drawn out -with safety, and the kind of younger wines which are to replace it in -the old solera, requires great skill and experience, and, I may say, -a natural aptness for the business. The end in view is to draw off -from a standard solera such a number of gallons, that, being replaced -by an equal number of gallons of the younger wines, the standard of -the solera may remain intact. If too much is drawn out, or if it is -replaced from the wrong feeders, the standard may be injured, or even -destroyed. But if the proper number of gallons are drawn out and -replaced by the right sorts from the other casks, the old solera soon -transmutes the younger wines to its standard, the bodega retains its -reputation, and the owner grows rich.” He quotes Mr. Davis, of Jerez, -as follows: “The age of the first step of a solera scale depends -entirely upon the character and price of the oldest grade of that -particular solera. For instance, the first group of wine in a scale of -six, ending in a medium priced sherry, might be two years old; whereas, -the first group of wine to permeate through a scale of, say four, -ending in a wine of great age or value, would, perhaps, require to be -fifteen or twenty years old. In proportion to the number of the scale -behind the final solera, so is the frequency with which the wine can -be drawn determined. In a scale of twelve, the final solera might be -drawn, perhaps, every two months. In a scale of three feeders, perhaps -twice a year.”</p> - -<p><b>Blending for Shipment.</b>—In the cellar a book is kept in which is -recorded the blend of each shipment made, the history of the shipment, -and all the facts necessary to its identification, and a sample bottle -of every shipment is also preserved. When an order is received for a -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</span> -quantity of wine of the same kind as a former shipment, reference is -made to the blend book, and recourse is had to the sample bottle, due -allowance being made for the bottle flavor acquired by the sample, and -the blend is prepared accordingly, the necessary quantity being taken -from each solera, of which there are many in a shipping bodega, and -allowance is also made for the change that may have occurred in the -solera by replenishing. It is needless to add that only experience and -natural aptitude fit a man for this delicate operation.</p> - -<p>If the order is by a sample whose blend is not known, the sample is -brought into the tasting office, and the blend glass brought into -requisition. It is a graduated glass tube, with forty markings, -corresponding to the number of <i>jarras</i>, or jars, which a butt -contains, all shipments being by the butt. The shipping butt contains -130 gallons, and the cask for storing is about 20 gallons larger.</p> - -<p>The cellar-man dips out and puts into the graduated glass amounts -corresponding to the number of jars to be taken from each solera, -sweet wine being added for sweetness, and color wine for color. As the -sugar added in the sweet wine would excite fermentation, sufficient -<i>aguardiente</i>, spirit, must be added to bring its alcoholic -strength up to at least 18 per cent.</p> - -<p>The right blend having been ascertained, it is left for a while, and -tasted once or twice to make sure that it is correct. If it does not -match the sample, a little of this and that solera is added till it -exactly corresponds. The blend is then entered in the blend book, which -gives the number of butts required, and the amount to be taken from -each solera. The book is then handed in to the bodega for the execution -of the blend. Supposing it to be a ten-butt shipment, ten butts are -brought into the cellar, having been most carefully examined and rinsed -out with spirit. If ten jars are required from a solera of fifty butts, -two jars would be drawn from each of the fifty butts of the solera, and -put into the ten butts, and so on from each solera; whatever the number -of butts in a solera, an equal quantity of wine is drawn from each cask. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</span></p> - -<p class="space-below2">The following samples of blends are given by Verdad:</p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Solera Blends" cellpadding="0" > - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdc" colspan="3">ORDINARY PALE SHERRY.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Pale soleras,<span class="ws8"> </span></td> - <td class="tdr">20  </td> - <td class="tdc">jarras</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Fino soleras,</td> - <td class="tdr">16  </td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Vino dulce,</td> - <td class="tdr">3  </td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Aguardiente,</td> - <td class="tdr bb2">1  </td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdr">40  </td> - <td class="tdc">jarras</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc" colspan="3"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc" colspan="3">ORDINARY GOLDEN SHERRY.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Pale soleras,</td> - <td class="tdr">22  </td> - <td class="tdc">jarras</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Oloroso soleras,</td> - <td class="tdr">8½</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Vino de color,</td> - <td class="tdr">2  </td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Vino dulce,</td> - <td class="tdr">6  </td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Aguardiente,</td> - <td class="tdr bb2">1½</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdr">40  </td> - <td class="tdc">jarras</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc" colspan="3"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc" colspan="3">ORDINARY BROWN SHERRY.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Pale soleras,</td> - <td class="tdr">23  </td> - <td class="tdc">jarras</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Oloroso,</td> - <td class="tdr">4  </td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Vino de color,</td> - <td class="tdr">5  </td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Vino dulce,</td> - <td class="tdr">6  </td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Aguardiente,</td> - <td class="tdr">2  </td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdr">40  </td> - <td class="tdc">jarras</td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p><b>Fining.</b>—After the blend is complete, the wine is fined with the -whites of eggs and fuller’s earth, a kind of earth found at Lebrija, -near Jerez, and called <i>Tierra de Lebrija</i>. For a butt of wine, a -handful of this earth is made into a paste with the whites of ten eggs. -The paste is thrown into the cask, and the wine is stirred in the usual -manner. (See <a href="#CHAPTER_XIII"><i>Fining</i></a>.)</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XV">CHAPTER XV.<br /> -<span class="h_subtitle">DEFECTS AND DISEASES.</span></h2> -</div> - -<p><b>These are Divided</b> by Boireau into <i>two classes</i>: 1. Those -defects due to the nature of the soil, to fertilizers employed, to -bad processes in wine making, and to the abundance of common, poor -varieties of grapes. It is evident that defects of this class may exist -in the wines from the moment when they leave the fermenting vat, or the -press, and they are as follows: earthy flavor, greenness, roughness, -bitterness, flavor of the stems, acidity, want of alcohol, lack of -color, dull, bluish, leaden color, flavor of the lees, and tendency -to putrid decomposition. 2. Those vices which wines acquire after -fermentation, and of which the greater part are due to want of care, -or uncleanness of the casks, and they are: flatness, flowers, acidity -(pricked wine), cask flavor, mouldiness, bad flavors communicated by -the accidental introduction of foreign soluble matters, ropiness, bitterness, -acrity, flavor of fermentation, degeneracy, and putrid fermentation.</p> - -<p><b>General Considerations.</b>—Before entering on the subject of the -correction and cure of defects and diseases, it is proper to say, that -whatever be the nature of the malady or defect, especially if the bad -taste is very pronounced, wine once hurt, however completely cured of -the disease, will never be worth as much as a wine of the same nature -which has always had the correct flavor.</p> - -<p>It is, therefore, wiser and more prudent, says our author, to seek to -prevent the maladies of wines, than to wait for them to become diseased -in order to cure them.</p> - -<p>Of course, the wine maker should use every endeavor to remedy the -natural defects of his wines. And as for the wine merchant and the -consumer, they should reject all vitiated wines, unless they can be -used immediately, for they lose quality instead of gaining by keeping.</p> - -<p>Moreover, when a wine has a very pronounced defect, it can rarely be -used alone, either because deficient in spirit or in color, or because -the vice cannot be entirely destroyed. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</span></p> - -<p>It would also be a mistake to suppose that the flavor of a diseased -wine would be rendered inappreciable by mixing and distributing it -throughout a large number of casks of sound wine; oftener the latter -would be more or less injured by the operation. The defect of such a -wine should first be removed by treating it by itself, and then it -should be mixed only with the commonest wine in the cellar.</p> - -<p>Each defect and disease will be treated under its proper name, the -cause indicated, with the means to be employed to prevent, diminish, -or to remove it.</p> - -<p>The doses in all cases, unless otherwise indicated, are according to -Mr. Boireau, who gives what is required to treat 225 litres, but we -have increased the dose to what is necessary for 100 gallons of wine in -each case.</p> - -<p>Any one can first try the experiment on a gallon or less by taking a -proportional amount of the substances indicated, leaving the sample -corked, in a cool place, for at least two days in ordinary cases, or -for eight days in case the wine is fined.</p> - -<h3>NATURAL DEFECTS.</h3> - -<p><b>Earthy Flavor—Its Causes.</b>—It is a natural defect in the wine, -and consists of a bad taste by which the pulp and the skins of the -grapes are affected before fermentation. It occurs in wine made from -grapes grown on low, wet, swampy land, and on land too heavily manured, -or fertilized with substances which communicate a bad flavor. He says -that this must not be confounded with the natural flavor and bouquet of -the wine. Contrary to the opinion of those œnologues who attribute this -defective flavor to the presence of essential oils, he believes that -there is a sensible difference between the natural flavor (<i>séve</i>) -and the earthy flavor. In fact, the flavor and bouquet of wines made -from grapes of the same variety, but grown in different vineyards, -present considerable differences, which are due to the different -natures of the soils, to the different processes in wine making, to -climate, exposure, age of the wine, etc. On the other hand, the taste -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</span> -and odor produced by the natural flavor and bouquet are not entirely -developed till the wine is old, and the clearing is complete; while -the bad taste transmitted from the soil through the sap, instead -of increasing with age, diminishes, and often finally disappears. -The reason is that this taste being communicated principally by the -coloring matters of the skins, diminishes with the deposit of these -matters, according as the wine becomes clear. It follows that certain -wines may have a good flavor, and even acquire a bouquet in aging, -which while young had a disagreeable earthy flavor.</p> - -<p>He instances the wines of several crops, treated by him, having a fine -color, mellowness, and 10 per cent. of alcohol, which in their early -years had an earthy flavor so pronounced that it might almost have been -taken for a mouldy taste. This taste diminished gradually, with proper -care, and finally disappeared toward the third year; the natural flavor -then developed itself, and the wines acquired an agreeable bouquet in bottles.</p> - -<p>Grapes from young vines planted in moist land, have an earthy -flavor more pronounced than those from older vines, grown in the -same situations, and this flavor is generally more developed in the -heavy-yielding common varieties than in the fine kinds.</p> - -<p><b>How Prevented.</b>—This flavor may be sometimes diminished or -destroyed by draining the soil of the vineyard, aerating the vines when -too crowded, and by avoiding the planting of trees in the vineyard. If -it comes from too much manure, less should be used, and less wood left -on the vines.</p> - -<p>Great care should be taken to draw such wines from the fermenting vat, -as soon as the active fermentation is finished, for a long sojourn in -the tank with the stems and skins aggravates the defect.</p> - -<p><b>The Treatment</b> of wines so affected differs according to their -origin, their nature, and their promise of the future; but the -condition necessary in all cases is to promptly obtain their defecation -or clarification, and never to allow them to remain on the lees. They -should therefore be drawn off as soon as clear, and frequently racked -to prevent the formation of voluminous deposits. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</span></p> - -<p>Red wines, which in spite of this defect, have a future, and may -acquire quality with age, should be racked at the beginning of winter, -again in the beginning of March, and after the second racking should be -fined with the whites of 12 eggs to 100 gallons of wine; they are then -racked again two weeks after fining.</p> - -<p>Common red wines, without a future, dull and poor in color, and weak -in spirit, are treated in the same manner, but before fining, a -little more than a quart of alcohol of 60 to 90 per cent. is added to -facilitate the coagulation of the albumen.</p> - -<p>In treating wines which are firm, full-bodied, and charged with color, -after the two rackings, an excellent result is obtained by an energetic -fining with about three ounces of gelatine.</p> - -<p>Earthy white wines should be racked after completing their -fermentation, and after the addition of about an ounce of tannin -dissolved in alcohol, or the equivalent of tannified white wine. After -racking, they should be fined with about three ounces of gelatine.</p> - -<p>These rackings and finings precipitate the insoluble matters, and part -of the coloring matter, which is strongly impregnated with the earthy -taste, and the result is a sensible diminution of the flavor. When not -very pronounced, it is removed little by little at each racking. But -if it is very marked, the wine after the first racking should have a -little less than a quart of olive oil thoroughly stirred into it. After -a thorough agitation, the oil should be removed by filling the cask. -The oil removes with it a portion of those matters in the wine which -cause the bad flavor. The wine is afterwards fined as above.</p> - -<p>Some writers recommend that wine having an earthy flavor should be -mixed with wine of a better taste, as the best method of correcting -the defect; but from what has been said in the preceding part of this -chapter, it would seem to be an unsafe practice.</p> - -<p><b>The Wild Taste and Grassy Flavor</b> are due to the same causes, -and are removed in the same way.</p> - -<p><b>Greenness—Its Causes.</b>—This is due to the presence of tartaric -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</span> -acid, which it contains in excess. It gives a sour, austere taste to -the wine, which also contains malic acid, but in a less quantity. When -tasted, it produces the disagreeable sensation of unripe fruit to the -palate, sets the teeth on edge, and contracts the nervous expansions of -the mouth.</p> - -<p>Greenness, as the term imports, is caused by want of maturity of the -grapes. We all know that acids abound in unripe fruit, and it is only -at the time of maturity, and under the influence of the heat of the -sun, that they disappear and are changed into glucose or grape sugar.</p> - -<p>A green wine, then, is an imperfect wine, which, besides this defect, -generally lacks alcohol, body, mellowness, firmness, bouquet, and -color, because the incompletely matured grapes contain much tartaric -and malic acid, and but little grape sugar and other mucilaginous -matter, and because the matters destined to give color to the skins, -as well as the aromatic principles, are not completely elaborated.</p> - -<p><b>The only way to Prevent this Defect</b> is to resort to means -necessary to increase the maturity of the grape, or to add sugar to -the must, neither of which will scarcely ever be found necessary in -California, where the defect is not likely to exist, if the grapes are -not picked too green.</p> - -<p><b>Treatment.</b>—Where the sourness is not insupportable, the wine -may be ameliorated by adding a quart or two of old brandy for each 100 -gallons.</p> - -<p>The wine as it comes from the vat contains much more free tartaric -acid than it contains after the insensible fermentation in the cask, -because it combines with the tartrate of potash in the wine and forms -the bitartrate of potash, or cream of tartar, which is deposited with -the lees, or attaches itself to the sides of the cask. It follows that -the wine will be less green after insensible fermentation, at the first -racking, than when it was new; but if the greenness is excessive after -the insensible fermentation, the wine still contains much free acid. -The excess of acid may be neutralized in wines which are very green by -adding the proper amount of tartrate of potash, which combines with a -part of the tartaric acid to form the bitartrate, which after a few -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</span> -days falls to the bottom, or adheres to the cask. The dose varies -from 10 to 24 ounces per 100 gallons of wine. Five or six gallons of -wine are drawn out of the cask, and the tartrate of potash is thrown -in by the handful, stirring the while as in the case of fining. This -treatment does not always succeed; hence, the necessity of preventing -the defect when possible.</p> - -<p>When the greenness is not very marked, the wine may also be mixed with -an older wine, which contains but little acid and plenty of spirit.</p> - -<p>Lime and other alkaline substances will surely neutralize the acid, but -they injure the wine and render it unhealthy, and should never be used.</p> - -<p>Machard lays great stress upon the addition of brandy to such wines, -because, he says, the alcohol will precipitate the excess of acids, -and will also combine with them to form ethers which give a delicate, -balsamic odor to the wine, which is most agreeable. -(See <a href="#ETHER"><i>Ethers</i></a>, <a href="#BOUQ"><i>Bouquet</i></a>.)</p> - -<p><b>Roughness</b> is due to the astringency given to the wine by the -tannin when in excess. Tannin is useful for the preservation and the -clarification of wines, and those which contain much, with an equal -amount of alcohol, keep much longer than those which contain less, and -undergo transportation better, and are considered more healthful.</p> - -<p><b>Roughness is Not a Fault</b>, it is rather an excess of good -quality, if the rough wines have no after-taste of the stems, -bitterness, earthy flavor, acrity, and possess a high degree of -spirit, a fruity flavor, and a good color. Such wines are precious for -fortifying, and to assist in aging those which are too feeble to keep a -long time without degenerating. When kept without cutting, they last a -long time, and end well. But they are long in developing.</p> - -<p><b>The Roughness Disappears in Time</b>, because the tannin is -transformed into gallic acid, and besides is precipitated by other -principles contained in the wine, and by finings.</p> - -<p><b>An Excess of Tannin is Avoided</b> in strong, dark-colored, -full-bodied wines by removing all the stems, and by early drawing from -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</span> -the tank. If the wines are inclined to be soft, weak, and with but -little spirit, no attempt should be made to avoid roughness.</p> - -<p>When wines are put into new casks, their roughness is increased by the -tannin derived from the oak wood of which they are made; but during -insensible fermentation a good deal of the tannin is thrown down with -the vegetable albumen contained in the new wine.</p> - -<p><b>How Removed.</b>—If the wines are of good body and color, the -roughness may be removed by fining them with a strong dose of gelatine, -two or three ounces to 100 gallons. As this removes a portion of -the color, it should only be resorted to in the case of rough and -dark-colored wines, to hasten their maturity.</p> - -<p><b>Bitterness and Taste of the Stems—Causes.</b>—Bitterness is a -disagreeable taste which, <i>in new wines</i> attacked by it, comes -from the dissolution of a bitter principle contained in the stems, a -principle entirely different from tannin. Sometimes it is communicated -by the skins of certain varieties of grapes.</p> - -<p><b>This is Prevented</b> by allowing the grapes to reach complete -maturity, and above all by stemming them all, and by not leaving the -wine too long in the fermenting vat.</p> - -<p><b>The Treatment</b> is the same as for the earthy flavor, and also -afterwards pouring in a quart or more of old brandy.</p> - -<p>The bitterness here mentioned is only that met with in new wines, and -its cause is entirely different from that found in old wines, which is -described further on.</p> - -<p><b>The Taste of the Stems</b>, which often accompanies bitterness, is -due to a prolonged immersion of the stems in the wine. It is supposed -that this defect, which gives the wine a wild and common flavor, comes -from an aromatic principle contained in the stems. It is prevented -by stemming, and like natural bitterness, diminishes with time. The -treatment is the same.</p> - -<p>An unreasonably long vatting is one of the principal causes of -bitterness and stem flavor. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</span></p> - -<p><b>Sourness—Its Causes.</b>—Sourness, or heated flavor, as it is also -called, is due to the presence of acetic acid in the wine. All wines, -even the mellowest, the best made, and the best cared for, contain some -acetic acid, but in so small a quantity as to be inappreciable to the -taste. Acetic acid is produced in wines during their fermentation in -open tanks, and is due to the contact of the air with the crust of the -pomace. This crust or cap, formed of skins and stems, brought to the -surface by bubbles of carbonic acid rising from the liquid, is exposed -directly to the air, and the alcoholic fermentation of the liquid part -is soon completed, and under the influence of the air and ferments, -the alcohol is transformed into acetic acid. This transformation is -so rapid that when the vatting is too prolonged, and the temperature -is high, the exterior crust rapidly passes from acetic to putrid fermentation.</p> - -<p>As long as the tumultuous fermentation continues, the crust is kept up -above the surface by the bubbles of rising gas, but when it ceases, -the cap falls, and settles down into the liquid, and the wine becomes -impregnated with the acetic acid. The wine also, by simple contact with -the crust, acquires a vinegar smell and taste.</p> - -<p>Wines which become pricked by contact with the air after fermentation -are treated further on under the head of <i>Pricked Wines</i>.</p> - -<p><b>How Prevented.</b>—The formation of acetic acid during fermentation -is prevented by fermenting the wines in closed or partly closed vats, -by avoiding contact of the air, by keeping the pomace submerged, and -by confining the carbonic acid in the vat. If open vats are used, they -should be only three-fourths full, so that a layer of gas may rest -upon the pomace and protect it from the atmosphere; or the cap may be -covered with a bed of straw as soon as formed. Care should be taken to -draw off as soon as fermentation is complete.</p> - -<p><b>Treatment.</b>—Wines affected in this manner cannot be expected -to acquire good qualities with age. They may be rendered potable, but -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</span> -their future is destroyed. Therefore, every precaution should be taken -to guard against the defect. They should be separated from their first -lees as soon as possible; consequently, they should be drawn off as -soon as the gas ceases to rise. If they are still turbid, they should -be clarified by an energetic fining, and they should be racked from -the finings the very moment they are clear. They should be afterwards -racked to further free them from ferments. If the wines are only -<i>heated</i>, the odor of acetic acid will be sensibly diminished -by the above operation; but if they are decidedly pricked, the means -to neutralize their acid when drawn from the vat, as indicated for -<i>Pricked Wines</i>, should be resorted to.</p> - -<p><b>Alcoholic Weakness</b> is due to a want of sufficient spirit, caused -by an excess of water of vegetation, and the consequent lack of sugar -in the grapes. In France this defect is generally found in wines coming -from young vines planted in very fertile soils, or from the common -varieties, pruned with long canes, and producing a great quantity of -large, watery grapes. When wines weak in alcohol contain but little -tannin and color, they rapidly degenerate, often commencing their decline -during their first year, and before their clarification is completed.</p> - -<p><b>How Avoided.</b>—This defect can be corrected by planting the -proper varieties of vines, and by avoiding rich soils; but in the -climate of California there is but little danger of the wines being -too weak, unless the grapes are late varieties, and grown in very -unfavorable situations.</p> - -<p><b>The Treatment</b> of weak wines is to rid them of their ferments -as soon as possible, in order to avoid acid and putrid degeneration, to -which they are quite subject. This result is obtained by drawing them -off as soon as the lees are deposited. If they remain turbid after -the second racking, they should be gently fined with the whites of -nine or ten eggs to 100 gallons. The coagulation of the albumen will -be facilitated by adding one or more quarts of strong alcohol to the -wine before fining, and by adding to the eggs a handful of common salt -dissolved in a little water. But as these wines, by themselves, are -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</span> -short lived, it is necessary, in order to prolong their existence, to -mix them with firm wines, strong in body and rich in color. By adding -alcohol, they are still left dry and without fruity flavor, while if -mixed with a wine of a flavor as nearly like their own as possible, -and having a fruity flavor, and being firm and full-bodied, but not -fortified, they will acquire mellowness as well as strength.</p> - -<p><b>Want of Color—Causes.</b>—As coloring matter is not found in the -skins of grapes till they are ripe, green wines produced in years when -the grapes do not ripen well, lack color.</p> - -<p>The amount of color may be diminished if by excess of maturity the -skins of the grapes decay.</p> - -<p>The method of fermentation also influences more or less the richness of -the color. Those wines, in the fermentation of which the pomace is kept -constantly immersed in the liquid, dissolve out more coloring matter -than those fermented in open vats in which the crust is raised above -the surface of the must.</p> - -<p>Some kinds of grapes naturally develop more color than others.</p> - -<p><b>How Guarded Against.</b>—It is therefore obvious, that the lack of -color may be guarded against by gathering the grapes when they are just -ripe, planting the proper varieties, and keeping the pomace submerged -during fermentation, stirring it up, if necessary.</p> - -<p><b>The Treatment</b> should be such as to avoid as much as possible -the precipitation of the coloring matter. They should, therefore, be -fined as little as possible, and gelatine should be carefully avoided. -If they must be fined, use the whites of eggs and in the quantity -mentioned for weak wines—10 to 100 gallons.</p> - -<p>Of course, their color may be increased by mixing them with darker -colored wines, but in order not to affect their natural flavor, they -should be mixed only with wines of the same nature and of the same growth.</p> - -<p>It is not to be supposed that any one will resort to artificial -coloring of any kind.</p> - -<p><b>Dull, Bluish, Lead-colored Wine, and Flavor of the -Lees—Causes.</b>—Certain wines remain turbid, and preserve a dull, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</span> -leaden color, even after insensible fermentation. This state may be -due to several causes. Oftentimes young wines remain turbid because, -for want of racking at proper times, and for want of storing in proper -places, secondary fermentation has set in, which has stirred up the -lees which had been deposited at the bottom of the cask. This also -takes place when new wines are moved before racking.</p> - -<p><b>Treatment.</b>—In these cases, put them into a cellar of a constant -temperature, leave them quiet for a couple of weeks, and see if they -settle naturally. If not, clarify them by using the finings appropriate -to their nature.</p> - -<p>If they are turbid on account of an unseasonable fermentation, the -first thing to do is to stop the working by racking, sulphuring, etc. -When, in spite of all the cares that have been bestowed upon them, -they still remain dull and difficult to clarify, while undergoing no -fermentation, the cause must be sought in the want of tannin or alcohol.</p> - -<p>If the difficulty is due simply to lack of spirit, the treatment -consists in adding two or three quarts of strong alcohol to each 100 -gallons, mixing with the wine a fifth or a tenth of a good-bodied wine -of like natural flavor, and then by fining it with eggs as mentioned -for weak wines.</p> - -<p>If the dull wine has sufficient alcohol, as shown by a pronounced -color, add about an ounce of tannin dissolved in alcohol, or the equivalent -of tannified wine, and fine it with one to two ounces of gelatine.</p> - -<p>Bluish or violet color, accompanied by a flavor of the lees, often -occurs in wines of southern countries, and is due to an abundance of -coloring matter and a lack of tartaric acid. When the violet-colored -wine has a good deal of color, and more than nine per cent. of alcohol, -the color may be changed to red by mixing with it from one-sixth to -one-fourth of green wine, which contains an excess of tartaric acid, -the natural blue color of the grape being changed to red by the action -of the acid; then about an ounce of tannin, or the equivalent of -tannified wine, should be added, that the color may become fixed, and -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</span> -that clarification may subsequently take place in a proper manner. In -default of green wine, crystalized tartaric acid may be used, which is -very soluble in wine. A small amount should be first experimented with, -in order to learn just how much to use to change the blue of the wine -to red, for we must not forget that this acid gives greenness to the -wine and thereby renders it less healthful.</p> - -<p>If the wines are so weak in alcohol that they have but little color, -and that is blue and dull, they have a tendency to putridity. In this -case, the blue color is in fact only a commencement of decomposition. -It is due to an internal reaction which transforms a part of the -tartrate of potash into carbonate of potash. Such wines have a slightly -alkaline flavor, and left to themselves in contact with the air, they -become rapidly corrupt, without completely acidifying. These wines -are of the poorest quality. This disease, which is very rare, may be -prevented by using the proper methods of vinification, and by rendering -them firmer and full-bodied by the choice of good varieties of vines. -In the treatment of such wines, some propose the use of tartaric acid -to restore them. This will turn the blue color to red, but will not -prevent the threatened decomposition. Mr. Boireau prefers the use of -about one-sixth of green wine, which contains an abundance of the acid, -and the subsequent mixing with a strong, full-bodied wine.</p> - -<p><b>Putrid Decomposition—Causes.</b>—Wines are decomposed and become -putrid, on account of little spirituous strength and lack of tannin. -The weakness in alcohol is due to want of sufficient sugar in the -grapes—to the excess of water of vegetation. We see, then, that -wine is predisposed to putridity when it is wanting in these two -conservative principles, alcohol and tannin. Such wine quickly loses -its color; it never becomes brilliant and limpid; it remains turbid, -and never clears completely, but continues to deposit. The tendency to -decomposition is announced by a change of color, which becomes tawny -and dull, which gives it, though young, an appearance of worn out, -turbid, old wine. Its red color is in great part deposited, and it -retains only the yellow. If the defect is not promptly remedied by -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</span> -fortifying, it acquires a nauseous, putrid flavor of stagnant water; -and it continues turbid, and is decomposed, without going squarely into -acetous fermentation.</p> - -<p><b>How Avoided.</b>—To avoid this tendency, which is rare, means -should be employed to increase the natural sugar in the must, and -by planting proper varieties of grapes, which will produce good, -firm wines, and by choosing proper situations for the vineyard, and -employing the best methods of vinification.</p> - -<p><b>Treatment.</b>—Decomposition may be retarded in several ways: -First, by fortifying the wines, by adding tannin to them, and by -adding a sufficient quantity of rough, firm, alcoholic wine; second, -in default of a strong, full-bodied wine, brandy may be added, or -better, the tannin prepared with alcohol, so as to give them a strength -of at least ten per cent.; third, fining should be avoided as much as -possible, especially the use of finings which precipitate the coloring -matter, such as gelatine; albumen should be used in preference, as for -weak wines; fourth, the movements of long journeys, and drawing off by -the use of pumps, should be avoided, for they are apt to increase the -deposition of the coloring matter.</p> - -<p>The treatment mentioned will retard the decomposition, but will not -arrest it, and such wines can never endure a long voyage unless heavily -brandied.</p> - -<p><b>Several Different Natural Vices and Defects</b> may attack the same -wine, when it should be treated for that which is most prominent.</p> - -<h3>ACQUIRED DEFECTS AND DISEASES.</h3> - -<p><b>Flat Wine—Flowers—Causes.</b>—Flowers of wine are nothing but -a kind of mould, in the form of a whitish scum or film, composed -of microscopic fungi, the <i>mycoderma vini</i> and <i>mycoderma aceti</i>, -already mentioned under the head of <i>Fermentation</i>, and which -develop on the surface of wine left in contact with the air. This -mould, or <i>mother</i>, communicates to the wine a disagreeable odor -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</span> -and flavor, and also a slight acidity, which the French call -<i>évent</i> odor, or flavor <i>éventé</i>, and which may be called -<i>flatness</i>. The development of these organisms is due principally -to the direct exposure of the wine to the air, which favors their -growth by the evaporation of a portion of the alcohol which exists -at the surface of the liquid which is exposed, and a commencement of -oxidation of that which remains. The result is that the surface of the -wine becomes very weak in alcohol, and having lost its conservative -principle, it moulds. This mould consists, as before remarked, of a -vast number of small fungi. They have a bad flavor, and are impregnated -with an acidity which comes from the action of the oxygen of the air -upon the alcohol, converting it into acetic acid.</p> - -<p>This disease develops more or less rapidly, according to the alcoholic -strength of the wine and the temperature of the place where it is kept. -Those common, weak wines, which have only from 7 to 8½ per cent. of -alcohol, are the first attacked; on them flowers are developed in three -or four days. Stronger wines, which contain from 10 to 11 per cent. of -spirit, resist twice as long as the weaker ones. Fine wines of an equal -strength resist better than the common kinds; and wines which contain -more than 15 per cent. are not affected. During summer they are much -sooner affected.</p> - -<p>Machard is of the opinion that this flavor is due to the commencement -of disorganization of the ferments remaining in the wine, which, as -they begin to putrify, give off ammoniacal emanations. Maumené says -that it is due to the loss of carbonic acid.</p> - -<p><b>To Prevent Flatness</b>, all agree that wines should be protected -from the air; for this purpose they should be kept in casks constantly -full, or in well corked bottles lying in a horizontal position. When -it is necessary to leave ullage in the cask, a sulphur match must be -burned, and the cask tightly bunged. (See <a href="#CHAPTER_XI"><i>General Treatment</i></a>, -<a href="#CHAPTER_XVI"><i>Wine in Bottles</i></a>, -<a href="#CHAPTER_IX"><i>Sulphuring</i></a>, <i>etc.</i>)</p> - -<p>In frequently drawing from the cask, the deterioration is retarded by -taking care to admit the least possible amount of air, just enough to -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</span> -let the wine run, but the evil cannot be entirely prevented in this -way; and by frequent sulphuring the wine will acquire a disagreeable -sulphur flavor; therefore, ullage should never be left when it is -possible to avoid it.</p> - -<p><b>Treatment.</b>—When the wines show flowers, but have not yet become -flat, as in the case of new wines which have been neglected, and have -not been filled up for a week or more, and are only affected at the -surface, by filling up, the flowers may be caused to flow out at the -bung. The cask must then be well bunged. It must afterwards be kept -well filled, for besides the flat flavor that the flowers may give -the wine, they will render it turbid on account of the acid ferments -introduced, and cause it to become pricked in the end.</p> - -<p>Wine badly flowered, and which has acquired a decided flavor of -flatness, without being actually sour, should be filled up, and the -flowers should be allowed to pass out of the bung; it should then be -racked into a well sulphured cask, which must be completely filled. -The flowers must not be allowed to become mixed with the wine. After -racking, two or three quarts of old brandy to each 100 gallons should -be added, or a few gallons of firm, full-bodied wine, as near as -possible of the same natural flavor. It should then be well fined, -using in preference the whites of eggs (one dozen for 100 gallons, and -a handful of salt dissolved in a little water), and then it must be -racked again as soon as clear.</p> - -<p>The object of this treatment is to extract from the wine by racking the -mould which causes the bad taste; to replace by fortifying, the alcohol -lost by evaporation; and finally, by fining, to remove in the lees the -acid ferments, which have developed in the form of flowers.</p> - -<p>Yet those wines which have become badly affected through negligence are -never completely restored, and if they are fine, delicate wines, they -lose a large part of their value. Therefore, great care should be taken -to prevent this disease, which in the end produces acidity, for, often, -neglected wines are at the same time <i>flat</i> and <i>pricked</i>. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</span></p> - -<p>Some authors recommend that such a wine should be again mixed with a -good, sound, fresh pomace, which has not been long in the vat, and -allowed to ferment a second time; this is called <i>passing it over the -marc</i>. Of course, this can only be done in the wine making season, -and cannot be resorted to by those who do not make wine themselves, or -who are at a distance from a wine maker.</p> - -<p>When all else fails, they recommend that several large pieces of dry, -fresh charcoal be suspended in the wine, attached to cords to draw them -out by, Maigne says, for forty-eight hours, and Machard says, one or two -weeks, renewing the charcoal from time to time till the taste is removed.</p> - -<p>If the wine has already become acid, charcoal will not remove the flavor.</p> - -<p><b>Sourness, Acidity, Pricked Wine—Causes.</b>—Acidity is a sour -taste caused by the alcohol of the wine being in part changed to acetic -acid by the oxygen of the air. It is due to long contact with the air, -and it is the oxygen which produces the change, as described under the -head of <i>Acetic Fermentation</i>, and it is the more rapid, according -as the temperature is more elevated, and the wine contains more ferments.</p> - -<p><i>What Wines Liable to.</i>—All wines whose fermentation -is completed, and which have been fermented under ordinary -circumstances—that is, those which have received no addition of -alcohol, and no longer contain saccharine matter, are subject to this -affection when left exposed to the air.</p> - -<p>When they have been fortified up to 18 per cent. of alcohol, whether -sweet or not, they do not sour until the alcohol has been enfeebled by -evaporation.</p> - -<p>If they contain sugar, although not fortified, a new fermentation takes -place, and they do not acidify until the greater part of the sugar has -been transformed into alcohol. Machard, however, says that wines which -contain a good deal of sugar do often acidify, and in the experience -of others, there is a continuous fermentation, which renders them very -liable to become pricked.</p> - -<p>As the acetic acid is formed at the expense of the alcohol, the more the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</span> -wine contains of the former the less will it have of the latter.</p> - -<p><b>Acidity is Prevented</b> by giving wines proper care and attention, -and by keeping them in suitable places, and by using the precautions -indicated for <i>flat</i> or <i>flowered wines</i>, <i>i.e.</i>, by -avoiding long contact with the air. Flowers are the forerunners of -acidity; yet they do not always appear before the wine is pricked, -especially if the temperature is elevated, and the alcoholic strength -considerable. In general, wines become pricked without producing -flowers when they are exposed to the air at a temperature of 77° to -100° F.; acidity is produced under these conditions in a very rapid -manner; and this is why extra precautions should be taken during hot -weather. It should also be remembered that this vice comes <i>either -from the negligence of the cellar-man to guard the wines from contact -with the air, or from the bad state of the casks, and storing in -unsuitable places</i>.</p> - -<p><b>Treatment.</b>—Acetic acid in wine may be in great part neutralized -by several alkaline substances; but, if used, there remain in solution -in the wine certain salts (acetates and tartrates) formed by the -combination of the acetic and tartaric acid with the alkaline bases -introduced. These alkaline substances not only neutralize the acetic -acid, but also the vegetable acids contained in the wine. These neutral -salts are not perfectly wholesome, being generally laxative in their -nature. Moreover, the acetic acid cannot be completely neutralized by -the employment of caustic alkalies (potash, soda, quicklime), and these -bases decompose the wine and cause the dissolution and precipitation -of the coloring matter, and render it unfit to drink by reason of the -bitterness which they communicate. It is necessary, therefore, to -choose for the treatment of pricked wines, those alkaline matters which -are the most likely to neutralize the excess of acetic acid without -altering the constitution of the wine, without precipitating their -color, and which produce by combination the least soluble and least -unwholesome salts.</p> - -<p>Those which should be employed in preference to others are, carbonate -of magnesium, tartrate of potassium, and lime water. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</span></p> - -<p>The following substances should only be employed when it is impossible -to obtain those last mentioned, for the reason that the salts -remaining in solution in the wine may cause loss of color, and even -decomposition, if used in large doses, <i>i. e.</i>, wood ashes (ashes -from vine cuttings being preferred as containing much of the salts of -potash); powdered chalk and marble (composed of the sub-carbonates of -lime, marble dust being the purer); solutions of the sub-carbonates of -potash, and of the sub-carbonates of soda, and plaster.</p> - -<p><b>In Using the Substances</b>, it is always best to experiment with -a small quantity of wine, being careful to employ a dose proportioned -to the extent of the degree of acidity. Thus, to a quart of wine add -15 or 20 grains of carbonate of magnesia (1 or 2 grammes per litre), -little by little, shaking the bottle the while; again, but only when -the wine is badly pricked, slack a suitable quantity of quicklime in -water, and let it settle till the surface water becomes clear. Then -add to the wine which has already received the carbonate of magnesia, -5 or 6 fluidrams of the lime water (2 centilitres), and shake the -mixture; then pour in 2 or 3 fluidrams of alcohol (1 centilitre), and -finally clarify it with albumen, using fresh milk in preference, from -1½ to 3 fluidrams to a quart (½ to 1 centilitre to a litre); cork the -bottle, shake it well, and let it rest for three or four days, when by -comparing the sample treated with the pricked wine, the effect will be seen.</p> - -<p>This treatment varies according to the nature of the wine. If it is -green and pricked, add 15 grains (1 gramme per litre) of tartrate of -potassium to the magnesia; and if the wine has a dull color, after -having added the milk, put in about 3 grains (22 centigrammes) of -gelatine dissolved in about a fluidram (½ centilitre) of water; if the -wine is turbid and hard to clarify, add a little more than a grain -(8 centigrammes) of tannin in powder, before putting in the milk and gelatine.</p> - -<p>Of course, the same proportion should be used in operating upon a -larger quantity of wine.</p> - -<p>If carbonate of magnesium, which is preferable to all others, cannot -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</span> -be obtained, the dose of lime water may be doubled, and in default of -lime, powdered chalk, or marble and vine ash may be used, but with -great prudence, and in smaller proportions, or solutions of the -sub-carbonates of potash and soda. Great care should be exercised as -to the quantity of the latter used, and they should not be employed in -treating wine slightly attacked.</p> - -<p>Mr. Boireau prefers the carbonate of magnesium to any other alkaline -substance, because it affects the color less, and does not give -bitterness to the pricked wines, nor render them unwholesome, as do -the salts formed by alkalies with a potash, lime, or soda base. In -medicine, carbonate of magnesium is used to correct sourness of the -stomach (so also, we might add, is carbonate of sodium). For the same -reason, decanted lime water is preferred to the sub-carbonate of lime, -employed in the form of marble dust and powdered chalk; nevertheless, -lime water in large doses makes a wine weak and bitter.</p> - -<p>Brandy is added to these wines in order to replace the alcohol lost -in the production of acetic acid. The preference given to milk for -fining is founded upon the fact that it is alkaline, and therefore -assists in removing the acid flavor of the wine while clarifying it. -It is alkaline, however, only when it is fresh; skim-milk a day old -is acid, and should not be used. Finally, the tartrate and carbonate -of potassium employed to treat green and pricked wines, are used to -neutralize the tartaric acid, and gelatine and tannin to facilitate the -clarification and the precipitation of acid ferments.</p> - -<p>Wines whose acid has been neutralized should be clarified, and then -racked as soon as perfectly clear, according to the methods pointed out.</p> - -<p>The acetic acid being formed at the expense of alcohol, the more acid -the less alcohol, and hence the necessity of adding spirit, or, if -the acidity is not too pronounced, of mixing with a full-bodied but -ordinary wine; but those wines should not be kept, as they always -retain acid principles, become dry, and turn again at the least contact -with the air. If they are very bad, and their alcoholic strength much -enfeebled, they had better be made into vinegar. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</span></p> - -<p><b>Machard’s Treatment.</b>—Machard says that the most successful -treatment for sour wine employed by him, is that founded upon the -affinity of vegetable substances for acids, and that he has succeeded -beyond his hopes in completely removing the acid from a wine which was -so sour that it could not be drank without seriously disagreeing with -the person drinking it. This is his method of proceeding.</p> - -<p>He formed a long chaplet, six feet or so in length, by cutting carrots -into short, thin pieces, and stringing them on a cord. This he -suspended in the wine through the bung for six weeks, and at the end -of the time he did not find the least trace of acetic acid, thereby -accomplishing what he had for a long time in vain attempted. He says -that this is the only treatment that succeeded with him, and he -confidently recommends it to others. But he advises that the carrots be -left in the wine at least a month and a half, protecting the wine from -the air. And he says that there is no danger of injuring the wine by -long contact with the carrots, or by using a large quantity of them.</p> - -<p><b>Other Methods.</b>—Maigne says that if the wine is only affected -at the surface from leaving ullage in the cask, the bad air should be -expelled by using a hand-bellows; when a piece of sulphur match will -burn in the cask, the air has been purified. Then take a loaf of bread, -warm as it comes from the oven, and place it upon the bung in such a -way as to close it. When the loaf has become cold, remove it, rack the -wine into a well sulphured cask, being careful to provide the faucet -with a strainer of crape or similar fabric, so as to keep the flowers -from becoming mixed with the wine. It will be observed that the bread -absorbs a good deal of the acid, and the operation should be repeated -as often as necessary.</p> - -<p>Another plan is to take the meats of 60 walnuts for 100 gallons of -wine, break each into four pieces, and roast them as you would coffee; -throw them, still hot, into the cask, after having drawn out a few -quarts of wine. Fine the wine, and rack when clear, and if the acidity -is very bad, repeat the operation.</p> - -<p>A half pound of roasted wheat will produce the same effect. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</span></p> - -<p>He also gives the following method for using marble dust.</p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary=" " cellpadding="0" > - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl">Take of</td> - <td class="tdc" colspan="3"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">White marble,</td> - <td class="tdc">12</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">lbs.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">Sugar,</td> - <td class="tdc">18</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">lbs.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">Animal charcoal, washed with boiling water,</td> - <td class="tdc"> 6</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">ozs.</td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p>Take of this from 3 to 6 lbs. to 100 gallons of wine, according to the -degree of acidity; dissolve it in two or three gallons of the wine and -pour into the cask. Shake it well, and continue the agitation from time -to time, for twenty-four or thirty-six hours, till the wine has lost -its acidity, taking care to leave the bung open to allow the escape of -the carbonic acid which is generated. At the end of the time, add of -cream of tartar one-half as much as the dose employed; shake again, -from time to time, and at the end of five or six hours, draw the wine -off and fine it. If, at the end of the first twenty-four hours, the -wine is still acid, add a little more of the powder before putting in -the cream of tartar.</p> - -<p>In answer to the objections that the charcoal removes the color and -bouquet of the wine, and that the acetate of potassium formed injures -the wine, he says that the charcoal would not hurt a white wine, and -would have but little effect upon a red wine; and as to the bouquet, -that wines which have become sour have none, and that the acetate of -potassium has no perceptible effect upon the health.</p> - -<p>Instead of the preceding powder, the following may be employed:</p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary=" " cellpadding="0" > - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl">White marble,</td> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">in fine powder,</td> - <td class="tdc">12</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">lbs.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" rowspan="2">Animal charcoal </td> - <td class="tdc" rowspan="2"><img src="images/cbl-2.jpg" alt="" width="9" height="32" /></td> - <td class="tdl"> for ordinary wine, </td> - <td class="tdc"> 4</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">ozs.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> for fine wine,</td> - <td class="tdc"> 2</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">ozs.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Sugar,</td> - <td class="tdc"> 1</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">lb.</td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p>From 5 to 7 lbs. of this are used for 100 gallons of wine, and one-half -the quantity of cream of tartar in fine powder is then added, in the -manner above mentioned.</p> - -<p><b>Cask Flavor, or Barrel Flavor—Causes.</b>—This, says Mr. Boireau, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</span> -should not be confounded with the <i>wood flavor</i> derived from oak -wood, and which wines habitually contract when stored in new casks, -and which comes from aromatic principles contained in the oak. This -barrel flavor is a bad taste, which appears to come from an essence of -a disagreeable taste and smell, and which is the result of a special -decay of the wood of the cask. This vice is rare. It is impossible -for the cooper to prevent it, for he cannot recognize the staves so -affected, so as to reject them. For those pieces of wood which have a -disagreeable smell when worked, or show reddish veins, blotched with -white, often produce casks which give no bad taste to the wine, while -other staves selected with the utmost care, sometimes produce that -effect, and even in the latter case it is impossible to point out the -staves which cause the trouble. When such a cask is found, the only way -is to draw off the wine, and not use the cask a second time.</p> - -<p><b>The Treatment</b> for wines which have contracted a bad taste of -the cask, is to rack them into a sweet cask, previously sulphured, to -remove them from contact with the wood which has caused the trouble. -The bad taste may be lessened by mixing in the wine a quart or two of -sweet oil, and thoroughly stirring it for five minutes, first removing -a few quarts of wine from the cask to permit of the agitation. The oil -is removed from the surface by means of a taster, or pipette, as the -cask is filled up. The wine should then be thoroughly fined, either -with whites of eggs or gelatine, according to its nature, and racked at -the end of one or two weeks.</p> - -<p>The reason for the treatment is that the fixed oil takes up the -volatile essential oil, which apparently produces the bad flavor. -The olive oil used contracts a decided flavor of the cask.</p> - -<p>This treatment diminishes the cask flavor, but rarely entirely -removes it.</p> - -<p>Maigne says that to succeed well by this process, the oil should be -frequently mixed with the wine, by stirring it often for two or three -minutes at a time, during a period of eight days. It is also necessary -that the oil be fresh, inodorous, and of good quality, and of the last crop. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</span></p> - -<p>The same author gives another process, that of mixing with the wine -sufficient sugar or must to set up active fermentation. After the -fermentation has ceased, fine and rack.</p> - -<p>This author also mentions other methods of treatment, but as olive oil -is the remedy more generally used, it is not worth while to give them -at length; suffice it to say, that the substances recommended are, a -roasted carrot suspended in the wine for a week; a couple of pounds of -roasted wheat suspended in the wine for six or eight hours in a small -sack; the use of roasted walnuts, as mentioned for sourness; and two or -three ounces of bruised peach pits, soaked two weeks in the wine.</p> - -<p><b>Mouldy Flavor—Bad Taste Produced by Foreign Matters.</b>—Wine -contracts a musty or mouldy flavor by its sojourn in casks which have -become mouldy inside, on account of negligence and want of proper -care, as by leaving them empty without sulphuring and bunging. (See -<a href="#CHAPTER_VIII"><i>Casks</i></a>.) The mould in empty casks is whitish, -and consists of microscopic fungi, which are developed under the -influence of humidity and darkness. The bad flavor appears to be due to -the presence of an essential oil of a disagreeable taste and smell.</p> - -<p><b>Prevention and Treatment.</b>—It is prevented by carefully -examining the casks before filling them, and by avoiding the use of -those which have a mouldy smell. Wines affected by this flavor require -the same treatment as those affected with cask flavor.</p> - -<p>Maigne says that this taste may also be corrected by applying a loaf -of warm bread to the open bung, or by suspending in the wine a half-baked -loaf of milk bread. The operation should be repeated in three or four days.</p> - -<p><b>Foreign Flavors.</b>—Wines which have contracted foreign flavors, -either by being kept in casks which have been used for liquors of -decided flavors and odors, such as anisette, absinthe, rum, etc., or -from contact with substances having good or bad odors, owe their taste -to the dissolution in them of a part of the essential oil which those -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</span> -substances contain, and should be treated in the same manner. The -chief thing is to remove the cause, by changing the cask, for if the -foreign taste and smell become very marked, they cannot be completely -destroyed; they can only be rendered tolerable by mixing them with -sound wines.</p> - -<p id="ROPE"><b>Ropiness</b> is the name applied to a viscous fermentation -which takes place in wine, making it slimy in appearance. It is met with -more particularly in white wines, which contain albuminous matters in -suspension, and but little tannin. It is not a very serious difficulty, -for it can be easily corrected. It is only necessary to tannify the -wine by adding 12 or 15 quarts of tannified wine, well stirred in with -a whip as in fining, or an ounce or two of tannin dissolved in alcohol -for each 100 gallons. The tannin combines with the viscous matter and -precipitates it, so that in removing the ropiness the wine is fined at -the same time. It should be racked from the finings after about two -weeks’ repose.</p> - -<p>And we may add that grapes which produce wines predisposed to ropiness -ought not to be stemmed, or the must should be fermented with at least -a portion of the stems.</p> - -<p>Mr. Machard says that this disease is also due sometimes to lack of -tartaric acid, and that it may be cured by supplying this substance, -and setting up fermentation again. For 100 gallons of wine, about a -pound of tartaric acid should be dissolved in hot water, to which the -same quantity of sugar is added, and when dissolved, the whole is -poured warm into the cask containing the ropy wine. Then replace the -bung, and give the cask a thorough rolling for six or eight minutes. -A small hole is previously bored near the bung and closed with a spigot, -which is removed after rolling the cask, to allow the gas to escape. -After resting two or three days, the wine, which we suppose to be a -white wine, should be fined with isinglass.</p> - -<p><b>Ropy Wines in Bottles</b> generally cure themselves, but they must -not be disturbed until the deposit changes color and takes a brownish -tinge. Then is the time to decant them for drinking.</p> - -<p><b>Ropiness may also be Cured</b> by passing the wine over the marc -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</span> -again. But only good, fresh pomace should be used, which is but a few -days old. This is done by mixing the wine with the marc of three times -the quantity of wine, and stirring from time to time till fermentation -is established. After the fermentation, the press wine may be mixed -with the rest.</p> - -<p>The author does not state whether this is to be done in the case of -white wine or red wine, or both, but it is apparent that it would be -subjecting a white wine to a very unusual operation. Fresh lees may -also be mixed with the wine instead of the marc. Sometimes it is only -necessary to let the wine fall into one vessel from another at a little -height, several times, or to give it a thorough agitation by stirring -it, or by driving it about for a few hours in a vehicle over a rough road.</p> - -<p>Alum has been sometimes recommended, but it is now condemned as -unwholesome.</p> - -<p>Other means have been suggested, but these will suffice; and it is -agreed by all that tannin is the sovereign remedy.</p> - -<p>It is best to avoid the use of sulphur in treating ropy wines, for -fermentation is to be encouraged rather than checked.</p> - -<p><b>Acrity.</b>—An acrid taste, with which certain wines are affected -as they grow old, is a sign of degeneration. Mr. Boireau says that -he has reason to believe that this disease is due to the presence of -acetic acid, coupled with the precipitation of the mucilages which give -the mellow flavor to wine. It is more often observed in old, dry wine, -improperly cared for, and consequently deprived of its fruity flavor.</p> - -<p><b>The Proper Treatment</b> is to remove the acetic acid by using a -gramme or two per litre (60 to 120 grains to a gallon) of carbonate -of magnesium. (See <a href="#Page_132"><i>Sourness</i></a>, -<a href="#Page_140"><i>Pricked Wines</i></a>.) If the acrity is -not too great, wines may be fortified, or mixed with a strong, young, -clean-tasting wine of the same nature, after which they should be fined.</p> - -<p><b>Bitterness</b>, which is often a natural defect (which has already -been considered), becomes an accidental defect when developed in old -wines which were previously sound. It is almost always a commencement -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</span> -of degeneration. This bitter taste comes principally from those -combinations which are formed by the dissolution of the coloring -matter, and by the precipitation of the mucilaginous substances, the -pectines, which give the wine unctuosity and its fruity flavor.</p> - -<p><b>Treatment.</b>—The way to diminish this bitterness is to fortify -and regenerate the bitter wine which has entered on its decline, -by mixing it with wine of the same nature, but young, stout, and -full-bodied, and which have not yet reached maturity. The mixture -should be fined with albumen, and racked after resting a fortnight. The -wine may be improved in this way, but the bitterness will reappear in a -few months. It should, therefore, be used as soon as possible.</p> - -<p>Machard recommends the following: Fine the wine with eggs, and let it -rest till clear. Burn in a clean cask a quarter or a half of a sulphur -match (for 60 gallons), and pour in the bitter wine at once with the -smoke in the cask, after having added to each litre of the wine about -one gramme of tartaric acid (say 60 grains to the gallon), dissolved in -warm water. It must then be mixed with from a fourth to a half of old -wine, firm and well preserved. He says that a new wine to mix with it -is not suitable, not having sufficient affinity for the old.</p> - -<p>Where there is such a difference of opinion as there is between these -two authors, one recommending the mixture of new wine, and the other -forbidding it, every one had better experiment for himself with a small -quantity, and after the cut wines have become thoroughly amalgamated, a -choice can be made.</p> - -<p>And yet, Mr. Machard says that if the bitterness is not very great, it -is better to give them no other treatment than simply mixing them with -younger ones, but which have a tendency to become sour, or are already -slightly pricked.</p> - -<p><b>Mr. Maumene Distinguishes Two Kinds of Bitterness</b>: 1. The -nitrogenous matters, under certain circumstances not well understood, -appear to be changed into a bitter product, and entirely spoil the -best wine. This effect depends especially upon the elevation of the -temperature and the old age of the wine. He says that he knows of but -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</span> -one way to remove this bitterness, and that is to add a small quantity -of lime. For example, 25 to 50 centigrammes per litre (say 15 to 30 -grains per gallon). The lime should be perfectly new and fresh. It is -slacked in a little water or wine, and poured into the cask; after -stirring well, it is left to rest for two or three days, and then -racked and fined. Probably the lime combines with the nitrogenous -matters, gives an insoluble compound, which separates from the wine, -and restores to it its former flavor. The wine ought to remain acid -after this treatment. He says that it has succeeded with him a great -number of times. 2. Another cause of bitterness appears to him to be -the formation of the <i>brown resin</i> of ammoniacal aldehyde, under -the influence of oxygen. The ferment which adheres to the inside of the -cask gives a little ammonia by decomposition.</p> - -<p>We see how the wine, under the influence of the air, produces a -little aldehyde, the ammoniacal aldehyde, and finally the very bitter -brown resin, whose formation was made known by Liebig. It is under -these circumstances that sulphuring may be employed as a remedy. The -sulphurous acid destroys the resinous matter in taking its oxygen to -become sulphuric. There is then made sulphate of ammonia and pure -aldehyde. These two substances by no means communicate to the wine the -disagreeable flavor of the brown resin from which they are derived.</p> - -<p>Another origin of bitterness is given, that of the oxidation of the -coloring matter, but there is no positive proof of this any more than -there is of the two causes mentioned by him. Unfortunately, the whole -matter is hypothetical.</p> - -<p><b>Fermentation and Taste of the Lees—Yeasty Flavor.</b>—By the -term <i>fermentation</i> in this connection we mean the malady which -is known in different parts of France by various names, such as <i>la -pousse</i>, <i>vins montés</i>, <i>tournés</i>, <i>tarés</i>, <i>à -l’échaud</i>. It generally attacks those wines which are grown in low -places, which come from poor varieties of grapes, or are produced in -bad seasons, are weak, full of ferments, and thereby liable to work.</p> - -<p>Mr. Boireau gives it the name of <i>goût de travail</i>, working taste, -or fermentation flavor. He says that the taste is due to the presence -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</span> -of carbonic acid, disengaged during secondary alcoholic fermentation, -by reason of saccharine matter contained in the wine, or of -mucilaginous matters which give them their mellowness. The principal -cause of fermentation is the presence of these matters joined with -ferments, and takes place in an elevated temperature.</p> - -<p>The <i>yeasty flavor</i> comes from the mixture in the wine of the lees -and deposits already precipitated, and which are again brought into -suspension by the movement of fermentation.</p> - -<p><b>How Prevented.</b>—Fermentation and the consequent taste of the -lees are prevented by making and fermenting the wines under proper -conditions, keeping them in an even temperature, and by separating them -from their lees by well-timed rackings, as detailed in the chapters on -<i>General Treatment</i>, <i>Racking</i>, <i>etc.</i></p> - -<p><b>Treatment.</b>—The working is stopped by racking the wines into -sulphured casks, and placing them in cellars of a cool and even -temperature. (See <a href="#CHAPTER_IX"><i>Sulphuring</i></a>, <i>etc.</i>) -If they have become turbid, they must be fined, and they must be -left on the finings only as long as is strictly necessary for their -clarification.</p> - -<p>Machard recommends that about a quart of alcohol for 100 gallons of -wine, or its equivalent of old brandy, be introduced into the sulphured -cask before drawing the wine into it, and that it be fined in all cases.</p> - -<p><b>Degeneration—Putrid Fermentation.</b>—We are warned of -degeneration in wines a long time in advance, in divers manners: by -the loss of their fruity flavor, by bitterness, acrity, etc.; but the -true symptoms in old wine are, the more abundant precipitation of -their blue coloring matter, a heavy and tawny aspect, with a slightly -putrid flavor. The principal causes are the same as those mentioned in -speaking of the putrid decomposition in new wines, that is, feebleness -in alcohol, and lack of tannin.</p> - -<p>We know that by the time the tannin is transformed into gallic acid, -the alcohol is diminished by slow evaporation, and it follows that -wines which are too old have lost a part of those principles which give -them their keeping qualities, alcohol and tannin. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</span></p> - -<p><b>The Duration of Different Wines</b> is exceedingly unequal, and, -like animate beings, they display marked differences in constitution. -There are very feeble wines, as we have already seen, which are in the -way of degeneration the first year, while others, firm and full-bodied, -gain in quality for four, six, ten, and more years. As soon as it -is seen that a wine, by its taste and appearance, has commenced to -degenerate, it is important to arrest the degeneration at once.</p> - -<p><b>Treatment.</b>—Degeneration may be retarded by adding tannin, -but it is preferable, in most cases, to mix the wine with younger -wines of the same nature, firm, full-bodied, which are improving, and -consequently possess an excess of those qualities which are wanting in -the degenerating wine. (See <a href="#CHAPTER_XVI"><i>Wine in Bottles</i></a>.)</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XVI">CHAPTER XVI.<br /> -<span class="h_subtitle">WINE IN BOTTLES.</span></h2> -</div> - -<p><b>When Ready for Bottling.</b>—Wines should not be bottled till their -insensible fermentation is entirely completed, have become entirely -freed from deposits, excess of color, salts, and ferments, and have -become perfectly bright. If they are bottled before these conditions -are fulfilled, deposits are made in the bottles, the wines may contract -bitterness and a taste of the lees, and if fermentation is violent, the -bottles may burst. When they are bottled too young they are sure to -deposit, and then they must be decanted.</p> - -<p><b>The Length of Time that They Require to Remain in Wood</b> before -being ready for bottling, depends upon the strength and quality of the -wines, and the conditions under which they are kept.</p> - -<p>Weak wines, feeble in color and spirit, mature rapidly, while firm, -full-bodied wines, rich in color and alcohol, require a longer time to -become sufficiently ripe to admit of bottling.</p> - -<p>The older writers say that wines should not be put into glass until -they have become fully ripe, and have become tawny (if red), and have -developed a bouquet. But Boireau says that this is not the proper -practice. He says that wine is fit for bottling when freed from its -sediment, and when there is hardly any deposit formed in the cask at -the semi-annual racking—when its color is bright, and it has lost its -roughness or harshness, which it possesses while young, and at the same -time preserves its mellowness. If left in the cask till a bouquet is -developed, wines will often be found to be in a decline by the time -they are bottled, and will not keep as long as those bottled previous -to the development of their bouquet, and while they still possess their -fruity flavor. But greater precautions must be taken to insure their -limpidity, or they will be liable to deposit heavily in the bottle. And -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</span> -Machard, who indicates aroma and color as signs of proper maturity, -though laying more stress upon the taste, says that it is always better -to be a little too soon than to wait till the wine passes the point.</p> - -<p>Some wines are fit for the bottle at one year old, others require to -be kept from two to six years, and some even ten years, or longer, in -wood. White wine, generally speaking, matures earlier than red.</p> - -<p><b>How Prepared for Bottling.</b>—Although a wine may appear perfectly -limpid to the eye, yet, when bottled, it may make a considerable -deposit, and therefore, the only safety is to carefully rack and fine -it to get rid of the insoluble matters in suspension. If it is not -clear after one fining, it must be drawn off and the process repeated. -When fined and cleared, it is better to rack again into a cask slightly -sulphured, and allow it to rest for three or four weeks before drawing -into the bottles; for if drawn from a cask still containing the -finings, the sediment is liable to be stirred up by the movement of -the liquid. If this is not done, the faucet should be fixed in place -at the time of fining and before the wine has settled, and at the same -time the cask should be slightly inclined forward and blocked in that -position, and other precautions must be taken not to disturb the cask -after the wine has cleared. If the wine is too feeble to allow of -fining without injury, and one is sure of its perfect limpidity, the -fining had better be dispensed with. Very young wines may be bottled -after subjecting them to repeated finings, but it will deprive them of -some of their good qualities. (See <a href="#CHAPTER_XIII"><i>Fining</i></a>.) -It often happens that a well-covered, or dark-colored wine will deposit -considerable color in the bottle after one fining; such wine should be -twice fined, and twice racked before fining, say, once in December or -January, and again in March.</p> - -<p><b>The Most Favorable Time for Bottling</b> is during cool, dry -weather, but in cellars of uniform temperature, it may be done at any -time. It is better, if possible, to avoid warm or stormy weather, and -those critical periods in the growth of the vine referred to in the -chapter on Racking. Of course, the wine should not be bottled if it -shows signs of fermentation. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</span></p> - -<div id="FIG_27" class="figcenter"> - <p class="f120"><i>Fig. 27.</i></p> - <img src="images/i_156a.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="406" /> - <p class="f120">Bottle Washer.</p> -</div> - -<div class="figcontainer"> - <div class="figsub"> - <p id="FIG_28" class="f120"><i>Fig. 28.</i></p> - <img src="images/i_156b.jpg" alt="" width="150" height="392" /> - </div> - <div class="figsub"> - <p id="FIG_29" class="f120"><i>Fig. 29.</i></p> - <img src="images/i_156c.jpg" alt="" width="350" height="398" /> - </div> - <p class="f120 space-below2">Bottle Drainers.</p> -</div> - -<p><b>Bottles</b> should always be carefully washed and drained before -using. They are best washed by the use of a machine made for the -purpose, which scrubs them inside—and sometimes, also, outside—with a -brush (<a href="#FIG_27">fig. 27</a>). If only a small number of bottles are to -be cleaned, it may be done by using the chain made for the purpose, or by putting -in coarse sand or gravel and water, and thoroughly shaking them. Shot -must not be used, for a portion of the lead will be dissolved by the -water, and if any remains in the bottle it will be acted upon by the -wine, and lead poisoning may result. In many cases it will be necessary -only to rinse them out with clean water. Whether new or second-hand, -they must be scrupulously clean before using. After the bottles are -rinsed, they should be allowed to drain by leaving them inverted for -an hour or two in a dry place; if they are left in a damp cellar, they -are liable to contract a musty flavor within. They may be drained by -placing the necks downward through holes bored in a plank, by inverting -them in boxes or baskets, or by placing them upon pegs or nails driven -into a post, and inclining upwards sufficiently to leave the opening -of the bottle down, when the neck is slipped over the peg or nail. -Figs. <a href="#FIG_28">28</a> and <a href="#FIG_29">29</a> show devices -for the purpose. The bottles are sometimes rinsed out with wine, or if -intended to contain very poor, weak wine, with a little brandy. This is -done by pouring the liquor from one bottle to another. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</span></p> - -<p>It is best to use bottles uniform in size for each lot of wine, and -certainly to reject those which are cracked, have large blisters, and -those which are very thin. These latter, however, may be employed, if -but little pressure is used in corking, but they should be placed by -themselves, or on the top of the pile. No one would make use of such -bottles except to store wine for his own consumption.</p> - -<p>Clear and transparent bottles are used for white wine, and those -of colored glass for red. Hock, however, is often put in brownish -bottles, conical in shape. White wines which are perfectly limpid show -to advantage in clear bottles, but red wines, if stored in such, are -liable to lose their color by the action of light.</p> - -<p>It is important that the glass of which wine bottles are made should -not contain too much soda, potash, or lime, or they may combine with -the acids, and injure the wine. By the use of crude soda, alkaline -sulphites may be formed in the glass, and communicate an odor of -sulphuretted hydrogen to the wine.</p> - -<div id="FIG_30" class="figcenter"> - <p class="f120"><i>Fig. 30.</i></p> - <img src="images/i_157.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="452" /> - <p class="f120 space-below2">Reservoir for filling Bottles.</p> -</div> - -<div id="FIG_31" class="figleft"> - <p class="f120"><i>Fig. 31.</i></p> - <img src="images/i_158.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="261" /> - <p class="center">Bung Screw.</p> -</div> -<p><b>Filling the Bottles.</b>—If the faucet has not previously been -placed in the cask, it must now be done with great care, so as not to -disturb any lees that may have remained at the last racking. The faucet -should be put into the cask <i>open</i>, as for racking, and with very -light blows of the hammer. A shallow dish or bucket is placed under -the faucet in which the bottle stands. An ordinary brass faucet may be -used, or the bottles may be filled much more rapidly by drawing the -wine from the cask into a reservoir provided with as many faucets or -tubes as bottles which it is desired to fill at the same time (<a href="#FIG_30">fig. 30</a>). -The cask must be vented either by making a gimlet hole or two near -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</span> -the bung, or the bung must be removed. The latter, however, must not -be done by blows with the bung-starter, but by using the bung screw -(<a href="#FIG_31">fig. 31</a>), or the lees will be stirred up. The bottle should -not be placed upright so that the wine will fall directly to the bottom, but -should be slightly inclined so as to permit the wine to trickle down -the inside, or a foam will be formed, and it will be difficult to fill -the bottle. The workman having his empty bottles within reach, allows -a little of the first wine to run into the dish, or into a bottle, -which is put aside, as there may be some impurities in the faucet. -The workman is seated in front of the cask, and the empty bottles are -placed one at a time under the faucet as described. As soon as one -bottle is filled, it is removed and another put in its place, without -closing the faucet, and without loss of wine. The sediment would be -disturbed by the shocks caused by opening and shutting the faucet.</p> - -<p>If the needle is used in corking the bottles, they should be filled -within a little more than an inch of the top, and if corked in the -ordinary manner, only to within about two inches of the opening, -leaving an inch of vacancy below the cork; always, however, depending -somewhat upon the length of the corks used. This is continued, placing -the full bottles in a convenient place, until the wine ceases to run -at the faucet. The cask must then be slightly inclined forward, as -described in the case of racking. At this stage, great care must be -taken not to trouble the wine; and if a few bottles at the end contain -that which is not clear, they should be put aside, to be decanted after -settling. In drawing from the upper tiers of casks in piles, the basin -must be elevated sufficiently to bring the bottle placed in it up to -the faucet, or the latter may be connected with it by a hose.</p> - -<p><b>Corks.</b>—Only good corks should be used. They are supple and -uniform in texture. Poor corks are sold in the market, in which is -found a good deal of the dark, hard portion of the bark, which are not -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</span> -only liable to break the bottles by the great amount of pressure -required to insert them, but also to discolor the wine, affect -its flavor, and to permit it to leak out. Straight corks are used -now-a-days, somewhat larger than the neck of the bottle, and are forced -in by means of</p> - -<div id="FIG_32" class="figcenter"> - <p class="f120"><i>Fig. 32.</i></p> - <img src="images/i_159.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="335" /> - <p class="f120 space-below2">Corking Machines.</p> -</div> - -<p><b>Corking Machines.</b>—These machines are of different forms and -make, but are provided with a hollow cone through which the cork is -forced by a piston, compressing it so that it easily goes into the neck -of the bottle. Some work with a lever, and some with a crank. In the -small hand-machine, the piston is pushed by the hand. The bottles may -be made full enough so that the wine will touch the bottom of the cork, -leaving no vacant space, if the <i>needle</i> is used in corking. This -is a small, tapering, half-round, steel instrument, one-tenth of an -inch in diameter, with a groove along the flat side. By placing this in -the neck with the groove next the glass, the cork may be forced down to -the wine, the air and surplus wine escaping by the groove. After the -cork is driven home, the needle is removed. A piece of wire, provided -with a handle, will answer the purpose. The handle of the needle -(either a ring, or like that of a gimblet), is attached by a hinge, and -turns down out of the way of the tube and piston of the machine. Some -bottling machines have a needle attachment. Bottles corked by the use -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</span> -of this instrument do not contain a vacant space, and the wine keeps -better, not being exposed to the action of the air, which would -otherwise remain in the neck of the bottle, and not being shaken in -transportation.</p> - -<div id="FIG_33" class="figcenter"> - <p class="f120"><i>Fig. 33.</i></p> - <img src="images/i_160.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="405" /> - <p class="f120 space-below2">Corking Machines.</p> -</div> - -<p>Figures <a href="#FIG_32">32</a> and <a href="#FIG_33">33</a> show corking -machines with and without needles. In <a href="#FIG_33">fig. 33</a> -two needles are also shown.</p> - -<p>If the old-fashioned conical corks are used, they may be driven home -with a small mallet, or wooden paddle, but the cylindrical corks are -preferable, if the wine is to be kept long.</p> - -<p><b>Preparation of the Corks.</b>—In order to render them more supple, -they are soaked for several hours in water. What is far better, -however, is to steam them for two or three hours, or soak them in hot -water. They should be allowed to drain, and then be dipped in wine -like that to be bottled. Some dip them in alcohol to render them more -slippery, and some again, put a drop or two of sweet oil on the surface -of the water in which they are wet.</p> - -<p><b>The Corks may be Driven down Flush</b> with the opening of the -bottle, or they may be left projecting a quarter of an inch, and if much -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</span> -larger than the neck of the bottle, a shoulder will be formed, as in -the case of sparkling wines. The object of leaving the corks projecting -a third of their length in bottling sparkling wines is, that they may -be forced out with an explosion; and the shoulder completely closes the -bottle, being wired down.</p> - -<p><b>Sealing the Corks.</b>—If the bottles are stored in a damp place -where the corks are liable to rot, and also if they are to be kept more -than two years, it is well to cover the ends of the corks with wax. -This also prevents attacks by insects.</p> - -<p><b>The Sealing Wax</b> used should be sufficiently adhesive, but not -too hard and brittle. Various receipts are given for its preparation, -and the following is given by Boireau: Melt common pitch or turpentine -over a slow fire, taking care not to allow it to boil over. When it -is well melted, remove whatever impurities it contains, add a little -tallow—a little less than an ounce of tallow to a pound of pitch. Its -natural color is reddish, and is used without addition of coloring -matter. Rosin may be substituted for the pitch. Instead of making this -preparation, the fruit wax of commerce may be used. About the same -quantity of tallow, however, should be added, if sealing wax is used, -or otherwise it will be too brittle. The tallow may be replaced by -beeswax with advantage.</p> - -<p>An excellent bottle wax is said to be made by melting together two -pounds rosin, one pound Burgundy pitch, one-fourth pound yellow wax, -and one-eighth pound red wax. The wax may be replaced by three ounces -of tallow. If too much tallow is added the cement will be too soft.</p> - -<p><b>The Cement is Applied Hot.</b>—It must be melted, and the bottle -reversed and dipped into it, so that the wax will cover the end of the -cork and a small part of the neck of the bottle, say down to the ring. -It is entirely unnecessary to cover more of the neck of the bottle.</p> - -<p><b>Coloring Matter</b> may be added to these different cements, and any -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</span> -desired color produced. A little more than half an ounce of the -following named substances is stirred in to one pound of the melted wax.</p> - -<p>A brilliant red is produced by vermilion, a duller red by red ochre, -black with animal black, yellow with orpiment, dark yellow with yellow -ochre, and blue with Prussian blue. Green is made by mixing equal -parts of blue and yellow, and other shades may be made by mixing the -different colors to suit the taste.</p> - -<div class="figcontainer"> - <div class="figsub"> - <p id="FIG_34" class="f120"><i>Fig. 34.</i></p> - <img src="images/i_162a.jpg" alt="" width="175" height="194" /> - <p class="f120">Pincers for<br /> Removing Wax.</p> - </div> - <div class="figsub"> - <p id="FIG_35" class="f120"><i>Fig. 35.</i></p> - <img src="images/i_162b.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="202" /> - <p class="f120">Capsuler.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p><b>Capsules</b> are now much used instead of wax. In preparing the -bottled wine for shipment, where the corks have previously been waxed -for storing in the cellar, capsules are also used. In this case, the -wax is removed before the capsule is put on by means of a pair of -pincers with roughened jaws (<a href="#FIG_34">fig. 34</a>). These -capsules in different colors are sold by dealers in corks.</p> - -<p><b>They are Put on</b> by slipping one over the neck of the bottle as -far as it will go, and then pressing it down closely all round. For -this purpose, one turn is made around the end of the capsule with a -stout cord fastened at one end, and the bottle is pushed forward with -one hand, while the loose end of the string is pulled tight with the -other, thus sliding the loop over the capsule and the neck of the -bottle, and pressing it firmly in place. Instead of holding the cord -with one hand, it may be attached to a pedal worked by the foot. A -machine (<a href="#FIG_35">fig. 35</a>) is made with two posts or standards, -one solid, to which one end of the cord, <i>A</i>, is attached, and -the other playing on a hinge, to which the other end is fastened, and -pulled tight by a pedal, <i>B</i>. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</span></p> - -<div id="FIG_36" class="figcenter"> - <p class="f120"><i>Fig. 36.</i></p> - <img src="images/i_163.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="145" /> - <p class="f120 space-below2">Piling Bottles.</p> -</div> - -<p><b>Piling of Bottles.</b>—Bottles may be stacked on the floor of the -cellar in piles consisting of a single or a double range. The bed -should be made level by arranging the soil, or by laying down strips -of wood, and leveling them. The bottles should be laid horizontal. If -the neck is down, the deposit will be on and near the cork, and will -trouble the wine as it runs from the bottle. If the bottom is lower -than the neck, the cork will not be kept wet, and the wine is liable -to be injured by the air, as the cork is not perfectly air-tight. The -bottles should be supported at two points, the neck and the bottom; the -belly of the bottle needs no support. If two tiers of bottles are put -in a pile, the bottoms are on the outside, with the necks at the middle -of the pile. Laths are used to support the bottles, about three-eighths -of an inch thick, and one inch or more wide. The lower row of one tier -is made by laying down at the outside of the pile two laths to support -the bottom end of the bottle, and one thick strip or sufficient laths -are laid down to support the neck, inside the ring, and keep the bottle -level. The next tier may be commenced by laying one or two laths on the -necks of the bottles of the first one to support the necks of those of -the other, the necks of the bottles of one tier lapping over those of -the bottles of the other; the bottoms of those of this tier must be -sufficiently elevated by laths to keep the bottles level. The next row -of bottles is supported by laths laid on those below, one or two near -the outer end of the lower ones, and a larger number on their necks. In -this case the necks all point in, the bottoms being together (<a href="#FIG_36">fig. 36</a>). -The bottles of each row should be sufficiently separated to allow those -of the next row above to be supported by the laths without touching -each other, and should be blocked after adjusting the distances. The -piles may be made from three to six feet high, and must be supported at -the ends, either by the cellar walls or posts.</p> - -<p>Each tier may be made entirely independent of the other, by supporting -the necks of the bottles of the next upper row on laths laid near the -bottoms of those of the first row, one row having the necks pointing -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</span> -out, and the next one having them pointing the other way. In this case -the bottles in a row may be separated an inch or more from each other, -and blocked with bits of cork.</p> - -<div id="FIG_37" class="figcenter"> - <p class="f120"><i>Fig. 37.</i></p> - <img src="images/i_164a.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="381" /> - <p class="f120 space-below2">Bottle Rack.</p> - <p id="FIG_38" class="f120"><i>Fig. 38.</i></p> - <img src="images/i_164b.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="399" /> - <p class="f120 space-below2">Bottle Rack.</p> -</div> - -<p><b>Racks and Bins for Bottles.</b>—Instead of piling the bottles, they -may be arranged in bins constructed for the purpose. The simplest is a -frame of wood or iron of the desired length and height, and deep enough -to accommodate one or two tiers of bottles. The lower bars on which the -first row of bottles rests, should be so arranged as to support them in -a level position, as already described for piling. If only one tier is -to be made, only two bars at the bottom are necessary, but if double -ranges are to be made, the frame must be deeper, and have a middle bar -to support the necks of the bottles, the bottoms all being outside. The -bottles are piled in these frames in the manner already described.</p> - -<p>Instead of piling them in simple frames with the use of laths, racks -are made with bars to support each row of bottles by itself, and so -that any one bottle can be taken out without disturbing the rest. If -the supports are of wood, they may be cut, or if of iron, bent in a -form to fit each bottle, that is, in small half-circles in which the -bottles rest, with smaller ones for the necks, or they may be straight. -These bins may be made portable, and of any size to suit. (Figs. <a href="#FIG_37">37</a> -and <a href="#FIG_38">38</a>.) -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</span></p> - -<p>Burrow’s Patent Slider Bin, made in England, has a separate compartment -for each bottle.</p> - -<div id="FIG_39" class="figcenter"> - <p class="f120"><i>Fig. 39.</i></p> - <img src="images/i_165.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="458" /> - <p class="f120 space-below2">Burrow’s Slider Bin.</p> -</div> - -<p><b>Treatment of Wine in Bottles.</b>—Sometimes it will be found that -wine ferments in the bottle, becomes turbid, and makes a voluminous -deposit, or may contract various maladies, such as bitterness, -harshness, ropiness, or may become putrid. These effects result -principally from bottling the wine too young, before insensible -fermentation and the natural clearing has been completed, or they may -be caused by changes of temperature, or too great age.</p> - -<p><b>Fermentation in the Bottles</b> is due to the same causes as -fermentation in casks—changes of temperature, contact of the air, etc. -It may be avoided by bottling at the proper time, carefully protecting -the wine from the air by corking the bottles hermetically by the use of -the needle, and keeping them in a cellar of even temperature. Boireau -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</span> -says that sweet and mellow wines are liable to ferment in bottles, -especially if exposed to a high temperature, unless their alcoholic -strength exceeds 15 per cent. Still wines which ferment in the bottle -generally must be emptied into casks, and there treated as indicated -in the chapter on <i>Diseases</i>. Temporary relief may be given by -putting the bottles in a cooler place, and uncorking them for an hour -or two to allow the gas to escape.</p> - -<p><b>Deposits and Turbidity.</b>—Wine, after being some time in glass, -forms more or less deposit, according to its age, quality, and degree -of limpidity at the time of bottling. The deposits consist almost -entirely of coloring matter, and vegetable and mineral salts; sometimes -they adhere to the sides of the bottle, and in some cases they render -the wine turbid, and again they present the appearance of gravel when -the wine contains much tartar.</p> - -<p>In wines bottled too young, or which are made by mixing those of -different natures, quite a voluminous deposit may be formed after they -have remained a few years in glass. But good, natural wines, of good -growth, well cared for, and bottled under proper conditions, scarcely -commence to deposit at the end of one or two years. The deposit, -however, will be increased, if the bottles are frequently disturbed, -are transported long distances, undergo changes of temperature, or are -kept so long that they begin to degenerate. If there is much deposit, -it is apt to give the wine a <i>bitter</i> or <i>acrid</i> flavor, or a -<i>taste of the lees</i>. Therefore, if the wines are of high quality, -they should be decanted.</p> - -<p>Mr. Boireau proceeds to say that if the deposit is small, and we are -dealing with grand wines in bottles, which have contracted no bad -taste, it is better not to decant them, for the operation is liable to -cause a loss of a portion of the bouquet, especially if not done with -proper precautions.</p> - -<p>These directions only apply to those bottled wines which have deposited -sediment, but which are nevertheless clear, and bright, and of a lively -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</span> -color. Those, however, which become and remain turbid, must be fined, -and for this purpose they must be put into casks. If wines containing -sediment are brought to the table without decanting, they are kept in -nearly the same position as they occupied in the cellar, by using small -baskets contrived for the purpose. (See <a href="#DECANT"><i>Decantation</i></a>.)</p> - -<p><b>Bitterness and Acrity</b>, when not caused by deposits, are due -to loss of the fruitiness and mellowness of the wine, which then has -commenced to decline. The only remedy in case of fine wines which have -preserved their bouquet, is to mix them with younger wines, mellow and -perfectly bright. This should be done by decanting without contact with -the air; but if they are seriously affected, they must be put into -casks and the operation there performed; then they should be well fined -before re-bottling.</p> - -<p><b>Ropiness</b> in bottled wines, which is due to lack of tannin, -generally occurs in white wines which have been bottled before -perfectly clear, and while they contained considerable nitrogenous and -albuminous matters in suspension. The treatment is indicated elsewhere.</p> - -<p>In most cases, if the wines are worn out, it will be necessary to put -them into casks, and mix them with younger ones of the same quality.</p> - -<p id="DEGEN"><b>Degeneration and Putridity.</b>—Wine may be kept and improved in -bottles, if properly treated, as long as its constituent principles -remain soluble and in combination; but with the lapse of time, varying -with different kinds, it begins to lose quality. This degeneration, -says the author last quoted, announces itself a long time in advance, -in the grand wines, by a loss of their unctuosity, of their fruity -flavor, and by a bitter and sometimes acrid taste; and if they are -kept for several years more, the fragrance of the bouquet is lost, -and they contract a <i>rancio</i> or tawny flavor, which masks their -natural flavor; they rapidly lose color, and form a deposit much more -considerable than in the earlier years of their sojourn in bottles; and -finally, when their degeneracy is advanced, they give off a slightly -putrid odor. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</span></p> - -<p>As soon as high priced wines have attained their entire development -in bottles, in order to prevent their decline, they should be carefully -decanted into bottles with ground glass stoppers, previously rinsed -with wine of the same kind.</p> - -<p>Loss of color, joined with an abundant deposit, which is a sure sign -of degeneration in the wines of the Gironde, do not mean the same in -all other kinds. For instance, the red wines of Spain (and we may add, -Portugal), and the sweet wines of Roussillon, which have a very dark -color when young, almost entirely lose it after three or four years -in bottle; they become tawny, without degenerating; but, quite to the -contrary, their quality is improved.</p> - -<p>It is observed, however, that in wines of these latter classes, whose -alcoholic strength exceeds 15 per cent., the deposit is not so great, -compared with the amount of coloring matter precipitated, as in wines -of the first mentioned growth, and that the coloring matter adheres to -the sides of the bottle, instead of falling to the bottom. Some of our -California wines deposit a good deal of color in the bottle, even when -fined. Probably a double fining would be advantageous in many cases.</p> - -<p>As alcohol and tannin are the preservative principles of wines, those -last longest which are best provided with them.</p> - -<p>The cause of the degeneration of wine is the decomposition of -its constituent parts, which thereby become insoluble, and are -precipitated. The loss of tannin, which in time is transformed into -gallic acid, takes from feeble wines their best conservator, and causes -precipitation of the coloring matter. And it is observed in practice -that wines which contain a great quantity of tannin last longer than -those of the same alcoholic strength having less tannin.</p> - -<p id="DECANT"><b>Decantation</b> consists in drawing a wine from the bottle -containing it, so as to leave the sediment behind. It should be done -without exposing the wine to the air. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</span></p> - -<p>The bottles should be brought from the cellar without changing their -position, for if the deposit is disturbed, and the wine becomes cloudy, -the bottles must rest till it has settled again. For this purpose they -are laid in a basket, or other suitable receptacle, where they are -inclined just enough so that the wine will not run out when the cork -is removed (<a href="#FIG_40">fig. 40</a>). The cork must be drawn without disturbing -the sediment, by using a corkscrew, which by means of a screw or lever, -gradually removes it, and without a shock (<a href="#FIG_41">fig. 41</a>). -The wine is slowly run into another clean bottle previously rinsed with -the same kind of wine. If the wine is in its decline, rinse the bottles -with old brandy.</p> - -<div class="figcontainer"> - <div class="figsub"> - <p id="FIG_40" class="f120 space-above3"><i>Fig. 40.</i></p> - <img src="images/i_169a.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="98" /> - <p class="f120">Decanting Basket.</p> - </div> - <div class="figsub"> - <p id="FIG_41" class="f120"><i>Fig. 41.</i></p> - <img src="images/i_169b.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="216" /> - <p class="f120">Corkscrews.</p> - </div> - <div class="figsub"> - <p id="FIG_42" class="f120 space-above3"><i>Fig. 42.</i></p> - <img src="images/i_169c.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="135" /> - <p class="f120">Decanting Instrument.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p><b>The Operation may be Performed</b> by carefully pouring the wine -into the empty bottle through a small funnel, which is provided with a -strainer. By means of a light placed below the bottle, the sediment can -be watched, and as soon as it is about to run out with the wine, the -operation must cease. The new bottle must be filled up with the same -kind of wine and immediately corked. In decanting in this manner, the -bubbling of the air passing into the bottle as the wine runs out, is -very apt to disturb the lees. This may be prevented by using a small -tube, slightly curved, which connects the air outside with the vacant -space in the bottle. In order to prevent access of the air, however, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</span> -an instrument is used consisting of two conical corks, connected by a -small rubber tube. Each cork is pierced with two holes; the one placed -in the bottle to be emptied, besides the hole which receives the rubber -hose through which the wine runs, is provided with one through which a -bent tube is placed to admit the air; the hose passes through the other -cork and conducts the wine into the other bottle, and this cork has -another hole for the escape of the air (<a href="#FIG_42">fig. 42</a>).</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XVII">CHAPTER XVII.<br /> -<span class="h_subtitle">CUTTING OR MIXING WINES.</span></h2> -</div> - -<p><b>Most French Wines Mixed.</b>—Maigne, speaking of the wines of -France, says, that of one hundred wines in the market, perhaps there -are not ten which are not produced by mixing several different kinds. -Without doubt, he says, we should as much as possible preserve the -products of the vine as they are given to us; but there are a multitude -of cases where it is absolutely impossible to render them drinkable -without mixing, or as wine men say, without <i>cutting</i> them with -other wines.</p> - -<p><b>When Necessary—Effect of.</b>—In good years, almost all wines -can be drank in their natural condition, but when the grapes have -not become sufficiently ripe, the wines, even of good growths, lack -quality, or preserve for a long time a roughness more or less marked, -and always disagreeable. It is then necessary to mix them, especially -if common wines, with better ones, to make them tolerable. It is not -always necessary, however, that the season should be bad, in order that -cutting should be proper. Wines naturally have, for a certain time, -an earthy flavor and greenness which are unpleasant, which disappear -by mixing. This is why ordinary wines of a moderate price, which have -been mixed, are preferred by a great number of consumers to others -which are higher in price but left in a state of nature. For example, -a new, very dark-colored wine of good growth is not an agreeable drink; -but if an old white wine of an inferior growth, but of good taste and -constitution be added, it will be drank with pleasure.</p> - -<p>Mixing the wine produces results similar to those caused by mixing the -fruit, and it may be done by the wine maker as well as by the merchant. -As they come from the vat, wines manifest the qualities and defects -communicated by the vintage, and which are varied by a multitude of -circumstances, such as the nature of the soil, varieties of grapes, -temperature of the season, and the like. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</span></p> - -<p>Wines endowed with qualities which fit them to be kept in their natural -condition, of course, are not mixed. But those which, on the other hand -(and they are in the majority), have too much or too little color, -are weak, flat, coarse, green, pasty, rough, lacking in bouquet, too -strong, or too light, cannot be put on the market till they have been -cut with other wines capable of giving them the qualities which they -lack, and of remedying their defects. It will be understood that the -mixture of a weak wine with a stronger one, of one lacking color with -one which has too much, a light wine with a generous one, of a hard -wine with a flat one, etc., a wine will be produced superior in quality -to any one of those used.</p> - -<p>For these reasons, in a viticultural district, when a producer cannot -sell his wine of a bad year, he mixes it with that of the following -year, if the latter is of a better quality; if he cannot mix it all, he -may use it for ullage. In the same way, if he has new white wines which -become discolored and turn yellow, he mingles them with very dark red -wines, which then become more agreeable to drink.</p> - -<p>It is said that the tithe wines used to be of superior quality. -In certain communes of France, the inhabitants contributed to the -priest’s cask a certain amount of their new wine, and this wine -which represented a mixture of all the wines of the commune, had the -reputation of being superior to any one of the others.</p> - -<p>And the following case, quoted by Maigne, is given for what it is -worth. A cask lay in a cellar into which they were accustomed to -throw the leavings of all kinds of wine, such as from broken bottles, -drippings, etc. It was intended to use the liquid upon diseased trees, -but it was for some time forgotten. When found and brought out, the -cellar-man tasted the singular mixture out of curiosity. It was found -to be a delicious liquor, which gave delight at dessert; and it was -with true grief that they saw its end approach!</p> - -<p>In order to perform the operation successfully, an experienced man -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</span> -is required, who will be guided by his educated taste; and therefore, -precise rules cannot be laid down, but there are certain general -principles which it may be useful to state.</p> - -<p><b>Wines of the same General Nature and Flavor</b> should be used, -and two of such wines may nevertheless be deficient in some particular -respects, so that by mixing, the defects of the two will be corrected. -Such wines are mixed, because they are said to <i>marry</i> better, and -produce a more homogeneous liquid than those of different natures.</p> - -<p><b>Fine Wines.</b>—All agree that fine wines which have a bouquet -and a future are best left in their natural condition, for their -distinctive character will be destroyed by mixing with wines of a -different nature and quality. Boireau says that experience proves -that if such wines are mixed while young, even with old wine of good -quality, they will never acquire that degree of fineness which they -would have obtained if left by themselves; that they sooner loose their -fruity flavor, and are more liable to make a deposit in the bottles.</p> - -<p>There are cases, however, when cutting becomes necessary, as when the -wine from being kept too long in casks, has commenced to decline, has -lost its fruity flavor, has become acrid and dry; when made in a bad, -cold season; and when they are too poor, green, or too feeble to keep well.</p> - -<p>When wines are too old and worn out, they should be fortified with -young wines of the same kind, produced, if possible, from the same -vineyard, one or two, or at most, three years old, and possessing great -mellowness. The amount of new wine to be used will depend upon the -degree of degeneracy and the length of time they are to be kept. -(See <a href="#DEGEN"><i>Degeneration</i></a>.)</p> - -<p>Poor, weak wines, whose keeping qualities are doubted, should be mixed -with young wine of a good year, firm and full-bodied, possessing as -nearly as possible the same natural flavor.</p> - -<p>The foregoing is intended to apply to feeble, delicate wines which have -a flavor and bouquet, but <i>which are not too green</i>. Wines which -have a future should not be sacrificed by using them to fortify others -which are both <i>feeble and green</i>, for the excess of tartaric acid -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</span> -contained in the latter will totally destroy the mellowness of those -used to fortify them. To mix with such wines, clean-tasting wines of -the south should be used.</p> - -<p>If the wines are too green, a portion of the acid may be neutralized, -as described under the head of <i>Greenness</i>.</p> - -<p><b>Ordinary Wines</b> should be treated in such a way as to give -them as much as possible the qualities sought in fine wines, and -they should be cut with suitable wines of the same age to give them -bouquet, flavor, and mellowness, or at least to remove their excessive -dryness—a very difficult thing to do. It may be accomplished, in part, -by mixing them with wines of the same growth, but whose bouquet and -flavor are very expansive, and by adding neutral, mellow wines.</p> - -<p><b>Sufficient Time Must be Given</b> to the mixture to allow the -different wines employed to become intimately combined, or their -different flavors may be detected, which will not be the case when -thoroughly amalgamated.</p> - -<p><b>When Large Quantities</b> of wine are used, the mixture is more -nearly perfect than if mingled, cask by cask; and by operating upon the -whole amount at one time in a large vat, a perfect uniformity will be -insured.</p> - -<p><b>An Entirely New Wine</b> should not be mixed with an old one, as -there is not sufficient affinity between them.</p> - -<p>In an old wine, says Machard, all the constituents are in a state -of complete quiet; they are well combined (melted) and homogeneous. -If there is mixed with it a wine whose principles are equally well -combined, no ulterior action will result. But if new principles are -introduced, elements of a different nature, the equilibrium will -be disturbed, there will infallibly result a reciprocal action and -disorganization.</p> - -<p><b>Very Green Wines</b> should not be mixed with those containing much -sugar for similar reasons, for the mixture is liable to be thrown -into a state of violent fermentation, which it will be difficult to -arrest. The reason given is that the green wine contains a good deal of -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</span> -ferment; but if both the wines are produced in the south, where the -ferment contained in the dry wine is not abundant, the mixture may -safely be made. So that, after all, we get back to the principle, that -wines of widely different natures and origins should not be mixed, but -keeping this in mind, a sweetish and a dry wine may be used to correct -each other.</p> - -<p><b>White Wines</b> may sometimes be mixed with advantage with red ones, -as before mentioned, but the former should not be employed too liberally.</p> - -<p><b>Diseased Wines</b> must not be mixed with sound ones, except in the -few cases mentioned under <i>Defects and Diseases</i>. It is especially -dangerous to cut a soured or pricked wine with a sound one, for the -whole mass is liable to be lost.</p> - -<p><b>Mixing Grapes.</b>—It is doubtless always better, when practicable, -to correct defects by mixing the grapes and fermenting the different -kinds together, for then a more homogeneous wine will be formed; and, -therefore, the intelligent grape grower will find out the defects of -his wine, and remedy them by planting a sufficient quantity of other -varieties for the purpose.</p> - -<p><b>Precautions.</b>—Care, however, must always be taken not to spoil -a good wine by cutting it with a very common one, nor by mixing poor -varieties with grapes of fine kinds.</p> - -<p>Cheap wines, however, for immediate consumption, may admit a certain -proportion of poor, common wine, into their composition, without -inconvenience. In that case, the ferments of the common sorts will not -have time to act and produce serious results.</p> - -<p>If, however, they are to be kept for some time, or bottled, the -effect will be bad, for the ferments always abundant in wines from -the commoner varieties, are liable to become decomposed, and cause -a disagreeable, nauseating flavor.</p> - -<p>Whenever there is a doubt in the mind of the cellar-man as to whether -certain wines should be mixed, it is always best to make a small sample -first, clarify it, and leave it for a sufficient length of time, and -judge of the result, before operating upon a large quantity.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XVIII">CHAPTER XVIII.<br /> -<span class="h_subtitle">WINE LEES, MARC, AND PIQUETTE.</span></h2> -</div> - -<p><b>The Residue of Wine Making</b>, pomace and lees, are often placed -immediately in the still, and their alcohol distilled off directly, -but the result is better if the wine is first extracted, and distilled -without putting the residue into the boiler, for it is liable to burn -and give a disagreeable burnt flavor to the brandy.</p> - -<p>I am indebted to Mr. Boireau, so often quoted, for what follows:</p> - -<h3>WINE LEES.</h3> - -<p><b>The Lees</b> should not be neglected, because, for want of proper -care, the wine which is extracted from them will contract a very -disagreeable taste, which is due to its too long sojourn on the -deposit, and which would be prevented by drawing it off in time.</p> - -<p>Therefore, in order that the wine extracted from them should not lose -all its value, the lees should receive particular attention, and be -stored in places free from variations of temperature.</p> - -<p><b>The Quantity of Wine Contained in the Lees</b> varies from 30 to 90 -per cent. From those of fined wines an average of 70 per cent. may be -extracted without pressing.</p> - -<p><b>The Dry Parts of the Sediment</b> contain a great quantity of -insoluble matters, tartar, or argol, several other vegetable and -mineral salts, divers compounds, ferments, mucilaginous matters, and -the residue of animal and vegetable matters (albumen and gelatine), -which have been employed in fining.</p> - -<p><b>An Analysis of Dry Lees</b> by Mr. Braconnot, a distinguished -chemist, establishes the presence of the following substances: -bitartrate of potash (cream of tartar), tartrate of lime, tartrate of -magnesia, nitrogenous animal matter, fatty substances, coloring matter, -gum, and tannin.</p> - -<p><b>The Composition of Dry Lees</b> varies with the age, nature, and -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</span> -quality of the wine which produces them; but in all, the bitartrate -of potash or cream of tartar predominates. The lees of mellow wines -contain mucilages, and we find in the lees deposited by sweet wines -great quantities of saccharine matter which may be utilized. The -different uses to which dried lees may be put will be mentioned further -on.</p> - -<p><b>Treatment of the Lees.</b>—Lees will settle by repose, but the wine -which comes from them, if left long upon the heavy lees, contracts a -disagreeable flavor, owing to its contact with the insoluble matters -forming the sediment, and with the ferments found in the lees with the -residue of the substances used in fining. The surface wine is often -in a state of fermentation, and remains turbid, contracting at the -same time a disagreeable bitterness, unless soon withdrawn from the -influence of the ferments.</p> - -<p>By proper care and attention, not only can all the liquid be extracted -from the lees, but the wine so extracted will have no bad flavor, no -vice, in a word, will partake of the same qualities as the wine from -which the heavy lees were deposited. The casks into which they are to -be put should be washed in the same manner as those destined to contain -limpid wine, and double the quantity of a sulphur match employed in the -case of racking new red wines, should be burned in each. As fast as -the casks are emptied in drawing off, the lees are turned into a pail, -and immediately poured into the cask intended for them. In emptying -them into the pail, care should be taken not to introduce dirt, mould, -etc., and if there is debris around the bung-hole, it should be swept -away before removing the bung. As soon as the cask is full of lees, it -should be stored, bung up, in a proper place, as mentioned, and should -then be ulled and bunged, and the date of storing may be marked on it, -with the kind and age of the wine from which it came.</p> - -<p>When the casks are not completely filled the same day, and it is -necessary to leave them with ullage, they should be bunged tight, after -having again burned a square of a match in each, and the sulphuring -should be renewed as often as the lees are added, if left so for -several days, in order to avoid access of air, and to prevent the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</span> -action of ferments. In a word, casks containing lees, without being -full, should always be well bunged and sulphured, and guarded from -variations of temperature.</p> - -<p>The casks, when stored, should be regularly ulled once a week with -limpid wine, and re-bunged, and after two weeks’ repose, the first -drawing off takes place, and should be renewed once or twice every -month. All the clear wine will be drawn off at each racking, by -following the precautions indicated further on. By drawing off thus -frequently, fermentation, to which such wine is subject, will be -avoided, even in summer. Thus, also, will be avoided the disagreeable -taste of the lees, of acrity and bitterness, which wine contracts when -left long on the deposit, and moreover, much more clear wine will be -withdrawn. Lees from diseased wine should not be mixed with the rest, -but should be put aside and treated according to the malady by which -the wine was affected.</p> - -<p><b>Extraction of Wine from the Lees.</b>—Lees preserved under the -conditions indicated naturally free themselves from a great part of the -foreign substances which they contain, by rest, for they are insoluble, -and specifically heavier than wine, and settle of their own accord. The -wine should not be fined till drawn from the heavy lees.</p> - -<p>The racking off of the clear wine may be performed in two ways, either -by the use of a glass siphon or of a faucet. For the first rackings -the glass siphon is most appropriate, and by its use the boring of -holes high up in the end of the cask is avoided. It is introduced about -eight inches into the full cask, a proper vessel to catch the wine is -placed under the end, with another vessel close at hand, and the wine -is started by the breath; but the siphon must be held with the hand, or -otherwise sustained so that it will not go too deep into the cask. By -holding a candle below, it can be seen if the wine is any way clear; -and as long as it runs sufficiently limpid, the siphon is lowered into -the cask, little by little, till the level of the turbid wine is nearly -reached. When one bucket is filled, the other is slipped under the -stream without stopping it. Two men are usually required, one to attend -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</span> -the siphon, and the other to empty the buckets. As soon as the wine -runs muddy, it is stopped. If the cask of lees is sufficiently -elevated, the stem of the siphon may run into a funnel placed in the -empty cask.</p> - -<p>When the casks have all been drawn from, the remaining heavy lees are -filled into those containing the greater quantity, so as to transfer -the least quantity. Before filling, however, the casks should have a -double square of sulphur match burned in each, to prevent subsequent -fermentations.</p> - -<p>The use of the faucet is preferred, when the lees are thick, and the -casks which contain them are near the ground, and are only used for -storing lees. In the latter case, the injury to the cask by boring -holes in the head at several heights, is of little consequence. A -greater quantity of wine may be drawn off by the use of the faucet than -with the glass siphon, but it is generally less clear than if carefully -done with the latter; and one man can do the work.</p> - -<p>First, it is necessary to ascertain how far down the clear wine -reaches, by means of gimlet holes, and the faucet-hole should then be -bored just above the level of the heavy lees. If the faucet has been -placed too low, the sediment which runs through it at first may be put -aside.</p> - -<p>After the drawing of the clear wine has been repeated several times, -and the thick lees united as above mentioned, the casks should not be -filled until heavily sulphured, and they must not be disturbed, for the -least agitation may stir up the sediment already formed, and cause bad -flavor in the wine, and even produce putrid fermentation, especially in -those from fined wines which contain large quantities of animal matter -introduced in the finings. Casks emptied of heavy lees should be washed -with a chain, to remove the sediment clinging to the inside, which must -not be allowed to dry on.</p> - -<p><b>Fining Wines Extracted from the Lees.</b>—These wines often are not -sufficiently clear; and they are generally more difficult to clarify -completely by the usual methods than the wines which produced the lees. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</span></p> - -<p>It is noticeable that these wines have less color and less alcohol than -other wines produced in the ordinary way.</p> - -<p>The difficulty in obtaining their complete clarification arises from -the great quantity of insoluble matter which they still hold in -suspension, and their relative feebleness in alcohol and tannin.</p> - -<p>The want of color is due to the mechanical action of the insoluble -matters which the lees contain; these matters in precipitating carry -down a part of the coloring matter remaining in solution in the liquid. -It follows that the older the lees, and the oftener the wine has been -drawn from them, the feebler the color.</p> - -<p><b>Red Wines</b> extracted from the lees, to be completely clarified, -should be fined with a heavy dose of albumen (the whites of 16 or 18 -eggs to 100 gallons), previously well beaten up in a pint of water in -which half an ounce of sea salt has been dissolved to give it density. -If the alcoholic strength is below nine per cent, they should be -fortified by the addition of two or three quarts of brandy or alcohol -to each 100 gallons. Red wines from this source should not be fined -with gelatine, or it will diminish the color too much.</p> - -<p><b>White Wines</b> of this kind may be fined with albumen also, if -strong in alcohol; but otherwise, they should be fined with a heavy -dose of gelatine, three tablets. But before fining they must be -tannified by adding 4 or 5 gallons of tannified wine, or an ounce of -tannin for each 100 gallons.</p> - -<p>Wines from lees should remain on the finings only long enough to -precipitate the matters used, about ten days; after which they must be -carefully racked, and cared for like other wines.</p> - -<p><b>Pressing the Thick Sediment.</b>—After the lees have undergone -three or four semi-monthly rackings, the rest of the wine which they -contain may be extracted by pressure, and this amounts on the average -to fifty per cent. More wine might be extracted by further racking, -but by allowing the wine to remain longer in contact with the finings -and other sediment, it will contract the disagreeable flavors already -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</span> -alluded to, which may be avoided by pressing the lees after the first -three or four rackings; and an excellent result is obtained by using a -filter press after the first racking, and the wine obtained will have -no bad taste.</p> - -<p>The pressing is performed in small sacks about eighteen inches long. -They should be made of cotton cloth, as those made from hemp, even -after being used several times, give a disagreeable flavor to the wines -passed through them.</p> - -<p>It is not necessary to provide more than sacks enough for one cask of -lees. The cloth of which they are made should be fine, and of close and -regular texture.</p> - -<p>To make a cheap press, one head of a cask is removed, and the pieces -of this head are fastened together by nailing on two cross pieces to keep -it in form, and enough of the wood around the edge is removed to allow -it to pass freely into the cask as a follower. The cask is then placed -upright, and a hole is bored in one of the staves close to the lower -head, into which is placed a faucet. This cask, which is to contain -the sacks, may be placed high enough to allow the wine to run from the -faucet directly into the bung of another cask to hold the wine. If the -casks containing the lees are placed on a horse or platform, the latter -may be run from the faucet-hole directly into the sacks, which may be -fastened to the chime with small hooks, and be kept open with the hand -or a small hoop. A dish should be placed under before withdrawing the -spigot. Or, to avoid fouling the outside of the sack with the lees, -they may first be run into a tub, and dipped into the sacks, the tub -being provided with a sack-holder. As soon as a sack is sufficiently -filled, it should be strongly tied with a bow-knot which can be easily -untied, and laid in the cask provided; and a few small sticks should be -placed over the inner end of the faucet so that it may not be stopped -by a sack coming in contact with it. Sacks are placed in the cask till -it is full. The faucet is left open, so that the wine, as fast as -filtered, may run through a hose into a well washed and well sulphured -cask, placed in position to receive it.</p> - -<p>When the cask is full of sacks, the cover is placed on them and they -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</span> -are allowed to drain for several hours, weights being gradually placed -upon the cover or follower. Further pressure is applied by means of a -lever rigged for the purpose, one end made firm, and the other having -weights attached.</p> - -<p>It is best that the pressure be gradually applied, leaving the sacks to -drain for several hours, then applying the lever, but loading it with -weights several hours later, or the next day.</p> - -<p>When the wine no longer runs, say twenty-four hours after loading the -lever, the sacks are removed.</p> - -<p>If the lees are not very thick, but little will be found in the sacks, -and they may be refilled without removing it, and subjected to a second -pressure. Then they must be thoroughly washed with water. Lye should -not be used.</p> - -<p>Where large quantities of lees are to be pressed, larger presses may be -used, vats being employed instead of casks.</p> - -<p>It is impossible to obtain all the wine by simple filtration without -pressure, owing to the fact that the filters soon become foul, and the -wine ceases to pass through.</p> - -<p>If the first wine which runs off is turbid, it may be put by itself, -and the clear wine caught separately. It is apt to run turbid when -additional weight is applied.</p> - -<p><b>Use of Dry Lees.</b>—They have a certain value, and after being -removed from the sacks they may be sold to the manufacturers of cream -of tartar, if they are <i>virgin lees</i>. Lees from fined wines are of -little value for this purpose. They may be dried on well-aired floors, -or in the sun. They are also used for the production of pearlash by -burning them. The ash produced is of a greenish gray color, and is -crude pearlash. Good lees, perfectly dry, produce about 30 per cent. of -this alkali.</p> - -<p>Lees are also valuable as a fertilizer. Those from sweet wine contain -considerable sugar, which may be utilized by fermenting and distilling -the alcohol produced. This, however, will render them less valuable for -making cream of tartar, a portion of which will be dissolved by washing.</p> - -<h3>MARC, OR POMACE—PIQUETTE.</h3> - -<p><b>Marc, or Pomace</b>, is the residue remaining in the vat after the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</span> -fermentation of red wine, or in the press, in making white wine. After -being pressed, it is used in many parts of France to make a weak wine -called <i>piquette</i>, for the use of the laborers. For this purpose -are utilized all the soluble principles remaining in the marc, by the -following treatment:</p> - -<p><b>1. The Unfermented Pomace of White or of Red Wine not Entirely -Fermented</b>, is well broken and crumbled up so as to finely divide -it, and introduced into tuns, which are then completely filled with -water, or into a fermenting vat, adding double its weight of water. -After giving it a thorough stirring and mixing, the first piquette is -drawn off. After a maceration of three or four days, renewing the water -several times, the saccharine matter and soluble salts which the marc -contains are completely removed. Piquette is fermented in casks and -cared for like new wine. The weakest is first consumed.</p> - -<p>Or the marc may be pressed and put into barrels, keeping it in as solid -a mass as possible; the surface is then covered with sand and the casks -closed air-tight. Piquette may then be made as needed, using the marc -of one cask, washing with water till it is exhausted.</p> - -<p><b>2. The Fermented Marc of Red Wine</b> is treated as follows: After -pressing, it is immediately put into a large vat. Double its weight -of water is added, and after a complete stirring, it is allowed to -macerate one or two days at most. The first piquette is then drained -off, and water is put in several times till the soluble matters are -removed.</p> - -<p>Pressed marc is also used for forage, mixing it with half the quantity -of hay.</p> - -<p>As for making wine from marc by adding sweetened water. -(See <a href="#CHAPTER_III"><i>Watering and Sugaring Must</i></a>.)</p> - -<p>The following method of washing the marc is from an article on the -Distillation of Marc, by J. Pezeyre, printed in <i>Le Parfait Vigneron, -Almanach du Moniteur Vinicole</i>, 1881:</p> - -<p>Six vats or barrels are set up side by side, each provided with a -faucet, and a movable cover. The faucet is protected inside, as in the -case of the ordinary fermenting vat. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</span></p> - -<p>To thoroughly exhaust the marc, it should be washed with six times its -weight of water, or 100 lbs. of pomace require 72 gallons of water.</p> - -<p>The vats being arranged, are charged with marc, which is pressed down -till it fills the vat to within about ten inches of the top. The marc -is kept submerged in the usual way, by a false, perforated head.</p> - -<p>The first vat is filled with cold water, and left to rest for two -hours. The liquid is then drawn off and filled into vat No. 2. No. 1 is -then refilled with fresh water. When the liquid in No. 2 has remained -for two hours, it is drawn off and put into No. 3. No. 1 is then -emptied into No. 2, and filled with water a third time. The maceration -in No. 3 having continued for two hours, its liquid is drawn off and -poured into No. 4; No. 3 is filled from No. 2, and this from No. 1, -which is filled the fourth time with water. No. 5 is filled from No. 4, -and each vat is filled from the preceding one, until No. 1 has received -in water six times the weight of the marc contained in it.</p> - -<p>The liquid from No. 5 is poured into No. 6, and after two hours is -drawn from this last vat into the still.</p> - -<p>When the wine has been drawn from the last vat, the marc in No. 1 -having been washed six times with its weight of water, is exhausted of -all its alcohol. It is then refilled with marc, and becomes No. 6 of -the series, and is filled with the liquid from No. 5. Each number is -thereby carried around the circle, becoming successively No. 6.</p> - -<p>In this way the pomace is, little by little, deprived of its alcohol, -and the liquid coming from No. 6 is rich in spirit, and when delivered -to the still is nearly equal in strength to the original wine.</p> - -<p>When there is but little marc to operate upon, the liquid may be drawn -off into buckets, and so filled into the vats; but time and labor may -be saved by using a pump and hose.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XIX">CHAPTER XIX.<br /> -<span class="h_subtitle">THE COMPOSITION OF WINE.</span></h2> -</div> - -<p><b>Generally.</b>—Wine is not only composed of alcohol and water, -which are the two most prominent ingredients, but a great number of -other substances have been recognized, and others still are supposed -to exist. Some substances which are found in one wine may not exist in -another, or it may exist in a greater or less quantity. We know that -alcohol, water, and acids exist in all wines, in varying quantities; -that some are sweet, and contain sugar, and that others are dry, -thoroughly fermented, and contain none. We also know that the alcohol -in different wines may vary from 4 or 5 per cent. in piquette made -by washing the pomace with water, to 20 or 25 per cent. in the more -strongly fortified. And we know generally how a wine is modified as -to its taste and effect on the system, by such substances as water, -alcohol, sugar, and acid; but there are many substances whose effect -is but little known, and others again only known by their effects. The -science of chemistry has not yet been able to lay hold of them.</p> - -<p><b>Substances Recognized.</b>—The following table from Maumené -indicates the different substances contained in different wines, the -letter F indicating those produced by fermentation, the others existing -in the juice of the grape. It will be observed that the amount of acid -tartrate of potash (cream of tartar) mentioned is 5.5 grammes per litre -at most, and this is the quantity contained in a new wine, old wines -containing only one or two grammes per litre, and even less. This salt -is contained in the grapes, and is soluble in water, but insoluble in -alcohol, and, therefore, the greater part of it is precipitated as the -alcohol increases by fermentation, and is deposited with the lees. The -Report of the University of California, Department of Agriculture, -referred to in the preface, shows the amount contained in different -California wines and their lees. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</span></p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Composition of Wine." cellpadding="0" > - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdr" colspan="7">Grammes.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl br" rowspan="29">Neutral<br /> Bodies. </td> - <td class="tdl" colspan="4"><span class="bt">W</span>ater</td> - <td class="tdr">9 volumes,</td> - <td class="tdc"> 900 to 891</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Common Alcohol (Absolute or Pure),</td> - <td class="tdr">F. 1 volume,</td> - <td class="tdc"> 80 to 79</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Other Alcohols (Butyric, Amylic, etc.)</td> - <td class="tdr br">F.</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Aldehydes (several?)</td> - <td class="tdr br">F.</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Ethers (Acetic, Butyric, œnanthic, etc.),</td> - <td class="tdr br"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="4">  contributing principally to the bouquet</td> - <td class="tdr br">F.</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Essential Oils (several)</td> - <td class="tdr br"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Grape Sugar (Dextrose and Levulose)</td> - <td class="tdr br"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Mannite</td> - <td class="tdr br">F.</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Mucilage, Gum, and Dextrin</td> - <td class="tdr br"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Pectin</td> - <td class="tdr br"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Coloring Matters (œnocyanine)</td> - <td class="tdr br"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Fatty Matters (and Wax?)</td> - <td class="tdr br"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Glycerin</td> - <td class="tdr br">F.</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Nitrogenous Matters (Albumin, Gliadin, etc.) Ferments </td> - <td class="tdr br"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl br" rowspan="7"><span class="bt">V</span>egetable.</td> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2"><span class="bt">A</span>cid Tartrate of Potash (5.5 grammes at most)</td> - <td class="tdr br"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Neutral Tartrate of Lime</td> - <td class="tdr br"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2"><span class="ws2">“</span><span class="ws2">“</span><span class="ws3">Ammonia</span></td> - <td class="tdr br"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl br" rowspan="11">Salts.</td> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Acid Tartrate of Alumina (simple, or with Potash.)</td> - <td class="tdr br"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Acid Tartrate of Iron (simple, or with Potash.)</td> - <td class="tdr br"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Racemates</td> - <td class="tdr br"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl bb" colspan="2">Acetates, Propionates, Butyrates, Lactates, etc.</td> - <td class="tdr br">F.</td> - <td class="tdl">— 20-30</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl br bt" rowspan="7">Mineral.</td> - <td class="tdl">Sulphates</td> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdr br"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Nitrates</td> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdr br"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Phosphates</td> - <td class="tdl">With a base of Potash,</td> - <td class="tdr br"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Silicates</td> - <td class="tdl">Soda, Lime, Magnesia,</td> - <td class="tdr br"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Chlorides</td> - <td class="tdl">Alumina, Oxide of Iron,</td> - <td class="tdr br"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Bromides</td> - <td class="tdl">Ammonia</td> - <td class="tdr br"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Iodides</td> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdr br"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc br"></td> - <td class="tdl br"><span class="bb"> </span> </td> - <td class="tdl br"><span class="bb"> </span> </td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="bb">F</span>luorides</td> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdr br"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="5"> </td> - <td class="tdc br"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl br" rowspan="11">Free <br />Acids.—</td> - <td class="tdl" colspan="4"><span class="bt">C</span>arbonic (2.5 grammes at most)</td> - <td class="tdr br">F.</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Tartaric and Racemic (Gluco-tartaric?)</td> - <td class="tdr br"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Malic</td> - <td class="tdr br"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Citric</td> - <td class="tdr br"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Tannic</td> - <td class="tdr br"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Metapectic</td> - <td class="tdr br">F.</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Acetic</td> - <td class="tdr br">F.</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Lactic</td> - <td class="tdr br">F.</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Succinic</td> - <td class="tdr br">F.</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Butyric</td> - <td class="tdr br">F.</td> - <td class="tdc bb2"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="4"><span class="bb">V</span>aleric?</td> - <td class="tdr br">F<span class="bb">.</span></td> - <td class="tdc">1000-1000</td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p class="center"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</span> -A few of the more important ones will be briefly noticed.</p> - -<p class="space-above2"><b>Alcohol</b> is considerably lighter than -water, and from the specific gravity of any mixture of alcohol and -pure water, the quantity of spirit contained in it can readily be -ascertained. (See <a href="#TABLE_4">Table IV</a>.)</p> - -<div id="FIG_43" class="figcenter"> - <p class="f120"><i>Fig. 43.</i></p> - <img src="images/i_187.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="405" /> - <p class="f120 space-below2">French Still.</p> -</div> - -<p><b>To Ascertain the Alcoholic Strength of Wine</b>, if it consisted of -a mixture of water and alcohol alone, it would only be necessary to -learn its specific gravity; but as all wines contain other substances -which affect the weight of the liquid, it becomes necessary to separate -the alcohol from the other matters by distillation; then by adding -water enough to make up the original volume of the wine assayed, we -will have simply a mixture of alcohol and water.</p> - -<p>Small stills are sold in the market, with the necessary instruments -accompanying them, with which to perform the operation. In the -accompanying figure <a href="#FIG_43">(43)</a>, which shows a French still, -<i>L</i> is a spirit lamp, <i>B</i> a glass boiler with a perforated stopper, -<i>S</i> a worm, contained in the cooler <i>D</i>, which is kept -filled with cold water, as a condenser; <i>t</i> is a rubber tube -connecting the boiler with the condenser, tightly fitted to the stopper -of the former, and also to the end of the worm. <i>E</i> is a small -hydrometer-jar, of glass, with a foot, for measuring the wine to be -distilled, and for catching the distillate as it runs from the worm. -It has three marks—the upper one, <i>m</i>, indicating the height to -which it is to be filled with the wine, and also a ½ mark and a ⅓ mark. -Sometimes it is provided with a groove along one side to carry the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</span> -thermometer. <i>A</i> represents the hydrometer, or alcoholometer, -being a spindle, usually of glass, similar in form to the -saccharometer (<i>which see</i>), except that the zero mark to which -the alcoholometer sinks in distilled water, is at the lower end of -the stem, and the degrees are numbered from zero to the upper end, -each figure representing one per cent. of alcohol. <i>T</i> is a -thermometer, in its place in the jar with the hydrometer; <i>t′</i> is -a small glass pipette to assist in filling the jar just to the mark.</p> - -<p>To make use of the instruments, measure in the jar, <i>E</i>, the wine -to be distilled, by filling it up exactly to the upper mark, <i>m</i>, -using the pipette, <i>t′</i>, by which a little of the liquid can be -sucked up, and let out, drop by drop, by increasing and diminishing -the pressure of the finger applied to the upper opening. The wine so -measured is poured into the boiler, <i>B</i>, draining out the last -drop, or the little remaining may be rinsed out with a little water, -which is poured into the boiler with the wine without affecting the -result. The boiler is then placed over the lamp and connected with the -condenser by means of the rubber tube, and the condenser filled with -cold water. Light the lamp, and place the now empty jar under the lower -end of the worm. The vapor of the alcohol first passing from the boiler -through the rubber tube into the condenser, will there condense, and -the liquid running from the worm into the test tube will be almost pure -alcohol, but as the process goes on, more and more water comes out -with the alcohol, till the spirit has all passed over. If the strength -of the wine does not exceed 14 or 15 per cent., the alcohol will all -have passed over when one-third of the wine has been distilled, as -will be shown when the distillate reaches the ⅓ mark on the glass. If -the strength exceeds the above limit, one-half of the wine should be -distilled. If, therefore, on testing the wine, it is found to contain -16 per cent. or more of spirit, and only one-third was distilled, -another quantity should be distilled, and about one-half allowed to -pass over. It is always safer, unless the wine is very weak, to distil -over a little more than a third. If you are operating on a wine which -foams to such an extent that a portion may pass through the tube into -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</span> -the condenser, which would spoil the effect of the operation, this may -be prevented by putting into the boiler with the wine a pinch of tannic -acid. In operating on a wine which contains an appreciable amount -of acetic acid—is pricked—the acid ought to be neutralized before -distillation, as it is volatile, and will go over with the alcohol and -effect the result. This is easily done by adding to the wine caustic -soda in drops, till it completely changes color, red wine becoming -blue, and white wine, brown. These precautions, however, are generally -omitted in analyses for commercial purposes.</p> - -<p>When the distillation is complete, add to the distillate sufficient -pure water (distilled water if possible), to make up the exact volume -of wine measured. To do this, take the jar containing the distillate -and hold it perpendicular, with the upper mark on a level with the eye, -and carefully let in the water, drop by drop, by means of the pipette. -The surface of the liquid will be seen to curve upward, owing to the -attraction of the glass, and the tube should be filled till the bottom -of the curve touches the mark; and the same precaution should be taken -in measuring the wine in the first place.</p> - -<p>Now we have a mixture corresponding in volume with the wine, and -containing all the alcohol originally contained in the wine, and a -certain amount of water, and nothing else.</p> - -<p>As the density of the liquid also depends upon the temperature, it -becomes necessary to have a fixed standard at which the test is made, -and this is 60° F. in this country, and I believe in all countries -except France, where it is 15° C., or 59° F. As the temperature affects -the volume, it is better to adjust it by cooling the distillate before -adding the last few drops of water, which may be done by dipping the -jar into cold water, or if it is too cold, by warming it with the hand.</p> - -<p>The hydrometer used will be adjusted to a temperature of 60° F., or 15° -C., which is generally shown by directions accompanying the still, or -will be marked on the instrument. Let the hydrometer be perfectly clean -and dry, no moisture on the stem. Take the tip of the stem between the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</span> -thumb and forefinger and lower it into the distillate till it floats, -press it down with the finger very slightly, and let it come to -equilibrium. Place the eye on a level with the surface of the liquid, -and see where it cuts the stem, and the mark shows the percentage of -alcohol contained in the wine. Remember that the mark to be taken is -the one corresponding with the general surface of the liquid, not the -top of the meniscus, or curve. With care, a result can be obtained -sufficiently accurate for all commercial purposes.</p> - -<div id="FIG_44" class="figcenter"> - <p class="f120"><i>Fig. 44.</i></p> - <img src="images/i_190.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="548" /> - <p class="f120 space-below2">Monitor Still.</p> -</div> - -<p>A table is usually sold with these stills, showing the corrections -for different temperatures, so that by its use the reduction of the -temperature to the standard may be avoided.</p> - -<p><a href="#FIG_44">Fig. 44</a> represents a still made in New York, -called the Monitor Still.</p> - -<p id="ETHER"><b>Ethers</b> are formed by alcohol in presence of the different acids -contained in the wine, and they take names corresponding to the acids, -occurring as compound ethers, the most common one being acetic ether. -They have a powerful and characteristic odor, known as the etherous -odor, which is somewhat disagreeable in the pure ether, but becomes -agreeable and resembles the aroma of fruit and flowers when greatly -diluted.</p> - -<p>Among the important ethers contained in wine is <i>Oenanthic ether</i>, -which is said to give to wine its characteristic vinous smell, which -distinguishes it from any other fermented liquor.</p> - -<p><b>Sugar</b> is contained in many wines, especially sweet wines, and -exercises an important influence upon the flavor.</p> - -<p><b>To Estimate Sugar.</b>—The quantity of sugar contained in a -sweet wine may be estimated with sufficient accuracy, for commercial -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</span> -purposes, in the following manner. A certain quantity of wine is -measured in the jar, and distilled in the same manner as in the -estimation of alcohol (<i>which see</i>), or the wine may be placed -in a shallow dish on a stove or over a lamp, and boiled slowly -till the volume is reduced one-half, when the alcohol will be all -evaporated; then the original volume should be restored by adding -water. After it has rested for a day or so, the greater part of the -salts will crystallize and be deposited, when the sugar strength can -be ascertained by the use of the saccharometer, in the usual way -(<i><a href="#Page_8">see page 8</a></i>). One degree, however, -should be deducted from the hydrometer reading.</p> - -<p><b>Mannite</b>, or the essential principle of <i>manna</i>, is produced -in wine when sugar undergoes <i>viscous fermentation</i>. Its flavor is -similar to that of sugar, and its composition is but little different -from that of the same substance.</p> - -<p><b>Mucilage.</b>—The grand red wines of the Médoc, and of some other -portions of the Gironde, and also the grand wines of Burgundy, says -Boireau, preserve in aging a pronounced fruity taste, an unctuosity, a -velvety mellowness, which, joined with their flavor and bouquet, make -these wines in good years the delight of the <i>gourmets</i>. This -velvety mellowness is found only in those seasons when the grapes ripen -well. In poor years, when the grapes do not become completely ripe, the -wines may have at times more or less distinctive flavor (<i>séve</i>), -and sometimes even a little bouquet, but they are dry, and the -mellowness is wanting.</p> - -<p>Many ordinary wines possess while young, if they have been well made, -and are produced in favorable years, a marked fruity flavor; but in the -greater part of the wines of this kind, this mellowness does not last, -and disappears gradually with age, while in the grand wines of good -years, the unctuosity is more appreciable after the defecation of their -lees than while they are new.</p> - -<p>The substance which in a measure produces this quality is called -<i>mucilage</i> by Maumené and some others. Others, again, have -given it different names. Maumené says that it seems to be a sort of -intermediary substance between <i>cellulose</i> and <i>dextrin</i>, and -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</span> -that its nature is not yet known, but that it is a near neighbor of sugar.</p> - -<p>Mr. Boireau believes that the mellowness is produced by a modification -of grape sugar, because, when not properly cared for, mellow wines -undergo an insensible fermentation, especially if they are in their -first and second years, and still contain ferments. Very often at the -end of these secondary fermentations, the unctuosity has disappeared, -and the wines have become dry. It seems, accordingly, that the -substance is capable of undergoing the same transformations as sugar -under the influence of ferments and heat.</p> - -<p><b>Pectose</b> is found in green grapes and other fruits, and by -the acids is changed into <i>pectin</i>, which is the gelatinizing -principle, is soluble in water, and may have some effect on the -mellowness of wine. Alcohol precipitates it in the form of jelly.</p> - -<p><b>Fatty Matters</b> have been found in wine lees, which may be -extracted from the seeds by long contact during fermentation, for it is -known that the seeds yield such matters.</p> - -<p><b>Glycerin</b> is mentioned among fatty matters, but it is known to -be produced by the fermentation of sugar, and is supposed to have its -influence on the flavor of wine.</p> - -<p><b>The Coloring Matter</b> of red wine has received the name of -<i>œnocyanine</i>. In its pure state it is blue, but is changed to red -by acids. The yellow and brown color of some white wines is due to -the oxidation of some of the matters contained in them. The change of -color in red wines is also due to the oxidation of the tannic acid, -thereby forming an insoluble compound, tannomelanic acid, which is -precipitated, carrying down the œnocyanine, and the wine gradually -becomes tawny.</p> - -<p><b>Aldehydes</b> are produced first in the transformation of alcohol -into an acid by oxidation, acetaldehyde occurring between alcohol and -acetic acid, as mentioned in Acetic Fermentation. When a weak wine is -exposed to the air it is gradually converted into vinegar, or acetic -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</span> -acid. If free access of air is permitted, it may be converted at once -into acetic acid, but if the access of the air is very limited, or if -the wine is rich and strong, oxidation stops at the first stage, and -aldehyde is formed. It is a colorless liquid of a very suffocating -smell, having an etherous odor, and is supposed to have an important -influence on the flavor and bouquet of various wines. The strong wines -of southern countries which are kept in casks in ullage, exposed to the -action of the oxygen of the air, develop a certain amount of aldehyde -in time, and it is supposed that sherry owes some of its qualities to -this substance.</p> - -<p><b>Acids.</b>—We can only allude briefly to the acids which have -been recognized in wines. The principal one is <i>tartaric acid</i>, -found in considerable quantities in grapes, and is contained in the -argols, or crude cream of tartar, <i>bitartrate of potash</i>, which is -deposited on the inner walls of the casks in which the wine is kept. -This substance principally gives the acid taste to wine.</p> - -<p><b>Malic Acid</b>, or the acid of apples, is found; and of <i>citric -acid</i>, or the acid of lemons, traces have been recognized; also -<i>pectic acid</i>, derived from the pectose.</p> - -<p><b>Tannic Acid</b> is a very important ingredient in wine, and is -frequently mentioned in this work. (See <a href="#CHAPTER_XIII"><i>Fining</i></a>, -<a href="#TANNIN"><i>Tannin</i></a>.)</p> - -<p><b>Carbonic Acid.</b>—It has been shown in the chapter on Fermentation -that carbon dioxide is the gas produced by fermentation. This gas, -CO₂, was known to the old chemists as carbonic acid, or carbonic acid -gas, and the latter terms are frequently used in this work in the -sense of carbon dioxide, in accordance with common usage. But modern -chemistry teaches us that carbon dioxide, CO₂, is not an acid at all, -but in connection with water it takes up a molecule of the latter, -and becomes H₂CO₃, carbonic acid proper. The gas, however, as well -as the acid, exists in all wines, and to the former, sparkling wines -owe their effervescence. Its presence is important, exercising a -preservative effect by preventing their oxidation, and also by keeping -in dissolution substances which would otherwise cloud the wine. When -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</span> -the wine is first fermented it is saturated with carbon dioxide, -and while it remains so, oxygen will not be absorbed, and hence its -preservative effect. Mr. Maumené even recommends resort to artificial -means to restore it, or to re-saturate the wine in case of its loss. -If, however, the precautions heretofore indicated for keeping table -wines are observed, the wine will be well preserved.</p> - -<p><b>Acetic Acid</b> is the result of oxidation, or <i>acetic -fermentation</i> (<i>which see</i>), and <i>lactic acid</i> is derived -from <i>lactic fermentation</i>, but is regarded as accidental in wine, -probably not existing in the must, though it is found in some wines made -from grapes which have been bruised and broken a long time before using.</p> - -<p><b>Butyric Acid</b> is the product of <i>butyric fermentation</i>.</p> - -<p><b>Valeric Acid</b> is supposed to exist in wine from the distinctive -odor which is smelt in it under certain conditions.</p> - -<p><b>Succinic Acid</b> has been referred to as one of the products of -alcoholic fermentation.</p> - -<p><b>The Total Acids</b> in wine vary a good deal, but four or five per -mille is a fair average.</p> - -<p>Space will not permit of more details on the various substances -contained in wine, but those who desire further information are -referred to the work of Maumené in French, and that of Thudichum and -Dupré in English.</p> - -<p id="BOUQ"><b>The Bouquet</b> proper of wines is a perfume containing different -odors, like that of a bouquet of flowers. It is very complex also in -its origin, and the matters contained in the wine which give rise to -it are but little known. It is variable, being different in different -wines, and all the odorous matters doubtless contribute to its -existence, such as œnanthic, and other ethers, the different alcohols, -aldehydes, and perhaps even certain essential oils. The varieties of -grapes, the season, and the soil, also have their effect, as well as -the method of vinification. It is believed, however, that the bouquet -is principally due to the ethers. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</span></p> - -<p><b>Artificial Bouquet.</b>—In this connection, the experiments of Mr. -Maumené will be found interesting. He prepared one litre of a liquid -similar to wine, but without a sensible odor, by adding distilled water -to the distillate from a red wine of Bordeaux.</p> - -<p>One drop of <i>aldehyde</i> produced no appreciable odor.</p> - -<p>Six drops of <i>acetic ether</i> produced no sensible effect.</p> - -<p>Nor did <i>crystallized acetic acid</i> change the result.</p> - -<p>He then added 5 grs. 5 of <i>cream of tartar</i>, 0 gr. 18 of -<i>succinic acid</i>, and 20 grs. of <i>glycerin</i>, without producing -any odor in the liquid.</p> - -<p>On adding certain ethers a remarkable change was produced.</p> - -<p>By adding two small drops of <i>œnanthic ether</i> (obtained by -distilling fresh wine lees), the liquid instantly gave an odor of wine.</p> - -<p>Then he added, drop by drop, one cubic centimetre (1000th part by -measure) of essence of pears, that is, the following mixture:</p> - -<ul class="index"> -<li class="isub3">1 volume of valero-amylic ether.</li> -<li class="isub3">6 volumes of alcohol of 36 per cent.</li> -</ul> - -<p>The first drops developed a bouquet which belongs to certain wines; -but by adding the whole amount mentioned, a pear odor was developed, -by which the liquid could be easily distinguished from wine. So he -prepared another litre of the liquid containing the same substances, -and added only two or three drops of essence of pears. He then added -two drops of ordinary butyric ether, and the bouquet resembled in a -remarkable degree that of a good Bouzy wine, and several persons took -it for a decolored wine. By varying the experiment, the bouquet of -wines can be imitated in a remarkable manner.</p> - -<p>For those who are curious in such matters, I translate the following -from Boireau:</p> - -<p>Artificial bouquets are produced by aromatic substances, or essential -oils, whose aroma is extracted or dissolved out by the help of alcohol. -The aromatic principle may be extracted either by a simple alcoholic -tincture, by digestion or distillation, by dissolving the oils -themselves, etc., and the process varies with the substance used. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</span></p> - -<p>The aromatic substances most frequently employed to produce artificial -bouquets in non-fortified wines, commencing with those which form -the base and whose aromas are more dominant, are: iris, strawberry, -gillyflower, the flower of the vine, mignonette, nutmeg, bitter almond, -fruit pits, sassafras, etc. The latter are rarely employed alone, -and play a secondary part by mixing with the two first, iris and -strawberry, whose aromas are quite distinctive.</p> - -<p><b>Iris.</b>—There are two varieties of this. The roots only are -employed; they are white, of an average diameter of 0 m. 02 (¾ in.), -and of a very irregular form. They are sold in pieces about 0 m. 05 -(2 in.) long, with the rootlets removed. They are largely employed in -perfumery.</p> - -<p>The root of the so-called Florence iris, which grows in Italy and the -south of France, has a pronounced violet odor. Another variety, which -grows in the north of France and in Germany, is sold under the name of -German iris. An experienced person can distinguish the two.</p> - -<p>The perfume of the iris is with difficulty and incompletely extracted -by distillation; it is obtained by infusing the roots in alcohol, after -first reducing them to a powder by means of a grater. The operation -is long, but indispensable. The powder occurs in commerce, but in -that form the roots lose their aroma, and it is moreover liable to be -adulterated.</p> - -<p>The tincture is prepared in the following proportions: old spirit -of wine of 85 per cent., 10 litres (2½ gallons); Florence iris, 1 -kilogramme (2⅕ lb.), reduced to powder.</p> - -<p>Bung or cork the vessel containing it, stir it about for a few minutes, -and then put it in a place of at least 68° F., but which does not go -beyond 95°. Shake it occasionally during two weeks, and then press and -filter it.</p> - -<p>The tincture has a pronounced violet odor, and a harsh, bitter -after-taste.</p> - -<p>It may be employed alone, in a very small dose, rarely exceeding 5 -centilitres per hectolitre (13½ fluidrams to 26½ gallons). Oftener, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</span> -however, a few drops of the essential oil of gillyflower, etc., are -mixed with it.</p> - -<p><b>Strawberry.</b>—The preparation of an alcoholic infusion of -strawberries is very simple. Take fully ripe berries, pick them over -and hull them, and put them in a keg with a large bung. Ten kilogrammes -of fruit to 12 litres of old spirits of wine of 85 per cent. (22 lbs. -to 3⅛ gals.) are used. After macerating for twenty-four hours, the -liquor is drawn off and filtered. It is a rose-colored liquor of a -very pleasant aroma. Then the fruit is crushed, and brandy of 50 per -cent. is added, and the whole is allowed to macerate for a month, -and then the marc is pressed. The second tincture has an odor and -flavor inferior to the first, and has more color. It is filtered, or -what is better, distilled in a water bath. In the latter way spirit -of strawberry is obtained. It is preferable to employ the liquor -of the first infusion. This aroma is generally used alone, and is -much employed in the manufacture of sparkling wines. Sometimes a -small quantity of other aromatic substances are added, allowing the -strawberry to predominate. It is the best modifier of the aroma of -young wines.</p> - -<p>The dose varies according to the degree of the aroma, from 2 to 10 -centilitres per hectolitre (⅛ to ⅚ of a gill, or 5.4 to 27 fluidrams to -26.4 gals.)</p> - -<p><b>Gillyflower, or Stockgilly.</b>—The essential oil of this flower -may be extracted by pressure, by maceration, or by distillation, and -is found in commerce. To make the bouquet, the oil is used, or the -concentrated essence, which is produced by the distillation of the -bruised flowers with alcohol of 85 per cent., in the proportion of 300 -grammes of the flowers to 5 litres of alcohol (10½ oz. to 5¼ quarts). -In the absence of an alembic, the aroma may be extracted by infusion, -as in the case of iris, by macerating 100 grammes of the bruised -flowers to 1 litre of alcohol of 85 per cent. (3½ oz. to a quart) for -eight days, and filtering. Gillyflower is rarely used alone; but by -adding a very small quantity of it to iris, a good effect is produced, -and the perfume becomes more intimately mixed with the wine, for the oil -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</span> -of gillyflower is heavier than water; but this aroma should never -predominate, and is best for old wines without bouquet.</p> - -<p><b>Vine Flowers</b> are gathered and the petals infused in alcohol of -85 per cent., in the proportion of 100 grammes of flowers to 5 litres -of alcohol (3½ oz. to 5¼ quarts). After macerating for eight days, it -is distilled in a water bath. This aroma, which is very volatile, is -used in the dose of 5 centilitres to a hectolitre (13.5 fluidrams to -26.4 gals.)</p> - -<p><b>Mignonette.</b>—The perfume of the mignonette, like that of many -other flowers, is obtained by picking the flowers from their stems, -bruising them, and placing them upon layers of cotton or pieces of -linen impregnated with fresh oil, or other sweet fats; oil of ben is -preferred. The flowers are renewed every four hours, till the cotton -or the cloth is charged with perfume. The oil or fat is removed by -pressure or otherwise, and the essential oil is dissolved out with -alcohol of 85 per cent., which is afterwards separated from the fixed -oil, and filtered. The extract of mignonette so obtained is employed -in the proportion of 1 to 5 centilitres to a hectolitre (2.7 to 13.5 -fluidrams to 26.4 gals.) but oftener it is mixed with other perfumes.</p> - -<p><b>Nutmeg</b> is employed in the form of spirit distilled from the -nuts over the fire, 500 grammes of nuts to 10 litres of alcohol (1 -lb. to 10½ quarts), or in the form of a tincture made with the same -proportions of nuts and alcohol, or a small quantity of the essential -oil is mixed with other aromatic substances. This preparation, -particularly the tincture or the distilled spirit, has a good effect. -Being heavier than water, it assists the mixture.</p> - -<p><b>Bitter Almonds and Fruit Pits.</b>—Their oil is found in commerce, -and its aroma is due to the hydrocyanic (prussic) acid contained in it, -which is poisonous, and therefore the oil should be employed in the -smallest doses.</p> - -<p><b>Sassafras.</b>—The essential oil is extracted from the wood and -bark by distillation, and can be purchased in the market. It is heavier -than wine, and fixes the lighter perfumes. It is used only secondarily, -and in very small quantities. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</span></p> - -<p><b>Other Aromas</b> have been tried, but they can only be used as -auxiliary to the three first named, iris, gillyflower, and strawberry, -because their odors differ essentially from the natural bouquet of -mellow wines.</p> - -<p><b>Effects.</b>—These preparations give wines a bouquet or aroma -which partakes of the substances employed, but they do not give the -distinctive flavor (<i>séve</i>) which characterizes fine wines, and -the result only flatters the sense of smell. These perfumes are very -volatile, and it does not require a very delicate or a much experienced -palate to distinguish them from the natural bouquet of wine, and -persons of delicate sensibilities are disturbed by them, if too -pronounced.</p> - -<p>When a wine has been artificially perfumed, it still preserves its -taste and earthy flavor; it has simply changed its odor. Taste it -without smelling, and its distinctive flavor will be recognized. Mr. -Boireau says that, notwithstanding the contrary announcements of -interested manufacturers, they are not preserved like the natural -bouquets and flavors, but, little by little, they become enfeebled, and -are volatilized with time.</p> - -<p>He says that the trade is inundated with the announcements of pretended -œnologists, chemists, etc., manufacturers of bouquets decorated with -such pompous names as Médoc Flavoring (<i>Séve du Médoc</i>), Bouquet -of Bordeaux, of Pomard, Bordeaux Extract, etc., and all these humbugs -are advertised as giving the most ordinary wines the true Médoc flavor, -etc., which, happily for the producers of Médoc, cannot be done.</p> - -<p>It is better, as stated in the chapter on <i>Cutting Wines</i>, to -improve wines by mixing them with those having expansible flavors and -odors, rather than use these artificial bouquets.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XX">CHAPTER XX.<br /> -<span class="h_subtitle">GENERAL CHAPTER—MISCELLANEOUS.</span></h2> -</div> - -<p><b>The Proportion of Juice to Marc</b>, as stated in Thudichum and -Dupré’s work, has been found in various grapes as follows:</p> - -<p>White Chasselas, stems removed, gave by strong pressure, 97 per cent. -of juice; marc of skins and seeds, 3 per cent.</p> - -<p>Black Pinot grapes, stems removed, gave 94.8 per cent. of juice, and -5.2 per cent. of marc.</p> - -<p>Black Pinot, pressed with the stems, gave 91.8 per cent. of juice, and -8.2 per cent. of marc, including stems.</p> - -<p>Black Pinot, fermented with the stems and then pressed, gave 69.6 per -cent. of wine, and 30.4 per cent. of marc.</p> - -<p>In the latter case much wine is absorbed by the stems, which cannot be -removed by pressure.</p> - -<p>In the first three cases the pressure must have been such as to reduce -the marc to near dryness to obtain so high a percentage of juice.</p> - -<p>In the report of the work done in the Viticultural Laboratory of the -University, referred to in the preface, the following figures are -found, and are extracted from Table No. 1 of the report. Omitting -the two extremes—Feher Szagos, 203.2, and Lenoir, 118—we obtain -the average of 157 gallons of grape juice per ton of 2000 lbs. in -twelve white wines, and 174.8 gallons per ton in twelve red wines; the -word “red” being used in the table to designate the product obtained -by fermenting white grapes with the skins and seeds, as well as to -designate “red wine” proper.</p> - -<p>The report says: “The red wines, of course, produce very much less -pomace, which consists largely of skins and seeds only. The white -pomace has much more of the pulp of the grape, and consequently a much -larger amount of water. During the fermentation the internal structure -of the grape is destroyed, the sugar is fermented out, and only the -fibrous structure remains; even this is to a great extent broken up, -and runs out with the wine when pressed.” -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</span></p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Varietal Properties" cellpadding="0" rules="cols" > - <thead><tr> - <th class="tdc bb2" colspan="8"> </th> - </tr><tr> - <th class="tdc bb">NAME.</th> - <th class="tdc bb"> Color <br />of<br />Wine.</th> - <th class="tdc bb">Weight<br />(pounds)<br />of<br />Grapes.</th> - <th class="tdc bb">Pomace,<br /> per cent. <br /></th> - <th class="tdc bb">Stems<br /> per cent. </th> - <th class="tdc bb"> Air-dried <br />Pomace<br />per cent.</th> - <th class="tdc bb"> Gallons <br />of<br />Must.</th> - <th class="tdc bb"> Gallons<br />of Must<br />per ton<br />of<br />Grapes.</th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl">Mission - just ripe</td> - <td class="tdc">Red</td> - <td class="tdc"> 71.75</td> - <td class="tdc">13.50</td> - <td class="tdc">3.05</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">6.38</td> - <td class="tdc">177.8</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span>  fully “</td> - <td class="tdc">White</td> - <td class="tdc">106.50</td> - <td class="tdc">18.30</td> - <td class="tdc">3.75</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">9.20</td> - <td class="tdc">172.6</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span><span class="ws2"> “</span> “</td> - <td class="tdc">Red</td> - <td class="tdc">101.00</td> - <td class="tdc">11.63</td> - <td class="tdc">3.96</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">8.98</td> - <td class="tdc">177.8</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdc">White</td> - <td class="tdc"> 85.80</td> - <td class="tdc">24.10</td> - <td class="tdc">3.07</td> - <td class="tdc">8.71</td> - <td class="tdc">6.84</td> - <td class="tdc">159.4</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdc">Red</td> - <td class="tdc"> 73.92</td> - <td class="tdc">12.20</td> - <td class="tdc">2.91</td> - <td class="tdc">5.26</td> - <td class="tdc">6.30</td> - <td class="tdc">170.5</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Zinfandel</td> - <td class="tdc">White</td> - <td class="tdc"> 84.00</td> - <td class="tdc">27.30</td> - <td class="tdc">5.75</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">6.20</td> - <td class="tdc">147.6</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdc">Red</td> - <td class="tdc">126.00</td> - <td class="tdc">13.40</td> - <td class="tdc">5.55</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">11.00 </td> - <td class="tdc">174.6</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdc">White</td> - <td class="tdc"> 87.78</td> - <td class="tdc">29.07</td> - <td class="tdc">4.51</td> - <td class="tdc">7.31</td> - <td class="tdc">6.32</td> - <td class="tdc">144.0</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdc">Red</td> - <td class="tdc"> 84.26</td> - <td class="tdc">10.96</td> - <td class="tdc">4.02</td> - <td class="tdc">4.04</td> - <td class="tdc">7.30</td> - <td class="tdc">173.4</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Malvoisie</td> - <td class="tdc">White</td> - <td class="tdc">116.00</td> - <td class="tdc">18.10</td> - <td class="tdc">2.58</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">9.90</td> - <td class="tdc">170.6</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdc">Red</td> - <td class="tdc">151.00</td> - <td class="tdc">10.92</td> - <td class="tdc">2.65</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">14.30 </td> - <td class="tdc">189.4</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Charbono</td> - <td class="tdc">White</td> - <td class="tdc"> 97.00</td> - <td class="tdc">30.92</td> - <td class="tdc">6.18</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">7.00</td> - <td class="tdc">144.2</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Burger</td> - <td class="tdc">White</td> - <td class="tdc"> 74.00</td> - <td class="tdc">22.00</td> - <td class="tdc"> .97</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">6.40</td> - <td class="tdc">172.8</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdc">“Red”</td> - <td class="tdc"> 95.00</td> - <td class="tdc">12.10</td> - <td class="tdc">7.36</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">8.25</td> - <td class="tdc">173.6</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Chasselas</td> - <td class="tdc">White</td> - <td class="tdc">103.84</td> - <td class="tdc">31.35</td> - <td class="tdc">2.96</td> - <td class="tdc">5.93</td> - <td class="tdc">7.47</td> - <td class="tdc">143.8</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdc">“Red”</td> - <td class="tdc"> 70.40</td> - <td class="tdc">13.75</td> - <td class="tdc">2.92</td> - <td class="tdc">3.74</td> - <td class="tdc">5.97</td> - <td class="tdc">169.6</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Golden Chasselas</td> - <td class="tdc">“Red”</td> - <td class="tdc">139.70</td> - <td class="tdc">12.28</td> - <td class="tdc">4.56</td> - <td class="tdc">3.15</td> - <td class="tdc">12.90 </td> - <td class="tdc">184.6</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Prolific</td> - <td class="tdc">White</td> - <td class="tdc"> 95.04</td> - <td class="tdc">23.15</td> - <td class="tdc">3.70</td> - <td class="tdc">7.76</td> - <td class="tdc">7.54</td> - <td class="tdc">158.6</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdc">“Red”</td> - <td class="tdc"> 86.24</td> - <td class="tdc">11.73</td> - <td class="tdc">3.57</td> - <td class="tdc">4.24</td> - <td class="tdc">7.30</td> - <td class="tdc">169.2</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Black Prince</td> - <td class="tdc">White</td> - <td class="tdc">108.24</td> - <td class="tdc">25.60</td> - <td class="tdc">5.18</td> - <td class="tdc">9.01</td> - <td class="tdc">8.13</td> - <td class="tdc">150.2</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> “<span class="ws2"> “</span></td> - <td class="tdc">Red</td> - <td class="tdc">103.40</td> - <td class="tdc">15.74</td> - <td class="tdc">4.46</td> - <td class="tdc">5.21</td> - <td class="tdc">8.54</td> - <td class="tdc">165.2</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Feher Szagos</td> - <td class="tdc">White</td> - <td class="tdc"> 92.40</td> - <td class="tdc">25.95</td> - <td class="tdc">2.14</td> - <td class="tdc">4.89</td> - <td class="tdc">7.47</td> - <td class="tdc">161.8</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> “<span class="ws2"> “</span></td> - <td class="tdc">Red</td> - <td class="tdc"> 77.99</td> - <td class="tdc">9.01</td> - <td class="tdc">2.28</td> - <td class="tdc">2.55</td> - <td class="tdc">7.93</td> - <td class="tdc">203.2</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Mataro</td> - <td class="tdc">White</td> - <td class="tdc">131.67</td> - <td class="tdc">31.40</td> - <td class="tdc">6.69</td> - <td class="tdc">6.26</td> - <td class="tdc">10.46 </td> - <td class="tdc">158.9</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">  “</td> - <td class="tdc">Red</td> - <td class="tdc"> 90.20</td> - <td class="tdc">12.19</td> - <td class="tdc">5.60</td> - <td class="tdc">5.02</td> - <td class="tdc">7.76</td> - <td class="tdc">172.0</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Lenoir</td> - <td class="tdc">Red</td> - <td class="tdc"> 33.00</td> - <td class="tdc">17.30</td> - <td class="tdc">6.00</td> - <td class="tdc">8.50</td> - <td class="tdc">1.96</td> - <td class="tdc">118.7</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc bt" colspan="8"> </td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p>This table contradicts the opinion held by some wine makers, that the -Mission grape yields a larger percentage of stems than other varieties. -The five lots of Mission grapes analyzed give an average of nearly 3.35 -per cent. of stems, which is less than the yield of every other variety -mentioned, except Malvoisie, Chasselas, and Feher Szagos.</p> - -<p><b>The Proportion of Wine to Grapes.</b>—It is generally said that it -takes about 12 lbs. of grapes to produce a gallon of wine; some give -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</span> -the number of pounds as low as 10; the product, however, is must, -or new wine, for nothing is taken into consideration for loss by -evaporation, etc., while aging. Some wine dealers here consider that -it takes about 17 lbs. of grapes to produce a gallon of wine ready for -consumption.</p> - -<p>At a meeting of the St. Helena Vinicultural Club, Napa Valley, in this -State, the following facts were stated, as reported in the newspapers. -Mr. Krug said that he had always thought that 14 lbs. of grapes would -give a gallon of good wine at the time of the second racking in March, -April, or May. Mr. Scheffler said he had made last year 135.6 gallons -of wine and 8 gallons of brandy to the ton of grapes. Counting each -gallon of brandy as equal to 5 of wine, it was equal to about 176 -gallons of wine. That was about the average of Riesling, Chasselas, -Zinfandel, Malvoisie, etc. The general average was 136 gallons of wine -and 8 of brandy, or 125 gallons of good wine and 10 of brandy. Mr. -Heyman said he was glad to get 145 gallons of clear, marketable wine -on the average. Mr. Pellet said that the very best grapes would make -150 gallons of wine at the first racking, and this is probably a fair -average.</p> - -<p><b>Wooden and Metal Utensils.</b>—In European countries, and in all -properly ordered wine cellars, wooden utensils are used wherever -practicable; and it ought to be impressed upon the mind of every one -who has anything to do with the handling of the liquid, that metal -should never come in contact with wine, if it can be avoided, except it -be a precious metal like silver. The reason is that wine, on account -of the acids contained in it, has a powerful effect upon lead, copper, -zinc, iron, etc. Whenever such a metal is exposed to the influence -of the air, and of an acid liquor, the metal is readily oxidized, -and the oxide combines with the acid to form a salt. Therefore, Mr. -Maumene says that it is dangerous to keep wine for a few hours in -vessels of copper or lead, on account of the poisonous effects of their -compounds. It is bad even to leave it in iron, zinc, or tin. Among the -acids contained in wine, that which is the most capable of causing -oxidation of the metals is the tartaric acid and the crude tartar. So -the principal salts formed by the wine in metallic vessels are the -bi-tartrates of potash and the oxide of the metal. Iron wire wet with -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</span> -wine, in a few days becomes covered with a very dark, brown pellicle, -the wine is reduced to a solution of tartrate of iron and potash, which -is of that color. A piece of iron in the wine produces the same result. -This salt however, is not poisonous. But if the acid acts energetically -on the iron, the water will be deprived of its oxygen, and the hydrogen -thereby set free may seriously affect the wine, by combining with -foreign bodies found in it, producing a detestable flavor and odor. -A cask of wine may be completely ruined by a nail.</p> - -<p>The salts of iron, therefore, are not to be feared on account of any -deleterious effect upon the system, but rather on account of the ill -effect which they may have upon the color, the flavor, and odor of -the wine. On the other hand, the salts of copper and lead are highly -poisonous, and should be carefully avoided.</p> - -<p>Zinc and galvanized iron are also affected by wine, to the extent -that when left in vessels made of either, it will cause serious -indisposition to those who drink it.</p> - -<p>Tin is also dissolved by wine, forming stannic oxide and stannic acid, -which combine with the coloring matter and render it insoluble, making -the wine cloudy at first, and finally rendering it nearly colorless. By -long contact with tin the wine develops a fetid odor. Every wine maker -knows how soon his tin vessels used about wine wear out, and the reason -is apparent.</p> - -<p><b>Cleanliness.</b>—Whether wood or metal utensils are used, it is one -of the essentials in making good, wholesome wine, that they should be -kept scrupulously clean and neat. Stemmers, crushers, presses, buckets, -funnels, and in fact everything that comes in contact with the liquid -should be scrubbed and rinsed often enough to prevent their becoming -sour, or contracting any disagreeable flavor or odor. If metal vessels -<i>must be used</i>, by all means do not allow wine to stand in them. -Run water through the hose and the pumps after using, and also before -using again. For it is safe to assert that many of the bad odors and -flavors met with in wines made by inexperienced persons are often due -to want of care in these matters. The necessary care to be bestowed -upon the casks has already been mentioned in the proper place. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</span></p> - -<p><b>Different Cellar Utensils</b> which will be found convenient are -represented in the following figures:</p> - -<div class="figcontainer"> - <div class="figsub"> - <p id="FIG_45" class="f120 space-above3"><i>Fig. 45.</i></p> - <img src="images/i_204a.jpg" alt="" width="150" height="213" /> - </div> - <div class="figsub"> - <p id="FIG_46" class="f120 space-above3"><i>Fig. 46.</i></p> - <img src="images/i_204b.jpg" alt="" width="150" height="183" /> - </div> - <p class="f120">Tin Pitchers.</p> - <div class="figsub"> - <p id="FIG_47" class="f120 space-above3"><i>Fig. 47.</i></p> - <img src="images/i_204c.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="224" /> - <p class="f120">Wooden Pitcher.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p>Figures <a href="#FIG_45">45</a> and <a href="#FIG_46">46</a> are tin pitchers, -and <a href="#FIG_47">47</a> is of wood.</p> - -<div class="figcontainer"> - <div class="figsub"> - <p id="FIG_48" class="f120 space-above3"><i>Fig. 48.</i></p> - <img src="images/i_204d.jpg" alt="" width="250" height="101" /> - <p class="f120">Wooden Vessels.</p> - </div> - <div class="figsub"> - <p id="FIG_49" class="f120 space-above3"><i>Fig. 49.</i></p> - <img src="images/i_204e.jpg" alt="" width="150" height="101" /> - <p class="f120">Wooden Funnel.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<div id="FIG_50" class="figcenter"> - <p class="f120"><i>Fig. 50.</i></p> - <img src="images/i_204f.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="398" /> - <p class="f120 space-below2">Adjustable Hoop.</p> -</div> - -<p><a href="#FIG_48">Figure 48</a> shows wooden vessels not necessary -to describe.</p> - -<p><a href="#FIG_49">Figure 49</a> is a wooden funnel for casks. -<a href="#FIG_50">Figure 50</a> is an adjustable hoop, useful in case -of leakage in a cask caused by the breaking of hoops. It can be put -around a cask and tightened with the screw till a new hoop is put in -place. Where, however, casks are well hooped with iron, it is not -likely to be needed.</p> - -<p><a href="#FIG_51">Figure 51</a> are baskets for carrying bottles.</p> - -<p>Every well ordered cellar should be provided with graduated measures -(figs. <a href="#FIG_52">52</a> and <a href="#FIG_53">53</a>) -in which to measure the respective proportions to be -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</span> -taken of each kind of wine for cutting. They can be had of any desired -capacity, and graduated decimally, or otherwise, as needed.</p> - -<div id="FIG_51" class="figcenter"> - <p class="f120"><i>Fig. 51.</i></p> - <img src="images/i_205a.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="91" /> - <p class="f120">Bottle Baskets.</p> -</div> - -<p><a href="#FIG_54">Figure 54</a>, instruments of tin for drawing -from the bungs of casks in tasting.</p> - -<div class="figcontainer"> - <div class="figsub"> - <p id="FIG_52" class="f120 space-above3"><i>Fig. 52.</i></p> - <img src="images/i_205b.jpg" alt="" width="100" height="334" /> - </div> - <div class="figsub"> - <p id="FIG_53" class="f120 space-above3"><i>Fig. 53.</i></p> - <img src="images/i_205c.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="315" /> - </div> - <p class="f120 space-below2">Graduated Measures.</p> -</div> - -<p>In the sherry districts, where the casks are not kept full; a narrow -cup attached to a stick is used to dip out the wine through the bung. -The practice of using a piece of hose for this purpose, by letting one -end into the cask and sucking on the other with the mouth till the wine -runs, as it is done in too many cellars in California, is not to be -commended to the fastidious.</p> - -<div class="figcontainer"> - <div class="figsub"> - <p id="FIG_54" class="f120 space-above3"><i>Fig. 54.</i></p> - <img src="images/i_205d.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="366" /> - <p class="f120">Tin Tasters.</p> - </div> - <div class="figsub"> - <p id="FIG_55" class="f120 space-above3"><i>Fig. 55.</i></p> - <img src="images/i_205e.jpg" alt="" width="250" height="374" /> - <p class="f120">Hand Pump.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p>A pump in the form of <a href="#FIG_55">figure 55</a> is sometimes -useful for drawing wine from casks in certain positions.</p> - -<div class="figcontainer"> - <div class="figsub"> - <p id="FIG_56" class="f120 space-above3"><i>Fig. 56.</i></p> - <img src="images/i_205f.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="128" /> - <p class="f120">For Removing Corks.</p> - </div> - <div class="figsub"> - <p id="FIG_57" class="f120 space-above3"><i>Fig. 57.</i></p> - <img src="images/i_205g.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="104" /> - <p class="f120">Bucket.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p><a href="#FIG_56">Figure 56</a> represents wire implements for -removing corks which have been pushed inside a bottle. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</span></p> - -<h3>USEFUL RULES.</h3> - -<p><b>To Ascertain the Weight of a Given Number of Gallons of a -Liquid</b>, multiply 8.33 by the specific gravity of the liquid, and -the product by the number of gallons. For instance, suppose we have -1000 gallons of a must which shows 22 per cent. sugar. From Table I -we obtain the corresponding specific gravity, 1.0923 (the figure 1 is -omitted except at the top of the column), which shows how much heavier -it is than water, water being 1. Now, one gallon of water at 60° F. -weighs 8.33 lbs., and the temperature of the must should be about the -same. (See <a href="#CHAPTER_II"><i>Must—Testing for Sugar</i></a>.) -8.33 multiplied by 1.0923 = nearly 9.1, which is the weight in pounds -of one gallon of the must. One thousand gallons would weigh nearly -9,100 lbs. If Beaumé’s hydrometer is used, ascertain from Table II -the specific gravity corresponding to the mark on the stem. This rule -applies to all liquids whose specific gravity is known—syrup, wine, -brandy, alcohol, etc.</p> - -<p>The specific gravity of a wine of 12 per cent. is .9843, and by our -rule, one gallon weighs about 8.2 lbs. a little less than a gallon of water.</p> - -<p><b>Rule for Reducing Must</b> from a higher to a lower percentage of -sugar: Multiply the number of gallons of the must by its specific -gravity, and the product by the difference between the given per cent. -and the required per cent., and divide by the required per cent.</p> - -<p>Suppose that we have 1000 gallons of a must of 27 per cent., how many -gallons of water are required to reduce it to 23 per cent?</p> - -<p>The specific gravity, by Table I, is 1.1154, and this multiplied by -1000 = 1115.4, which multiplied by 4, the difference between 27 and 23 -= 4461.6, which divided by 23 gives 194 gallons, in round numbers.</p> - -<p><b>Rule for Sugaring Must.</b>—If crystallized sugar is used, dissolve -it and make a strong syrup, or sugar water, and the proposition is: -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</span> -Given a must of a certain sugar per cent., and a syrup of a given per -cent., how much of the syrup for each gallon of must is required to -produce a must of any required strength, between the two?</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p><i>First</i>—Multiply the required per cent. by the -corresponding specific gravity.</p> - -<p><i>Second</i>—Multiply the per cent. of the must by -its specific gravity.</p> - -<p><i>Third</i>—Multiply the per cent. of the syrup by -its specific gravity.</p> -</div> - -<p>Divide the difference between the first and second products by the -difference between the first and third, and the quotient will be the -fraction of a gallon required.</p> - -<p>Suppose that we have a must of only 10 per cent. of sugar, and a syrup -of 60 per cent.; how much of the second should be added to one gallon -of the first to produce a must of 23 per cent.?</p> - -<ul class="index fontsize_120"> -<li class="isub3">(23 × 1.0969) - (10 × 1.0401)</li> -<li class="isub3">———————————— = 0.284 of a gallon.</li> -<li class="isub3">(60 × 1.2899) - (23 × 1.0969)</li> -</ul> - -<p>Therefore, for every gallon of the must, we add 0.284 gallons of the -syrup.</p> - -<p>The same rule will apply to the mixing of a strong and a weak must.</p> - -<p><b>Rules for Fortifying and Reducing Wines and Weak Liquors.</b>—In -mixing strong spirits, it is necessary to make an allowance for -contraction, and tables are prepared for the purpose, but in mixing -wines and weak spirits, it may be disregarded, and the following rules -will be found sufficient.</p> - -<p><b>To Reduce with Water.</b>—Having a wine or a weak spirit of a -certain per cent. of alcohol, how much water is required for each -gallon to reduce it to any lower per cent.?</p> - -<p>Divide the difference between the given per cent. and the required per -cent., by the required per cent. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</span></p> - -<p>Suppose a wine or other alcoholic solution of 15 per cent. by volume, -how much water is required for each gallon to produce one of 10 per cent.?</p> - -<ul class="index fontsize_120"> -<li class="isub3">15 - 10</li> -<li class="isub3">——— = ½</li> -<li class="isub4">10</li> -</ul> - -<p>Therefore, add one-half gallon of water for each gallon of the wine or -weak spirit.</p> - -<p><b>To Reduce with Weaker Wine, or to Fortify with Stronger Wine or -Alcohol.</b>—Having two wines or other weak liquors whose percentages -of alcohol are known, how much of the second is required for every -gallon of the first, to produce a wine of any required strength between -the two?</p> - -<p>Divide the difference between the per cent. of the first, and the -required per cent. by the difference between the per cent. of the -second and the required per cent.</p> - -<p>Having a wine, etc., of 18 per cent., and another of 8 per cent., how -much of the second is required for every gallon of the first to produce -one of 12 per cent.?</p> - -<ul class="index fontsize_120"> -<li class="isub3">(18 - 12)<span class="ws2">6</span></li> -<li class="isub3">———— = — = 1½</li> -<li class="isub3">(12 - 8)<span class="ws2">4</span></li> -</ul> - -<p>Or one and one-half gallons of the second for every gallon of the first.</p> - -<p>Or, suppose we have a wine of 15 per cent., how much brandy of 50 per -cent. must be used for every gallon of the first to produce a wine of -20 per cent.?</p> - -<ul class="index fontsize_120"> -<li class="isub3">(20 - 15) <span class="ws2">5</span> 1</li> -<li class="isub3">————  = — = -</li> -<li class="isub3">(50 - 20) <span class="ws2">30</span> 6</li> -</ul> - -<p>Or one-sixth of a gallon of the brandy must be used for each gallon of -the wine.</p> - -<h3 id="PLASTER">PLASTERING.</h3> - -<p><b>It is a Common Practice</b> in Spain and in the southern part of -France to plaster the wines, by adding more or less gypsum, or plaster -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</span> -of Paris. It is either thrown upon the grapes before or after crushing, -or is added to the must. Gypsum is known to chemists, when pure, as -calcium sulphate (sulphate of lime), but contains a certain amount of -water of crystallization, and is generally found associated with other -substances, such as rock salt, and calcium carbonate, or limestone. It -is the commonest impurity found in spring water, and gives water its -permanent hardness. Much has been written for and against the practice -of plastering, and both sides of the question have strong advocates.</p> - -<p><b>Objects.</b>—There are many different reasons given for the -practice, some of which are fanciful. It is claimed that it retards -fermentation, and that red wines under its effects develop more color, -because the marc can be left longer in the fermenting vat; that the -froth of plastered wine is livelier and sooner disappears, which -pleases the merchants; and that it has a preservative effect upon the -wine. It is claimed by some that it renders the wine dryer and harsher, -as it does, if used to excess, and by others, that it unites with a -portion of the water of the juice, and renders the remaining juice -richer in sugar. Again, it is added to neutralize a portion of the acid -contained in the must.</p> - -<p><b>Chemical Effects.</b>—Maumené says that it transforms the potassium -salts of the wine into insoluble lime salts and potassium sulphate, and -this may have an important effect upon fermentation, for some chemists -attribute to the acid potassium tartrate the property of holding -ferments in solution, and that potassium sulphate, even with the -freed tartaric acid, does not possess this power; that the carbonate -of lime contained in the plaster, in neutralizing the acidity of the -tartar, without doubt contributes to the precipitation of the ferment -which this salt held in solution; and that during the neutralization, -carbonic acid is disengaged, and the evaporation of the moisture -carried up by the gas somewhat lowers the temperature. He supposes that -all these causes combined retard the fermentation.</p> - -<p>P. Carles (<i>J. Pharm. Chim.</i> {5}, 6, 118-123), says that the -calcium sulphate acts on the potassium bitartrate in the juice of the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</span> -grape, forming calcium tartrate, tartaric acid, and potassium sulphate, -a large proportion of the last two bodies remaining in the wine. That -without plastering, wine contains about two grammes per litre of pure -tartaric acid, whilst after plastering, it contains double or treble -that amount, and even more, according to the quantity of potassium -bitartrate decomposed.</p> - -<p>In order to make clear what this chemist says, in ordinary language, -we will say that the gypsum acts upon the cream of tartar in the grape -juice, sets free a portion of the tartaric acid existing in combination -in it, and also forms tartrate of lime and sulphate of potash.</p> - -<p>At first sight, therefore, it would seem that the addition of gypsum, -or plaster of Paris, actually increases the acid, and this would be -true if the gypsum consisted of pure calcium sulphate, but it always -contains more or less calcium carbonate, and this substance, which is -but another name for chalk, limestone, or marble, precipitates the free -tartaric acid, and the carbonate of lime does what is generally claimed -for the gypsum—diminishes the acidity of the wine. But if the calcium -carbonate does not exist in sufficient quantity in the gypsum to -precipitate all the tartaric acid set free, the opposite effect would -be produced. Why not add marble dust at once?</p> - -<p>The experiments given in Thudichum and Dupré’s work show that the -amount of water withdrawn from must by the addition of even anhydrated -plaster is so small as to be unworthy of notice, being only one-fourth -the weight of the plaster used.</p> - -<p><b>Effects on the Health.</b>—This question was examined at -Montpellier, in France, by a committee of chemists appointed by the -court, and the results of their inquiries are frequently cited by those -who are in favor of plastering:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>1. That the plastered wine contains no new mineral substance.</p> - -<p>2. That the quantity of plaster introduced into the wine may -be considered null, because it is entirely changed into potassium -sulphate, a slightly purgative salt, analogous in this respect to -tartar.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</span> -Later, however, a commission was appointed by the <i>Conseil des -Armées</i>, who reported as follows:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>1. That by the taste, plastered wines could not be distinguished -from the natural ones.</p> - -<p>2. That plaster diminished the intensity of the color. (This, of -course, refers to the direct effect.)</p> - -<p>3. That the potassium bitartrate, one of the most useful principles -contained in wine, is decomposed by plaster, and that potassium -sulphate is formed, which remains in solution, and calcium tartrate, -which is precipitated.</p> - -<p>4. That potassium phosphate, also one of the salts naturally -contained in wine, is equally decomposed by plaster.</p> - -<p>5. That plastering profoundly modifies the nature of wines, by -substituting for the potassium bitartrate a purgative salt in the -proportion of from 3 to more than 7 grammes per litre.</p> -</div> - -<p>And they demand the exclusion of all wine containing more than 4 -grammes of the sulphate per litre.</p> - -<p>And Mr. Carles, above quoted, concludes that, owing to the purgative -effect of this salt, potassium sulphate, the quantity present should -not exceed 2 grammes per litre, or half as much as the army commission -allow.</p> - -<p>Still later, we have the instructions of the Minister of Justice of -France to the <i>procureurs Généraux</i>, issued in 1880, as follows:</p> - -<p>After several judicial decisions relative to the sale of plastered -wines, one of my predecessors expressed to the Minister of Agriculture -and Commerce the desire that new experiments should be made in order to -establish, if in the present state of science the immunity accorded to -plastered wines by the circular of July 21, 1858, should be maintained.</p> - -<p>Having examined the question, the consultation committee of public -hygiene issued the following notice:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>1. That the absolute immunity which plastered wines enjoy on account -of the circular of the Minister of Justice dated July 21, 1858, ought -no longer to be officially allowed. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</span></p> - -<p>2. That the presence of potassium sulphate in the wines of commerce, -which results from, plastering the must, from the mixture of plaster -or sulphuric acid with the wine, or from cutting with plastered wines, -should only be tolerated to the maximum limit of 2 grammes per litre -(about 117 grains per gallon).</p> -</div> - -<p>In calling my attention to this notice, my colleague of agriculture and -commerce informs me that he completely concurs.</p> - -<p>He, therefore, instructs the officers to prosecute, under the laws -against adulterations, the dealers who shall sell wine containing more -than the quantity indicated of potassium sulphate, as dangerous to the -health of the consumers.</p> - -<p><b>Plastering Sherry—Quantity Used.</b>—Mr. Vizitelli says that -during his stay at Jerez, he paid particular attention to the -plastering question, saw the gypsum applied in almost a hundred -instances, and questioned the overseers in scores of vineyards. He -states that within his own knowledge gypsum is by no means invariably -used in the vinification of sherry, as already stated under the head -of <i>Sherry</i>. And although applied in the majority of cases, but -a few pounds per butt are used, say 6 lbs. at most in a dry season, -and a little more than double that quantity in years when great -dampness prevails. And he argues from the Montpellier experiment, -already mentioned, where the committee added 40 grammes of gypsum to a -litre of wine, and found only 1.240 grammes of sulphate of potash per -litre where pure calcium sulphate was used, and 1.828 grammes where -ordinary plaster was employed, that when the Spaniards add the amount -which they do to the must in sherry making, no injury to the wine can -occur. It may be proper to suggest, however, for the benefit of future -inquirers, that wine, after insensible fermentation, contains but a -small proportion of the potassium bitartrate which was contained in the -grape, the greater part of it having been deposited with the lees and -the marc. Wines do not contain tartar enough to furnish 2 grammes per -litre of potassium sulphate, nor enough to act upon 1 gramme of pure -gypsum. But it is far otherwise with grape juice. Now 6 lbs. of gypsum -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</span> -to one butt of wine of 108 Imperial gallons would be the same as about -5.5 grammes per litre, and if pure, ought to produce, on being fully -satisfied with the acid potassium tartrate, as much as 8 grammes per -litre of potassium sulphate, and Mr. Carles, above quoted, says that it -does amount to from 4 to 7.5 grammes per litre in plastered wines.</p> - -<p>Supposing the following to be the correct reaction, 1 gramme of pure -gypsum ought to produce, with 2.6 grammes of cream of tartar, 1.477 -grammes of sulphate of potash; and to produce the 2 grammes per litre -of the latter would only require 1.353 of the former; and but a little -more than 1 lb. of pure gypsum could safely be added to 100 gallons of must:</p> - -<p class="f120"><b>CaSO₄ + 2(C₄H₅KO₆) = C₄H₄CaO₆ + C₄H₆O₆ + K₂SO₄</b></p> - -<p>As the gypsum is usually added to the pomace itself, or to the grapes -before crushing, it is unsafe to argue from the effects produced by -adding it to wine.</p> - -<p><b>By Adding Water</b> to must, the effects of plastering may be -produced, if the water is hard by reason of the gypsum contained in it.</p> - -<h3>SHERRY FLAVOR.</h3> - -<p>In many California wines a flavor called the “sherry flavor” is often -observed; and in the red wines may frequently be tasted what would with -equal propriety be called a “port flavor;” and the “sherry flavor” -would by some be called a “Madeira flavor.”</p> - -<p>Mr. Pohndorff stated at the State Viticultural Convention of 1882, that -he was of the opinion that this flavor was due to the oxidation of the -wine. If this is so, the remedy would be to use greater care in its -management, and avoid exposing it to the air, in fact, observe just the -treatment indicated in this book for all but sweet and fortified wines.</p> - -<p>Without attempting to say anything authoritative on the subject, the -author would suggest that in addition to the above cause, these flavors -are largely due, <i>first</i>, to our hot climate; <i>second</i>, to -over-maturity of the grapes; and <i>third</i>, to aging the wine in too -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</span> -high a temperature; for these conditions all exist in southern -countries, whose wines are apt to have a peculiar flavor, called by -some writers the “cooked flavor,” which is unobjectionable in a sweet -wine. The first is not always within the control of the producer, but -the two last can always be controlled by the grape grower and the -cellar-man.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_214.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="287" /> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak">APPENDIX.</h2> -<hr class="r5 x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -</div> - -<p id="TABLE_1" class="f150"><b>TABLE I.</b></p> - -<p class="blockquot center"><i>Balling’s degrees (per cent. of sugar), -corresponding degrees Baumé, and specific gravity at 63½° F.—Chas. -Stammer.</i></p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Balling’s Degrees" cellpadding="0" rules="cols" > - <thead><tr> - <th class="tdc bb2" colspan="6"> </th> - </tr><tr> - <th class="tdc bb">Balling<br />or<br />per cent. <br />sugar</th> - <th class="tdc bb"> Baumé </th> - <th class="tdc bb br3"> Specific <br />Gravity</th> - <th class="tdc bb">Balling<br />or<br /> per cent. <br />sugar</th> - <th class="tdc bb"> Baumé </th> - <th class="tdc bb"> Specific <br />Gravity</th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdc"> 1</td> - <td class="tdc">0.56</td> - <td class="tdc br3">1.0039 </td> - <td class="tdc">26</td> - <td class="tdc">14.35</td> - <td class="tdc">1.1107 </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc"> 2</td> - <td class="tdc">1.11</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.0078</td> - <td class="tdc">27</td> - <td class="tdc">14.90</td> - <td class="tdc">.1154</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc"> 3</td> - <td class="tdc">1.67</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.0117</td> - <td class="tdc">28</td> - <td class="tdc">15.44</td> - <td class="tdc">.1201</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc"> 4</td> - <td class="tdc">2.23</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.0157</td> - <td class="tdc">29</td> - <td class="tdc">15.99</td> - <td class="tdc">.1249</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc"> 5</td> - <td class="tdc">2.78</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.0197</td> - <td class="tdc">30</td> - <td class="tdc">16.53</td> - <td class="tdc">.1297</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc"> 6</td> - <td class="tdc">3.34</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.0234</td> - <td class="tdc">31</td> - <td class="tdc">17.07</td> - <td class="tdc">.1345</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc"> 7</td> - <td class="tdc">3.89</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.0278</td> - <td class="tdc">32</td> - <td class="tdc">17.61</td> - <td class="tdc">.1393</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc"> 8</td> - <td class="tdc">4.45</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.0319</td> - <td class="tdc">33</td> - <td class="tdc">18.15</td> - <td class="tdc">.1442</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc"> 9</td> - <td class="tdc">5.00</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.0360</td> - <td class="tdc">34</td> - <td class="tdc">18.69</td> - <td class="tdc">.1491</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc bb">10</td> - <td class="tdc bb">5.56</td> - <td class="tdc bb br3">.0401</td> - <td class="tdc bb">35</td> - <td class="tdc bb">19.23</td> - <td class="tdc bb">.1541</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">11</td> - <td class="tdc">6.11</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.0443</td> - <td class="tdc">36</td> - <td class="tdc">19.77</td> - <td class="tdc">.1591</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">12</td> - <td class="tdc">6.66</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.0485</td> - <td class="tdc">37</td> - <td class="tdc">20.30</td> - <td class="tdc">.1641</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">13</td> - <td class="tdc">7.22</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.0528</td> - <td class="tdc">38</td> - <td class="tdc">20.84</td> - <td class="tdc">.1692</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">14</td> - <td class="tdc">7.77</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.0570</td> - <td class="tdc">39</td> - <td class="tdc">21.37</td> - <td class="tdc">.1743</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">15</td> - <td class="tdc">8.32</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.0613</td> - <td class="tdc">40</td> - <td class="tdc">21.91</td> - <td class="tdc">.1794</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">16</td> - <td class="tdc">8.87</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.0657</td> - <td class="tdc">41</td> - <td class="tdc">22.44</td> - <td class="tdc">.1846</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">17</td> - <td class="tdc">9.42</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.0700</td> - <td class="tdc">42</td> - <td class="tdc">22.97</td> - <td class="tdc">.1898</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">18</td> - <td class="tdc">9.97</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.0744</td> - <td class="tdc">43</td> - <td class="tdc">23.50</td> - <td class="tdc">.1950</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">19</td> - <td class="tdc">10.52 </td> - <td class="tdc br3">.0787</td> - <td class="tdc">44</td> - <td class="tdc">24.03</td> - <td class="tdc">.2003</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc bb">20</td> - <td class="tdc bb">11.07 </td> - <td class="tdc bb br3">.0833</td> - <td class="tdc bb">45</td> - <td class="tdc bb">24.56</td> - <td class="tdc bb">.2056</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">21</td> - <td class="tdc">11.62 </td> - <td class="tdc br3">.0878</td> - <td class="tdc">46</td> - <td class="tdc">25.09</td> - <td class="tdc">.2110</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">22</td> - <td class="tdc">12.17 </td> - <td class="tdc br3">.0923</td> - <td class="tdc">47</td> - <td class="tdc">25.62</td> - <td class="tdc">.2164</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">23</td> - <td class="tdc">12.72 </td> - <td class="tdc br3">.0969</td> - <td class="tdc">48</td> - <td class="tdc">26.14</td> - <td class="tdc">.2218</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">24</td> - <td class="tdc">13.26 </td> - <td class="tdc br3">.1015</td> - <td class="tdc">49</td> - <td class="tdc">26.67</td> - <td class="tdc">.2273</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">25</td> - <td class="tdc">13.81 </td> - <td class="tdc br3">.1061</td> - <td class="tdc">50</td> - <td class="tdc">27.19</td> - <td class="tdc">.2328</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc bt2 bb"><b>Balling<br />or<br />per cent. <br />sugar</b></td> - <td class="tdc bt2 bb"><b> Baumé </b></td> - <td class="tdc bt2 bb br3"><b> Specific <br />Gravity</b></td> - <td class="tdc bt2 bb"><b>Balling<br />or<br /> per cent. <br />sugar</b></td> - <td class="tdc bt2 bb"><b> Baumé </b></td> - <td class="tdc bt2 bb"><b> Specific <br />Gravity</b></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">51</td> - <td class="tdc">27.71</td> - <td class="tdc br3">1.2383 </td> - <td class="tdc">76</td> - <td class="tdc">40.36</td> - <td class="tdc">1.3894 </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">52</td> - <td class="tdc">28.24</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.2439</td> - <td class="tdc">77</td> - <td class="tdc">40.84</td> - <td class="tdc">.3959</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">53</td> - <td class="tdc">28.75</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.2495</td> - <td class="tdc">78</td> - <td class="tdc">41.33</td> - <td class="tdc">.4025</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">54</td> - <td class="tdc">29.27</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.2552</td> - <td class="tdc">79</td> - <td class="tdc">41.81</td> - <td class="tdc">.4092</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">55</td> - <td class="tdc">29.79</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.2609</td> - <td class="tdc">80</td> - <td class="tdc">42.29</td> - <td class="tdc">.4159</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">56</td> - <td class="tdc">30.31</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.2666</td> - <td class="tdc">81</td> - <td class="tdc">42.78</td> - <td class="tdc">.4226</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">57</td> - <td class="tdc">30.82</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.2724</td> - <td class="tdc">82</td> - <td class="tdc">43.25</td> - <td class="tdc">.4293</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">58</td> - <td class="tdc">31.34</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.2782</td> - <td class="tdc">83</td> - <td class="tdc">43.73</td> - <td class="tdc">.4361</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">59</td> - <td class="tdc">31.85</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.2840</td> - <td class="tdc">84</td> - <td class="tdc">44.21</td> - <td class="tdc">.4430</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc bb">60</td> - <td class="tdc bb">32.36</td> - <td class="tdc bb br3">.2899</td> - <td class="tdc bb">85</td> - <td class="tdc bb">44.68</td> - <td class="tdc bb">.4499</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">61</td> - <td class="tdc">32.87</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.2958</td> - <td class="tdc">86</td> - <td class="tdc">45.15</td> - <td class="tdc">.4568</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">62</td> - <td class="tdc">33.38</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.3018</td> - <td class="tdc">87</td> - <td class="tdc">45.62</td> - <td class="tdc">.4638</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">63</td> - <td class="tdc">33.89</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.3078</td> - <td class="tdc">88</td> - <td class="tdc">46.09</td> - <td class="tdc">.4708</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">64</td> - <td class="tdc">34.40</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.3138</td> - <td class="tdc">89</td> - <td class="tdc">46.56</td> - <td class="tdc">.4778</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">65</td> - <td class="tdc">34.90</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.3199</td> - <td class="tdc">90</td> - <td class="tdc">47.02</td> - <td class="tdc">.4849</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">66</td> - <td class="tdc">35.40</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.3260</td> - <td class="tdc">91</td> - <td class="tdc">47.48</td> - <td class="tdc">.4920</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">67</td> - <td class="tdc">35.90</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.3322</td> - <td class="tdc">92</td> - <td class="tdc">47.95</td> - <td class="tdc">.4992</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">68</td> - <td class="tdc">36.41</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.3384</td> - <td class="tdc">93</td> - <td class="tdc">48.40</td> - <td class="tdc">.5064</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">69</td> - <td class="tdc">36.91</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.3446</td> - <td class="tdc">94</td> - <td class="tdc">48.86</td> - <td class="tdc">.5136</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc bb">70</td> - <td class="tdc bb">37.40</td> - <td class="tdc bb br3">.3509</td> - <td class="tdc bb">95</td> - <td class="tdc bb">49.32</td> - <td class="tdc bb">.5209</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">71</td> - <td class="tdc">37.90</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.3572</td> - <td class="tdc">96</td> - <td class="tdc">49.77</td> - <td class="tdc">.5281</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">72</td> - <td class="tdc">38.39</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.3636</td> - <td class="tdc">97</td> - <td class="tdc">50.22</td> - <td class="tdc">.5355</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">73</td> - <td class="tdc">38.89</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.3700</td> - <td class="tdc">98</td> - <td class="tdc">50.67</td> - <td class="tdc">.5429</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">74</td> - <td class="tdc">39.38</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.3764</td> - <td class="tdc">99</td> - <td class="tdc">51.12</td> - <td class="tdc">.5504</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">75</td> - <td class="tdc">39.87</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.3829</td> - <td class="tdc">100 </td> - <td class="tdc">51.56</td> - <td class="tdc">.5578</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc bt" colspan="6"> </td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p class="blockquot"><span class="smcap">Oechsle’s Must-Scale</span> -indicates specific gravity to three decimal places. When two figures -are shown on the scale, a cipher before them must be understood. For -instance: 83 means 1.083, or 20 per cent., Balling; and 106 means -1.106, or 25 per cent., Balling.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</span></p> - -<p id="TABLE_2" class="f150"><b>TABLE II.</b></p> - -<p class="blockquot center"><i>Baumé’s degrees, corresponding degrees, -Balling (per cent. sugar,) and specific gravity at 63½° F.</i></p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Baumé’s Degrees" cellpadding="0" rules="cols" > - <thead><tr> - <th class="tdc bb2" colspan="6"> </th> - </tr><tr> - <th class="tdc bb">Baumé </th> - <th class="tdc bb"> Balling or <br /> per cent.<br /> sugar</th> - <th class="tdc bb br3"> Specific <br />Gravity</th> - <th class="tdc bb"> Baumé </th> - <th class="tdc bb"> Balling or <br /> per cent.<br /> sugar</th> - <th class="tdc bb"> Specific <br />Gravity</th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdc"> 0.0</td> - <td class="tdc"> 0.00</td> - <td class="tdc br3">1.0000 </td> - <td class="tdc">13 </td> - <td class="tdc">23.52</td> - <td class="tdc">1.0992 </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc"> 0.5</td> - <td class="tdc"> 0.90</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.0035</td> - <td class="tdc">13.5</td> - <td class="tdc">24.43</td> - <td class="tdc">.1034</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc"> 1 </td> - <td class="tdc"> 1.80</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.0070</td> - <td class="tdc">14 </td> - <td class="tdc">25.35</td> - <td class="tdc">.1077</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc"> 1.5</td> - <td class="tdc"> 2.69</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.0105</td> - <td class="tdc">14.5</td> - <td class="tdc">26.27</td> - <td class="tdc">.1120</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">2 </td> - <td class="tdc"> 3.59</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.0141</td> - <td class="tdc">15 </td> - <td class="tdc">27.19</td> - <td class="tdc">.1163</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">2.5</td> - <td class="tdc"> 4.49</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.0177</td> - <td class="tdc">15.5</td> - <td class="tdc">28.10</td> - <td class="tdc">.1206</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc bb">3 </td> - <td class="tdc bb"> 5.39</td> - <td class="tdc br3 bb">.0213</td> - <td class="tdc bb">16 </td> - <td class="tdc bb">19.03</td> - <td class="tdc bb">.1250</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">3.5</td> - <td class="tdc"> 6.29</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.0249</td> - <td class="tdc">16.5</td> - <td class="tdc">29.95</td> - <td class="tdc">.1294</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">4 </td> - <td class="tdc"> 7.19</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.0286</td> - <td class="tdc">17 </td> - <td class="tdc">30.87</td> - <td class="tdc">.1339</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">4.5</td> - <td class="tdc"> 8.09</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.0323</td> - <td class="tdc">17.5</td> - <td class="tdc">31.79</td> - <td class="tdc">.1383</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">5 </td> - <td class="tdc"> 9.00</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.0360</td> - <td class="tdc">18 </td> - <td class="tdc">32.72</td> - <td class="tdc">.1429</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">5.5</td> - <td class="tdc"> 9.90</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.0397</td> - <td class="tdc">18.5</td> - <td class="tdc">33.65</td> - <td class="tdc">.1474</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc bb">6 </td> - <td class="tdc bb">10.80</td> - <td class="tdc br3 bb">.0435</td> - <td class="tdc bb">19 </td> - <td class="tdc bb">34.58</td> - <td class="tdc bb">.1520</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">6.5</td> - <td class="tdc">11.70</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.0473</td> - <td class="tdc">19.5</td> - <td class="tdc">35.50</td> - <td class="tdc">.1566</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">7 </td> - <td class="tdc">12.61</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.0511</td> - <td class="tdc">20 </td> - <td class="tdc">36.44</td> - <td class="tdc">.1613</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">7.5</td> - <td class="tdc">13.51</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.0549</td> - <td class="tdc">20.5</td> - <td class="tdc">37.37</td> - <td class="tdc">.1660</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">8 </td> - <td class="tdc">14.42</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.0588</td> - <td class="tdc">21 </td> - <td class="tdc">38.30</td> - <td class="tdc">.1707</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">8.5</td> - <td class="tdc">15.32</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.0627</td> - <td class="tdc">21.5</td> - <td class="tdc">39.24</td> - <td class="tdc">.1755</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc bb">9 </td> - <td class="tdc bb">16.23</td> - <td class="tdc br3 bb">.0667</td> - <td class="tdc bb">22 </td> - <td class="tdc bb">40.17</td> - <td class="tdc bb">.1803</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">9.5</td> - <td class="tdc">17.14</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.0706</td> - <td class="tdc">22.5</td> - <td class="tdc">41.11</td> - <td class="tdc">.1852</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">10  </td> - <td class="tdc">18.05</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.0746</td> - <td class="tdc">23 </td> - <td class="tdc">42.05</td> - <td class="tdc">.1901</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">10.5 </td> - <td class="tdc">18.96</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.0787</td> - <td class="tdc">23.5</td> - <td class="tdc">42.99</td> - <td class="tdc">.1950</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">11  </td> - <td class="tdc">19.87</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.0827</td> - <td class="tdc">24 </td> - <td class="tdc">43.94</td> - <td class="tdc">.2000</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">11.5 </td> - <td class="tdc">20.78</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.0868</td> - <td class="tdc">24.5</td> - <td class="tdc">44.88</td> - <td class="tdc">.2050</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">12  </td> - <td class="tdc">21.69</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.0909</td> - <td class="tdc">25 </td> - <td class="tdc">45.83</td> - <td class="tdc">.2101</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">12.5 </td> - <td class="tdc">22.60</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.0951</td> - <td class="tdc">25.5</td> - <td class="tdc">46.78</td> - <td class="tdc">.2152</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc bt2 bb"><b>Baumé</b></td> - <td class="tdc bt2 bb"><b>Balling or<br /> per cent.<br /> sugar</b></td> - <td class="tdc bt2 bb br3"><b>Specific<br />Gravity</b></td> - <td class="tdc bt2 bb"><b>Baumé</b></td> - <td class="tdc bt2 bb"><b>Balling or<br /> per cent.<br /> sugar</b></td> - <td class="tdc bt2 bb"><b>Specific<br />Gravity</b></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">26 </td> - <td class="tdc">47.73</td> - <td class="tdc br3">1.2203 </td> - <td class="tdc">39 </td> - <td class="tdc">73.23</td> - <td class="tdc">1.3714 </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">26.5</td> - <td class="tdc">48.68</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.2255</td> - <td class="tdc">39.5</td> - <td class="tdc">74.25</td> - <td class="tdc">.3780</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">27 </td> - <td class="tdc">49.63</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.2308</td> - <td class="tdc">40 </td> - <td class="tdc">75.27</td> - <td class="tdc">.3846</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">27.5</td> - <td class="tdc">50.59</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.2361</td> - <td class="tdc">40.5</td> - <td class="tdc">76.29</td> - <td class="tdc">.3913</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">28 </td> - <td class="tdc">51.55</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.2414</td> - <td class="tdc">41 </td> - <td class="tdc">77.32</td> - <td class="tdc">.3981</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">28.5</td> - <td class="tdc">52.51</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.2468</td> - <td class="tdc">41.5</td> - <td class="tdc">78.35</td> - <td class="tdc">.4049</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc bb">29 </td> - <td class="tdc bb">53.47</td> - <td class="tdc bb br3">.2522</td> - <td class="tdc bb">42 </td> - <td class="tdc bb">79.39</td> - <td class="tdc bb">.4118</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">29.5</td> - <td class="tdc">54.44</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.2576</td> - <td class="tdc">42.5</td> - <td class="tdc">80.43</td> - <td class="tdc">.4187</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">30 </td> - <td class="tdc">55.47</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.2632</td> - <td class="tdc">43 </td> - <td class="tdc">81.47</td> - <td class="tdc">.4267</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">30.5</td> - <td class="tdc">56.37</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.2687</td> - <td class="tdc">43.5</td> - <td class="tdc">82.51</td> - <td class="tdc">.4328</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">31 </td> - <td class="tdc">57.34</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.2743</td> - <td class="tdc">44 </td> - <td class="tdc">83.56</td> - <td class="tdc">.4400</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">31.5</td> - <td class="tdc">58.32</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.2800</td> - <td class="tdc">44.5</td> - <td class="tdc">84.62</td> - <td class="tdc">.4472</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc bb">32 </td> - <td class="tdc bb">59.29</td> - <td class="tdc bb br3">.2857</td> - <td class="tdc bb">45 </td> - <td class="tdc bb">85.68</td> - <td class="tdc bb">.4545</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">32.5</td> - <td class="tdc">60.27</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.2915</td> - <td class="tdc">45.5</td> - <td class="tdc">86.74</td> - <td class="tdc">.4619</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">33 </td> - <td class="tdc">61.25</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.2973</td> - <td class="tdc">46 </td> - <td class="tdc">87.81</td> - <td class="tdc">.4694</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">33.5</td> - <td class="tdc">62.23</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.3032</td> - <td class="tdc">46.5</td> - <td class="tdc">88.88</td> - <td class="tdc">.4769</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">34 </td> - <td class="tdc">63.22</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.3091</td> - <td class="tdc">47 </td> - <td class="tdc">89.96</td> - <td class="tdc">.4845</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">34.5</td> - <td class="tdc">64.21</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.3151</td> - <td class="tdc">47.5</td> - <td class="tdc">91.03</td> - <td class="tdc">.4922</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc bb">35 </td> - <td class="tdc bb">65.20</td> - <td class="tdc bb br3">.3211</td> - <td class="tdc bb">48 </td> - <td class="tdc bb">92.12</td> - <td class="tdc bb">.5000</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">35.5</td> - <td class="tdc">66.19</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.3272</td> - <td class="tdc">48.5</td> - <td class="tdc">93.21</td> - <td class="tdc">.5079</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">36 </td> - <td class="tdc">67.19</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.3333</td> - <td class="tdc">49 </td> - <td class="tdc">94.30</td> - <td class="tdc">.5158</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">36.5</td> - <td class="tdc">68.19</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.3395</td> - <td class="tdc">49.5</td> - <td class="tdc">95.40</td> - <td class="tdc">.5238</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">37 </td> - <td class="tdc">69.19</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.3458</td> - <td class="tdc">50 </td> - <td class="tdc">96.51</td> - <td class="tdc">.5319</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">37.5</td> - <td class="tdc">70.20</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.3521</td> - <td class="tdc">50.5</td> - <td class="tdc">97.62</td> - <td class="tdc">.5401</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">38 </td> - <td class="tdc">71.20</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.3585</td> - <td class="tdc">51 </td> - <td class="tdc">98.73</td> - <td class="tdc">.5484</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">38.5</td> - <td class="tdc">72.22</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.3649</td> - <td class="tdc">51.5</td> - <td class="tdc">99.85</td> - <td class="tdc">.5568</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc bt" colspan="6"> </td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</span></p> - -<p id="TABLE_3" class="f150"><b>TABLE III.</b></p> - -<p class="blockquot center"><i>Baumé’s degrees and corresponding per cent. -of sugar at 60° F.</i></p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Baumé’s Degrees" cellpadding="0" rules="cols" > - <thead><tr> - <th class="tdc bb2" colspan="8"> </th> - </tr><tr> - <th class="tdc bb">Baumé<br /> degrees </th> - <th class="tdc bb br3">Sugar<br /> per cent. </th> - <th class="tdc bb">Baumé<br /> degrees </th> - <th class="tdc bb br3">Sugar<br /> per cent. </th> - <th class="tdc bb">Baumé<br /> degrees </th> - <th class="tdc bb br3">Sugar<br /> per cent. </th> - <th class="tdc bb">Baumé<br /> degrees </th> - <th class="tdc bb">Sugar<br /> per cent. </th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdc"> 1</td> - <td class="tdc br3"> 1.72</td> - <td class="tdc">11</td> - <td class="tdc br3">19.88</td> - <td class="tdc">21</td> - <td class="tdc br3">38.29</td> - <td class="tdc">31</td> - <td class="tdc">57.31</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc"> 2</td> - <td class="tdc br3"> 3.50</td> - <td class="tdc">12</td> - <td class="tdc br3">21.71</td> - <td class="tdc">22</td> - <td class="tdc br3">40.17</td> - <td class="tdc">32</td> - <td class="tdc">59.27</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc"> 3</td> - <td class="tdc br3"> 5.30</td> - <td class="tdc">13</td> - <td class="tdc br3">23.54</td> - <td class="tdc">23</td> - <td class="tdc br3">42.03</td> - <td class="tdc">33</td> - <td class="tdc">61.23</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc"> 4</td> - <td class="tdc br3"> 7.09</td> - <td class="tdc">14</td> - <td class="tdc br3">25.34</td> - <td class="tdc">24</td> - <td class="tdc br3">43.92</td> - <td class="tdc">34</td> - <td class="tdc">63.18</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc"> 5</td> - <td class="tdc br3"> 8.90</td> - <td class="tdc">15</td> - <td class="tdc br3">27.25</td> - <td class="tdc">25</td> - <td class="tdc br3">45.79</td> - <td class="tdc">35</td> - <td class="tdc">65.19</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc"> 6</td> - <td class="tdc br3">10.71</td> - <td class="tdc">16</td> - <td class="tdc br3">29.06</td> - <td class="tdc">26</td> - <td class="tdc br3">47.70</td> - <td class="tdc">36</td> - <td class="tdc">67.19</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc"> 7</td> - <td class="tdc br3">12.52</td> - <td class="tdc">17</td> - <td class="tdc br3">30.89</td> - <td class="tdc">27</td> - <td class="tdc br3">49.60</td> - <td class="tdc">37</td> - <td class="tdc">69.19</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc"> 8</td> - <td class="tdc br3">14.38</td> - <td class="tdc">18</td> - <td class="tdc br3">32.75</td> - <td class="tdc">28</td> - <td class="tdc br3">51.50</td> - <td class="tdc">38</td> - <td class="tdc">71.22</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc"> 9</td> - <td class="tdc br3">16.20</td> - <td class="tdc">19</td> - <td class="tdc br3">34.60</td> - <td class="tdc">29</td> - <td class="tdc br3">53.42</td> - <td class="tdc">39</td> - <td class="tdc">73.28</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">10</td> - <td class="tdc br3">18.04</td> - <td class="tdc">20</td> - <td class="tdc br3">36.40</td> - <td class="tdc">30</td> - <td class="tdc br3">55.36</td> - <td class="tdc">40</td> - <td class="tdc">75.35</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc bt" colspan="8"> </td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</span></p> - -<p id="TABLE_4" class="f150"><b>TABLE IV.</b></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>Showing the specific gravities of mixtures of alcohol and water, -containing from 0.1 to 30 per cent. by volume, of absolute -alcohol, and corresponding per cent. by weight, for every 0.1 per -cent. by volume, compared with water at 60° F.</p> - -<p>The specific gravity of absolute alcohol according to U. S. -standard being .7939, referred to water at its greatest density -as unity, or .79461, referred to water at 60° F.</p> -</div> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Specific Gravities" cellpadding="0" rules="cols" > - <thead><tr> - <th class="tdc bb2" colspan="6"> </th> - </tr><tr> - <th class="tdc bb">Per cent.<br /> by volume </th> - <th class="tdc bb">Per cent.<br /> by weight </th> - <th class="tdc bb br3"> Specific <br />Gravity</th> - <th class="tdc bb">Per cent.<br /> by volume </th> - <th class="tdc bb">Per cent.<br /> by weight </th> - <th class="tdc bb"> Specific <br />Gravity</th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdc">0.1</td> - <td class="tdc">0.08</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.99986</td> - <td class="tdc">3.8</td> - <td class="tdc">3.04</td> - <td class="tdc">.99460</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">0.2</td> - <td class="tdc">0.16</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.99972</td> - <td class="tdc">3.9</td> - <td class="tdc">3.12</td> - <td class="tdc">.99445</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">0.3</td> - <td class="tdc">0.24</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.99957</td> - <td class="tdc bb">4.0</td> - <td class="tdc bb">3.20</td> - <td class="tdc bb">.99431</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">0.4</td> - <td class="tdc">0.32</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.99943</td> - <td class="tdc">4.1</td> - <td class="tdc">3.28</td> - <td class="tdc">.99417</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">0.5</td> - <td class="tdc">0.40</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.99929</td> - <td class="tdc">4.2</td> - <td class="tdc">3.36</td> - <td class="tdc">.99403</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">0.6</td> - <td class="tdc">0.48</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.99915</td> - <td class="tdc">4.3</td> - <td class="tdc">3.44</td> - <td class="tdc">.99388</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">0.7</td> - <td class="tdc">0.56</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.99901</td> - <td class="tdc">4.4</td> - <td class="tdc">3.52</td> - <td class="tdc">.99374</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">0.8</td> - <td class="tdc">0.64</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.99886</td> - <td class="tdc">4.5</td> - <td class="tdc">3.60</td> - <td class="tdc">.99360</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">0.9</td> - <td class="tdc">0.72</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.99872</td> - <td class="tdc">4.6</td> - <td class="tdc">3.68</td> - <td class="tdc">.99346</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc bb">1.0</td> - <td class="tdc bb">0.80</td> - <td class="tdc bb br3">.99858</td> - <td class="tdc">4.7</td> - <td class="tdc">3.76</td> - <td class="tdc">.99332</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">1.1</td> - <td class="tdc">0.88</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.99844</td> - <td class="tdc">4.8</td> - <td class="tdc">3.84</td> - <td class="tdc">.99317</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">1.2</td> - <td class="tdc">0.96</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.99830</td> - <td class="tdc">4.9</td> - <td class="tdc">3.92</td> - <td class="tdc">.99303</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">1.3</td> - <td class="tdc">1.04</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.99815</td> - <td class="tdc bb">5.0</td> - <td class="tdc bb">4.00</td> - <td class="tdc bb">.99289</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">1.4</td> - <td class="tdc">1.12</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.99801</td> - <td class="tdc">5.1</td> - <td class="tdc">4.08</td> - <td class="tdc">.99276</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">1.5</td> - <td class="tdc">1.20</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.99787</td> - <td class="tdc">5.2</td> - <td class="tdc">4.16</td> - <td class="tdc">.99263</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">1.6</td> - <td class="tdc">1.28</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.99773</td> - <td class="tdc">5.3</td> - <td class="tdc">4.24</td> - <td class="tdc">.99250</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">1.7</td> - <td class="tdc">1.36</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.99759</td> - <td class="tdc">5.4</td> - <td class="tdc">4.32</td> - <td class="tdc">.99237</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">1.9</td> - <td class="tdc">1.44</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.99744</td> - <td class="tdc">5.5</td> - <td class="tdc">4.40</td> - <td class="tdc">.99224</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">1.9</td> - <td class="tdc">1.52</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.99730</td> - <td class="tdc">5.6</td> - <td class="tdc">4.49</td> - <td class="tdc">.99211</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc bb">2.0</td> - <td class="tdc bb">1.60</td> - <td class="tdc bb br3">.99716</td> - <td class="tdc">5.7</td> - <td class="tdc">4.57</td> - <td class="tdc">.99198</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">2.1</td> - <td class="tdc">1.68</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.99702</td> - <td class="tdc">5.8</td> - <td class="tdc">4.65</td> - <td class="tdc">.99186</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">2.2</td> - <td class="tdc">1.76</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.99688</td> - <td class="tdc">5.9</td> - <td class="tdc">4.73</td> - <td class="tdc">.99173</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">2.3</td> - <td class="tdc">1.84</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.99673</td> - <td class="tdc bb">6.0</td> - <td class="tdc bb">4.81</td> - <td class="tdc bb">.99160</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">2.4</td> - <td class="tdc">1.92</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.99659</td> - <td class="tdc">6.1</td> - <td class="tdc">4.89</td> - <td class="tdc">.99148</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">2.5</td> - <td class="tdc">2.00</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.99645</td> - <td class="tdc">6.2</td> - <td class="tdc">4.97</td> - <td class="tdc">.99135</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">2.6</td> - <td class="tdc">2.08</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.99631</td> - <td class="tdc">6.3</td> - <td class="tdc">5.05</td> - <td class="tdc">.99123</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">2.7</td> - <td class="tdc">2.16</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.99617</td> - <td class="tdc">6.4</td> - <td class="tdc">5.13</td> - <td class="tdc">.99110</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">2.8</td> - <td class="tdc">2.24</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.99602</td> - <td class="tdc">6.5</td> - <td class="tdc">5.21</td> - <td class="tdc">.99098</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">2.9</td> - <td class="tdc">2.32</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.99588</td> - <td class="tdc">6.6</td> - <td class="tdc">5.29</td> - <td class="tdc">.99086</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc bb">3.0</td> - <td class="tdc bb">2.40</td> - <td class="tdc bb br3">.99574</td> - <td class="tdc">6.7</td> - <td class="tdc">5.37</td> - <td class="tdc">.99073</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">3.1</td> - <td class="tdc">2.48</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.99560</td> - <td class="tdc">6.8</td> - <td class="tdc">5.45</td> - <td class="tdc">.99061</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">3.2</td> - <td class="tdc">2.56</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.99546</td> - <td class="tdc">6.9</td> - <td class="tdc">5.54</td> - <td class="tdc">.99048</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">3.3</td> - <td class="tdc">2.64</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.99531</td> - <td class="tdc bb">7.0</td> - <td class="tdc bb">5.62</td> - <td class="tdc bb">.99036</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">3.4</td> - <td class="tdc">2.72</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.99517</td> - <td class="tdc">7.1</td> - <td class="tdc">5.70</td> - <td class="tdc">.99024</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">3.5</td> - <td class="tdc">2.79</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.99503</td> - <td class="tdc">7.2</td> - <td class="tdc">5.78</td> - <td class="tdc">.99011</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">3.6</td> - <td class="tdc">2.88</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.99488</td> - <td class="tdc">7.3</td> - <td class="tdc">5.86</td> - <td class="tdc">.98999</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">3.7</td> - <td class="tdc">2.96</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.99474</td> - <td class="tdc">7.4</td> - <td class="tdc">5.94</td> - <td class="tdc">.98986</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc bb bt2"><b>Per cent.<br />by volume</b></td> - <td class="tdc bb bt2"><b>Per cent.<br />by weight</b></td> - <td class="tdc bb br3 bt2"><b>Specific<br />Gravity</b></td> - <td class="tdc bb bt2"><b>Per cent.<br />by volume</b></td> - <td class="tdc bb bt2"><b>Per cent.<br />by weight</b></td> - <td class="tdc bb bt2"><b>Specific<br />Gravity</b></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">7.5</td> - <td class="tdc">6.02</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.98974</td> - <td class="tdc">11.2</td> - <td class="tdc">9.03</td> - <td class="tdc">.98530</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">7.6</td> - <td class="tdc">6.10</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.98961</td> - <td class="tdc">11.3</td> - <td class="tdc">9.11</td> - <td class="tdc">.98519</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">7.7</td> - <td class="tdc">6.18</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.98949</td> - <td class="tdc">11.4</td> - <td class="tdc">9.20</td> - <td class="tdc">.98508</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">7.8</td> - <td class="tdc">6.26</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.98936</td> - <td class="tdc">11.5</td> - <td class="tdc">9.28</td> - <td class="tdc">.98497</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">7.9</td> - <td class="tdc">6.35</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.98924</td> - <td class="tdc">11.6</td> - <td class="tdc">9.36</td> - <td class="tdc">.98486</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc bb">8.00</td> - <td class="tdc bb">6.43</td> - <td class="tdc bb br3">.98911</td> - <td class="tdc">11.7</td> - <td class="tdc">9.44</td> - <td class="tdc">.98475</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">8.1</td> - <td class="tdc">6.51</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.98899</td> - <td class="tdc">11.8</td> - <td class="tdc">9.52</td> - <td class="tdc">.98463</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">8.2</td> - <td class="tdc">6.59</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.98886</td> - <td class="tdc">11.9</td> - <td class="tdc">9.60</td> - <td class="tdc">.98452</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">8.3</td> - <td class="tdc">6.67</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.98874</td> - <td class="tdc bb">12.0</td> - <td class="tdc bb">9.69</td> - <td class="tdc bb">.98441</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">8.4</td> - <td class="tdc">6.75</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.98861</td> - <td class="tdc">12.1</td> - <td class="tdc">9.77</td> - <td class="tdc">.98430</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">8.5</td> - <td class="tdc">6.83</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.98849</td> - <td class="tdc">12.2</td> - <td class="tdc">9.85</td> - <td class="tdc">.98419</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">8.6</td> - <td class="tdc">6.91</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.98837</td> - <td class="tdc">12.3</td> - <td class="tdc">9.93</td> - <td class="tdc">.98408</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">8.7</td> - <td class="tdc">7.00</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.98824</td> - <td class="tdc">12.4</td> - <td class="tdc">10.01 </td> - <td class="tdc">.98397</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">8.8</td> - <td class="tdc">7.08</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.98812</td> - <td class="tdc">12.5</td> - <td class="tdc">10.10 </td> - <td class="tdc">.98386</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">8.9</td> - <td class="tdc">7.16</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.98799</td> - <td class="tdc">12.6</td> - <td class="tdc">10.18 </td> - <td class="tdc">.98375</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc bb">9.0</td> - <td class="tdc bb">7.24</td> - <td class="tdc bb br3">.98787</td> - <td class="tdc">12.7</td> - <td class="tdc">10.26 </td> - <td class="tdc">.98364</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">9.1</td> - <td class="tdc">7.32</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.98775</td> - <td class="tdc">12.8</td> - <td class="tdc">10.34 </td> - <td class="tdc">.98352</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">9.2</td> - <td class="tdc">7.40</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.98762</td> - <td class="tdc">12.9</td> - <td class="tdc">10.42 </td> - <td class="tdc">.98341</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">9.3</td> - <td class="tdc">7.48</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.98750</td> - <td class="tdc bb">13.0</td> - <td class="tdc bb">10.51 </td> - <td class="tdc bb">.98330</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">9.4</td> - <td class="tdc">7.57</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.98737</td> - <td class="tdc">13.1</td> - <td class="tdc">10.59 </td> - <td class="tdc">.98319</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">9.5</td> - <td class="tdc">7.65</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.98725</td> - <td class="tdc">13.2</td> - <td class="tdc">10.67 </td> - <td class="tdc">.98308</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">9.6</td> - <td class="tdc">7.73</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.98713</td> - <td class="tdc">13.3</td> - <td class="tdc">10.75 </td> - <td class="tdc">.98297</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">9.7</td> - <td class="tdc">7.81</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.98700</td> - <td class="tdc">13.4</td> - <td class="tdc">10.83 </td> - <td class="tdc">.98286</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">9.8</td> - <td class="tdc">7.89</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.98688</td> - <td class="tdc">13.5</td> - <td class="tdc">10.92 </td> - <td class="tdc">.98275</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">9.9</td> - <td class="tdc">7.97</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.98675</td> - <td class="tdc">13.6</td> - <td class="tdc">11.00 </td> - <td class="tdc">.98264</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc bb">10.0 </td> - <td class="tdc bb">8.05</td> - <td class="tdc bb br3">.98663</td> - <td class="tdc">13.7</td> - <td class="tdc">11.08 </td> - <td class="tdc">.98253</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">10.1 </td> - <td class="tdc">8.14</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.98652</td> - <td class="tdc">13.8</td> - <td class="tdc">11.16 </td> - <td class="tdc">.98242</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">10.2 </td> - <td class="tdc">8.22</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.98641</td> - <td class="tdc">13.9</td> - <td class="tdc">11.24 </td> - <td class="tdc">.98231</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">10.3 </td> - <td class="tdc">8.30</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.98630</td> - <td class="tdc bb">14.0</td> - <td class="tdc bb">11.33 </td> - <td class="tdc bb">.98220</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">10.4 </td> - <td class="tdc">8.38</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.98619</td> - <td class="tdc">14.1</td> - <td class="tdc">11.41 </td> - <td class="tdc">.98209</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">10.5 </td> - <td class="tdc">8.46</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.98608</td> - <td class="tdc">14.2</td> - <td class="tdc">11.49 </td> - <td class="tdc">.98199</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">10.6 </td> - <td class="tdc">8.54</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.98597</td> - <td class="tdc">14.3</td> - <td class="tdc">11.57 </td> - <td class="tdc">.98188</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">10.7 </td> - <td class="tdc">8.62</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.98586</td> - <td class="tdc">14.4</td> - <td class="tdc">11.65 </td> - <td class="tdc">.98178</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">10.8 </td> - <td class="tdc">8.71</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.98574</td> - <td class="tdc">14.5</td> - <td class="tdc">11.74 </td> - <td class="tdc">.98167</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">10.9 </td> - <td class="tdc">8.79</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.98563</td> - <td class="tdc">14.6</td> - <td class="tdc">11.82 </td> - <td class="tdc">.98156</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">11.0 </td> - <td class="tdc">8.87</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.98552</td> - <td class="tdc">14.7</td> - <td class="tdc">11.90 </td> - <td class="tdc">.98146</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">11.1 </td> - <td class="tdc">8.95</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.98541</td> - <td class="tdc">14.8</td> - <td class="tdc">11.98 </td> - <td class="tdc">.98135 - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</span></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc bb bt2"><b>Per cent.<br />by volume</b></td> - <td class="tdc bb bt2"><b>Per cent.<br />by weight</b></td> - <td class="tdc bb br3 bt2"><b>Specific<br />Gravity</b></td> - <td class="tdc bb bt2"><b>Per cent.<br />by volume</b></td> - <td class="tdc bb bt2"><b>Per cent.<br />by weight</b></td> - <td class="tdc bb bt2"><b>Specific<br />Gravity</b></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">14.9</td> - <td class="tdc">12.07</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.98125</td> - <td class="tdc">18.7</td> - <td class="tdc">15.21</td> - <td class="tdc">.97733</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">15.0</td> - <td class="tdc">12.15</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.98114</td> - <td class="tdc">18.8</td> - <td class="tdc">15.29</td> - <td class="tdc">.97722</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">15.1</td> - <td class="tdc">12.23</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.98104</td> - <td class="tdc">18.9</td> - <td class="tdc">15.37</td> - <td class="tdc">.97712</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">15.2</td> - <td class="tdc">12.32</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.98094</td> - <td class="tdc bb">19.0</td> - <td class="tdc bb">15.46</td> - <td class="tdc bb">.97702</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">15.3</td> - <td class="tdc">12.40</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.98083</td> - <td class="tdc">19.1</td> - <td class="tdc">15.54</td> - <td class="tdc">.97692</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">15.4</td> - <td class="tdc">12.49</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.98073</td> - <td class="tdc">19.2</td> - <td class="tdc">15.62</td> - <td class="tdc">.97682</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">15.5</td> - <td class="tdc">12.57</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.98063</td> - <td class="tdc">19.3</td> - <td class="tdc">15.70</td> - <td class="tdc">.97671</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">15.6</td> - <td class="tdc">12.65</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.98053</td> - <td class="tdc">19.4</td> - <td class="tdc">15.78</td> - <td class="tdc">.97661</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">15.7</td> - <td class="tdc">12.73</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.98042</td> - <td class="tdc">19.5</td> - <td class="tdc">15.87</td> - <td class="tdc">.97651</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">15.8</td> - <td class="tdc">12.82</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.98032</td> - <td class="tdc">19.6</td> - <td class="tdc">15.95</td> - <td class="tdc">.97641</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">15.9</td> - <td class="tdc">12.90</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.98021</td> - <td class="tdc">19.7</td> - <td class="tdc">16.04</td> - <td class="tdc">.97631</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc bb">16.0</td> - <td class="tdc bb">12.98</td> - <td class="tdc bb br3">.98011</td> - <td class="tdc">19.8</td> - <td class="tdc">16.12</td> - <td class="tdc">.97620</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">16.1</td> - <td class="tdc">13.06</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.98001</td> - <td class="tdc">19.9</td> - <td class="tdc">16.20</td> - <td class="tdc">.97610</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">16.2</td> - <td class="tdc">13.14</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.97990</td> - <td class="tdc bb">20.0</td> - <td class="tdc bb">16.29</td> - <td class="tdc bb">.97600</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">16.3</td> - <td class="tdc">13.22</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.97980</td> - <td class="tdc">20.1</td> - <td class="tdc">16.37</td> - <td class="tdc">.97590</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">16.4</td> - <td class="tdc">13.31</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.97969</td> - <td class="tdc">20.2</td> - <td class="tdc">16.45</td> - <td class="tdc">.97580</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">16.5</td> - <td class="tdc">13.39</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.97959</td> - <td class="tdc">20.3</td> - <td class="tdc">16.51</td> - <td class="tdc">.97569</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">16.6</td> - <td class="tdc">13.47</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.97949</td> - <td class="tdc">20.4</td> - <td class="tdc">16.62</td> - <td class="tdc">.97559</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">16.7</td> - <td class="tdc">13.55</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.97938</td> - <td class="tdc">20.5</td> - <td class="tdc">16.70</td> - <td class="tdc">.97549</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">16.8</td> - <td class="tdc">13.63</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.97928</td> - <td class="tdc">20.6</td> - <td class="tdc">16.79</td> - <td class="tdc">.97539</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">16.9</td> - <td class="tdc">13.71</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.97917</td> - <td class="tdc">20.7</td> - <td class="tdc">16.87</td> - <td class="tdc">.97529</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc bb">17.0</td> - <td class="tdc bb">13.80</td> - <td class="tdc bb br3">.97907</td> - <td class="tdc">20.8</td> - <td class="tdc">16.95</td> - <td class="tdc">.97518</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">17.1</td> - <td class="tdc">13.88</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.97897</td> - <td class="tdc">20.9</td> - <td class="tdc">17.03</td> - <td class="tdc">.97508</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">17.2</td> - <td class="tdc">13.96</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.97887</td> - <td class="tdc bb">21.0</td> - <td class="tdc bb">17.12</td> - <td class="tdc bb">.97498</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">17.3</td> - <td class="tdc">14.05</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.97876</td> - <td class="tdc">21.1</td> - <td class="tdc">17.20</td> - <td class="tdc">.97488</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">17.4</td> - <td class="tdc">14.13</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.97866</td> - <td class="tdc">21.2</td> - <td class="tdc">17.28</td> - <td class="tdc">.97478</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">17.5</td> - <td class="tdc">14.21</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.97856</td> - <td class="tdc">21.3</td> - <td class="tdc">17.37</td> - <td class="tdc">.97467</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">17.6</td> - <td class="tdc">14.29</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.97846</td> - <td class="tdc">21.4</td> - <td class="tdc">17.45</td> - <td class="tdc">.97457</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">17.7</td> - <td class="tdc">14.38</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.97835</td> - <td class="tdc">21.5</td> - <td class="tdc">17.53</td> - <td class="tdc">.97447</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">17.8</td> - <td class="tdc">14.46</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.97825</td> - <td class="tdc">21.6</td> - <td class="tdc">17.62</td> - <td class="tdc">.97437</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">17.9</td> - <td class="tdc">14.54</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.97814</td> - <td class="tdc">21.7</td> - <td class="tdc">17.70</td> - <td class="tdc">.97427</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc bb">18.0</td> - <td class="tdc bb">14.62</td> - <td class="tdc bb br3">.97804</td> - <td class="tdc">21.8</td> - <td class="tdc">17.78</td> - <td class="tdc">.97416</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">18.1</td> - <td class="tdc">14.71</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.97794</td> - <td class="tdc">21.9</td> - <td class="tdc">17.87</td> - <td class="tdc">.97406</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">18.2</td> - <td class="tdc">14.79</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.97784</td> - <td class="tdc bb">22.0</td> - <td class="tdc bb">17.95</td> - <td class="tdc bb">.97396</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">18.3</td> - <td class="tdc">14.87</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.97773</td> - <td class="tdc">22.1</td> - <td class="tdc">18.03</td> - <td class="tdc">.97386</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">18.4</td> - <td class="tdc">14.96</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.97763</td> - <td class="tdc">22.2</td> - <td class="tdc">18.12</td> - <td class="tdc">.97375</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">18.5</td> - <td class="tdc">15.04</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.97753</td> - <td class="tdc">22.3</td> - <td class="tdc">18.20</td> - <td class="tdc">.97365</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">18.6</td> - <td class="tdc">15.12</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.97743</td> - <td class="tdc">22.4</td> - <td class="tdc">18.28</td> - <td class="tdc">.97354</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc bb bt2"><b>Per cent.<br />by volume</b></td> - <td class="tdc bb bt2"><b>Per cent.<br />by weight</b></td> - <td class="tdc bb br3 bt2"><b>Specific<br />Gravity</b></td> - <td class="tdc bb bt2"><b>Per cent.<br />by volume</b></td> - <td class="tdc bb bt2"><b>Per cent.<br />by weight</b></td> - <td class="tdc bb bt2"><b>Specific<br />Gravity</b></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">22.5</td> - <td class="tdc">18.37</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.97344</td> - <td class="tdc">26.3</td> - <td class="tdc">21.55</td> - <td class="tdc">.96950</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">22.6</td> - <td class="tdc">18.45</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.97334</td> - <td class="tdc">26.4</td> - <td class="tdc">21.64</td> - <td class="tdc">.96939</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">22.7</td> - <td class="tdc">18.53</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.97323</td> - <td class="tdc">26.5</td> - <td class="tdc">21.72</td> - <td class="tdc">.96928</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">22.8</td> - <td class="tdc">18.62</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.97313</td> - <td class="tdc">26.6</td> - <td class="tdc">21.81</td> - <td class="tdc">.96017</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">22.9</td> - <td class="tdc">18.70</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.97302</td> - <td class="tdc">26.7</td> - <td class="tdc">21.89</td> - <td class="tdc">.96906</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc bb">23.0</td> - <td class="tdc bb">18.78</td> - <td class="tdc bb br3">.97292</td> - <td class="tdc">26.8</td> - <td class="tdc">21.98</td> - <td class="tdc">.96896</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">23.1</td> - <td class="tdc">18.87</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.97282</td> - <td class="tdc">26.9</td> - <td class="tdc">22.06</td> - <td class="tdc">.96885</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">23.2</td> - <td class="tdc">18.95</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.97272</td> - <td class="tdc bb">27.0</td> - <td class="tdc bb">22.15</td> - <td class="tdc bb">.96874</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">23.3</td> - <td class="tdc">19.04</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.97261</td> - <td class="tdc">27.1</td> - <td class="tdc">22.23</td> - <td class="tdc">.96863</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">23.4</td> - <td class="tdc">19.12</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.97251</td> - <td class="tdc">27.2</td> - <td class="tdc">22.32</td> - <td class="tdc">.96853</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">23.5</td> - <td class="tdc">19.20</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.97241</td> - <td class="tdc">27.3</td> - <td class="tdc">22.40</td> - <td class="tdc">.96842</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">23.6</td> - <td class="tdc">19.29</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.97231</td> - <td class="tdc">27.4</td> - <td class="tdc">22.48</td> - <td class="tdc">.96832</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">23.7</td> - <td class="tdc">19.37</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.97221</td> - <td class="tdc">27.5</td> - <td class="tdc">22.57</td> - <td class="tdc">.96821</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">23.9</td> - <td class="tdc">19.54</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.97200</td> - <td class="tdc">27.7</td> - <td class="tdc">22.74</td> - <td class="tdc">.96799</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc bb">24.0</td> - <td class="tdc bb">19.62</td> - <td class="tdc bb br3">.97190</td> - <td class="tdc">27.8</td> - <td class="tdc">22.82</td> - <td class="tdc">.96789</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">24.1</td> - <td class="tdc">19.71</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.97180</td> - <td class="tdc">27.9</td> - <td class="tdc">22.91</td> - <td class="tdc">.96778</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">24.2</td> - <td class="tdc">19.79</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.97170</td> - <td class="tdc bb">28.0</td> - <td class="tdc bb">22.99</td> - <td class="tdc bb">.96767</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">24.3</td> - <td class="tdc">19.87</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.97159</td> - <td class="tdc">28.1</td> - <td class="tdc">23.07</td> - <td class="tdc">.96756</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">24.4</td> - <td class="tdc">19.96</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.97149</td> - <td class="tdc">28.2</td> - <td class="tdc">23.16</td> - <td class="tdc">.96745</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">24.5</td> - <td class="tdc">20.04</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.97139</td> - <td class="tdc">28.3</td> - <td class="tdc">23.24</td> - <td class="tdc">.96733</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">24.6</td> - <td class="tdc">20.13</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.97129</td> - <td class="tdc">28.4</td> - <td class="tdc">23.33</td> - <td class="tdc">.96722</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">24.7</td> - <td class="tdc">20.21</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.97118</td> - <td class="tdc">28.5</td> - <td class="tdc">23.41</td> - <td class="tdc">.96711</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">24.8</td> - <td class="tdc">20.29</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.97108</td> - <td class="tdc">28.6</td> - <td class="tdc">23.50</td> - <td class="tdc">.96700</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">24.9</td> - <td class="tdc">20.38</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.97097</td> - <td class="tdc">28.7</td> - <td class="tdc">23.58</td> - <td class="tdc">.96689</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc bb">25.0</td> - <td class="tdc bb">20.46</td> - <td class="tdc bb br3">.97087</td> - <td class="tdc">28.8</td> - <td class="tdc">23.67</td> - <td class="tdc">.96677</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">25.1</td> - <td class="tdc">20.55</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.97076</td> - <td class="tdc">28.9</td> - <td class="tdc">23.75</td> - <td class="tdc">.96666</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">25.2</td> - <td class="tdc">20.63</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.97066</td> - <td class="tdc bb">29.0</td> - <td class="tdc bb">23.84</td> - <td class="tdc bb">.96655</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">25.3</td> - <td class="tdc">20.71</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.97055</td> - <td class="tdc">29.1</td> - <td class="tdc">23.93</td> - <td class="tdc">.96644</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">25.4</td> - <td class="tdc">20.80</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.97045</td> - <td class="tdc">29.2</td> - <td class="tdc">24.01</td> - <td class="tdc">.96632</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">25.5</td> - <td class="tdc">20.88</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.97034</td> - <td class="tdc">29.3</td> - <td class="tdc">24.10</td> - <td class="tdc">.96621</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">25.6</td> - <td class="tdc">20.97</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.97023</td> - <td class="tdc">29.4</td> - <td class="tdc">24.18</td> - <td class="tdc">.96609</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">25.7</td> - <td class="tdc">21.05</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.97013</td> - <td class="tdc">29.5</td> - <td class="tdc">24.27</td> - <td class="tdc">.96598</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">25.8</td> - <td class="tdc">21.13</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.97002</td> - <td class="tdc">29.6</td> - <td class="tdc">24.35</td> - <td class="tdc">.96587</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">25.9</td> - <td class="tdc">21.22</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.96992</td> - <td class="tdc">29.7</td> - <td class="tdc">24.44</td> - <td class="tdc">.96575</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">26.0</td> - <td class="tdc">21.30</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.96981</td> - <td class="tdc">29.8</td> - <td class="tdc">24.52</td> - <td class="tdc">.96564</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">26.1</td> - <td class="tdc">21.39</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.96970</td> - <td class="tdc">29.9</td> - <td class="tdc">24.61</td> - <td class="tdc">.96552</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">26.2</td> - <td class="tdc">21.47</td> - <td class="tdc br3">.96960</td> - <td class="tdc">30.0</td> - <td class="tdc">24.69</td> - <td class="tdc">.96541</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc bt" colspan="6"> </td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p class="blockquot">The basis of the foregoing table is Table III -of the U. S. Manual for Inspectors of spirits, giving the respective -volumes of absolute alcohol and water in 100 volumes of spirits of -different strengths, for every 0.5 per cent. by volume, and the -specific gravities, referred to water at 60° F. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</span></p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<p id="TABLE_5" class="f150"><b>TABLE V.</b></p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Wine Properties" cellpadding="0" rules="cols" > - <thead><tr> - <th class="tdc bb2" colspan="7"> </th> - </tr><tr> - <th class="tdc bb">Variety of Wine.</th> - <th class="tdc bb">Name of<br />Contributor.</th> - <th class="tdc bb">Locality</th> - <th class="tdc bb"> Vintage. </th> - <th class="tdc bb">Color<br /> of Wine.</th> - <th class="tdc bb">Alcohol<br /> vol. per ct. </th> - <th class="tdc bb">Acid as<br /> tartaric.</th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl">Mission, just ripe</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">Dr. J. Strentze</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">Martinez</td> - <td class="tdc">1880</td> - <td class="tdc">White</td> - <td class="tdc">10.0</td> - <td class="tdc">.5370</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span><span class="ws2">“</span> “</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">Red</td> - <td class="tdc"> 8.5</td> - <td class="tdc">.5400</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span> fully “</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">White</td> - <td class="tdc">12.8</td> - <td class="tdc">.3490</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span><span class="ws2">“</span> “</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">Red</td> - <td class="tdc">13.3</td> - <td class="tdc">.3300</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">George West</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">Stockton</td> - <td class="tdc">1881</td> - <td class="tdc">White</td> - <td class="tdc">11.9</td> - <td class="tdc">.6690</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">Red</td> - <td class="tdc">12.6</td> - <td class="tdc">.5590</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">Prof. G. Husman</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">Napa ?</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">White</td> - <td class="tdc">13.0</td> - <td class="tdc">.4297</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">I. De Turk</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">Santa Rosa</td> - <td class="tdc">1880</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">11.9</td> - <td class="tdc">.3900</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">1881</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">13.1</td> - <td class="tdc">.4500</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">Chas. Lefranc</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">San Jose</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">Red</td> - <td class="tdc">12.0</td> - <td class="tdc">.4245</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">J. De Barth Shorb</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">San Gabriel</td> - <td class="tdc">1873</td> - <td class="tdc">White</td> - <td class="tdc">15.2</td> - <td class="tdc">.7395</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">1881</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">12.4</td> - <td class="tdc">.4897</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">I. De Turk</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">Santa Rosa</td> - <td class="tdc">1878</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">12.0</td> - <td class="tdc">.5347</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Black Prince</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">George West</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">Stockton</td> - <td class="tdc">1881</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">14.9</td> - <td class="tdc">.7020</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> “<span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">Red</td> - <td class="tdc">15.2</td> - <td class="tdc">.6450</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Malvoisie (Malvasia?)</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">Chas. Krug</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">St. Helena</td> - <td class="tdc">1880</td> - <td class="tdc">White</td> - <td class="tdc">16.7</td> - <td class="tdc">.4270</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">Red</td> - <td class="tdc">14.5</td> - <td class="tdc">.2460</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">R. Hasty</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">Clayton</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">13.8</td> - <td class="tdc"><b>. . .</b></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">G. Husman</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">Napa ?</td> - <td class="tdc">1881</td> - <td class="tdc">White</td> - <td class="tdc">14.0</td> - <td class="tdc">.4635</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">Napa ?</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">Red</td> - <td class="tdc">13.5</td> - <td class="tdc">.5430</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">T. F. Eisen</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">Fresno</td> - <td class="tdc">1878</td> - <td class="tdc">White</td> - <td class="tdc">13.7</td> - <td class="tdc">.6622</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">1880</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">17.2</td> - <td class="tdc">.5197</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Zinfandel</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">Chas. Krug</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">St. Helena</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">12.6</td> - <td class="tdc">.6000</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">Red</td> - <td class="tdc">12.9</td> - <td class="tdc">.3900</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">Geo. West</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">Stockton</td> - <td class="tdc">1881</td> - <td class="tdc">White</td> - <td class="tdc">14.1</td> - <td class="tdc">.4200</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">Red</td> - <td class="tdc">14.3</td> - <td class="tdc">.4370</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">Gundlach & Co.</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">Sacramento</td> - <td class="tdc"><b>. . .</b></td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">11.9</td> - <td class="tdc">.6750</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">I. De Turk</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">Santa Rosa</td> - <td class="tdc">1879</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">13.4</td> - <td class="tdc">.6495</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">1881</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">13.2</td> - <td class="tdc">.6750</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">G. Husman</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">Napa ?</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">13.2</td> - <td class="tdc">.4777</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">I. De Turk</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">Santa Rosa</td> - <td class="tdc">1880</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">12.7</td> - <td class="tdc">.6900 - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</span></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc bt2 bb"><b>Variety of Wine.</b></td> - <td class="tdc bt2 bb"><b>Name of<br />Contributor.</b></td> - <td class="tdc bt2 bb"><b>Locality</b></td> - <td class="tdc bt2 bb"><b>Vintage.</b></td> - <td class="tdc bt2 bb"><b>Color<br />of Wine.</b></td> - <td class="tdc bt2 bb"><b>Alcohol<br />vol. per ct.</b></td> - <td class="tdc bt2 bb"><b>Acid as<br />tartaric.</b></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Zinfandel</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">B. Dreyfus & Co.</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">Red</td> - <td class="tdc">12.4</td> - <td class="tdc">.7170</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Charbono</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">General Naglee</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">San Jose</td> - <td class="tdc">1880</td> - <td class="tdc">White</td> - <td class="tdc">8.1</td> - <td class="tdc">.4750</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">Red</td> - <td class="tdc">6.5</td> - <td class="tdc">.4420</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">J. T. Doyle</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">Santa Clara Co. ?</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">12.5</td> - <td class="tdc">.4320</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Mataro</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">Chas. Lefranc</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">San Jose</td> - <td class="tdc">1880</td> - <td class="tdc">White</td> - <td class="tdc">14.1</td> - <td class="tdc">.4245</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">Red</td> - <td class="tdc">12.4</td> - <td class="tdc">.5250</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Grenache</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdc">1876</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">11.6</td> - <td class="tdc">.7920</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdc">1881</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">12.5</td> - <td class="tdc">.3450</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">California Burgundy</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">10.8</td> - <td class="tdc">.7500</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Lenoir</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">H. W. Crabb</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">Oakville</td> - <td class="tdc">1881</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">11.1</td> - <td class="tdc">.8070</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> “</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">11.9</td> - <td class="tdc">.5145</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Chasselas</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">J. Gundlach</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">Sonoma</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">White</td> - <td class="tdc">13.5</td> - <td class="tdc">.6337</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc"> with skins </td> - <td class="tdc">11.7</td> - <td class="tdc">.6495</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">Dresel & Co.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">White</td> - <td class="tdc">13.5</td> - <td class="tdc">.3375</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Rose Chasselas</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">G. Husman</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">Napa ?</td> - <td class="tdc">1881</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">12.0</td> - <td class="tdc">.3720</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Golden Chasselas</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">Chas. Krug</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">St. Helena</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">with skins</td> - <td class="tdc">12.4</td> - <td class="tdc">.5925</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Riesling</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">Dresel & Co.</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">Sonoma</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">White</td> - <td class="tdc">12.5</td> - <td class="tdc">.6180</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">B. Dreyfus & Co.</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">12.9</td> - <td class="tdc">.6750</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">J. De Barth Shorb</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">San Gabriel</td> - <td class="tdc">1880</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">13.6</td> - <td class="tdc">.8325</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">Kramp & Bro.</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">Diamond Springs</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">12.6</td> - <td class="tdc">.7522</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Blanc Elba (Elbling?)</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">J.De Barth Shorb</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">San Gabriel</td> - <td class="tdc">1881</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">13.1</td> - <td class="tdc">.6825</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Feher Szagos</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">G. Eisen</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">Fresno</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">10.6</td> - <td class="tdc">.5625</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdl_ws5"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">with skins</td> - <td class="tdc">10.2</td> - <td class="tdc">.5250</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Prolific</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">Geo. West</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">Stockton</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">White</td> - <td class="tdc">14.5</td> - <td class="tdc">.6750</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdl_ws5"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdl_ws5"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">with skins</td> - <td class="tdc">15.6</td> - <td class="tdc">.5347</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Sauvignon Vert</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">Chas. Lefranc</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">San Jose</td> - <td class="tdc">1875</td> - <td class="tdc">White</td> - <td class="tdc">13.3</td> - <td class="tdc">.6187</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Burger</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">Chas. Krug</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">St. Helena</td> - <td class="tdc">1880</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc"> 9.0</td> - <td class="tdc">.5620</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> “</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdl_ws5"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">with skins</td> - <td class="tdc"> 9.2</td> - <td class="tdc">.5250</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> “</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">R. Hasty</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">Clayton</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">White</td> - <td class="tdc">11.5</td> - <td class="tdc"><b>. . .</b></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Elvira</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">H. W. Crabb</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">Oakville</td> - <td class="tdc">1881</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">11.9</td> - <td class="tdc">.5145</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> “</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">Kramp & Bro.</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">Diamond Springs</td> - <td class="tdc">1880</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">14.1</td> - <td class="tdc">.5475 - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</span></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc bt2 bb"><b>Variety of Wine.</b></td> - <td class="tdc bt2 bb"><b>Name of<br />Contributor.</b></td> - <td class="tdc bt2 bb"><b>Locality</b></td> - <td class="tdc bt2 bb"><b>Vintage.</b></td> - <td class="tdc bt2 bb"><b>Color<br />of Wine.</b></td> - <td class="tdc bt2 bb"><b>Alcohol<br />vol. per ct.</b></td> - <td class="tdc bt2 bb"><b>Acid as<br />tartaric.</b></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Malaga</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">T. F. Eisen</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">Fresno</td> - <td class="tdc">1877</td> - <td class="tdc">White</td> - <td class="tdc">14.6</td> - <td class="tdc">.6525</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">  “</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5"> “</td> - <td class="tdc">1881</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">17.9</td> - <td class="tdc">.2175</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Madeira</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">B. Dreyfus & Co.</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5"> </td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">18.2</td> - <td class="tdc"><b>. . .</b></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Muscat</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">I. De Turk</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">Santa Rosa</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">11.5</td> - <td class="tdc">.5775</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> “</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">T. F. Eisen</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">Fresno</td> - <td class="tdc">1876</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">16.7</td> - <td class="tdc">.5325</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> “</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdl_ws5"> “</td> - <td class="tdc">1881</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">17.2</td> - <td class="tdc">.2250</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Port, Zinfandel</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdl_ws5"> “</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">Red</td> - <td class="tdc">18.4</td> - <td class="tdc">.3450</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> “<span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdl_ws5"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdl_ws5"> “</td> - <td class="tdc">1878</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">21.0</td> - <td class="tdc">.4957</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Port</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">J. De Parth Shorb</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">San Gabriel</td> - <td class="tdc">1875</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">22.1</td> - <td class="tdc">.3525</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> “</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdl_ws5"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdc">1881</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">22.9</td> - <td class="tdc">.2048</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Port, Tienturier</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">T. F. Eisen</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">Fresno</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">18.8</td> - <td class="tdc">.3975</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Angelica</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">J. De Barth Shorb</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">San Gabriel</td> - <td class="tdc">1875</td> - <td class="tdc">White</td> - <td class="tdc">18.3</td> - <td class="tdc">.3825</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdl_ws5"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdl_ws5"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdc">1881</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">21.8</td> - <td class="tdc">.1448</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Sherry (Feher Szagos)</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">T. F. Eisen</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5">Fresno</td> - <td class="tdc">1877</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">18.8</td> - <td class="tdc">.3600</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> “<span class="ws2">“</span><span class="ws3">“</span>  dry</td> - <td class="tdl_ws5"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdl_ws5"> “</td> - <td class="tdc">1878</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">16.1</td> - <td class="tdc">.5550</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl bt" colspan="7"> </td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p class="center space-below1">Where the name of the locality is followed by (?), -it was omitted from the report.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p class="neg-indent"><b>Averages.</b>—In thirteen Mission wines:<br /> -Alcohol—maximum, 15.2; minimum, 8.5; average, 12.2.<br /> -Acid—maximum, .7395; minimum, .3300; average, .4955.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">In seven Malvoisie wines:<br /> -Alcohol—maximum, 17.2; minimum, 13.5; average, 14.77.<br /> -Acid in six—maximum, .6622; minimum, .2460; average, .4769.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">In ten Zinfandel wines:<br /> -Alcohol—maximum, 14.3; minimum, 11.9; average, 13.07.<br /> -Acid—maximum, .7170; minimum, .3900; average, .5731.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">In four Riesling wines:<br /> -Alcohol—maximum, 13.6; minimum, 12.5; average, 12.6.<br /> -Acid—maximum, .8325; minimum, .6180; average, .7194.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">In four Port wines, including two Zinfandel:<br /> -Alcohol—maximum, 22.9; minimum, 18.4; average, 21.1.<br /> -Acid—maximum, .4057; minimum, .2048; average, .3270.</p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak">INDEX.</h2> -</div> - -<ul class="index"> -<li class="isub12">Page.</li> -<li class="isub1">Acetic acid, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li> -<li class="isub3">fermentation, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Acid in California wines, <a href="#Page_x">x</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li> -<li class="isub3">in European wines, <a href="#Page_xii">xii</a></li> -<li class="isub3">increased by stems, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> -<li class="isub3">in wine, <a href="#Page_x">x</a>, <a href="#Page_xi">xi</a>, <a href="#Page_xii">xii</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li> -<li class="isub4">see acetic, carbonic, citric, tartaric, malic, pectic,</li> -<li class="isub4">tannic, salicylic, lactic, valeric, succinic</li> -<li class="isub4">and plastering.</li> -<li class="isub1">Acidity, disease, see sourness.</li> -<li class="isub3">in casks, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Acquired defects and diseases, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Acrity, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li> -<li class="isub3">in bottles, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Adjustable hoop, see utensils.</li> -<li class="isub1">Aerating must, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> -<li class="isub3">stirring pomace, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> -<li class="isub3">see treading, air, influence of.</li> -<li class="isub3">port wine, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Age, effect on wine, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Aging wine—effect of various influences, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> -<li class="isub3">general considerations, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> -<li class="isub3">requisite to make agreeable and healthful, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> -<li class="isub3">care to age and preserve, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> -<li class="isub3">new wine, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> -<li class="isub3">different wines require different periods, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> -<li class="isub3">development of bouquet and flavor, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> -<li class="isub3">old wine, characteristics of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> -<li class="isub4">color, aroma and flavor, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> -<li class="isub3">influences which develop, also destroy, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> -<li class="isub3">influences on weak wine and strong wine, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> -<li class="isub3">influence of the air, see aerating, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> -<li class="isub3">variations of temperature, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> - -<li class="isub3">influence of heat,<a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> -<li class="isub3">aging by heat, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> -<li class="isub3">preserving by heat, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> -<li class="isub3">influence of cold and frozen wines, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> -<li class="isub3">influence of light, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> -<li class="isub3">aging by sunlight, insolation, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> -<li class="isub3">effect of motion and voyages, <a href="#Page_82">82-84</a></li> -<li class="isub3">wines suitable for shipment, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> -<li class="isub3">aging by fining, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> -<li class="isub3">generally, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> -<li class="isub3">fine before aging, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> -<li class="isub3">what wines gain the most by the processes, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li> -<li class="isub3">heating Madiera, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> -<li class="isub3">see casks, size of</li> -<li class="isub1">Air, influence of, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> -<li class="isub3">see port, aerating</li> -<li class="isub1">Albumen, see fining.</li> -<li class="isub1">Alcohol in California wines, ix, x, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li> -<li class="isub3">in European wines, <a href="#Page_xii">xii</a></li> -<li class="isub3">relation to sugar, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> -<li class="isub3">required in dry wine, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> -<li class="isub4">to keep wine sweet, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</span></li> - -<li class="isub4">in aging by heat, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> -<li class="isub3">required in aging by sunlight, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> -<li class="isub4">for shipping wines, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> -<li class="isub3">by weight and by volume, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li> -<li class="isub3">burning to arrest fermentation, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> -<li class="isub3">lost by evaporation, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> -<li class="isub3">natural in sweet wines, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> -<li class="isub3">adding in fining, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li> -<li class="isub4">to sweet wines, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> -<li class="isub4">to port, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> -<li class="isub4">to sherry, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li> -<li class="isub4">to Madeira, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> -<li class="isub4">see rules.</li> -<li class="isub3">amount in port, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> -<li class="isub4">in Madeira, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> -<li class="isub4">in sherry, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li> -<li class="isub3">estimation of, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li> -<li class="isub3">limits by fermentation, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Alcoholic weakness, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> -<li class="isub3">fermentation, see fermentation.</li> -<li class="isub1">Aldehyde, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Almonds, bitter, see bouquet, artificial</li> -<li class="isub1">Analysis of dry lees, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Areometer, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Aroma, see bouquet.</li> -<li class="isub1">Arresting fermentation, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> -<li class="isub3">see sulphuring, sulphurous acid</li> -<li class="isub3">by burning alcohol, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> -<li class="isub3">aqueous sulphurous acid, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> -<li class="isub3">bisulphite of lime, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> -<li class="isub3">salicylic acid, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Arrope, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Artificial must, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> - -<li class="isub1 ifrst">Balling’s saccharometer, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Barrels, see casks.</li> -<li class="isub1">Barrel flavor, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Basket, decanting, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li> -<li class="isub3">bottle, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Bastardo grape, see port.</li> -<li class="isub1">Basto, see sherry.</li> -<li class="isub1">Baumé’s saccharometer, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Bins for bottles, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Bisulphite of lime, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Bitartrate of potash, see cream of tartar</li> -<li class="isub1">Bitter almonds, see bouquet, artificial.</li> -<li class="isub1">Bitterness, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li> -<li class="isub3">in bottles, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Blending, see cutting.</li> -<li class="isub3">sherry, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Blood, see fining.</li> -<li class="isub1">Blotting paper, see fining.</li> -<li class="isub1">Bluish wines, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Boiling must, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Borers of casks, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Bottles, wine in, bottling, etc.,</li> -<li class="isub4">see wine in bottles.</li> -<li class="isub3">washer, drainers, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li> -<li class="isub3">piling, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li> -<li class="isub3">racks and bins, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> -<li class="isub3">baskets, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Bouquet, short vatting promotes, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> -<li class="isub3">development of, by age, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> -<li class="isub3">how lost, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> -<li class="isub3">generally, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li> -<li class="isub3">artificial, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li> -<li class="isub4">substances used, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li> -<li class="isub4">iris, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li> -<li class="isub4">strawberry, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li> -<li class="isub4">gillyflower, stock gilly, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li> -<li class="isub4">vine flowers, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li> -<li class="isub4">mignonette, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li> -<li class="isub4">nutmeg, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li> -<li class="isub4">bitter almonds and fruit pits, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li> -<li class="isub4">sassafras, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li> -<li class="isub4">other aromas, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li> -<li class="isub4">effects, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Brandy, shipments of California, <a href="#Page_vi">vi</a></li> -<li class="isub3">casks, empty, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> -<li class="isub3">casks for, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Bung turned to one side, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> -<li class="isub3">screw, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Butyric fermentation, <a href="#Page_29">29</a> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</span></li> - -<li class="isub1 ifrst">California, prices of grapes, <a href="#Page_vi">vi</a></li> -<li class="isub3">exports of wine and brandy, <a href="#Page_vi">vi</a></li> -<li class="isub3">product of wine, <a href="#Page_vi">vi</a></li> -<li class="isub3">wines, alcohol and acid in, <a href="#Page_ix">ix</a>, <a href="#Page_x">x</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li> -<li class="isub3">wines compared, <a href="#Page_ix">ix</a>, <a href="#Page_x">x</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li> -<li class="isub3">musts, <a href="#Page_viii">viii</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Capsules and capsuling, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Carbonic acid produced by fermentation, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> -<li class="isub3">in wine, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Carbon dioxide, see carbonic acid.</li> -<li class="isub1">Casks, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li> -<li class="isub3">redwood, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li> -<li class="isub3">oak, different kinds, principles contained in, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li> -<li class="isub3">temper with new wine, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li> -<li class="isub3">storing, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li> -<li class="isub3">sulphured before storing, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li> -<li class="isub3">new, preparing, washing, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li> -<li class="isub3">old, washing, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> -<li class="isub3">to remove lees, rinsing chain, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> -<li class="isub3">to examine inside, visitor, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> -<li class="isub3">wash empty ones at once, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> -<li class="isub3">do not leave in the sun, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> -<li class="isub3">examine to ascertain condition, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> -<li class="isub3">leaky, to expel bad air, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> -<li class="isub3">flatness in, acidity in, mouldy, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> -<li class="isub3">rottenness, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> -<li class="isub3">brandy, do not sulphur, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> -<li class="isub3">for brandy, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> -<li class="isub3">oil casks, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> -<li class="isub3">which have contained aromatic liquors, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> -<li class="isub3">borers, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> -<li class="isub3">size of, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> -<li class="isub4">see different wines.</li> -<li class="isub3">large, preferable, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> -<li class="isub3">why sulphured, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> -<li class="isub3">how sulphured, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> -<li class="isub3">caution in sulphuring, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> -<li class="isub3">filling from vats, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> -<li class="isub3">of new wine loosely closed, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> -<li class="isub3">must be kept full, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> -<li class="isub3">bung to one side, old wine, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> -<li class="isub3">for white wine, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> -<li class="isub3">small for sweet, large for dry, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> -<li class="isub3">filling during fermentation of white, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> -<li class="isub4">see froth, racking.</li> -<li class="isub3">flavor, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li> -<li class="isub3">how long wine to remain in, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li> -<li class="isub3">supporting and arranging, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li> -<li class="isub3">implements for tipping, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Cellars, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li> -<li class="isub3">temperature, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li> -<li class="isub3">dampness, floors, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li> -<li class="isub3">ventilation, evaporation, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li> -<li class="isub3">other precautions, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li> -<li class="isub3">supporting and arranging casks, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li> -<li class="isub3">for port, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> -<li class="isub3">for sherry, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> -<li class="isub3">utensils, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Cement for corks, see wax.</li> -<li class="isub1">Centres, see white wine.</li> -<li class="isub1">Chain for washing casks, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Charcoal to remove sulphur flavor, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> -<li class="isub3">deprives wine of color and carbonic acid, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Citric acid, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Clarification, clarifying powders, see fining.</li> -<li class="isub1">Cleanliness about wine making, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Climate of sherry districts, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Coal, see charcoal.</li> -<li class="isub1">Cold, influence of on wine, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Color, increased by long vatting, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> -<li class="isub3">dark, not necessary to fine wines, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> -<li class="isub3">precipitated by sulphur, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> -<li class="isub4">by blood, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> -<li class="isub3">removed by charcoal, <a href="#Page_74">74</a> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</span></li> -<li class="isub3">changed by age, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> -<li class="isub3">affected by light, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> -<li class="isub4">heat and motion, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> -<li class="isub3">weakened by fining, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li> -<li class="isub3">want of, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> -<li class="isub3">dull, bluish, lead-colored wines, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> -<li class="isub3">see port, tawny.</li> -<li class="isub3">wine, see sherry.</li> -<li class="isub1">Coloring matter in red wine, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Composition of wine, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li> -<li class="isub3">cream of tartar, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li> -<li class="isub3">not composed of alcohol and water alone, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li> -<li class="isub3">alcohol, acid, and sugar generally, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li> -<li class="isub3">table of substances recognized, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li> -<li class="isub3">alcohol and estimation of, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li> -<li class="isub3">stills for and operation, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li> -<li class="isub3">monitor still, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li> -<li class="isub3">ethers, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li> -<li class="isub3">sugar and estimation, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li> -<li class="isub3">mannite, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li> -<li class="isub3">mucilage and mellowness, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li> -<li class="isub3">pectose, pectin, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Composition of wine, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li> -<li class="isub3">fatty matters, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> -<li class="isub3">glycerin, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> -<li class="isub3">coloring matter, œnocyanine, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> -<li class="isub3">aldehydes, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> -<li class="isub3">acids, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li> -<li class="isub4">tartaric, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li> -<li class="isub4">malic, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li> -<li class="isub4">citric, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li> -<li class="isub4">pectic, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li> -<li class="isub4">tannic, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li> -<li class="isub4">carbonic, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li> -<li class="isub4">acetic, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li> -<li class="isub4">lactic, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li> -<li class="isub4">butyric, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li> -<li class="isub4">valeric, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li> -<li class="isub4">succinic, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li> -<li class="isub4">total, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li> -<li class="isub3">bouquet, natural and artificial, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Copper affected by wine, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Corks, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li> -<li class="isub3">preparation of, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li> -<li class="isub3">sealing for, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li> -<li class="isub3">utensils to remove, see utensils.</li> -<li class="isub1">Corking machines, corking, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Corkscrews, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Cream of tartar, see plastering, lees,</li> -<li class="isub4">composition of wine, fining.</li> -<li class="isub1">Crushing and methods of, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li> -<li class="isub3">aerating must by, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Crushing and stemming, rapidity, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> -<li class="isub3">special practice in the Médoc, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> -<li class="isub3">effect of, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> -<li class="isub3">dry grapes, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Crushers, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Cutting wines, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li> -<li class="isub3">most French wines mixed, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li> -<li class="isub3">when necessary, effect, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li> -<li class="isub3">tithe wines, singular case, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li> -<li class="isub3">no precise rules, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li> -<li class="isub3">mix wines of same nature, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> -<li class="isub3">fine wines, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> -<li class="isub3">ordinary wines, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li> -<li class="isub3">time must be allowed, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li> -<li class="isub3">quantity to mix, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li> -<li class="isub3">mixing new and old wines, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li> -<li class="isub4">green wine, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li> -<li class="isub4">white and red wine, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li> -<li class="isub4">diseased wines, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li> -<li class="isub3">mixing grapes, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li> -<li class="isub3">precaution, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li> - -<li class="isub1 ifrst">Dampness, see cellars.</li> -<li class="isub1">Decanting wine from bottles,<a href="#Page_188">188</a></li> -<li class="isub3">basket,<a href="#Page_169">169</a></li> -<li class="isub3">instrument,<a href="#Page_169">169</a> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</span></li> -<li class="isub1">Decomposition of wine, see diseases.</li> -<li class="isub1">Defects and diseases, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li> -<li class="isub3">division, general considerations, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li> -<li class="isub3">better avoided than cured, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li> -<li class="isub3">not always cured by mixing, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li> -<li class="isub3">doses in treating, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li> -<li class="isub3">natural defects, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li> -<li class="isub3">earthy flavor and causes, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li> -<li class="isub4">how prevented, treatment, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li> -<li class="isub3">wild taste, grassy flavor, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> -<li class="isub3">greenness and causes, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> -<li class="isub4">how prevented, treatment, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li> -<li class="isub3">roughness, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li> -<li class="isub4">not a fault, disappears in time, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li> -<li class="isub4">to avoid excess of tannin, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li> -<li class="isub4">how removed, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li> -<li class="isub3">bitterness and causes in new wine, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li> -<li class="isub4">how prevented, treatment, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li> -<li class="isub3">stem flavor, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li> -<li class="isub3">sourness and causes, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li> -<li class="isub4">how prevented, treatment, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li> -<li class="isub3">alcoholic weakness, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> -<li class="isub4">how avoided, treatment, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> -<li class="isub3">want of color and causes, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> -<li class="isub4">how guarded against, treatment, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> -<li class="isub3">dull, bluish, lead-colored wine,</li> -<li class="isub6">flavor of lees, and causes, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> -<li class="isub4">how avoided, treatment, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> -<li class="isub3">putrid decomposition and causes, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> -<li class="isub4">how avoided, treatment, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> -<li class="isub3">several natural defects combined, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> -<li class="isub3">acquired defects and diseases, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> -<li class="isub3">flat wines, flowers, and causes, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> -<li class="isub4">prevention, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li> -<li class="isub4">treatment, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li> -<li class="isub3">sourness, acidity, pricked wine and causes, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li> -<li class="isub4">what wines liable to, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li> -<li class="isub4">how prevented, treatment, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li> -<li class="isub3">pricked wine, experiments with substances</li> -<li class="isub6">in treating, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li> -<li class="isub4">Machard’s treatment, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li> -<li class="isub4">other methods, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li> -<li class="isub3">cask flavor, barrel flavor, and causes, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li> -<li class="isub4">treatment, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li> -<li class="isub3">mouldy flavor, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li> -<li class="isub4">prevention, treatment, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li> -<li class="isub3">foreign flavors, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li> -<li class="isub3">ropiness, causes and treatment, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li> -<li class="isub4">in bottled wines, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> -<li class="isub4">other treatment, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li> -<li class="isub3">acrity and treatment, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li> -<li class="isub4">in bottles, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> -<li class="isub3">bitterness, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li> -<li class="isub4">treatment, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li> -<li class="isub4">according to Maumené, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li> -<li class="isub4">in bottles, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> -<li class="isub3">fermentation, taste of the lees,</li> -<li class="isub6">yeasty flavor, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li> -<li class="isub4">how prevented, treatment, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li> -<li class="isub4">in bottles, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li> -<li class="isub3">degeneration, putrid fermentation, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li> -<li class="isub4">in bottles, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> -<li class="isub4">duration of different wines, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li> -<li class="isub4">treatment, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li> -<li class="isub3">deposits and turbidity in bottles,<a href="#Page_166">166</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Degeneration of wines, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li> -<li class="isub3">see diseases.</li> -<li class="isub1">Density of sweet wines, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> -<li class="isub3">musts, see musts, different wines, sugar.</li> -<li class="isub1">Deposits, see diseases, lees, wine in bottles.</li> -<li class="isub1">Diseases and defects, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Drainers for bottles, <a href="#Page_156">156</a> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</span></li> -<li class="isub1">Drawing off, see racking.</li> -<li class="isub3">from vats, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Dry grapes, crushing, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> -<li class="isub3">wines, see white, red, treatment casks for, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Dull-colored wine, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Duration of different wines, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li> -<li class="isub3">of fermentation, see fermentation, different wines.</li> - -<li class="isub1 ifrst">Earthy flavor, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li> -<li class="isub1"><i>Echaud</i>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Effervescent wines not to be sulphured, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Eggs, see fining.</li> -<li class="isub1">Empty casks, see casks.</li> -<li class="isub1">Estufa, see Madeira, heating house.</li> -<li class="isub1">Ethers, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li> -<li class="isub1">European wines, alcohol and acid in, <a href="#Page_xii">xii</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Evaporation of wine in cellars, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li> -<li class="isub3">weakens wine, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> -<li class="isub3">see casks, size of.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>Event</i>, <i>éventé</i>, see flatness.</li> -<li class="isub1">Exports of California Wine and brandy, <a href="#Page_vi">vi</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Exportation, see shipping.</li> -<li class="isub1">Fatty matters in wine, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Ferments, origin of, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> -<li class="isub3">destroyed by heat, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> -<li class="isub3">see yeast, <i>saccharomyces</i>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Fermentation, its causes, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> -<li class="isub3">kinds of, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> -<li class="isub3">alcoholic generally, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> -<li class="isub3">yeast plant, <i>saccharomyces cerevisiæ</i>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> -<li class="isub4">functions of yeast, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> -<li class="isub4">normal conditions of the life of, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> -<li class="isub4">surface and sedimentary, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> -<li class="isub4">physical conditions, temperature, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> -<li class="isub1">chemical conditions, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> -<li class="isub4">action of various chemical and physical agents, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> -<li class="isub1">viscous or mannitic, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> -<li class="isub1">lactic, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> -<li class="isub1">butyric and putrefactive, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> -<li class="isub1">acetic, aldehyde, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> -<li class="isub1"><i>mycoderma aceti</i>, mother of vinegar, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> -<li class="isub1"><i>mycoderma vini</i>, flowers of wine, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> -<li class="isub1">origin of ferments, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> -<li class="isub1">alcoholic, in wine making, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> -<li class="isub1">sugar, cane, grape or glucose, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> -<li class="isub1">alcohol by weight and by volume, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li> -<li class="isub1">its products, per cent. sugar to per cent. alcohol, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> -<li class="isub3">different authors, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> -<li class="isub1">limits of sugar and spirit, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> -<li class="isub1">temperature, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li> -<li class="isub1">surrounding vats with straw, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li> -<li class="isub1">fermenting houses, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> -<li class="isub1">duration of in red wine, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> -<li class="isub4">in white wine, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li> -<li class="isub1">insensible, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> -<li class="isub1">arresting, see sulphuring, arresting.</li> -<li class="isub3">by burning alcohol, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> -<li class="isub3">aqueous solution of sulphurous acid, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> -<li class="isub3">bisulphite of lime, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> -<li class="isub3">salicylic acid, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> -<li class="isub1">increased by stems, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> -<li class="isub3">by open vats, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> -<li class="isub1">slow in closed vats, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> -<li class="isub3">under pressure and not so complete, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> -<li class="isub1">disease, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li> -<li class="isub1">in bottles, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li> -<li class="isub3">see white wine, filling casks, different wines, plastering, effects of. - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</span></li> -<li class="isub1">Fermenting houses, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> -<li class="isub3">tanks or vats, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> -<li class="isub3">material, size, number, arrangement of, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> -<li class="isub3">surrounding with straw, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li> -<li class="isub3">filling, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> -<li class="isub3">open, closed, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> -<li class="isub3">best practice, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> -<li class="isub3">hermetically sealed, cooled with condenser, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> -<li class="isub3">practice in the Médoc, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> -<li class="isub3">stirring pomace in, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> -<li class="isub3">drawing from, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Filling vats, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> -<li class="isub3">casks from vats, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> -<li class="isub3">during fermentation of white wine, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> -<li class="isub3">see froth, ulling.</li> -<li class="isub1">Filtering, see fining.</li> -<li class="isub1">Fining, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li> -<li class="isub3">when necessary, objects of, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li> -<li class="isub3">best avoided unless necessary, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li> -<li class="isub3">caution, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li> -<li class="isub3">substances employed, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li> -<li class="isub4">which act mechanically, blotting paper,</li> -<li class="isub6">fine sand, powdered stone, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li> -<li class="isub4">filtration, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li> -<li class="isub4">substances which act chemically and mechanically, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li> -<li class="isub4">gelatinous substances, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li> -<li class="isub4">gelatine proper, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> -<li class="isub4">its preparation, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> -<li class="isub4">isinglass, fish glue, ichthyocol, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> -<li class="isub4">its preparation, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> -<li class="isub4">adding cream of tartar for white wine, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> -<li class="isub4">albuminous substances, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> -<li class="isub4">blood, milk, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> -<li class="isub4">white of eggs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> -<li class="isub4">the fining for red wine, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> -<li class="isub4">clarifying powders, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li> -<li class="isub4">gum arabic, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li> -<li class="isub4">addition of salt, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li> -<li class="isub4">addition of alcohol, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li> -<li class="isub4">addition of tannin, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li> -<li class="isub4">method of operation, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> -<li class="isub4">implements for stirring, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> -<li class="isub4">time necessary for, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> -<li class="isub4">new wines, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> -<li class="isub4">sweet wines, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> -<li class="isub4">sherry, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li> -<li class="isub4">to age wine, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> -<li class="isub4">before aging, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> -<li class="isub4">wines extracted from lees, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Finings, see fining.</li> -<li class="isub3">leaving wine on, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> -<li class="isub1"><i>Fino</i>, see sherry.</li> -<li class="isub1">Fish Glue, see fining.</li> -<li class="isub1">Flatness, influence of air, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> -<li class="isub3">in casks, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Flat wine, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Flavor developed by aging, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> -<li class="isub3">how lost, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> -<li class="isub3">causes of change of, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> -<li class="isub3">sulphur, causes and removal, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> -<li class="isub3">foreign, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li> -<li class="isub3">barrel, cask, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li> -<li class="isub3">sherry, madeira, port, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li> -<li class="isub3">fruity, see fruity flavor.</li> -<li class="isub1">Flowers on wine, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Fortified wines, see sweet wines.</li> -<li class="isub1">Fortifying, see alcohol.</li> -<li class="isub3">rule for, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Foul casks, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> -<li class="isub1">French wines generally mixed, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li> -<li class="isub3">alcohol and acid in, <a href="#Page_xii">xii</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Froth in filling a cask, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Frozen wine, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Fruity flavor, how lost, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li> -<li class="isub3">preferred by <i>gourmets</i>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Fruit pits, see bouquet, artificial.</li> -<li class="isub1">Funnels, see utensils.</li> -<li class="isub1">Furmint wine, <a href="#Page_107">107</a> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</span></li> - -<li class="isub1 ifrst">Gallons of must per ton of grapes, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li> -<li class="isub3">of wine per ton of grapes, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li> -<li class="isub3">of liquid, weight of, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Galvanized iron affected by wine, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Gas in empty casks, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Gathering grapes, maturity, utensils, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></li> -<li class="isub3">number of pickers, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> -<li class="isub3">when to commence, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></li> -<li class="isub3">time of, successive gathering, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li> -<li class="isub3">before complete maturity, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li class="isub3">after complete maturity, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Gelatine, see fining.</li> -<li class="isub1">General treatment of table wines, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> -<li class="isub3">sweet wines, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> -<li class="isub3">see different wines</li> -<li class="isub1">Gillyflower, see bouquet, artificial.</li> -<li class="isub1">Glass, materials in, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Gleucometer, gleuco-œnometer, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Glucose, must, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li> -<li class="isub3">for a gallon of wine, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li> -<li class="isub3">cost of glucose wine, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li> -<li class="isub3">effect on Burgundy, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> -<li class="isub3">experiment, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> -<li class="isub3">use condemned, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> -<li class="isub3">name of user published, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> -<li class="isub3">grape sugar, generally, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Glue, fish, see fining</li> -<li class="isub1">Glycerine, produced by fermentation, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> -<li class="isub3">in wine, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> -<li class="isub1"><i>Gourmets</i>, wine preferred by, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> -<li class="isub1"><i>Gout d’évent</i>, see flatness.</li> -<li class="isub3"><i>de travail</i>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Graduated measures, see utensils.</li> -<li class="isub1">Grand wines should not be aged artificially, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> -<li class="isub3">see different practices and treatment, red wine, white wine.</li> -<li class="isub1">Grapes, prices in California, <a href="#Page_v">v</a></li> -<li class="isub3">Mission, <a href="#Page_v">v</a></li> -<li class="isub3">picking, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></li> -<li class="isub3">see gathering, maturity.</li> -<li class="isub3">sorting, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> -<li class="isub3">tons stemmed and crushed in a day, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> -<li class="isub3">gallons of wine per ton of, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li> -<li class="isub3">juice, see must.</li> -<li class="isub3">per cent. of stems in different, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li> -<li class="isub3">sugar, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Grassy flavor, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Green wine, mixing, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Greenness, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Gum arabic, see fining.</li> -<li class="isub1">Gypsum, see plastering.</li> - -<li class="isub1 ifrst">Head wines, see white wines.</li> -<li class="isub1">Heat, influence on wine, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> -<li class="isub3">aging by, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> -<li class="isub3">preserving by, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> -<li class="isub3">destroys ferment germs, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> -<li class="isub3">see fermentation.</li> -<li class="isub1">Heating Madeira, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Hoop, adjustable, see utensils.</li> -<li class="isub1">Houses, fermenting, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Hydrometer, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> -<li class="isub3">tables, see appendix.</li> -<li class="isub1">Hygienic effects of red and white wine, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> - -<li class="isub1 ifrst">Ichthyocol, see fining.</li> -<li class="isub1">Implements, see utensils.</li> -<li class="isub1">Influences, effect of various on wine, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> -<li class="isub3">which develop, also destroy, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Ingredients in wine, see composition.</li> -<li class="isub1">Insensible fermentation, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> -<li class="isub3">when finished, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Insolation, see sunlight.</li> -<li class="isub1">Iris, see bouquet, artificial.</li> -<li class="isub1">Iron affected by wine, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Isinglass, see fining. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</span></li> - -<li class="isub1 ifrst">Juice, grape, proportion to marc, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li> -<li class="isub3">see must.</li> - -<li class="isub1 ifrst">Lactic fermentation, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> -<li class="isub3">acid, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li> -<li class="isub3">see milk, fining.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>Lagar</i>, see port, sherry.</li> -<li class="isub1">Lead affected by wine, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Lead-colored wine, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Leaky casks, see casks.</li> -<li class="isub1">Lees, marc, piquette, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li> -<li class="isub3">residues often put in the still, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li> -<li class="isub3">wine, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li> -<li class="isub3">should not be neglected, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li> -<li class="isub3">quantity of wine contained in, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li> -<li class="isub3">contents of dry parts, analysis, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li> -<li class="isub3">composition varies, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li> -<li class="isub3">treatment of, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li> -<li class="isub3">wine should not be left long in contact with, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li> -<li class="isub4">except sweet, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> -<li class="isub3">casks for, barreling, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li> -<li class="isub3">sulphuring, storing, ulling, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li> -<li class="isub3">how often to draw wine from, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li> -<li class="isub3">from diseased wine, put by themselves, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li> -<li class="isub3">extracting wine from with siphon, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li> -<li class="isub3">extracting wine from with faucet, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li> -<li class="isub3">fining wine extracted from, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li> -<li class="isub3">wines from lack color, difficult to clarify, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li> -<li class="isub3">red wine from, to fine, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li> -<li class="isub3">white wine from, to fine, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li> -<li class="isub3">pressing thick sediment, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li> -<li class="isub4">sacks for, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li> -<li class="isub4">press for, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li> -<li class="isub4">applying pressure, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li> -<li class="isub3">to remove from casks, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> -<li class="isub3">use of dry, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li> -<li class="isub3">flavor of, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li> -<li class="isub3">see racking, fining, etc.</li> -<li class="isub3">marc or pomace, piquette, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li> -<li class="isub3">unfermented and partly fermented pomace, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li> -<li class="isub3">fermented marc, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li> -<li class="isub3">Pezeyre’s method of washing, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li> -<li class="isub3">deposits, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li> - -<li class="isub1 ifrst">Light, influence on wine, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> -<li class="isub3">port, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> -<li class="isub3">aging by, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Liqueur wines, see sweet wines.</li> -<li class="isub1">Liquid, to ascertain weight of, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Lime, bisulphite, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> -<li class="isub3">see diseases.</li> -<li class="isub1">Loss by evaporation, see cellars, casks, size of.</li> - -<li class="isub1 ifrst">Madeira, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> -<li class="isub3">making, casks, treatment, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> -<li class="isub3">adding alcohol, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> -<li class="isub3">heating, heating houses, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> -<li class="isub3">general treatment, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> -<li class="isub3">solera system, ullage, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> -<li class="isub3">alcoholic strength, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> -<li class="isub3">flavor, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Malic acid, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Mannite, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Mannitic fermentation, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Marc of sweet wine, use of, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> -<li class="isub3">passing wine over, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li> -<li class="isub3">proportion of juice to, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li> -<li class="isub3">see lees, marc, piquette.</li> -<li class="isub1">Matches, sulphur, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Matters in wine, see composition.</li> -<li class="isub1">Maturity of grapes, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> -<li class="isub3">signs of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li class="isub3">gathering before complete, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li class="isub3">gathering after complete, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> -<li class="isub3">according to required strength, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> -<li class="isub3">for port, <a href="#Page_108">108</a> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</span></li> -<li class="isub1">Maturity for sherry, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> -<li class="isub3">of wine, see white, red wine, aging.</li> -<li class="isub1">Maumené’s sulphurer, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Mellowness, how lost, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> -<li class="isub3">cause of, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li> -<li class="isub3">see white, red wine.</li> -<li class="isub1">Measures, graduated, see utensils.</li> -<li class="isub1">Metal utensils, wood preferable, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li> -<li class="isub3">affected by wine, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Middle wines, see white wines, <i>centres</i>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Mignonette, see bouquet, artificial.</li> -<li class="isub1">Milk, see fining.</li> -<li class="isub1">Miscellaneous chapter, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Mission grape, <a href="#Page_v">v</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Mixing pressings, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> -<li class="isub3">see red, white, port.</li> -<li class="isub3">wines, see cutting.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>Monté, vin</i>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Mother of vinegar, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Motion, effect of, aging, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> -<li class="isub3">shipping, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Mouldy casks, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> -<li class="isub3">flavor, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Mucilage, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Muscat, sweet, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Must, composition of, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li> -<li class="isub3">grape sugar, glucose, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li> -<li class="isub3">scale, saccharometer, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> -<li class="isub3">testing for sugar, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> -<li class="isub3">proper amount of sugar, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> -<li class="isub3">sugaring, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> -<li class="isub4">nothing gained by, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> -<li class="isub3">artificial, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> -<li class="isub4">cost of, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li> -<li class="isub3">glucose, experiment with, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> -<li class="isub4">condemned, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> -<li class="isub3">watering, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> -<li class="isub4">when allowable, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li> -<li class="isub3">aerating, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> -<li class="isub3">rule for reducing, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li> -<li class="isub3">why sulphured, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> -<li class="isub3">unfermented, sulphuring, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> -<li class="isub4">clarifying, care of, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> -<li class="isub4">prepared in two ways, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> -<li class="isub3">proportion of to marc, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li> -<li class="isub3">shipping, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> -<li class="isub3">of sweet wine, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> -<li class="isub3">of dry white wine, density, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> -<li class="isub3">of mellow wine, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li> -<li class="isub3">of port, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> -<li class="isub3">boiling, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> -<li class="isub3">per ton of grapes, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li> -<li class="isub3">California, <a href="#Page_viii">viii</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Musty, see mouldy.</li> -<li class="isub1">Mute wine, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> -<li class="isub1"><i>Mycoderma aceti</i>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> -<li class="isub1"><i>Mycoderma vini</i>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> -<li class="isub3">see flowers.</li> - -<li class="isub1 ifrst">Natural defects, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li> -<li class="isub1">New red wine, treatment of, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> -<li class="isub3">summary of rules, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> -<li class="isub3">white wine, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> -<li class="isub3">wine differs from old, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> -<li class="isub3">influence of heat, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> -<li class="isub3">shipping, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> -<li class="isub3">see racking, fining.</li> -<li class="isub1">Nutmeg, see bouquet, artificial.</li> - -<li class="isub1 ifrst">Oakwood, see casks, vats.</li> -<li class="isub1">Oechsle’s must-scale, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Oenocyanine, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Old red wine, treatment, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> -<li class="isub3">characteristics, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> -<li class="isub3">wine, influence of heat, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> -<li class="isub3">see racking, albuminous substances, fining.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>Oloroso</i>, see sherry. - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</span></li> - -<li class="isub1 ifrst">Passing wine over marc, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Pedro Jimenes grape, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Pectic acid, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Pectin, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Pectose, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> -<li class="isub1"><i>Pèse-sirop</i>, <i>pèse mout</i>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Picking grapes, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></li> -<li class="isub3">see gathering.</li> -<li class="isub1">Piling bottles, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Piquette, see lees, marc, piquette.</li> -<li class="isub1">Pitchers, see utensils.</li> -<li class="isub1">Plastering, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li> -<li class="isub3">common in Spain and South of France, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li> -<li class="isub3">objects, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li> -<li class="isub3">chemical effects, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li> -<li class="isub3">effects on health, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li> -<li class="isub3">report of committee at Montpellier, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li> -<li class="isub4">of <i>conseil des armées</i>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li> -<li class="isub3">instructions of French Minister of justice, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li> -<li class="isub3">sherry and quantity added, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li> -<li class="isub3">chemical reaction, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li> -<li class="isub3">by adding water, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Pomace, per cent. in different grapes, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li> -<li class="isub3">see lees, marc, piquette.</li> -<li class="isub3">stirring in vat, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Port wine, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> -<li class="isub3">must, fermentation, maturity of grapes, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> -<li class="isub3">filling lagar, stirring, drawing off, sorting grapes, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> -<li class="isub3">treading, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> -<li class="isub3">Vizitelli’s description, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> -<li class="isub3">adding alcohol, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> -<li class="isub3">storing, racking, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li> -<li class="isub3">storehouses, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> -<li class="isub3">mixing, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> -<li class="isub3">loses color in wood, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> -<li class="isub3">alcoholic strength of, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> -<li class="isub3">becomes weaker by evaporation, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> -<li class="isub3">flavor, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li> -<li class="isub1"><i>Pousse</i>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Powdered stone, see fining.</li> -<li class="isub1">Powders, clarifying, see fining.</li> -<li class="isub1">Preserving by heat, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Pressing and press wine, red, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> -<li class="isub3">white wine, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> -<li class="isub3">sweet wine, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> -<li class="isub3">sediment, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li> -<li class="isub3">see different wines.</li> -<li class="isub1">Pressings, mixing, different, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Presses, wine, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> -<li class="isub3">for lees, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Prices of grapes in California, <a href="#Page_v">v</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Pricked wine, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Proportion of juice to marc, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li> -<li class="isub3">wine to grapes, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Pumps, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> -<li class="isub3">hand, see utensils.</li> -<li class="isub1">Putrefaction, putrid fermentation, decomposition, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> - -<li class="isub1 ifrst"><i>Queues</i>, see white wine.</li> - -<li class="isub1 ifrst">Racking, objects of, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li> -<li class="isub3">first time, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li> -<li class="isub3">leaving wine on finings, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li> -<li class="isub3">rules for, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li> -<li class="isub3">new red wines, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li> -<li class="isub3">before shipping, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> -<li class="isub3">old red wine, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li> -<li class="isub3">new white wine, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li> -<li class="isub4">subsequent rackings, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li> -<li class="isub3">care to be observed, other precautions, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li> -<li class="isub3">lees must not be disturbed, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li> -<li class="isub3">different methods, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> -<li class="isub3">by bucket and funnel, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> -<li class="isub3">implements for tipping cask, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> -<li class="isub3">without contact with air, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li> -<li class="isub3">pumps and siphons, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li> -<li class="isub3">see different wines. - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</span></li> -<li class="isub1">Racks for bottles, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> -<li class="isub1"><i>Rancio</i> flavor caused by heat, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> -<li class="isub3">in bottles, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Red wine, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> -<li class="isub3">coloring matter, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> -<li class="isub3">fermenting tanks, or vats, filling same, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> -<li class="isub3">open vats, closed vats, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> -<li class="isub3">best practice, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> -<li class="isub3">hermetically sealed vats, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> -<li class="isub3">practice in the Médoc, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> -<li class="isub3">stirring pomace in vat, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> -<li class="isub3">souring of the crust, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> -<li class="isub3">when to draw from vats, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> -<li class="isub3">duration of fermentation, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> -<li class="isub3">objections to long vatting, fine wines, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> -<li class="isub3">how to know when to draw from vats, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> -<li class="isub3">method of drawing from vats, filling casks, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> -<li class="isub3">wine presses, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> -<li class="isub3">pressing and press wine, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> -<li class="isub3">practice for fine wines, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> -<li class="isub3">treatment of new, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> -<li class="isub4">insensible fermentation, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> -<li class="isub4">storing new, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> -<li class="isub4">tasting, filling up or ulling, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> -<li class="isub4">summary of rules for treatment of, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> -<li class="isub4">of old, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> -<li class="isub4">characteristics of age, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> -<li class="isub4">grand and common characteristics, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> -<li class="isub4">how soon bright, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> -<li class="isub4">summary of rules for, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> -<li class="isub3">hygienic effects of, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> -<li class="isub3">how differs from white, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> -<li class="isub3">should be sparingly sulphured, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> -<li class="isub3">fining, see gelatine, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> -<li class="isub4">see blood, milk, white of eggs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> -<li class="isub4">red wine extracted from lees, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li> -<li class="isub3">put in colored bottles, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li> -<li class="isub3">with earthy flavor, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> -<li class="isub3">see racking, fining, etc.</li> -<li class="isub1">Reducing must and wine, see rules.</li> -<li class="isub1">Redwood, see casks, vats.</li> -<li class="isub1">Rinsing chain for casks, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Ripeness, signs of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li class="isub3">see maturity.</li> -<li class="isub1">Ropiness, viscous fermentation, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Ropy wines should not be sulphured, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Rotten casks, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Roughness, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li> -<li class="isub3">improved by aging, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Rules to ascertain weight of liquid, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li> -<li class="isub3">for reducing must, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li> -<li class="isub3">for sugaring must, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li> -<li class="isub3">for fortifying and reducing wine, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li> -<li class="isub4">to reduce with water, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li> -<li class="isub6">weaker wine, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li> -<li class="isub4">to fortify with stronger wine or alcohol, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li> - -<li class="isub1 ifrst">Saccharometer, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> -<li class="isub1"><i>Saccharomyces cerevuisiæ</i>,<a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> -<li class="isub3">conditions of life,<a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> -<li class="isub3">action of chemical and physical agents,<a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> -<li class="isub3">destroyed by heat and alcohol,<a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Sacks for pressing lees,<a href="#Page_181">181</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Salt in clarifying, see fining.</li> -<li class="isub1">Salicylic acid,<a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Sand, see fining.</li> -<li class="isub1">Sassafras, see bouquet artificial.</li> -<li class="isub1">Sealing wax for casks,<a href="#Page_161">161</a></li> -<li class="isub3">to remove,<a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Sea voyage, effect of, see aging. - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</span></li> -<li class="isub1">Seeds should not be broken in crushing, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> -<li class="isub3">tannin from, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> -<li class="isub3">yield fatty matters, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Settling and skimming must for white wine, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Sherry, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> -<li class="isub3">climate, vintage, crushing gypsum, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> -<li class="isub3">pressing, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> -<li class="isub3">stemming, fermenting, racking, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li> -<li class="isub3">fortifying, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li> -<li class="isub3">casks in ullage and open, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li> -<li class="isub3">a nearly dry wine, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> -<li class="isub3"><i>bodegas</i> or storehouses, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> -<li class="isub3">seasoned casks alone used, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> -<li class="isub3">changes in the wine, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> -<li class="isub3"><i>fino</i>, <i>oloroso</i>, <i>basto</i>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> -<li class="isub3">flowers, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> -<li class="isub3"><i>vino dulce</i>, or sweet wine, and preparation, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li> -<li class="isub3"><i>vino de color</i>, or color wine, and preparation, <i>arrope</i>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li> -<li class="isub3">mature wine, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li> -<li class="isub3">solera system, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li> -<li class="isub4">establishing a solera, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li> -<li class="isub4">standard soleras, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> -<li class="isub4">drawing the wine, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li> -<li class="isub4">blending for shipment, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li> -<li class="isub4">formulas, fining, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li> -<li class="isub3">influence of air, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> -<li class="isub3">flavor, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Shipments of wine and brandy from California, <a href="#Page_vi">vi</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Shipping, rack before, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> -<li class="isub3">wine suitable for, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> -<li class="isub3">new wine or must, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Shot, do not clean bottles with, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Siphons, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li> -<li class="isub3">of glass, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li> -<li class="isub3">to clean, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Skimming and settling must (white wine), <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Smoothness increased by pressure, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Solera, see sherry.</li> -<li class="isub1">Sorting grapes, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> -<li class="isub3">for grand white wines, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Sour casks, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Sourness, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Spirit, see alcohol, see tables in appendix.</li> -<li class="isub1">Stems, effect on fermentation, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> -<li class="isub3">how to remove, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li> -<li class="isub3">when to ferment with, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li> -<li class="isub3">increase tannin, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li> -<li class="isub3">when to remove, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li> -<li class="isub3">effect of too long contact, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li> -<li class="isub3">flavor, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li> -<li class="isub3">per cent. in different grapes, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Stemmers, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Stemming, diversity of opinion, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> -<li class="isub3">effect of, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> -<li class="isub3">proper practice, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> -<li class="isub3">see sherry, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li> -<li class="isub3">and crushing, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> -<li class="isub4">rapidity of operation, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> -<li class="isub4">special practice, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Stills, assay, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Stirring implements, fining, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> -<li class="isub3">pomace, see aerating, treading, vats, port.</li> -<li class="isub1">Stockgilly, see bouquet, artificial.</li> -<li class="isub1">Stone, powdered, see fining.</li> -<li class="isub1">Storing casks, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li> -<li class="isub3">wine, see different wines, cellars.</li> -<li class="isub3">casks for, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Straw wines, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Strawberry, see bouquet artificial.</li> -<li class="isub1">Substances in wine, see composition.</li> -<li class="isub1">Succinic acid, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Sugar, grape, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li> -<li class="isub3">testing for in must, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> -<li class="isub4">in wine, <a href="#Page_190">190</a> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</span></li> -<li class="isub3">correction for temperature, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> -<li class="isub3">and alcohol, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> -<li class="isub3">in must of dry wines, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> -<li class="isub4">sweet wines, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> -<li class="isub3">weight of for a pound of alcohol, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li> -<li class="isub4">for a gallon of wine, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li> -<li class="isub3">crystalized, purity of, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li> -<li class="isub3">and glucose generally, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> -<li class="isub3">limits of in fermentation, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> -<li class="isub3">necessary to growth of yeast, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> -<li class="isub3">not all converted by first fermentation, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> -<li class="isub3">to increase in grapes, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> -<li class="isub3">in must, to reduce, rules, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li> -<li class="isub3">see must, tables in appendix.</li> -<li class="isub1">Sugaring and watering must, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> -<li class="isub3">carried too far, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> -<li class="isub3">effect on burgundy, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> -<li class="isub3">artificial must, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> -<li class="isub3">nothing gained by sugaring, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> -<li class="isub3">cost of glucose wine, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li> -<li class="isub3">experiment with glucose, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> -<li class="isub3">glucose condemned, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> -<li class="isub3">rule for sugaring, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li> -<li class="isub3">watering, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> -<li class="isub4">rule for, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Sulphur matches or bands, how made, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> -<li class="isub3">flavor, how caused, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> -<li class="isub4">how removed, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Sulphurer or sulphur burner, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Sulphuring casks, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> -<li class="isub4">caution, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> -<li class="isub4">partly empty, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> -<li class="isub3">wine, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> -<li class="isub4">when to avoid, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> -<li class="isub4">from lees, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li> -<li class="isub3">must, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> -<li class="isub3">white wine to arrest fermentation, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Sulphurous acid, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> -<li class="isub3">arrests fermentation in two ways, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> -<li class="isub3">aqueous solution of, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> -<li class="isub3">see acetic fermentation, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Sunlight, influence on wine, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> -<li class="isub3">aging by, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Sweet, fortified, liqueur wines, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> -<li class="isub3">defined, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> -<li class="isub3">sweetness of must for, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> -<li class="isub3">natural alcohol in, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> -<li class="isub3">increasing sugar in grapes, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> -<li class="isub3">without fermentation, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> -<li class="isub3">care required, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> -<li class="isub3">alcohol necessary to keep, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> -<li class="isub3">fining, rack before shipping, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> -<li class="isub3">boiling must, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> -<li class="isub3">to be kept on lees, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> -<li class="isub3">sweet muscat, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> -<li class="isub3">pressing, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> -<li class="isub3">marc, use of, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> -<li class="isub3">alcohol, amount to add, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> -<li class="isub3">density of, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> -<li class="isub3">Furmint wine, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> -<li class="isub3">straw wines, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> -<li class="isub3">should not be sulphured, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> -<li class="isub3">influence of heat, aging, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> -<li class="isub4">of sunlight, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> -<li class="isub3">casks for, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> -<li class="isub3">see air, influence of, heat, influence of,</li> -<li class="isub4">red wine, white wine, port,Madeira, sherry.</li> - -<li class="isub1 ifrst">Table wines, see treatment.</li> -<li class="isub3">of substances in wine, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li> -<li class="isub3">of sugar, density, alcohol, hydrometers, see appendix.</li> -<li class="isub1">Tail wines, see white wines.</li> -<li class="isub1">Tanks, see fermenting tanks.</li> -<li class="isub1">Tannin increased by stems, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li> -<li class="isub3">how to know if sufficient, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li> -<li class="isub3">excess of, how avoided <a href="#Page_130">130</a> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</span></li> -<li class="isub4">how removed, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li> -<li class="isub3">when added in fining, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li> -<li class="isub3">tannic acid, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li> -<li class="isub4">use and proportions, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li> -<li class="isub3">from the vine preferred, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> -<li class="isub3">how prepared from seeds, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> -<li class="isub4">from stems, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> -<li class="isub3">tannified wine, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> -<li class="isub3">soaking seeds in wine, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> -<li class="isub1"><i>Taré, vin</i>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Tartaric acid, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li> -<li class="isub3">see wine, California, European, acid in.</li> -<li class="isub1">Tasters, see utensils.</li> -<li class="isub1">Tawny color by age, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> -<li class="isub3">see old wine.</li> -<li class="isub3">flavor by heat, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> -<li class="isub4">in bottles, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Temperature, correction for in sugar testing, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> -<li class="isub3">effect on yeast, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> -<li class="isub3">in fermentation, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li> -<li class="isub3">variation of, aging, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> -<li class="isub3">see heat, cellars, hydrometers.</li> -<li class="isub1">Testing for sugar in must, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> -<li class="isub3">in wine, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li> -<li class="isub1"><i>Têtes</i>, see white wines.</li> -<li class="isub1">Tin, affected by wine, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Tipping casks, implements for, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Tithe wines, see cutting.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>Tourné, vin</i>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li> -<li class="isub1"><i>Travail, goût de</i>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Treading in vat, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> -<li class="isub3">crushing, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> -<li class="isub3">aerating must, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Treatment, general, of table wines, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> -<li class="isub4">sweet wines, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> -<li class="isub3">deposits, lees, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> -<li class="isub3">degeneration, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> -<li class="isub3">of Madeira, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> -<li class="isub3">of wine in bottles, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li> -<li class="isub3">see different wines, cellars, racking, fining, aging, etc.</li> -<li class="isub1">Tubes to clean, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Tuns, see casks, cellars.</li> -<li class="isub1">Turbidity in bottles, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li> -<li class="isub3">see lees, deposits, etc.</li> - -<li class="isub1 ifrst">Ulling the casks, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> -<li class="isub3">utensils for, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Unfermented must, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> -<li class="isub3">clarifying, care of, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Unfortified wines, see treatment.</li> -<li class="isub1">Utensils, wooden or metal, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li> -<li class="isub3">effect of wine on metals, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li> -<li class="isub3">cleanliness necessary, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li> -<li class="isub3">different cellar, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li> -<li class="isub3">pitchers of tin and wood, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li> -<li class="isub3">wooden vessels, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li> -<li class="isub3">wooden funnels, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li> -<li class="isub3">adjustable hoop, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li> -<li class="isub3">bottle baskets, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li> -<li class="isub3">graduated measures, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li> -<li class="isub3">tin tasters, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li> -<li class="isub3">hand pump, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li> -<li class="isub3">for removing corks, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li> -<li class="isub3">for stirring, fining, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> -<li class="isub3">for ulling, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> -<li class="isub3">bung screw, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li> -<li class="isub3">bottle washer, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li> -<li class="isub3">bottle drainers, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li> -<li class="isub3">reservoir for filling bottles, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li> -<li class="isub3">corking machines, needles, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li> -<li class="isub3">to remove wax, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> -<li class="isub3">capsuler, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> -<li class="isub3">bottle racks and bins, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> -<li class="isub3">decanting basket, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li> -<li class="isub4">instrument, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li> -<li class="isub3">corkscrews, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li> -<li class="isub3">presses, wine, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> -<li class="isub4">lees, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li> -<li class="isub3">sacks for pressing lees, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li> -<li class="isub3">for tipping a cask, <a href="#Page_95">95</a> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</span></li> -<li class="isub3">rinsing chain, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> -<li class="isub3">visitor to examine casks, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> -<li class="isub3">crushers, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> -<li class="isub3">for racking, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li> -<li class="isub3">for picking grapes, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></li> - -<li class="isub1 ifrst">Variations of temperature, aging, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Valeric acid, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Vats, see fermenting vats.</li> -<li class="isub1">Vatting, long, effects of, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Ventilation, see cellars, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Vessels, see utensils.</li> -<li class="isub1">Vine flowers, see bouquet, artificial.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>Vin de liqueur</i>, see sweet wines.</li> -<li class="isub3"><i>monté</i>, <i>taré</i>, <i>tourné</i>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li> -<li class="isub3"><i>dulce</i>, see sherry.</li> -<li class="isub1">Vinegar, mother of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> -<li class="isub3">see acetic acid, acetic fermentation.</li> -<li class="isub1">Vineyards, acreage of in California, <a href="#Page_vi">vi</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Vinification, essentials the same everywhere, <a href="#Page_vii">vii</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Vinous fermentation, see alcoholic fermentation.</li> -<li class="isub1">Viscous fermentation, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Visitor to examine casks, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Voyage, effect on wine, see aging.</li> - -<li class="isub1 ifrst">Water, necessary to growth of yeast, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Watering must, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> -<li class="isub3">when allowable, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> -<li class="isub3">rule for, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li> -<li class="isub3">wine, rule for, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Wax for sealing corks, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li> -<li class="isub3">how removed, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Weakness in alcohol, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Weight of a liquid, to ascertain, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Whip for stirring, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> -<li class="isub1">White of eggs, see fining.</li> -<li class="isub1">White wine, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> -<li class="isub3">from red and white grapes, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> -<li class="isub3">how differs from red, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> -<li class="isub3">hygienic effects, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> -<li class="isub3">process of making, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> -<li class="isub3">settling and skimming, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> -<li class="isub3">to keep sweet, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> -<li class="isub3">to make dry, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> -<li class="isub3">barrels for, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> -<li class="isub3">filling barrels during fermentation, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> -<li class="isub3">pressing and filling casks, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> -<li class="isub3">different kinds of, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> -<li class="isub3">dry white wines, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> -<li class="isub3">mellow white wines, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> -<li class="isub3">sweet white wines, see sweet wines. <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li> -<li class="isub3">grand white wines, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li> -<li class="isub3">ripening the grapes, <i>pourris</i>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li> -<li class="isub3"><i>têtes</i>, <i>centres</i>, <i>queues</i>, head, middle, tail, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li> -<li class="isub3">treatment of, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li> -<li class="isub3">density of must to keep sweet, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li> -<li class="isub4">dry wines, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> -<li class="isub4">mellow wines, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> -<li class="isub3">summary of rules, racking, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> -<li class="isub3">sulphured to keep from turning yellow, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> -<li class="isub3">bleached with sulphur, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> -<li class="isub3">with blood, milk, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> -<li class="isub3">fermentation arrested by sulphuring, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> -<li class="isub3">fining, see gelatine, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> -<li class="isub4">isinglass, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> -<li class="isub4">white of eggs, blood, milk, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> -<li class="isub3">extracted from lees, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li> -<li class="isub3">with earthy flavor, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> -<li class="isub3">matures earlier than red, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li> -<li class="isub3">mixing with red, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li> -<li class="isub3">in transparent bottles, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Wild taste, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Wine, California, shipments, <a href="#Page_vi">vi</a></li> -<li class="isub4">product, <a href="#Page_vi">vi</a></li> -<li class="isub4">alcohol and acid in, <a href="#Page_ix">ix</a>, <a href="#Page_x">x</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</span></li> -<li class="isub3">European, alcohol and acid in, <a href="#Page_xii">xii</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Wine making, essentials everywhere the same, <a href="#Page_vii">vii</a></li> -<li class="isub3">plastering, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li> -<li class="isub3">grand and common, characteristics, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> -<li class="isub3">red, maturity of, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> -<li class="isub4">new, treatment of, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> -<li class="isub4">old, treatment of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> -<li class="isub4">see red wine.</li> -<li class="isub3">why sulphured, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> -<li class="isub3">how sulphured, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> -<li class="isub3">when to be sulphured, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> -<li class="isub3">effect of heat, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> -<li class="isub3">varies in different casks, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> -<li class="isub3">dry strength of, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> -<li class="isub3">constantly undergoing changes, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> -<li class="isub3">influence of heat, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> -<li class="isub3">preserving by heat, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> -<li class="isub3">weak, see influence of air.</li> -<li class="isub4">heat, sunlight, see aging.</li> -<li class="isub3">suitable for shipment, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> -<li class="isub3">shipping new, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> -<li class="isub3">kinds preferred by <i>gourmets</i>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> -<li class="isub4">which gain most by aging processes, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li> -<li class="isub3">diseased, see defects and diseases.</li> -<li class="isub3">what liable to sour, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li> -<li class="isub3">duration of, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li> -<li class="isub3">lees, see lees.</li> -<li class="isub3">from lees, see lees.</li> -<li class="isub3">composition of, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li> -<li class="isub3">proportion of to grapes, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li> -<li class="isub3">rules for reducing and fortifying, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li> -<li class="isub3">mixing, see cutting.</li> -<li class="isub3">bad, often due to want of cleanliness, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li> -<li class="isub3">should not be left on the lees and finings, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li> -<li class="isub4">unless sweet, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> -<li class="isub3">presses, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> -<li class="isub3">tannified, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> -<li class="isub4">see aging, white wine, red wine, sweet,</li> -<li class="isub4">fortified, new wine, old wine, grand wine,</li> -<li class="isub4">general treatment, frozen wine,</li> -<li class="isub4">the different kinds.</li> -<li class="isub1">Wine in bottles, bottling, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li> -<li class="isub3">when ready for bottling, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li> -<li class="isub3">how long to remain in wood, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li> -<li class="isub3">how prepared for bottling, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li> -<li class="isub3">most favorable time for, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li> -<li class="isub3">bottles, washing, bottle washer, etc., <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li> -<li class="isub4">shot must not be used, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li> -<li class="isub4">draining, drainers, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li> -<li class="isub4">rinsing with wine, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li> -<li class="isub3">sorting, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li> -<li class="isub3">different kinds, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li> -<li class="isub3">materials in glass, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li> -<li class="isub3">filling, adjusting casks, etc., <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li> -<li class="isub4">reservoirs for, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li> -<li class="isub3">corks, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li> -<li class="isub3">corking machines, needles, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li> -<li class="isub3">preparing the corks, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li> -<li class="isub3">how far inserted, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li> -<li class="isub3">sealing corks, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li> -<li class="isub3">sealing wax for, how made, how applied, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li> -<li class="isub3">coloring the wax, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li> -<li class="isub3">capsules and capsuling, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> -<li class="isub3">pincers for removing wax, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> -<li class="isub3">capsuler, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> -<li class="isub3">piling bottles, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> -<li class="isub3">bottle racks and bins, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> -<li class="isub3">treatment of wine in bottles, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li> -<li class="isub3">fermentation in the bottles, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li> -<li class="isub3">deposits, turbidity, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li> -<li class="isub3">bitterness, acrity, ropiness, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> -<li class="isub3">degeneration and putridity, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> -<li class="isub3">decantation, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li> -<li class="isub3">corkscrews, baskets, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li> -<li class="isub3">operation of decanting, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li> -<li class="isub3">decanting instrument, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Wood, wine, how long to remain in, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Wooden utensils preferable, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li> - -<li class="isub1 ifrst">Yeast plant, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> -<li class="isub3">functions of, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> -<li class="isub3">surface and sedimentary, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> -<li class="isub3">conditions of life, physical and chemical, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> -<li class="isub4">temperature, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> -<li class="isub3">action of chemical and physical agents, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> -<li class="isub4">water, sugar, oxygen, etc., necessary, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> -<li class="isub3">origin of ferments, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Yeasty flavor, see lees, flavor of.</li> -<li class="isub1">Yellows, see white wine, sulphuring.</li> -<li class="isub1">Yield of juice by different grapes, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li> -<li class="isub3">wine per ton of grapes, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li> - -<li class="isub1 ifrst">Zinc affected by wine, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li> -</ul> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="footnotes"> -<p class="f150"><b>Footnotes:</b></p> - -<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> -<a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[1]</a> -Pasteur, in his Studies on Beer, says that the reason has not yet -been discovered, but that he has no doubt that it may be attributed, -principally, to the fact that the interstices between the grapes, and -the spaces which the bunch leaves throughout, considerably increase the -volume of air placed at the service of the germs of ferment.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> -<a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">[2]</a> -Ferment cells, however, occur in considerable numbers in the -neighborhood of places where alcoholic fermentation is carried on, and -the germs, perhaps, may be found in the atmosphere near a vineyard, and -in those cases the ferments and their germs may be borne about to some -extent by the wind.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> -<a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">[3]</a> -Machard says about 125 grammes to a tonneau, or 4 or 5 -ounces to 250 gallons of wine.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> -<a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="label">[4]</a> -It must be remembered that he is writing for the cold -climate of the Jura, where the grapes do not naturally acquire -that degree of maturity necessary for sweet wines.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> -<a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="label">[5]</a> -Fermenting house.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> -<a id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6" class="label">[6]</a> -A pipe is 138 wine gallons, or 115 Imperial.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> -<a id="Footnote_7" href="#FNanchor_7" class="label">[7]</a> -Tuns.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> -<a id="Footnote_8" href="#FNanchor_8" class="label">[8]</a> -It will be noticed that Dr. Bleasdale says that the treading is -repeated during active fermentation. Probably different practices -prevail in different localities.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> -<a id="Footnote_9" href="#FNanchor_9" class="label">[9]</a> -About 4¾ to 9½ per cent—say 5 to 10.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> -<a id="Footnote_10" href="#FNanchor_10" class="label">[10]</a> -4.35 per cent.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> -<a id="Footnote_11" href="#FNanchor_11" class="label">[11]</a> -Vizitelli says the arrope is mixed with nine parts of must, and -fermented to make the color, but the other authors say “white wine,” -instead of “must.”</p></div> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="transnote bbox space-above2"> -<p class="f120 space-above1">Transcriber’s Notes:</p> -<hr class="r5" /> -<p class="indent">The illustrations have been moved so that they do not break up - paragraphs and so that they are next to the text they illustrate.</p> -<p class="indent">Typographical and punctuation errors have been silently corrected.</p> -<p class="indent">The corrections listed in the ERRATA have been applied to the text.</p> -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE WINE PRESS AND THE CELLAR ***</div> -<div style='text-align:left'> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will -be renamed. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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