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diff --git a/old/66524-0.txt b/old/66524-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 72cf2af..0000000 --- a/old/66524-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,10776 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Wine Press and the Cellar, by Emmet -Hawkins Rixford - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: The Wine Press and the Cellar - A Manual for the Wine-Maker and the Cellar-Man - -Author: Emmet Hawkins Rixford - -Release Date: October 12, 2021 [eBook #66524] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -Produced by: Tim Lindell and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at - https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images - generously made available by The Internet Archive/American - Libraries.) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE WINE PRESS AND THE CELLAR *** - - - - -Transcriber’s Notes: - - Underscores “_” before and after a word or phrase indicate _italics_ - in the original text. - Equal signs “=” before and after a word or phrase indicate =bold= - in the original text. - Small capitals have been converted to SOLID capitals. - Illustrations have been moved so they do not break up paragraphs. - Typographical and punctuation errors have been silently corrected. - The corrections listed in the ERRATA have been applied to the text. - - - - - THE - WINE PRESS - AND - THE CELLAR. - - A MANUAL FOR - THE WINE-MAKER AND THE CELLAR-MAN. - - By E. H. RIXFORD. - - SAN FRANCISCO: NEW YORK: - PAYOT, UPHAM & CO. D. VAN NOSTRAND. - 1883. - - Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1883, - by E. H. RIXFORD, - In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, - at Washington. - - C. W. GORDON, - Steam Book and Job Printer, - San Francisco, Cal. - -[Illustration] - - - - -PREFACE. - - -In 1876 the Mission grape sold in California for from $7.50 to $10 -per ton, and foreign varieties for from $14 to $18 per ton, and -consequently many vineyardists in districts remote from the market -turned their hogs into the vineyard to gather the fruit. At this -time farmers concluded that it would not pay to grow grapes, and the -vines were rooted out of many vineyards, and the land devoted to the -production of more profitable crops. In 1878, however, the prices -were better, and the Mission grape brought from $12 to $14 per ton, -and the foreign varieties from $22 to $26, and under a growing demand -for California wines, the wine makers in the counties of Sonoma and -Napa have paid during the past three seasons of 1880, 1881, and 1882, -prices ranging from $16 to $22 per ton for Mission, and from $22 to -$35 for other foreign varieties, and in some cases even as high as -$40 per ton for wine grapes of the best varieties; the extremes in -prices depending upon the activity of the competition in the different -localities. Although in California we are accustomed to speak of the -“Mission grape” and the “foreign varieties” in contradistinction, it -may not be amiss to state for the benefit of other than California -readers, that the “Mission” is undoubtedly a grape of European origin, -and was cultivated by the Spanish priests at the missions existing in -the country at the advent of the Americans, and hence the name. And -notwithstanding the existence of our grape, _Vitis Californica_, the -names “native” and “California grape” have been applied to the Mission, -but the word “foreign” is never used in describing it. - -The increase in the price of grapes has followed closely upon the -increase in the demand for our wines, and the production has kept pace -with the demand. - -The annual shipments of wine and brandy from California, commencing -with 1875, according to the reports published from time to time, are as -follows, in gallons: - - Year. Wine. Brandy. - 1875 1,031,507 42,318 - 1876 1,115,045 59,993 - 1877 1,462,792 138,992 - 1878 1,812,159 129,119 - 1879 2,155,944 163,892 - 1880 2,487,353 189,098 - 1881 2,845,365 209,677 - -The figures for 1882, as published, are larger than those for 1881, but -the figures furnished by Mr. Stone, the statistician of the Merchants -Exchange, give wine 2,721,428, brandy, 218,792; from which I am led to -believe that those for 1881 are too large. - -The total production of wine for 1878 has been stated to be from -6,000,000 to 7,000,000 gallons, for 1879, 7,790,000, for 1880, -10,000,000 to 12,000,000 gallons. Notwithstanding the increased acreage -of our vineyards, the product in 1881 fell off one or two million -gallons, and in the second annual report of the State Viticultural -Commission, just published, the loss is estimated at one-third of the -crop, making the product 9,000,000 gallons, or a little less. That of -1882 is about 10,000,000 gallons. - -In 1880 we had about 60,000 acres of vineyards in the State, and -according to Mr. Haraszthy’s report as President of the Viticultural -Commission, contained in the report of the commission last mentioned, -the increase during the first two years after the first organization -of the commission in 1880, amounts to 40,000 acres. Since the date -of his report, April 19, 1882, the acreage must have been largely -increased, and making a liberal allowance for errors, we must have at -least 100,000 acres in vineyards in the State at the present time, -which ought to produce, at a small estimate, 20,000,000 gallons of wine -in five years from now, and in five years more, with the increased -product from the greater age of the vines, and from those planted in -the meantime, the yield ought to be doubled. - -Among those who are now planting vineyards are many who have had -no experience in wine making; and in order that such may have the -advantage of the experience of those of other countries who have spent -their whole lives in perfecting the art, and have had the benefit of -the knowledge derived from generations before them, the author has -prepared the following work, in which he has attempted to lay before -the reader an account of the methods followed in those portions of -Europe, especially France, where the finest wines of the world are -produced. - -What is here given is the result of research on the part of the author -chiefly for his own benefit; and in going over the literature of -the subject of wine making, he failed to find a work in the English -language which is adequate to the needs of the practical wine maker, or -one who intends to become such. There are many good books in the French -language, and, in fact, the principal works on the subject are to be -found in that language. But the authors of many of them have hobbies, -and the practice indicated in a certain connection by one often differs -from that pointed out by another. It, therefore, became necessary to -compare the writings of various authors, and where they differed in -points of practice, to try and find out the reason therefor. This was -not always an easy task; but the author confidently hopes that the -beginner will always find a safe course pointed out to him in the -following pages, and that the experienced viniculturist will have -brought to his mind many things forgotten in the multitude of affairs, -and the experimentalist, to whom we all are looking for further light, -will here find many hints which may assist him in finding out what are -the best methods under the conditions in which we find ourselves in the -infancy of this absorbing industry. - -What forcibly strikes one in reading the works of different authors on -the subject of vinification is, that, notwithstanding the variations in -the methods, there are but few _material_ differences in the practices -in different localities in making a given kind of wine. It is true -that one method makes a red wine, a different one makes a white wine, -that grapes of one degree of ripeness and the corresponding practice -in vinification produces a sweet wine, and another a dry wine, but the -author is convinced that the method and practice which will produce the -best result in a given case in one locality will also produce the best -result in any other. - -If it is found that in the northern and central portions of France it -is insisted that the casks be always kept full, and that in Spain they -are left with a vacant space, it will also be found that this practice -depends upon the alcoholic strength and robustness of the wine. When -the grapes of the more northern regions are artificially matured till -their saccharine strength approaches that of grapes of more southern -climes, then the wine made from their must may safely be treated -according to methods prevailing in the latter regions. If, on the -other hand, the grapes of hot countries are gathered as soon as their -must indicates a density of 20 to 24 per cent., the wine made from -them would be absolutely ruined, if treated as the wine from overripe -grapes, and it must be cared for as the weaker wines of the northern -climes. - -The essentials, then, of good wine making, which include the treatment -in the cellar, are everywhere the same, and they only vary with the -varieties of wine that are to be produced. - -The general climate of California corresponds in many respects with -that of the more southern wine-producing regions of Europe; and the -percentage of sugar carried in the grapes grown in the southern and -interior portions of our State is about the same as that of the musts -of those regions. The musts produced in the central coast counties and -the bay counties of the State, in average seasons, equal, if they do -not exceed, in density the musts of the central and northern portions -of France in their very best seasons. - -The following tables will afford the figures necessary for a comparison -between our wines and those of other countries, as to alcoholic -strength and acidity. The first table is useful as illustrating an -advance in wine making in this State. The earlier wine makers, guided -by the experience derived from residence in the northern viticultural -regions of Europe, or by the information from writers of those -countries, allowed their grapes to arrive at an advanced state of -maturity without considering the different conditions of climate. -Musts, therefore, that were fit only for sweet wines, were treated -according to dry wine methods, and no wonder they were found heady, -used as table wines, with so high a percentage of alcohol. - -The second table shows that we have learned to produce lighter wines, -which means, not only that we are growing grapes that carry less sugar -than the Mission, but chiefly that we do not allow the berries to -become overripe, dried up, under the ardent rays of our constant sun. - -The first figures are from a paper read by the late Major Snyder before -the Napa Wine Growers’ Association, and published in the _Rural Press_, -August 3, 1871, Vol. IV, p. 66. - - Vol. per cent. - Color. Name of Maker. Year. of Alcohol. - White Craig 1867 Foreign grapes 14.4 - “ “ 1870 Mission 13.4 - “ Dresel & Gundlach 1861 14.4 - “ “ 1870 13.3 - “ “ 1862 12.5 - “ “ 1867 13.6 - “ J. R. Snyder 1865 Mission 12.5 - “ “ 1860 12.6 - “ “ 1867 13.3 - “ “ 1868 12.8 - “ A. F. Haraszthy 1871 Foreign 11.5 - “ “ 1870 “ 12.6 - Red Buena Vista Ass’n 1866 16.5 - White “ “ 1871 11.5 - Red “ “ 1871 12.6 - White H. Winkle 1869 Mission 13.2 - “ “ 1871 “ 12.5 - “ L. Goss 1871 Zinfandel 12.8 - -The following figures are from the Report of the Commissioner of -Agriculture of the United States, for 1880, report of the Chemist. It -will be observed that where the name is followed by a †, it is that of -the Eastern dealer, and not that of the maker. - - - DRY RED WINES. - - Per cent. Total - by vol. of acid as - Name. alcohol. Glucose. tartaric. Maker. - - Sonoma Mission, ’79 10.03 None .722 Gretsch & Mayer.† - “ Zinfandel, ’79 9.78 Trace .693 “ “ - Mission 9.29 do .917 B. Dreyfus & Co. - Zinfandel 11.35 do .768 “ “ - Zinfandel, ’78 10.30 do .825 Dresel & Co. - Zinfandel, ’79 11.08 do .798 “ “ - Zinfandel 12.31 do .814 Geo. Hamlin & Co.† - California Claret 10.56 do .903 - Zinfandel 13.24 0.18 .726 - - - DRY WHITE WINES. - - White Hock 17.37 0.09 .855 - White Hock 12.87 0.09 .767 - Muscatel 13.34 0.12 .767 - Sonoma Hock 12.05 0.13 .422 Perkins, Stern & Co.† - Riesling 11.26 Trace .846 Dresel & Co. - Hock 11.35 do .785 “ “ - Dry Muscat 11.44 do .619 Dreyfus & Co. - Zinfandel 11.26 do .590 “ “ - Riesling 12.05 do .696 “ “ - Gutedel 11.70 do .756 “ “ - Hock 9.70 do .723 “ “ - Sonoma Mission, ’78 10.56 do .619 Gretsch & Mayer.† - “ Riesling, ’77(?) 13.15 do .695 “ “ - “ “ ’79 13.15 do .575 “ “ - “ Mission, ’79 10.38 do .619 “ “ - “ Gutedel, ’79 11.87 do .589 “ “ - Dry Muscat ’74(?) 12.40 do .816 “ “ - Zinfandel, ’78 11.96 do .761 “ “ - “ ’79 11.00 do .740 “ “ - - PORT. SWEET WINES. - - California Port 21.89 8.60 .790 - “ “ 20.89 5.78 .510 Kohler & Frohling. - “ “ 18.88 4.49 .755 Dreyfus & Co. - “ “ 19.87 5.88 .370 “ “ - “ “ 15.49 8.60 .486 Perkins, Stern & Co. - “Sunny Slope“ 15.12 11.57 .433 “ “ - Los Angeles 16.52 11.39 .508 Gretsch & Mayer.† - - SHERRY. - - California Sherry. 17.96 .61 .532 - “ “ 16.15 2.45 .721 Dreyfus & Co. - “ “ 16.80 2.20 .573 “ “ - - CHAMPAGNES. - - “Grand Prize“ med. dry 12.49 8.21 .821 Arpad Haraszthy. - “Eclipse,“ extra dry 11.87 6.51 .885 “ “ - - MISCELLANEOUS. - - Gerke’s White 14.74 2.21 .673 Henry Gerke. - Sweet Muscatel 18.58 25.37 .753 Perkins, Stern & Co. - “ “ 22.36 11.59 .366 Dreyfus & Co. - “ “ 22.46 16.94 .331 “ “ - Los Angeles Muscatel 17.08 13.44 .533 Gretsch & Mayer.† - Angelica 11.79 12.48 .489 - “ 13.90 13.25 .347 Perkins, Stern & Co. - “ 18.14 14.81 .430 Dreyfus & Co. - “ 18.78 16.20 .466 Gretsch & Mayer.† - California Malaga 17.70 8.59 .659 Henry Gerke. - -What is particularly striking in the figures last quoted, is the -remarkably high percentage of acid, which far exceeds what we had -hitherto supposed the acidity of our wines to be. Yet as a large -proportion of the total acids was volatile, it may be that the wines -had contracted acidity from improper methods of keeping. - -From Prof. Hilgard’s report of the work done in the viticultural -laboratory of the College of Agriculture of the University of -California, during the years 1881 and 1882, we extract Table V given -in the appendix. The figures for the averages are our own. This report -contains much valuable and interesting information regarding the -work done in the laboratory, and gives many details of the analyses -of these wines, which the limits of this volume will not permit us -to give in full. And those who wish to see the results of the most -complete analysis of California wines ever before made, are referred to -the report itself. - -It will be noticed that the average total acidity of the different -wines mentioned in the table is much lower than that found by the -chemist of the Department of Agriculture. The wines in this table were -furnished by the producer in nearly every case, a few of them having -been produced at the University, and were undoubtedly pure, and in -a fair condition, as samples of badly kept wine would not likely be -furnished by the maker for the purpose of analysis; and the condition -of those analyzed by the chemist at Washington is, at least, doubtful. - -From analyses by R. Fresenius and E. Borgman, tabulated in the _Journal -of the Chemical Society_, London, for April, 1883, from _Zeits. Anal. -Chem._, XXII, 46-58, we extract the following figures, the alcoholic -strength being reduced to volume per cent. as nearly as could be done -from the per cent. by weight in volume without the specific gravity: - - Red White White Red - Main. Main. Hocks. French. French. Moselle. - { Max. 11.76 12.54 12.77 12.17 11.52 10.77 - Alcohol { Min. 11.73 11.00 8.00 11.18 9.91 8.77 - { Aver. 11.75 11.76 10.83 11.67 10.58 10.02 - - { Max. .62 .80 1.01 .71 .58 .95 - Acid { Min. .54 .54 .48 .54 .48 .64 - { Aver. .58 .69 .66 .62 .54 .79 - -And from the analyses given in the work of Thudichum and Dupré, we -deduce the following: - - - THIRTY-FIVE GERMAN WINES. - Vol. per cent. { Maximum 14.45 Acid as { Maximum .823 - Alcohol. { Minimum 9.15 tartaric.{ Minimum .416 - { Average 10.00 { Average .543 - - SIX FRENCH CLARETS. - { Maximum 12.38 { Maximum .645 - Alcohol { Minimum 10.42 Acid { Minimum .548 - { Average 10.95 { Average .593 - - FOUR BURGUNDIES. - { Maximum 14.97 { Maximum .668 - Alcohol { Minimum 11.54 Acid { Minimum .495 - { Average 12.78 { Average .562 - - ELEVEN SHERRIES. - { Maximum 22.75 { Maximum .626 - Alcohol { Minimum 17.03 Acid { Minimum .372 - { Average 20.93 { Average .476 - - SIX SO-CALLED NATURAL SHERRIES. - { Maximum 18.87 { Maximum .510 - Alcohol { Minimum 16.60 Acid { Minimum .397 - { Average 17.37 { Average .454 - - ELEVEN PORT WINES. - { Maximum 23.34 { Maximum .510 - Alcohol { Minimum 18.04 Acid { Minimum .398 - { Average 21.50 { Average .424 - - TEN HUNGARIAN WINES. - { Maximum 14.55 { Maximum .716 - Alcohol { Minimum 11.55 Acid { Minimum .570 - { Average 12.85 { Average .637 - -The analyses of many other wines are given, and many other details -which would be of little use to the practical man, belonging rather to -the domain of the chemistry of wines. - -There is a vast field open to the wine maker of this State, for we -have differences of soil and climate suitable for the production of a -wonderful variety of wines. But every man must decide for himself what -kind of wine his soil and situation are best adapted to produce, and -his aim then should be to produce the best of that kind. - -Thanks to the work of the State Viticultural Commission, we are -beginning to learn what varieties of grapes are best suited to the -different districts of the State. It is true that only a beginning -has been made, and the actual work of experimenting in this direction -can only be carried on by the practical viticulturists themselves. -It is for the Commission to bring order out of chaos, and furnish -for the information of the public the results of the labors of the -experimenters in the field. - -Through the endeavors of the Commission, and especially of its chief -executive Viticultural officer, Mr. Charles A. Wetmore, who has an -extended knowledge of the different varieties of grapes grown in the -State, and where they are produced, the viticulturists are beginning -to compare notes, and an exchange of knowledge is now going on, which -without the Commission would be impossible. - -It is not within the scope of this work to enter into the details of -vine planting, or to point out what particular varieties of grapes -should be planted in the different sections, and probably the time to -produce a work which would convey definite and satisfactory information -on the latter subject has not yet arrived. As fast as reliable -information is acquired, it will undoubtedly be made known by the -Commission, and every intended vine grower should carefully study its -reports, as well as to keep himself familiar with the discussions of -the local viticultural societies, and those of the general conventions. - -If every grower in the State will only devote a portion of his ground -to the cultivation of the choicest varieties of grapes, making sure -that he knows what he is cultivating, will use the best methods of -vinification, preserve each kind of wine by itself, or keep a careful -record of his blends, and will age and rear the different products -according to the best and most intelligent methods, the writer -confidently expects that favored spots will be found in time which -will produce wines that will compare favorably with the fine wines of -Europe; and we may even venture to hope that some lucky individual will -find that he is possessed of a vineyard that will make his name famous -as the producer of a grand wine equal to the most renowned wines of the -world. - -The writer lays claim to but very little originality in the following -pages. What the intended wine maker wants is not new, untried theories, -but the results of the experience of others who have already labored in -the field, in order that he may not spend his time in inventing methods -which, later he learns, have already been tried by the laborers before -him. - -In this connection, the author makes his acknowledgments to the -following authors and their productions, as well as to others -mentioned in the body of the work. And if, in some cases, he has -failed to give credit where it is due, it is because the information -remains, but the source is forgotten. - - A. DU BREUIL, Les Vignobles et les Arbres et - Fruits à Cidre, Paris, 1875. - - DR. JULES GUYOT, Culture de la Vigne et - Vinification, Paris, 1861. - - HENRI MACHARD, Traité Pratique sur les Vins, - Bensançon, 1874. - - RAIMOND BOIREAU, Culture de la Vigne, - Traitement des Vins, Vinification, Distillation, etc., - 2 vols., Bordeaux, 1876. - - A. HARASZTHY, Grape Culture, Wines, and - Wine Making, New York, 1862, including translations - of JOHANN CARL LEUCHS on Wine Making, and - DR. L. GALL, Improvement in Wine Making. - - L. PASTEUR, on Fermentation, Annales de - Chimie, 3 Series, Vol. LVIII, p. 330. - - JOSEPH BOUSSINGAULT, Sur la Fermentation des - Fruits á Noyau Annales de Chimie, 4 Series, Vol. VIII, p. 210. - - M. BOUSSINGAULT, Expériences pour constater - la perte en sucre dans le sucrage du moût de du marc de - raisin. Annales de Chimie, 5 Series, Vol. VII, p. 433. - - ANDRE PELLICOT, Le Vigneron Provençal, - Montpellier, 1866. - - HENRY VIZITELLI, Facts about Sherry, London, - 1876; Facts about Port and Madeira, London, 1880. - - J. L. W. THUDICHUM and AUGUST - DUPRE, Origin, Nature, and Varieties of Wine, - London, 1872. - - N. BASSET, Guide Théorique et Pratique du - Frabricant d’Alcool et du Distillateur. - - J. J. GRIFFIN, Chemical Testing of Wines and - Liquors, London. - - L. F. DUBIEF, Traité Complet Théorique et - Pratique de Vinification ou Art de Faire du Vin, 4 Ed., Paris. - - P. SCHUTZENBERGER, On Fermentation, - International Scientific Series, New York, 1876. - - E. J. MAUMENE, Traité Théorique et Pratique - du Travail des Vins, Paris, 1874. - - M. W. MAIGNE, Nouveau Manuel Complet du - Sommelier et du Marchand de Vins (Manuels-Roret), - Paris, 1874. - - DON PEDRO VERDAD, From Vineyard to Decanter, - a Book about Sherry, London, 1876. - - GEN. E. D. KEYES, Letter to Major J. R. - Snyder, on Sherry making, published in San Francisco - _Daily Evening Bulletin_, May 29, 1877. - - PROF. E. W. HILGARD, Report of work done - in the Viticultural Laboratory under the charge of - F. W. Morse, University of California, College of Agriculture; - Report of 1882, State Printer, Sacramento, 1883. - - August, 1883. - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - PREFACE. - - Prices of grapes in California from 1876 to 1882, the - Mission grape, v; annual shipments of wine and - brandy from California, annual production of wine, - acreage of vines, probable future production of - wine, vi; objects of this book, want of works on - the subject in English, method of vinification - varies with kind of wine rather than with locality - or climate, vii; climate of California and density - of must similar to those of southern Europe, viii; - comparison between California and European wines, - viii-xiii; State Viticultural Commission, xiii; - advice to grape growers, xiv; acknowledgments by - the author, list of authorities, xv. - - CHAPTER I. - GATHERING THE GRAPES—MATURITY. - Utensils for picking, number of pickers necessary, - when to commence, 1; when to gather, successive - gathering, 2; sorting the grapes, requisite degree - of maturity, 3; signs of ripeness, gathering before - complete maturity, 4; gathering after complete - maturity, ripeness according to required strength, 5. - - CHAPTER II. - MUST. - Composition, grape sugar, 6; must-scale, 7; testing for - sugar, 8; correcting for temperature, 10; sugar and - alcohol, alcohol in wine, 11. - - CHAPTER III. - SUGARING AND WATERING MUST. - Sugaring, 13; nothing gained by adding sugar, 15; cost - of glucose wine, 16; experiment with glucose, the - use of glucose condemned, 17; watering, 18. - - CHAPTER IV. - STEMMING AND CRUSHING. - Diversity of opinion on stemming, effect of stemming, - proper practice, 20; to estimate tannin, stemmers, - 21; how to remove the stems, crushing, methods of - crushing, 22; aerating the must, crushers, 23; - rapidity of operation, special practice, 24. - - CHAPTER V. - FERMENTATION—ITS CAUSES. - Several different kinds of fermentation, alcoholic - fermentation, the yeast plant, 25; functions of - yeast, normal conditions of the life of yeast, 26; - action of various chemical and physical agents, - 28; viscous or mannitic fermentation, lactic - fermentation, 29; acetic fermentation, 30; origin - of ferments, 31; ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION IN WINE - MAKING: vinous or alcoholic fermentation, - sugar, 32; alcohol by weight and by volume, 33; - fermentation, its products, per cent., sugar to per - cent. alcohol, different authors, 34; limits of - sugar and spirit, 36; temperature, 37; fermenting - houses, 38. - - CHAPTER VI. - RED WINE. - Coloring matter, fermenting tanks or vats, filling the - tanks, 39; open vats, closed vats, 40; the best - practice, 41; hermetically sealed tanks, practice - in the Médoc, stirring the pomace in the vat, 42; - when to draw from the vat, 43; the objections to - long vatting, in making fine wines, 44; how to know - when to draw from the vat, method of drawing from - the vat and filling the casks, 45; wine presses, - 46; pressing and press wine, special practice - for fine wines, TREATMENT OF RED WINES: - insensible fermentation, 47; ulling or filling up, - 48; summary of the rules for the treatment of new - red wines, 50; treatment of old red wines, 51; - summary of rules for the care of old red wines, 53. - - CHAPTER VII. - WHITE WINE. - Made from both red and white grapes, differences - between red and white wine, hygienic effect of - red and white wine, 54; process of making, the - barrels, filling the barrels during fermentation, - 55; pressing and filling, different kinds of white - wine, dry white wines, mellow white wines, 56; - sweet white wines, grand white wines, 57; treatment - of white wines, to keep sweet, 58; dry white wines, - mellow white wines, 59; summary of rules, racking, 60. - - CHAPTER VIII. - CASKS. - Different woods, oak wood, storing casks, 61; new - casks, 62; old casks, rinsing chain, visitor to - examine the inside of a cask, 63; empty casks, - washing, sulphuring casks, condition to be - examined, 64; flatness in the cask, acidity, mouldy - casks, 65; rottenness, brandy casks, caution as to - sulphuring, cask borers, 66; size of casks, 67. - - CHAPTER IX. - SULPHURING. ARRESTING FERMENTATION. - Sulphuring casks, must and wine, sulphurous oxide or - sulphur dioxide, the sulphurer or sulphur burner, - 69; sulphur matches or bands, to sulphur a cask, - 70; to sulphur wine, sulphuring should be avoided - in certain cases, 71; arresting fermentation, - unfermented must, prepared in two ways, 72; - clarification and care of unfermented must, - sulphur flavor, 73; other substances to arrest - fermentation, burning alcohol, aqueous solution of - sulphurous acid, bisulphite of lime, 74; salicylic acid, 75. - - CHAPTER X. - AGING.—EFFECTS OF VARIOUS INFLUENCES. - General considerations, how new wine differs from - old, development of bouquet and flavor, old wine, - characteristics of, 76; color, aroma, flavor, - influences which develop, also destroy, influence - of the air, 77; variations of temperature, - influence of heat, 78; aging by heat, 79; - preserving wine by heat, 80; influence of cold, - treatment of frozen wine, 81; influence of light, - aging by sunlight, effect of motion of voyages, - wines suitable for shipment, 82; shipping new - wine, 83; other motions, aging by fining, aging - generally, 84; wines which gain the most by aging - processes, 85. - - CHAPTER XI. - GENERAL TREATMENT—CELLARS. - Unfortified or table wines, deposits, lees, etc., - 86; to prevent degeneration, CELLARS: - temperature, 87; dampness, ventilation, - evaporation, 88; other precautions, supports for - casks and tuns, 89. - - CHAPTER XII. - RACKING. - Object of, time for, conditions indispensable for - a good racking, 91; new red wines, 92; old red - wines, new white wines, first racking, subsequent - rackings, 93; care to be observed, other - precautions, 94; different methods of racking, - implements for tipping the cask, 95; racking - without contact with the air, pumps and siphons, 97. - - CHAPTER XIII. - CLARIFICATION—FINING. - Objects of fining, different substances employed, - gelatinous substances, 99; gelatine, its - preparation, isinglass, fish glue, or ichthyocol, - 100; albuminous substances, blood, milk, white of - eggs, 101; clarifying powders, gum arabic, addition - of salt, addition of alcohol, addition of tannin, - preparation, 102; method of operation, implements - for stirring, 103. - - CHAPTER XIV. - SWEET WINES—FORTIFIED WINES. - Generally, to increase sugar in must, without - fermentation, care required, 105; clarification, - boiling must, left on the lees, 106; sweet - muscat, pressing, marc of sweet wines, amount - of alcohol to be added, density, furmint wine, - 107; straw wine, PORT WINE in the Upper - Douro: the must, lagars, etc., 108; treading, - fermentation, Vizitelli’s description, 109; lodges - or storehouses, mixing, port loses color in wood, - alcoholic strength and loss by evaporation, 112; - MADEIRA: making, casks, treatment, heating - house, heating, 113; solera system, ullage, - alcohol, 114; SHERRY: climate, vintage, - crushing, gypsum, 115; pressing, 116; plastering, - fermenting, adding spirit, 117; bodegas or - storehouses, changes in the wine, fino, oloroso, - basto, flowers, 118; sweet wine, vino dulce, color - wine, vino de color, arrope, 119; mature wine, - THE SOLERA SYSTEM: establishing a solera, - 120; standard soleras and their foundation, 121; - blending for shipment, 122; formulas, fining, 124. - - CHAPTER XV. - DEFECTS AND DISEASES. - Divided into two classes, general considerations, - 125; NATURAL DEFECTS: earthy flavor, its - causes, 126; how prevented, treatment, 127; wild - taste and grassy flavor, greenness, causes, 128; - prevention, treatment, 129; roughness, causes, not - a fault, disappears in time, how avoided, 130; - how removed, bitterness, causes, how prevented, - treatment, taste of the stems, 131; sourness, - causes, how prevented, treatment, 132; alcoholic - weakness, how avoided, treatment, 133; want of - color, causes, how guarded against, treatment, - dull, bluish, lead-colored wine and flavor of - the lees, causes, 134; treatment, 135; putrid - decomposition, causes, 136; how avoided, treatment, - different defects together, ACQUIRED DEFECTS - AND DISEASES: flat wines, flowers, causes, - 137; prevention, 138; treatment, 139; sourness, - acidity, pricked wine, causes, what wine liable - to, 140; how prevented, treatment, 141; experiment - before treatment, 142; Machard’s treatment, other - methods, 144; cask flavor, barrel flavor, causes, - 145; treatment, 146; mouldy flavor, causes, - prevention and treatment, foreign flavors, 147; - ropiness, causes, treatment, ropy wines in bottles, - and other treatment, 148; acrity, treatment, - bitterness, 149; treatment, two kinds according - to Maumené, 150; fermentation, taste of the lees, - yeasty flavor, 151; how prevented, treatment, - degeneration, putrid fermentation, duration of - different wines, 152; treatment, 153. - - CHAPTER XVI. - WINE IN BOTTLES. - When ready for bottling, how long to remain in wood, - 154; how prepared for bottling, the most favorable - time for bottling, 155; bottles, 156; filling - the bottles, 157; corks, 158; corking machines, - 159; preparation of the corks, driving in corks, - 160; sealing corks, sealing wax, applying the - same, coloring same, 161; capsules, capsuling, - piling bottles, 162; racks and bins for bottles, - 164; treatment of wine in bottles, fermentation - in bottles, 165; deposits and turbidity, 166; - bitterness and acrity, ropiness, degeneration - and putridity, 167; decantation, 168; operation, - instrument, 169. - - CHAPTER XVII. - CUTTING OR MIXING WINES. - Most French wines mixed, when necessary, effect of, - 171; wines of same nature should be used, fine - wines, 173; ordinary wines, must be allowed - sufficient time, large quantities, new and old - wine, green wines, 174; white and red wines, - diseased wines, mixing grapes, precaution, 175. - - CHAPTER XVIII. - WINE LEES, MARC, AND PIQUETTE. - Pomace and lees often placed in the still, WINE - LEES: the lees should be cared for, quantity - of wine in lees, constituents of dry lees, - analysis, vary, 176; treatment of lees, 177; - extraction of wine from the lees, 178; fining the - wine from the lees, 179; red wine from lees, white - wine from lees, pressing the sediment, 180; use - of dry lees, MARC OR POMACE—PIQUETTE: - unfermented marc of white wine or of red wine not - entirely fermented, fermented marc of red wine, - washing the marc, Pezeyre’s method, 183. - - CHAPTER XIX. - THE COMPOSITION OF WINE. - Generally, 185; table of substances recognized, - 186; alcohol, estimate of, 187; ethers, sugar, - estimate of, 190; mannite, mucilage and mellowness, - 191; pectose, pectin, fatty matter, glycerin, - coloring matter, aldehydes, 192; acids, tartaric, - malic, citric, pectic, tannic, carbonic, 193; - acetic, lactic, valeric, succinic, total acids, - the bouquet, artificial bouquet, 194; Maumené’s - experiment, 195; different substances employed, - iris, 196; strawberry, gillyflower or stockgilly, - 197; vine flowers, mignonette, nutmeg, bitter - almonds and fruit pits, sassafras, 198; other - aromas, effects, 199. - - CHAPTER XX. - GENERAL CHAPTER—MISCELLANEOUS. - Proportion of juice to marc, 200; proportion of wine - to grapes, 201; wooden and metal utensils, 202; - cleanliness, 203; different cellar utensils, 204, - 205; USEFUL RULES: to ascertain the - weight of a given number of gallons of a liquid, - for reducing must, for sugaring must, 206; for - fortifying and reducing wines, to reduce with - water, 207; to reduce with weaker or fortify with - stronger wine or alcohol, PLASTERING, - 208; common practice in Spain and southern France, - objects, chemical effects, 209; effects on health, - 210; plastering sherry, quantity used, 212; by - adding water, sherry flavor, 213. - - APPENDIX. - Sugar tables: Table I, Balling’s degrees (per cent. - sugar), corresponding degrees Baumé, and specific - gravity at 63½° F., 215; Table II, Baumé’s - degrees, corresponding degrees Balling (per cent. - sugar), and specific gravity at 63½° F. 216; - Table III, Baumé’s degrees and corresponding per - cent. sugar, at 60° F. 217; Alcohol table, Table - IV, showing per cent. by volume for every one-tenth - per cent. from 0.1 to 30 per cent., corresponding - per cent. by weight, and specific gravity, 218-19; - Table V, showing amount of alcohol and acid in - different California wines, 220-23. - - - - -LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. - - - Fig. Page. - 1. HYDROMETER 8 - 2. HYDROMETER-JAR 9 - 3. WOODEN STEMMER 21 - 4. CRUSHER 23 - 5. FERMENTING VAT 41 - 6. WINE PRESSES 46 - 7. } ULLING POTS } 49 - 8. } } - 9. } Z FUNNELS } 49 - 10.} } - 11. RINSING CHAIN } 63 - 12. VISITOR FOR EXAMINING THE INSIDE OF A CASK } - 13. SULPHURER } 69 - 14. MAUMENE’S SULPHURER } - 15. CASK AND SUPPORT 89 - 16. JACK FOR TIPPING A CASK } 95 - 17. FORK FOR TIPPING A CASK } - 18. } IMPLEMENTS FOR TIPPING A CASK } 96 - 19. } } - 20. A METHOD OF RACKING } 97 - 21. } SIPHONS } - 22. } } - 23. ROTARY FORCE PUMP 98 - 24. } } - 25. } IMPLEMENTS FOR STIRRING } 103 - 26. } } - 27. BOTTLE WASHER } - 28. } BOTTLE DRAINERS } 156 - 29. } } - 30. RESERVOIRS FOR FILLING BOTTLES 157 - 31. BUNG SCREW 158 - 32. CORKING MACHINES 159 - 33. CORKING MACHINES AND NEEDLES 160 - 34. PINCERS FOR REMOVING WAX } 162 - 35. CAPSULER } - 36. PILING BOTTLES 163 - 37. } BOTTLE RACKS } 164 - 38. } } - 39. BURROW’S SLIDER BIN 165 - 40. DECANTING BASKET } - 41. CORKSCREWS } 169 - 42. DECANTING INSTRUMENT } - - - - -ERRATA - - - On page 216, Table II, read 63½° F, instead of 93½° F. - - On page 218, Table IV, opposite 13.6 by volume, read - 11.00 per cent. by weight, instead of 10.10. - - On page 219, Table IV, opposite 17.03 by weight, read - 20.9 by volume, instead of 20.7; and opposite 23.4 by - volume, read .97251 specific gravity, instead of .96251. - - On page 222 read Tienturier instead of Tenturier. - - - - -THE WINE PRESS AND THE CELLAR. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -GATHERING THE GRAPES—MATURITY. - - -The first step in wine making proper, is the gathering of the grapes, -or “picking,” as it is usually termed in California. - -=Utensils for Picking.=—Knives, scissors, and pruning shears are used -to cut the stems, and every one will adopt the tool that he finds most -convenient in practice; but if the berries are inclined to drop off, -scissors or pruning shears are preferable. Some authors give minute -descriptions of receptacles of various sizes and forms in which to -gather the grapes, but the practice in that respect usually followed -in this State will be found the most convenient. The grapes here are -generally picked directly into boxes holding about fifty pounds. The -box is provided with an oblong hole at each end near the top, or three -or four holes bored with an inch auger, by which the picker can easily -move it from vine to vine, and one man can carry it with both hands -to the wagon. These boxes are piled on the wagon without emptying, -transported to the wine house, and brought back empty, to be filled -again. - -=Number of Pickers necessary—When to Commence.=—There ought to be a -sufficient number of men employed in picking to fill at least one -fermenting vat in a day, in making red wine. If, however, circumstances -render this impossible, it would be well to pile up the grapes on a -good clean floor, under cover, till sufficient are gathered to fill -the tank, and then crush them, and fill the tank in one day. (See _Red -Wine_.) Picking ought to commence as soon as the grapes are of a fair -average ripeness, beginning with the earliest and ending with the -latest variety. In the chapter on musts, we shall endeavor to indicate -the requisite maturity of the grapes, and it will there appear that -they may become too ripe by remaining too long on the vine, so that -it is very important that a sufficient number of pickers should be -employed to finish the gathering as promptly as possible, and before -too much sugar is developed. (See _Musts_.) - -=When to Gather.=—It is of little importance at what time of the day -the grapes are picked, whether in the cool of the morning or the heat -of mid-day, or whether the dew is on or off, as long as they are ripe. -In some countries, however, and in what are known as bad years, the -grapes do not arrive at complete maturity, and therefore great care -is taken to gather them only in dry weather, and after the dew has -disappeared. (See _Fermentation—Temperature_.) If they are picked -during the heat of the day, fermentation will commence sooner than if -picked in the cool of the morning; and for this reason, in making white -wine from colored grapes, care should be taken to pick and press them -when cool, if it is desired that the wine should be free from color; -for if the slightest fermentation sets in before pressing, as it is apt -to do if the grapes are warm, some of the coloring matter is pretty -sure to be extracted from the skins and will discolor the wine. - -=Successive Gathering.=—It is sometimes recommended that the grapes -should be gathered as they ripen, by going over a vineyard two or three -times, and picking off not only the bunches that are ripe, leaving the -green ones, but even picking off separately three or four grapes from -each bunch where it is not evenly ripened, and this is the practice -that is followed to-day in making the great white wines of France and -Germany; but it certainly will not be adopted in this State while labor -is as dear, and wine is as cheap as it is at present. Instead, that -practice will be followed which is recommended by those writers who -advise that the grapes of each variety be left on the vines till they -are all fairly ripe, and that they be gathered clean at one picking. -Where, however, different varieties are planted in the same vineyard, -which ripen at different periods, those only should be picked at the -same time which ripen together. Gather the early ones first, and the -later ones successively as they ripen, but pick clean. The same rule -also applies to grapes of the same variety, but grown on different -soils and in different situations, as it is well known that the same -variety of vine will ripen its grapes on high land and poor soil, -earlier than on low land and rich soil. - -=Sorting the Grapes.=—It will frequently happen, however, that there -are some bunches of green grapes, and they should always be thrown -aside, if picked with the others. Sometimes, also, there is what is -called a second crop, which ripens so much later than the main one that -two gatherings are necessary. In that case it would be injurious to the -grapes of the earlier crop to leave them on the vine till the complete -maturity of those of the second. Careful wine makers, therefore, will -find it to their advantage, either to leave the green grapes upon the -vines for a second picking, or, if all are picked together, to throw -the green ones into a separate receptacle, or to sort them out from the -ripe ones before crushing. Those who wish to take extra care will even -have the unripe, rotten, and dried berries clipped from the bunches -with scissors. These extra precautions are those which are observed -in making the great wines of Europe; but they are not suggested here -in the expectation that they will be generally followed by the wine -makers of California, but rather for the purpose of indicating the best -practices to those who may find out that on account of the varieties -they cultivate, and of the situation and soil of their vineyards, they -too can produce such wines by using the same care. - -=Requisite Degree of Maturity.=—It is insisted by all intelligent -writers on the subject, that, with possible exceptions, which will be -mentioned, the grapes should not be gathered till they have arrived -at a state of complete maturity. Without this, wines from the finest -varieties of grapes would not possess that beauty of color, that -delicious flavor, that fragrant bouquet, and that alcoholic strength -which they possess in so eminent a degree. And if it is so necessary -that the grapes of fine varieties should be thoroughly ripe, it is -quite as important that those of the poorer varieties should be equally -so. For these latter are generally wanting in sugar, and consequently -their wines are feeble in strength, and as the sugar increases directly -with the degree of maturity of the grape, so the quantity of alcohol in -their wines increases accordingly, and thus by ripeness they make up -for their natural defects. - -=Signs of Ripeness.=—Complete maturity of the grape is indicated by the -concurrence of the following signs: - - 1. The stem of the bunch changes from green to brown. - 2. The bunch becomes pendant. - 3. The berry has lost its firmness; the skin has become - thin and translucent. - 4. The berries are easily separated from the stem. - 5. The juice of the grape has acquired an agreeable - flavor; has become sweet, thick, and glutinous. - 6. The seeds have become void of glutinous substances. - -These are the signs given by several French authors, and are here -taken from Prof. Du Breuil, who says, nevertheless, that, under some -circumstances the grapes should be gathered before arriving at the -state of maturity indicated by these signs, and under other conditions -should be gathered even later. He says: - -=Gathering before Complete Maturity.=—1. In certain localities north of -the viticultural region the grape hardly ever arrives at the degree of -maturity just indicated. Yet the crop must be gathered, or otherwise it -would rot on the vines. Under these circumstances, the only thing that -can be done is to leave the grapes on the vine as long as they derive -any benefit from it. - -2. Grapes intended to make sparkling wine should also be gathered -before the moment of absolute maturity. - -3. In the southern part of France, white grapes intended for the making -of dry wines, ought to be picked before reaching the last degree of -maturity. Otherwise, in that hot climate, the quantity of sugar in the -grape would increase to such an extent that it would be impossible to -make a dry wine. This is the practice in making the dry white wines of -Lunel, of Coudrieux, of the Hermitage, and of Saint Peray. - -4. For all the ordinary red wines of the region inhabited by the -olive, if the gathering of the grapes is delayed till the last degree -of ripeness, the must will contain more sugar than can be transformed -into alcohol by fermentation. The result will be that these wines -will undergo a sort of continuous fermentation, which will make its -appearance whenever they are moved, and which will soon change into -acetic fermentation. The only way to cure this tendency and to render -the wines capable of shipment, is to strongly fortify them by the -addition of spirits. To prevent this difficulty in the first place, the -grapes should be gathered before complete maturity. - -Some very respectable authors, whose experience has been confined to -the colder wine making regions, tell us that in all cases the grapes -should be allowed to remain on the vine as long as they gain in sugar, -and that in order to correct the excess that they would thus in many -cases acquire, they recommend that the must be reduced by water. (See -_Watering Musts_.) - -=Gathering after Complete Maturity.=—To make sweet wines, the grapes -should remain on the vine until they have developed the greatest -possible quantity of sugar. For this purpose the grapes are not only -allowed to shrivel before gathering, but also artificial means are -resorted to, such as twisting the stem, or drying them on straw after -picking, and even applying heat to them in various ways. (See _Sweet -Wines_.) - -=Ripeness according to Required Strength.=—If the wine maker will -first determine how strong in alcohol he wishes his wines to be, he -may anticipate the result approximately by testing from time to time -the amount of sugar contained in the grapes, and by gathering them -at the period when the sugar in the juice shows that, fermented, it -will produce the desired percentage of spirit. This testing is easily -performed by the use of the must-scale or the saccharometer; and for -information on this subject, the reader is referred to the chapter on -musts. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -MUST. - - -Must is the name applied to the juice of the grape before fermentation. - -=Composition.=—A good, average must, contains in 100 parts by weight, -the following ingredients, and in the proportions as indicated, by -weight, according to Dr. Guyot; but the amount of sugar would be -considered too small in California: - - Pure water, 78 - Grape sugar (glucose), 20 - Free acids (tartaric, tannic, etc.), 00.25 - Salts, or organic acids (bitartrate), 1.50 - Mineral salts, 0.20 - Nitrogenous, fermentive matter, } - Essential oils, } .05 - Mucilaginous and starchy substances, } - -These constituents vary, however, according to variety of grape, -degree of maturity, soil, climate, etc.; and some of them may rise in -amount to double the average quantity given, or may even, under some -circumstances, descend to the one-fourth of it. Although all these -ingredients doubtless have important effects upon the quality of the -wine produced by fermentation, the acid giving zest and freshness of -taste, and the other minor ingredients, smoothness or harshness, as -the case may be, yet the principal one that we have to deal with is -the sugar, and it is the only one that the practical wine maker will -give much attention to, although in those countries where the grape in -some seasons does not ripen, the amount of acid is an important element -to be taken into consideration in testing the specific gravity of the -must. (See _Composition of Wines_, for further details.) - -=Grape Sugar=, or glucose, as it is known in chemical language, as -already remarked, is the most important element entering into the -composition of must, and upon its quantity depends directly the amount -of alcohol contained in the wine. The intelligent wine maker, then, who -wishes to know what will be the alcoholic strength of the wine produced -by the must which he is about to subject to the action of fermentation, -will test the must to ascertain what percentage of sugar it contains. -This is very easily done by the use of an instrument prepared for the -purpose. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 1._ Hydrometer.] - -=Must-Scale.=—A certain quantity of sugar being heavier than the same -volume of water—pure cane sugar weighing about one and six-tenths to -one of water—it follows that the more sugar there is added to a given -quantity of water the heavier it becomes, and the more it will bear up -anything floating on it; or, as it is generally stated, the less of the -liquid will be displaced by the floating body. On this principle, the -specific gravity of liquids, or their weight as compared with water, is -ascertained. The instrument employed is known by the general name of -areometer, but it is now more commonly called a hydrometer, and various -specific names are given to it according to the uses for which it is -intended. When constructed for testing the strength of sugar syrups it -is called a syrup-scale, saccharometer, _pèse-sirop_, etc., and those -especially for testing musts are called must-scales, _pèse-moût_, etc. -These latter are constructed on the theory that the liquid contains -only cane sugar and water—the difference in specific gravity between -cane sugar and grape sugar being disregarded—and that its density -depends on the quantity of sugar; and although the density of must is -somewhat affected by other solid matters than sugar contained in it, -yet these instruments, whether syrup-scales or must-scales proper, -will give results sufficiently accurate for the purposes of the wine -maker, a small allowance being made for the other solids, as hereafter -mentioned. There are three instruments which are the most generally -used in this country: Oechsle’s must-scale, Balling’s saccharometer or -syrup-scale, and Baumé’s syrup-scale, or _pèse-sirop_. The degrees of -Oechsle’s instrument indicate specific gravity in the manner mentioned -under Table I; Balling’s indicates percentages of sugar directly; and -Baumé’s degrees are arbitrary. (See Tables II and III.) There are -other instruments used in France—the gleuco-œnometer, reading upwards -for spirit and down for sugar on the same stem, corresponding in -degrees to Baumé’s—and the gleucometer, which indicates at once the -percentage of alcohol which the wine will contain after fermentation. -Baumé’s and Balling’s instruments are better suited for use in -California, where the musts often show a specific gravity higher than -is indicated by Oechsle’s scale, which frequently is graduated only -up to 80 deg., or 19.75 per cent. of sugar. They are all made on the -same general plan, and are usually constructed of glass. The instrument -consists of a tube about the size of a pipe-stem, terminating below -in a bulb or expansion, weighted at the bottom so that it will stand -upright and float when placed in a liquid. The scale is marked on the -stem, commencing at the top and numbering downward. The first mark is -zero, and shows how far the hydrometer sinks in pure water. (Fig. 1.) -As hydrometers are not always accurate, it is safer before using one -to have it tested by a chemist or a gauger, as but few others have the -necessary skill or the instruments requisite for that purpose. If, -however, an instrument which has been tested is accessible, another one -can be easily compared with that by ascertaining if both sink to the -same point in the same sugar solutions. - - -TESTING FOR SUGAR. - -Any person, provided with one of the hydrometers mentioned, can easily -ascertain the percentage of sugar contained in any must with tolerable -accuracy, providing the grapes from which it is pressed are ripe; for -if they are green, and contain an undue amount of acid, the density -will be materially affected by that. There is no occasion, however, for -making wine from green grapes in this State. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 2._ Hydrometer-Jar.] - -In addition to the hydrometer, it is necessary to be provided with -a thermometer with which to ascertain the temperature of the must. -Besides the hydrometer and the thermometer, the only other article -necessary is a glass tube closed at the bottom and provided with a -foot, so that it will stand upright, called the hydrometer-jar. (Fig. -2.) This jar should have a diameter a little greater than that of the -bulb of the hydrometer, and must be of such a height that the latter -instrument will stand upright and float freely in it, when filled -with a liquid. In the absence of the hydrometer-jar, an empty fruit -jar, or a tall tin cup or can will answer its purpose. In performing -the operation, see that all the articles used are perfectly clean, -more particularly the hydrometer, for anything that would slightly -affect its weight would render the result of the test useless. Having -taken this precaution, press the juice from a small quantity of -grapes and strain it through a cloth, and pour sufficient into the -hydrometer-jar, that when the hydrometer is plunged into it, it will -just bring the level of the liquid to the upper edge of the vessel, or -to such a height that the figure on the stem can easily be read. Now -place the thermometer in the must and ascertain its temperature, for -the instruments are intended to be used at a certain degree of heat, -although three or four degrees variation either way will not materially -affect the result. Baumé’s instrument, as originally constructed, -was graduated for a temperature of 10° Reamur, which corresponds -with 54½° F.; but as constructed now-a-days, is generally graduated -for a temperature of 58° or 60° F.; and Balling’s and Oechsle’s for -a temperature of 63½° F. Some of Balling’s instruments sold in the -market are graduated for 62° F. If it is found that the temperature is -above or below the degree indicated, it may be lowered by cooling, or -raised by warming, till about the right temperature is reached. Then -the hydrometer, being clean, should be taken by the stem at the top -and gradually lowered into the must until it floats. Press it down -slightly with the finger and let it come to equilibrium, being careful -that there is not a drop of water on the stem above the surface of -the liquid, nor a bubble of air below. On looking at the stem where it -meets the surface, it will be seen that the liquid there curves upwards -around the instrument, and that the top of this curve marks one degree -higher than the general surface. If the reading is taken from the point -marked by the top of the curve (the figures reading downwards), add one -degree, or in other words, ascertain the mark on the stem corresponding -to the general surface of the liquid. If Balling’s scale is used, -the number at this mark shows the percentage of sugar which the must -contains; if Baumé’s is used, consult Table II or III, and opposite -this number will be found the corresponding per cent. of sugar. If -Oechsle’s scale is used, find from Table I or II the specific gravity -and the corresponding sugar per cent. Under Table I instructions will -be found for reading Oechsle’s scale. If Baumé’s instrument is used, -and a table is not at hand, multiply the observed figure by 1.8, and -the product will be nearly the per cent. of sugar. - -=Correction for Temperature.=—It is known that a sugar solution or -a must expands as the temperature increases, and contracts as it -diminishes; and nice experiments have been performed to show the -amount of dilatation and contraction at different temperatures, and -the consequent variation in the specific gravity of the liquid, but -there is considerable difference in the results of the researches of -different authors, and it would seem that further experiments are -necessary; but a rule may be deduced which may be used instead of -changing the temperature of the must to make it correspond with that -for which the instrument is graduated, and although not strictly -correct, is sufficient for our purpose; and that is to add one-half per -cent. to the sugar per cent. indicated by the hydrometer for every 15° -F. above the standard temperature, and subtract ½ per cent. for every -15° below. For instance, if Baumé’s instrument shows 22½ per cent. of -sugar at 75° F., the actual strength is 23 per cent., and it would mark -that at 60°. If the same instrument shows 23½ per cent. at 45° F., the -real strength is 23 per cent. In using Balling’s scale graduated at -63½° F., the 15° in our example would make 78½° for the first supposed -case, and 48½° for the second. - -In most cases the variation in temperature will be so little that it -may be disregarded; but if the test is made soon after the grapes have -been exposed to a hot sun, the must may show a temperature of 90° or -95° F., and it would indicate one per cent. less than its real sugar -strength. But the temperature would go below the freezing point of -water before the must would mark one per cent. too much. - -As the must contains a small quantity of acids and extractive matter -which affect its density, some authors recommend that from one-tenth to -one-fifteenth of the figures indicating the density by Baumé should be -deducted, calling the remainder sugar, and this is about equivalent to -deducting one for every twelve per cent. of sugar. But if the grapes -are ripe and the must is strained, for all practical purposes all of -the solid matter may be called sugar, considering that we make a pretty -liberal allowance of sugar for one per cent. of alcohol. Fresh must -should always be taken for the purpose of testing for sugar, for as -alcohol is much lighter than water, if fermentation has commenced, it -will be impossible to ascertain the amount of sugar by means of the -hydrometer. - -=Sugar and Alcohol.=—It will be shown in the chapter on fermentation -that, in actual practice, it takes about two per cent. of sugar, -as indicated by the hydrometer, to produce one per cent. by volume -of alcohol; therefore, divide the percentage of sugar contained in -the must, as shown by the hydrometer, by two, and the quotient is -approximately the per cent. of alcohol which will be contained in the -wine after complete fermentation. - -=Alcohol in Wine.=—A good, saleable dry wine ought to contain from -eleven to twelve or thirteen per cent. of alcohol; and to produce such -a wine the must should indicate from 22 to 26 per cent. of sugar by -the hydrometer. A wine which is soon to be consumed at home does not -require that degree of strength necessary for shipment abroad and for -keeping, and may contain only ten per cent. of alcohol, and even less, -and be found a very palatable drink, and less “heady” than that of a -higher degree of spirit. And a wine may contain as much as 14 per cent. -of spirit, and be very acceptable to the wine merchant for mixing with -weaker wines. - -A must which does not contain more than 24 per cent. of sugar per -hydrometer, if properly managed, will complete its fermentation, and if -it does not contain less than 22 per cent., will make a good, sound, -shipping wine, which will keep in almost any climate. Mr. Crabb, a -well known wine maker of Oakville, in this State, writes me that such -a must will ferment dry in six days, but that if it contains more -than 24 per cent. of sugar, fermentation is likely to be arrested by -the amount of alcohol, when it amounts to 12 per cent. This gentleman -is an intelligent viniculturist and a practical man, and it would be -safe to follow his advice. Mr. Arpad Haraszthy, who is noted in this -connection, in his lecture on fermentation before the convention of -wine growers, held at San Francisco in September, 1882, indicated 22 -per cent. as a proper degree of sugar in the must; and it is reported -that the wine makers of Los Angeles county, in fixing the prices of -grapes in 1882, adopted 23 per cent. as the standard. Undoubtedly the -fermentation will be finished sooner, and will be less troublesome, -if the must contains sugar within the limits of 22 and 24 per cent., -than if allowed to go beyond. (See _Maturity_.) If it should go to 26 -per cent. and beyond, the chances are that the fermentation will be -incomplete, and that a portion of the sugar will remain in the wine, -which will cause it to ferment when exposed to changes of temperature; -it may become _milk sour_, and there will be danger of rapid -deterioration. From which it follows that, except for making sweet -wines, the grapes should be gathered before they develop much more -than 24 per cent. of sugar. Supposing, however, that picking commences -as soon as the must shows 22 per cent., sufficient force should be -employed to finish before it goes beyond the limit indicated. For the -writer has seen grapes gathered at the beginning of the season and made -into wine which showed 11 per cent. of alcohol, when the wine made from -grapes of the same vineyard, gathered too late, either on account of -lack of pickers or of fermenting tanks, contained 14.5 per cent., and -was still sweet. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -SUGARING AND WATERING MUST. - - -=Sugaring.=—As early as 1776, Macquer, in France, found that by adding -sugar to the must of green grapes, he could make wine; and since his -time many authors, notably Chaptal, Gall, and Petiot, have recommended -the addition of sugar to the must of bad years when the grapes did -not ripen; and had the practice been limited to the addition of -sufficient sugar of good quality to a must which was deficient in that -respect, but little harm would have been done. The next step, however, -was to take the must of partly ripe grapes which contained an undue -quantity of acid, and reduce it by the addition of water till the acid -corresponded in quantity to that contained in a must of ripe grapes, -and then to add sufficient sugar to bring it up again to the necessary -degree of sweetness. This may be permissible in those countries where -in some years the grapes do not ripen, and in order to make a drinkable -wine, water to reduce the acid, and sugar to give sweetness, must -be added. But this did not satisfy the greed of the artificial wine -makers; they found, so they say, that they could press the juice from -the grapes, ferment it by itself, then add to the marc water and sugar -enough to bring it back to its original quantity and sugar strength, -draw off the artificial juice slightly colored by the skins, and repeat -the operation, and so make three and four times the quantity of wine -that could otherwise be made, and _all good wine_. - -It was thought that wine making in Europe would be revolutionized, -and untold wealth would pour into the coffers of the wine makers. It -was found, however, that cane sugar was too expensive, but artificial -glucose could be made from grain and potatoes at a very small cost, -and by reason of its cheapness its use was forthwith recommended; and -to such an extent was the matter carried, that one would suppose that -in order to make good wine, it was only necessary to soak a few grape -skins in a quantity of sweetened water and let it ferment! - -The practice, however, to the extent mentioned, did not commend itself -to sensible men, and wine making did not become revolutionized. Yet it -was to some extent adopted, and the effect upon the wines of Burgundy -is shown by Dubrunfaut in his work on _Sucrage de Moûts_. He says that -starch-sugar (glucose) factories were established in Burgundy, and -from 1825 to 1845, this material was used to strengthen the musts. But -complaints arose in France and elsewhere against Burgundy wines; they -had a new flavor, and unexpected changes in many respects had come over -them. A congress of wine makers was held at Dijon in 1845, at which -the abandonment of the use of glucose was decreed upon the report of a -committee of merchants and proprietors of Beaune, which was in effect -as follows: that the long extolled and generally practiced system of -sugaring, and against which a reaction set in some years ago, ought to -be completely abandoned, as being fatal (_funeste_) to Burgundy. He -considers, however, as do some others who condemn the use of glucose, -that the use of refined cane sugar is unobjectionable if used in small -quantities and merely to fortify the must when it needs it. There are -many authors, however, who speak highly of the wines produced by the -addition of sugar and water to the skins after the juice has been drawn -off, but it does not seem reasonable that a good wine can be made in -that manner. If a good must contained only water, sugar, and acids, -then there would be reason for believing that the wine so made would be -good. But it is well known that many other ingredients enter into the -composition of the juice of the grape which, in some unknown manner, -have a very important influence upon the wine made from it. Attempts -have been made to produce an artificial must, which is carrying the -process but little farther than it is carried by some of the writers on -the subject; but Mr. Boireau says that what is produced resembles cider -rather than wine. He gives the following composition as approaching -very nearly a must for common white wine: - - Refined Sugar, 25 kilog. - Tincture of tannin, 20 gr. - Crystals of tartaric acid, 500 gr. - Gum arabic, 1 kilog. - Vine leaves and fresh twigs chopped, 5 kilog. - Distilled or filtered water, 1 hectol. - -The author last quoted is a practical man, and his opinion is valuable. -He says, when the fermentation of this artificial must is most active, -it has analogies with ordinary white wine, but it costs much more than -the natural wine; and when its fermentation is complete, it has not a -bad taste, and there is nothing hurtful in its composition, but that -it has not the _taste of white wine_; and the only time when it has -any analogy to white wine is during the tumultuous fermentation as -already mentioned. Many attempts have been made to vary the formula, -but without important results. Tolerably agreeable drinks are obtained, -_but they are not wine_. M. Boussingault gives his experience in -sugaring and watering must; and the wine produced lacked acid, color, -astringency, and was very inferior to the wine first made from the pure -juice; it lacked the fixed substances and aromatic principles. He says -that some would prefer it to cider, but that it only differed from -_piquette_ in having a greater degree of alcohol. - -To give even a summary of what has been written upon this subject would -occupy a volume, but the results arrived at by the more intelligent -modern writers and experimenters may be summed up as follows: - - 1. That good wine can be made only from the pure - juice of the grape. - - 2. That in case the grapes do not ripen sufficiently - to make a drinkable wine, water may be added to reduce - the acid, and then sugar enough to bring it up to the - average sugar strength; but in no case should any but - the refined cane sugar be used; artificial glucose, never. - -=Nothing gained by adding Sugar.=—Aside from the question of quality, -it may not be amiss to add a few remarks for the benefit of intended -wine makers who may have been led to believe, by mistaken authors, -that the profits of wine making may be increased by adding sugar -and water, and thereby augmenting the quantity. Assuming that it is -permissible to use only refined sugar, it can easily be shown that it -is as cheap, if not cheaper, to make wine from grapes than from sugar, -as long as grapes can be bought for $30 per ton. - -A gallon of dry wine of average specific gravity, containing 10 per -cent. by weight, or 12.4 by volume, of alcohol, weighs about 8¼ pounds, -and contains about .825 of a pound of pure alcohol. To produce a pound -of alcohol requires about 2¼ lbs. of pure grape sugar, or 2.138 lbs. of -pure cane sugar, in practice, according to the chapter on fermentation; -so that to produce the .825 lbs. of alcohol in one gallon of wine, -requires about 1.80 lbs. of pure cane sugar. But refined crystalized -sugar is not pure sugar (anhydrous), as it contains about 10 per -cent. of water; so, to make our 1.8 of pure sugar, requires 2 lbs. of -ordinary refined sugar. At 10 cents per pound, which would be cheap for -this market, it would cost 20 cents to make the must for a gallon of -wine. - -Supposing that a ton of grapes costs $30, and produces 150 gallons of -wine, each gallon would cost 20 cents. So that there is nothing to be -gained by adding sugar at 10 cents a pound, even if a ton of grapes -costs $30 a ton, for the same facts would apply to every pound of sugar -added to a must, as well as in the case supposed, where all the sugar -was supplied. - -=Cost of Glucose Wine.=—Supposing that artificial glucose contains 80 -per cent. of pure (anhydrous) sugar, it would require 2⅓ lbs. to make -our gallon of wine; and if it could be laid down here at 5 cents a -pound, the gallon of wine would cost nearly 12 cents, and this would be -equivalent to paying $18 a ton for grapes. - -When we take into consideration that every pound of glucose and -water added to a must will diminish the price of every gallon of -wine produced, it is probable that but little, if anything, could be -gained even by the use of this article; for the product will not bring -the price of an honest wine, and in the long run will destroy the -reputation of our wines, and reflect injury upon every wine maker in -the State. - -=Experiment with Glucose.=—Mr. Crabb, of Oakville, gave his experience -with glucose in a paper read before the St. Helena Vinicultural Club, -in July, 1882, as follows: I took three packages of equal size, one -containing pure grape juice, the two others containing each equal parts -of the same juice and glucose water, all showing 23 per cent. sugar by -Balling’s saccharometer. The pure juice was dry in 15 days (the room -being cold). One package of the mixture was dry in 30 days; the other -continued in fermentation 60 days, both emitting a rank offensive odor -during the process, arising from the amount of chalk and sulphuric acid -required in its (glucose) manufacture. Racking at this time appeared -to remove the greater part of the offensive odor, and in 30 days the -wine was clear and bright enough to pass for a two-years’-old wine. I -now thought it contained a very superior fining principle, and if a -small enough quantity would answer the purpose, it might be a valuable -acquisition. But this was its most favorable period; it had reached -its zenith, and while the pure juice was now beginning to develop its -vinous properties, the mixture commenced to deteriorate, becoming flat -and insipid, as any grape juice would by being one-half water, and the -sulphuric acid and chalk (sulphate of lime) developing a disagreeable -after-taste. Notwithstanding that I have racked it again and fined -it to a perfect condition, there is not the least improvement, and I -believe as it becomes more dry with age, that the bitter, nauseous -after-taste will become more and more pronounced, so that one glass of -it will leave such a lasting impression on the palate as to never want -any more; whereas, the package of pure juice is now vinous, sprightly, -refreshing and inviting. - -=The use of Glucose condemned.=—On the 16th day of July, 1881, the -St. Helena Vinicultural Association adopted resolutions condemning -in the strongest terms the use of glucose in the making of wine and -brandy, and promising to expose all parties importing or receiving the -substance by publishing their names, and pledging the Society to use -all honorable means to prevent the adulteration of the product of our -vineyards. The resolutions passed unanimously, and were published in -the different newspapers. One man in the district, notwithstanding the -warning, did cause to be shipped to him a quantity of glucose, and the -President and Secretary of the Society published in several different -newspapers, in December, 1881, over their own signatures, and in the -name of the Association, a notice reciting the resolutions, and stating -that a person (giving his name) “imported eighty barrels of grape -sugar, made from corn, commonly called glucose, and used the same, or -the greater part of it, in the manufacture of wine during the last -vintage.” - -We believe that this was an exceptional case, and that its use in this -State has been exceedingly rare. - -=Watering.=—Another question which has been a good deal discussed -is, whether it is better to pick the grapes as soon as they develop -sufficient sugar, or leave them on the vine till they develop an -excess, and then reduce the must with water. Dr. Guyot having laid it -down as a fundamental principle in wine making in France, that the -grapes should be left on the vine as late as possible, and until they -have reached the highest point of maturity, except, _perhaps_, in some -of the most extreme southern portions, he is consistent in counseling -the addition of water to the must. But the only reason given by him -for it is that it is consonant with _his principle_ previously stated. -Du Breuil is also of the same opinion. Both are men of high authority, -but it does not appear that either of them ever made wine in a warm -climate, where the grapes would develop so much sugar as to require -the addition of water, if left upon the vine as late as possible. We -have, on the other hand, the testimony of Boireau, who, speaking on the -subject, says that it is probable that the theoreticians who are in -favor of the practice have never made wine of _must too rich in sugar -and of water_. He says, it is true that the quantity is increased, and -fermentation is complete, but that the wine so made is only fit for the -still, will not keep and readily turns sour. The Greeks have followed -this practice from time immemorial in the Archipelago, where he tasted -their wine so made in 1865, and which they can keep with difficulty for -one year, in spite of the addition of a large quantity of rosin, which -they introduce during fermentation. And yet, these wines are not weak, -having an average of 10½ to 11 per cent. of alcohol. He says that but -few grapes give musts too rich in sugar, if they are gathered as soon -as ripe; for even in viticultural countries situated farthest south, as -the south of France, Spain, Italy, Greece, and Africa, the grape _just -ripe_ gives a must which does not exceed 14° Baumé, unless left on the -vine until part of the water of vegetation has evaporated. - -Having alluded to both sides of the question, it would seem to be a -fair inference from the foregoing that the safest course would be, -in a hot climate, to gather the grapes as soon as fairly ripe. This -may easily be done, where each grape grower makes his own wine, and -has immediate supervision of the picking, and has sufficient men to -finish it with promptness. But in the case of large manufacturers who -buy their grapes and cannot supervise or order the gathering in the -numerous vineyards whose crops they purchase, it may sometimes be -necessary, when the grapes come in overripe, and it is not desirable to -make sweet wine, to add a small quantity of water to insure prompt and -complete fermentation. When the necessity arises, great caution should -be used, and the necessity should be avoided when possible. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -STEMMING AND CRUSHING. - - -=Diversity of Opinion on Stemming.=—There is no subject connected with -wine making upon which there is a greater difference of opinion than -that of stemming. And it would seem that the diversity of practice -is not always caused by the different conditions and exigencies of -location, variety of grapes, etc.; but among the different wine makers -in the same locality, some remove the stems, and others do not; from -which Dr. Guyot infers that the practice cannot be classed among the -essential principles governing vinification, but is a mere matter -of detail, and that stemming may be practiced or omitted without -materially affecting the wine. But Machard, a writer of the Jura, lays -it down imperiously as one of the very essentials of good wine making -that the grapes should be fermented with the stems, and calls stemming -a pernicious practice. - -=Effect of Stemming.=—All agree, however, that the stems, during -fermentation, if not removed, yield tannin to the wine, and thereby -give it astringency. It is also said to increase fermentation, by -furnishing to the must additional germs of fermentation adhering to -the stems, and perhaps acting also in a mechanical way, by presenting -many salient points, and exposing a greater surface to the action of -the ferment.[1] They also add a certain amount of acid to the wine, -if green. It is evident that they increase the labor of pressing, by -adding to the mass of marc. - -[1] Pasteur, in his Studies on Beer, says that the reason has not yet -been discovered, but that he has no doubt that it may be attributed, -principally, to the fact that the interstices between the grapes, and -the spaces which the bunch leaves throughout, considerably increase the -volume of air placed at the service of the germs of ferment. - -=Proper Practice.=—If, therefore, by reason of the variety of grapes -cultivated, or the soil, or situation, your wine is too soft, lacks -life and astringency, ferment with all or a portion of the stems; but -if your wine is rough, too astringent, it will be found beneficial to -stem the grapes. If your grapes lack the fermentive principle, and -fermentation is slow and incomplete, leave the grapes on the stem; and -in the same way the fermentation will be assisted, if the grapes are -overripe. - -When the grapes are fermented with the stems, care must be taken that -they do not remain too long in the vat, or the wine may acquire a -bitter, disagreeable flavor, called by the French _goût de râpe_, or -stem flavor, which is caused by the bitter principle contained therein, -and which is dissolved out by maceration. - -=To Estimate Tannin.=—A certain amount of tannin is necessary to the -proper clearing of the wine, which is brought about by the tannin -combining with albuminous matters, and they are then precipitated, and -the wine may be drawn off, leaving them at the bottom of the cask. It -is on the application of this well known principle that Maumené gives a -very simple method of ascertaining whether the grapes should be stemmed -or not. He says: First make a small quantity of wine without the stems, -and add tannin, or, what is better, a decoction made by boiling a -quantity of stems, and if sensible precipitation is produced, it is -better to ferment with the stems, for tannin is wanting; but if the -precipitation is not formed, the grapes should be stemmed. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 3._ Wooden Stemmer.] - -=Stemmers.=—This is usually effected in California by the use of the -common hand stemmer, though some large establishments are using a -stemmer run by steam or horse-power. The common stemmer consists of an -oblong shallow box or frame, six or eight feet long by two wide, or any -convenient size, and about six inches deep, with a coarse wire netting -or grating stretched across the bottom. This grating is usually made -of heavy galvanized iron wire, with ¾ inch or inch meshes. Instead of -having the grating extend the whole length, a portion at one end may -be floored with wood, upon which a box of grapes can be placed without -injuring the grating. The only objection to this stemmer is that the -grape juice comes in contact with the metal of the grating, and it is -a well known fact that nearly, if not all, of the baser metals are -corroded by the acids; it would be better to replace the wire with a -wooden grating, as in France (Fig. 3.). - -=How to Remove the Stems.=—The grapes are dumped from the boxes -directly into the stemmer, and the workman seizes as many as he can -easily manage with both hands, and rubs and rolls them to and fro upon -the wire grating, and the berries, as they are rubbed off, fall through -the meshes, and the stems remain in the hand. The few grapes that may -remain are removed by raising the mass of stems and forcibly throwing -them two or three times upon the grating. Sometimes the stems, with the -few grapes clinging to them, are turned over to another workman, who, -with a hay fork, tosses them about upon another grating till all the -berries are removed. The stemmer ought to be situated over the hopper -of the crusher, so that the grapes will fall directly into it, as they -are separated from the stems. - -=Crushing.=—It is generally considered essential to crush the grapes -whether stemmed or not, although in some special cases, to be hereafter -noted, crushing is omitted. - -=Methods of Crushing.=—It is well known that in Europe the grapes -are usually crushed by being trodden with the feet of men, usually -barefooted, but sometimes in wooden shoes, and many of the best writers -of to-day are of the opinion that the wine is better when the grapes -have been well trodden with the bare feet, for by thoroughly rubbing -the skins and pounding them into a pulp without breaking the seeds, -they think that more color and aroma are developed than can be obtained -by simply crushing them, as in a machine, and afterwards fermenting. -Although the practice of treading is the more common one in Europe, -yet there are exceptions, and in some places the crushing is done by -rollers and with satisfactory results. In California we are accustomed -to regard the treading of grapes as an antiquated practice, and a relic -of a past age, and it is almost universally discarded, being practiced -only occasionally and by Europeans, who have not yet wholly fallen into -our methods of practice. Those who are fastidious in this matter may -rest assured, that if they will drink California wine, they run but -very small risk of imbibing a liquid which a man has had his feet in. - -=Aerating the Must.=—There seems to be some confusion on this subject, -for some claim that the must is better exposed to the air, and prepared -for fermentation, by treading. This may be true of _treading in the -vat_ during fermentation, but simply treading the grapes to crush them -does not aerate the must as much as crushing with rollers, for in the -latter case the juice falls through a considerable distance in a finely -divided form, which thoroughly exposes it to the air. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 4._ Crusher.] - -=Crushers.=—The machine generally employed consists of two rollers -made of wood, iron, or other suitable material, 6 or 8, or even more, -inches in diameter, geared together so that they revolve in opposite -directions and towards each other, and so that the grapes will be -drawn between them from above. The rollers run near each other, but do -not touch, so that the grapes will be crushed, and the seeds remain -unbroken. It is operated by one man turning a crank, either attached to -one of the rollers or to a pinion. Figure 4 represents such a crusher, -except that in the figure the rollers are open-work, instead of solid, -as they should be. It is surmounted by a hopper which allows the grapes -to fall between the rollers as they revolve, and the whole apparatus -should be so placed that the pomace may fall into the fermenting vats, -or be easily conveyed to them or to the press, accordingly as it is to -be made into red or white wine. - -Some stemmers have corrugated instead of plain rollers, but there is -no advantage in this, and unless they are very nicely adjusted to the -motion of the cog wheels, they may break the seeds, which is always -considered injurious to the wine. - -=Rapidity of Operation.=—Five men—one to handle the boxes of grapes, -two to stem, standing on opposite sides of the stemmer, one to operate -the crusher, and one to take the stems and remove the remaining grapes -and to make himself generally useful—can stem and crush with these hand -machines twenty tons of grapes per day, enough to make three thousand -gallons of wine. And the work can be done much more rapidly by the use -of the stemmer and crusher combined, which is to some extent used in -the largest establishments. - -=Special Practice.=—Boireau says that it has been observed that of -the Médoc wines, those made without crushing the grapes have less -color than those made from grapes of the same crop which have been -crushed, but that they have a more refined and delicate taste (_plus -fins de goût_), and that consequently many of the proprietors of the -_grands crûs_ of the Médoc in those years which are favorable to the -maturity of the grape do not crush; they only do it in inferior years, -when the grapes have not become sufficiently ripe, and when they fear -that the wine may not have a suitable color. And in another place he -tells us that in those grand wines which are intended to be bottled, a -superabundance of tannin and its consequent roughness may be avoided by -complete stemming, fermenting the whole berries, and by drawing from -the fermenting vat at just the right time. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -FERMENTATION—ITS CAUSES. - - -It is with some hesitancy that I attempt to give a brief summary of -the results of scientific investigation into this subject, for fear of -going beyond the legitimate limits of a practical work, as this book -is intended preëminently for practical men. But as the work would be -incomplete without it, and as a knowledge of the general phenomena of -fermentation, and of the different influences to which it is subject, -are of vast importance to those who will intelligently apply their -principles, I give the following as but a brief _resumé_, and will put -it as plainly as the subject will permit. Most of the ideas given below -are extracted from Schutzenberger’s work on fermentation. - -=There are several different kinds of Fermentation=, as (1) vinous, -alcoholic or spirituous fermentation; (2) mucous or viscous -fermentation; (3) lactic fermentation; (4) ammoniacal fermentation; (5) -butyric fermentation; (6) putrifaction; and (7) acetic fermentation, or -fermentation by oxidation, and others. - -=Alcoholic Fermentation= is that which sugar undergoes under the -influence of the ferment or yeast; and it is now agreed that this -ferment consists principally of an aggregation of living organisms, or -an assemblage of microscopic cells. - -=The Yeast Plant.=—Our author gives them the name of _saccharomyces -cerevisiæ_, following those who consider it to be a species of fungus, -and states that it is now very generally admitted that ferments are -fungi, although by some they have been considered animal in their -nature. These cells are round or oval, and are from .00031 to .00035 -of an inch in their greatest diameter. “They are formed of a thin -and elastic membrane of colorless cellulose, and of a protoplasm, -also colorless, sometimes homogeneous, sometimes composed of small -granulations.” The cells are separate or united two by two. When they -are deposited in a fermentable liquid, as a sugar solution or a must, -small prominences are seen to arise at one or rarely two points, the -interior of which is filled with protoplasm from the mother cell; -these prominences grow until they have attained the size of the -original cell, when the base contracts, forming a kind of neck, and -immediately they separate from the mother cell, and under favorable -conditions one cell produces several generations, but by degrees it -loses all its protoplasm, which at last unites in granules swimming in -super-abundant cellular juice. The cell ceases to produce, and dies; -the membrane is ruptured, and the granular contents are diffused in the -liquid. In the manufacture of beer the fermentation is of two kinds: -surface fermentation and sedimentary fermentation, depending upon a -high or a low degree of heat. The surface _saccharomyces_ develop more -rapidly than the others, are larger, and they bud so rapidly that -the cells which issue from each other do not separate, but remain -attached, forming ramified chains of from six to twelve or more buds. -The bubbles of rising gas have a greater hold on these chaplets than -on single cells, which causes the newly formed yeast to rise to the -surface during active fermentation. These organisms or fungi produce -spores which are sown on the surface of fruits, and get into the juice -by crushing, when they commence their reproduction by budding. So -that the basis or cause of the phenomena which we call fermentation -is the growth and reproduction of yeast or ferment, which is made up -principally of the minute organisms just described. - -=Functions of Yeast.=—Yeast is a living organism, belonging to the -family of _fungi_, genus _Saccharomyces_, destitute of mycelium, -capable of reproduction, like all the elementary fungi, by buds and -spores. Its composition singularly resembles that of other vegetable -tissues, and especially the plants of the same family. It does not -differ essentially from other elementary cells, unprovided with -chlorophyll. - -=Normal Conditions of the Life of Yeast.=—The conditions which our -author calls normal in the life-history of yeast, are those in which it -develops itself and increases with the greatest activity and energy. -They are of two orders, physical and chemical. - -With respect to _physical conditions_, it is only necessary to notice -the temperature. That most favorable to the nutrition of yeast, and -that which is found advantageous to other cellular vegetable organisms, -is between 25° C. and 35° C. (77° and 95° F.) Above and below these -limits, the vital manifestations do not cease until we descend below 9° -C. (48.2° F.), or rise above 60° C. (140° F.), the temperature at which -albuminoid principles begin to coagulate. - -With regard to the _chemical conditions_, our author says that the most -favorable medium is that which contains the most appropriate nutritive -elements. And as yeast contains water, mineral salts, especially -potassium, magnesium, and calcium phosphates, therefore water and -the alkaline and alkaline-earthy phosphates will be necessary. We -find, besides, a great proportion of nitrogenous substances, either -albuminous or otherwise; and therefore the food of yeast must contain -nitrogen. It is supposed, however, that the cells are not directly -nourished by albuminoids in the juices of fruits, the wort of beer, -or yeast water, but by analogous compounds contained in them, which -have the property of passing by osmose through the membranes; for the -albuminoids themselves, it is said, cannot pass through. Pasteur has -shown by his experiments, that mineral salts are absolutely necessary -to the development and nutrition of the yeast cell; and Mayer follows -him with details as follows: Preparations of iron, in small quantities, -seem to have no influence; in larger proportions, they are injurious. -Potassium phosphate is indispensable, and the absence of lime has -little effect. Magnesium, on the contrary, appeared to be very useful, -if not indispensable. The combinations of sodium present no material -effects. - -Sugar is one of the most important elements in the nourishment of the -yeast cells, and Pasteur has shown that, in alcoholic fermentation, a -part of the sugar is fixed in the yeast, in the state of cellulose or -some analogous body, for, when the fermentation is completed, it is -found that more yeast is present than at the commencement. Water is -necessary, and the yeast cell manifests its activity, develops and is -nourished within the limits of 40 and 80 per cent. of water, though -yeast, dried with precaution, may regain its power when moistened. And -the fact that a solution containing over 35 per cent. of sugar will not -ferment, is explained on the theory that such a solution takes from the -cells by osmose a sufficient quantity of water to lower their hydration -below 40 per cent. The cells of the _Saccharomyces cerevisiæ_, -introduced into a liquid medium, absorb oxygen with great rapidity, and -develop a corresponding quantity of carbon dioxide. This constitutes -respiration, comparable to that of animals. By careful experiments -it has been shown that yeast breathes when placed in contact with -dissolved oxygen, and the respiration is more active than that of -fishes, and it plays as important a part in the life of those minute -vegetable cells as in the higher forms of vegetable and animal life. -Oxygen is furnished by atmospheric air, and fermentation is more rapid -when a large surface of the liquid is exposed, and then the budding is -more active. - -=Action of various Chemical and Physical Agents.=—“It has long been -known that certain chemical compounds, especially those which coagulate -albuminous substances, and disorganize the tissues, or which, by -their presence in sufficient quantities, are incompatible with life, -are opposed to fermentation; such are the acids and alkalies in -suitable proportions, silver nitrate, chlorine, iodine, the soluble -iron, copper, and lead salts, tannin, phenol, creosote, chloroform, -essence of mustard, alcohol when its strength is above 20 per cent., -hydrocyanic and oxalic acids, even in very small quantities. - - “An excess of neutral alkaline salts or sugar acts in - the same manner, by diminishing in the interior of the - cell the minimum quantity of water, which is necessary - to the manifestation of its vital activity. - - “The red mercury oxide, calomel, manganese peroxide, - the alkaline sulphites and sulphates, the essences of - turpentine and of lemon, etc., also interfere with, and - destroy alcoholic fermentation. - - “Phosphoric and arsenious acids are, on the contrary, - inactive.” - -Experiments have shown that sparks of electricity passing through -yeast do not modify its power of changing cane sugar into glucose, nor -its activity as an alcoholic ferment. Fermentation is slower in the -dark, and also in a vacuum. Flour of sulphur did not sensibly affect -fermentation, but the carbonic acid evolved contained sulphuretted -hydrogen. Sulphurous acid, however, arrests fermentation. Yeast is -always acid, but an addition of an excess of different acids arrests -the decomposition of sugar. If one hundred times the amount of acid -contained in the yeast is added, fermentation does not take place. - -M. Dumas has shown the action of various salts on yeast, but the -subject has little if any interest for the wine maker. - -=Viscous or Mannitic Fermentation= is also excited, according to -Pasteur, by special ferment acting on glucose, transforming it into a -kind of gum or dextrin, mannite, and carbon dioxide. This ferment is -also formed of small globules united as in a necklace, whose diameter -varies from .000047 to .000055 of an inch. These globules, sown in a -saccharine liquid containing nutritive nitrogenous matter and mineral -substances, always give rise to viscous fermentation. One hundred parts -of cane sugar give: mannite, 51.09; gum, 45.48; and carbon dioxide, -6.18. The liquids which are most apt to produce viscous fermentation -can also undergo lactic and butyric fermentation, but in this case the -organized forms of life which are developed in the liquid are of a -different nature. The conditions of action necessary to these gummy and -mannitic ferments are the same as those which suit alcoholic ferment. -The most favorable temperature is 30° C. (86° F.) This fermentation -is what gives rise to the disease of wines, called by the French _la -graisse_, or ropiness. White wine is more subject to it than red, and -it is generally due to the want of tannin. (See _Ropiness_.) - -=Lactic Fermentation= is the transformation which certain sugars, as -sugar of milk and grape sugar, undergo, and by which they are changed -into lactic acid. This takes place in the souring of milk. The most -favorable temperature for it seems to be about 95° F. This also depends -on a special ferment. Sugar solutions are also capable of _butyric -fermentation_ and _putrefaction_, and we generally see viscous, lactic, -and butyric fermentation appear in succession. - -=Acetic Fermentation= is to the wine maker and wine dealer, after -alcoholic fermentation, the most important. - -Fermentable matter and ferment are also concerned in it, but oxygen -also is necessary. - -It has long been known that the alcohol contained in fermented liquids, -such as wine, beer, etc., will disappear under certain circumstances, -and give place to vinegar or acetic acid, and that the air, or rather -its oxygen, plays a part in this reaction. - -To the chemist the reaction is simple, and is formulated thus: - - Alcohol. Water. Acetic Acid. - C₂H₆O + O₂ = H₂O + C₂H₄O₂, - -or the oxidation may take place by two reactions, with the production -of an intermediate product, aldehyde: - - Alcohol. Aldehyde. - C₂H₆O + O = H₂O + C₂H₄O, - - Aldehyde. Acetic Acid. - C₂H₄O + O = C₂H₄O₂ - -According to Pasteur, the oxidation of alcohol is the consequence -of the action of a ferment or cryptogam, _Mycoderma aceti_, and it -makes its appearance on the surface of liquids, while in acetic -fermentation, in the form of a continuous membrane, mother of vinegar, -either wrinkled or smooth, which is generally formed of very minute -elongated cells, whose greater diameter varies from .000059 to .000118 -of an inch; these cells are united in chains, or in the form of curved -rods. Multiplication seems to be effected by the transverse division -of the fully developed cells. The conditions of nutrition are similar -to those suitable to the alcoholic ferment, the hydro-carbon matter -being supplied by dilute alcohol. It may, however, be supplemented by -the acetic acid itself; for if the process is left too long to itself, -the vinegar loses its strength by being consumed. The most favorable -temperature is between 76° and 82° F. - -Antiseptic agents, which arrest the development of beer yeast, act in -the same manner on the _Mycoderma aceti_. Sulphurous acid is especially -active in this manner; hence the use of the sulphur match in sulphuring -wine casks. - -There is another ferment, _Mycoderma vini_, or flowers of wine, -which is found in wine and other alcoholic liquids exposed to the -air when fermentation is over or has become languid, which resembles -in many respects the acetic ferment. It has the power of producing -alcoholic fermentation, and is supposed by some to be derived from -the _Saccharomyces_. Like the _Mycoderma aceti_, it is developed on -the surface of fermented alcoholic liquors, in the form of smooth or -wrinkled films or membranes, but thicker and more compact. It grows -with great rapidity, and it has been calculated that one cell would, -in forty-eight hours, produce about 35,378 cells. These cells are -of various forms, ovoid, ellipsoidal, and cylindrical, with rounded -extremities. The ovoid cells have their greater diameter about .000236, -and their smaller one, .000157 of an inch. The cylinders have their -diameters .00047 × .000118 in. The nutritive principles are the same -as those of the mother of vinegar: alcohol, salts and nitrogenous -compounds. It also appears capable of utilizing for nutrition the -secondary products of alcoholic fermentation, such as succinic acid and -glycerine. Its development is most active between 61° and 86° F. (See -_Sherry_.) - -=Origin of Ferments.=—In order to produce the different kinds of -fermentation, the necessary ferment must be added, unless it is already -contained in the fermentable matter or in the air. In the manufacture -of beer and bread, yeast must be used; the other kinds of fermentation, -except alcoholic, can generally be produced by the ferments or their -spores furnished by the atmosphere; but Pasteur, in the course of his -investigations, never produced alcoholic fermentation from spores found -in the air. But the germs of the _Saccharomyces cerevisiæ_ and of -_Mycoderma vini_ seem to be found only on the surface of fruits, and -their stems.[2] - -[2] Ferment cells, however, occur in considerable numbers in the -neighborhood of places where alcoholic fermentation is carried on, and -the germs, perhaps, may be found in the atmosphere near a vineyard, and -in those cases the ferments and their germs may be borne about to some -extent by the wind. - -These different germs, however, are all found in the must of grapes, -and in wine, and are ready to develop whenever favorable conditions -offer themselves, and produce diseases in the wine. It is found that -these germs are killed by raising the temperature of the liquid to 140° -F., and hence the process of heating wines to preserve them (_which -see_). - -Leaving the germ theory of fermentation, we will pass to what is of -more practical importance. - - -ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION IN WINE MAKING. - -=Vinous or Alcoholic Fermentation= transforms the juice of the grape -into wine, and, as already shown, is caused by the yeast or ferment, -which finds its way into the must; and by this fermentation the sugar -of the grape is changed principally into alcohol, and carbon dioxide, -or carbonic acid gas. And in order to show the relations between the -sugar and the alcohol produced, it is necessary to say something about -the chemical constituents of each. - -=Sugar.=—In general terms, cane sugar may be expressed by the chemical -formula, C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁, or, in other words, one molecule contains 12 atoms -of carbon, 22 of hydrogen, and 11 of oxygen. - -And the general term glucose, or grape sugar, may be expressed by the -formula C₆H₁₂O₁₆, or one molecule contains 6 atoms of carbon, 12 of -hydrogen, and 6 of oxygen. - -If, instead of using the word atoms, we use the word pounds, the -chemical formula may be made clear to the unscientific. Taking the -formula for cane sugar, already given, it simply means that 342 pounds -contain the following ingredients, in the following proportions: - - lbs. lbs. - 12 parts carbon, each weighing 12, 144 - 22 “ hydrogen, “ 1, 22 - 11 “ oxygen, “ 16, 176 - ——— - 342 - -And the formula for glucose means that 180 pounds contain: - - lbs. lbs. - 6 parts of carbon, @ 12, 72 - 12 “ of hydrogen, “ 1, 12 - 6 “ of oxygen, “ 16, 96 - ——— - 180 - -And the formula for water means that 18 pounds contain: - - lbs. lbs. - 2 parts of hydrogen, @ 1, 2 - 1 part “ oxygen, “ 16, 16 - —— - 18 - -In fermentation, it is glucose which is immediately transformed, -although cane sugar ferments also; but, before doing so, it becomes -changed or inverted into glucose, and one molecule takes up a molecule -of water, and produces two of glucose, thus: - - Cane Sugar. Water. Glucose. - C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁ + H₂O = 2 C₆H₁₂O₆ - 342 + 18 = 2 × 180 = 360. - -Or, in the production of alcohol, 100 lbs. of pure cane sugar are equal -to 105.26 lbs. of pure grape sugar. - -The general formula for alcohol is C₂H₆O, and for carbonic acid CO₂. - -=Alcohol by Weight and by Volume.=—The quantity of alcohol contained -in a given mixture of alcohol and water may be expressed as per cent. -by weight, or per cent. by volume. The first method is usually used by -chemists, and the second in commerce. If we have 100 lbs. of a mixture -of alcohol and water of which 10 lbs. are alcohol and 90 lbs. water, -it contains 10 per cent. of alcohol by _weight_. If, however, we have -100 gallons of a mixture in which there are 10 gallons of alcohol and -90 gallons of water, we say that it contains 10 per cent. by _volume_ -of alcohol. This will serve to illustrate the meaning of the terms per -cent. by volume and by weight, although it is well known that, owing to -shrinkage, 10 gallons of alcohol and 90 gallons of water do not produce -quite 100 gallons of mixture. - -Whenever merchants and wine makers use the term per cent. of alcohol, -they mean per cent. by volume or measure; and whenever the expression -is used in this work, it is used in that sense, unless otherwise -expressed. - -=Fermentation—Its Products.—Per cent. Sugar to per cent. Alcohol.=—In -theory, glucose, during the process of fermentation, is entirely -changed into alcohol and carbonic acid; the two substances produced -containing the same elements as glucose, and no others. If there was no -loss of sugar, or degeneration, as it is called, the reaction would be -exactly expressed as follows: - - Glucose. Alcohol. Carbonic Acid. - C₆H₁O₆ = 2 C₂H₆O + 2 CO₂ - 180 = 92 + 88 - -And the old authorities said, if 180 parts of glucose produce 92 of -alcohol, 100 will produce 51.1111, thus: - - 180 : 92 :: 100 : _x_ = 51.1111, - - leaving the balance to be accounted for by carbonic acid 48.8889 - ———————— - 100 - -And again, if it takes 100 parts of glucose to produce 51.1111 alcohol, -how much does it take to produce 1 per cent. by weight? - - 51.1111 : 1 :: 100 : _x_ = 1.9565. - -These figures are now true only of that part of the sugar which is -transformed into alcohol and carbon dioxide. - -=Different Authors.=—Pasteur has shown that a portion of the glucose -was changed into succinic acid and glycerine, and as the result of one -of the experiments which he gives, out of a large number, it appears -that 100 parts of glucose produce about 48.46 of alcohol, and it would -require 2.063 to produce 1 per cent. of alcohol by weight, and 1.65 to -produce 1 per cent. by volume. - -But this eminent chemist’s experiments were conducted in the -laboratory, and under the most favorable circumstances, so that no loss -by evaporation could occur—conditions under which fermentation on a -large scale is never carried on. - -Dr. Guyot states that it takes about 1.5 per cent. of grape sugar to -produce 1 per cent. of alcohol, which is even less than is required -according to Pasteur, and is manifestly too little. And the statement -has been made, that a must containing 20 per cent. of sugar will -produce 13 per cent. of alcohol, which is impossible. - -J. J. Griffin quotes Pasteur, and estimating the average loss to be -4½ per cent. of the sugar, deduces the figures .4881 as the per cent. -by weight of alcohol produced by 1 per cent. of grape sugar. Dubief -says that it takes 1.7 per cent. of cane sugar to produce 1 per cent. -of alcohol by volume. Mr. Joseph Boussingault gives his experiments -on musts fermented in small vessels under conditions similar to those -under which fermentation is carried on in wine making on a large scale; -and the result of his researches is that the product in alcohol is -about 90 per cent. of what the chemical theory calls for: say, .46 by -weight for 1 of sugar, or 1.7 + glucose for 1 per cent. of alcohol by -volume. Mr. M. Boussingault gives it as the result of his experiment, -that it takes 1.8 per cent. of sugar to produce 1 per cent. of alcohol. - -So that it is pretty safe to say that it takes on an average about -1.8 of sugar to make 1 of alcohol, making some allowance for loss by -evaporation, etc. - -As has already been stated in the chapter on Musts, 1 per cent. for -every 12 should be deducted from the percentage of sugar shown by the -hydrometer for other matters than sugar. - -If, therefore, we have a must which shows 24° by the saccharometer, -we will deduct two, and call the remainder 22, sugar. Although it is -not strictly correct to say that 22 divided by 1.8 will give the per -cent. of alcohol which may be expected after fermentation, owing to the -well known variation between per cent. by weight and by volume, as the -figures increase, yet it is sufficient for all practical purposes. - -Let us then divide 22, the supposed sugar in the must, by 1.8, the -amount required to produce 1 per cent. of alcohol, and we obtain 12 -and a fraction. Now the total indication by the saccharometer was 24 -per cent.; if we divide this by two we get the same result in round -numbers. - -Hence the rule: one-half of the figure indicating the total per cent. -by the saccharometer (hydrometer) is approximately the per cent. of -alcohol to be expected in the wine. - -Owing to the fact that the loss by evaporation and degeneration may -vary greatly in different cases, this will be only a rough estimate, -but it will prove as satisfactory as any method that can be adopted, -and it corresponds very closely with the statement made by N. Basset, -that in actual practice, a must of 20 per cent. gives only 7.88 per -cent. of alcohol by weight, which corresponds with 10 per cent. by -volume, nearly; and it is the rule given by Petiot and Dr. Gall for a -natural must. - -It seems, however, from what follows below, that this is only true of -a normal must, but that a different rule applies to one of a very high -degree of sugar. - -=Limits of Sugar and Spirit.=—It is said that when a solution or a must -contains over 35 per cent. of sugar, it will not ferment; nor will a -wine or other alcoholic mixture which contains 20 per cent. of spirit -ferment. Boireau says that the maximum of alcohol which a wine can -attain by the fermentation of the richest must is between 15 and 16 per -cent., and those wines which show a higher degree have been fortified. -He says that the highest degree of spirit ever observed by him in a -natural red wine was 15.4 per cent., when it was a year old; from that -time the strength diminished, but the wine always remained sweet. - -There is, however, a remarkable case given, and which seems to be well -authenticated, of an Australian wine which contained naturally, by -fermentation, 32.4° of British proof spirit, which is equal to about -18.21 per cent. And Vizitelli states that Mr. Ellis, of the firm of -Graham & Co., asserts that perfectly fermented Alto Douro wine will -develop 32° proof spirit, or 18 per cent. of alcohol, and when made -exclusively from the Bastardo grape, as much as 34°, or about 19 per -cent. of spirit. And Mr. Vizitelli adds that he is satisfied from what -he saw at Jerez, that sherry wines which have had merely 1 or 2 per -cent. of spirit added to them will in the course of time indicate 34°. -To produce these results would seem to require more than 35 per cent. -of sugar, according to our rule; but while it is approximately correct -to say that 2 per cent. of sugar produces 1 per cent. of alcohol as -long as we are dealing with a must of 24 or 25 per cent. and under, it -may not be true of a must of 30 to 35 per cent., for the other solid -matters probably do not increase in proportion to the sugar. Therefore, -to reconcile this high degree of alcohol with the statement that a must -containing over 35 per cent. of sugar will not ferment, we must use -Pasteur’s figures, and then we will find that by them 35 per cent. of -sugar is capable of producing over 20 per cent. of alcohol. - -=Temperature.=—The temperature most favorable to fermentation—that is, -at which it commences most promptly, and goes on the most rapidly—is -between 77° and 95° F., and it does not cease until the temperature -descends below 49°, or rises above 140°. If the temperature is -favorable, fermentation ought to commence in ten or twelve hours from -the time the pomace is put into the vat, or the juice into the barrel. -In countries where the weather is cold at the wine making season, it is -necessary that the grapes should be gathered in the heat of the day, or -fermentation will be long in commencing; and if the weather continues -unfavorable, so that the grapes do not become warmed by the sun, it is -even necessary to heat a portion of the must artificially, and pour it -into the vats or casks, or to raise the temperature of the fermenting -house. - -Mr. Maumené also recommends that the vats be surrounded with mats -of loose straw, four or five inches thick, to be kept in place by a -covering of linen cloth; and in this way the temperature produced by -the fermentation may be maintained in cool weather, without resorting -to fires in the fermenting house. - -It is not necessary, however, that the temperature of the surrounding -atmosphere should be as high as that indicated as most favorable to -fermentation; for it commences readily in a temperature of about 70°, -and the liquid will soon rise to 85° or 95°, by the heat developed -during the process; and unless the surrounding temperature descends -below 65°, this heat will be maintained, and the fermentation will -not be checked. Dr. Guyot says, however, that, to make fine wines, it -should be maintained at 68°, at least; and that, in other cases, it -should not be allowed to fall below 60°. - -=Fermenting Houses.=—It is important not only that fermentation should -commence promptly, but that it should be maintained regularly; and -although a great amount of heat is developed by fermentation, yet the -must is liable to cool during the night and cold days, unless the vats -and casks are protected from the change of temperature, whereby the -fermentation may be checked, to the injury of the wine. The natural -conclusion is that the must ought to be fermented in closed places. In -California, however, it is not necessary to construct the fermenting -house with the same care required in colder climates, where it is -deemed desirable to furnish them with double windows and doors. It -cannot be denied that good wine is made in this State, in places where -the vats remain out of doors, shaded only by trees; but the practice -is not to be encouraged, for the fermentation will be checked if the -temperature of the surrounding atmosphere goes to 60° and below. In -constructing a fermenting house, it ought to be so arranged, when -practicable, as to be on a lower level than that of the stemmer and -crusher, and higher than the cellar; for then the pomace and must -can be run immediately into the vats and casks, and, after the first -fermentation, the wine can be drawn off through a hose into the casks -in the cellar, thereby saving time and labor. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -RED WINE. - - -Red wines are made from colored grapes, and the color is extracted from -the skins during fermentation. The coloring matter is blue, but is -changed to red by the action of the acids in the must. (See _Coloring -Matter—Oenocyanine_.) In order to develop this color, the grapes are -fermented, skins and juice together, and the press is only brought into -requisition after the first fermentation is completed. - -=Fermenting Tanks or Vats.=—The tanks or vats in which red wine is -fermented, in France are generally made of oak, sometimes of masonry, -but in this State redwood has been almost universally adopted, and I am -not aware of any serious inconveniences from its use. It is advisable -before using them the first time, to steam them for several hours, or -thoroughly soak them to extract the coloring matter of the wood. - -The capacity depends upon the quantity of wine to be made in a season, -varying from 1000 gallons to 2500 gallons and more, and a sufficient -number should be provided that when wine making has commenced, it can -be carried on without interruption till the crop is worked up. The -number of workmen must be considered as well as the amount of grapes, -and everything ought to be so arranged that the fermentation will be -finished in the first tank filled, by the time the last one is full, so -that the first can be emptied and filled again, and then the second, -and so on. A hole must be bored in each vat two or three inches from -the bottom by which to draw the wine through a faucet. And some kind of -a strainer must be put over this hole inside to keep back the marc—a -piece of perforated tin, a grating of small sticks, or a bundle of -straw or vine cuttings kept in place by a stone. - -=Filling the Tanks.=—In order that the whole mass in one tank may be -equally fermented, it should receive its full complement of grapes in -one day. By putting in part of the grapes one day and part another, not -only will some of them complete their fermentation before the others, -but the addition of fresh grapes to the fermenting mass will interrupt -the fermentation, and prove injurious to the wine. The vats must not -be filled to their full capacity, for during violent fermentation the -marc, consisting of skins and seeds, or those with the stems, rises -to the top, brought up by the bubbles of carbonic acid which are -constantly rising, and a portion of the boiling and foaming mass may -be carried over the top, and much wine thereby be lost. They should -only be filled to within a foot or a foot and a half of the top, and -a little experience will show the proper practice. Guyot says that -they should only be filled to five-sixths of their capacity at most. -Another reason for not filling the tank is that a layer of carbonic -acid gas will occupy the space left vacant by the pomace, and prevent -the contact of the air and the consequent souring of the wine, by the -changing of a portion of the alcohol into acetic acid—vinegar. - -Red wine is fermented in open vats, vats loosely covered, or in vats -hermetically sealed, and good wine is made in each way. - -=In Open Vats=, other conditions being equally favorable, fermentation -commences more promptly and is sooner ended, owing to the free access -of the air, a certain amount of oxygen, as already shown, being -necessary to fermentation. Although fermentation will continue away -from the air when once started, it will be slow. The objections to -open vats are, that although there is a layer of carbonic acid resting -above the must, yet it is liable to be disturbed and become mixed with -the air, and if the fermentation is long continued, a portion of the -wine may become sour. Those who employ open tanks should also avail -themselves of those conditions under which the wine will complete its -fermentation in a few days, and should draw off promptly. - -=Closed Vats.=—By using closed vats fermentation will be longer in -commencing, and will proceed more slowly, but as already intimated, -the wine can with safety be left longer in them than in open tanks. -When it is necessary to develop much color, it would be advisable to -use covered tanks, for the longer the wine is left in contact with the -skins, the darker it becomes. The covering should be close enough to -prevent the immediate contact of the open air, and yet allow the escape -of gas—of close boards, but not luted, unless provided with a safety -valve. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 5._] - -[Illustration] - -=The Best Practice=, however, in all cases, whether the vats are closed -or not, is to have a false head resting directly upon the pomace, -and which will keep the latter submerged during the whole process of -fermentation. In this way good color will be developed, and the marc -will be kept from the air, and the danger of souring will be avoided. -In figure 5, _A_ represents a fermenting vat with the front half -removed, showing the false head in place. - -This head is made of several pieces which can be laid one by one upon -the pomace, and maybe perforated with auger holes as represented in -_C_, or may be a wooden grating, _D_. These pieces or sections together -constitute the head _B_, and are kept in place by two cross pieces, -_e e_, which are held down by blocks bolted or pinned to the inside -of the tank. _G_ is a stave with a block, _f_, attached, and _H_ the -same, showing the cross piece, _e_, slipped under it. When the tank is -filled to the required height, the false head is put in, resting on the -pomace, the ends of the cross pieces are slipped under the blocks, and -everything is ready. As soon as the fermentation becomes violent, the -whole will be submerged in the bubbling wine. - -=Hermetically Sealed Tanks.=—Closely covered tanks must be provided -with a safety valve or pipe for the discharge of carbonic acid gas, -leading and discharging into a vessel of water, which completely -prevents contact with the air. Under pressure the fermentation is much -slower, and is not so complete. Yet great advantages are claimed for -this method by some writers who maintain that by keeping the cover cool -with wet straw or cloth, or by using a safety tube in the form of a -worm passing through a condenser on the top of the vat, the vapors are -condensed and fall back into the liquid, preventing loss of alcohol, -and increasing the aroma, and that the wine acquires a superior -fineness and velvety smoothness under the pressure of the gas. Boireau -says that this latter quality is caused by the complete dissolution of -the mucilaginous matters; and Pasteur has shown that more glycerine is -produced when the fermentation is slow, which may contribute to the -mellowness and smoothness. - -=Practice in the Médoc.=—Mr. Boireau says that the greater part of the -grand red wines of the Médoc, the prime St. Emilion, and the prime -Graves, are fermented in closed vats; though a certain number of the -viniculturists still follow the old custom, and make their wine in open -vats. - -=Stirring the Pomace in the Vats.=—In Burgundy, and in some other parts -of France, it is considered necessary to give the mass a thorough -stirring (_foulage_) during the active fermentation, in order that all -parts may be equally exposed to the action of the ferment, and also -that a good color may be developed; and for this purpose men enter -into the vats and thoroughly mix the pomace and stir it about with -their naked bodies and limbs, a practice not only disgusting in the -extreme, but dangerous for the men, who are exposed to the poisonous -effects of carbonic acid. It is by no means a general practice, and is -of doubtful utility, even if it should be done by other agents than the -naked human body. - -It is evident that two opposing forces are at work when the must -is stirred during fermentation. By the aeration fermentation would -naturally be increased; but Dr. Guyot shows that stirring actually -diminishes its activity, and he advocates the practice in order -that the fermentation be not too tumultuous. The temperature of the -surrounding atmosphere being lower than that of the fermenting mass, -aeration by stirring must, by lowering the temperature, diminish the -activity of the fermentation. Mr. Haraszthy, in his lecture before -the Convention of Viniculturists in 1882, recommended that the mass -be stirred when the fermentation commences to lag, on the theory that -by thus mixing again the yeast with the liquid, so exposing it again -completely to the action of the ferment, fermentation would start again -with renewed vigor. It can easily be stirred with poles provided with -shoulders or short cross pieces. - -It has already been stated that the must is sufficiently aerated by -crushing the grapes with rollers, and where the vats are provided -with a false head to keep the pomace submerged, the wine will have -sufficient color without the stirring; and it would seem that the wine -would clear sooner if the lees were not stirred into it near the end of -fermentation. _Where the vats are not covered, and the grapes are not -stemmed and not kept submerged_, a crust or cap is formed on the top of -the fermenting mass, which sours and rots if long exposed to the air, -and the mixing of this with the liquid has a most deleterious effect -upon the wine. - -=When to Draw from the Vats.=—When the first or active fermentation -in the vats is completed, the new wine must be drawn off into pipes, -and thus be separated from the marc, consisting of skins, seeds, and -sometimes stems, and also from the heavy lees which has settled in the -vats, and it is important to know the proper time to do this. - -The duration of active fermentation depends upon several causes and -conditions as already indicated, such as heat, the amount of sugar -contained in the must, whether the vats are covered or open, the -immersion of the marc, and whether the grapes are stemmed, etc. It may -be completed in four or five days, or it may continue for fifteen or -twenty days. In case of musts poor in sugar it may rarely terminate in -twenty-four hours. In some parts of France the grapes are allowed to -macerate for weeks and even months (for they cannot ferment actively -for that length of time), and what might be good wine, thus is often -spoiled. - -=The Objections to Long Vatting= are that the marc will absorb an undue -amount of alcohol, as is shown when it is submitted to distillation -in brandy making, for marcs which have remained long in the vats with -the wine yield more spirits, and, of course, the wine is deprived of -so much strength. This objection, however, would have but little force -where the grapes are stemmed. Another and more serious objection is, -that by a long exposure to the air which is apt to take place when the -vats are not closely covered, some of the alcohol will be changed to -vinegar, and the wine will rapidly degenerate, and become sour. Long -contact with the seeds, skins and stems also produces a foreign taste -in the wine known to the French as _goût de râpe_, stem flavor; and it -is obvious that if the marc is allowed to remain in the liquid till it -macerates and rots, it will acquire a still more disagreeable aroma and -flavor. It is also said that some varieties of grapes which will not -produce a wine with a bouquet, when allowed to remain long in the tank, -will develop it in a vatting of short duration. The only advantage to -be gained by leaving a wine in the vat after the active fermentation is -finished, is in the way of color. When it is desirable—if it ever is—to -produce a dark-colored wine at the expense of other good qualities, it -may be left in the vat to _soak_. Such wines have their use, and that -is to mix with those which lack color, but it is much better to mix in -a quantity of grapes which naturally produce good color. - -=In making Fine Wines=, a dark color is not looked for nor desired, but -rather a bright and lively red; and they should be allowed to remain -in the vat only long enough to convert the greater part of the sugar -into alcohol. - -=How to Know when to Draw from the Vat.=—It is said in general terms -that the wine should be drawn from the vat when the active fermentation -is finished. This is known by the taste of the wine by those long -familiar with the vinous flavor which takes the place of the sweet -taste of the sugar; it is also recognized by the cessation of the -production of carbonic acid and the consequent bubbling, the falling -of the temperature, the settling down of the marc, and by the clearing -of the liquid. If the must or new wine shows from 0° to 1° by Baumé’s -hydrometer, or from 0° to 2° by Balling’s saccharometer, nearly all -the sugar will have been converted into alcohol; I say nearly all, for -all the sugar is not converted till long after the wine is drawn from -the vat. Boireau says that the fermentation is yet incomplete when the -hydrometer marks several degrees of density, and the liquid is warm, -sweetish, and muddy. He says, moreover, that care should be taken that -active fermentation has entirely ceased before putting the wine in -pipes, for if it is still sweetish and fermenting, it will remain sweet -a long time, and ferments will often remain in suspension, which will -render the wine difficult to clear, and liable to ferment and become -sour. - -=Method of Drawing from Vats and filling Casks.=—If the pipes are on -the same level with the vat, or higher, the new wine is run from the -vat through a faucet into buckets and carried in them to the casks and -poured into these through a funnel, or is run into a large receptacle -or tub placed immediately under the faucet and pumped into the casks -by means of a force pump. But the more expeditious way is to have the -casks ranged on a level lower than the bottom of the fermenting tank, -and then to run the wine directly into them through a hose attached -to the faucet. Of course, careful men must be in attendance to watch -the operation, and close the faucet as soon as the cask is filled, and -immediately transfer the hose to an empty one, so that the wine may not -run over and waste. - -Where the wine is drawn from more than one vat, it should be equally -distributed through all the casks, so that the quality may be as nearly -uniform as possible. If the press wine is to be mixed with the vat -wine, the casks should only be filled to three-fourths or four-fifths -of their capacity, in order to leave room for the former. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 6._ Wine Presses.] - -=Wine Presses.=—Wine presses are constructed in several different -forms, and the force is applied by means of a simple lever, consisting -of a long timber weighted at the end and rigged with a rope and pulley -to raise and lower it, or by means of a large screw. Hydraulic presses -are also used in large establishments. It is not necessary here to give -a detailed description of a press of either kind, for the prospective -wine maker will examine the different ones and see them in action, -and choose according to his means and necessities. Fig. 6 represents -screw presses. A very simple one, however, and which can be made by -any carpenter, consists of a box two or three feet square, and a foot -or more high. This box, however, is made up of sections, each of which -is five or six inches high; and they should be constructed of strong -two-inch timber, well mortised together, and perforated with small -holes through which the wine may ooze out. The height, and consequently -the capacity of the box or receptacle will depend upon the number of -sections used. A broad board constitutes the bottom of the press and -should be larger than the receptacle itself, and be provided with a rim -open in the middle of the lower side, and having a shallow spout for -the wine to run through. This bottom is firmly placed so as to incline -slightly forward, the sections are placed on it, one on the other, -till the box is of the desired height, then the marc from the vat is -filled in and a head or follower fitted to the inside of the box is -placed on the marc, and pressure is applied with a lever. This lever -is a strong piece of timber with its fulcrum end placed in a mortise -in a large tree, or adjusted in any other suitable manner, allowing -free play to the other end to which is attached the rope and pulley to -facilitate its movement. - -=Pressing and Press Wine.=—In the manufacture of all but fine wines, -it is the usual practice to mix the press wine with the wine from -the vat. And as the wine remaining in the pomace is about one-fourth -of the whole, it will be equally distributed among all the casks by -filling with it the vacancy left in them. If a light pressure is first -applied, the wine of the first pressing will differ but little from the -vat wine. After this, however, the marc should be spaded and stirred -and pressure applied again, and the process repeated till the wine no -longer flows. During the last pressing it is necessary to apply so -much force that a great amount of coloring matter is pressed from the -skins, and tannin from the seeds, and also from the stems when not -removed, and the advantage of color may be more than counterbalanced by -the excess of tannin. There may be danger of giving the wine too much -astringency by mixing the last pressings. - -=Special Practice for Fine Wines.=—Mr. Boireau indicates the practice -in making common wines, as follows, as a warning to those who can make -fine wines. He says that the wine which the marc contains is removed by -pressing it almost to dryness, and that the wine thus obtained is very -muddy, very harsh, and sometimes sour, particularly when the upper part -of the crust has not been removed, where open vats are used and the -marc not submerged. The greater part of the proprietors of the ordinary -growths have the deplorable habit of mixing the press wine, without -clearing it, with the limpid part drawn from the vat. He says that it -should be kept separate, or otherwise the better part of the wine will -be made muddy and difficult to clear. - - -TREATMENT OF RED WINE. - -=Insensible Fermentation.=—After the wine has undergone its active -fermentation, has been drawn from the vat and been filled into casks, -the latter should be at once stored in a suitable place above ground -of even, moderate temperature, or in an underground cellar whose -temperature is not much below 60° F. The new wine still contains some -sugar, and a slow fermentation goes on, bubbles of gas are given off, -and sediment falls to the bottom. This is called the secondary or -insensible fermentation, and when this is finished and no more gas -arises, the wine has become clear. A good deal of the carbonic acid -that rises in bubbles is not produced by the insensible fermentation, -but has become dissolved in the wine during the active fermentation, -and is gradually given off with the new gas produced. While the gas is -produced in the cask, it must not be closely bunged, but the bung-holes -should be loosely covered with a vine leaf, a block, an inverted bung, -or a bag of sand, so that the gas may escape. Various patent bungs have -been devised with the same object. - -The wine should be tasted at each filling of the cask during this -period to ascertain whether the insensible fermentation has entirely -ceased, which may be known from the fact that it has lost the peculiar -pungent flavor of the carbonic acid. As soon as this fermentation is -ended, the casks should be tightly bunged with conical bungs, which can -be easily removed during the period when it is necessary to fill up -frequently. - -=Ulling or Filling Up.=—Owing to the escape of gas and to evaporation, -vacant spaces are rapidly formed in the casks which must be filled -with the same kind of wine as that contained in them. It is well to -keep a certain amount of the wine of each vintage in smaller vessels, -to be used for this purpose, such as barrels, kegs, demijohns, and -bottles, according to the extent of the vintage. If one vessel is -partly emptied, the remaining wine should be put into a smaller one. -It is absolutely necessary that all of the casks be kept full or the -wine will spoil. (See exceptions under _Sweet Wine_.) For this purpose, -during the first week they should be filled every day or two, then -two or three times the next week, and later, once a week, once in two -weeks, and finally once a month. This is governed a good deal by the -rapidity of the evaporation, which depends upon the cellar or place -of storage. This operation is performed by means of any vessel with -which the wine can easily be poured into the bung-hole; the convenient -utensil, however, is a vessel in the form of a small watering pot with -a long spout, with which the bung can easily be reached. (Figs. 7 and -8.) A good substitute is an ordinary tin funnel with a flexible rubber -tube attached to the small opening. Where the casks are piled up in the -cellar so that the bungs cannot otherwise be reached, a funnel called -the Z funnel (fig. 9) is used, which is provided with a long spout or -tube turning at right angles to the upper part, and whose tip turns -down, and which can easily be passed between the casks to the bung. If, -however, the bung cannot be reached, a small hole is bored in the upper -part of the head of the cask, and the wine put in with a Z funnel whose -tube turns at right angles but does not turn down at the tip (fig. 10.) -The vent is opened in the highest part of the bulge, and wine is poured -into the funnel whose tip is in the end hole till it rises to the vent, -which is then closed, and the funnel is removed and the hole closed. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 7._ _Fig. 8._ - -Ulling Pots.] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 9._ Z Funnel. - -_Fig. 10._ Z Funnel.] - -As some wine is liable to be lost in ulling a cask whose bung is out -of sight, to avoid this, an instrument in the form of a watering pot, -similar to figs. 7 and 8, has been devised, but whose top is entirely -covered, the wine being poured into it through a tube which is closed -with a cork when in use. The vent is near the tip of the spout on the -under side, so that the wine will run as long as the cask is not full, -but will stop as soon as the vent is covered by the wine rising in the -cask. It is convenient to have a stopcock on the spout. - -Many of these implements are provided with a socket to hold a candle. - -=Summary of the Rules for the Treatment of New Red Wines.= - - 1. Put the casks, well bunged, in a cellar or other - well closed place, and keep them constantly full, by - frequently and regularly filling them with wine of the - same kind. - - 2. Rack the wine as soon as the insensible - fermentation has ceased and the wine has become limpid, - _i. e._, about December; rack again before the - vernal equinox; towards the summer solstice; and also - near the autumnal equinox. Racking should always - be done, if possible, during cool weather. - (See _Racking_.) - - 3. To prevent secondary fermentations, draw off the wine - whenever by tasting you recognize by the flavor that it is - commencing to work. - -If the wines are bright, avoid fining, and so preserve their fruity -flavor; but if they remain muddy after the second racking, fine them -after the third drawing off with the whites of eggs, and leave them the -shortest possible time on the finings. - -Mr. Boireau says that by such treatment wines will be obtained limpid -and free from secondary fermentations, and that grand wines will so -preserve their fruity flavor; while if they are allowed to work again -after the cessation of the insensible fermentation, they will lose -their fruity flavor and mellowness, and become too dry. In order to -avoid this dryness produced by secondary fermentations, which will -considerably diminish the value of the wines, and especially of grand -wines, some wine makers place the casks with the bung on one side -after the June racking; this practice should not be followed, for the -elevation of the temperature at that season is liable to set them -fermenting. - -The idea is in all cases to avoid mixing the lees with the wine, and -if young wines are to be shipped before the arrival of the period of -the first racking, they should nevertheless be carefully drawn off, -if they have already become clear, for to mingle again the lees -with wine, predisposes it to secondary fermentations, and renders it -difficult to clarify. - -=Treatment of Old Red Wines.=—Wines after the fourth racking are -treated as old wines. When they have acquired a clean taste, are limpid -and no longer ferment, the casks should be carefully filled and tightly -bunged, and they should be stored in a suitable place, with the bung -turned to one side. The bung being thus constantly wet swells and -exactly fills the hole, the wine keeps better, there is less loss by -evaporation, and constant filling up is avoided. - -If it happens that by bad treatment the wines are not clear and behave -badly, they should receive the necessary treatment, and be clarified -before permanently put away with the bung at the side. - -In cellars and other well closed places, old red wine, clean-tasting, -bright and quiet, stored in good, well hooped casks, need only two -rackings per year, one in March and the other in September, unless for -some reason it loses its limpidity by entering again into fermentation, -which will be discovered by tasting from time to time. In that case, -it should immediately be drawn off without regard to the date of the -former racking, and then fined. - -Care should be taken not to leave ullage in the cask of old wine, by -frequent samplings and tastings. And when it occurs, in order to avoid -its effects, the wine may immediately be drawn into a smaller cask, -and this is necessary more frequently in airy storehouses where the -evaporation is greater than in cellars. - -Boireau says that if these rules are carefully observed the wines will -improve, and develop all the qualities which by their nature they are -susceptible of acquiring. The greater or less degree of fineness which -they acquire by aging under proper conditions results principally from -two causes: The first is the deposit of coloring matter and divers -salts which the new wine contains in dissolution, and which become -insoluble by entering into new combinations, and which in their turn -are removed at each racking, with the lees; the second cause is the -transformation of the tannin, which gives the wine a certain degree -of roughness, into gallic acid, and its extraction in the insoluble -combinations which it forms with the different principles contained in -the wine and with the finings which are introduced. It follows that old -wine loses part of its color and soluble salts, and a great part of the -tannin which it originally contained. Its taste is more delicate, its -flavor, which was masked by these different matters, comes out better, -its bouquet commences to develop, and its mellowness is more pronounced. - -These remarks are more particularly applicable to grand wines, for in -many of the ordinary ones the fruity flavor which they have when new -is lost before the end of the first year, because the mucilages and -pectine, which give them their mellowness, are either precipitated with -the lees or are destroyed by insensible fermentation. In general these -wines lack firmness, body and tannin, and many of them show a strong -tendency to lose their color. - -The time necessary for wines to remain in wood in order to acquire the -highest degree of perfection which they can acquire in casks, depends -upon the quality of the wine; wines of strength and body require more -time than feeble ones. - -Our author says that, on the average, the poorest wines of the Médoc -become bright about the end of two years, and if they are kept longer, -they lose their mellowness. But on the other hand, the firm and -full-bodied wines of the same localities require to remain in wood -a year longer to arrive at perfect maturity. Certain wines strongly -charged with tannin, coming from certain localities, and those made -from the _verdot_ grape, are long in developing, but they keep so much -the longer. - -When they have attained their entire development and the separation of -the lees is complete, they must be bottled, for they will lose their -qualities if left in casks. In bottles they arrive at perfection; they -acquire bouquet while they preserve their mellowness, but in casks, -they finally lose their fruity flavor and velvety smoothness, and -become dry. - -And he gives the following: - - =Summary of Rules for the Care of Old Red Wines.= - - 1. They should be kept in places perfectly closed, - and before turning the bung to one side, we should be - satisfied that they are perfectly bright, quiet, and - well behaved. - - 2. They should be drawn from the lees twice a year; - the casks should be kept full; and they should be kept - from secondary fermentations by watching and opportune - racking. - - 3. Keep down the loss by evaporation by all means - possible, and keep them in close cellars, in strong, - well hooped casks, and avoid ullage. - - 4. Bottle them before they lose their fruity flavor, - and as soon as they cease to deposit. - -Thus will they acquire all the qualities of which by their nature they -are susceptible. - -But if they are kept in places to which the air has free access, the -evaporation will be great; and if the casks are left with ullage caused -by too frequent sampling, or too infrequent racking, they will work, -become dry, lose their mellowness, and become slightly affected by -acetic acid, produced by contact with the air. - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -WHITE WINE. - - -=Made from both Red and White Grapes.=—As the color of grapes resides -entirely in the skins, with the exception of a few varieties such as -the _Tienturiers_ and the American variety _Lenoir_, which have colored -juice, with these exceptions, white wine may be made from both white -and colored grapes. - -=Differences between Red and White Wine.=—Instead of putting the -pomace into fermenting vats, it is taken immediately to the press, and -the juice is fermented by itself, free from stems, skins, and seeds, -and is therefore not only free from the coloring matter contained -in the skins, but also from the numerous matters that are contained -in red wine, extracted from the pomace during fermentation. It is -true that white wine may be made from white grapes by the process -that is employed in making red wine from colored grapes, but then it -ceases to be what is commonly called white wine, and possesses all -the characteristics of red wine except its color, which of itself has -little effect upon the wine, except to change its appearance; for -when white wine has been colored by the addition of a small quantity -of very dark wine, it remains white wine still in all its other -characteristics, and the difference is readily detected by experts. - -=Hygienic effects of Red and of White Wine.=—Dr. Guyot says that white -wines generally are diffusible stimulants of the nervous system; if -they are light, they act rapidly upon the human organism, and excite -all its functions. But they escape as readily by the skin and excretory -organs, and their effect is of short duration. Red wines, on the other -hand, are tonic and persistent stimulants of the nerves, muscles, and -digestive organs; their action is slower and more prolonged; they do -not increase perspiration or the excretions, and their action generally -is astringent, persistent, and concentrated. - -=Process of Making.=—As the must comes from the press it is either -immediately run into casks, or is first put into a vat to settle. In -the latter case it is allowed to stand in the settling vat from twelve -to twenty-four hours, and a large portion of the yeasty parts settle -to the bottom, a thick scum rises to the surface, and the must becomes -partially cleared. The scum is then skimmed from the top, and the -liquid is drawn off into casks, leaving the heavy lees. By this means -a great part of the fermentive matter is immediately removed, and the -wine does not ferment as thoroughly nor as rapidly as it otherwise -would, and retains a portion of its sugar and its sweetness longer. In -the Champagne districts the musts for sparkling wines are thus treated. -If the weather is very warm, it may not be practicable to do this, -because fermentation will set in before the must has time to settle. -If, however, it is desired to make a dry wine, the must is not put into -a settling vat, but is run from the press directly into the casks. - -=The Barrels= in which white wine is fermented and stored are generally -of small size, of a capacity of from 30 to 150 gallons, or say 50 or 60 -gallons on an average, and it is considered in France that it preserves -its good qualities in casks of moderate size better than in large ones. -It is to be understood, however, that it is considered advisable in -most parts of France that white wine should retain a portion of its -sweetness and be mellow rather than dry; but if it is desirable to make -a dry wine, larger casks may be used for fermenting and storing. (But -see _Summary of Rules_, below, and _Casks_.) - -=Filling the Barrels during Fermentation.=—A question upon which -there is some difference of opinion, is whether the casks should be -immediately filled to their full capacity and kept filled up during -the first fermentation, so that the scum and foam will be thrown out -of the bung, or whether a vacant space shall be left in each barrel, -so that all the matter thrown up by the fermentation shall remain. The -objections to allowing the wine to _boil over_ are that much good wine -is thereby lost, and the outside of the barrels and the floor of the -fermenting house or cellar becomes foul. When the active fermentation -ceases, whatever has been thrown up in the form of a dirty scum -will settle to the bottom with the rest of the lees, and is no more -injurious than the latter. If, however, the foam is allowed to run -over by keeping the barrels full, a portion of the yeasty parts will -be thrown out, fermentation will not go on as tumultuously nor be as -complete, and the wine will longer retain a portion of its sweetness. -So that the practice in this behalf, as in most others where there is a -diversity of practices in making white wine, depends upon whether it is -desired to make a very dry wine, or one that retains a portion of its -sugar. But in the Champagne districts, although they allow the marc to -settle, they do not allow it to run over in fermenting. - -=Pressing and Filling.=—The pomace is pressed in the same manner as -the marc of red wine, in two or three different pressings. The usual -practice is to fill the barrels with an equal amount of must from each -pressing, so that the contents of all shall be uniform in quality. If -it is known beforehand how much wine can be made from a given quantity -of grapes, the requisite number of barrels will be provided for each -lot, and the must of each pressing will be equally distributed in all. -(See _General Chapter_.) - -=Different kinds of White Wine.=—Boireau divides white wines into -three classes: dry, mellow, and sweet, whose characteristics depend -essentially upon the density of their musts. - -=In Dry White Wines= fermentation is complete, and all the sugar that -is appreciable by the taste or the hydrometer, except the small amount -changed into other substances, is transformed into alcohol and carbonic -acid. The grapes are gathered as soon as ripe, and are not allowed to -shrivel. The density of the must rarely exceeds 13° Baumé. - -=Mellow White Wines= are those which preserve a small quantity of sugar -after the tumultuous fermentation has ceased, and which gives them -mellowness and unctuosity. To produce these wines, it is necessary to -increase the density of the must, which is accomplished in the Gironde -by leaving the grapes upon the vines until they shrivel and turn brown -(white grapes are used), and they are gathered by several successive -pickings. The density of the must is from 12° to 15° Baumé. These wines -occupy the place between dry wines and sweet wines. - -=White Sweet Wines= (=vins de liqueur=) are those which preserve a -considerable portion of their sugar, which renders them very sweet. And -in order that they may retain their sweetness in aging, the must should -mark 15° to 20° Baumé. - -=The Grand White Wines= of France and Germany do not require any -different treatment from that already described, except that the -greatest care is exercised in assorting the grapes and allowing them -to arrive at the period of greatest maturity, and, of course, they are -made from the choicest varieties. - -In describing the condition in which the grapes are when gathered, the -French use the word _pourris_, which is usually translated _rotten_. -But Boireau says that it must not be supposed that the grapes are -spoiled (_gâtés_) because they are _pourris_; the condition which -is sought is a sort of natural dessication effected by the heat of -the sun, which evaporates a part of the water of vegetation and -concentrates the saccharine matter, as well as the savory and aromatic -principle, and bakes the grape, as it were. If the weather remains -dry, the grapes remain for a fortnight perfectly ripe without any -deterioration of the skin, but little by little it changes from yellow -or golden to brown, loses its consistency and _rots_, or rather cracks -and gives way. It is then that dessication commences; the rays of the -sun penetrate the thin pellicle and volatilize the water of vegetation. -In order to better accomplish this result a portion of the leaves are -removed from the vine when the grapes are nearly ripe. Those grapes -only are picked which are sufficiently shriveled; if only a part of the -cluster is ripe, a few grapes are removed at a picking. The vines are -usually gone over in this manner three times. At Barsac and Sauternes -the white wines are known by three different names, indicating in their -order their strength and sweetness: The first, or sweetest, are called -_têtes_; the second, _centres_; and the third, _queues_; or head -wines, middle wines, and tail wines. If the must does not indicate more -than 12°, 13°, or 14° Baumé, the wine cannot be expected to preserve -its sweetness and mellowness in aging. If it is desired to make the -sweet head wines, having the inimitable flavor (_goút de roti_) which -they get from the great maturity of the grapes, the density must be -allowed to increase till Baumé’s instrument marks 18° to 20°. Wines -from must of 16° Baumé will preserve their sweetness for a long time, -but as they develop a large amount of alcohol, it is preferable that -they be sweeter, and that the must mark 18° to 20°. As these wines do -not develop more than 15 to 16 per cent. of alcohol by fermentation, -they will not bear transportation through tropical climates with -safety, and it is necessary to add spirit enough to raise the strength -to 18 per cent. If, however, they are carefully managed, and kept in a -cool cellar, they will remain sweet. - -=Treatment of White Wines.=—During the active fermentation they should -be left in a moderately warm place of even temperature, and until the -foaming has ceased. Then, they may be stored in a cooler place if -desirable, or may be left where they are. But then the bungs should -be loosely closed with a chip or anything that will allow the escape -of gas, and the casks must be filled up every two or three days. When -the gas has ceased, they should be bunged tight, and filled up once or -twice a week, according to the rapidity of evaporation, until the first -racking. (_See below._) - -=To keep Sweet.=—If it is desired that the wine should preserve a -portion of its sweetness and remain mellow, care should be taken not to -disturb it after it has commenced depositing, for thereby the sediment -and ferment will be again mingled with the wine and its fermentation -rendered more active, all its sugar may be transformed, and the wine -become dry. Fermentation may be checked at any period by sulphuring, -as is described under the proper head (see _Sulphuring and Unfermented -Must_), and so the wines may be made dry or sweet at will; but if the -sweet ones contain less than 15 per cent. of alcohol they will ferment. -By sulphuring they may be kept sweet from one vintage to another, -even if the musts have not a high degree of sugar; but they must be -constantly kept under the influence of sulphurous acid and protected -from the air. But the frequent sulphuring and racking which they must -necessarily undergo gives them an odor and a flavor of sulphur; and if -they are not watched they ferment. - -The care to be given to white wines after the first racking depends -upon their character. - -=In the Case of Dry Wines=, whose sugar has all been transformed, the -same attentions are to be bestowed as in the case of new red wines, and -the rules laid down are referred to. (See _Red Wine_.) - -=Mellow White Wines=, that is, those which retain a portion of their -sweetness after the tumultuous fermentation, particularly if they do -not carry 15 per cent. of alcohol, require the greatest amount of -care in order to preserve their mellowness in aging; for if left to -themselves they will again enter into fermentation, and become dry. -Such wines should be preserved against all ulterior fermentations, -and should be made perfectly bright and freed from ferments, but this -should be done with as little fining or filtration as possible, which -diminishes their mellowness. - -It may be well to note that the less alcohol that mellow wines have, -the more susceptible they are to fermentation, and the consequent loss -of their mellowness. - -Those which have 15 per cent. and have kept their mellowness after the -first fermentation, do not lose it as readily as those of a lesser -degree. If they have less than 15 per cent. of spirit and are sweet, to -retain their sweetness, they must be completely clarified to free them -from ferments; and in some cases it is necessary not only to rack them, -but at the same time to sulphur them, and fine them with gelatine after -adding tannin. - -Such wines, not having naturally terminated their fermentation, which -was arrested by sulphurous acid, reiterated rackings, the extraction of -ferments, and the lowering of the temperature—have a natural tendency -to ferment; and the arrested fermentation readily recommences if the -wine is left to itself, if vigilance is relaxed, if the temperature -increases, or if subjected to the movement of transportation. - -On the contrary, in those which have acquired the largest amount of -alcohol possible by fermentation (between 15 and 16 per cent.), no new -spirit is formed at the expense of the sugar, except in case of loss of -strength by evaporation or other enfeebling cause. - -=Summary of Rules= for the treatment of mellow white wines, according -to Boireau: - - 1. They should be stored in perfectly closed places, - in strong, well hooped casks. - - 2. The casks should always be kept tightly bunged, - and constantly full, by frequent and regular ullings, - with bright wine of the same quality, and having the - same temperature. - - 3. They should become bright, be protected against - secondary fermentations, and freed from the yeast - which they contain by rackings during the first year, - according as their lees are deposited. Fining should - not be resorted to except when they cannot be cleared - by racking at the proper time (rigorously protected - from contact with the air) into a cask sulphured with a - double square of a sulphur match. - - 4. When they have been three or four years in wood, - if they are not then bottled, they should be racked and - transferred to tuns where they receive the same care; - the tuns should be first tempered with wines of the - same class. - - 5. They must be constantly watched and frequently - tasted to assure one’s self that they do not enter into - fermentation; if they do, they must be racked at once. - -=Racking.=—When they remain calm after the insensible fermentation is -terminated, whether they are old or young, they should be racked three -times each year; first, at the sprouting of the vine in the spring, in -March, before the equinox; secondly, at the flowering of the vine in -June, before the summer solstice; and thirdly, at the ripening of the -grape in September, before the autumnal equinox. (See _Racking_.) - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -CASKS. - - -Casks are almost universally made of oak, though other material has -been tried, but generally to be abandoned in favor of the first named. -Large, covered tanks of redwood are used to some extent in California -for storing red wine, being first well steamed to extract the coloring -matter of the wood, but they are not considered desirable, and had -better be replaced by oak casks. - -=Oak Wood.=—In France very nice distinctions used to be made as to -the kind and nationality of the wood used, the shook from the north, -Dantzig, Lubeck, Memel, Riga, and Stettin, taking the first rank, that -from America the second, and that known as Bosnian, from the southern -provinces of Austria and the north of Turkey in Europe, the third, and -that of France the fourth. That from America is the most pliable, but -is liable to be found worm-eaten. - -All kinds of oak wood contain in different proportions fourteen -different principles, several of which are dissolved by wine, and -among the most important of which are tannin, gallic acid, a bitter -extractive, mucilage, vegetable albumen, and several of pronounced -smell and taste. The Bosnian oak contains the most tannin and soluble -matter, and is suitable for highly colored wines. But now-a-days there -is not so much stress laid upon the quality of the wood as formerly. -Their extracts serve often to correct some of the defects of the wine, -and many of them are neutralized by the ingredients of the latter. By -the introduction of their tannin and albumen the clarification of wine -is facilitated; but none but new wine whose insensible fermentation is -not yet completed should be put into new casks, for they cause older -wines to lose their transparency, and give them a woody flavor which -may last a long time. Therefore, temper your new casks with new wine. - -=Storing Casks.=—Casks should be kept in a closed place, not so dry as -to cause much shrinkage, nor so damp as to cause mould. In California -during the summer, there is no danger from the latter, but the former -should be guarded against. In winter, the reverse is the rule. Where -casks are to be kept a long time empty, they should be sulphured and -tightly bunged, and the sulphuring should be repeated every six months. -But they must be carefully washed before putting wine into them. They -are less liable to be attacked by the borer if stored in a dark place. - -=New Casks.=—Before putting wine into a new cask, it is ordinarily -sufficient to give it a thorough washing with boiling water. Pour in -one or two gallons of hot water, bung it up, and roll it and shake it -about till it is thoroughly rinsed, letting it rest awhile on each end, -and not only will this sufficiently cleanse the cask, but will show if -there are any leaks. When the water is nearly cold, let it run out, and -thoroughly rinse with cold water, and turn down the bung-hole and leave -till well drained. - -Mr. Maigne recommends that a couple of pounds of salt be dissolved in -the first water, and that the second washing be made with a decoction -of peach leaves. Often the casks are soaked for a day with cold water, -then washed with lime water, prepared by adding four pounds of lime -to two gallons of boiling water for a 100-gallon cask. After thorough -agitation, it is washed with cold water. Sometimes, too, the cask is -washed with a gallon or so of boiling wine, but it is an unnecessary -waste. - -Mr. Boireau says that when it is necessary to put old or very delicate -wines into new casks, the greater part of the soluble matters can be -extracted in the following manner: Pour in about two gallons of boiling -lye made from ashes or potash, or other alkaline substance, such as -slacked lime or pulverized chalk, etc., for they will dissolve out more -of those soluble matters than pure water. After thoroughly agitating -the cask, pour out the lye, and repeat the process; afterwards rinse -with boiling water, and run it out before cold; then wash with cold -water acidulated with one-tenth part of sulphuric acid, which enfeebles -the solubility of these matters; finally, rinse with cold water and -drain. - -These latter operations may be avoided by first washing with hot water, -and then filling the casks with common wine of the color of that -intended to be put into them, and leaving them for about two weeks. - -And before filling them with a grand red wine, it will be well to -moisten the inner walls of the cask with a glass or so of good, old -brandy. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 11._ Rinsing Chain.] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 12._ Visitor.] - -=Old Casks=, or those which have been in use, should be well washed as -soon as emptied, and the washings should be repeated with clean water -until it runs out perfectly clear. Oftentimes the cask will have more -or less lees adhering to its inner walls, which cannot be removed by an -ordinary washing, but it will be necessary to make use of the _rinsing -chain_. This chain is about six feet long, consisting of links made of -square iron whose corners will more readily detach the lees. One end is -attached to a long conical bung to keep it from falling into the cask, -and the other is armed with a square block of iron of a size to easily -go into the bung-hole (fig. 11). After pouring in two or three gallons -of boiling water, leave the cask for a while so that the lees may -become softened, then introduce the chain by the bung-hole, and close -it with the bung at the other end of the instrument. Thoroughly roll -and agitate the cask until the chain and its iron block have removed -the lees so that they will run out with the water. Repeat the operation -with clean water as often as necessary, and rinse till the water runs -out limpid, and let the cask drain. - -=To Examine the Inside of a Cask=, an instrument called a _visitor_ is -used. This is simply a piece of heavy wire bent into a loop or handle -at the upper end, with the lower end turned up and bent around into the -form of a small ring into which a candle can be inserted (fig. 12). -Put a piece of a candle into this candlestick or socket, light it, -and lower it into the cask through the bung, and the interior can be -inspected. - -=Empty Casks should not be allowed to remain long without Washing=; -as soon as the lees are removed, they should be rinsed as already -mentioned, and they should not be put to drain in the sun, for the heat -will transform the alcohol remaining into vinegar in a few hours. - -=Sulphuring Casks.=—If the cask is to be kept empty for some time, -after it has been washed and then drained for a few minutes, it should -be sulphured by burning in it a piece of sulphur match about an inch -square, and it should then be left to drain dry. After twenty-four -hours, burn in it three or four inches of the match, and bung it up -with the gas in it. Store it in a suitable place as described for new -casks, and sulphur it every three months. (See _Sulphuring_.) - -=Condition to be Examined.=—In using an old cask, as well as a new one, -the first thing to ascertain is if it leaks. If the hoops are loose, -they should be driven; then pour in two or three pails of water, and -stand the cask alternately on each end, and if it is found to leak, -soak it till it is tight. If the leaks cannot be stopped by driving the -hoops and by soaking, it must be repaired. - -The next thing to ascertain is, if the cask has become sour, mouldy, -or has been otherwise injuriously affected, as it is liable to be if -put away without being carefully washed and cared for. This can be -ascertained by examining with the _visitor_, or by smelling. If, when -the candle or a piece of lighted sulphur match is lowered into the -cask, it ceases to burn, the cask probably contains a noxious gas, -which must be expelled. This may be done by blowing in the bung-hole -with a hand-bellows till the air is changed, or by standing the cask on -its lower end with the hole in the upper head open, and the open bung -turned towards the wind. If, however, it is in the condition which the -French call _eventé_, which corresponds with that diseased condition of -wine called by the same name and which we call flatness, the gas being -carbonic acid, and heavier than air, will run out of its own accord -if the open bung is turned down and the cask left for a while in that -position. - -=Flatness in the Cask=, as we will call it for want of a better term, -Boireau says, consists in the disengagement of carbonic acid gas which -is produced in the interior, and is generally found in casks which -have been bunged up without washing, and which gives them an odor of -stagnant lees with slight acidity, and will extinguish the sulphur -match. After the bad air has been expelled the cask should be well -washed with the use of the chain. A cask which has contained wine that -has become flat should receive the same treatment. If a large tun is to -be treated, the foul air should be expelled, and a man should not enter -till a light will burn in it. (See _the disease, Flatness_.) - -=Acidity= will be found in the cask if it is left for several days -uncared for; the alcohol contained in the wine remaining on the inside -of the cask acidifies in contact with the oxygen of the air, and is -soon changed into acetic acid, and the change is much more rapid in a -high temperature. Instead of being simply flat, the cask is now really -sour, and smells of vinegar. The treatment consists in either removing -or neutralizing the acid. The first can be done by steam. Turn the -bung-hole down, and conduct a jet of steam into the cask either through -the faucet-hole or the bung; the water condensed from the steam charged -with acid runs out at the bung-hole, and the process must be continued -till the water no longer has an acid flavor. - -Where it is not convenient to use steam, rinse the cask by using the -chain, and scald it out with hot lye made from wood ashes or potash, or -with quicklime dissolved in hot water. Give it several rinsings with -the alkaline solution without allowing it to cool, and, if possible, -fill it with cold water and let it soak three or four days, and rinse -as usual. If the water is allowed to remain longer in the cask it may -become stagnant. - -=Mouldy Casks.=—Casks may become mouldy inside when left in a damp -place, if the bungs are left out, or if they are leaky through -defective staves or hoops, sometimes even when they have been -sulphured, and much more if they have not been. This condition is -recognized by a mouldy smell. The surest way to treat a mouldy cask -is to take out the head, and give it a thorough scrubbing with a -stiff broom and water. If after removing the mould the staves resume -the color of wine-stained wood, it is proof that the wood has not been -affected, and the head may be replaced, and the cask rinsed in the -usual way. If, however, after removing the mould, the wood is found to -be of a brown color, it is more or less rotten. - -=Rottenness= is due to the same causes as mouldiness, and when the -inside of a cask is decayed, it is no longer fit for wine. If, however, -the mouldy cask is brown only in spots, they should be entirely scraped -off, and then it may be used. But it is best not to put good wine into -such casks, for there is danger of spoiling it. - -=Brandy Casks=, when emptied, should simply be bunged up, without -washing, as the alcohol remaining will have a preservative effect. They -should not be kept in a place which is too damp. - -=Do not Sulphur Old Brandy or Whisky Casks= which have recently been -emptied or in which any alcohol remains, or you may cause a disastrous -explosion. In preparing new casks for the reception of brandy, they -should be washed and left to drain for twenty-four hours and until -they are dry, and if they are to be kept some time, throw in a glass -or two of brandy, bung tightly, and roll and shake till the inside is -moistened with the liquor. If they are to be used at once, they ought -to be first soaked with water for three or four days to remove the -woody taste. - -Boireau says that common wines may be put into brandy barrels, or -even oil barrels which have not become rancid (olive oil barrels, I -presume), but that fine wines should never be put into them. He also -adds that wine should not be put into casks which have been used for -rum, kirsch, vinegar, absinthe, vermouth, or any other liquor having -a strong odor, traces of which will be preserved in the pores of the -wood, even after the staves have been scraped. - -=Cask Borers.=—There is a beetle which is very destructive of casks -in California, which Mr. J. J. Rivers, curator of the museum of the -University, describes as _Sinoxlylon declive_ of the family of -_Bostrichidae_. In a paper read before the Anthrozoic Club, and -reported in the _Rural Press_, Vol. XX, p. 153, 1880, he states that -at the request of Mr. Schram, of Napa county, he experimented with the -insect in order to ascertain a remedy for the ruin caused by it. He -says that “Its primary mischief is caused by the habit of the parent -insect boring a hole three or more inches for the purpose of depositing -eggs. As casks are usually much less than three inches in thickness, -the beetle taps the liquid contents, and loss accrues by leakage. The -remedy I first thought of was to select some species of wood suitable -for cask making that would be unpalatable to this insect. My endeavors -in that way have resulted in failure for the reason that this beetle -appears to have no particular dislike to oak, chesnut, pine, whitewood, -and several of the eucalypti. The next step was to saturate the outside -of the cask with a strong solution of alum water applied hot, and when -dry, a coat of linseed oil, this latter to prevent the alum from being -washed out, as it would be in time. This proved a success, for all the -examples treated with the solution were untouched, while the unprepared -were riddled by the borer.” The insect is more destructive to casks -stored in light places; it is therefore better to keep them in the dark. - -=The Size of the Casks= is a matter of a good deal of importance. For -shipping, the ordinary pipe or puncheon holding from 150 to 200 gallons -is of a convenient size for handling, but for storing it is better -to use as large a vessel as possible, and where the quantity stored -is large, tuns of from 1000 to 3000 gallons or more in size are far -preferable. In the first place, it is a well known fact that wine made -at the same time, of grapes of like varieties, from the same vineyard, -and under the same apparent conditions, turns out quite differently in -different casks, and the contents of one cask may far excel in quality -that of another. In order to insure uniformity in a large quantity of -wine, it is necessary to store it in large receptacles. - -Another, and perhaps still more important consideration, is that there -is much less loss by evaporation when the wine is stored in large -casks. The evaporation in a small barrel will be almost as great as in -a cask three or four times the size, and to keep the small one full -will require about the same amount of wine at each ulling, which must -be performed nearly as often. There are two reasons for this: first, -because the staves of small casks are thinner, and secondly, because in -them a greater surface of wine is exposed to evaporation, according to -the volume, than in the case of the larger vessel. - -Guyot says, however, that the larger the receptacles, other conditions -being equal, the more rapid the development of the wines, and the -sooner they go through the periods of their life, and arrive at -decrepitude. He says that the greater part of wines, especially light -wines and white wines, cannot endure a long sojourn in tuns, vats, and -cisterns. They go through the phases of their life with a rapidity -fatal to their good qualities; nevertheless, this fact may be utilized -to hasten the epoch when wine may be used or put upon the market; -also to produce dry wines, to vinify sweet ones, and to age those of -good body. If, therefore, his theory is well founded—and we know that -fermentation once established is more active, if the mass is great—the -intelligent man will act in this behalf as circumstances require. It -would seem, however, that a large mass would be less affected by sudden -changes of temperature, and therefore, better protected from their -consequent ill effects. - -And Boireau recommends that white wines be stored in tuns, when mature, -as already mentioned. (See _Aging_.) - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -SULPHURING—ARRESTING FERMENTATION. - - -Casks are sulphured for the purpose of destroying the activity of the -ferments contained in the lees which may remain in them, and thereby to -prevent their moulding or souring, and must and wine are sulphured to -prevent or to check fermentation, and white wine also to keep it from -turning yellow. - -=Sulphurous Oxide, or Sulphur Dioxide=, is produced by burning sulphur. -It is a colorless gas, of a suffocating odor, and is composed of equal -weights of sulphur and oxygen, or, one part of the former and two of -the latter, SO₂, and with water becomes sulphurous acid. It arrests -fermentation in two ways: first, it absorbs oxygen with avidity, and -thereby removes what may be in the must or wine, or in the cask, thus -taking away one of the conditions necessary to the life and activity -of the ferment. (See _Fermentation_.) In the second place, by the -absorption of oxygen, sulphuric acid is formed from the sulphurous -acid, in a highly concentrated state, which is destructive of the life -of the ferment. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 13._ Sulphurer.] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 14._ Maumené’s Sulphurer.] - -=The Sulphurer, or Sulphur Burner=, the instrument used for the -purpose indicated, consists of a wire with a hook at one end, and the -other attached to the centre of a long, conical bung (fig. 13). It -is convenient to have the upper end pass entirely through the bung, -allowing the latter to move up and down on the wire, so that the hook -can be raised or lowered, according to the position to be occupied -in the cask. This is used by attaching the sulphur match to the hook -and lowering it into the cask, after lighting it. The objection to -this form of instrument is, that the coal or cinder left on the hook, -after burning the match, may fall into the cask and give the wine an -unpleasant flavor. To avoid this, Mr. Maumené invented a sulphurer, -provided with a deep perforated porcelain cup, into which the match is -placed and in which it burns, and which retains the carbonized linen -(fig. 14). A piece of wire cloth bent into a cup of a similar form and -attached to the lower end of the wire answers the purpose very well. - -=Sulphur Matches or Bands= may be purchased, or they may be easily -manufactured. To make them, melt roll brimstone (stick brimstone), or -what is better, flowers of sulphur, over a slow fire (sulphur melts at -115° C. or 239° F.); tear linen or cotton cloth into strips an inch -and a half wide and 10 or 12 inches long, and dip them into the melted -sulphur, and lay them aside to cool. Then dip again, and repeat the -process, dipping and cooling, till the coating of sulphur is of the -required thickness, and they should be thickly coated, or it may be -necessary to burn too much linen to get sufficient gas. If the sulphur -is overheated, the match will be dark-colored. - -Sweet scented powders are often added to the sulphur, whose essential -oils are disengaged when the sulphur is burned, and the cask is -perfumed by their vapors. The substances usually employed are ginger, -cinnamon, the flowers of the stock gilly, iris, lavender, thyme, -violet, etc., and the matches prepared with the addition of them is -generally preferred. - -Mr. Maumené says that the smallest amount of this volatile oil gives a -perfume to the wine, which is generally advantageous, but Boireau is -of opinion, however, that these substances check the combustion of the -sulphur, and in a measure neutralize its action, and he prefers the -sulphur pure. - -=To Sulphur a Cask=, take a piece of the sulphur match and light it and -lower it into the middle of the cask by means of the sulphur burner, -and lightly put in the bung of the instrument. By applying the ear to -the staves, it can be ascertained if the match is burning. If the air -is foul in the cask, and the match will not burn, the noxious gas must -be expelled as described under the head of _Casks_. When the fire is -extinguished the burner is withdrawn, care being taken, if the hook is -used, not to drop any of the carbonized linen into the cask. If that -should happen, the cask must be washed again. As the burning sulphur -fills the cask with gas, which exerts considerable pressure, care -should be taken that the bung is not blown out into the face of the -operator. - -Sometimes a strip of the sulphured cloth is lighted at one end and -lowered into the cask, the other end being secured by putting in the -bung. This is objectionable, because it leaves the debris of the match -sticking to the bung and the stave, which may give a disagreeable -flavor to the wine. As already mentioned under the head of _Casks_, -never burn a match in a cask containing alcohol. - -=To Sulphur Wine=, if the cask is only partly full, operate the same -as in sulphuring an empty cask, only care must be taken not to lower -the match into the wine. Here the sulphur burner with a movable bung -comes in play. If the cask is full, the gas may be drawn in by burning -a match close to a hole bored in the head of the cask somewhat higher -than the faucet, drawing from the latter at the same time. It is -evident that while the wine runs from the lower hole, the gas will -be drawn in at the vent. Where it is necessary to leave a cask with -a vacancy in it for some time, flowers and souring may be prevented -by burning in it a piece of sulphur match and bunging it up, and the -process should be repeated every two weeks, and besides as often as the -bung is removed for any purpose. It is better always to keep the cask -full, for in time the sulphurous gas will communicate a disagreeable -taste to the wine, which it takes a long time to remove. - -=Sulphuring should be Avoided in Certain Cases.=—Ropy wines should not -be sulphured, for the presence of oxygen is necessary in order to help -their fermentation; nor should those wines be sulphured which it is -desirable to keep in a state of effervescence. Sulphur should be very -sparingly used in connection with red wines, as it causes them to lose -a portion of their color by rendering insoluble the coloring matter, -and precipitating it; and for the same reason it is used for bleaching -white wines, and it prevents the latter from turning yellow. Liqueur -wines which are slow of fermentation should not be sulphured, for they -need all the natural aids to fermentation. - -=Fermentation is Arrested=, sometimes, in the manufacture of white -wines, by drawing them off into well sulphured casks, using two or -three squares of the match, if the fermentation is not very tumultuous; -but if it is very active, it may be treated as mentioned below for -musts. And in most cases the proper practice is, where wine needs -sulphuring, to draw it off into the sulphured cask, and in this way the -oxygen contained in the wine is more thoroughly exposed to the action -of the gas. - -=Unfermented Must.=—By sulphuring the must, fermentation is prevented, -and thereby is produced what the French call _mute wine_; and it is the -must of white grapes as it comes from the press that is more generally -subjected to the process. It is first allowed to settle as described in -the chapter on white wine, but it must be drawn from the vat as soon -as signs of fermentation appear, and bubbles of carbonic acid rise to -the surface. And to have the must clear, it must be closely watched, -for as soon as fermentation sets in, it becomes turbid. The must should -be freed from all fragments of stems, skins, seeds, etc., and should -therefore be strained as it runs from the press. - -=It is Prepared in Two Different Ways.=—First, the cask must be -scalded, rinsed, and drained in the usual way, and then as much sulphur -must be burned in it as can be consumed, or until the match goes out -for want of oxygen. Then the cask must be rapidly made half full of -the must, and closely bunged. It should then be rolled and thoroughly -shaken until the gas has been well absorbed by the juice. The must is -then drawn off without allowing it to come in contact with the air -(See _Racking_), and into another cask which has been sulphured in the -same manner, and is treated as before. While the second cask is being -agitated, sulphur is again burned in the one just emptied, until it -goes out, and then the must is transferred back in the same manner, -and is again shaken. It is subjected to this operation four times, -and the cask is finally filled with must treated in the same way, and -tightly bunged. The more successful will the operation be, the more the -liquid is kept from contact with the air, and therefore this method -is preferable to the next. The second method is as follows: burn in -an empty cask matches representing a couple of ounces of sulphur; pour -in about five gallons of must, bung it up and thoroughly shake; take -out the bung and put in another lighted match; if it will not burn for -want of oxygen, the air must be renewed by blowing in the cask with a -bellows. Then burn the match in the cask, and afterwards pour in five -gallons more of must, bung and shake as before. Continue the process -till the cask lacks about five gallons of being full. Then five gallons -must be sulphured in another cask, and the cask filled up with this and -tightly bunged. Of course, the sulphur burner must be shortened as the -cask fills up. - -Must treated in this manner may be kept for a long time if well -clarified, and the cask is well sulphured at each racking, or a portion -sulphured when it commences to ferment. - -If it is only necessary to keep the must a short time, a portion only, -say one-third, need be sulphured. In that case there will be less odor -of sulphur, and it will soon pass away. - -=Clarification and Care of Unfermented Must.=—It should be kept in -good, strong casks, well hooped and well bunged, in closed cellars -of a constant temperature. The casks should be filled every few days -with sulphured must; and they should be frequently racked to free them -from ferments. They should not be exposed to the air when racking, and -should be racked into well sulphured casks. Boireau says that the must -may be completely clarified _before sulphuring_, by introducing about -one ounce of tannin per 100 gallons of must, and pouring into the casks -before completely filling about a quart of water in which has been -dissolved about four tablets of gelatine, and which has become cold. - -=A Sulphur Flavor= is sometimes communicated to must treated as above, -and is also sometimes acquired by wines which are put into casks which -have been sulphured for some time, without first washing them, and also -by allowing the debris of the sulphur match to fall into the cask; -this flavor is apt to pass away with time if not very pronounced, or -in that case may be removed by racking into a clean cask. But if the -wine has a very decided sulphur flavor, it must be disinfected by wood -charcoal. Several large pieces[3] of coal well cleaned and well dried -are introduced into the cask and soaked in the wine, from which they -can be withdrawn by strings attached before putting them in the cask. -Forty-eight hours are generally sufficient to remove the flavor; but -if necessary, the process may be repeated, by changing the charcoal. -In operating on white wines, a large amount of charcoal may be used -without inconvenience, but in the case of red wine, there seems to be -some danger of depriving it of a portion of its color. Mr. Maumené -says, however, that the charcoal is liable to deprive the wine of the -carbonic acid dissolved in it, it being an absorbent of that gas, and -thereby rendering the wine more subject to the action of oxygen. - -[3] Machard says about 125 grammes to a tonneau, or 4 or 5 ounces to -250 gallons of wine. - -=Other Substances have been recommended to Prevent Fermentation -in a Must=, but notwithstanding the disagreeable flavor which is -communicated by an excessive use of sulphur, no other agent has been -found which is as satisfactory, on the whole. - -=By Burning Alcohol in the Cask=, the oxygen may be removed, but the -ferments are not destroyed. Care must be taken to avoid an explosion. -Therefore, the spirit must not be poured into the cask and lighted, but -must be placed in a small vessel and lowered in through the bung, as in -the case of sulphuring. - -=The Concentrated Aqueous Solution of Sulphurous Acid= has been -recommended, but Maumené says that not only is its preservation very -difficult, but its management is more difficult than the sulphur match, -and the chances of its being mixed with dangerous substances are -considerable; and therefore no one should think of using it. - -=The Bisulphite of Lime= has been used to prevent fermentation in -wine and cider, but it does not always give satisfactory results, -and the salt is difficult to keep, and the use for wine, at least, -has generally been abandoned. In the experiments of Proust, given by -Maumené, the smallest quantity used was 15 grammes to 100 kilogrammes -of must, or about one-half ounce to 23 gallons. - -=Salicylic Acid= has been much recommended within the past few years, -but like everything else, it affects the flavor, if sufficient is used -to prevent fermentation. The quantity necessary depends upon the amount -of alcohol, ferments, etc., contained in the wine. Prof. Neubauer, -quoted by H. Endemann in _American Chemist_, says that wine which is -yet fermenting should not receive any salicylic acid, since too large -quantities of the substance are required for effective use, but that -it may be used in wine when made to prevent after-fermentation; that -it will prevent disease, but will not cure wine when diseased. Though -infallible rules as to quantity cannot be given, experiments should be -made with from .02 to .06 gramme per litre, or say from 1.165 to 3.5 -grains per gallon. A solution of 2 grammes (30.864 grains) of salicylic -acid to 100 c.c. (3.38 fluid ounces) of alcohol of 80° is employed; 1 -c.c. = 0.02 grammes; 3 c.c. = 0.06 grammes; 61.44 minims or a little -more than one fluidram = 1.165 grains, and 3.7 fluidrams = 3.5 grains. -Salicylic acid being but sparingly soluble in water, it is preferable -to dissolve in strong alcohol, and these are convenient proportions. - -It is said that 100 grammes (3½ Ap. ounces) will stop the fermentation -of 1000 litres (about 264 gals.) of must, when nearly completed; -800 grammes are necessary when in active fermentation; and 400 will -preserve the wine when made. - -But now the intelligence comes that salicylic acid has an injurious -effect upon the teeth and bones, it having an affinity for calcareous -salts (_Boston Journal of Chemistry_, Vol. XI, 143), and the French -Minister of Agriculture and Commerce, on the report of the Committee -of Public Hygiene, recommends that the sale of articles of food -adulterated with it be prohibited as injurious to the public health. -(_Ib._ Vol. XV., 45.) - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -AGING—EFFECTS OF VARIOUS INFLUENCES. - - -=General Considerations.=—Wines, from the time of their first -fermentation down to the time of their degeneration and decay, are -constantly undergoing change. Until they have acquired a certain age, -varying in each case with the quality and nature of the liquid, they -do not possess those qualities which make them an agreeable, healthful -beverage. The care to be bestowed upon them in their general treatment -not only includes what is necessary for their preservation, but also -what is necessary to _age_ them by developing in them all the good -qualities of which they are susceptible, and the means of preventing -and remedying their defects and diseases. - -=A New Wine=, when first fermented, is quite different from one even -a few months old, in respect to color, flavor, and aroma. But the -quality which it may acquire depends upon the proportion of different -substances which it contains. Some wines, poor in alcohol and deficient -in tannin, will develop their best qualities and begin to degenerate -very soon after fermentation. Such should be consumed as soon as their -insensible fermentation is completed; it is useless to attempt to age -them; while those which are stout, firm and full-bodied must be kept -several years to be completely developed. - -=The Bouquet and Distinctive Flavor= of a wine, according to Mr. -Boireau, generally, are not perfectly developed until defecation is -complete—that is to say, until, after several months’ repose under -proper conditions, they have ceased to deposit insoluble matters, and -no longer mineral and vegetable salts, ferments, and coloring matter -are precipitated. - -=Old Wine=, then, differs from a new wine of the same origin by its -color, its aroma, and flavor, and the difference is due to several -causes. - -=The Color= of old red wine is less dark on account of the -precipitation of a part of the coloring matter, which, rendered -insoluble by the formation of different combinations, has been carried -down with the lees. The red color becomes tawny in time. - -=The Aroma= of old wine is more agreeable, being largely due to ethers -which are formed by a combination of the alcohol with the acids, and -because the other aromatic principles are no longer masked by the -carbonic acid which is disengaged when the wine has been recently -fermented. - -=The Difference in Flavor= is due to several causes, such as the loss -of a great part of the mineral and vegetable salts, which have become -insoluble by combination with the tartaric, acetic, and malic acid, and -their consequent precipitation, and also to the deposit of a portion of -the coloring matter. - -So that when a wine is old, having been well cared for, it contains -less coloring matter, vegetable and mineral salts, acids free and -combined, tannin, ferments, mucilage, alcohol, etc., than when first -fermented. - -=Influences which Develop, also Destroy.=—Pellicot, quoting Béchamp, -says that a wine ages and improves under influences analogous to those -which spoil it, and he, himself, carries the idea a little farther, -and adds, that the influence which produces the amelioration in a -wine—which ages it—will, after having brought about the improvement, -cause it to deteriorate, unless its action is opportunely suspended. - -It must also be understood that certain influences which will greatly -improve a strong, alcoholic, or a sweet wine, might in a short time -entirely ruin a weaker one, or a dry wine. - -=Influence of the Air.=—When a wine of ordinary strength, a table wine, -comes into immediate contact with the air, a portion of its alcohol -evaporates, it loses its bouquet and flavor, and if long exposed, a -whitish scum is formed on its surface, called _flowers_. These have -already been described in the chapter on fermentation as _micoderma -vini_ and _micoderma aceti_. A disagreeable flavor is communicated -to the wine which the French call _goût d’ évent_, and the wine is -said to be _éventé_, or flat; and it becomes turbid, and loses its -transparency. Sometimes when the wine still contains sugar the flowers -are not formed, but a second alcoholic fermentation sets in, and it -works. If the wine is not immediately freed from contact with the -air, it acidifies, becomes pricked, and by degrees turns to vinegar. -(See _Acetic Fermentation_.) And if still longer exposed, putrid -fermentation sets in. - -Sweet wines, whose alcoholic strength exceeds 16 per cent., and which -contain a good deal of sugar, are not so liable to be injured by -the influence of the air. Not only does their high degree of spirit -interfere with acetic and putrid fermentation, but an insensible -alcoholic fermentation sometimes takes place, and the supply of alcohol -is kept up. But in time, as the sugar disappears, the alcohol becomes -enfeebled by evaporation, and then acetic fermentation sets in, as in -the weaker wines. - -In the sherry countries it is considered necessary that the wine should -be exposed to the action of the air, and therefore the casks are not -kept full, and flowers are considered a good sign. In a few instances, -where the wines are strong enough to bear it, aging may be hastened by -some exposure to the air, but great care must be taken that they are -not left too long under its influence, or disorganization may ensue. It -must, however, be laid down as an almost universal rule, that the casks -must be kept full and well bunged. (See _Ulling_.) - -=Variations of Temperature= affect wines like other liquids by -contraction and expansion. When a full cask is put in a cold place, the -wine contracts and leaves a vacant space; then it must be filled up or -the wine drawn into a smaller cask. If the temperature of the wine in a -full cask is raised, the liquid expands, and is apt to cause leaks; the -sediment is liable to rise and give the wine a flavor of the lees. - -=Influence of Heat.=—Guyot says that the higher the degree of heat to -which wines are exposed, the greater their internal activity. Those -subjected to 15, 20, 30 degrees, Celsius, (59°, 68°, 86° F.), sooner -arrive at maturity, if young, at old age, if ripe, and at decrepitude, -if old, than they would at a temperature of 10° C. (50° F.) From which -the conclusion is drawn, that wines which have nearly or quite reached -their maturity must be protected from heat, or at least from that of an -elevated temperature, and that old wines should be kept in as cool a -place as possible. - -=Aging by Heat.=—On the other hand, if we wish to hasten the maturity -of our wines, we can do so by keeping them in a warm place rather than -in a cool cellar. The younger the wines, and the more sugar and alcohol -they contain, the more they will gain, and the less risk will they -run if subjected to a temperature of from 60° to 86° F. For example, -sweet wines which are only ripe at thirty or forty years will mature -in fifteen or twenty years, at 68° of heat, and in five or ten years, -at 86°; a Bordeaux or a Hermitage wine which at 50° would be made in -eight or ten years, would certainly be made in four or five years at -from 59° to 68°, and in two or three years at 77° or 86° of heat. He -says that a temperature between 40° and 90° C. (104° and 194° F.) will -disorganize many kinds of wine, particularly red wines and those which -have remained long in the fermenting vat, though it will not have that -effect upon all wines. - -It is well known that the inhabitants of many southern countries are -accustomed to expose their wines to a considerable degree of heat to -hasten their maturity, and different methods are employed for the -purpose, and it is important to know what kind of wine will be improved -and what injured by the practice. On this subject Boireau says, that -after many experiments, he can affirm that if the heat exceeds 30° C. -(86° F.), it is injurious to the grand _mellow_ wines of the Gironde; -also to wines of a delicate bouquet whose alcoholic strength does not -exceed 12 per cent. Fine wines which possess both an aromatic taste and -bouquet, a fruity flavor, and a pronounced mellowness, by heat take -on a certain tawny flavor of worn out wine; but they become dry, lose -their mellowness, and coolness, and acquire a cooked flavor, which -changes their nature and gives them an analogy with the wines of the -south of France. This taste covers their natural flavor and renders -them common. - -He goes on to say that wines subjected to the action of heat in direct -contact with the air, loss by evaporation a part of their alcohol; the -oxygen deprives them of a part of their color, and if the influence is -prolonged, they become weak and greatly deteriorated. Exposed to heat -in imperfectly closed vessels, they deposit, and take the tawny flavor -(_goût de rancio_) if their alcoholic strength exceeds 16 per cent.; -but if feeble in spirit, and they remain long in this condition, the -oxygen transforms a part of their alcohol into vinegar. In receptacles -kept full and well stopped, they undergo but few constitutional -changes, if the heat does not exceed 158° F.; but, nevertheless, a -small part of their coloring matter is precipitated, and their taste is -sensibly changed. A flavor of cooked wine is found, and a slight odor -of the lees, no matter how quick the heating. - -Whatever the kind of wine operated upon, care must be taken not to -carry the heat too high, for it will decompose and precipitate certain -principles in dissolution in the wine, and change its natural flavor. -After cooling, voluminous deposits will be found, and the cooking -will give the wine a disagreeable flavor and an odor of the residue -of a still. The extreme limits of from 113° to 158° F. should not be -exceeded, and the greater the heat the shorter should be the exposure -to it. - -Generally speaking, the wines which gain the most by heating, either -by artificial means or by leaving them in casks well bunged, but in -ullage, in warm store rooms, are strongly fortified liqueur wines. -And in order that they be not injured under those conditions, _they -should contain at least 18 per cent. of pure alcohol_. And as they will -gradually lose a little of their spirit by evaporation, their alcoholic -strength should be taken from time to time, and they should be kept up -to the indicated degree by fortifying. - -=Preserving Wine by Heat.=—Aside from the question of aging wine by -the effect of heat, Pasteur has attempted to show that wines can be -kept without change, if the temperature is raised for a short time to -130° or 140° F. This is on the theory that wines become flat, pricked, -turned, or rotten, owing to secondary fermentations, and that each -change is due to the action of a particular ferment, as stated in -the chapter on fermentation; and that this degree of heat destroys -the action of these ferments—in fact, kills them. It is owing to the -presence of the alcohol, that they are destroyed by this degree of -heat, for a must which has been raised to the boiling point still -ferments according to the experience of Boireau and of Pellicot. The -first named gives the results of his experiments in heating wines -according to Pasteur’s plan. The wine was in bottles, and the heat was -gradually raised to 52° C. (125.6° F.) In comparing the wines treated -with unheated wines kept under the same conditions, he found that the -wine which had been heated could support contact with the air with -less injury than the unheated, but that nevertheless it became flat, -covered with flowers, and acidified even in closed vessels which were -not completely full; also that fine wines generally are injured by the -process. The wines experimented upon had from 10 to 10½ per cent. of -alcohol. - -It is a costly process to subject wine to a high artificial heat, and -owing to the doubt which yet seems to attend the matter, but few are -likely to go to the expense. - -=Influence of Cold.=—Most authors have something to say on the subject -of congealed wines, and undoubtedly the liquid may be concentrated by -freezing a portion of the water, and drawing off the remaining liquid. -Those living in cold countries can try the experiment, but it will -certainly not be practiced in California. - -Mr. Boireau says that the liquid remaining acquires a flavor similar -to that possessed by wines which have been heated; that fine wines of -a delicate bouquet and flavor acquire a commoner flavor than those in -their normal state. - -=Treatment of Frozen Wines.=—It may not be amiss to indicate what -treatment a wine should receive in case it has been frozen and has -thawed again. It becomes turbid, loses part of its color, and several -matters are precipitated, or remain in suspension, and it is liable to -ferment when the temperature rises. The last named author says that it -should be put in a place of even temperature, and if necessary, it -should be fined; in which case it should be fortified with a strong -wine of the same nature, or a small amount of brandy. - -=Influence of Light.=—Guyot says that the direct light of the sun -causes wine to work, especially red wine, and that it has an injurious -effect upon its composition and color; and the coloring matter being -decomposed, or modified, acts upon the other elements and makes the -wine turn. And hence the wisdom of putting wine in colored bottles. It -is only the direct light of the sun, however, that is to be avoided, -for a dim light, light reflected or polarized, and moonlight and -artificial light are not sufficiently powerful to produce a sensible -effect. - -=Aging by Sunlight.=—Exposure to the rays of the sun has been resorted -to for the purpose of aging wine, but Boireau says that it is not -favorable to all, and is least suited to those whose alcoholic -strength does not exceed 15 per cent. He says that the direct rays -of the sun falling upon bottled wines will promptly precipitate the -coloring matter, and that the effect is greater where the bottles are -not completely filled and corked with the needle. If the bottles are -wrapped in paper, or if the wine is in casks, the aging is less rapid. -He shows by experiment that insolation is advantageous only to wines of -more than 15 per cent. of alcohol, to sweet wines, and wines fortified -up to 18°, intended to be treated as the wines of Madeira, _i. e._, -baked. But wines of about 10 per cent. of spirit will not endure this -method of aging without more or less deterioration by souring. - -=Effect of the Motion of Voyages.=—Wines age more rapidly if kept in -motion, and hence, in part, the good effect of a long voyage. Strong, -sweet wines, are undoubtedly greatly improved by the motion consequent -on transportation, as well as by the heat, but constant agitation will -cause weak ones to go rapidly through the periods of their existence, -and degenerate. - -=Wines Suitable for Shipment.=—And Dr. Guyot adds that a wine which -does not contain 12 per cent. of alcohol and 6 per cent. of sugar, -crosses the equator with great difficulty, even in bottles. In wood it -should be young and contain 20 per cent. of spirit, or sufficient sugar -to make up that amount. For a voyage in Europe, or to America direct, -he says that the wines of Bordeaux, Burgundy, and of Champagne, of 10 -to 12 per cent. of spirit and 2 to 4 per cent. of sugar, behave well if -young or in bottles. - -Mr. Boireau, however, says that wines proper for exportation, and which -will keep in tropical climates, where good cellars and good care are -generally wanting, are those which possess naturally or by addition a -high alcoholic title, a solid, but bright and handsome color, a clean -taste, and perfect limpidity. Sweet, fortified wines best fulfil these -conditions. He says that liqueur wines, for shipping to the tropics, -should have at least 18 per cent. of pure alcohol; below that they -ferment, their saccharine matter is transformed into alcohol, their -strength diminishes, and they end by becoming pricked. Dry wines, to -be sent to those countries, should have the same strength, unless the -casks are kept full. He adds, however, that these remarks only apply -to those wines which on their arrival do not receive the usual care, -such as filling the casks, clarifying and racking, and are not kept -in suitable places; and that a good firm wine of the south of France, -which has naturally at least 12 per cent. of alcohol, can be shipped -without fortifying. - -The motion and the high temperature to which wines are subjected -in transportation also cause a loss of color by precipitation, -particularly if they lack tannin. Wines which are sufficiently strong -in alcohol, but from lack of tannin want firmness and body, are liable -to acidify. Therefore, wines too poor in tannin should not be shipped -abroad. The greater part of the wines of the Gironde having plenty of -tannin, can be safely shipped if fortified to 11 per cent., and the -grand wines of less alcohol are safe if shipped in bottles. - -=In Shipping a New Wine=, whose sensible fermentation is finished, the -motion often causes a new disengagement of carbonic acid, and sometimes -in sufficient force to burst out a head of the cask, unless vented. -Of course, such wine should not be shipped, except under conditions -which admit of careful supervision. If transported short distances, a -small gimlet hole should be kept open near the bung, in which three or -four straws may be placed with the heads or spikes on, or a small tin -tube with a button at the top may be placed in the hole and bent inside -the stave, having sufficient play to allow the gas to escape. Must is -shipped in the same way. - -=Other Motion, such as Jarring and Trembling=, produced by loud noises -and bypassing teams and by factories, act injuriously upon wines, -causing them to behave badly and to deteriorate. Guyot also says -what may be by some deemed fanciful, that musical sounds hasten the -development of wine; and that most old wines will turn in a cellar -transformed into a music hall. - -=Fining= is also resorted to for the purpose of aging wine, producing -results somewhat similar to the effects of time. But it should be -performed with the care and subject to the conditions mentioned in the -proper place. (See _Fining_.) - -=Aging Generally.=—Before subjecting a wine to any of the processes -for artificial aging, care should be taken, says Mr. Boireau, to -precipitate the matters held in suspension, and to render it perfectly -limpid. - -Grand wines, however, should never be subjected to the treatment, for -if a premature development of bouquet is obtained, it is at the expense -of that precious quality, mellowness. For to-day, _gourmets_ and -consumers of refined taste do not select wines which have a bouquet, -if they are also dry and harsh to the palate; such wines are only too -plenty. They esteem above all those wines which in aging have kept -their fruity flavor, their velvety smoothness, that unctuosity which -can only be preserved in keeping them in a place having a regular -temperature (averaging 60°), in well closed receptacles, by bringing -about the defecation of their lees and the deposit of their ferments by -opportune rackings without contact with the air, and by fining them as -little as possible. - -If, for want of care or suitable places, the wines work, enter into -fermentation, their mellowness diminishes, and when neglected they -become dry. - -=The Wines which Gain the Most by the Aging Processes= mentioned, are: -1st, Wines excessively rough and overcharged with color; 2d, fortified -wines, whose minimum degree of alcohol is 18 per cent.; 3d, sweet wines -fortified to 18 or 20 per cent. - -Those which remain too harsh should be fined with a strong dose of -gelatine; continued agitation after this will make them smoother. - -Fortified wines, dry or sweet, age very quickly, if subjected to -agitation and afterwards to insolation, if followed by a complete -clarification; but it is important to fortify them anew, for the -alcohol evaporates, and below 15 per cent. they would sour instead of -acquiring bouquet. It is also sometimes necessary to add sugar to sweet -wines so treated. - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - -GENERAL TREATMENT—CELLARS. - - -=Unfortified, or Table Wines.=—After what has been said in the last -chapter of the different effects produced by the various influences -to which wine may be subjected, it remains to point out the proper -care and treatment to be bestowed upon unfortified table wines, whose -alcoholic strength does not exceed 15 per cent. The three essential -conditions indicated by Mr. Boireau are: - - 1. They should be protected from the contact of the air. - 2. They should be kept in a uniform temperature. - 3. They should be freed from their lees, ferments, and - deposits; they must become perfectly clear, and their - degeneration be prevented. - -It is very important to taste them, and keep close watch over them by -frequent visiting, in order to prevent secondary fermentations and -their consequent injurious results, particularly in the case of mellow -wines, which thereby transform into alcohol the mucilages and pectines -which they contain, and lose their fruity flavor. (See _Red Wine_, -_White Wine_, _etc._) - -=Deposits, Lees, etc.=—It is important that they should be freed from -ferments and deposits, for muddy, troubled wines are predisposed to -secondary fermentations, alcoholic or acetic; they readily contract -the bad taste of the lees, bitterness, etc. In all wines, the work -of clearing is constantly going on; different matters, among others, -coloring matter, several mineral and vegetable salts, etc., which were -dissolved in the wine, become insoluble, and these with a portion of -the tannin are precipitated to the bottom of the vessel or remain in -suspension. It is these matters with the ferments which constitute the -lees. Wines deposit more or less, according to their nature and the -care bestowed in their making. The most voluminous deposits take place -during the first year, and they diminish in volume and consistency at -each racking, if properly cared for. When they have become well settled -and bright, and have achieved their complete development, the deposit -is almost nothing. But it increases anew when the wine declines and -begins to degenerate. - -=To Prevent this Degeneration=, and to keep fully developed wines, they -must be put into bottles. (See _Wine in Bottles_.) - - -CELLARS. - -What has been said in the preceding chapter naturally leads us to the -subject of the proper place for storing wine after it has completed -its active fermentation. Cellars proper are constructed entirely under -ground, and should have vaulted roofs of masonry. If the cellar is -under a building, the arch can safely come within two or three feet of -the level of the ground, but if no building is over it to protect it -from the heat of the sun, it should be four or five feet under ground. -Many storehouses for wine are constructed partly above and partly below -ground, and others again, entirely above. Undoubtedly those below -ground are the best adapted for keeping wines which have arrived at -maturity, and for those of little alcoholic strength, but when it is -desired to rapidly develop and age an immature wine, it can be sooner -accomplished in a place of a higher temperature, and there also can a -strong wine be safely kept. - -=Temperature.=—Whatever the degree of temperature, all agree that it -should be as nearly uniform as possible; and to insure this, the cellar -should face the north or east when practicable. The outer door should -not open directly into the cellar or storehouse, but it is better to -have the entrance through an outbuilding, or at least with an outer and -an inner door, at a considerable distance. If the wine house is above -ground, its walls should be of sufficient thickness and of suitable -material to prevent changes of temperature, and it should have a loft -or room above, so that the wine may be protected from the effects of -the rays of the sun falling upon the roof; and it may also be shaded by -trees. Some of the older writers say that the proper temperature for -a cellar is 50° or 52° F., but so low a degree can only be obtained -in a well constructed cellar wholly under ground, and deep, and is not -likely to be obtained in this State. Boireau, however, says that in the -Gironde the average temperature of the cellars is from 15° to 17° C., -or 59° to 62½° F., and if a person can maintain the temperature of his -cellar or storehouse in this State uniformly at 60° he will do well. - -=Dampness.=—Formerly, when wooden hoops for casks were used, it was -necessary to guard against dampness, for they soon rotted, and required -to be frequently renewed; but now with the use of iron in place of -wood, less care is necessary in that respect. It is best, however, that -they should be sufficiently dry that mould will not form on the cask, -for a bad taste may thereby be communicated to the wine. Therefore, -cellars should not be constructed in very damp places, should have the -soil of the floor well compacted, should be well drained, and well -cemented, and if necessary, the floor may be covered with a bed a foot -deep composed of a mixture of lime, sand, and gravel, or cinders, -or the like, well beaten down, and the whole covered with dry sand. -Nothing should be left in the cellar which naturally gathers moisture. -All mould should be frequently removed, and the sand removed and -replaced with dry sand when necessary. Sawdust should not be used on -the floor. In San Francisco, the best cellars have a good asphaltum -floor, and I know of nothing better after the odor has passed away. - -=Ventilation= is necessary at times to prevent too much dampness, and -also to change the air which may become foul. Underground cellars can -be ventilated by means of a large tube, such as is used on shipboard, -provided with a broad opening at the top which can be turned in the -direction of the wind, conducting the air into the cellar. Storehouses -may have small, movable windows. In order to keep down the temperature, -the proper time to ventilate is during the coolest part of the night in -the warmer parts of this State. - -=Evaporation of the Wine=, however, must be guarded against, which -may vary from 3 to 10 per cent. per annum, according to whether the -place of storage is open or closed. In France the government makes an -allowance in favor of the wholesale merchant of 8 per cent., for loss. -And Boireau says that in dry storehouses where the air is continually -renewed by ventilation, the loss equals the allowed per cent., and -even exceeds it, particularly if the casks are weak and poor, hooped -in wood, and if the hoops are not driven when they become dry. The -loss may then reach 10 per cent., without extraordinary leakage. By -guarding against too free access of air and heat, not only will a very -considerable loss by evaporation be avoided, but also other defects -which may seriously affect the wine, such as acidity, bitterness, too -great dryness, etc. And moreover, in poor cellars the wines require -much more attention, such as ulling, racking, and frequent tasting, to -protect them from secondary fermentations. - -=Other Precautions.=—From what has been said concerning the influence -of light, motion, etc., it results that wine cellars should not be too -light, nor be situated under wagon roads where vehicles frequently -pass, nor near blacksmiths’ shops, or other noisy industries, such as -boiler making, etc. The vicinity of sinks, cesspools, sewers, and the -sources of noisome odors generally, should be avoided; and cellars -should not be used for storing milk, cheese, vinegar, or any matter -liable to ferment, such as fruit, vegetables, etc.; nor should new -wines be stored there until their active fermentation has ceased, for -these things may either communicate a bad odor and taste to the wine, -or set up in it secondary fermentations. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 15._ Cask and Support.] - -=The Casks and Tuns= should be supported by strong timbers or masonry, -and should be sufficiently elevated, so that the wine may be easily -drawn off, and should be securely blocked. Fig. 15 represents a cask -supported by timbers resting on brick work. Where the casks are -arranged in piles, those in the lower tier should have four blocks or -chocks each, for if they are blocked only on one side, they are liable -to be disturbed, and the outer ones should also have a large block -under the bulge. Of course, the outer blocks should be so adjusted -that they cannot be knocked out in passing by, and in rolling barrels, -etc. The casks of the upper tiers are rolled up on skids, or inclined -planes, and are then rolled along over scantlings, laid on the tier -below; and hoisting tackle is often of use in this connection. When, -however, the cellar is furnished with sufficient large tuns, the piling -of casks may be dispensed with. - - - - -CHAPTER XII. - -RACKING. - - -=The Racking of Wines=, or drawing off, is performed for the purpose -of freeing them from the lees. Some of the older writers recommend -that wine should be allowed to remain on the lees till February or -March, but the better practice is to draw it off as soon as it has -cleared. If it is allowed to remain long upon the lees, variations of -temperature and secondary fermentations, storms, etc., are apt to cause -it to become troubled and muddy, and acquire a flavor of the lees. -Boireau says that he has constantly observed that wines in general, -and especially those which have been fined, if racked as soon as well -cleared, say from two weeks to a month after fining, according to the -kind of finings used, place of storage, nature of the wine, etc., are -generally more limpid, have a cleaner taste, and are much less liable -to work than if left on the finings for six months, from one racking to -another. Wines not fined, which have become clear naturally by repose, -exhibit the same results; those which are racked as soon as bright, -are, in every respect, of a quality superior to those which have been -left upon their lees from one equinox to another. - -=The Conditions Indispensable to Good Racking= are stated by Mr. -Machard as follows: - - 1. To perform the operation when the weather is dry and - clear, and if possible during a north wind, for it is - only during such weather that the precipitation of the - lees can be really complete. - - 2. To avoid the operation during damp and rainy - weather, and while violent winds are blowing from the - south. - - 3. Not to proceed during a storm, because then the - lighter parts of the lees rise and produce fermentive - movements which are always to be guarded against. - - 4. Never to draw off a troubled or muddy wine, for then - it must be racked again; and in that condition the - deposits are always mixed with the wine. - - 5. Moreover, never rack at the following periods of the - vegetation of the vine: when the buds begin to swell, - at the time of flowering, and especially at the time - when the fruit commences to change color, in ripening. - - 6. Never to proceed during the heat of the day, or a - south wind, but always in the cool of the morning and - during a north wind. - - 7. To always make use of the sulphur match. - - 8. Never to leave the wine long exposed to the air. - - 9. Not to allow the wine to fall too far, so as not - to deprive it of its carbonic acid, which exerts a - conservative effect, and thus also to avoid too great - agitation, which may be prejudicial. - - 10. Finally, to use the greatest care to free it from - the least traces of sediment. - -I have repeated nearly the language of the author quoted, at the -expense of some repetition, because the rules are laid down by him more -minutely than by the other authors who agree with him in general terms. - -It is agreed that the most critical periods for wine on the lees are -the different periods of the vegetation above mentioned, which vary -somewhat in different climates, and they should therefore be racked -before these epochs arrive. - -=New Red Wines=, says Mr. Boireau, which have been properly made, which -are clear, which do not work, and which are kept in closed cellars, -should be drawn off four times during the first year; the first racking -is performed as soon as the insensible fermentation has ceased, and -the wine has become clear, _i. e._, during the first cold weather of -December; the second in March, before the sprouting of the vine, or -at the vernal equinox; the third before the flowering of the vine, in -June; and the fourth at the autumnal equinox, in September. Machard -considers that no racking is so important as that of March, and he -insists upon it that it should never be omitted, and that it should be -well done, for if the lees are all removed then, it may even go safely -till the next vintage, and the June or July racking be omitted, except -in warm climates; and then, as before observed, it should be done in -the cool of the day. Instead of waiting till September, the operation -is often performed in August, when the grape begins to turn. Of course, -the periods change somewhat in different climates, as already observed, -so that the cellar-man must familiarize himself with the conduct of the -wine in his locality, and govern himself accordingly, racking before -the period arrives when the wine usually works. - -=Old Red Wines= are racked only twice a year, in the spring and fall, -before the equinoxes, except in case of their becoming turbid by -secondary fermentations, when they must be racked, whatever the time -of year, except also in case of certain diseases. If, however, the -wine has not been well made or properly cared for, it may show signs -of fermentation and alteration, and need racking at periods different -from those above mentioned. If the wine does not clear of itself by -the time it should be drawn off, it may be necessary to clarify it by -fining (which see). But if well made and properly cared for, it will -ordinarily clear itself. - -=New White Wines= are racked as soon as they become clear, and no -precise epoch can be fixed for the operation, because the duration -of the fermentation depends essentially upon the density of the must -and the temperature. In any case, it is much more prolonged than -that of red wines. It often happens that it continues till the month -of February, when the must is very rich in sugar, especially if the -weather is cold late in the fall; while wines made of grapes from the -same vineyard, made in the same way, but less rich in the saccharine -principle, may terminate their fermentation in December. - -The racking should always be performed before the weather becomes warm, -for the elevation of the temperature will set the wine working, and the -lees will become mixed with it. Ordinarily the most favorable time is -the month of February. - -=Subsequent Rackings.=—White wine, new or old, requires to be racked -three times a year, as stated in the chapter on White Wine; _first_, -in March, at the time of the sprouting of the vine, before the equinox; -_secondly_, at the flowering of the vine, in June, before the summer -solstice; and _thirdly_, in September, at the ripening of the grape, -before the autumnal equinox. (See _White Wine, Racking_.) - -=Care to be Observed.=—Contact with the air should be carefully avoided -during the operation. The same care should be observed as in racking -red wine, and the operation is performed in the same manner, always -keeping in view that what may be essential to keep a mellow wine in -condition, may to a certain extent be neglected where dryness is -desired. - -A sulphur match ought always to be burned in the cask before wine, -either red or white, is racked into it, for thus the germs of -fermentation which may be in the cask will be rendered inactive by -the sulphurous acid formed, and which will also absorb with avidity -the oxygen, and thereby in two ways tend to prevent fermentation. The -cask, however, should not be sulphured till well drained, or the water -remaining will be impregnated with the gas, which is liable to give a -disagreeable sulphur taste to the wine which will not disappear for -some time. (See _Sulphuring_.) A cask which has been put away sulphured -must for the same reason be washed before using; and in fact no cask -should be used without washing. - -=Other Precautions.=—Great care must be taken in all cases not to -disturb the sediment by moving the cask, by pounding on the stave to -loosen the bung, or by driving in the faucet. The latter ought to be -opened before inserting it, so as to allow the air contained in it to -escape, and not to force itself into the cask and trouble the wine, -which it is liable to do by contraction and expansion, forcing in the -faucet. It should be closed as soon as the wine begins to run. It is -hardly necessary to say that an empty bucket should be kept under, when -putting in the faucet, to catch the wine that may escape. Care must -also be taken that the cask to be filled, and all the utensils used -in and about the racking, are scrupulously clean, and buckets, hose, -funnels, siphons, etc., must be washed carefully every day, for if -allowed to stand with wine in them, they will become sour. Siphons and -short tubes can be scoured by means of a brush, such as is used for -cleaning bottles and lamp chimneys, by attaching it to a long, stiff -wire. - -=Different Methods of Racking.=—The commonest way is to draw the wine -through a faucet into a bucket, and pour it into the empty cask by -means of a funnel. The faucet is placed in a hole bored in the end of -the cask, an inch or more above the lower stave. After the faucet has -been placed in position, vent the cask of wine, but not before. When -the wine no longer runs, the cask should be slightly tipped forward, -but by a very easy and gradual movement, so as not to disturb the lees. -This may be done by a man carefully lifting the rear end. A kind of -hoisting-jack (fig. 16) is used for this purpose. The lower end rests -on the ground, near the rear end of the cask, and the upper end of the -movable rod is placed under the upper chime. On turning the crank the -cask is tipped gently forward, and a ratchet catches the pinion and -prevents the return. If there is not sufficient space between the wall -and the cask to operate in the manner stated, one end of the jack is -placed against the wall above the cask, and the power is applied to -the upper forward part of the cask by placing the other end behind a -forward hoop. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 16._ Jack for tipping a Cask.] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 17._ Fork for tipping a Cask.] - -The fork (fig. 17) is used in the same way, being lengthened by means -of the screw. Fig. 18 represents another contrivance for the same -purpose. - -If only one man is employed, a lever supported above the cask by two -legs straddling it, and forming the fulcrum, the rear end provided -with a hook which hooks under the chime, and the other end extending -forward beyond the front, may be used (fig. 19). The workman, by -bearing down on the lever, or by pulling the strap at the end, tips -the cask forward. When the wine has nearly all run out, it should -frequently be examined by holding a small quantity to the light in a -small, thin glass, and as soon as the slightest appearance of lees -presents itself, the operation should cease, and none of the muddy wine -should be poured into the other cask. This method has its advantages, -in that the first appearance of cloudiness can be detected, for -the liquid is always under the eye of the operator, but it has the -disadvantage of greatly exposing the wine to the air. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 18._ Implement for tipping a Cask.] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 19._ Implement for tipping a Cask.] - -Another method which avoids the last objection, is to securely connect -the faucet of the cask of wine with the faucet of the empty one, to -open them both, and let the wine run from one to the other. If they -are both on the same, or nearly the same level, a portion only will be -transferred, and then the rest may be forced over by connecting the -tube of a hand-bellows tightly with the bung-hole of the cask of wine, -and blowing into it. This is easily done by attaching the bellows by -means of a hose to a long, hollow, conical bung. (See fig. 20.) As soon -as the air is heard in the tube, close the faucet, and before removing -it, bung the cask tight. The remaining wine is removed as in the first -method. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 20._ A Method of Racking.] - -=Pumps and Siphons= are very useful where wine is to be merely -transferred from one cask to another, but they are not well suited -for racking it from the lees, for it is difficult to make use of them -without disturbing the sediment, and thereby troubling the liquid. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 21._ Siphon.] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 22._ Siphon.] - -Figs. 21 and 22 represent two forms of siphons. They may also consist -simply of a bent tube. - -Fig. 21 shows an exhausting tube attached, by which the air is sucked -out with the mouth. - -Fig. 23 shows a rotary force pump for transferring wine from one cask -to another. Lever force pumps are also used for the same purpose. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 23._ Rotary Force Pump.] - - - - -CHAPTER XIII. - -CLARIFICATION—FINING. - - -=When Necessary.=—Wines do not always acquire the desirable state -of brightness and limpidity by repose and racking, and it becomes -necessary to clarify them. They may become cloudy through secondary -fermentations, which cause the lees once deposited to rise and become -again mixed with the liquid, or through changes of temperature, by -transportation, by careless racking, etc., and by mixing different -kinds together; or they may fail to clear naturally, because not -possessed of sufficient tannin or albumen to precipitate the -different matters held in suspension. Weak wines of poor years may -contain ferments in excess of their sugar, which may be removed by -clarification, and so fermentation be checked or retarded. Wines, -however, which are well made and properly cared for, ought to become -bright without recourse to clarification, and such will be found -preferable to, and will possess more fruitness, unctuosity, and color, -than those which have been clarified by several finings. And for -these reasons—although it may be necessary to fine such wines as do -not naturally clear themselves—care must be observed not to carry the -process too far, and deprive them of the tannin necessary to their -preservation, as well as of too much of their color, fruity flavor, and -mellowness. - -=The Different Substances Employed for Clarifying= act either -chemically and mechanically, or simply mechanically. Among the latter -are blotting paper, either in sheets or in pulp, fine sand, and -powdered stone, which are placed in the cask, and which in falling, -carry down with them the matters which are held in suspension. Wine -is sometimes clarified by filtering it through woolen bags. Those -substances which act both chemically and mechanically are albumen and -gelatine, and similar substances. - -=Of Gelatinous Substances=, two kinds are used, gelatine, so-called, -and isinglass, or fish glue, and they act in two ways. They are not -entirely dissolved in water; thin, transparent pellicles remain in -suspension, which form a sort of network in the wine, and in settling -they carry with them other insoluble matters. Thus, their action is -mechanical. The portion which is fully dissolved is pure gelatine, and -acts chemically. It combines with the tannin of the wine and forms an -insoluble substance, tannate of gelatine, which is readily precipitated. - -=Gelatine=, so-called, is prepared from the bones, skin, and tendons -of animals, and is sold in tablets or sheets, and is sometimes chipped -or broken into small fragments. It is one of the most powerful of -finings, and causes a loss by precipitation of a considerable portion -of the tannin and of the coloring matter of the wine. It should -not, therefore, be used in clarifying red wines, except when it is -desirable to deprive them of a portion of their roughness caused by -an excess of tannin, or of a portion of their color; and it should -always be employed with caution. It produces more sediment than the -two substances next named, and leaves a bad taste in the wine, unless -perfectly fresh matters have been used in its preparation. For the -latter reason, wine clarified with it should be racked from the finings -as soon as cleared. It may be profitably used to clarify common white -wines; and if they are difficult to clarify, tannin should be added as -described below. - -=Preparation.=—Take about two tablets, or one ounce, for one hundred -gallons, or double the quantity, if the greatest possible effect is -desired. Dissolve it in a dish over the fire with a little water, -constantly stirring, and do not allow the water to boil. If previously -soaked a few hours in water, it will dissolve all the more easily. Use -as directed below. - -=Isinglass, Fish Glue, or Ichthyocol= (_Ichthyocolla_ of the -pharmacists), is prepared from the swimming bladder of the sturgeon, -and usually comes from Russia. It acts in the same way as gelatine, -mechanically, and also by combining with the tannin. This is -preëminently the fining for white wine. One ounce or more maybe used -for 100 gallons. It should be broken up by pounding it with a hammer -on a block of wood, and should be chopped into small fragments, so -that it may be easily dissolved. Put it in a vessel of crockery, and -pour over it of the wine to be clarified sufficient to cover it. Add -another glass or two of the wine in a few hours, when the first has -been absorbed. After about twenty-four hours it forms a jelly. This -should be thinned by adding more wine or warm water, and it should be -thoroughly worked with the hand until completely dissolved, and then be -strained through a piece of linen, using sufficient pressure to squeeze -out the mucilage. It should be thoroughly whipped or beaten, and more -wine is added if too thick. After being prepared, it may be kept for -some time in bottles, by adding a little brandy. In clarifying sweet -white wines, it is recommended that an ounce or two of cream of tartar -be added, which must first be dissolved in warm water. - -=Albuminous Substances.=—Among these are mentioned the _blood of -animals_, dried or fresh, and it is a powerful clarifier. About two -quarts to 100 gallons are used, beaten up with an equal quantity of -wine. It is liable to deprive the wine of a portion of its color, and -sometimes conveys a disagreeable flavor, particularly unless used when -quite fresh. It should not be used to clarify old or fine wines, but -may be employed for new and common ones. It is of use in clarifying -white wines which have turned yellow, for it effectually removes this -color. It should be used sparingly, if at all, for red wines, and the -wine should be drawn from the finings as promptly as possible. - -=Milk= is also used in the same way and in the same quantity as blood. -It is liable to sour, and a small quantity is apt to remain in the -wine. By its use sugar of milk is introduced, which is liable to -undergo lactic and butyric fermentations, and the flavor of sour milk -and rancid butter may be communicated to the wine. This may also be -used to decolor white wine which has become yellow. - -=The White of Eggs= is the best of the albuminous substances used for -clarifying. It is coagulated by the alcohol and tannin, and forms a -precipitate heavier than the liquid, and as it falls, carries with -it the matters remaining in suspension. If the eggs are fresh, as -they always must be, there is no danger of communicating any foreign -flavor to the wine by their use; but it is not advisable to use the -yolks, for they injure the wine by decoloring it, and the sulphur -contained in them may communicate the odor of sulphuretted hydrogen. -This is preëminently the fining for red wine. It is also used for the -clarification of white wine, but Machard says that it is subject to be -condensed in the form of splinters (_esquilles_), which obscure rather -than clarify the liquid. The whites of ten or a dozen eggs are used for -100 gallons. They are beaten up in a small quantity of wine or water -before using. - -=Clarifying Powders.=—In addition to the substances mentioned, there -are special preparations in the form of powders, sold for the purpose, -which are highly recommended by some authors. They are supposed to -consist mainly of dried blood; directions for using are given on the -package. - -=Gum Arabic=, about 10 ounces to 100 gallons, is also used, but it is -not readily precipitated, and is apt to remain in dissolution in the -wine. - -=Salt= is often added to the different finings, by first dissolving a -small handful in water. It renders them heavier, and as it is insoluble -in alcohol, it becomes precipitated, and thus acts in two ways. Many -authors recommend its use, but Boireau says it should only be employed -in clarifying common or very turbid wines. - -=Alcohol= is added with great advantage if the wines are so weak in -spirit that the finings do not act. - -=Tannin=, however, more frequently requires to be added, for upon -it and the alcohol depends the action of the substances employed. -If the wine is not lacking in alcohol, and the finings do not act, -sufficient tannin must be added to produce the desired effect. If the -ordinary tannic acid of commerce is employed, one-half to one ounce for -100 gallons may be used. Dissolve ½ lb. in a quart of the strongest -alcohol, 95°, by thoroughly shaking in a bottle of double the size. -After standing twenty-four hours it is filtered, and one gill of the -solution contains one ounce of tannic acid. This preparation of tannin, -which is prepared from nutgalls, is used for tannifying sparkling -wines, because it does not adhere to the inside of the bottle. It is -preferable, however, in general to employ the tannin derived from the -vine itself. For this purpose a strong decoction is made by steeping -grape seeds, which have not undergone fermentation, in water. They -should be coarsely broken, or bruised, and boiled for several hours. By -adding from one-fourth to one-fifth of its volume of strong alcohol of -85 per cent., it can be kept for future use. The liquor may be filtered -before adding the alcohol. Instead of the seeds, sometimes a handful -of stems are steeped, and the liquid is used. Tannified wine may be -prepared by soaking 50 or 60 lbs. of the bruised seeds in 100 gallons -of white wine, for one or two months. It is cared for as white wine. -If only one cask is to be treated, say 100 gallons, one-half pound of -grape seed may be reduced to powder and put in. - -It is difficult to lay down a definite rule as to the amount of either -preparation to use, for the reason that the amount of tannin contained -in the wine itself varies. Three or four gallons of the tannified -wine are recommended for 100 gallons, and a much smaller quantity of -the first mentioned decoction would be equivalent in its effects, on -account of its additional strength. If, however, it is found that -sufficient has not been used, the wine must be clarified anew, and -tannin added again. By experimenting on a small quantity of the wine, -the proper quantity may be ascertained. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 24._] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 25._] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 26._ Implements for stirring.] - -=Method of Operation.=—After preparing the finings as described under -the head of each of the substances already mentioned, two or three -gallons of wine are drawn from the bung by the aid of a siphon, pump, -or other suitable implement, the finings are poured in, and the wine -is stirred until thoroughly mixed with them. This may be done with a -stick split at the end into three or four prongs (fig. 24), or by a -sort of brush consisting of several small bundles of bristles inserted -in a stick and at right angles to each other (fig. 25), or with a -sort of bent paddle, pierced with holes, called a whip (fig. 26). The -wine drawn out should then be replaced in the cask, which should be -completely filled, and left to rest till the wine is bright. In filling -a cask which has recently been agitated, or into which finings have -been put, a good deal of froth is frequently found which will run out -at the bung before the cask is full, and will prevent the operator from -filling it. A few smart blows on the bung stave with a bung starter -will break the bubbles and remove the foam. The time required to -clarify a cask of wine depends somewhat upon the quality of the wine -itself, and also upon the kind of finings used. The usual time is from -two weeks to a month. In no case, however, should it be allowed to -remain on the finings after it has cleared and has ceased to deposit, -for the sediment may work up again and cloud the wine, and if left too -long in contact with the deposit, the wine may acquire a disagreeable -flavor. - -If, after leaving the wine a suitable time, it still remains turbid and -continues to deposit, it should be racked into a clean cask and fined -again, adding tannin, if necessary. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV. - -SWEET WINES—FORTIFIED WINES. - - -=Generally.=—The French give the name _vins de liqueur_, liqueur -wines, to sweet wines, and it is also sometimes applied to fortified -dry wines. Sweet wines are those which, after terminating their active -fermentation, still retain a quantity of sugar. In order to produce -natural sweet wines, it is necessary that the must should contain a -large amount of sugar; Boireau says, from 16° to 25° Baumé, or about 29 -to 46 per cent. It would seem that the latter figure is too high for a -_natural_ sweet _wine_, for it probably would not ferment at all, and -to make _a wine_ from a must containing over 35 per cent. of sugar, -the alcohol must be added. (See _Musts_.) He goes on to say that these -wines will contain from 15 to 16 per cent. of natural alcohol, without -addition; the sugar which they contain makes them heavier than water. - -=To Increase Sugar.=—In order to augment the amount of sugar, the -grapes are left on the vine till they become excessively ripe; in some -places the stem of the bunch is twisted on the vine to interrupt the -rising of the sap; the must is also sometimes concentrated by boiling; -sometimes the grapes are picked and exposed to the sun on screens or -straw mats, until they become shriveled, and sometimes they are dried -in ovens. - -=Without Fermentation.=—Sometimes sweet wines are made without allowing -the must to ferment at all, by adding alcohol till it contains 18 or -20 per cent. of spirit; thus all the sugar is preserved. Again, they -are made by mixing with dry wines grape syrup or concentrated must, and -fortifying. - -=Care Required.=—It has already been stated in the chapter on keeping -wine that these wines require less care than weaker ones. But Mr. -Boireau says that wines, whether sweet or dry, whose strength does not -exceed 16 per cent., require the same care as ordinary wines. - -In order that sweet and fortified wines may be kept in storehouses -subject to great changes of temperature, in bottles upright, or in -casks in ullage—in other words, under the conditions in which brandy -can be kept, they must contain 18 or 20 per cent. of alcohol. They age -sooner in casks than in bottles. (See _Aging_.) - -=Clarification= of these wines is effected by fining or by filtering. -The best finings for the purpose are those containing albumen, such as -the whites of eggs, though fresh blood may be used, but only for the -commoner wines. If they are very pasty, tannin should be added, and -then they should be clarified with a strong dose of gelatine. - -Small quantities of wine may be filtered through paper or flannel, in -closed filters. - -These wines should always be allowed to rest for a while, and then be -racked before shipping, for it is rare that they do not make a deposit. -(See _Fining_.) - -=Boiling Must.=—Pellicot says that the common practice in making sweet -wines, is to reduce the volume of the must by one-third, or even -one-half, by boiling. They clear sooner, and retain less of the cooked -flavor if only a part is boiled, that is, if, after boiling, one-fourth -to one-third of the volume is added of must from the sweetest varieties -of grapes. In this way the wines are more agreeable, and sooner -matured. When the boiled must is taken from the cauldron, it must be -briskly stirred with a bunch of twigs, or the like, till it ceases to -smoke, in order to remove a disagreeable flavor which wines so made may -contract. He gives it as his opinion that the greater part of the sweet -wines, even of southern countries, are made by boiling the whole or a -portion of the must, in spite of allegations to the contrary; and he -considers it an innocent and legitimate operation, the only objection -being the cooked flavor, which disappears with age. He excepts, -however, wine made from very sweet varieties, which are ripened -artificially. He also recommends that when kept in a large cask, the -lees should not be removed, as they contain a good deal of sugar. As a -certain quantity is drawn off, it may be filled each year with new wine -of the same quality. - -=Sweet Muscat.=—In making sweet Muscat, fermentation should be checked -by the addition of alcohol, for if allowed to continue too long, the -Muscat flavor will disappear. And this is usually necessary, as before -stated, to keep the wines sweet. - -=Pressing.=—Where the grapes are quite ripe, and somewhat dry, it may -be difficult to extract the juice without a very powerful press; under -such circumstances Machard recommends that, after crushing, the grapes -be put into a vat for twenty-four or forty-eight hours, according to -the temperature, and until fermentation commences, which fluidifies the -must and makes it run more freely from the press. - -=The Marc of Sweet Wines= is useful to mix with poor white wines to -give them more sugar and more strength. - -=The amount of Alcohol to be added= varies from two to five per cent., -or more, depending upon the amount developed by fermentation, and the -degree of sweetness desired. If the must is not allowed to ferment at -all, it must be fortified up to 18 or 20 per cent.; if, however, it is -so sweet that it will not ferment, it may be kept without the addition -of alcohol, but it will be syrup, and not wine. - -=Density.=—Dubief says that sweet wines should mark a density of from -4° to 5° Baumé, and the best of them even 7°. - -=Furmint Wine.=—The following is the method given by Pellicot as -practiced by him in making wine from the Furmint grape. He gathers the -grapes when they are very ripe, and the small berries are half dried, -and then exposes them to the rays of the sun for six or eight days, -upon screens. When ready to crush, he takes the screens to the crusher. -The dryest berries are then removed by shaking the frame, or with the -hand, and put by themselves; and the remainder are crushed in the usual -manner. Then the dry ones are crushed as well as possible, and the two -kinds are mixed together and fermented. Owing to the syrupy nature of -the must, it ferments for a long time, and without much effervescence. -When it acquires a suitable flavor, it is drawn off, and is then racked -several times till clear. - -Where the grapes are trodden, it is probably necessary to separate the -dry grapes from the rest, and crush them by themselves, in order that -they may be well crushed; but if a good crusher is used, it would seem -entirely unnecessary. - -=Straw Wines=, according to Machard, are made as follows: The ripest -bunches are chosen, and preferably from old vines. They are gathered -when the weather is warm and dry. They are spread upon straw, or hung -up in the upper room of a house. They are visited from time to time, -and the rotten berries removed. They are thus left till February or -March, the time when straw wine is usually made. Some, however, press -in December, but the wine has not the quality of that made later.[4] -When sufficiently dried the grapes are stemmed, and the remaining -rotten berries are removed. They are then crushed and pressed. The -pressings are all mixed together. To arrive at perfection, such a wine, -he says, must be kept ten, twelve, or more years; that it need not be -racked, nor the casks made full, and that it requires no fining. - -[4] It must be remembered that he is writing for the cold climate of -the Jura, where the grapes do not naturally acquire that degree of -maturity necessary for sweet wines. - - -PORT WINE. - -=The Musts= of the port wine grapes grown in the Upper Douro, Portugal, -show from 24 to 29 per cent. of sugar, according to the variety. There -are others cultivated in the district which contain less sugar. The -sweetest of all is the Bastardo. The fermentation takes place under -cover, in what is called a _lagar_, which is a large stone vat, about -three feet deep. According to Dr. Bleasdale, it is necessary to gather -the grapes as soon as they are completely ripe; that the _lagar_ or -fermenting vat should be filled as promptly as possible; that the -mass should be thoroughly stirred; that the fermentation should be -tumultuous and uninterrupted, and that the wine should be drawn off -when it has developed a vinous smell and flavor, and astringency and -roughness to the taste, though all the sugar has not been fermented. -The defective grapes are picked out, and only good ones put into the -vat. As soon as the fermenting vat is filled, a sufficient number of -men enter into it to complete the treading. Three men to each 120 -gallons of must are employed, who with bare feet tread and dance upon -the grapes. If fermentation is slow in starting, more men are put -in to impart warmth, or a quantity of warm must is added. The first -treading lasts, in the instance given by Dr. Bleasdale, six hours -during the first night, and is continued next day with two men, where -three were employed the first night. Men enter again during the active -fermentation and tread to keep down the pomace, and to extract as much -coloring matter as possible. Then the treaders leave the _lagar_, but -the fermentation is closely watched. - -The following graphic description, which differs in no essential -respect from that of Dr. Bleasdale, is from Vizitelli: - -“When the mid-day meal is over, the grapes having been already spread -perfectly level in the lagar, a band of sixty men is told off to tread -them. The _casa dos lagares_[5] is a long building with a low pointed -roof, lighted with square openings along one side, and contains four -lagares, in the largest of which sufficient grapes can be trodden at -one time to produce thirty pipes of wine.[6] As is universally the case -in the Upper Douro, these lagares are of stone, and about three feet -in depth. In front of each, and on a lower level, is a small stone -reservoir, called a dorno, into which the expressed juice flows after -the treading of the grapes is concluded, and which communicates by -pipes with the huge tonels[7] in the adega below, although not beneath -the lagares, being in fact in the face of the reservoirs, but on a -level some twelve feet lower, with a long, wooden staircase leading to -it. In front of the lagares runs a narrow stone ledge, to which ascent -is gained by a few steps, and here while the treading is going on the -overseers post themselves, long staves in hand, in order to see that -every one performs his share of labor. The treaders, with their white -breeches well tucked up, mount into the lagar, where they form three -separate rows of ten men each on either side of the huge, overhanging -beam, and placing their arms on each other’s shoulders, commence work -by raising and lowering their feet alternately, calling out as they do -so, ‘_Direita, esquerda!_’ (Right, left!) varying this after a time -with songs and shoutings in order to keep the weaker and lazier ones -up to the work, which is quite as irksome and monotonous as either -treadmill or prison crank, which tender-hearted philanthropists regard -with so much horror. But the lagariros have something more than singing -or shouting to encourage them. Taking part with them in the treading -is a little band of musicians, with drum, fife, fiddle, and guitar, -who strike up a lively tune, while their comrades chime in, some by -whistling, others with castanets. Occasionally, too, nips of brandy are -served out, and the overseers present cigarettes all round, whereupon -the treaders vary their monotonous movements with a brisker measure. -This first treading, the ‘sovar o vinho,’ or beating the wine, as it is -called, lasts, with occasional respites and relays of fresh men, for -eighteen hours. A long interval now ensues, and then the treading or -beating is resumed. By this time the grapes are pretty well crushed, -and walking over the pips and stalks strewn at the bottom of the -lagar, becomes something like the pilgrimages of old, when the devout -trudged wearily along with hard peas packed between the soles of their -feet and the soles of their shoes. The lagariros, with their garments -more or less bespattered with grape juice, move slowly about in their -mauve-colored mucilaginous bath in a listless kind of way, now smoking -cigarettes, now with their arms folded, or thrown behind their backs, -or with their hands tucked in their waistcoat pockets, or raised up -to their chins, while they support the elbow of the one arm with the -hand of the other. The fiddle strikes up anew, the drum sounds, the -fife squeaks, the guitar tinkles, and the overseers drowsily upbraid. -But all to no purpose. Music has lost its inspiration, and authority -its terrors, and the men, dead beat, raise one purple leg languidly -after the other. In the still night time, with a few lanterns dimly -lighting up the gloomy casa dos lagares, such a scene as I have here -attempted to sketch has something almost weird about it. By the time -the treading is completed, the violent fermentation of the must has -commenced, and is left to follow its course.[8] Accordingly, as the -grapes are moderately or overripe, and the atmospheric temperature is -high or low, and it is intended that the wine shall be sweet or dry, -this fermentation will be allowed to continue for a shorter or a longer -period, varying from fifteen hours to several days, during which time -the husks and stalks of the grapes, rising to the surface, form a thick -incrustation. To ascertain the proper moment for drawing off the wine -into tonels, recourse is usually had to the saccharometer, when, if -this marks four or five degrees, the farmer knows that the wine will be -sweet; if a smaller number of degrees are indicated, the wine will be -moderately sweet, while zero signifies that the wine will be dry. Some -farmers judge the state of the fermentation by the appearance of the -wine on the conventional white porcelain saucer, and the vinous smell -and flavor which it then exhibits. When it is ascertained that the wine -is sufficiently fermented, it is at once run off into the large tonels, -holding their 10 to 30 pipes each, the mosto extracted from the husks -of the grapes by the application of the huge beam press being mixed -with the expressed juice resulting from the treading. It is now that -brandy—not poisonous Berlin potato spirit, but distilled from the juice -of the grape—is added at the rate of 5½ to 11 gallons per pipe,[9] -if it is desired that the wine should retain its sweetness. Should, -however, the wine be already dry, the chances are that it will receive -no spirit at all. The bungs are left out of the tonels till November, -when they are tightly replaced, and the wine remains undisturbed until -the cold weather sets in, usually during the month of December. By this -time the wine has cleared and become of a dark purple hue. It is now -drawn off its lees, and returned again to the tonel, when it receives -about 5 gallons of brandy per pipe.[10] In the following March it will -be racked into pipes preparatory to being sent down the Douro to the -wine shippers’ lodges at Villa Nova de Gaia,” a suburb of Oporto. - -[5] Fermenting house. - -[6] A pipe is 138 wine gallons, or 115 Imperial. - -[7] Tuns. - -[8] It will be noticed that Dr. Bleasdale says that the treading is -repeated during active fermentation. Probably different practices -prevail in different localities. - -[9] About 4¾ to 9½ per cent—say 5 to 10. - -[10] 4.35 per cent. - -=These Lodges or Storehouses= are large, one-story buildings above -ground, dimly lighted through small windows, for Mr. Vizitelli informs -us that it is considered that ports mature less perfectly when subject -to the influence of the light. But like other fortified wines, exposure -to the air is considered beneficial to them; and in racking, they are -drawn off into a wooden pitcher holding about five gallons, and poured -into the cask to be filled, coming freely in contact with the air. - -=All Wines of Similar Character are Blended together= at the lodge, by -mixing in large vats, sometimes stirred with a large fan operated by -machinery. The blending is also performed in casks, by pouring into -each one successively a certain number of gallons of each kind of wine, -so that the contents of all the casks will be uniform. A small quantity -of spirit is usually added at the time of cutting. After blending the -wine is racked every three months, until in a condition for shipment, -which may be in from fifteen to twenty-four months, according to -quality. - -=Port loses its Color rapidly in Wood=, and much of its fullness, and -wines five years old cease to be regarded as shipping wines, and are -then kept in store and used to give age and character to younger wines. -It is then a valuable, old, mellow, and tawny wine, which the merchants -of Oporto themselves drink. - -=Port Wine Contains from 18 to 23 per cent. of absolute Alcohol= after -fortifying, the amount of spirit added depending upon how much is -developed by fermentation, and the amount of sugar in the grapes. It -is customary to add a small amount whenever it is racked, and before -shipping. The object of these frequent additions is to keep up the -necessary strength, for a certain amount of alcohol is constantly -evaporating while the wine is in casks, and it may fall below the -required strength if these additions are not made. - -Mr. Vizitelli has fallen into the error of stating that in dry climates -wine becomes stronger by the evaporation of its _watery parts_; but -this is impossible, for alcohol is more volatile than water, and -whenever there is evaporation in a wine, it becomes weaker from the -loss of alcohol; and whenever a wine gains strength by keeping, it is -because the sugar contained in it has been transformed into alcohol, -etc., by fermentation, as stated in other parts of this work. - - -MADEIRA. - -=Making.=—In the island of Madeira it is the practice, according to Mr. -Vizitelli, to tread the grapes thoroughly in a large, square wooden -trough, or lagar, in which they are also pressed, as in sherry making. -A great part of the juice is extracted by treading, being strained -through a basket as it runs off into casks. After the grapes have been -thoroughly trodden, the pomace is gathered together and piled in the -centre of the lagar, and pressed and patted with the hands to extract -the must, and this is repeated three times, and finally the pomace is -again raised in a mound, wound with a rope, and pressed by means of a -heavy beam suspended over the lagar. This primitive method, however, -can have but little interest for the wine maker, as the essential -practice in making Madeira, or rather in the aging of it, is the -application of heat. - -=Casks, Treatment.=—The must is fermented, the wine racked and heated, -in casks holding 130 gallons. After heating, it is stored in casks -holding about 400 gallons. It is fermented in these smaller casks with -the bung open, simply covered by a leaf, till the month of November. -Either before or after the fermentation, a small quantity of brandy is -added, varying in quantity according to the quality of the must, but -seldom exceeding three per cent. When the wine has well cleared, it is -racked and lotted, according to quality, and forwarded to the heating -house, or estufa. - -=Heating House, Heating.=—One of these at Funchal, described by -Vizitelli, consists of a block of buildings of two stories, divided -into four compartments. “In the first of these, common wines are -subjected to a temperature of 140°F., derived from flues heated with -anthracite coal, for the space of three months. In the next compartment -wines of an intermediate quality are heated up to 130° for a period -of four and a half months, while the third is set apart for superior -wines, heated variously from 110° to 120° for the term of six months. -The fourth compartment, known as the ‘calor,’ possesses no flues, -but derives its heat, varying from 90° to 100°, exclusively from the -compartments adjacent; and here only high-classed wines are placed.” -They receive a further addition of spirit, after leaving the estufa, -varying in quantity from one to three gallons per cask, presumably to -supply what has evaporated during the heating. Wines are also heated by -exposing them to the rays of the sun in glass houses. In the day time a -temperature of 120° to 130° is secured, which becomes considerably less -during the night, which change is by many considered detrimental. Some -again, put the casks out of doors in the full sunshine. In the estufas -mentioned, the pipes are placed on end in stacks of four, with smaller -casks on the top, a gangway being left between the different stacks. -The casks are vented with a small hole during the process. Leaking is -common during the exposure to so great a heat, and it is necessary to -inspect the casks once during every day and once during the night. - -Each compartment is provided with double doors, and after it is filled -with wine, the inner door is plastered so as to stop all the cracks. In -entering the estufa, only the outer door is opened, entrance through -the inner one being made through a small door for the purpose. The man -who examines the casks, coming out after a stay of an hour, drinks a -tumblerful of wine, and cools off in a tight room provided for the -purpose. From 10 to 15 per cent. of the wine is lost by evaporation -while it remains in the heating house. - -=General Treatment—Alcoholic Strength.=—The solera system is somewhat -in vogue in Madeira, as in the sherry country. The practice also of -leaving the casks in ullage prevails—a vacant space of ten or a dozen -gallons is left. On the south side of the island 5 per cent. is the -largest amount of alcohol added, and on the north side a little more, -which is added at different times. Most Madeira is dry, or nearly so, -and contains about 18 per cent. of alcohol on the average. - - -SHERRY. - -=Climate.=—According to General Keyes, the climate of the sherry -districts of Spain is a trifle warmer in winter and about the same in -summer as that of Napa Valley. But the seasons are not so distinctly -wet and dry as in California, and the grapes are sometimes rained on -while growing, and are frequently wet while ripening. Neverthless, the -south of Spain is a dry country. - -=The Vintage= begins in the early part of September, at which time the -grapes are ripe, but by no means overripe, but sweet and luscious. The -grapes are picked in the early part of the day, and spread upon mats in -the sun, where they remain till the evening of the same day, when they -are crushed. General Keyes says that they are invariably crushed in the -evening of the same day, but Mr. Vizitelli states that they remain on -the straw mats from one to three days. As both write from observation, -it would seem that the practice varies, the time of the exposure to -the sun probably depending upon the degree of maturity when picked. -The defective berries are carefully removed. The cool of the night -for crushing is preferred to the heat of the day, and to avoid the -precipitation of fermentation. - -=Crushing.=—Mr. Vizitelli’s description is as follows: “The pressing -commenced between seven and eight o’clock, and was accomplished in -a detached building under a low tiled roof, but entirely open in -front. Passing through the gateway, and stumbling in the dim light -afforded by an occasional lamp fixed against the wall, over a rudely -paved court-yard, we found ourselves beside a row of large, stout -wooden troughs, some ten feet square and a couple of feet deep, raised -about three feet from the ground, and known in the vernacular of the -vineyards as lagares. The bottoms of these receptacles were already -strewn with grapes, lightly sprinkled over with yeso (gypsum), which -if spread over the whole of the bunches, would not have been greatly -in excess of the amount of dust ordinarily gathered by a similar -quantity of grapes conveyed in open baskets on the backs of mules from -the vineyards to the pressing places in the towns. At Torre Breva, the -sixty or more arrobas of grapes (1500 lbs.) required to make each butt -of wine, were having from two to four pounds of yeso sprinkled over -them, or about half the quantity which would be used in a moist season. -I was assured that at last year’s vintage here not a single ounce of -yeso was employed in the manufacture of upwards of 700 butts of wine. -* * * Rising perpendicularly in the centre of each of the four lagares -to a height of about seven feet, is a tolerably powerful screw, which -is only brought into requisition after the grapes have been thoroughly -trodden. A couple of swarthy, bare-legged pisadores leap into each -lagar, and commence spreading out the bunches with wooden shovels; and -soon the whole eight of them, in their short drawers, blue-striped -shirts, little caps, red sashes, and hob-nailed shoes, are dancing a -more or less lively measure, ankle-deep in newly-crushed grapes. They -dance in couples, one on each side of the screw, performing certain -rapid, pendulum-like movements which are supposed to have the virtue -of expressing the juice more satisfactorily from the fruit than can -be accomplished by mere mechanical means. Their saltatory evolutions -ended, the trodden grapes are heaped up on one side and well patted -about with the shovel, like so much newly mixed mortar. This causes the -expressed juice to flow out in a dingy, brown, turgid stream through -the spout fixed in front of the lagar, into a metal strainer, and -thence into the vat placed beneath to receive it. Fresh grapes are -now spread over the bottom of the lagar, and, after being duly danced -upon, are shoveled on one side; and this kind of thing goes on until -sufficient trodden murk has been accumulated to make what is called a -pile.” - -=Pressing.=—His description goes on to show that the treaders give -place to the pressers, who, with wooden shovels, build up a mound of -marc under the screw, conical in form, some five feet high, which is -neatly dressed and trimmed, and then wound around with a straw rope or -band, about four inches wide, from base to summit. A circular piece of -wood is placed on the top, and the pressure is applied by means of the -screw, the must passing through the interstices of the straw band. - -Treading and pressing goes on nightly for fourteen hours, with -occasional intervals for refreshment. - -The wine from the press is invariably fermented separately from that of -the first run during the treading. - -All agree that the grapes are crushed without stemming, but it seems -that the practice of pressing with the stems on is not uniform. General -Keyes says that he made careful inquiry on this subject, and was -informed that only a few of the larger stems were removed, while Mr. -Vizitelli states that the sherry wine maker is so much afraid of tannin -and roughness in the wine, that the stems are all removed before the -pomace is pressed. This is not important, however, as the press wine is -inferior, and is usually distilled. - -It is almost a universal custom to sprinkle each pressing of grapes -with two or three handfuls of gypsum, or from two to six pounds to a -butt of wine of 130 gallons, and in wet seasons, even more. Gen. Keyes -gives an instance of one wine maker who made several casks of sherry -one year without the use of gypsum, and he found no material difference -in the product, but he still follows the custom of the country. (See -_Plastering_.) - -=Fermenting.=—The must is run into casks of about 150 gallons capacity, -which are filled only to within ten or fifteen gallons of their full -capacity, and is left to ferment in a cool shed, or in a place separate -from the storehouse or bodega; new wine is not fermented in the same -room with the old. - -As soon as the wine falls bright, which it does at any time from -January to April, it is racked and placed in the bodega, with still -a vacant space in the cask, and brandy is added equal to one or two -per cent. to the stronger wines, and three or four per cent. to the -commoner ones. - -If the wine is deficient in sugar, it may clear by January, but -if rich, it may not become bright till April. During the active -fermentation, the bungs, of course, are left open, and in the bodega -they are left loose, or laid over the hole. - -Sometimes the wine is left undisturbed in the bodega until required -for shipment, when it is racked, clarified, and again fortified. It is -considered best, however, to rack it once a year. The wine is now well -fermented, and dry, or nearly so, and the sugar that may be found in -it after shipment, has been put in by adding a small quantity of sweet -wine. - -=The Bodegas, or Storehouses=, in which these wines are stored, are -entirely above ground, have very thick walls and double doors, the roof -is covered with tiles, and the floor may consist only of a mixture of -sand and loam, which, when moistened, is not muddy, and when dry, is -not very dusty. They are kept well ventilated, even at the expense of a -good deal of loss by evaporation, and are comparatively cool, the rays -of the sun being excluded by shutters. As only old or seasoned casks -are used for shipment, the new ones are used for fermenting the must, -and so they are seasoned. - -=Changes in the Wine.=—The young wine in the bodega now, during the -first two years, undergoes extraordinary changes. That made from the -same vineyard and of the same varieties of grapes, crushed at the same -time, placed in casks side by side, receiving apparently identical -treatment, develops totally different characters in different butts, -and is classed according to these several characters, as Fino, Oloroso, -and Basto. - -The best is _fino_, of a delicate, soft, mellow flavor, and pale in -color, and only from ten to twenty per cent. take this form. The -_fino_, at times, develops into a still finer quality, producing what -is known as _amontillado_, the most valued of all. - -_Oloroso_ is a nutty flavored development rather deeper in color, and -of a stouter character; when old, it is of great body, and perfectly -dry. - -The coarse, inferior kind is called _basto_. - -There are still other casks which by bad behavior, poor fermentation, -or weakness, are only fit for the still. - -=Flowers.=—Sherry produces the phenomenon known as flowers of wine -(_micoderma vini_), of which a writer under the assumed name of Pedro -Verdad, whom I have frequent occasion to quote, says: “At every period, -about the flowering of the vine, and at about vintage time, the wine -begins to ‘breed;’ that is, throw up a _flor_ (flower), which remains -for some time on the surface, and then falls in sediment to the bottom, -when the wine once more becomes bright. This phenomenon is looked for -with great anxiety in the bodegas, for if it does not occur, the wine -may be assuming some other and less valued character. Strange as it may -appear,” he says, “I have seen the actual _flor_ rise in a bottle in -England, just as in the butt in Spain.” - -=Vino Dulce, or Sweet Wine=, is made from the sweeter kinds of grapes, -especially the Pedro Jimenes. The grapes are exposed to the sun, -sometimes for a fortnight, and till they almost become raisins, and -they then go through the ordinary modes of crushing and fermentation. -To each butt of this wine about six or seven gallons of spirit are -added, while the must of other grapes have as much as twenty gallons -mixed with each cask of must to check the fermentation, and keep the -wine sweet. One-third of the spirit is poured in as soon as a small -portion of the must has been put into the cask, a third when the cask -is half full, and a third when nearly three-quarters full. The reason -is obvious, as the spirit is lighter than the must, and would otherwise -remain on the top. Soleras of _vino dulce_ are of a sweet, luscious -flavor, and of an oily and slightly glutinous consistency. The finer -kinds resemble a liqueur, and are of great value. - -Vizitelli says that sweet wine is used to give softness and roundness -to old and pungent wines, as well as to the cruder, youthful growths, -and it is remarkable how very small a quantity suffices perceptibly to -modify these opposite characteristics. As little as one per cent. of -dulce will impart a softness to the drier wines, which otherwise they -only acquire after being several years in bottle. - -=Color Wine= (=Vino de Color=) is composed of a mixture of white wine -and _arrope_. The latter is a must of white grapes boiled down over -a slow fire till it is reduced to one-fifth or one-sixth of its -original quantity, great care being taken to skim it while boiling. -This is a dark-colored, almost black fluid, of a bitterish taste. It -is mixed with from three to five times its volume of white wine, and -the “color” is formed.[11] It is chiefly used for giving color to young -and undeveloped wines. With great age, the solera of this wine is very -valuable, being of a deep brown color, and a perfect essence. - -[11] Vizitelli says the arrope is mixed with nine parts of must, and -fermented to make the color, but the other authors say “white wine,” -instead of “must.” - -=Mature Wines.=—When the wines have assumed their distinctive -characters—and this requires from three to five, or even more, -years—they are used to replenish the soleras. In the shippers’ bodega -are kept many soleras, each containing a given number of butts. A -solera, whether classed as _fino_, _oloroso_, or otherwise, has its -distinctive quality required in the preparation of a wine for shipment. -It has been reared and nursed for years with careful attention; each -butt has been tasted from time to time, and any cask in which a -material deterioration has been detected is rejected from the solera, -and probably fortified with spirits, or distilled. - - -THE SOLERA SYSTEM. - -The distinctive feature in the production of sherry is the _solera_, -which signifies foundation, and means old wine kept in casks, which -are never moved as long as the solera exists, and on the foundation of -which younger wines are reared. - -The casks are arranged in groups, piled in tiers, and the groups into -scales. The distinctive feature of the system is a series, commencing -with a very old wine, followed by a younger one, and so on down the -scale to the youngest, so that when wine for blending and shipment is -drawn from the group of casks constituting the oldest solera, they -are replenished from the group of casks of the next younger solera, -and these again from those of the next younger, and so on through the -scale, thus keeping up the characters of the soleras. - -=Establishing a Solera.=—The following from the address of Mr. -Pohndorff before the Viticultural Convention held at San Francisco in -September, 1882, gives a good idea of how to establish a solera: - -Select the finest wines of a year’s vintage, put them away by -themselves, and carefully care for them and nurse them by racking, -etc., during the year. The next year, separate the finest wines from -the vintage, always leaving ullage in the casks of three to five -gallons, according to size, and the bungs loose, simply laid over -the hole. Go on in this way for five years. Now a fifth of this -five-year-old wine may be drawn off for, and used to establish another -solera, and the casks refilled from the four-year-old wine, which, of -course, must be as nearly as possible of the same nature. With the -younger wines, you may do the same, except those of one and two years -old, which are not yet soleras, but young wines. You have then a solera -of this five-year-old wine, which is one-fifth four-year-old wine, and -this may be called the mother solera. At the end of ten years more, -you can say that you have a solera fifteen years of age; though during -the period, you have drawn off periodically a small portion of it and -replaced it with the next younger, always providing that the younger -wine is similar, for this quality is of much greater importance than -the difference of a year or two in age, for wine a year or two younger -or older, if of the same kind, will not injure the solera, but its -character may be destroyed by mixing with it wine of a different nature. - -A solera, then, really consists of a mixture of wines of different -years. The head of each cask is inscribed with the distinguishing mark -of its solera, and the number of butts of which it is composed. - -“=The Standard Soleras=,” says Gen. Keyes, “are those from which -the wine is drawn for shipment, and their contents have rested in, -and permeated through, a series of groups called feeders”—a solera -sometimes dating back a century, it is said. “At every stage the wine -is graded, so that the best young wine passes ultimately into the -oldest and highest priced solera. When there is only a small number -of feeders, say two or three, in the group next behind the standard -solera, the wine ought not be drawn out for shipment oftener than twice -a year; but when there are many, say twelve, the wine for shipment -may be drawn out every two months. To make myself understood in this -complicated process, I must explain the principle upon which it is -founded. When wine is needed for shipment, a portion is drawn out by -siphons from the standard soleras. The amount which may be drawn out -with safety, and the kind of younger wines which are to replace it in -the old solera, requires great skill and experience, and, I may say, -a natural aptness for the business. The end in view is to draw off -from a standard solera such a number of gallons, that, being replaced -by an equal number of gallons of the younger wines, the standard of -the solera may remain intact. If too much is drawn out, or if it is -replaced from the wrong feeders, the standard may be injured, or even -destroyed. But if the proper number of gallons are drawn out and -replaced by the right sorts from the other casks, the old solera soon -transmutes the younger wines to its standard, the bodega retains its -reputation, and the owner grows rich.” He quotes Mr. Davis, of Jerez, -as follows: “The age of the first step of a solera scale depends -entirely upon the character and price of the oldest grade of that -particular solera. For instance, the first group of wine in a scale of -six, ending in a medium priced sherry, might be two years old; whereas, -the first group of wine to permeate through a scale of, say four, -ending in a wine of great age or value, would, perhaps, require to be -fifteen or twenty years old. In proportion to the number of the scale -behind the final solera, so is the frequency with which the wine can -be drawn determined. In a scale of twelve, the final solera might be -drawn, perhaps, every two months. In a scale of three feeders, perhaps -twice a year.” - -=Blending for Shipment.=—In the cellar a book is kept in which is -recorded the blend of each shipment made, the history of the shipment, -and all the facts necessary to its identification, and a sample bottle -of every shipment is also preserved. When an order is received for a -quantity of wine of the same kind as a former shipment, reference is -made to the blend book, and recourse is had to the sample bottle, due -allowance being made for the bottle flavor acquired by the sample, and -the blend is prepared accordingly, the necessary quantity being taken -from each solera, of which there are many in a shipping bodega, and -allowance is also made for the change that may have occurred in the -solera by replenishing. It is needless to add that only experience and -natural aptitude fit a man for this delicate operation. - -If the order is by a sample whose blend is not known, the sample is -brought into the tasting office, and the blend glass brought into -requisition. It is a graduated glass tube, with forty markings, -corresponding to the number of _jarras_, or jars, which a butt -contains, all shipments being by the butt. The shipping butt contains -130 gallons, and the cask for storing is about 20 gallons larger. - -The cellar-man dips out and puts into the graduated glass amounts -corresponding to the number of jars to be taken from each solera, -sweet wine being added for sweetness, and color wine for color. As the -sugar added in the sweet wine would excite fermentation, sufficient -_aguardiente_, spirit, must be added to bring its alcoholic strength up -to at least 18 per cent. - -The right blend having been ascertained, it is left for a while, and -tasted once or twice to make sure that it is correct. If it does not -match the sample, a little of this and that solera is added till it -exactly corresponds. The blend is then entered in the blend book, which -gives the number of butts required, and the amount to be taken from -each solera. The book is then handed in to the bodega for the execution -of the blend. Supposing it to be a ten-butt shipment, ten butts are -brought into the cellar, having been most carefully examined and rinsed -out with spirit. If ten jars are required from a solera of fifty butts, -two jars would be drawn from each of the fifty butts of the solera, and -put into the ten butts, and so on from each solera; whatever the number -of butts in a solera, an equal quantity of wine is drawn from each -cask. - -The following samples of blends are given by Verdad: - - ORDINARY PALE SHERRY. - Pale soleras, 20 jarras - Fino soleras, 16 “ - Vino dulce, 3 “ - Aguardiente, 1 “ - —— - 40 jarras - - ORDINARY GOLDEN SHERRY. - Pale soleras, 22 jarras - Oloroso soleras, 8½ “ - Vino de color, 2 “ - Vino dulce, 6 “ - Aguardiente, 1½ “ - ——— - 40 jarras - - ORDINARY BROWN SHERRY. - Pale soleras, 23 jarras - Oloroso, 4 “ - Vino de color, 5 “ - Vino dulce, 6 “ - Aguardiente, 2 “ - —— - 40 jarras - -=Fining.=—After the blend is complete, the wine is fined with the -whites of eggs and fuller’s earth, a kind of earth found at Lebrija, -near Jerez, and called _Tierra de Lebrija_. For a butt of wine, a -handful of this earth is made into a paste with the whites of ten eggs. -The paste is thrown into the cask, and the wine is stirred in the usual -manner. (See _Fining_.) - - - - -CHAPTER XV. - -DEFECTS AND DISEASES. - - -=These are Divided= by Boireau into _two classes_: 1. Those defects due -to the nature of the soil, to fertilizers employed, to bad processes in -wine making, and to the abundance of common, poor varieties of grapes. -It is evident that defects of this class may exist in the wines from -the moment when they leave the fermenting vat, or the press, and they -are as follows: earthy flavor, greenness, roughness, bitterness, flavor -of the stems, acidity, want of alcohol, lack of color, dull, bluish, -leaden color, flavor of the lees, and tendency to putrid decomposition. -2. Those vices which wines acquire after fermentation, and of which -the greater part are due to want of care, or uncleanness of the casks, -and they are: flatness, flowers, acidity (pricked wine), cask flavor, -mouldiness, bad flavors communicated by the accidental introduction -of foreign soluble matters, ropiness, bitterness, acrity, flavor of -fermentation, degeneracy, and putrid fermentation. - -=General Considerations.=—Before entering on the subject of the -correction and cure of defects and diseases, it is proper to say, that -whatever be the nature of the malady or defect, especially if the bad -taste is very pronounced, wine once hurt, however completely cured of -the disease, will never be worth as much as a wine of the same nature -which has always had the correct flavor. - -It is, therefore, wiser and more prudent, says our author, to seek to -prevent the maladies of wines, than to wait for them to become diseased -in order to cure them. - -Of course, the wine maker should use every endeavor to remedy the -natural defects of his wines. And as for the wine merchant and the -consumer, they should reject all vitiated wines, unless they can be -used immediately, for they lose quality instead of gaining by keeping. - -Moreover, when a wine has a very pronounced defect, it can rarely be -used alone, either because deficient in spirit or in color, or because -the vice cannot be entirely destroyed. - -It would also be a mistake to suppose that the flavor of a diseased -wine would be rendered inappreciable by mixing and distributing it -throughout a large number of casks of sound wine; oftener the latter -would be more or less injured by the operation. The defect of such a -wine should first be removed by treating it by itself, and then it -should be mixed only with the commonest wine in the cellar. - -Each defect and disease will be treated under its proper name, the -cause indicated, with the means to be employed to prevent, diminish, or -to remove it. - -The doses in all cases, unless otherwise indicated, are according to -Mr. Boireau, who gives what is required to treat 225 litres, but we -have increased the dose to what is necessary for 100 gallons of wine in -each case. - -Any one can first try the experiment on a gallon or less by taking a -proportional amount of the substances indicated, leaving the sample -corked, in a cool place, for at least two days in ordinary cases, or -for eight days in case the wine is fined. - - -NATURAL DEFECTS. - -=Earthy Flavor—Its Causes.=—It is a natural defect in the wine, and -consists of a bad taste by which the pulp and the skins of the grapes -are affected before fermentation. It occurs in wine made from grapes -grown on low, wet, swampy land, and on land too heavily manured, or -fertilized with substances which communicate a bad flavor. He says that -this must not be confounded with the natural flavor and bouquet of the -wine. Contrary to the opinion of those œnologues who attribute this -defective flavor to the presence of essential oils, he believes that -there is a sensible difference between the natural flavor (_séve_) and -the earthy flavor. In fact, the flavor and bouquet of wines made from -grapes of the same variety, but grown in different vineyards, present -considerable differences, which are due to the different natures of -the soils, to the different processes in wine making, to climate, -exposure, age of the wine, etc. On the other hand, the taste and odor -produced by the natural flavor and bouquet are not entirely developed -till the wine is old, and the clearing is complete; while the bad -taste transmitted from the soil through the sap, instead of increasing -with age, diminishes, and often finally disappears. The reason is that -this taste being communicated principally by the coloring matters of -the skins, diminishes with the deposit of these matters, according as -the wine becomes clear. It follows that certain wines may have a good -flavor, and even acquire a bouquet in aging, which while young had a -disagreeable earthy flavor. - -He instances the wines of several crops, treated by him, having a fine -color, mellowness, and 10 per cent. of alcohol, which in their early -years had an earthy flavor so pronounced that it might almost have been -taken for a mouldy taste. This taste diminished gradually, with proper -care, and finally disappeared toward the third year; the natural flavor -then developed itself, and the wines acquired an agreeable bouquet in -bottles. - -Grapes from young vines planted in moist land, have an earthy -flavor more pronounced than those from older vines, grown in the -same situations, and this flavor is generally more developed in the -heavy-yielding common varieties than in the fine kinds. - -=How Prevented.=—This flavor may be sometimes diminished or destroyed -by draining the soil of the vineyard, aerating the vines when too -crowded, and by avoiding the planting of trees in the vineyard. If it -comes from too much manure, less should be used, and less wood left on -the vines. - -Great care should be taken to draw such wines from the fermenting vat, -as soon as the active fermentation is finished, for a long sojourn in -the tank with the stems and skins aggravates the defect. - -=The Treatment= of wines so affected differs according to their origin, -their nature, and their promise of the future; but the condition -necessary in all cases is to promptly obtain their defecation or -clarification, and never to allow them to remain on the lees. They -should therefore be drawn off as soon as clear, and frequently racked -to prevent the formation of voluminous deposits. - -Red wines, which in spite of this defect, have a future, and may -acquire quality with age, should be racked at the beginning of winter, -again in the beginning of March, and after the second racking should be -fined with the whites of 12 eggs to 100 gallons of wine; they are then -racked again two weeks after fining. - -Common red wines, without a future, dull and poor in color, and weak -in spirit, are treated in the same manner, but before fining, a -little more than a quart of alcohol of 60 to 90 per cent. is added to -facilitate the coagulation of the albumen. - -In treating wines which are firm, full-bodied, and charged with color, -after the two rackings, an excellent result is obtained by an energetic -fining with about three ounces of gelatine. - -Earthy white wines should be racked after completing their -fermentation, and after the addition of about an ounce of tannin -dissolved in alcohol, or the equivalent of tannified white wine. After -racking, they should be fined with about three ounces of gelatine. - -These rackings and finings precipitate the insoluble matters, and part -of the coloring matter, which is strongly impregnated with the earthy -taste, and the result is a sensible diminution of the flavor. When not -very pronounced, it is removed little by little at each racking. But -if it is very marked, the wine after the first racking should have a -little less than a quart of olive oil thoroughly stirred into it. After -a thorough agitation, the oil should be removed by filling the cask. -The oil removes with it a portion of those matters in the wine which -cause the bad flavor. The wine is afterwards fined as above. - -Some writers recommend that wine having an earthy flavor should be -mixed with wine of a better taste, as the best method of correcting -the defect; but from what has been said in the preceding part of this -chapter, it would seem to be an unsafe practice. - -=The Wild Taste and Grassy Flavor= are due to the same causes, and are -removed in the same way. - -=Greenness—Its Causes.=—This is due to the presence of tartaric acid, -which it contains in excess. It gives a sour, austere taste to the -wine, which also contains malic acid, but in a less quantity. When -tasted, it produces the disagreeable sensation of unripe fruit to the -palate, sets the teeth on edge, and contracts the nervous expansions of -the mouth. - -Greenness, as the term imports, is caused by want of maturity of the -grapes. We all know that acids abound in unripe fruit, and it is only -at the time of maturity, and under the influence of the heat of the -sun, that they disappear and are changed into glucose or grape sugar. - -A green wine, then, is an imperfect wine, which, besides this defect, -generally lacks alcohol, body, mellowness, firmness, bouquet, and -color, because the incompletely matured grapes contain much tartaric -and malic acid, and but little grape sugar and other mucilaginous -matter, and because the matters destined to give color to the skins, as -well as the aromatic principles, are not completely elaborated. - -=The only way to Prevent this Defect= is to resort to means necessary -to increase the maturity of the grape, or to add sugar to the must, -neither of which will scarcely ever be found necessary in California, -where the defect is not likely to exist, if the grapes are not picked -too green. - -=Treatment.=—Where the sourness is not insupportable, the wine may be -ameliorated by adding a quart or two of old brandy for each 100 gallons. - -The wine as it comes from the vat contains much more free tartaric -acid than it contains after the insensible fermentation in the cask, -because it combines with the tartrate of potash in the wine and forms -the bitartrate of potash, or cream of tartar, which is deposited with -the lees, or attaches itself to the sides of the cask. It follows that -the wine will be less green after insensible fermentation, at the first -racking, than when it was new; but if the greenness is excessive after -the insensible fermentation, the wine still contains much free acid. -The excess of acid may be neutralized in wines which are very green by -adding the proper amount of tartrate of potash, which combines with a -part of the tartaric acid to form the bitartrate, which after a few -days falls to the bottom, or adheres to the cask. The dose varies -from 10 to 24 ounces per 100 gallons of wine. Five or six gallons of -wine are drawn out of the cask, and the tartrate of potash is thrown -in by the handful, stirring the while as in the case of fining. This -treatment does not always succeed; hence, the necessity of preventing -the defect when possible. - -When the greenness is not very marked, the wine may also be mixed with -an older wine, which contains but little acid and plenty of spirit. - -Lime and other alkaline substances will surely neutralize the acid, but -they injure the wine and render it unhealthy, and should never be used. - -Machard lays great stress upon the addition of brandy to such wines, -because, he says, the alcohol will precipitate the excess of acids, -and will also combine with them to form ethers which give a delicate, -balsamic odor to the wine, which is most agreeable. (See _Ethers, -Bouquet_.) - -=Roughness= is due to the astringency given to the wine by the -tannin when in excess. Tannin is useful for the preservation and the -clarification of wines, and those which contain much, with an equal -amount of alcohol, keep much longer than those which contain less, and -undergo transportation better, and are considered more healthful. - -=Roughness is Not a Fault=, it is rather an excess of good quality, if -the rough wines have no after-taste of the stems, bitterness, earthy -flavor, acrity, and possess a high degree of spirit, a fruity flavor, -and a good color. Such wines are precious for fortifying, and to -assist in aging those which are too feeble to keep a long time without -degenerating. When kept without cutting, they last a long time, and end -well. But they are long in developing. - -=The Roughness Disappears in Time=, because the tannin is transformed -into gallic acid, and besides is precipitated by other principles -contained in the wine, and by finings. - -=An Excess of Tannin is Avoided= in strong, dark-colored, full-bodied -wines by removing all the stems, and by early drawing from the tank. -If the wines are inclined to be soft, weak, and with but little spirit, -no attempt should be made to avoid roughness. - -When wines are put into new casks, their roughness is increased by the -tannin derived from the oak wood of which they are made; but during -insensible fermentation a good deal of the tannin is thrown down with -the vegetable albumen contained in the new wine. - -=How Removed.=—If the wines are of good body and color, the roughness -may be removed by fining them with a strong dose of gelatine, two or -three ounces to 100 gallons. As this removes a portion of the color, it -should only be resorted to in the case of rough and dark-colored wines, -to hasten their maturity. - -=Bitterness and Taste of the Stems—Causes.=—Bitterness is a -disagreeable taste which, _in new wines_ attacked by it, comes from the -dissolution of a bitter principle contained in the stems, a principle -entirely different from tannin. Sometimes it is communicated by the -skins of certain varieties of grapes. - -=This is Prevented= by allowing the grapes to reach complete maturity, -and above all by stemming them all, and by not leaving the wine too -long in the fermenting vat. - -=The Treatment= is the same as for the earthy flavor, and also -afterwards pouring in a quart or more of old brandy. - -The bitterness here mentioned is only that met with in new wines, and -its cause is entirely different from that found in old wines, which is -described further on. - -=The Taste of the Stems=, which often accompanies bitterness, is due -to a prolonged immersion of the stems in the wine. It is supposed that -this defect, which gives the wine a wild and common flavor, comes -from an aromatic principle contained in the stems. It is prevented -by stemming, and like natural bitterness, diminishes with time. The -treatment is the same. - -An unreasonably long vatting is one of the principal causes of -bitterness and stem flavor. - -=Sourness—Its Causes.=—Sourness, or heated flavor, as it is also -called, is due to the presence of acetic acid in the wine. All wines, -even the mellowest, the best made, and the best cared for, contain some -acetic acid, but in so small a quantity as to be inappreciable to the -taste. Acetic acid is produced in wines during their fermentation in -open tanks, and is due to the contact of the air with the crust of the -pomace. This crust or cap, formed of skins and stems, brought to the -surface by bubbles of carbonic acid rising from the liquid, is exposed -directly to the air, and the alcoholic fermentation of the liquid part -is soon completed, and under the influence of the air and ferments, -the alcohol is transformed into acetic acid. This transformation is -so rapid that when the vatting is too prolonged, and the temperature -is high, the exterior crust rapidly passes from acetic to putrid -fermentation. - -As long as the tumultuous fermentation continues, the crust is kept up -above the surface by the bubbles of rising gas, but when it ceases, -the cap falls, and settles down into the liquid, and the wine becomes -impregnated with the acetic acid. The wine also, by simple contact with -the crust, acquires a vinegar smell and taste. - -Wines which become pricked by contact with the air after fermentation -are treated further on under the head of _Pricked Wines_. - -=How Prevented.=—The formation of acetic acid during fermentation is -prevented by fermenting the wines in closed or partly closed vats, by -avoiding contact of the air, by keeping the pomace submerged, and by -confining the carbonic acid in the vat. If open vats are used, they -should be only three-fourths full, so that a layer of gas may rest -upon the pomace and protect it from the atmosphere; or the cap may be -covered with a bed of straw as soon as formed. Care should be taken to -draw off as soon as fermentation is complete. - -=Treatment.=—Wines affected in this manner cannot be expected to -acquire good qualities with age. They may be rendered potable, but -their future is destroyed. Therefore, every precaution should be taken -to guard against the defect. They should be separated from their -first lees as soon as possible; consequently, they should be drawn -off as soon as the gas ceases to rise. If they are still turbid, -they should be clarified by an energetic fining, and they should be -racked from the finings the very moment they are clear. They should -be afterwards racked to further free them from ferments. If the wines -are only _heated_, the odor of acetic acid will be sensibly diminished -by the above operation; but if they are decidedly pricked, the means -to neutralize their acid when drawn from the vat, as indicated for -_Pricked Wines_, should be resorted to. - -=Alcoholic Weakness= is due to a want of sufficient spirit, caused by -an excess of water of vegetation, and the consequent lack of sugar in -the grapes. In France this defect is generally found in wines coming -from young vines planted in very fertile soils, or from the common -varieties, pruned with long canes, and producing a great quantity of -large, watery grapes. When wines weak in alcohol contain but little -tannin and color, they rapidly degenerate, often commencing their -decline during their first year, and before their clarification is -completed. - -=How Avoided.=—This defect can be corrected by planting the proper -varieties of vines, and by avoiding rich soils; but in the climate of -California there is but little danger of the wines being too weak, -unless the grapes are late varieties, and grown in very unfavorable -situations. - -=The Treatment= of weak wines is to rid them of their ferments as soon -as possible, in order to avoid acid and putrid degeneration, to which -they are quite subject. This result is obtained by drawing them off as -soon as the lees are deposited. If they remain turbid after the second -racking, they should be gently fined with the whites of nine or ten -eggs to 100 gallons. The coagulation of the albumen will be facilitated -by adding one or more quarts of strong alcohol to the wine before -fining, and by adding to the eggs a handful of common salt dissolved in -a little water. But as these wines, by themselves, are short lived, -it is necessary, in order to prolong their existence, to mix them with -firm wines, strong in body and rich in color. By adding alcohol, they -are still left dry and without fruity flavor, while if mixed with a -wine of a flavor as nearly like their own as possible, and having a -fruity flavor, and being firm and full-bodied, but not fortified, they -will acquire mellowness as well as strength. - -=Want of Color—Causes.=—As coloring matter is not found in the skins -of grapes till they are ripe, green wines produced in years when the -grapes do not ripen well, lack color. - -The amount of color may be diminished if by excess of maturity the -skins of the grapes decay. - -The method of fermentation also influences more or less the richness of -the color. Those wines, in the fermentation of which the pomace is kept -constantly immersed in the liquid, dissolve out more coloring matter -than those fermented in open vats in which the crust is raised above -the surface of the must. - -Some kinds of grapes naturally develop more color than others. - -=How Guarded Against.=—It is therefore obvious, that the lack of color -may be guarded against by gathering the grapes when they are just ripe, -planting the proper varieties, and keeping the pomace submerged during -fermentation, stirring it up, if necessary. - -=The Treatment= should be such as to avoid as much as possible the -precipitation of the coloring matter. They should, therefore, be fined -as little as possible, and gelatine should be carefully avoided. -If they must be fined, use the whites of eggs and in the quantity -mentioned for weak wines—10 to 100 gallons. - -Of course, their color may be increased by mixing them with darker -colored wines, but in order not to affect their natural flavor, they -should be mixed only with wines of the same nature and of the same -growth. - -It is not to be supposed that any one will resort to artificial -coloring of any kind. - -=Dull, Bluish, Lead-colored Wine, and Flavor of the -Lees—Causes.=—Certain wines remain turbid, and preserve a dull, leaden -color, even after insensible fermentation. This state may be due to -several causes. Oftentimes young wines remain turbid because, for want -of racking at proper times, and for want of storing in proper places, -secondary fermentation has set in, which has stirred up the lees which -had been deposited at the bottom of the cask. This also takes place -when new wines are moved before racking. - -=Treatment.=—In these cases, put them into a cellar of a constant -temperature, leave them quiet for a couple of weeks, and see if they -settle naturally. If not, clarify them by using the finings appropriate -to their nature. - -If they are turbid on account of an unseasonable fermentation, the -first thing to do is to stop the working by racking, sulphuring, etc. -When, in spite of all the cares that have been bestowed upon them, -they still remain dull and difficult to clarify, while undergoing no -fermentation, the cause must be sought in the want of tannin or alcohol. - -If the difficulty is due simply to lack of spirit, the treatment -consists in adding two or three quarts of strong alcohol to each 100 -gallons, mixing with the wine a fifth or a tenth of a good-bodied wine -of like natural flavor, and then by fining it with eggs as mentioned -for weak wines. - -If the dull wine has sufficient alcohol, as shown by a pronounced -color, add about an ounce of tannin dissolved in alcohol, or the -equivalent of tannified wine, and fine it with one to two ounces of -gelatine. - -Bluish or violet color, accompanied by a flavor of the lees, often -occurs in wines of southern countries, and is due to an abundance of -coloring matter and a lack of tartaric acid. When the violet-colored -wine has a good deal of color, and more than nine per cent. of alcohol, -the color may be changed to red by mixing with it from one-sixth to -one-fourth of green wine, which contains an excess of tartaric acid, -the natural blue color of the grape being changed to red by the action -of the acid; then about an ounce of tannin, or the equivalent of -tannified wine, should be added, that the color may become fixed, and -that clarification may subsequently take place in a proper manner. In -default of green wine, crystalized tartaric acid may be used, which is -very soluble in wine. A small amount should be first experimented with, -in order to learn just how much to use to change the blue of the wine -to red, for we must not forget that this acid gives greenness to the -wine and thereby renders it less healthful. - -If the wines are so weak in alcohol that they have but little color, -and that is blue and dull, they have a tendency to putridity. In this -case, the blue color is in fact only a commencement of decomposition. -It is due to an internal reaction which transforms a part of the -tartrate of potash into carbonate of potash. Such wines have a slightly -alkaline flavor, and left to themselves in contact with the air, they -become rapidly corrupt, without completely acidifying. These wines -are of the poorest quality. This disease, which is very rare, may be -prevented by using the proper methods of vinification, and by rendering -them firmer and full-bodied by the choice of good varieties of vines. -In the treatment of such wines, some propose the use of tartaric acid -to restore them. This will turn the blue color to red, but will not -prevent the threatened decomposition. Mr. Boireau prefers the use of -about one-sixth of green wine, which contains an abundance of the acid, -and the subsequent mixing with a strong, full-bodied wine. - -=Putrid Decomposition—Causes.=—Wines are decomposed and become -putrid, on account of little spirituous strength and lack of tannin. -The weakness in alcohol is due to want of sufficient sugar in the -grapes—to the excess of water of vegetation. We see, then, that wine is -predisposed to putridity when it is wanting in these two conservative -principles, alcohol and tannin. Such wine quickly loses its color; it -never becomes brilliant and limpid; it remains turbid, and never clears -completely, but continues to deposit. The tendency to decomposition -is announced by a change of color, which becomes tawny and dull, -which gives it, though young, an appearance of worn out, turbid, old -wine. Its red color is in great part deposited, and it retains only -the yellow. If the defect is not promptly remedied by fortifying, it -acquires a nauseous, putrid flavor of stagnant water; and it continues -turbid, and is decomposed, without going squarely into acetous -fermentation. - -=How Avoided.=—To avoid this tendency, which is rare, means should be -employed to increase the natural sugar in the must, and by planting -proper varieties of grapes, which will produce good, firm wines, and -by choosing proper situations for the vineyard, and employing the best -methods of vinification. - -=Treatment.=—Decomposition may be retarded in several ways: First, -by fortifying the wines, by adding tannin to them, and by adding a -sufficient quantity of rough, firm, alcoholic wine; second, in default -of a strong, full-bodied wine, brandy may be added, or better, the -tannin prepared with alcohol, so as to give them a strength of at least -ten per cent.; third, fining should be avoided as much as possible, -especially the use of finings which precipitate the coloring matter, -such as gelatine; albumen should be used in preference, as for weak -wines; fourth, the movements of long journeys, and drawing off by the -use of pumps, should be avoided, for they are apt to increase the -deposition of the coloring matter. - -The treatment mentioned will retard the decomposition, but will not -arrest it, and such wines can never endure a long voyage unless heavily -brandied. - -=Several Different Natural Vices and Defects= may attack the same wine, -when it should be treated for that which is most prominent. - - -ACQUIRED DEFECTS AND DISEASES. - -=Flat Wine—Flowers—Causes.=—Flowers of wine are nothing but a kind of -mould, in the form of a whitish scum or film, composed of microscopic -fungi, the _mycoderma vini_ and _mycoderma aceti_, already mentioned -under the head of _Fermentation_, and which develop on the surface -of wine left in contact with the air. This mould, or _mother_, -communicates to the wine a disagreeable odor and flavor, and also a -slight acidity, which the French call _évent_ odor, or flavor _éventé_, -and which may be called _flatness_. The development of these organisms -is due principally to the direct exposure of the wine to the air, which -favors their growth by the evaporation of a portion of the alcohol -which exists at the surface of the liquid which is exposed, and a -commencement of oxidation of that which remains. The result is that -the surface of the wine becomes very weak in alcohol, and having lost -its conservative principle, it moulds. This mould consists, as before -remarked, of a vast number of small fungi. They have a bad flavor, and -are impregnated with an acidity which comes from the action of the -oxygen of the air upon the alcohol, converting it into acetic acid. - -This disease develops more or less rapidly, according to the alcoholic -strength of the wine and the temperature of the place where it is kept. -Those common, weak wines, which have only from 7 to 8½ per cent. of -alcohol, are the first attacked; on them flowers are developed in three -or four days. Stronger wines, which contain from 10 to 11 per cent. of -spirit, resist twice as long as the weaker ones. Fine wines of an equal -strength resist better than the common kinds; and wines which contain -more than 15 per cent. are not affected. During summer they are much -sooner affected. - -Machard is of the opinion that this flavor is due to the commencement -of disorganization of the ferments remaining in the wine, which, as -they begin to putrify, give off ammoniacal emanations. Maumené says -that it is due to the loss of carbonic acid. - -=To Prevent Flatness=, all agree that wines should be protected from -the air; for this purpose they should be kept in casks constantly -full, or in well corked bottles lying in a horizontal position. When -it is necessary to leave ullage in the cask, a sulphur match must be -burned, and the cask tightly bunged. (See _General Treatment_, _Wine in -Bottles_, _Sulphuring_, _etc._) - -In frequently drawing from the cask, the deterioration is retarded by -taking care to admit the least possible amount of air, just enough to -let the wine run, but the evil cannot be entirely prevented in this -way; and by frequent sulphuring the wine will acquire a disagreeable -sulphur flavor; therefore, ullage should never be left when it is -possible to avoid it. - -=Treatment.=—When the wines show flowers, but have not yet become -flat, as in the case of new wines which have been neglected, and have -not been filled up for a week or more, and are only affected at the -surface, by filling up, the flowers may be caused to flow out at the -bung. The cask must then be well bunged. It must afterwards be kept -well filled, for besides the flat flavor that the flowers may give -the wine, they will render it turbid on account of the acid ferments -introduced, and cause it to become pricked in the end. - -Wine badly flowered, and which has acquired a decided flavor of -flatness, without being actually sour, should be filled up, and the -flowers should be allowed to pass out of the bung; it should then be -racked into a well sulphured cask, which must be completely filled. -The flowers must not be allowed to become mixed with the wine. After -racking, two or three quarts of old brandy to each 100 gallons should -be added, or a few gallons of firm, full-bodied wine, as near as -possible of the same natural flavor. It should then be well fined, -using in preference the whites of eggs (one dozen for 100 gallons, and -a handful of salt dissolved in a little water), and then it must be -racked again as soon as clear. - -The object of this treatment is to extract from the wine by racking the -mould which causes the bad taste; to replace by fortifying, the alcohol -lost by evaporation; and finally, by fining, to remove in the lees the -acid ferments, which have developed in the form of flowers. - -Yet those wines which have become badly affected through negligence are -never completely restored, and if they are fine, delicate wines, they -lose a large part of their value. Therefore, great care should be taken -to prevent this disease, which in the end produces acidity, for, often, -neglected wines are at the same time _flat_ and _pricked_. - -Some authors recommend that such a wine should be again mixed with a -good, sound, fresh pomace, which has not been long in the vat, and -allowed to ferment a second time; this is called _passing it over the -marc_. Of course, this can only be done in the wine making season, and -cannot be resorted to by those who do not make wine themselves, or who -are at a distance from a wine maker. - -When all else fails, they recommend that several large pieces of dry, -fresh charcoal be suspended in the wine, attached to cords to draw them -out by, Maigne says, for forty-eight hours, and Machard says, one or -two weeks, renewing the charcoal from time to time till the taste is -removed. - -If the wine has already become acid, charcoal will not remove the -flavor. - -=Sourness, Acidity, Pricked Wine—Causes.=—Acidity is a sour taste -caused by the alcohol of the wine being in part changed to acetic acid -by the oxygen of the air. It is due to long contact with the air, and -it is the oxygen which produces the change, as described under the head -of _Acetic Fermentation_, and it is the more rapid, according as the -temperature is more elevated, and the wine contains more ferments. - -_What Wines Liable to._—All wines whose fermentation is completed, and -which have been fermented under ordinary circumstances—that is, those -which have received no addition of alcohol, and no longer contain -saccharine matter, are subject to this affection when left exposed to -the air. - -When they have been fortified up to 18 per cent. of alcohol, whether -sweet or not, they do not sour until the alcohol has been enfeebled by -evaporation. - -If they contain sugar, although not fortified, a new fermentation takes -place, and they do not acidify until the greater part of the sugar has -been transformed into alcohol. Machard, however, says that wines which -contain a good deal of sugar do often acidify, and in the experience -of others, there is a continuous fermentation, which renders them very -liable to become pricked. - -As the acetic acid is formed at the expense of the alcohol, the more -the wine contains of the former the less will it have of the latter. - -=Acidity is Prevented= by giving wines proper care and attention, -and by keeping them in suitable places, and by using the precautions -indicated for _flat_ or _flowered wines_, _i.e._, by avoiding long -contact with the air. Flowers are the forerunners of acidity; yet -they do not always appear before the wine is pricked, especially if -the temperature is elevated, and the alcoholic strength considerable. -In general, wines become pricked without producing flowers when they -are exposed to the air at a temperature of 77° to 100° F.; acidity is -produced under these conditions in a very rapid manner; and this is why -extra precautions should be taken during hot weather. It should also -be remembered that this vice comes _either from the negligence of the -cellar-man to guard the wines from contact with the air, or from the -bad state of the casks, and storing in unsuitable places_. - -=Treatment.=—Acetic acid in wine may be in great part neutralized by -several alkaline substances; but, if used, there remain in solution -in the wine certain salts (acetates and tartrates) formed by the -combination of the acetic and tartaric acid with the alkaline bases -introduced. These alkaline substances not only neutralize the acetic -acid, but also the vegetable acids contained in the wine. These neutral -salts are not perfectly wholesome, being generally laxative in their -nature. Moreover, the acetic acid cannot be completely neutralized by -the employment of caustic alkalies (potash, soda, quicklime), and these -bases decompose the wine and cause the dissolution and precipitation -of the coloring matter, and render it unfit to drink by reason of the -bitterness which they communicate. It is necessary, therefore, to -choose for the treatment of pricked wines, those alkaline matters which -are the most likely to neutralize the excess of acetic acid without -altering the constitution of the wine, without precipitating their -color, and which produce by combination the least soluble and least -unwholesome salts. - -Those which should be employed in preference to others are, carbonate -of magnesium, tartrate of potassium, and lime water. - -The following substances should only be employed when it is impossible -to obtain those last mentioned, for the reason that the salts -remaining in solution in the wine may cause loss of color, and even -decomposition, if used in large doses, _i. e._, wood ashes (ashes -from vine cuttings being preferred as containing much of the salts of -potash); powdered chalk and marble (composed of the sub-carbonates of -lime, marble dust being the purer); solutions of the sub-carbonates of -potash, and of the sub-carbonates of soda, and plaster. - -=In Using the Substances=, it is always best to experiment with a small -quantity of wine, being careful to employ a dose proportioned to the -extent of the degree of acidity. Thus, to a quart of wine add 15 or 20 -grains of carbonate of magnesia (1 or 2 grammes per litre), little by -little, shaking the bottle the while; again, but only when the wine is -badly pricked, slack a suitable quantity of quicklime in water, and let -it settle till the surface water becomes clear. Then add to the wine -which has already received the carbonate of magnesia, 5 or 6 fluidrams -of the lime water (2 centilitres), and shake the mixture; then pour in -2 or 3 fluidrams of alcohol (1 centilitre), and finally clarify it with -albumen, using fresh milk in preference, from 1½ to 3 fluidrams to a -quart (½ to 1 centilitre to a litre); cork the bottle, shake it well, -and let it rest for three or four days, when by comparing the sample -treated with the pricked wine, the effect will be seen. - -This treatment varies according to the nature of the wine. If it is -green and pricked, add 15 grains (1 gramme per litre) of tartrate of -potassium to the magnesia; and if the wine has a dull color, after -having added the milk, put in about 3 grains (22 centigrammes) of -gelatine dissolved in about a fluidram (½ centilitre) of water; if the -wine is turbid and hard to clarify, add a little more than a grain -(8 centigrammes) of tannin in powder, before putting in the milk and -gelatine. - -Of course, the same proportion should be used in operating upon a -larger quantity of wine. - -If carbonate of magnesium, which is preferable to all others, cannot -be obtained, the dose of lime water may be doubled, and in default -of lime, powdered chalk, or marble and vine ash may be used, but -with great prudence, and in smaller proportions, or solutions of the -sub-carbonates of potash and soda. Great care should be exercised as -to the quantity of the latter used, and they should not be employed in -treating wine slightly attacked. - -Mr. Boireau prefers the carbonate of magnesium to any other alkaline -substance, because it affects the color less, and does not give -bitterness to the pricked wines, nor render them unwholesome, as do -the salts formed by alkalies with a potash, lime, or soda base. In -medicine, carbonate of magnesium is used to correct sourness of the -stomach (so also, we might add, is carbonate of sodium). For the same -reason, decanted lime water is preferred to the sub-carbonate of lime, -employed in the form of marble dust and powdered chalk; nevertheless, -lime water in large doses makes a wine weak and bitter. - -Brandy is added to these wines in order to replace the alcohol lost -in the production of acetic acid. The preference given to milk for -fining is founded upon the fact that it is alkaline, and therefore -assists in removing the acid flavor of the wine while clarifying it. -It is alkaline, however, only when it is fresh; skim-milk a day old -is acid, and should not be used. Finally, the tartrate and carbonate -of potassium employed to treat green and pricked wines, are used to -neutralize the tartaric acid, and gelatine and tannin to facilitate the -clarification and the precipitation of acid ferments. - -Wines whose acid has been neutralized should be clarified, and then -racked as soon as perfectly clear, according to the methods pointed out. - -The acetic acid being formed at the expense of alcohol, the more acid -the less alcohol, and hence the necessity of adding spirit, or, if -the acidity is not too pronounced, of mixing with a full-bodied but -ordinary wine; but those wines should not be kept, as they always -retain acid principles, become dry, and turn again at the least contact -with the air. If they are very bad, and their alcoholic strength much -enfeebled, they had better be made into vinegar. - -=Machard’s Treatment.=—Machard says that the most successful treatment -for sour wine employed by him, is that founded upon the affinity of -vegetable substances for acids, and that he has succeeded beyond his -hopes in completely removing the acid from a wine which was so sour -that it could not be drank without seriously disagreeing with the -person drinking it. This is his method of proceeding. - -He formed a long chaplet, six feet or so in length, by cutting carrots -into short, thin pieces, and stringing them on a cord. This he -suspended in the wine through the bung for six weeks, and at the end -of the time he did not find the least trace of acetic acid, thereby -accomplishing what he had for a long time in vain attempted. He says -that this is the only treatment that succeeded with him, and he -confidently recommends it to others. But he advises that the carrots be -left in the wine at least a month and a half, protecting the wine from -the air. And he says that there is no danger of injuring the wine by -long contact with the carrots, or by using a large quantity of them. - -=Other Methods.=—Maigne says that if the wine is only affected at the -surface from leaving ullage in the cask, the bad air should be expelled -by using a hand-bellows; when a piece of sulphur match will burn in -the cask, the air has been purified. Then take a loaf of bread, warm -as it comes from the oven, and place it upon the bung in such a way -as to close it. When the loaf has become cold, remove it, rack the -wine into a well sulphured cask, being careful to provide the faucet -with a strainer of crape or similar fabric, so as to keep the flowers -from becoming mixed with the wine. It will be observed that the bread -absorbs a good deal of the acid, and the operation should be repeated -as often as necessary. - -Another plan is to take the meats of 60 walnuts for 100 gallons of -wine, break each into four pieces, and roast them as you would coffee; -throw them, still hot, into the cask, after having drawn out a few -quarts of wine. Fine the wine, and rack when clear, and if the acidity -is very bad, repeat the operation. - -A half pound of roasted wheat will produce the same effect. - -He also gives the following method for using marble dust. - -Take of - - White marble, 12 lbs. - Sugar, 18 lbs. - Animal charcoal, washed with boiling water, 6 ozs. - -Take of this from 3 to 6 lbs. to 100 gallons of wine, according to the -degree of acidity; dissolve it in two or three gallons of the wine and -pour into the cask. Shake it well, and continue the agitation from time -to time, for twenty-four or thirty-six hours, till the wine has lost -its acidity, taking care to leave the bung open to allow the escape of -the carbonic acid which is generated. At the end of the time, add of -cream of tartar one-half as much as the dose employed; shake again, -from time to time, and at the end of five or six hours, draw the wine -off and fine it. If, at the end of the first twenty-four hours, the -wine is still acid, add a little more of the powder before putting in -the cream of tartar. - -In answer to the objections that the charcoal removes the color and -bouquet of the wine, and that the acetate of potassium formed injures -the wine, he says that the charcoal would not hurt a white wine, and -would have but little effect upon a red wine; and as to the bouquet, -that wines which have become sour have none, and that the acetate of -potassium has no perceptible effect upon the health. - -Instead of the preceding powder, the following may be employed: - - White marble, in fine powder, 12 lbs. - { for ordinary wine, 4 ozs. - Animal charcoal { - { for fine wine, 2 ozs. - Sugar, 1 lb. - -From 5 to 7 lbs. of this are used for 100 gallons of wine, and one-half -the quantity of cream of tartar in fine powder is then added, in the -manner above mentioned. - -=Cask Flavor, or Barrel Flavor—Causes.=—This, says Mr. Boireau, should -not be confounded with the _wood flavor_ derived from oak wood, and -which wines habitually contract when stored in new casks, and which -comes from aromatic principles contained in the oak. This barrel flavor -is a bad taste, which appears to come from an essence of a disagreeable -taste and smell, and which is the result of a special decay of the wood -of the cask. This vice is rare. It is impossible for the cooper to -prevent it, for he cannot recognize the staves so affected, so as to -reject them. For those pieces of wood which have a disagreeable smell -when worked, or show reddish veins, blotched with white, often produce -casks which give no bad taste to the wine, while other staves selected -with the utmost care, sometimes produce that effect, and even in the -latter case it is impossible to point out the staves which cause the -trouble. When such a cask is found, the only way is to draw off the -wine, and not use the cask a second time. - -=The Treatment= for wines which have contracted a bad taste of the -cask, is to rack them into a sweet cask, previously sulphured, to -remove them from contact with the wood which has caused the trouble. -The bad taste may be lessened by mixing in the wine a quart or two of -sweet oil, and thoroughly stirring it for five minutes, first removing -a few quarts of wine from the cask to permit of the agitation. The oil -is removed from the surface by means of a taster, or pipette, as the -cask is filled up. The wine should then be thoroughly fined, either -with whites of eggs or gelatine, according to its nature, and racked at -the end of one or two weeks. - -The reason for the treatment is that the fixed oil takes up the -volatile essential oil, which apparently produces the bad flavor. The -olive oil used contracts a decided flavor of the cask. - -This treatment diminishes the cask flavor, but rarely entirely removes -it. - -Maigne says that to succeed well by this process, the oil should be -frequently mixed with the wine, by stirring it often for two or three -minutes at a time, during a period of eight days. It is also necessary -that the oil be fresh, inodorous, and of good quality, and of the last -crop. - -The same author gives another process, that of mixing with the wine -sufficient sugar or must to set up active fermentation. After the -fermentation has ceased, fine and rack. - -This author also mentions other methods of treatment, but as olive oil -is the remedy more generally used, it is not worth while to give them -at length; suffice it to say, that the substances recommended are, a -roasted carrot suspended in the wine for a week; a couple of pounds of -roasted wheat suspended in the wine for six or eight hours in a small -sack; the use of roasted walnuts, as mentioned for sourness; and two or -three ounces of bruised peach pits, soaked two weeks in the wine. - -=Mouldy Flavor—Bad Taste Produced by Foreign Matters.=—Wine contracts a -musty or mouldy flavor by its sojourn in casks which have become mouldy -inside, on account of negligence and want of proper care, as by leaving -them empty without sulphuring and bunging. (See _Casks_.) The mould in -empty casks is whitish, and consists of microscopic fungi, which are -developed under the influence of humidity and darkness. The bad flavor -appears to be due to the presence of an essential oil of a disagreeable -taste and smell. - -=Prevention and Treatment.=—It is prevented by carefully examining -the casks before filling them, and by avoiding the use of those which -have a mouldy smell. Wines affected by this flavor require the same -treatment as those affected with cask flavor. - -Maigne says that this taste may also be corrected by applying a loaf of -warm bread to the open bung, or by suspending in the wine a half-baked -loaf of milk bread. The operation should be repeated in three or four -days. - -=Foreign Flavors.=—Wines which have contracted foreign flavors, either -by being kept in casks which have been used for liquors of decided -flavors and odors, such as anisette, absinthe, rum, etc., or from -contact with substances having good or bad odors, owe their taste to -the dissolution in them of a part of the essential oil which those -substances contain, and should be treated in the same manner. The -chief thing is to remove the cause, by changing the cask, for if the -foreign taste and smell become very marked, they cannot be completely -destroyed; they can only be rendered tolerable by mixing them with -sound wines. - -=Ropiness= is the name applied to a viscous fermentation which takes -place in wine, making it slimy in appearance. It is met with more -particularly in white wines, which contain albuminous matters in -suspension, and but little tannin. It is not a very serious difficulty, -for it can be easily corrected. It is only necessary to tannify the -wine by adding 12 or 15 quarts of tannified wine, well stirred in with -a whip as in fining, or an ounce or two of tannin dissolved in alcohol -for each 100 gallons. The tannin combines with the viscous matter and -precipitates it, so that in removing the ropiness the wine is fined at -the same time. It should be racked from the finings after about two -weeks’ repose. - -And we may add that grapes which produce wines predisposed to ropiness -ought not to be stemmed, or the must should be fermented with at least -a portion of the stems. - -Mr. Machard says that this disease is also due sometimes to lack of -tartaric acid, and that it may be cured by supplying this substance, -and setting up fermentation again. For 100 gallons of wine, about a -pound of tartaric acid should be dissolved in hot water, to which the -same quantity of sugar is added, and when dissolved, the whole is -poured warm into the cask containing the ropy wine. Then replace the -bung, and give the cask a thorough rolling for six or eight minutes. A -small hole is previously bored near the bung and closed with a spigot, -which is removed after rolling the cask, to allow the gas to escape. -After resting two or three days, the wine, which we suppose to be a -white wine, should be fined with isinglass. - -=Ropy Wines in Bottles= generally cure themselves, but they must not be -disturbed until the deposit changes color and takes a brownish tinge. -Then is the time to decant them for drinking. - -=Ropiness may also be Cured= by passing the wine over the marc again. -But only good, fresh pomace should be used, which is but a few days -old. This is done by mixing the wine with the marc of three times the -quantity of wine, and stirring from time to time till fermentation is -established. After the fermentation, the press wine may be mixed with -the rest. - -The author does not state whether this is to be done in the case of -white wine or red wine, or both, but it is apparent that it would be -subjecting a white wine to a very unusual operation. Fresh lees may -also be mixed with the wine instead of the marc. Sometimes it is only -necessary to let the wine fall into one vessel from another at a little -height, several times, or to give it a thorough agitation by stirring -it, or by driving it about for a few hours in a vehicle over a rough -road. - -Alum has been sometimes recommended, but it is now condemned as -unwholesome. - -Other means have been suggested, but these will suffice; and it is -agreed by all that tannin is the sovereign remedy. - -It is best to avoid the use of sulphur in treating ropy wines, for -fermentation is to be encouraged rather than checked. - -=Acrity.=—An acrid taste, with which certain wines are affected as -they grow old, is a sign of degeneration. Mr. Boireau says that he has -reason to believe that this disease is due to the presence of acetic -acid, coupled with the precipitation of the mucilages which give the -mellow flavor to wine. It is more often observed in old, dry wine, -improperly cared for, and consequently deprived of its fruity flavor. - -=The Proper Treatment= is to remove the acetic acid by using a -gramme or two per litre (60 to 120 grains to a gallon) of carbonate -of magnesium. (See _Sourness, Pricked Wines_.) If the acrity is not -too great, wines may be fortified, or mixed with a strong, young, -clean-tasting wine of the same nature, after which they should be fined. - -=Bitterness=, which is often a natural defect (which has already been -considered), becomes an accidental defect when developed in old wines -which were previously sound. It is almost always a commencement -of degeneration. This bitter taste comes principally from those -combinations which are formed by the dissolution of the coloring -matter, and by the precipitation of the mucilaginous substances, the -pectines, which give the wine unctuosity and its fruity flavor. - -=Treatment.=—The way to diminish this bitterness is to fortify and -regenerate the bitter wine which has entered on its decline, by mixing -it with wine of the same nature, but young, stout, and full-bodied, and -which have not yet reached maturity. The mixture should be fined with -albumen, and racked after resting a fortnight. The wine may be improved -in this way, but the bitterness will reappear in a few months. It -should, therefore, be used as soon as possible. - -Machard recommends the following: Fine the wine with eggs, and let it -rest till clear. Burn in a clean cask a quarter or a half of a sulphur -match (for 60 gallons), and pour in the bitter wine at once with the -smoke in the cask, after having added to each litre of the wine about -one gramme of tartaric acid (say 60 grains to the gallon), dissolved in -warm water. It must then be mixed with from a fourth to a half of old -wine, firm and well preserved. He says that a new wine to mix with it -is not suitable, not having sufficient affinity for the old. - -Where there is such a difference of opinion as there is between these -two authors, one recommending the mixture of new wine, and the other -forbidding it, every one had better experiment for himself with a small -quantity, and after the cut wines have become thoroughly amalgamated, a -choice can be made. - -And yet, Mr. Machard says that if the bitterness is not very great, it -is better to give them no other treatment than simply mixing them with -younger ones, but which have a tendency to become sour, or are already -slightly pricked. - -=Mr. Maumene Distinguishes Two Kinds of Bitterness=: 1. The nitrogenous -matters, under certain circumstances not well understood, appear to -be changed into a bitter product, and entirely spoil the best wine. -This effect depends especially upon the elevation of the temperature -and the old age of the wine. He says that he knows of but one way to -remove this bitterness, and that is to add a small quantity of lime. -For example, 25 to 50 centigrammes per litre (say 15 to 30 grains per -gallon). The lime should be perfectly new and fresh. It is slacked in -a little water or wine, and poured into the cask; after stirring well, -it is left to rest for two or three days, and then racked and fined. -Probably the lime combines with the nitrogenous matters, gives an -insoluble compound, which separates from the wine, and restores to it -its former flavor. The wine ought to remain acid after this treatment. -He says that it has succeeded with him a great number of times. 2. -Another cause of bitterness appears to him to be the formation of the -_brown resin_ of ammoniacal aldehyde, under the influence of oxygen. -The ferment which adheres to the inside of the cask gives a little -ammonia by decomposition. - -We see how the wine, under the influence of the air, produces a -little aldehyde, the ammoniacal aldehyde, and finally the very bitter -brown resin, whose formation was made known by Liebig. It is under -these circumstances that sulphuring may be employed as a remedy. The -sulphurous acid destroys the resinous matter in taking its oxygen to -become sulphuric. There is then made sulphate of ammonia and pure -aldehyde. These two substances by no means communicate to the wine the -disagreeable flavor of the brown resin from which they are derived. - -Another origin of bitterness is given, that of the oxidation of the -coloring matter, but there is no positive proof of this any more than -there is of the two causes mentioned by him. Unfortunately, the whole -matter is hypothetical. - -=Fermentation and Taste of the Lees—Yeasty Flavor.=—By the term -_fermentation_ in this connection we mean the malady which is known in -different parts of France by various names, such as _la pousse_, _vins -montés_, _tournés_, _tarés_, _à l’échaud_. It generally attacks those -wines which are grown in low places, which come from poor varieties of -grapes, or are produced in bad seasons, are weak, full of ferments, and -thereby liable to work. - -Mr. Boireau gives it the name of _goût de travail_, working taste, or -fermentation flavor. He says that the taste is due to the presence of -carbonic acid, disengaged during secondary alcoholic fermentation, by -reason of saccharine matter contained in the wine, or of mucilaginous -matters which give them their mellowness. The principal cause of -fermentation is the presence of these matters joined with ferments, and -takes place in an elevated temperature. - -The _yeasty flavor_ comes from the mixture in the wine of the lees -and deposits already precipitated, and which are again brought into -suspension by the movement of fermentation. - -=How Prevented.=—Fermentation and the consequent taste of the lees are -prevented by making and fermenting the wines under proper conditions, -keeping them in an even temperature, and by separating them from their -lees by well-timed rackings, as detailed in the chapters on _General -Treatment_, _Racking_, _etc._ - -=Treatment.=—The working is stopped by racking the wines into sulphured -casks, and placing them in cellars of a cool and even temperature. (See -_Sulphuring, etc._) If they have become turbid, they must be fined, and -they must be left on the finings only as long as is strictly necessary -for their clarification. - -Machard recommends that about a quart of alcohol for 100 gallons of -wine, or its equivalent of old brandy, be introduced into the sulphured -cask before drawing the wine into it, and that it be fined in all cases. - -=Degeneration—Putrid Fermentation.=—We are warned of degeneration in -wines a long time in advance, in divers manners: by the loss of their -fruity flavor, by bitterness, acrity, etc.; but the true symptoms in -old wine are, the more abundant precipitation of their blue coloring -matter, a heavy and tawny aspect, with a slightly putrid flavor. The -principal causes are the same as those mentioned in speaking of the -putrid decomposition in new wines, that is, feebleness in alcohol, and -lack of tannin. - -We know that by the time the tannin is transformed into gallic acid, -the alcohol is diminished by slow evaporation, and it follows that -wines which are too old have lost a part of those principles which give -them their keeping qualities, alcohol and tannin. - -=The Duration of Different Wines= is exceedingly unequal, and, like -animate beings, they display marked differences in constitution. There -are very feeble wines, as we have already seen, which are in the way of -degeneration the first year, while others, firm and full-bodied, gain -in quality for four, six, ten, and more years. As soon as it is seen -that a wine, by its taste and appearance, has commenced to degenerate, -it is important to arrest the degeneration at once. - -=Treatment.=—Degeneration may be retarded by adding tannin, but it is -preferable, in most cases, to mix the wine with younger wines of the -same nature, firm, full-bodied, which are improving, and consequently -possess an excess of those qualities which are wanting in the -degenerating wine. (See _Wine in Bottles_.) - - - - -CHAPTER XVI. - -WINE IN BOTTLES. - - -=When Ready for Bottling.=—Wines should not be bottled till their -insensible fermentation is entirely completed, have become entirely -freed from deposits, excess of color, salts, and ferments, and have -become perfectly bright. If they are bottled before these conditions -are fulfilled, deposits are made in the bottles, the wines may contract -bitterness and a taste of the lees, and if fermentation is violent, the -bottles may burst. When they are bottled too young they are sure to -deposit, and then they must be decanted. - -=The Length of Time that They Require to Remain in Wood= before being -ready for bottling, depends upon the strength and quality of the wines, -and the conditions under which they are kept. - -Weak wines, feeble in color and spirit, mature rapidly, while firm, -full-bodied wines, rich in color and alcohol, require a longer time to -become sufficiently ripe to admit of bottling. - -The older writers say that wines should not be put into glass until -they have become fully ripe, and have become tawny (if red), and have -developed a bouquet. But Boireau says that this is not the proper -practice. He says that wine is fit for bottling when freed from its -sediment, and when there is hardly any deposit formed in the cask at -the semi-annual racking—when its color is bright, and it has lost its -roughness or harshness, which it possesses while young, and at the same -time preserves its mellowness. If left in the cask till a bouquet is -developed, wines will often be found to be in a decline by the time -they are bottled, and will not keep as long as those bottled previous -to the development of their bouquet, and while they still possess -their fruity flavor. But greater precautions must be taken to insure -their limpidity, or they will be liable to deposit heavily in the -bottle. And Machard, who indicates aroma and color as signs of proper -maturity, though laying more stress upon the taste, says that it is -always better to be a little too soon than to wait till the wine passes -the point. - -Some wines are fit for the bottle at one year old, others require to -be kept from two to six years, and some even ten years, or longer, in -wood. White wine, generally speaking, matures earlier than red. - -=How Prepared for Bottling.=—Although a wine may appear perfectly -limpid to the eye, yet, when bottled, it may make a considerable -deposit, and therefore, the only safety is to carefully rack and fine -it to get rid of the insoluble matters in suspension. If it is not -clear after one fining, it must be drawn off and the process repeated. -When fined and cleared, it is better to rack again into a cask slightly -sulphured, and allow it to rest for three or four weeks before drawing -into the bottles; for if drawn from a cask still containing the -finings, the sediment is liable to be stirred up by the movement of -the liquid. If this is not done, the faucet should be fixed in place -at the time of fining and before the wine has settled, and at the same -time the cask should be slightly inclined forward and blocked in that -position, and other precautions must be taken not to disturb the cask -after the wine has cleared. If the wine is too feeble to allow of -fining without injury, and one is sure of its perfect limpidity, the -fining had better be dispensed with. Very young wines may be bottled -after subjecting them to repeated finings, but it will deprive them of -some of their good qualities. (See _Fining_.) It often happens that a -well-covered, or dark-colored wine will deposit considerable color in -the bottle after one fining; such wine should be twice fined, and twice -racked before fining, say, once in December or January, and again in -March. - -=The Most Favorable Time for Bottling= is during cool, dry weather, -but in cellars of uniform temperature, it may be done at any time. It -is better, if possible, to avoid warm or stormy weather, and those -critical periods in the growth of the vine referred to in the chapter -on Racking. Of course, the wine should not be bottled if it shows signs -of fermentation. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 27._ Bottle Washer.] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 28._ _Fig. 29._ Bottle Drainers.] - -=Bottles= should always be carefully washed and drained before using. -They are best washed by the use of a machine made for the purpose, -which scrubs them inside—and sometimes, also, outside—with a brush -(fig. 27). If only a small number of bottles are to be cleaned, it -may be done by using the chain made for the purpose, or by putting in -coarse sand or gravel and water, and thoroughly shaking them. Shot must -not be used, for a portion of the lead will be dissolved by the water, -and if any remains in the bottle it will be acted upon by the wine, -and lead poisoning may result. In many cases it will be necessary only -to rinse them out with clean water. Whether new or second-hand, they -must be scrupulously clean before using. After the bottles are rinsed, -they should be allowed to drain by leaving them inverted for an hour or -two in a dry place; if they are left in a damp cellar, they are liable -to contract a musty flavor within. They may be drained by placing the -necks downward through holes bored in a plank, by inverting them in -boxes or baskets, or by placing them upon pegs or nails driven into a -post, and inclining upwards sufficiently to leave the opening of the -bottle down, when the neck is slipped over the peg or nail. Figs. 28 -and 29 show devices for the purpose. The bottles are sometimes rinsed -out with wine, or if intended to contain very poor, weak wine, with a -little brandy. This is done by pouring the liquor from one bottle to -another. - -It is best to use bottles uniform in size for each lot of wine, and -certainly to reject those which are cracked, have large blisters, and -those which are very thin. These latter, however, may be employed, if -but little pressure is used in corking, but they should be placed by -themselves, or on the top of the pile. No one would make use of such -bottles except to store wine for his own consumption. - -Clear and transparent bottles are used for white wine, and those -of colored glass for red. Hock, however, is often put in brownish -bottles, conical in shape. White wines which are perfectly limpid show -to advantage in clear bottles, but red wines, if stored in such, are -liable to lose their color by the action of light. - -It is important that the glass of which wine bottles are made should -not contain too much soda, potash, or lime, or they may combine with -the acids, and injure the wine. By the use of crude soda, alkaline -sulphites may be formed in the glass, and communicate an odor of -sulphuretted hydrogen to the wine. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 30._ Reservoir for filling Bottles.] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 31._ Bung Screw.] - -=Filling the Bottles.=—If the faucet has not previously been placed in -the cask, it must now be done with great care, so as not to disturb -any lees that may have remained at the last racking. The faucet should -be put into the cask _open_, as for racking, and with very light blows -of the hammer. A shallow dish or bucket is placed under the faucet in -which the bottle stands. An ordinary brass faucet may be used, or the -bottles may be filled much more rapidly by drawing the wine from the -cask into a reservoir provided with as many faucets or tubes as bottles -which it is desired to fill at the same time (fig. 30). The cask must -be vented either by making a gimlet hole or two near the bung, or the -bung must be removed. The latter, however, must not be done by blows -with the bung-starter, but by using the bung screw (fig. 31), or the -lees will be stirred up. The bottle should not be placed upright so -that the wine will fall directly to the bottom, but should be slightly -inclined so as to permit the wine to trickle down the inside, or a -foam will be formed, and it will be difficult to fill the bottle. The -workman having his empty bottles within reach, allows a little of the -first wine to run into the dish, or into a bottle, which is put aside, -as there may be some impurities in the faucet. The workman is seated in -front of the cask, and the empty bottles are placed one at a time under -the faucet as described. As soon as one bottle is filled, it is removed -and another put in its place, without closing the faucet, and without -loss of wine. The sediment would be disturbed by the shocks caused by -opening and shutting the faucet. - -If the needle is used in corking the bottles, they should be filled -within a little more than an inch of the top, and if corked in the -ordinary manner, only to within about two inches of the opening, -leaving an inch of vacancy below the cork; always, however, depending -somewhat upon the length of the corks used. This is continued, placing -the full bottles in a convenient place, until the wine ceases to run -at the faucet. The cask must then be slightly inclined forward, as -described in the case of racking. At this stage, great care must be -taken not to trouble the wine; and if a few bottles at the end contain -that which is not clear, they should be put aside, to be decanted after -settling. In drawing from the upper tiers of casks in piles, the basin -must be elevated sufficiently to bring the bottle placed in it up to -the faucet, or the latter may be connected with it by a hose. - -=Corks.=—Only good corks should be used. They are supple and uniform in -texture. Poor corks are sold in the market, in which is found a good -deal of the dark, hard portion of the bark, which are not only liable -to break the bottles by the great amount of pressure required to insert -them, but also to discolor the wine, affect its flavor, and to permit -it to leak out. Straight corks are used now-a-days, somewhat larger -than the neck of the bottle, and are forced in by means of - -[Illustration: _Fig. 32._ Corking Machines.] - -=Corking Machines.=—These machines are of different forms and make, but -are provided with a hollow cone through which the cork is forced by -a piston, compressing it so that it easily goes into the neck of the -bottle. Some work with a lever, and some with a crank. In the small -hand-machine, the piston is pushed by the hand. The bottles may be -made full enough so that the wine will touch the bottom of the cork, -leaving no vacant space, if the _needle_ is used in corking. This is -a small, tapering, half-round, steel instrument, one-tenth of an inch -in diameter, with a groove along the flat side. By placing this in the -neck with the groove next the glass, the cork may be forced down to -the wine, the air and surplus wine escaping by the groove. After the -cork is driven home, the needle is removed. A piece of wire, provided -with a handle, will answer the purpose. The handle of the needle -(either a ring, or like that of a gimblet), is attached by a hinge, -and turns down out of the way of the tube and piston of the machine. -Some bottling machines have a needle attachment. Bottles corked by the -use of this instrument do not contain a vacant space, and the wine -keeps better, not being exposed to the action of the air, which would -otherwise remain in the neck of the bottle, and not being shaken in -transportation. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 33._ Corking Machines.] - -Figures 32 and 33 show corking machines with and without needles. In -fig. 33 two needles are also shown. - -If the old-fashioned conical corks are used, they may be driven home -with a small mallet, or wooden paddle, but the cylindrical corks are -preferable, if the wine is to be kept long. - -=Preparation of the Corks.=—In order to render them more supple, they -are soaked for several hours in water. What is far better, however, is -to steam them for two or three hours, or soak them in hot water. They -should be allowed to drain, and then be dipped in wine like that to be -bottled. Some dip them in alcohol to render them more slippery, and -some again, put a drop or two of sweet oil on the surface of the water -in which they are wet. - -=The Corks may be Driven down Flush= with the opening of the bottle, or -they may be left projecting a quarter of an inch, and if much larger -than the neck of the bottle, a shoulder will be formed, as in the case -of sparkling wines. The object of leaving the corks projecting a third -of their length in bottling sparkling wines is, that they may be forced -out with an explosion; and the shoulder completely closes the bottle, -being wired down. - -=Sealing the Corks.=—If the bottles are stored in a damp place where -the corks are liable to rot, and also if they are to be kept more than -two years, it is well to cover the ends of the corks with wax. This -also prevents attacks by insects. - -=The Sealing Wax= used should be sufficiently adhesive, but not too -hard and brittle. Various receipts are given for its preparation, and -the following is given by Boireau: Melt common pitch or turpentine -over a slow fire, taking care not to allow it to boil over. When it -is well melted, remove whatever impurities it contains, add a little -tallow—a little less than an ounce of tallow to a pound of pitch. Its -natural color is reddish, and is used without addition of coloring -matter. Rosin may be substituted for the pitch. Instead of making this -preparation, the fruit wax of commerce may be used. About the same -quantity of tallow, however, should be added, if sealing wax is used, -or otherwise it will be too brittle. The tallow may be replaced by -beeswax with advantage. - -An excellent bottle wax is said to be made by melting together two -pounds rosin, one pound Burgundy pitch, one-fourth pound yellow wax, -and one-eighth pound red wax. The wax may be replaced by three ounces -of tallow. If too much tallow is added the cement will be too soft. - -=The Cement is Applied Hot.=—It must be melted, and the bottle reversed -and dipped into it, so that the wax will cover the end of the cork and -a small part of the neck of the bottle, say down to the ring. It is -entirely unnecessary to cover more of the neck of the bottle. - -=Coloring Matter= may be added to these different cements, and any -desired color produced. A little more than half an ounce of the -following named substances is stirred in to one pound of the melted wax. - -A brilliant red is produced by vermilion, a duller red by red ochre, -black with animal black, yellow with orpiment, dark yellow with yellow -ochre, and blue with Prussian blue. Green is made by mixing equal -parts of blue and yellow, and other shades may be made by mixing the -different colors to suit the taste. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 34._ Pincers for Removing Wax.] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 35._ Capsuler.] - -=Capsules= are now much used instead of wax. In preparing the bottled -wine for shipment, where the corks have previously been waxed for -storing in the cellar, capsules are also used. In this case, the wax is -removed before the capsule is put on by means of a pair of pincers with -roughened jaws (fig. 34). These capsules in different colors are sold -by dealers in corks. - -=They are Put on= by slipping one over the neck of the bottle as far -as it will go, and then pressing it down closely all round. For this -purpose, one turn is made around the end of the capsule with a stout -cord fastened at one end, and the bottle is pushed forward with one -hand, while the loose end of the string is pulled tight with the other, -thus sliding the loop over the capsule and the neck of the bottle, and -pressing it firmly in place. Instead of holding the cord with one hand, -it may be attached to a pedal worked by the foot. A machine (fig. 35) -is made with two posts or standards, one solid, to which one end of the -cord, _A_, is attached, and the other playing on a hinge, to which the -other end is fastened, and pulled tight by a pedal, _B_. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 36._ Piling Bottles.] - -=Piling of Bottles.=—Bottles may be stacked on the floor of the cellar -in piles consisting of a single or a double range. The bed should be -made level by arranging the soil, or by laying down strips of wood, and -leveling them. The bottles should be laid horizontal. If the neck is -down, the deposit will be on and near the cork, and will trouble the -wine as it runs from the bottle. If the bottom is lower than the neck, -the cork will not be kept wet, and the wine is liable to be injured by -the air, as the cork is not perfectly air-tight. The bottles should -be supported at two points, the neck and the bottom; the belly of the -bottle needs no support. If two tiers of bottles are put in a pile, the -bottoms are on the outside, with the necks at the middle of the pile. -Laths are used to support the bottles, about three-eighths of an inch -thick, and one inch or more wide. The lower row of one tier is made -by laying down at the outside of the pile two laths to support the -bottom end of the bottle, and one thick strip or sufficient laths are -laid down to support the neck, inside the ring, and keep the bottle -level. The next tier may be commenced by laying one or two laths on the -necks of the bottles of the first one to support the necks of those of -the other, the necks of the bottles of one tier lapping over those of -the bottles of the other; the bottoms of those of this tier must be -sufficiently elevated by laths to keep the bottles level. The next row -of bottles is supported by laths laid on those below, one or two near -the outer end of the lower ones, and a larger number on their necks. In -this case the necks all point in, the bottoms being together (fig. 36). -The bottles of each row should be sufficiently separated to allow those -of the next row above to be supported by the laths without touching -each other, and should be blocked after adjusting the distances. The -piles may be made from three to six feet high, and must be supported at -the ends, either by the cellar walls or posts. - -Each tier may be made entirely independent of the other, by supporting -the necks of the bottles of the next upper row on laths laid near the -bottoms of those of the first row, one row having the necks pointing -out, and the next one having them pointing the other way. In this case -the bottles in a row may be separated an inch or more from each other, -and blocked with bits of cork. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 37._ Bottle Rack.] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 38._ Bottle Rack.] - -=Racks and Bins for Bottles.=—Instead of piling the bottles, they may -be arranged in bins constructed for the purpose. The simplest is a -frame of wood or iron of the desired length and height, and deep enough -to accommodate one or two tiers of bottles. The lower bars on which the -first row of bottles rests, should be so arranged as to support them in -a level position, as already described for piling. If only one tier is -to be made, only two bars at the bottom are necessary, but if double -ranges are to be made, the frame must be deeper, and have a middle bar -to support the necks of the bottles, the bottoms all being outside. The -bottles are piled in these frames in the manner already described. - -Instead of piling them in simple frames with the use of laths, racks -are made with bars to support each row of bottles by itself, and so -that any one bottle can be taken out without disturbing the rest. If -the supports are of wood, they may be cut, or if of iron, bent in a -form to fit each bottle, that is, in small half-circles in which the -bottles rest, with smaller ones for the necks, or they may be straight. -These bins may be made portable, and of any size to suit. (Figs. 37 and -38.) - -Burrow’s Patent Slider Bin, made in England, has a separate compartment -for each bottle. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 39._ Burrow’s Slider Bin.] - -=Treatment of Wine in Bottles.=—Sometimes it will be found that wine -ferments in the bottle, becomes turbid, and makes a voluminous deposit, -or may contract various maladies, such as bitterness, harshness, -ropiness, or may become putrid. These effects result principally from -bottling the wine too young, before insensible fermentation and the -natural clearing has been completed, or they may be caused by changes -of temperature, or too great age. - -=Fermentation in the Bottles= is due to the same causes as fermentation -in casks—changes of temperature, contact of the air, etc. It may be -avoided by bottling at the proper time, carefully protecting the wine -from the air by corking the bottles hermetically by the use of the -needle, and keeping them in a cellar of even temperature. Boireau -says that sweet and mellow wines are liable to ferment in bottles, -especially if exposed to a high temperature, unless their alcoholic -strength exceeds 15 per cent. Still wines which ferment in the bottle -generally must be emptied into casks, and there treated as indicated -in the chapter on _Diseases_. Temporary relief may be given by putting -the bottles in a cooler place, and uncorking them for an hour or two to -allow the gas to escape. - -=Deposits and Turbidity.=—Wine, after being some time in glass, forms -more or less deposit, according to its age, quality, and degree of -limpidity at the time of bottling. The deposits consist almost entirely -of coloring matter, and vegetable and mineral salts; sometimes they -adhere to the sides of the bottle, and in some cases they render the -wine turbid, and again they present the appearance of gravel when the -wine contains much tartar. - -In wines bottled too young, or which are made by mixing those of -different natures, quite a voluminous deposit may be formed after they -have remained a few years in glass. But good, natural wines, of good -growth, well cared for, and bottled under proper conditions, scarcely -commence to deposit at the end of one or two years. The deposit, -however, will be increased, if the bottles are frequently disturbed, -are transported long distances, undergo changes of temperature, or are -kept so long that they begin to degenerate. If there is much deposit, -it is apt to give the wine a _bitter_ or _acrid_ flavor, or a _taste of -the lees_. Therefore, if the wines are of high quality, they should be -decanted. - -Mr. Boireau proceeds to say that if the deposit is small, and we are -dealing with grand wines in bottles, which have contracted no bad -taste, it is better not to decant them, for the operation is liable to -cause a loss of a portion of the bouquet, especially if not done with -proper precautions. - -These directions only apply to those bottled wines which have deposited -sediment, but which are nevertheless clear, and bright, and of a -lively color. Those, however, which become and remain turbid, must -be fined, and for this purpose they must be put into casks. If wines -containing sediment are brought to the table without decanting, they -are kept in nearly the same position as they occupied in the cellar, by -using small baskets contrived for the purpose. (See _Decantation_.) - -=Bitterness and Acrity=, when not caused by deposits, are due to loss -of the fruitiness and mellowness of the wine, which then has commenced -to decline. The only remedy in case of fine wines which have preserved -their bouquet, is to mix them with younger wines, mellow and perfectly -bright. This should be done by decanting without contact with the air; -but if they are seriously affected, they must be put into casks and -the operation there performed; then they should be well fined before -re-bottling. - -=Ropiness= in bottled wines, which is due to lack of tannin, generally -occurs in white wines which have been bottled before perfectly clear, -and while they contained considerable nitrogenous and albuminous -matters in suspension. The treatment is indicated elsewhere. - -In most cases, if the wines are worn out, it will be necessary to put -them into casks, and mix them with younger ones of the same quality. - -=Degeneration and Putridity.=—Wine may be kept and improved in bottles, -if properly treated, as long as its constituent principles remain -soluble and in combination; but with the lapse of time, varying with -different kinds, it begins to lose quality. This degeneration, says the -author last quoted, announces itself a long time in advance, in the -grand wines, by a loss of their unctuosity, of their fruity flavor, and -by a bitter and sometimes acrid taste; and if they are kept for several -years more, the fragrance of the bouquet is lost, and they contract -a _rancio_ or tawny flavor, which masks their natural flavor; they -rapidly lose color, and form a deposit much more considerable than in -the earlier years of their sojourn in bottles; and finally, when their -degeneracy is advanced, they give off a slightly putrid odor. - -As soon as high priced wines have attained their entire development in -bottles, in order to prevent their decline, they should be carefully -decanted into bottles with ground glass stoppers, previously rinsed -with wine of the same kind. - -Loss of color, joined with an abundant deposit, which is a sure sign -of degeneration in the wines of the Gironde, do not mean the same in -all other kinds. For instance, the red wines of Spain (and we may add, -Portugal), and the sweet wines of Roussillon, which have a very dark -color when young, almost entirely lose it after three or four years -in bottle; they become tawny, without degenerating; but, quite to the -contrary, their quality is improved. - -It is observed, however, that in wines of these latter classes, whose -alcoholic strength exceeds 15 per cent., the deposit is not so great, -compared with the amount of coloring matter precipitated, as in wines -of the first mentioned growth, and that the coloring matter adheres to -the sides of the bottle, instead of falling to the bottom. Some of our -California wines deposit a good deal of color in the bottle, even when -fined. Probably a double fining would be advantageous in many cases. - -As alcohol and tannin are the preservative principles of wines, those -last longest which are best provided with them. - -The cause of the degeneration of wine is the decomposition of -its constituent parts, which thereby become insoluble, and are -precipitated. The loss of tannin, which in time is transformed into -gallic acid, takes from feeble wines their best conservator, and causes -precipitation of the coloring matter. And it is observed in practice -that wines which contain a great quantity of tannin last longer than -those of the same alcoholic strength having less tannin. - -=Decantation= consists in drawing a wine from the bottle containing it, -so as to leave the sediment behind. It should be done without exposing -the wine to the air. - -The bottles should be brought from the cellar without changing their -position, for if the deposit is disturbed, and the wine becomes cloudy, -the bottles must rest till it has settled again. For this purpose they -are laid in a basket, or other suitable receptacle, where they are -inclined just enough so that the wine will not run out when the cork -is removed (fig. 40). The cork must be drawn without disturbing the -sediment, by using a corkscrew, which by means of a screw or lever, -gradually removes it, and without a shock (fig. 41). The wine is slowly -run into another clean bottle previously rinsed with the same kind of -wine. If the wine is in its decline, rinse the bottles with old brandy. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 40._ Decanting Basket.] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 41._ Corkscrews.] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 42._ Decanting Instrument.] - -=The Operation may be Performed= by carefully pouring the wine into -the empty bottle through a small funnel, which is provided with a -strainer. By means of a light placed below the bottle, the sediment can -be watched, and as soon as it is about to run out with the wine, the -operation must cease. The new bottle must be filled up with the same -kind of wine and immediately corked. In decanting in this manner, the -bubbling of the air passing into the bottle as the wine runs out, is -very apt to disturb the lees. This may be prevented by using a small -tube, slightly curved, which connects the air outside with the vacant -space in the bottle. In order to prevent access of the air, however, -an instrument is used consisting of two conical corks, connected by a -small rubber tube. Each cork is pierced with two holes; the one placed -in the bottle to be emptied, besides the hole which receives the rubber -hose through which the wine runs, is provided with one through which a -bent tube is placed to admit the air; the hose passes through the other -cork and conducts the wine into the other bottle, and this cork has -another hole for the escape of the air (fig. 42). - - - - -CHAPTER XVII. - -CUTTING OR MIXING WINES. - - -=Most French Wines Mixed.=—Maigne, speaking of the wines of France, -says, that of one hundred wines in the market, perhaps there are not -ten which are not produced by mixing several different kinds. Without -doubt, he says, we should as much as possible preserve the products of -the vine as they are given to us; but there are a multitude of cases -where it is absolutely impossible to render them drinkable without -mixing, or as wine men say, without _cutting_ them with other wines. - -=When Necessary—Effect of.=—In good years, almost all wines can be -drank in their natural condition, but when the grapes have not become -sufficiently ripe, the wines, even of good growths, lack quality, or -preserve for a long time a roughness more or less marked, and always -disagreeable. It is then necessary to mix them, especially if common -wines, with better ones, to make them tolerable. It is not always -necessary, however, that the season should be bad, in order that -cutting should be proper. Wines naturally have, for a certain time, -an earthy flavor and greenness which are unpleasant, which disappear -by mixing. This is why ordinary wines of a moderate price, which have -been mixed, are preferred by a great number of consumers to others -which are higher in price but left in a state of nature. For example, a -new, very dark-colored wine of good growth is not an agreeable drink; -but if an old white wine of an inferior growth, but of good taste and -constitution be added, it will be drank with pleasure. - -Mixing the wine produces results similar to those caused by mixing the -fruit, and it may be done by the wine maker as well as by the merchant. -As they come from the vat, wines manifest the qualities and defects -communicated by the vintage, and which are varied by a multitude of -circumstances, such as the nature of the soil, varieties of grapes, -temperature of the season, and the like. - -Wines endowed with qualities which fit them to be kept in their natural -condition, of course, are not mixed. But those which, on the other hand -(and they are in the majority), have too much or too little color, -are weak, flat, coarse, green, pasty, rough, lacking in bouquet, too -strong, or too light, cannot be put on the market till they have been -cut with other wines capable of giving them the qualities which they -lack, and of remedying their defects. It will be understood that the -mixture of a weak wine with a stronger one, of one lacking color with -one which has too much, a light wine with a generous one, of a hard -wine with a flat one, etc., a wine will be produced superior in quality -to any one of those used. - -For these reasons, in a viticultural district, when a producer cannot -sell his wine of a bad year, he mixes it with that of the following -year, if the latter is of a better quality; if he cannot mix it all, he -may use it for ullage. In the same way, if he has new white wines which -become discolored and turn yellow, he mingles them with very dark red -wines, which then become more agreeable to drink. - -It is said that the tithe wines used to be of superior quality. -In certain communes of France, the inhabitants contributed to the -priest’s cask a certain amount of their new wine, and this wine -which represented a mixture of all the wines of the commune, had the -reputation of being superior to any one of the others. - -And the following case, quoted by Maigne, is given for what it is -worth. A cask lay in a cellar into which they were accustomed to -throw the leavings of all kinds of wine, such as from broken bottles, -drippings, etc. It was intended to use the liquid upon diseased trees, -but it was for some time forgotten. When found and brought out, the -cellar-man tasted the singular mixture out of curiosity. It was found -to be a delicious liquor, which gave delight at dessert; and it was -with true grief that they saw its end approach! - -In order to perform the operation successfully, an experienced man is -required, who will be guided by his educated taste; and therefore, -precise rules cannot be laid down, but there are certain general -principles which it may be useful to state. - -=Wines of the same General Nature and Flavor= should be used, and -two of such wines may nevertheless be deficient in some particular -respects, so that by mixing, the defects of the two will be corrected. -Such wines are mixed, because they are said to _marry_ better, and -produce a more homogeneous liquid than those of different natures. - -=Fine Wines.=—All agree that fine wines which have a bouquet and a -future are best left in their natural condition, for their distinctive -character will be destroyed by mixing with wines of a different nature -and quality. Boireau says that experience proves that if such wines are -mixed while young, even with old wine of good quality, they will never -acquire that degree of fineness which they would have obtained if left -by themselves; that they sooner loose their fruity flavor, and are more -liable to make a deposit in the bottles. - -There are cases, however, when cutting becomes necessary, as when the -wine from being kept too long in casks, has commenced to decline, has -lost its fruity flavor, has become acrid and dry; when made in a bad, -cold season; and when they are too poor, green, or too feeble to keep -well. - -When wines are too old and worn out, they should be fortified with -young wines of the same kind, produced, if possible, from the same -vineyard, one or two, or at most, three years old, and possessing great -mellowness. The amount of new wine to be used will depend upon the -degree of degeneracy and the length of time they are to be kept. (See -_Degeneration_.) - -Poor, weak wines, whose keeping qualities are doubted, should be mixed -with young wine of a good year, firm and full-bodied, possessing as -nearly as possible the same natural flavor. - -The foregoing is intended to apply to feeble, delicate wines which have -a flavor and bouquet, but _which are not too green_. Wines which have a -future should not be sacrificed by using them to fortify others which -are both _feeble and green_, for the excess of tartaric acid contained -in the latter will totally destroy the mellowness of those used to -fortify them. To mix with such wines, clean-tasting wines of the south -should be used. - -If the wines are too green, a portion of the acid may be neutralized, -as described under the head of _Greenness_. - -=Ordinary Wines= should be treated in such a way as to give them as -much as possible the qualities sought in fine wines, and they should be -cut with suitable wines of the same age to give them bouquet, flavor, -and mellowness, or at least to remove their excessive dryness—a very -difficult thing to do. It may be accomplished, in part, by mixing them -with wines of the same growth, but whose bouquet and flavor are very -expansive, and by adding neutral, mellow wines. - -=Sufficient Time Must be Given= to the mixture to allow the different -wines employed to become intimately combined, or their different -flavors may be detected, which will not be the case when thoroughly -amalgamated. - -=When Large Quantities= of wine are used, the mixture is more nearly -perfect than if mingled, cask by cask; and by operating upon the whole -amount at one time in a large vat, a perfect uniformity will be insured. - -=An Entirely New Wine= should not be mixed with an old one, as there is -not sufficient affinity between them. - -In an old wine, says Machard, all the constituents are in a state -of complete quiet; they are well combined (melted) and homogeneous. -If there is mixed with it a wine whose principles are equally well -combined, no ulterior action will result. But if new principles are -introduced, elements of a different nature, the equilibrium will -be disturbed, there will infallibly result a reciprocal action and -disorganization. - -=Very Green Wines= should not be mixed with those containing much -sugar for similar reasons, for the mixture is liable to be thrown -into a state of violent fermentation, which it will be difficult to -arrest. The reason given is that the green wine contains a good deal -of ferment; but if both the wines are produced in the south, where -the ferment contained in the dry wine is not abundant, the mixture may -safely be made. So that, after all, we get back to the principle, that -wines of widely different natures and origins should not be mixed, but -keeping this in mind, a sweetish and a dry wine may be used to correct -each other. - -=White Wines= may sometimes be mixed with advantage with red ones, as -before mentioned, but the former should not be employed too liberally. - -=Diseased Wines= must not be mixed with sound ones, except in the -few cases mentioned under _Defects and Diseases_. It is especially -dangerous to cut a soured or pricked wine with a sound one, for the -whole mass is liable to be lost. - -=Mixing Grapes.=—It is doubtless always better, when practicable, to -correct defects by mixing the grapes and fermenting the different -kinds together, for then a more homogeneous wine will be formed; and, -therefore, the intelligent grape grower will find out the defects of -his wine, and remedy them by planting a sufficient quantity of other -varieties for the purpose. - -=Precautions.=—Care, however, must always be taken not to spoil a good -wine by cutting it with a very common one, nor by mixing poor varieties -with grapes of fine kinds. - -Cheap wines, however, for immediate consumption, may admit a certain -proportion of poor, common wine, into their composition, without -inconvenience. In that case, the ferments of the common sorts will not -have time to act and produce serious results. - -If, however, they are to be kept for some time, or bottled, the -effect will be bad, for the ferments always abundant in wines from -the commoner varieties, are liable to become decomposed, and cause a -disagreeable, nauseating flavor. - -Whenever there is a doubt in the mind of the cellar-man as to whether -certain wines should be mixed, it is always best to make a small sample -first, clarify it, and leave it for a sufficient length of time, and -judge of the result, before operating upon a large quantity. - - - - -CHAPTER XVIII. - -WINE LEES, MARC, AND PIQUETTE. - - -=The Residue of Wine Making=, pomace and lees, are often placed -immediately in the still, and their alcohol distilled off directly, -but the result is better if the wine is first extracted, and distilled -without putting the residue into the boiler, for it is liable to burn -and give a disagreeable burnt flavor to the brandy. - -I am indebted to Mr. Boireau, so often quoted, for what follows: - - -WINE LEES. - -=The Lees= should not be neglected, because, for want of proper care, -the wine which is extracted from them will contract a very disagreeable -taste, which is due to its too long sojourn on the deposit, and which -would be prevented by drawing it off in time. - -Therefore, in order that the wine extracted from them should not lose -all its value, the lees should receive particular attention, and be -stored in places free from variations of temperature. - -=The Quantity of Wine Contained in the Lees= varies from 30 to 90 per -cent. From those of fined wines an average of 70 per cent. may be -extracted without pressing. - -=The Dry Parts of the Sediment= contain a great quantity of insoluble -matters, tartar, or argol, several other vegetable and mineral salts, -divers compounds, ferments, mucilaginous matters, and the residue of -animal and vegetable matters (albumen and gelatine), which have been -employed in fining. - -=An Analysis of Dry Lees= by Mr. Braconnot, a distinguished chemist, -establishes the presence of the following substances: bitartrate of -potash (cream of tartar), tartrate of lime, tartrate of magnesia, -nitrogenous animal matter, fatty substances, coloring matter, gum, and -tannin. - -=The Composition of Dry Lees= varies with the age, nature, and quality -of the wine which produces them; but in all, the bitartrate of potash -or cream of tartar predominates. The lees of mellow wines contain -mucilages, and we find in the lees deposited by sweet wines great -quantities of saccharine matter which may be utilized. The different -uses to which dried lees may be put will be mentioned further on. - -=Treatment of the Lees.=—Lees will settle by repose, but the wine -which comes from them, if left long upon the heavy lees, contracts a -disagreeable flavor, owing to its contact with the insoluble matters -forming the sediment, and with the ferments found in the lees with the -residue of the substances used in fining. The surface wine is often -in a state of fermentation, and remains turbid, contracting at the -same time a disagreeable bitterness, unless soon withdrawn from the -influence of the ferments. - -By proper care and attention, not only can all the liquid be extracted -from the lees, but the wine so extracted will have no bad flavor, no -vice, in a word, will partake of the same qualities as the wine from -which the heavy lees were deposited. The casks into which they are to -be put should be washed in the same manner as those destined to contain -limpid wine, and double the quantity of a sulphur match employed in the -case of racking new red wines, should be burned in each. As fast as -the casks are emptied in drawing off, the lees are turned into a pail, -and immediately poured into the cask intended for them. In emptying -them into the pail, care should be taken not to introduce dirt, mould, -etc., and if there is debris around the bung-hole, it should be swept -away before removing the bung. As soon as the cask is full of lees, it -should be stored, bung up, in a proper place, as mentioned, and should -then be ulled and bunged, and the date of storing may be marked on it, -with the kind and age of the wine from which it came. - -When the casks are not completely filled the same day, and it is -necessary to leave them with ullage, they should be bunged tight, after -having again burned a square of a match in each, and the sulphuring -should be renewed as often as the lees are added, if left so for -several days, in order to avoid access of air, and to prevent the -action of ferments. In a word, casks containing lees, without being -full, should always be well bunged and sulphured, and guarded from -variations of temperature. - -The casks, when stored, should be regularly ulled once a week with -limpid wine, and re-bunged, and after two weeks’ repose, the first -drawing off takes place, and should be renewed once or twice every -month. All the clear wine will be drawn off at each racking, by -following the precautions indicated further on. By drawing off thus -frequently, fermentation, to which such wine is subject, will be -avoided, even in summer. Thus, also, will be avoided the disagreeable -taste of the lees, of acrity and bitterness, which wine contracts when -left long on the deposit, and moreover, much more clear wine will be -withdrawn. Lees from diseased wine should not be mixed with the rest, -but should be put aside and treated according to the malady by which -the wine was affected. - -=Extraction of Wine from the Lees.=—Lees preserved under the conditions -indicated naturally free themselves from a great part of the foreign -substances which they contain, by rest, for they are insoluble, and -specifically heavier than wine, and settle of their own accord. The -wine should not be fined till drawn from the heavy lees. - -The racking off of the clear wine may be performed in two ways, either -by the use of a glass siphon or of a faucet. For the first rackings -the glass siphon is most appropriate, and by its use the boring of -holes high up in the end of the cask is avoided. It is introduced about -eight inches into the full cask, a proper vessel to catch the wine is -placed under the end, with another vessel close at hand, and the wine -is started by the breath; but the siphon must be held with the hand, or -otherwise sustained so that it will not go too deep into the cask. By -holding a candle below, it can be seen if the wine is any way clear; -and as long as it runs sufficiently limpid, the siphon is lowered -into the cask, little by little, till the level of the turbid wine is -nearly reached. When one bucket is filled, the other is slipped under -the stream without stopping it. Two men are usually required, one to -attend the siphon, and the other to empty the buckets. As soon as the -wine runs muddy, it is stopped. If the cask of lees is sufficiently -elevated, the stem of the siphon may run into a funnel placed in the -empty cask. - -When the casks have all been drawn from, the remaining heavy lees are -filled into those containing the greater quantity, so as to transfer -the least quantity. Before filling, however, the casks should have a -double square of sulphur match burned in each, to prevent subsequent -fermentations. - -The use of the faucet is preferred, when the lees are thick, and the -casks which contain them are near the ground, and are only used for -storing lees. In the latter case, the injury to the cask by boring -holes in the head at several heights, is of little consequence. A -greater quantity of wine may be drawn off by the use of the faucet than -with the glass siphon, but it is generally less clear than if carefully -done with the latter; and one man can do the work. - -First, it is necessary to ascertain how far down the clear wine -reaches, by means of gimlet holes, and the faucet-hole should then be -bored just above the level of the heavy lees. If the faucet has been -placed too low, the sediment which runs through it at first may be put -aside. - -After the drawing of the clear wine has been repeated several times, -and the thick lees united as above mentioned, the casks should not be -filled until heavily sulphured, and they must not be disturbed, for the -least agitation may stir up the sediment already formed, and cause bad -flavor in the wine, and even produce putrid fermentation, especially in -those from fined wines which contain large quantities of animal matter -introduced in the finings. Casks emptied of heavy lees should be washed -with a chain, to remove the sediment clinging to the inside, which must -not be allowed to dry on. - -=Fining Wines Extracted from the Lees.=—These wines often are not -sufficiently clear; and they are generally more difficult to clarify -completely by the usual methods than the wines which produced the lees. - -It is noticeable that these wines have less color and less alcohol than -other wines produced in the ordinary way. - -The difficulty in obtaining their complete clarification arises from -the great quantity of insoluble matter which they still hold in -suspension, and their relative feebleness in alcohol and tannin. - -The want of color is due to the mechanical action of the insoluble -matters which the lees contain; these matters in precipitating carry -down a part of the coloring matter remaining in solution in the liquid. -It follows that the older the lees, and the oftener the wine has been -drawn from them, the feebler the color. - -=Red Wines= extracted from the lees, to be completely clarified, should -be fined with a heavy dose of albumen (the whites of 16 or 18 eggs to -100 gallons), previously well beaten up in a pint of water in which -half an ounce of sea salt has been dissolved to give it density. If the -alcoholic strength is below nine per cent, they should be fortified by -the addition of two or three quarts of brandy or alcohol to each 100 -gallons. Red wines from this source should not be fined with gelatine, -or it will diminish the color too much. - -=White Wines= of this kind may be fined with albumen also, if strong -in alcohol; but otherwise, they should be fined with a heavy dose of -gelatine, three tablets. But before fining they must be tannified by -adding 4 or 5 gallons of tannified wine, or an ounce of tannin for each -100 gallons. - -Wines from lees should remain on the finings only long enough to -precipitate the matters used, about ten days; after which they must be -carefully racked, and cared for like other wines. - -=Pressing the Thick Sediment.=—After the lees have undergone three or -four semi-monthly rackings, the rest of the wine which they contain may -be extracted by pressure, and this amounts on the average to fifty per -cent. More wine might be extracted by further racking, but by allowing -the wine to remain longer in contact with the finings and other -sediment, it will contract the disagreeable flavors already alluded -to, which may be avoided by pressing the lees after the first three or -four rackings; and an excellent result is obtained by using a filter -press after the first racking, and the wine obtained will have no bad -taste. - -The pressing is performed in small sacks about eighteen inches long. -They should be made of cotton cloth, as those made from hemp, even -after being used several times, give a disagreeable flavor to the wines -passed through them. - -It is not necessary to provide more than sacks enough for one cask of -lees. The cloth of which they are made should be fine, and of close and -regular texture. - -To make a cheap press, one head of a cask is removed, and the pieces of -this head are fastened together by nailing on two cross pieces to keep -it in form, and enough of the wood around the edge is removed to allow -it to pass freely into the cask as a follower. The cask is then placed -upright, and a hole is bored in one of the staves close to the lower -head, into which is placed a faucet. This cask, which is to contain -the sacks, may be placed high enough to allow the wine to run from the -faucet directly into the bung of another cask to hold the wine. If the -casks containing the lees are placed on a horse or platform, the latter -may be run from the faucet-hole directly into the sacks, which may be -fastened to the chime with small hooks, and be kept open with the hand -or a small hoop. A dish should be placed under before withdrawing the -spigot. Or, to avoid fouling the outside of the sack with the lees, -they may first be run into a tub, and dipped into the sacks, the tub -being provided with a sack-holder. As soon as a sack is sufficiently -filled, it should be strongly tied with a bow-knot which can be easily -untied, and laid in the cask provided; and a few small sticks should be -placed over the inner end of the faucet so that it may not be stopped -by a sack coming in contact with it. Sacks are placed in the cask till -it is full. The faucet is left open, so that the wine, as fast as -filtered, may run through a hose into a well washed and well sulphured -cask, placed in position to receive it. - -When the cask is full of sacks, the cover is placed on them and they -are allowed to drain for several hours, weights being gradually placed -upon the cover or follower. Further pressure is applied by means of a -lever rigged for the purpose, one end made firm, and the other having -weights attached. - -It is best that the pressure be gradually applied, leaving the sacks to -drain for several hours, then applying the lever, but loading it with -weights several hours later, or the next day. - -When the wine no longer runs, say twenty-four hours after loading the -lever, the sacks are removed. - -If the lees are not very thick, but little will be found in the sacks, -and they may be refilled without removing it, and subjected to a second -pressure. Then they must be thoroughly washed with water. Lye should -not be used. - -Where large quantities of lees are to be pressed, larger presses may be -used, vats being employed instead of casks. - -It is impossible to obtain all the wine by simple filtration without -pressure, owing to the fact that the filters soon become foul, and the -wine ceases to pass through. - -If the first wine which runs off is turbid, it may be put by itself, -and the clear wine caught separately. It is apt to run turbid when -additional weight is applied. - -=Use of Dry Lees.=—They have a certain value, and after being removed -from the sacks they may be sold to the manufacturers of cream of -tartar, if they are _virgin lees_. Lees from fined wines are of little -value for this purpose. They may be dried on well-aired floors, or in -the sun. They are also used for the production of pearlash by burning -them. The ash produced is of a greenish gray color, and is crude -pearlash. Good lees, perfectly dry, produce about 30 per cent. of this -alkali. - -Lees are also valuable as a fertilizer. Those from sweet wine contain -considerable sugar, which may be utilized by fermenting and distilling -the alcohol produced. This, however, will render them less valuable for -making cream of tartar, a portion of which will be dissolved by washing. - - -MARC, OR POMACE—PIQUETTE. - -=Marc, or Pomace=, is the residue remaining in the vat after the -fermentation of red wine, or in the press, in making white wine. After -being pressed, it is used in many parts of France to make a weak wine -called _piquette_, for the use of the laborers. For this purpose are -utilized all the soluble principles remaining in the marc, by the -following treatment: - -=1. The Unfermented Pomace of White or of Red Wine not Entirely -Fermented=, is well broken and crumbled up so as to finely divide it, -and introduced into tuns, which are then completely filled with water, -or into a fermenting vat, adding double its weight of water. After -giving it a thorough stirring and mixing, the first piquette is drawn -off. After a maceration of three or four days, renewing the water -several times, the saccharine matter and soluble salts which the marc -contains are completely removed. Piquette is fermented in casks and -cared for like new wine. The weakest is first consumed. - -Or the marc may be pressed and put into barrels, keeping it in as solid -a mass as possible; the surface is then covered with sand and the casks -closed air-tight. Piquette may then be made as needed, using the marc -of one cask, washing with water till it is exhausted. - -=2. The Fermented Marc of Red Wine= is treated as follows: After -pressing, it is immediately put into a large vat. Double its weight -of water is added, and after a complete stirring, it is allowed to -macerate one or two days at most. The first piquette is then drained -off, and water is put in several times till the soluble matters are -removed. - -Pressed marc is also used for forage, mixing it with half the quantity -of hay. - -As for making wine from marc by adding sweetened water. (See _Watering -and Sugaring Must_.) - -The following method of washing the marc is from an article on the -Distillation of Marc, by J. Pezeyre, printed in _Le Parfait Vigneron, -Almanach du Moniteur Vinicole_, 1881: - -Six vats or barrels are set up side by side, each provided with a -faucet, and a movable cover. The faucet is protected inside, as in the -case of the ordinary fermenting vat. - -To thoroughly exhaust the marc, it should be washed with six times its -weight of water, or 100 lbs. of pomace require 72 gallons of water. - -The vats being arranged, are charged with marc, which is pressed down -till it fills the vat to within about ten inches of the top. The marc -is kept submerged in the usual way, by a false, perforated head. - -The first vat is filled with cold water, and left to rest for two -hours. The liquid is then drawn off and filled into vat No. 2. No. 1 is -then refilled with fresh water. When the liquid in No. 2 has remained -for two hours, it is drawn off and put into No. 3. No. 1 is then -emptied into No. 2, and filled with water a third time. The maceration -in No. 3 having continued for two hours, its liquid is drawn off and -poured into No. 4; No. 3 is filled from No. 2, and this from No. 1, -which is filled the fourth time with water. No. 5 is filled from No. 4, -and each vat is filled from the preceding one, until No. 1 has received -in water six times the weight of the marc contained in it. - -The liquid from No. 5 is poured into No. 6, and after two hours is -drawn from this last vat into the still. - -When the wine has been drawn from the last vat, the marc in No. 1 -having been washed six times with its weight of water, is exhausted of -all its alcohol. It is then refilled with marc, and becomes No. 6 of -the series, and is filled with the liquid from No. 5. Each number is -thereby carried around the circle, becoming successively No. 6. - -In this way the pomace is, little by little, deprived of its alcohol, -and the liquid coming from No. 6 is rich in spirit, and when delivered -to the still is nearly equal in strength to the original wine. - -When there is but little marc to operate upon, the liquid may be drawn -off into buckets, and so filled into the vats; but time and labor may -be saved by using a pump and hose. - - - - -CHAPTER XIX. - -THE COMPOSITION OF WINE. - - -=Generally.=—Wine is not only composed of alcohol and water, which -are the two most prominent ingredients, but a great number of other -substances have been recognized, and others still are supposed to -exist. Some substances which are found in one wine may not exist in -another, or it may exist in a greater or less quantity. We know that -alcohol, water, and acids exist in all wines, in varying quantities; -that some are sweet, and contain sugar, and that others are dry, -thoroughly fermented, and contain none. We also know that the alcohol -in different wines may vary from 4 or 5 per cent. in piquette made -by washing the pomace with water, to 20 or 25 per cent. in the more -strongly fortified. And we know generally how a wine is modified as -to its taste and effect on the system, by such substances as water, -alcohol, sugar, and acid; but there are many substances whose effect -is but little known, and others again only known by their effects. The -science of chemistry has not yet been able to lay hold of them. - -=Substances Recognized.=—The following table from Maumené indicates -the different substances contained in different wines, the letter F -indicating those produced by fermentation, the others existing in -the juice of the grape. It will be observed that the amount of acid -tartrate of potash (cream of tartar) mentioned is 5.5 grammes per litre -at most, and this is the quantity contained in a new wine, old wines -containing only one or two grammes per litre, and even less. This salt -is contained in the grapes, and is soluble in water, but insoluble in -alcohol, and, therefore, the greater part of it is precipitated as the -alcohol increases by fermentation, and is deposited with the lees. The -Report of the University of California, Department of Agriculture, -referred to in the preface, shows the amount contained in different -California wines and their lees. - - Grammes. - {Water 9 volumes, 900 to 891 - {Common Alcohol (Absolute or Pure), F. 1 volume, 80 to 79 - {Other Alcohols (Butyric, Amylic, etc.) F.} - {Aldehydes (several?) F.} - {Ethers (Acetic, Butyric, œnanthic, etc.), } - { contributing principally to the bouquet F.} - {Essential Oils (several) } - {Grape Sugar (Dextrose and Levulose) } - {Mannite F.} - {Mucilage, Gum, and Dextrin } - {Pectin } - {Coloring Matters (œnocyanine) } - {Fatty Matters (and Wax?) } - {Glycerin F.} - {Nitrogenous Matters (Albumin, Gliadin, etc.) } - { Ferments } - { } - { {Acid Tartrate of Potash } - Neutral { { (5.5 grammes at most) } - Bodies. { { Neutral Tartrate of Lime } - { { “ “ Ammonia } - { { {Acid Tartrate of Alumina } - { { { (simple, or with Potash.) } - { {Vegetable.{Acid Tartrate of Iron (simple, } - { { { or with Potash.) } - { { {Racemates } - { { {Acetates, Propionates, } - { { { Butyrates, Lactates, etc. F.} 20-30 - { Salts.{ } - { { {Sulphates } } - { { {Nitrates } } - { {Mineral. {Phosphates} With a base of } - { { {Silicates } Potash, Soda, Lime,} - { { {Chlorides } Magnesia, Alumina, } - { { {Bromides } Oxide of Iron, } - { {Iodides } Ammonia } - { {Fluorides } } - { } - } - {Carbonic (2.5 grammes at most) F.} - {Tartaric and Racemic (Gluco-tartaric?) } - {Malic } - {Citric } - Free {Tannic } - Acids. {Metapectic F.} - {Acetic F.} - {Lactic F.} - {Succinic F.} - {Butyric F.}————————— - {Valeric? F.}1000-1000 - -A few of the more important ones will be briefly noticed. - -=Alcohol= is considerably lighter than water, and from the specific -gravity of any mixture of alcohol and pure water, the quantity of -spirit contained in it can readily be ascertained. (See Table IV.) - -[Illustration: _Fig. 43._ French Still.] - -=To Ascertain the Alcoholic Strength of Wine=, if it consisted of a -mixture of water and alcohol alone, it would only be necessary to learn -its specific gravity; but as all wines contain other substances which -affect the weight of the liquid, it becomes necessary to separate the -alcohol from the other matters by distillation; then by adding water -enough to make up the original volume of the wine assayed, we will have -simply a mixture of alcohol and water. - -Small stills are sold in the market, with the necessary instruments -accompanying them, with which to perform the operation. In the -accompanying figure (43), which shows a French still, _L_ is a spirit -lamp, _B_ a glass boiler with a perforated stopper, _S_ a worm, -contained in the cooler _D_, which is kept filled with cold water, -as a condenser; _t_ is a rubber tube connecting the boiler with the -condenser, tightly fitted to the stopper of the former, and also to -the end of the worm. _E_ is a small hydrometer-jar, of glass, with a -foot, for measuring the wine to be distilled, and for catching the -distillate as it runs from the worm. It has three marks—the upper -one, _m_, indicating the height to which it is to be filled with the -wine, and also a ½ mark and a ⅓ mark. Sometimes it is provided with -a groove along one side to carry the thermometer. _A_ represents -the hydrometer, or alcoholometer, being a spindle, usually of glass, -similar in form to the saccharometer (_which see_), except that the -zero mark to which the alcoholometer sinks in distilled water, is at -the lower end of the stem, and the degrees are numbered from zero to -the upper end, each figure representing one per cent. of alcohol. _T_ -is a thermometer, in its place in the jar with the hydrometer; _t′_ is -a small glass pipette to assist in filling the jar just to the mark. - -To make use of the instruments, measure in the jar, _E_, the wine to -be distilled, by filling it up exactly to the upper mark, _m_, using -the pipette, _t′_, by which a little of the liquid can be sucked up, -and let out, drop by drop, by increasing and diminishing the pressure -of the finger applied to the upper opening. The wine so measured is -poured into the boiler, _B_, draining out the last drop, or the little -remaining may be rinsed out with a little water, which is poured into -the boiler with the wine without affecting the result. The boiler is -then placed over the lamp and connected with the condenser by means of -the rubber tube, and the condenser filled with cold water. Light the -lamp, and place the now empty jar under the lower end of the worm. The -vapor of the alcohol first passing from the boiler through the rubber -tube into the condenser, will there condense, and the liquid running -from the worm into the test tube will be almost pure alcohol, but as -the process goes on, more and more water comes out with the alcohol, -till the spirit has all passed over. If the strength of the wine -does not exceed 14 or 15 per cent., the alcohol will all have passed -over when one-third of the wine has been distilled, as will be shown -when the distillate reaches the ⅓ mark on the glass. If the strength -exceeds the above limit, one-half of the wine should be distilled. If, -therefore, on testing the wine, it is found to contain 16 per cent. -or more of spirit, and only one-third was distilled, another quantity -should be distilled, and about one-half allowed to pass over. It is -always safer, unless the wine is very weak, to distil over a little -more than a third. If you are operating on a wine which foams to such -an extent that a portion may pass through the tube into the condenser, -which would spoil the effect of the operation, this may be prevented -by putting into the boiler with the wine a pinch of tannic acid. In -operating on a wine which contains an appreciable amount of acetic -acid—is pricked—the acid ought to be neutralized before distillation, -as it is volatile, and will go over with the alcohol and effect the -result. This is easily done by adding to the wine caustic soda in -drops, till it completely changes color, red wine becoming blue, and -white wine, brown. These precautions, however, are generally omitted in -analyses for commercial purposes. - -When the distillation is complete, add to the distillate sufficient -pure water (distilled water if possible), to make up the exact volume -of wine measured. To do this, take the jar containing the distillate -and hold it perpendicular, with the upper mark on a level with the eye, -and carefully let in the water, drop by drop, by means of the pipette. -The surface of the liquid will be seen to curve upward, owing to the -attraction of the glass, and the tube should be filled till the bottom -of the curve touches the mark; and the same precaution should be taken -in measuring the wine in the first place. - -Now we have a mixture corresponding in volume with the wine, and -containing all the alcohol originally contained in the wine, and a -certain amount of water, and nothing else. - -As the density of the liquid also depends upon the temperature, it -becomes necessary to have a fixed standard at which the test is made, -and this is 60° F. in this country, and I believe in all countries -except France, where it is 15° C., or 59° F. As the temperature affects -the volume, it is better to adjust it by cooling the distillate before -adding the last few drops of water, which may be done by dipping the -jar into cold water, or if it is too cold, by warming it with the hand. - -The hydrometer used will be adjusted to a temperature of 60° F., or 15° -C., which is generally shown by directions accompanying the still, or -will be marked on the instrument. Let the hydrometer be perfectly clean -and dry, no moisture on the stem. Take the tip of the stem between -the thumb and forefinger and lower it into the distillate till it -floats, press it down with the finger very slightly, and let it come to -equilibrium. Place the eye on a level with the surface of the liquid, -and see where it cuts the stem, and the mark shows the percentage of -alcohol contained in the wine. Remember that the mark to be taken is -the one corresponding with the general surface of the liquid, not the -top of the meniscus, or curve. With care, a result can be obtained -sufficiently accurate for all commercial purposes. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 44._ Monitor Still.] - -A table is usually sold with these stills, showing the corrections -for different temperatures, so that by its use the reduction of the -temperature to the standard may be avoided. - -Fig. 44 represents a still made in New York, called the Monitor Still. - -=Ethers= are formed by alcohol in presence of the different acids -contained in the wine, and they take names corresponding to the acids, -occurring as compound ethers, the most common one being acetic ether. -They have a powerful and characteristic odor, known as the etherous -odor, which is somewhat disagreeable in the pure ether, but becomes -agreeable and resembles the aroma of fruit and flowers when greatly -diluted. - -Among the important ethers contained in wine is _Oenanthic ether_, -which is said to give to wine its characteristic vinous smell, which -distinguishes it from any other fermented liquor. - -=Sugar= is contained in many wines, especially sweet wines, and -exercises an important influence upon the flavor. - -=To Estimate Sugar.=—The quantity of sugar contained in a sweet wine -may be estimated with sufficient accuracy, for commercial purposes, -in the following manner. A certain quantity of wine is measured in -the jar, and distilled in the same manner as in the estimation of -alcohol (_which see_), or the wine may be placed in a shallow dish on -a stove or over a lamp, and boiled slowly till the volume is reduced -one-half, when the alcohol will be all evaporated; then the original -volume should be restored by adding water. After it has rested for -a day or so, the greater part of the salts will crystallize and be -deposited, when the sugar strength can be ascertained by the use of the -saccharometer, in the usual way (_see page 8_). One degree, however, -should be deducted from the hydrometer reading. - -=Mannite=, or the essential principle of _manna_, is produced in wine -when sugar undergoes _viscous fermentation_. Its flavor is similar to -that of sugar, and its composition is but little different from that of -the same substance. - -=Mucilage.=—The grand red wines of the Médoc, and of some other -portions of the Gironde, and also the grand wines of Burgundy, says -Boireau, preserve in aging a pronounced fruity taste, an unctuosity, a -velvety mellowness, which, joined with their flavor and bouquet, make -these wines in good years the delight of the _gourmets_. This velvety -mellowness is found only in those seasons when the grapes ripen well. -In poor years, when the grapes do not become completely ripe, the -wines may have at times more or less distinctive flavor (_séve_), and -sometimes even a little bouquet, but they are dry, and the mellowness -is wanting. - -Many ordinary wines possess while young, if they have been well made, -and are produced in favorable years, a marked fruity flavor; but in the -greater part of the wines of this kind, this mellowness does not last, -and disappears gradually with age, while in the grand wines of good -years, the unctuosity is more appreciable after the defecation of their -lees than while they are new. - -The substance which in a measure produces this quality is called -_mucilage_ by Maumené and some others. Others, again, have given -it different names. Maumené says that it seems to be a sort of -intermediary substance between _cellulose_ and _dextrin_, and that its -nature is not yet known, but that it is a near neighbor of sugar. - -Mr. Boireau believes that the mellowness is produced by a modification -of grape sugar, because, when not properly cared for, mellow wines -undergo an insensible fermentation, especially if they are in their -first and second years, and still contain ferments. Very often at the -end of these secondary fermentations, the unctuosity has disappeared, -and the wines have become dry. It seems, accordingly, that the -substance is capable of undergoing the same transformations as sugar -under the influence of ferments and heat. - -=Pectose= is found in green grapes and other fruits, and by the acids -is changed into _pectin_, which is the gelatinizing principle, is -soluble in water, and may have some effect on the mellowness of wine. -Alcohol precipitates it in the form of jelly. - -=Fatty Matters= have been found in wine lees, which may be extracted -from the seeds by long contact during fermentation, for it is known -that the seeds yield such matters. - -=Glycerin= is mentioned among fatty matters, but it is known to be -produced by the fermentation of sugar, and is supposed to have its -influence on the flavor of wine. - -=The Coloring Matter= of red wine has received the name of -_œnocyanine_. In its pure state it is blue, but is changed to red by -acids. The yellow and brown color of some white wines is due to the -oxidation of some of the matters contained in them. The change of -color in red wines is also due to the oxidation of the tannic acid, -thereby forming an insoluble compound, tannomelanic acid, which is -precipitated, carrying down the œnocyanine, and the wine gradually -becomes tawny. - -=Aldehydes= are produced first in the transformation of alcohol into -an acid by oxidation, acetaldehyde occurring between alcohol and -acetic acid, as mentioned in Acetic Fermentation. When a weak wine is -exposed to the air it is gradually converted into vinegar, or acetic -acid. If free access of air is permitted, it may be converted at once -into acetic acid, but if the access of the air is very limited, or if -the wine is rich and strong, oxidation stops at the first stage, and -aldehyde is formed. It is a colorless liquid of a very suffocating -smell, having an etherous odor, and is supposed to have an important -influence on the flavor and bouquet of various wines. The strong wines -of southern countries which are kept in casks in ullage, exposed to the -action of the oxygen of the air, develop a certain amount of aldehyde -in time, and it is supposed that sherry owes some of its qualities to -this substance. - -=Acids.=—We can only allude briefly to the acids which have been -recognized in wines. The principal one is _tartaric acid_, found in -considerable quantities in grapes, and is contained in the argols, or -crude cream of tartar, _bitartrate of potash_, which is deposited on -the inner walls of the casks in which the wine is kept. This substance -principally gives the acid taste to wine. - -=Malic Acid=, or the acid of apples, is found; and of _citric acid_, or -the acid of lemons, traces have been recognized; also _pectic acid_, -derived from the pectose. - -=Tannic Acid= is a very important ingredient in wine, and is frequently -mentioned in this work. (See _Fining, Tannin_.) - -=Carbonic Acid.=—It has been shown in the chapter on Fermentation -that carbon dioxide is the gas produced by fermentation. This gas, -CO₂, was known to the old chemists as carbonic acid, or carbonic acid -gas, and the latter terms are frequently used in this work in the -sense of carbon dioxide, in accordance with common usage. But modern -chemistry teaches us that carbon dioxide, CO₂, is not an acid at all, -but in connection with water it takes up a molecule of the latter, -and becomes H₂CO₃, carbonic acid proper. The gas, however, as well -as the acid, exists in all wines, and to the former, sparkling wines -owe their effervescence. Its presence is important, exercising a -preservative effect by preventing their oxidation, and also by keeping -in dissolution substances which would otherwise cloud the wine. When -the wine is first fermented it is saturated with carbon dioxide, -and while it remains so, oxygen will not be absorbed, and hence its -preservative effect. Mr. Maumené even recommends resort to artificial -means to restore it, or to re-saturate the wine in case of its loss. -If, however, the precautions heretofore indicated for keeping table -wines are observed, the wine will be well preserved. - -=Acetic Acid= is the result of oxidation, or _acetic fermentation_ -(_which see_), and _lactic acid_ is derived from _lactic fermentation_, -but is regarded as accidental in wine, probably not existing in the -must, though it is found in some wines made from grapes which have been -bruised and broken a long time before using. - -=Butyric Acid= is the product of _butyric fermentation_. - -=Valeric Acid= is supposed to exist in wine from the distinctive odor -which is smelt in it under certain conditions. - -=Succinic Acid= has been referred to as one of the products of -alcoholic fermentation. - -=The Total Acids= in wine vary a good deal, but four or five per mille -is a fair average. - -Space will not permit of more details on the various substances -contained in wine, but those who desire further information are -referred to the work of Maumené in French, and that of Thudichum and -Dupré in English. - -=The Bouquet= proper of wines is a perfume containing different odors, -like that of a bouquet of flowers. It is very complex also in its -origin, and the matters contained in the wine which give rise to it are -but little known. It is variable, being different in different wines, -and all the odorous matters doubtless contribute to its existence, -such as œnanthic, and other ethers, the different alcohols, aldehydes, -and perhaps even certain essential oils. The varieties of grapes, the -season, and the soil, also have their effect, as well as the method of -vinification. It is believed, however, that the bouquet is principally -due to the ethers. - -=Artificial Bouquet.=—In this connection, the experiments of Mr. -Maumené will be found interesting. He prepared one litre of a liquid -similar to wine, but without a sensible odor, by adding distilled water -to the distillate from a red wine of Bordeaux. - -One drop of _aldehyde_ produced no appreciable odor. - -Six drops of _acetic ether_ produced no sensible effect. - -Nor did _crystallized acetic acid_ change the result. - -He then added 5 grs. 5 of _cream of tartar_, 0 gr. 18 of _succinic -acid_, and 20 grs. of _glycerin_, without producing any odor in the -liquid. - -On adding certain ethers a remarkable change was produced. - -By adding two small drops of _œnanthic ether_ (obtained by distilling -fresh wine lees), the liquid instantly gave an odor of wine. - -Then he added, drop by drop, one cubic centimetre (1000th part by -measure) of essence of pears, that is, the following mixture: - - 1 volume of valero-amylic ether. - 6 volumes of alcohol of 36 per cent. - -The first drops developed a bouquet which belongs to certain wines; -but by adding the whole amount mentioned, a pear odor was developed, -by which the liquid could be easily distinguished from wine. So he -prepared another litre of the liquid containing the same substances, -and added only two or three drops of essence of pears. He then added -two drops of ordinary butyric ether, and the bouquet resembled in a -remarkable degree that of a good Bouzy wine, and several persons took -it for a decolored wine. By varying the experiment, the bouquet of -wines can be imitated in a remarkable manner. - -For those who are curious in such matters, I translate the following -from Boireau: - -Artificial bouquets are produced by aromatic substances, or essential -oils, whose aroma is extracted or dissolved out by the help of alcohol. -The aromatic principle may be extracted either by a simple alcoholic -tincture, by digestion or distillation, by dissolving the oils -themselves, etc., and the process varies with the substance used. - -The aromatic substances most frequently employed to produce artificial -bouquets in non-fortified wines, commencing with those which form -the base and whose aromas are more dominant, are: iris, strawberry, -gillyflower, the flower of the vine, mignonette, nutmeg, bitter almond, -fruit pits, sassafras, etc. The latter are rarely employed alone, -and play a secondary part by mixing with the two first, iris and -strawberry, whose aromas are quite distinctive. - -=Iris.=—There are two varieties of this. The roots only are employed; -they are white, of an average diameter of 0 m. 02 (¾ in.), and of a -very irregular form. They are sold in pieces about 0 m. 05 (2 in.) -long, with the rootlets removed. They are largely employed in perfumery. - -The root of the so-called Florence iris, which grows in Italy and the -south of France, has a pronounced violet odor. Another variety, which -grows in the north of France and in Germany, is sold under the name of -German iris. An experienced person can distinguish the two. - -The perfume of the iris is with difficulty and incompletely extracted -by distillation; it is obtained by infusing the roots in alcohol, after -first reducing them to a powder by means of a grater. The operation -is long, but indispensable. The powder occurs in commerce, but in -that form the roots lose their aroma, and it is moreover liable to be -adulterated. - -The tincture is prepared in the following proportions: old spirit -of wine of 85 per cent., 10 litres (2½ gallons); Florence iris, 1 -kilogramme (2⅕ lb.), reduced to powder. - -Bung or cork the vessel containing it, stir it about for a few minutes, -and then put it in a place of at least 68° F., but which does not go -beyond 95°. Shake it occasionally during two weeks, and then press and -filter it. - -The tincture has a pronounced violet odor, and a harsh, bitter -after-taste. - -It may be employed alone, in a very small dose, rarely exceeding 5 -centilitres per hectolitre (13½ fluidrams to 26½ gallons). Oftener, -however, a few drops of the essential oil of gillyflower, etc., are -mixed with it. - -=Strawberry.=—The preparation of an alcoholic infusion of strawberries -is very simple. Take fully ripe berries, pick them over and hull them, -and put them in a keg with a large bung. Ten kilogrammes of fruit to -12 litres of old spirits of wine of 85 per cent. (22 lbs. to 3⅛ gals.) -are used. After macerating for twenty-four hours, the liquor is drawn -off and filtered. It is a rose-colored liquor of a very pleasant aroma. -Then the fruit is crushed, and brandy of 50 per cent. is added, and -the whole is allowed to macerate for a month, and then the marc is -pressed. The second tincture has an odor and flavor inferior to the -first, and has more color. It is filtered, or what is better, distilled -in a water bath. In the latter way spirit of strawberry is obtained. -It is preferable to employ the liquor of the first infusion. This -aroma is generally used alone, and is much employed in the manufacture -of sparkling wines. Sometimes a small quantity of other aromatic -substances are added, allowing the strawberry to predominate. It is the -best modifier of the aroma of young wines. - -The dose varies according to the degree of the aroma, from 2 to 10 -centilitres per hectolitre (⅛ to ⅚ of a gill, or 5.4 to 27 fluidrams to -26.4 gals.) - -=Gillyflower, or Stockgilly.=—The essential oil of this flower may be -extracted by pressure, by maceration, or by distillation, and is found -in commerce. To make the bouquet, the oil is used, or the concentrated -essence, which is produced by the distillation of the bruised flowers -with alcohol of 85 per cent., in the proportion of 300 grammes of -the flowers to 5 litres of alcohol (10½ oz. to 5¼ quarts). In the -absence of an alembic, the aroma may be extracted by infusion, as in -the case of iris, by macerating 100 grammes of the bruised flowers -to 1 litre of alcohol of 85 per cent. (3½ oz. to a quart) for eight -days, and filtering. Gillyflower is rarely used alone; but by adding -a very small quantity of it to iris, a good effect is produced, and -the perfume becomes more intimately mixed with the wine, for the oil -of gillyflower is heavier than water; but this aroma should never -predominate, and is best for old wines without bouquet. - -=Vine Flowers= are gathered and the petals infused in alcohol of 85 -per cent., in the proportion of 100 grammes of flowers to 5 litres of -alcohol (3½ oz. to 5¼ quarts). After macerating for eight days, it is -distilled in a water bath. This aroma, which is very volatile, is used -in the dose of 5 centilitres to a hectolitre (13.5 fluidrams to 26.4 -gals.) - -=Mignonette.=—The perfume of the mignonette, like that of many -other flowers, is obtained by picking the flowers from their stems, -bruising them, and placing them upon layers of cotton or pieces of -linen impregnated with fresh oil, or other sweet fats; oil of ben is -preferred. The flowers are renewed every four hours, till the cotton -or the cloth is charged with perfume. The oil or fat is removed by -pressure or otherwise, and the essential oil is dissolved out with -alcohol of 85 per cent., which is afterwards separated from the fixed -oil, and filtered. The extract of mignonette so obtained is employed -in the proportion of 1 to 5 centilitres to a hectolitre (2.7 to 13.5 -fluidrams to 26.4 gals.) but oftener it is mixed with other perfumes. - -=Nutmeg= is employed in the form of spirit distilled from the nuts over -the fire, 500 grammes of nuts to 10 litres of alcohol (1 lb. to 10½ -quarts), or in the form of a tincture made with the same proportions -of nuts and alcohol, or a small quantity of the essential oil is mixed -with other aromatic substances. This preparation, particularly the -tincture or the distilled spirit, has a good effect. Being heavier than -water, it assists the mixture. - -=Bitter Almonds and Fruit Pits.=—Their oil is found in commerce, and -its aroma is due to the hydrocyanic (prussic) acid contained in it, -which is poisonous, and therefore the oil should be employed in the -smallest doses. - -=Sassafras.=—The essential oil is extracted from the wood and bark by -distillation, and can be purchased in the market. It is heavier than -wine, and fixes the lighter perfumes. It is used only secondarily, and -in very small quantities. - -=Other Aromas= have been tried, but they can only be used as auxiliary -to the three first named, iris, gillyflower, and strawberry, because -their odors differ essentially from the natural bouquet of mellow wines. - -=Effects.=—These preparations give wines a bouquet or aroma which -partakes of the substances employed, but they do not give the -distinctive flavor (_séve_) which characterizes fine wines, and the -result only flatters the sense of smell. These perfumes are very -volatile, and it does not require a very delicate or a much experienced -palate to distinguish them from the natural bouquet of wine, and -persons of delicate sensibilities are disturbed by them, if too -pronounced. - -When a wine has been artificially perfumed, it still preserves its -taste and earthy flavor; it has simply changed its odor. Taste it -without smelling, and its distinctive flavor will be recognized. Mr. -Boireau says that, notwithstanding the contrary announcements of -interested manufacturers, they are not preserved like the natural -bouquets and flavors, but, little by little, they become enfeebled, and -are volatilized with time. - -He says that the trade is inundated with the announcements of pretended -œnologists, chemists, etc., manufacturers of bouquets decorated with -such pompous names as Médoc Flavoring (_Séve du Médoc_), Bouquet of -Bordeaux, of Pomard, Bordeaux Extract, etc., and all these humbugs are -advertised as giving the most ordinary wines the true Médoc flavor, -etc., which, happily for the producers of Médoc, cannot be done. - -It is better, as stated in the chapter on _Cutting Wines_, to improve -wines by mixing them with those having expansible flavors and odors, -rather than use these artificial bouquets. - - - - -CHAPTER XX. - -GENERAL CHAPTER—MISCELLANEOUS. - - -=The Proportion of Juice to Marc=, as stated in Thudichum and Dupré’s -work, has been found in various grapes as follows: - -White Chasselas, stems removed, gave by strong pressure, 97 per cent. -of juice; marc of skins and seeds, 3 per cent. - -Black Pinot grapes, stems removed, gave 94.8 per cent. of juice, and -5.2 per cent. of marc. - -Black Pinot, pressed with the stems, gave 91.8 per cent. of juice, and -8.2 per cent. of marc, including stems. - -Black Pinot, fermented with the stems and then pressed, gave 69.6 per -cent. of wine, and 30.4 per cent. of marc. - -In the latter case much wine is absorbed by the stems, which cannot be -removed by pressure. - -In the first three cases the pressure must have been such as to reduce -the marc to near dryness to obtain so high a percentage of juice. - -In the report of the work done in the Viticultural Laboratory of the -University, referred to in the preface, the following figures are -found, and are extracted from Table No. 1 of the report. Omitting the -two extremes—Feher Szagos, 203.2, and Lenoir, 118—we obtain the average -of 157 gallons of grape juice per ton of 2000 lbs. in twelve white -wines, and 174.8 gallons per ton in twelve red wines; the word “red” -being used in the table to designate the product obtained by fermenting -white grapes with the skins and seeds, as well as to designate “red -wine” proper. - -The report says: “The red wines, of course, produce very much less -pomace, which consists largely of skins and seeds only. The white -pomace has much more of the pulp of the grape, and consequently a much -larger amount of water. During the fermentation the internal structure -of the grape is destroyed, the sugar is fermented out, and only the -fibrous structure remains; even this is to a great extent broken up, -and runs out with the wine when pressed.” - - =================+=====+========+=======+======+======+=======+======= - | | | | | | |Gallons - | | Weight | | | Air- | |of Must - |Color|(pounds)| | |dried |Gallons|per ton - NAME. | of | of |Pomace,|Stems,|Pomace| of | of - |Wine.| Grapes.| % | % | % | Must.|Grapes - -----------------+-----+--------+-------+------+------+-------+------- - Mission-just ripe| Red | 71.75 | 13.50 | 3.05 | — | 6.38 | 177.8 - “ fully “ |White| 106.50 | 18.30 | 3.75 | — | 9.20 | 172.6 - “ “ “ | Red | 101.00 | 11.63 | 3.96 | — | 8.98 | 177.8 - “ |White| 85.80 | 24.10 | 3.07 | 8.71 | 6.84 | 159.4 - “ | Red | 73.92 | 12.20 | 2.91 | 5.26 | 6.30 | 170.5 - Zinfandel |White| 84.00 | 27.30 | 5.75 | — | 6.20 | 147.6 - “ | Red | 126.00 | 13.40 | 5.55 | — | 11.00 | 174.6 - “ |White| 87.78 | 29.07 | 4.51 | 7.31 | 6.32 | 144.0 - “ | Red | 84.26 | 10.96 | 4.02 | 4.94 | 7.30 | 173.4 - Malvoisie |White| 116.00 | 18.10 | 2.58 | — | 9.90 | 170.6 - “ | Red | 151.00 | 10.92 | 2.65 | — | 14.30 | 189.4 - Charbono |White| 97.00 | 30.92 | 6.18 | — | 7.00 | 144.2 - Burger |White| 74.00 | 22.00 | .97 | — | 6.40 | 172.8 - “ |“Red”| 95.00 | 12.10 | 7.36 | — | 8.25 | 173.6 - Chasselas |White| 103.84 | 31.35 | 2.96 | 5.93 | 7.47 | 143.8 - “ |“Red”| 70.40 | 13.75 | 2.92 | 3.74 | 5.97 | 169.6 - Golden Chasselas |“Red”| 139.70 | 12.28 | 4.56 | 3.15 | 12.90 | 184.6 - Prolific |White| 95.04 | 23.15 | 3.70 | 7.76 | 7.54 | 158.6 - “ |“Red”| 86.24 | 11.73 | 3.57 | 4.24 | 7.30 | 169.2 - Black Prince |White| 108.24 | 25.60 | 5.18 | 9.01 | 8.13 | 150.2 - “ “ | Red | 103.40 | 15.74 | 4.46 | 5.21 | 8.54 | 165.2 - Feher Szagos |White| 92.40 | 25.95 | 2.14 | 4.89 | 7.47 | 161.8 - “ “ | Red | 77.99 | 9.01 | 2.28 | 2.55 | 7.93 | 203.2 - Mataro |White| 131.67 | 21.40 | 6.69 | 6.26 | 10.46 | 158.9 - “ | Red | 90.20 | 12.19 | 5.60 | 5.02 | 7.76 | 172.0 - Lenoir | Red | 33.00 | 17.30 | 6.00 | 8.50 | 1.96 | 118.7 - =================+=====+========+=======+======+======+=======+======= - -This table contradicts the opinion held by some wine makers, that the -Mission grape yields a larger percentage of stems than other varieties. -The five lots of Mission grapes analyzed give an average of nearly 3.35 -per cent. of stems, which is less than the yield of every other variety -mentioned, except Malvoisie, Chasselas, and Feher Szagos. - -=The Proportion of Wine to Grapes.=—It is generally said that it takes -about 12 lbs. of grapes to produce a gallon of wine; some give the -number of pounds as low as 10; the product, however, is must, or new -wine, for nothing is taken into consideration for loss by evaporation, -etc., while aging. Some wine dealers here consider that it takes about -17 lbs. of grapes to produce a gallon of wine ready for consumption. - -At a meeting of the St. Helena Vinicultural Club, Napa Valley, in this -State, the following facts were stated, as reported in the newspapers. -Mr. Krug said that he had always thought that 14 lbs. of grapes would -give a gallon of good wine at the time of the second racking in March, -April, or May. Mr. Scheffler said he had made last year 135.6 gallons -of wine and 8 gallons of brandy to the ton of grapes. Counting each -gallon of brandy as equal to 5 of wine, it was equal to about 176 -gallons of wine. That was about the average of Riesling, Chasselas, -Zinfandel, Malvoisie, etc. The general average was 136 gallons of wine -and 8 of brandy, or 125 gallons of good wine and 10 of brandy. Mr. -Heyman said he was glad to get 145 gallons of clear, marketable wine -on the average. Mr. Pellet said that the very best grapes would make -150 gallons of wine at the first racking, and this is probably a fair -average. - -=Wooden and Metal Utensils.=—In European countries, and in all properly -ordered wine cellars, wooden utensils are used wherever practicable; -and it ought to be impressed upon the mind of every one who has -anything to do with the handling of the liquid, that metal should -never come in contact with wine, if it can be avoided, except it be -a precious metal like silver. The reason is that wine, on account of -the acids contained in it, has a powerful effect upon lead, copper, -zinc, iron, etc. Whenever such a metal is exposed to the influence -of the air, and of an acid liquor, the metal is readily oxidized, -and the oxide combines with the acid to form a salt. Therefore, Mr. -Maumene says that it is dangerous to keep wine for a few hours in -vessels of copper or lead, on account of the poisonous effects of their -compounds. It is bad even to leave it in iron, zinc, or tin. Among the -acids contained in wine, that which is the most capable of causing -oxidation of the metals is the tartaric acid and the crude tartar. So -the principal salts formed by the wine in metallic vessels are the -bi-tartrates of potash and the oxide of the metal. Iron wire wet with -wine, in a few days becomes covered with a very dark, brown pellicle, -the wine is reduced to a solution of tartrate of iron and potash, which -is of that color. A piece of iron in the wine produces the same result. -This salt however, is not poisonous. But if the acid acts energetically -on the iron, the water will be deprived of its oxygen, and the hydrogen -thereby set free may seriously affect the wine, by combining with -foreign bodies found in it, producing a detestable flavor and odor. A -cask of wine may be completely ruined by a nail. - -The salts of iron, therefore, are not to be feared on account of any -deleterious effect upon the system, but rather on account of the ill -effect which they may have upon the color, the flavor, and odor of -the wine. On the other hand, the salts of copper and lead are highly -poisonous, and should be carefully avoided. - -Zinc and galvanized iron are also affected by wine, to the extent -that when left in vessels made of either, it will cause serious -indisposition to those who drink it. - -Tin is also dissolved by wine, forming stannic oxide and stannic acid, -which combine with the coloring matter and render it insoluble, making -the wine cloudy at first, and finally rendering it nearly colorless. By -long contact with tin the wine develops a fetid odor. Every wine maker -knows how soon his tin vessels used about wine wear out, and the reason -is apparent. - -=Cleanliness.=—Whether wood or metal utensils are used, it is one of -the essentials in making good, wholesome wine, that they should be kept -scrupulously clean and neat. Stemmers, crushers, presses, buckets, -funnels, and in fact everything that comes in contact with the liquid -should be scrubbed and rinsed often enough to prevent their becoming -sour, or contracting any disagreeable flavor or odor. If metal vessels -_must be used_, by all means do not allow wine to stand in them. Run -water through the hose and the pumps after using, and also before using -again. For it is safe to assert that many of the bad odors and flavors -met with in wines made by inexperienced persons are often due to want -of care in these matters. The necessary care to be bestowed upon the -casks has already been mentioned in the proper place. - -=Different Cellar Utensils= which will be found convenient are -represented in the following figures: - -[Illustration: _Fig. 45._] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 46._ Tin Pitchers.] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 47._ Wooden Pitcher.] - -Figures 45 and 46 are tin pitchers, and 47 is of wood. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 48._ Wooden Vessels.] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 49._ Wooden Funnel.] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 50._ Adjustable Hoop.] - -Figure 48 shows wooden vessels not necessary to describe. - -Figure 49 is a wooden funnel for casks. Figure 50 is an adjustable -hoop, useful in case of leakage in a cask caused by the breaking of -hoops. It can be put around a cask and tightened with the screw till a -new hoop is put in place. Where, however, casks are well hooped with -iron, it is not likely to be needed. - -Figure 51 are baskets for carrying bottles. - -Every well ordered cellar should be provided with graduated measures -(figs. 52 and 53) in which to measure the respective proportions to be -taken of each kind of wine for cutting. They can be had of any desired -capacity, and graduated decimally, or otherwise, as needed. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 51._ Bottle Baskets.] - -Figure 54, instruments of tin for drawing from the bungs of casks in -tasting. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 52._ _Fig. 53._ Graduated Measures.] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 54._ Tin Tasters.] - -In the sherry districts, where the casks are not kept full; a narrow -cup attached to a stick is used to dip out the wine through the bung. -The practice of using a piece of hose for this purpose, by letting one -end into the cask and sucking on the other with the mouth till the wine -runs, as it is done in too many cellars in California, is not to be -commended to the fastidious. - -A pump in the form of figure 55 is sometimes useful for drawing wine -from casks in certain positions. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 55._ Hand Pump.] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 56._ For Removing Corks.] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 57._ Bucket.] - -Figure 56 represents wire implements for removing corks which have been -pushed inside a bottle. - - -USEFUL RULES. - -=To Ascertain the Weight of a Given Number of Gallons of a Liquid=, -multiply 8.33 by the specific gravity of the liquid, and the product -by the number of gallons. For instance, suppose we have 1000 gallons -of a must which shows 22 per cent. sugar. From Table I we obtain the -corresponding specific gravity, 1.0923 (the figure 1 is omitted except -at the top of the column), which shows how much heavier it is than -water, water being 1. Now, one gallon of water at 60° F. weighs 8.33 -lbs., and the temperature of the must should be about the same. (See -_Must—Testing for Sugar_.) 8.33 multiplied by 1.0923 = nearly 9.1, -which is the weight in pounds of one gallon of the must. One thousand -gallons would weigh nearly 9,100 lbs. If Beaumé’s hydrometer is used, -ascertain from Table II the specific gravity corresponding to the mark -on the stem. This rule applies to all liquids whose specific gravity is -known—syrup, wine, brandy, alcohol, etc. - -The specific gravity of a wine of 12 per cent. is .9843, and by our -rule, one gallon weighs about 8.2 lbs. a little less than a gallon of -water. - -=Rule for Reducing Must= from a higher to a lower percentage of sugar: -Multiply the number of gallons of the must by its specific gravity, -and the product by the difference between the given per cent. and the -required per cent., and divide by the required per cent. - -Suppose that we have 1000 gallons of a must of 27 per cent., how many -gallons of water are required to reduce it to 23 per cent? - -The specific gravity, by Table I, is 1.1154, and this multiplied by -1000 = 1115.4, which multiplied by 4, the difference between 27 and 23 -= 4461.6, which divided by 23 gives 194 gallons, in round numbers. - -=Rule for Sugaring Must.=—If crystallized sugar is used, dissolve it -and make a strong syrup, or sugar water, and the proposition is: Given -a must of a certain sugar per cent., and a syrup of a given per cent., -how much of the syrup for each gallon of must is required to produce a -must of any required strength, between the two? - - _First_—Multiply the required per cent. by the - corresponding specific gravity. - - _Second_—Multiply the per cent. of the must by - its specific gravity. - - _Third_—Multiply the per cent. of the syrup by - its specific gravity. - -Divide the difference between the first and second products by the -difference between the first and third, and the quotient will be the -fraction of a gallon required. - -Suppose that we have a must of only 10 per cent. of sugar, and a syrup -of 60 per cent.; how much of the second should be added to one gallon -of the first to produce a must of 23 per cent.? - - (23 × 1.0969) - (10 × 1.0401) - ———————————————————————————— = 0.284 of a gallon. - (60 × 1.2899) - (23 × 1.0969) - -Therefore, for every gallon of the must, we add 0.284 gallons of the -syrup. - -The same rule will apply to the mixing of a strong and a weak must. - -=Rules for Fortifying and Reducing Wines and Weak Liquors.=—In mixing -strong spirits, it is necessary to make an allowance for contraction, -and tables are prepared for the purpose, but in mixing wines and weak -spirits, it may be disregarded, and the following rules will be found -sufficient. - -=To Reduce with Water.=—Having a wine or a weak spirit of a certain per -cent. of alcohol, how much water is required for each gallon to reduce -it to any lower per cent.? - -Divide the difference between the given per cent. and the required per -cent., by the required per cent. - -Suppose a wine or other alcoholic solution of 15 per cent. by volume, -how much water is required for each gallon to produce one of 10 per -cent.? - - 15 - 10 - ———————— = ½ - 10 - -Therefore, add one-half gallon of water for each gallon of the wine or -weak spirit. - -=To Reduce with Weaker Wine, or to Fortify with Stronger Wine or -Alcohol.=—Having two wines or other weak liquors whose percentages of -alcohol are known, how much of the second is required for every gallon -of the first, to produce a wine of any required strength between the -two? - -Divide the difference between the per cent. of the first, and the -required per cent. by the difference between the per cent. of the -second and the required per cent. - -Having a wine, etc., of 18 per cent., and another of 8 per cent., how -much of the second is required for every gallon of the first to produce -one of 12 per cent.? - - (18 - 12) 6 - ————————— = - = 1½ - (12 - 8) 4 - -Or one and one-half gallons of the second for every gallon of the first. - -Or, suppose we have a wine of 15 per cent., how much brandy of 50 per -cent. must be used for every gallon of the first to produce a wine of -20 per cent.? - - (20 - 15) 5 1 - ————————— = —— = —— - (50 - 20) 30 6 - -Or one-sixth of a gallon of the brandy must be used for each gallon of -the wine. - - -PLASTERING. - -=It is a Common Practice= in Spain and in the southern part of France -to plaster the wines, by adding more or less gypsum, or plaster of -Paris. It is either thrown upon the grapes before or after crushing, -or is added to the must. Gypsum is known to chemists, when pure, as -calcium sulphate (sulphate of lime), but contains a certain amount of -water of crystallization, and is generally found associated with other -substances, such as rock salt, and calcium carbonate, or limestone. It -is the commonest impurity found in spring water, and gives water its -permanent hardness. Much has been written for and against the practice -of plastering, and both sides of the question have strong advocates. - -=Objects.=—There are many different reasons given for the practice, -some of which are fanciful. It is claimed that it retards fermentation, -and that red wines under its effects develop more color, because the -marc can be left longer in the fermenting vat; that the froth of -plastered wine is livelier and sooner disappears, which pleases the -merchants; and that it has a preservative effect upon the wine. It is -claimed by some that it renders the wine dryer and harsher, as it does, -if used to excess, and by others, that it unites with a portion of the -water of the juice, and renders the remaining juice richer in sugar. -Again, it is added to neutralize a portion of the acid contained in the -must. - -=Chemical Effects.=—Maumené says that it transforms the potassium salts -of the wine into insoluble lime salts and potassium sulphate, and this -may have an important effect upon fermentation, for some chemists -attribute to the acid potassium tartrate the property of holding -ferments in solution, and that potassium sulphate, even with the -freed tartaric acid, does not possess this power; that the carbonate -of lime contained in the plaster, in neutralizing the acidity of the -tartar, without doubt contributes to the precipitation of the ferment -which this salt held in solution; and that during the neutralization, -carbonic acid is disengaged, and the evaporation of the moisture -carried up by the gas somewhat lowers the temperature. He supposes that -all these causes combined retard the fermentation. - -P. Carles (_J. Pharm. Chim._ {5}, 6, 118-123), says that the calcium -sulphate acts on the potassium bitartrate in the juice of the grape, -forming calcium tartrate, tartaric acid, and potassium sulphate, a -large proportion of the last two bodies remaining in the wine. That -without plastering, wine contains about two grammes per litre of pure -tartaric acid, whilst after plastering, it contains double or treble -that amount, and even more, according to the quantity of potassium -bitartrate decomposed. - -In order to make clear what this chemist says, in ordinary language, -we will say that the gypsum acts upon the cream of tartar in the grape -juice, sets free a portion of the tartaric acid existing in combination -in it, and also forms tartrate of lime and sulphate of potash. - -At first sight, therefore, it would seem that the addition of gypsum, -or plaster of Paris, actually increases the acid, and this would be -true if the gypsum consisted of pure calcium sulphate, but it always -contains more or less calcium carbonate, and this substance, which is -but another name for chalk, limestone, or marble, precipitates the free -tartaric acid, and the carbonate of lime does what is generally claimed -for the gypsum—diminishes the acidity of the wine. But if the calcium -carbonate does not exist in sufficient quantity in the gypsum to -precipitate all the tartaric acid set free, the opposite effect would -be produced. Why not add marble dust at once? - -The experiments given in Thudichum and Dupré’s work show that the -amount of water withdrawn from must by the addition of even anhydrated -plaster is so small as to be unworthy of notice, being only one-fourth -the weight of the plaster used. - -=Effects on the Health.=—This question was examined at Montpellier, -in France, by a committee of chemists appointed by the court, and the -results of their inquiries are frequently cited by those who are in -favor of plastering: - - 1. That the plastered wine contains no new mineral substance. - - 2. That the quantity of plaster introduced into the - wine may be considered null, because it is entirely - changed into potassium sulphate, a slightly purgative - salt, analogous in this respect to tartar. - -Later, however, a commission was appointed by the _Conseil des Armées_, -who reported as follows: - - 1. That by the taste, plastered wines could not be - distinguished from the natural ones. - - 2. That plaster diminished the intensity of the color. - (This, of course, refers to the direct effect.) - - 3. That the potassium bitartrate, one of the most - useful principles contained in wine, is decomposed by - plaster, and that potassium sulphate is formed, which - remains in solution, and calcium tartrate, which is - precipitated. - - 4. That potassium phosphate, also one of the salts - naturally contained in wine, is equally decomposed - by plaster. - - 5. That plastering profoundly modifies the nature of - wines, by substituting for the potassium bitartrate a - purgative salt in the proportion of from 3 to more than - 7 grammes per litre. - -And they demand the exclusion of all wine containing more than 4 -grammes of the sulphate per litre. - -And Mr. Carles, above quoted, concludes that, owing to the purgative -effect of this salt, potassium sulphate, the quantity present should -not exceed 2 grammes per litre, or half as much as the army commission -allow. - -Still later, we have the instructions of the Minister of Justice of -France to the _procureurs Généraux_, issued in 1880, as follows: - -After several judicial decisions relative to the sale of plastered -wines, one of my predecessors expressed to the Minister of Agriculture -and Commerce the desire that new experiments should be made in order to -establish, if in the present state of science the immunity accorded to -plastered wines by the circular of July 21, 1858, should be maintained. - -Having examined the question, the consultation committee of public -hygiene issued the following notice: - - 1. That the absolute immunity which plastered wines - enjoy on account of the circular of the Minister of - Justice dated July 21, 1858, ought no longer to be - officially allowed. - - 2. That the presence of potassium sulphate in the wines - of commerce, which results from, plastering the must, - from the mixture of plaster or sulphuric acid with the - wine, or from cutting with plastered wines, should only - be tolerated to the maximum limit of 2 grammes per - litre (about 117 grains per gallon). - -In calling my attention to this notice, my colleague of agriculture and -commerce informs me that he completely concurs. - -He, therefore, instructs the officers to prosecute, under the laws -against adulterations, the dealers who shall sell wine containing more -than the quantity indicated of potassium sulphate, as dangerous to the -health of the consumers. - -=Plastering Sherry—Quantity Used.=—Mr. Vizitelli says that during his -stay at Jerez, he paid particular attention to the plastering question, -saw the gypsum applied in almost a hundred instances, and questioned -the overseers in scores of vineyards. He states that within his own -knowledge gypsum is by no means invariably used in the vinification -of sherry, as already stated under the head of _Sherry_. And although -applied in the majority of cases, but a few pounds per butt are used, -say 6 lbs. at most in a dry season, and a little more than double that -quantity in years when great dampness prevails. And he argues from -the Montpellier experiment, already mentioned, where the committee -added 40 grammes of gypsum to a litre of wine, and found only 1.240 -grammes of sulphate of potash per litre where pure calcium sulphate -was used, and 1.828 grammes where ordinary plaster was employed, -that when the Spaniards add the amount which they do to the must in -sherry making, no injury to the wine can occur. It may be proper to -suggest, however, for the benefit of future inquirers, that wine, -after insensible fermentation, contains but a small proportion of the -potassium bitartrate which was contained in the grape, the greater -part of it having been deposited with the lees and the marc. Wines do -not contain tartar enough to furnish 2 grammes per litre of potassium -sulphate, nor enough to act upon 1 gramme of pure gypsum. But it is -far otherwise with grape juice. Now 6 lbs. of gypsum to one butt of -wine of 108 Imperial gallons would be the same as about 5.5 grammes per -litre, and if pure, ought to produce, on being fully satisfied with the -acid potassium tartrate, as much as 8 grammes per litre of potassium -sulphate, and Mr. Carles, above quoted, says that it does amount to -from 4 to 7.5 grammes per litre in plastered wines. - -Supposing the following to be the correct reaction, 1 gramme of pure -gypsum ought to produce, with 2.6 grammes of cream of tartar, 1.477 -grammes of sulphate of potash; and to produce the 2 grammes per litre -of the latter would only require 1.353 of the former; and but a little -more than 1 lb. of pure gypsum could safely be added to 100 gallons of -must: - - CaSO₄ + 2(C₄H₅KO₆) = C₄H₄CaO₆ + C₄H₆O₆ + K₂SO₄ - -As the gypsum is usually added to the pomace itself, or to the grapes -before crushing, it is unsafe to argue from the effects produced by -adding it to wine. - -=By Adding Water= to must, the effects of plastering may be produced, -if the water is hard by reason of the gypsum contained in it. - - -SHERRY FLAVOR. - -In many California wines a flavor called the “sherry flavor” is often -observed; and in the red wines may frequently be tasted what would with -equal propriety be called a “port flavor;” and the “sherry flavor” -would by some be called a “Madeira flavor.” - -Mr. Pohndorff stated at the State Viticultural Convention of 1882, that -he was of the opinion that this flavor was due to the oxidation of the -wine. If this is so, the remedy would be to use greater care in its -management, and avoid exposing it to the air, in fact, observe just the -treatment indicated in this book for all but sweet and fortified wines. - -Without attempting to say anything authoritative on the subject, -the author would suggest that in addition to the above cause, these -flavors are largely due, _first_, to our hot climate; _second_, -to over-maturity of the grapes; and _third_, to aging the wine in -too high a temperature; for these conditions all exist in southern -countries, whose wines are apt to have a peculiar flavor, called by -some writers the “cooked flavor,” which is unobjectionable in a sweet -wine. The first is not always within the control of the producer, but -the two last can always be controlled by the grape grower and the -cellar-man. - -[Illustration] - - - - -APPENDIX. - - - TABLE I. - - _Balling’s degrees (per cent. of sugar),_ - _corresponding degrees Baumé,_ - _and specific gravity at 63½° F.—Chas. Stammer._ - ========+=======+==========++=========+=======+========= - Balling | | || Balling | | - or per | | Specific || or per | | Specific - cent. | Baumé | Gravity || cent. | Baumé | Gravity - sugar | | || sugar | | - --------+-------+----------++---------+-------+--------- - 1 | 0.56 | 1.0039 || 26 | 14.35 | 1.1107 - 2 | 1.11 | .0078 || 27 | 14.90 | .1154 - 3 | 1.67 | .0117 || 28 | 15.44 | .1201 - 4 | 2.23 | .0157 || 29 | 15.99 | .1249 - 5 | 2.78 | .0197 || 30 | 16.53 | .1297 - 6 | 3.34 | .0234 || 31 | 17.07 | .1345 - 7 | 3.89 | .0278 || 32 | 17.61 | .1393 - 8 | 4.45 | .0319 || 33 | 18.15 | .1442 - 9 | 5.00 | .0360 || 34 | 18.69 | .1491 - 10 | 5.56 | .0401 || 35 | 19.23 | .1541 - 11 | 6.11 | .0443 || 36 | 19.77 | .1591 - 12 | 6.66 | .0485 || 37 | 20.30 | .1641 - 13 | 7.22 | .0528 || 38 | 20.84 | .1692 - 14 | 7.77 | .0570 || 39 | 21.37 | .1743 - 15 | 8.32 | .0613 || 40 | 21.91 | .1794 - 16 | 8.87 | .0657 || 41 | 22.44 | .1846 - 17 | 9.42 | .0700 || 42 | 22.97 | .1898 - 18 | 9.97 | .0744 || 43 | 23.50 | .1950 - 19 | 10.52 | .0787 || 44 | 24.03 | .2003 - 20 | 11.07 | .0833 || 45 | 24.56 | .2056 - 21 | 11.62 | .0878 || 46 | 25.09 | .2110 - 22 | 12.17 | .0923 || 47 | 25.62 | .2164 - 23 | 12.72 | .0969 || 48 | 26.14 | .2218 - 24 | 13.26 | .1015 || 49 | 26.67 | .2273 - 25 | 13.81 | .1061 || 50 | 27.19 | .2328 - ========+=======+==========++=========+=======+========= - Balling | | || Balling | | - or per | | Specific || or per | | Specific - cent. | Baumé | Gravity || cent. | Baumé | Gravity - sugar | | || sugar | | - --------+-------+----------++---------+-------+--------- - 51 | 27.71 | 1.2383 || 76 | 40.36 | 1.3894 - 52 | 28.24 | .2439 || 77 | 40.84 | .3959 - 53 | 28.75 | .2495 || 78 | 41.33 | .4025 - 54 | 29.27 | .2552 || 79 | 41.81 | .4092 - 55 | 29.79 | .2609 || 80 | 42.29 | .4159 - 56 | 30.31 | .2666 || 81 | 42.78 | .4226 - 57 | 30.82 | .2724 || 82 | 43.25 | .4293 - 58 | 31.34 | .2782 || 83 | 43.73 | .4361 - 59 | 31.85 | .2840 || 84 | 44.21 | .4430 - 60 | 32.36 | .2899 || 85 | 44.68 | .4499 - 61 | 32.87 | .2958 || 86 | 45.15 | .4568 - 62 | 33.38 | .3018 || 87 | 45.62 | .4638 - 63 | 33.89 | .3078 || 88 | 46.09 | .4708 - 64 | 34.40 | .3138 || 89 | 46.56 | .4778 - 65 | 34.90 | .3199 || 90 | 47.02 | .4849 - 66 | 35.40 | .3260 || 91 | 47.48 | .4920 - 67 | 35.90 | .3322 || 92 | 47.95 | .4992 - 68 | 36.41 | .3384 || 93 | 48.40 | .5064 - 69 | 36.91 | .3446 || 94 | 48.86 | .5136 - 70 | 37.40 | .3509 || 95 | 49.32 | .5209 - 71 | 37.90 | .3572 || 96 | 49.77 | .5281 - 72 | 38.39 | .3636 || 97 | 50.22 | .5355 - 73 | 38.89 | .3700 || 98 | 50.67 | .5429 - 74 | 39.38 | .3764 || 99 | 51.12 | .5504 - 75 | 39.87 | .3829 || 100 | 51.56 | .5578 - ========+=======+==========++=========+=======+========= - -OECHSLE’S MUST-SCALE indicates specific gravity to three decimal -places. When two figures are shown on the scale, a cipher before them -must be understood. For instance: 83 means 1.083, or 20 per cent., -Balling; and 106 means 1.106, or 25 per cent., Balling. - - TABLE II. - - _Baumé’s degrees, corresponding degrees,_ - _Balling (per cent. sugar,)_ - _and specific gravity at 63½° F._ - =======+=========+==========+=======+=========+========= - | Balling | | | Balling | - | or per | Specific | | or per | Specific - Baumé | cent. | Gravity | Baumé | cent. | Gravity - | sugar | | | sugar | - -------+---------+----------+-------+---------+--------- - 0.0 | 0.00 | 1.0000 | 13 | 23.52 | 1.0992 - 0.5 | 0.90 | .0035 | 13.5 | 24.43 | .1034 - 1 | 1.80 | .0070 | 14 | 25.35 | .1077 - 1.5 | 2.69 | .0105 | 14.5 | 26.27 | .1120 - 2 | 3.59 | .0141 | 15 | 27.19 | .1163 - 2.5 | 4.49 | .0177 | 15.5 | 28.10 | .1206 - 3 | 5.39 | .0213 | 16 | 29.03 | .1250 - 3.5 | 6.29 | .0249 | 16.5 | 29.95 | .1294 - 4 | 7.19 | .0286 | 17 | 30.87 | .1339 - 4.5 | 8.09 | .0323 | 17.5 | 31.79 | .1383 - 5 | 9.00 | .0360 | 18 | 32.72 | .1429 - 5.5 | 9.90 | .0397 | 18.5 | 33.65 | .1474 - 6 | 10.80 | .0435 | 19 | 34.58 | .1520 - 6.5 | 11.70 | .0473 | 19.5 | 35.50 | .1566 - 7 | 12.61 | .0511 | 20 | 36.44 | .1613 - 7.5 | 13.51 | .0549 | 20.5 | 37.37 | .1660 - 8 | 14.42 | .0588 | 21 | 38.30 | .1707 - 8.5 | 15.32 | .0627 | 21.5 | 39.24 | .1755 - 9 | 16.23 | .0667 | 22 | 40.17 | .1803 - 9.5 | 17.14 | .0706 | 22.5 | 41.11 | .1852 - 10 | 18.05 | .0746 | 23 | 42.05 | .1901 - 10.5 | 18.96 | .0787 | 23.5 | 42.99 | .1950 - 11 | 19.87 | .0827 | 24 | 43.94 | .2000 - 11.5 | 20.78 | .0868 | 24.5 | 44.88 | .2050 - 12 | 21.69 | .0909 | 25 | 45.83 | .2101 - 12.5 | 22.60 | .0951 | 25.5 | 46.78 | .2152 - =======+=========+==========+=======+=======-=+========= - | Balling | | | Balling | - | or per | Specific | | or per | Specific - Baumé | cent. | Gravity | Baumé | cent. | Gravity - | sugar | | | sugar | - -------+---------+----------+-------+---------+--------- - 26 | 47.73 | 1.2203 | 39 | 73.23 | 1.3714 - 26.5 | 48.68 | .2255 | 39.5 | 74.25 | .3780 - 27 | 49.63 | .2308 | 40 | 75.27 | .3846 - 27.5 | 50.59 | .2361 | 40.5 | 76.29 | .3913 - 28 | 51.55 | .2414 | 41 | 77.32 | .3981 - 28.5 | 52.51 | .2468 | 41.5 | 78.35 | .4049 - 29 | 53.47 | .2522 | 42 | 79.39 | .4118 - 29.5 | 54.44 | .2576 | 42.5 | 80.43 | .4187 - 30 | 55.47 | .2632 | 43 | 81.47 | .4267 - 30.5 | 56.37 | .2687 | 43.5 | 82.51 | .4328 - 31 | 57.34 | .2743 | 44 | 83.56 | .4400 - 31.5 | 58.32 | .2800 | 44.5 | 84.62 | .4472 - 32 | 59.29 | .2857 | 45 | 85.68 | .4545 - 32.5 | 60.27 | .2915 | 45.5 | 86.74 | .4619 - 33 | 61.25 | .2973 | 46 | 87.81 | .4694 - 33.5 | 62.23 | .3032 | 46.5 | 88.88 | .4769 - 34 | 63.22 | .3091 | 47 | 89.96 | .4845 - 34.5 | 64.21 | .3151 | 47.5 | 91.03 | .4922 - 35 | 65.20 | .3211 | 48 | 92.12 | .5000 - 35.5 | 66.19 | .3272 | 48.5 | 93.21 | .5079 - 36 | 67.19 | .3333 | 49 | 94.30 | .5158 - 36.5 | 68.19 | .3395 | 49.5 | 95.40 | .5238 - 37 | 69.19 | .3458 | 50 | 96.51 | .5319 - 37.5 | 70.20 | .3521 | 50.5 | 97.62 | .5401 - 38 | 71.20 | .3585 | 51 | 98.73 | .5484 - 38.5 | 72.22 | .3649 | 51.5 | 99.85 | .5568 - -------+---------+----------+-------+---------+--------- - - TABLE III. - - _Baumé’s degrees and corresponding per cent._ - _of sugar at 60° F._ - =======+=======+=======+=======+=======+=======+=======+======= - Baumé | Sugar | Baumé | Sugar | Baumé | Sugar | Baumé | Sugar - degrees| % |degrees| % |degrees| % |degrees| % - -------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- - 1 | 1.72 | 11 | 19.88 | 21 | 38.29 | 31 | 57.31 - 2 | 3.50 | 12 | 21.71 | 22 | 40.17 | 32 | 59.27 - 3 | 5.30 | 13 | 23.54 | 23 | 42.03 | 33 | 61.23 - 4 | 7.09 | 14 | 25.34 | 24 | 43.92 | 34 | 63.18 - 5 | 8.90 | 15 | 27.25 | 25 | 45.79 | 35 | 65.19 - 6 | 10.71 | 16 | 29.06 | 26 | 47.70 | 36 | 67.19 - 7 | 12.52 | 17 | 30.89 | 27 | 49.60 | 37 | 69.19 - 8 | 14.38 | 18 | 32.75 | 28 | 51.50 | 38 | 71.22 - 9 | 16.20 | 19 | 34.60 | 29 | 53.42 | 39 | 73.28 - 10 | 18.04 | 20 | 36.40 | 30 | 55.36 | 40 | 75.35 - =======+=======+=======+=======+=======+=======+=======+======= - - TABLE IV. - - Showing the specific gravities of mixtures of alcohol and water, - containing from 0.1 to 30 per cent. by volume, of absolute - alcohol, and corresponding per cent. by weight, for every 0.1 per - cent. by volume, compared with water at 60° F. - - The specific gravity of absolute alcohol according to U. S. - standard being .7939, referred to water at its greatest density - as unity, or .79461, referred to water at 60° F. - - ==========+===========+==========++===========+===========+========= - Per cent. | Per cent. | Specific || Per cent. | Per cent. | Specific - by volume | by weight | Gravity || by volume | by weight | Gravity - ----------+-----------+----------++-----------+-----------+--------- - 0.1 | 0.08 | .99986 || 3.8 | 3.04 | .99460 - 0.2 | 0.16 | .99972 || 3.9 | 3.12 | .99445 - 0.3 | 0.24 | .99957 || 4.0 | 3.20 | .99431 - 0.4 | 0.32 | .99943 || 4.1 | 3.28 | .99417 - 0.5 | 0.40 | .99929 || 4.2 | 3.36 | .99403 - 0.6 | 0.48 | .99915 || 4.3 | 3.44 | .99388 - 0.7 | 0.56 | .99901 || 4.4 | 3.52 | .99374 - 0.8 | 0.64 | .99886 || 4.5 | 3.60 | .99360 - 0.9 | 0.72 | .99872 || 4.6 | 3.68 | .99346 - 1.0 | 0.80 | .99858 || 4.7 | 3.76 | .99332 - 1.1 | 0.88 | .99844 || 4.8 | 3.84 | .99317 - 1.2 | 0.96 | .99830 || 4.9 | 3.92 | .99303 - 1.3 | 1.04 | .99815 || 5.0 | 4.00 | .99289 - 1.4 | 1.12 | .99801 || 5.1 | 4.08 | .99276 - 1.5 | 1.20 | .99787 || 5.2 | 4.16 | .99263 - 1.6 | 1.28 | .99773 || 5.3 | 4.24 | .99250 - 1.7 | 1.36 | .99759 || 5.4 | 4.32 | .99237 - 1.8 | 1.44 | .99744 || 5.5 | 4.40 | .99224 - 1.9 | 1.52 | .99730 || 5.6 | 4.49 | .99211 - 2.0 | 1.60 | .99716 || 5.7 | 4.57 | .99198 - 2.1 | 1.68 | .99702 || 5.8 | 4.65 | .99186 - 2.2 | 1.76 | .99688 || 5.9 | 4.73 | .99173 - 2.3 | 1.84 | .99673 || 6.0 | 4.81 | .99160 - 2.4 | 1.92 | .99659 || 6.1 | 4.89 | .99148 - 2.5 | 2.00 | .99645 || 6.2 | 4.97 | .99135 - 2.6 | 2.08 | .99631 || 6.3 | 5.05 | .99123 - 2.7 | 2.16 | .99617 || 6.4 | 5.13 | .99110 - 2.8 | 2.24 | .99602 || 6.5 | 5.21 | .99098 - 2.9 | 2.32 | .99588 || 6.6 | 5.29 | .99086 - 3.0 | 2.40 | .99574 || 6.7 | 5.37 | .99073 - 3.1 | 2.48 | .99560 || 6.8 | 5.45 | .99061 - 3.2 | 2.56 | .99546 || 6.9 | 5.54 | .99048 - 3.3 | 2.64 | .99531 || 7.0 | 5.62 | .99036 - 3.4 | 2.72 | .99517 || 7.1 | 5.70 | .99024 - 3.5 | 2.79 | .99503 || 7.2 | 5.78 | .99011 - 3.6 | 2.88 | .99488 || 7.3 | 5.86 | .98999 - 3.7 | 2.96 | .99474 || 7.4 | 5.94 | .98986 - ==========+===========+==========++===========+===========+========= - Per cent. | Per cent. | Specific || Per cent. | Per cent. | Specific - by volume | by weight | Gravity || by volume | by weight | Gravity - ----------+-----------+----------++-----------+-----------+--------- - 7.5 | 6.02 | .98974 || 11.2 | 9.03 | .98530 - 7.6 | 6.10 | .98961 || 11.3 | 9.11 | .98519 - 7.7 | 6.18 | .98949 || 11.4 | 9.20 | .98508 - 7.8 | 6.26 | .98936 || 11.5 | 9.28 | .98497 - 7.9 | 6.35 | .98924 || 11.6 | 9.36 | .98486 - 8.0 | 6.43 | .98911 || 11.7 | 9.44 | .98475 - 8.1 | 6.51 | .98899 || 11.8 | 9.52 | .98463 - 8.2 | 6.59 | .98886 || 11.9 | 9.60 | .98452 - 8.3 | 6.67 | .98874 || 12.0 | 9.69 | .98441 - 8.4 | 6.75 | .98861 || 12.1 | 9.77 | .98430 - 8.5 | 6.83 | .98849 || 12.2 | 9.85 | .98419 - 8.6 | 6.91 | .98837 || 12.3 | 9.93 | .98408 - 8.7 | 7.00 | .98824 || 12.4 | 10.01 | .98397 - 8.8 | 7.08 | .98812 || 12.5 | 10.10 | .98386 - 8.9 | 7.16 | .98799 || 12.6 | 10.18 | .98375 - 9.0 | 7.24 | .98787 || 12.7 | 10.26 | .98364 - 9.1 | 7.32 | .98775 || 12.8 | 10.34 | .98352 - 9.2 | 7.40 | .98762 || 12.9 | 10.42 | .98341 - 9.3 | 7.48 | .98750 || 13.0 | 10.51 | .98330 - 9.4 | 7.57 | .98737 || 13.1 | 10.59 | .98319 - 9.5 | 7.65 | .98725 || 13.2 | 10.67 | .98308 - 9.6 | 7.73 | .98713 || 13.3 | 10.75 | .98297 - 9.7 | 7.81 | .98700 || 13.4 | 10.83 | .98286 - 9.8 | 7.89 | .98688 || 13.5 | 10.92 | .98275 - 9.9 | 7.97 | .98675 || 13.6 | 11.00 | .98264 - 10.0 | 8.05 | .98663 || 13.7 | 11.08 | .98253 - 10.1 | 8.14 | .98652 || 13.8 | 11.16 | .98242 - 10.2 | 8.22 | .98641 || 13.9 | 11.24 | .98231 - 10.3 | 8.30 | .98630 || 14.0 | 11.33 | .98220 - 10.4 | 8.38 | .98619 || 14.1 | 11.41 | .98209 - 10.5 | 8.46 | .98608 || 14.2 | 11.49 | .98199 - 10.6 | 8.54 | .98597 || 14.3 | 11.57 | .98188 - 10.7 | 8.62 | .98586 || 14.4 | 11.65 | .98178 - 10.8 | 8.71 | .98574 || 14.5 | 11.74 | .98167 - 10.9 | 8.79 | .98563 || 14.6 | 11.82 | .98156 - 11.0 | 8.87 | .98552 || 14.7 | 11.90 | .98146 - 11.1 | 8.95 | .98541 || 14.8 | 11.98 | .98135 - ==========+===========+==========++===========+===========+========= - Per cent. | Per cent. | Specific || Per cent. | Per cent. | Specific - by volume | by weight | Gravity || by volume | by weight | Gravity - ----------+-----------+----------++-----------+-----------+--------- - 14.9 | 12.07 | .98125 || 18.7 | 15.21 | .97733 - 15.0 | 12.15 | .98114 || 18.8 | 15.29 | .97722 - 15.1 | 12.23 | .98104 || 18.9 | 15.37 | .97712 - 15.2 | 12.32 | .98094 || 19.0 | 15.46 | .97702 - 15.3 | 12.40 | .98083 || 19.1 | 15.54 | .97692 - 15.4 | 12.49 | .98073 || 19.2 | 15.62 | .97682 - 15.5 | 12.57 | .98063 || 19.3 | 15.70 | .97671 - 15.6 | 12.65 | .98053 || 19.4 | 15.78 | .97661 - 15.7 | 12.73 | .98042 || 19.5 | 15.87 | .97651 - 15.8 | 12.82 | .98032 || 19.6 | 15.95 | .97641 - 15.9 | 12.90 | .98021 || 19.7 | 16.04 | .97631 - 16.0 | 12.98 | .98011 || 19.8 | 16.12 | .97620 - 16.1 | 13.06 | .98001 || 19.9 | 16.20 | .97610 - 16.2 | 13.14 | .97990 || 20.0 | 16.29 | .97600 - 16.3 | 13.22 | .97980 || 20.1 | 16.37 | .97590 - 16.4 | 13.31 | .97969 || 20.2 | 16.45 | .97580 - 16.5 | 13.39 | .97959 || 20.3 | 16.51 | .97569 - 16.6 | 13.47 | .97949 || 20.4 | 16.62 | .97559 - 16.7 | 13.55 | .97938 || 20.5 | 16.70 | .97549 - 16.8 | 13.63 | .97928 || 20.6 | 16.79 | .97539 - 16.9 | 13.71 | .97917 || 20.7 | 16.87 | .97529 - 17.0 | 13.80 | .97907 || 20.8 | 16.95 | .97518 - 17.1 | 13.88 | .97897 || 20.9 | 17.03 | .97508 - 17.2 | 13.96 | .97887 || 21.0 | 17.12 | .97498 - 17.3 | 14.05 | .97876 || 21.1 | 17.20 | .97488 - 17.4 | 14.13 | .97866 || 21.2 | 17.28 | .97478 - 17.5 | 14.21 | .97856 || 21.3 | 17.37 | .97467 - 17.6 | 14.29 | .97846 || 21.4 | 17.45 | .97457 - 17.7 | 14.38 | .97835 || 21.5 | 17.53 | .97447 - 17.8 | 14.46 | .97825 || 21.6 | 17.62 | .97437 - 17.9 | 14.54 | .97814 || 21.7 | 17.70 | .97427 - 18.0 | 14.62 | .97804 || 21.8 | 17.78 | .97416 - 18.1 | 14.71 | .97794 || 21.9 | 17.87 | .97406 - 18.2 | 14.79 | .97784 || 22.0 | 17.95 | .97396 - 18.3 | 14.87 | .97773 || 22.1 | 18.03 | .97386 - 18.4 | 14.96 | .97763 || 22.2 | 18.12 | .97375 - 18.5 | 15.04 | .97753 || 22.3 | 18.20 | .97365 - 18.6 | 15.12 | .97743 || 22.4 | 18.28 | .97354 - ==========+===========+==========++===========+===========+========= - Per cent. | Per cent. | Specific || Per cent. | Per cent. | Specific - by volume | by weight | Gravity || by volume | by weight | Gravity - ----------+-----------+----------++-----------+-----------+--------- - 22.5 | 18.37 | .97344 || 26.3 | 21.55 | .96950 - 22.6 | 18.45 | .97334 || 26.4 | 21.64 | .96939 - 22.7 | 18.53 | .97323 || 26.5 | 21.72 | .96928 - 22.8 | 18.62 | .97313 || 26.6 | 21.81 | .96017 - 22.9 | 18.70 | .97302 || 26.7 | 21.89 | .96906 - 23.0 | 18.78 | .97292 || 26.8 | 21.98 | .96896 - 23.1 | 18.87 | .97282 || 26.9 | 22.06 | .96885 - 23.2 | 18.95 | .97272 || 27.0 | 22.15 | .96874 - 23.3 | 19.04 | .97261 || 27.1 | 22.23 | .96863 - 23.4 | 19.12 | .97251 || 27.2 | 22.32 | .96853 - 23.5 | 19.20 | .97241 || 27.3 | 22.40 | .96842 - 23.6 | 19.29 | .97231 || 27.4 | 22.48 | .96832 - 23.7 | 19.37 | .97221 || 27.5 | 22.57 | .96821 - 23.9 | 19.54 | .97200 || 27.7 | 22.74 | .96799 - 24.0 | 19.62 | .97190 || 27.8 | 22.82 | .96789 - 24.1 | 19.71 | .97180 || 27.9 | 22.91 | .96778 - 24.2 | 19.79 | .97170 || 28.0 | 22.99 | .96767 - 24.3 | 19.87 | .97159 || 28.1 | 23.07 | .96756 - 24.4 | 19.96 | .97149 || 28.2 | 23.16 | .96745 - 24.5 | 20.04 | .97139 || 28.3 | 23.24 | .96733 - 24.6 | 20.13 | .97129 || 28.4 | 23.33 | .96722 - 24.7 | 20.21 | .97118 || 28.5 | 23.41 | .96711 - 24.8 | 20.29 | .97108 || 28.6 | 23.50 | .96700 - 24.9 | 20.38 | .97097 || 28.7 | 23.58 | .96689 - 25.0 | 20.46 | .97087 || 28.8 | 23.67 | .96677 - 25.1 | 20.55 | .97076 || 28.9 | 23.75 | .96666 - 25.2 | 20.63 | .97066 || 29.0 | 23.84 | .96655 - 25.3 | 20.71 | .97055 || 29.1 | 23.93 | .96644 - 25.4 | 20.80 | .97045 || 29.2 | 24.01 | .96632 - 25.5 | 20.88 | .97034 || 29.3 | 24.10 | .96621 - 25.6 | 20.97 | .97023 || 29.4 | 24.18 | .96609 - 25.7 | 21.05 | .97013 || 29.5 | 24.27 | .96598 - 25.8 | 21.13 | .97002 || 29.6 | 24.35 | .96587 - 25.9 | 21.22 | .96992 || 29.7 | 24.44 | .96575 - 26.0 | 21.30 | .96981 || 29.8 | 24.52 | .96564 - 26.1 | 21.39 | .96970 || 29.9 | 24.61 | .96552 - 26.2 | 21.47 | .96960 || 30.0 | 24.69 | .96541 - ----------+-----------+----------++-----------+-----------+--------- - The basis of the foregoing table is Table III of the U. S. Manual - for Inspectors of spirits, giving the respective volumes of - absolute alcohol and water in 100 volumes of spirits of different - strengths, for every 0.5 per cent. by volume, and the specific - gravities, referred to water at 60° F. - - -TABLE V. - - =============+================+===========+=====+=====+======+===== - | | | |Color| | - Variety | Name of | Locality. |Vin- | of | AV% | AAT - of Wine. | Contributor. | |tage.|Wine.| | - -------------+----------------+-----------+-----+-----+------+----- - Mission, | | | | | | - just ripe|Dr. J. Strentzel|Martinez | 1880|White| 10.0 |.5370 - “ “ “ | “ | “ | “ | Red | 8.5 |.5400 - “ fully “ | “ | “ | “ |White| 12.8 |.3490 - “ “ “ | “ | “ | “ | Red | 13.3 |.3300 - “ |George West |Stockton | 1881|White| 11.9 |.6690 - “ | “ | “ | “ | Red | 12.6 |.5590 - “ |Prof. G. Husman |Napa ? | “ |White| 13.0 |.4297 - “ |I. De Turk |Santa Rosa | 1880| “ | 11.9 |.3900 - “ | “ | “ | 1881| “ | 13.1 |.4500 - “ |Chas. Lefranc |San Jose | “ | Red | 12.0 |.4245 - “ |J. DeBarth Shorb|San Gabriel| 1873|White| 15.2 |.7395 - “ | “ | “ | 1881| “ | 12.4 |.4897 - “ |I. De Turk |Santa Rosa | 1878| “ | 12.0 |.5347 - Black Prince |George West |Stockton | 1881| “ | 14.9 |.7020 - “ “ | “ | “ | “ | Red | 15.2 |.6450 - Malvoisie |Chas. Krug |St. Helena | 1880|White| 16.7 |.4270 - (Malvasia?)| “ | “ | “ | Red | 14.5 |.2460 - “ |R. Hasty |Clayton | “ | “ | 13.8 | ... - “ |G. Husman |Napa ? | 1881|White| 14.0 |.4635 - “ | “ |Napa ? | “ | Red | 13.5 |.5430 - “ |T. F. Eisen |Fresno | 1878|White| 13.7 |.6622 - “ | “ | “ | 1880| “ | 17.2 |.5197 - Zinfandel |Chas. Krug |St. Helena | “ | “ | 12.6 |.6000 - “ | “ | “ | “ | Red | 12.9 |.3900 - “ |Geo. West |Stockton | 1881|White| 14.1 |.4200 - “ | “ | “ | “ | Red | 14.3 |.4370 - “ |Gundlach & Co. |Sacramento | ... | “ | 11.9 |.6750 - “ |I. De Turk |Santa Rosa | 1879| “ | 13.4 |.6495 - “ | “ | “ | 1881| “ | 13.2 |.6750 - “ |G. Husman |Napa ? | “ | “ | 13.2 |.4777 - “ |I. De Turk |Santa Rosa | 1880| “ | 12.7 |.6900 - =============+================+===========+=====+=====+======+===== - | | | |Color| | - Variety | Name of | Locality. |Vin- | of | AV% | AAT - of Wine. | Contributor. | |tage.|Wine.| | - -------------+----------------+-----------+-----+-----+------+----- - Zinfandel |B. Dreyfus & Co.| | | Red | 12.4 |.7170 - Charbono |General Naglee | San Jose | 1880|White| 8.1 |.4750 - “ | “ | “ | “ | Red | 6.5 |.4420 - “ |J. T. Doyle |Santa Clara| | “ | 12.5 |.4320 - | | Co. ? | | | | - Mataro |Chas. Lefranc | San Jose | 1880|White| 14.1 |.4245 - “ | “ | “ | “ | Red | 12.4 |.5250 - Grenache | “ | “ | 1876| “ | 11.6 |.7920 - “ | “ | “ | 1881| “ | 12.5 |.3450 - California | “ | “ | | “ | 10.8 |.7500 - Burgundy| | | | | | - Lenoir |H. W. Crabb | Oakville | 1881| “ | 11.1 |.8070 - “ | “ | “ | “ | “ | 11.9 |.5145 - Chasselas |J. Gundlach | Sonoma | “ |White| 13.5 |.6337 - “ | “ | “ | “ | WS | 11.7 |.6495 - “ |Dresel & Co. | “ | |White| 13.5 |.3375 - Rose Chasselas |G. Husman | Napa ? | 1881| “ | 12.0 |.3720 - Golden Chasselas|Chas. Krug | St. Helena| “ | W/S | 12.4 |.5925 - Riesling |Dresel & Co. | Sonoma | |White| 12.5 |.6180 - “ |B. Dreyfus & Co.| | | “ | 12.9 |.6750 - “ |J. DeBarth Shorb|San Gabriel| 1880| “ | 13.6 |.8325 - “ |Kramp & Bro. | Diamond | “ | “ | 12.6 |.7522 - | | Springs | | | | - Blanc Elba | | | | | | - (Elbling?)|J.De Barth Shorb|San Gabriel| 1881| “ | 13.1 |.6825 - Feher Szagos |G. Eisen | Fresno | “ | “ | 10.6 |.5625 - “ | “ | “ | “ | W/S | 10.2 |.5250 - Prolific |Geo. West | Stockton | “ |White| 14.5 |.6750 - “ | “ | “ | “ | W/S | 15.6 |.5347 - Sauvignon Vert|Chas. Lefranc | San Jose | 1875|White| 13.3 |.6187 - Burger |Chas. Krug | St. Helena| 1880| “ | 9.0 |.5620 - “ | “ | “ | “ | W/S | 9.2 |.5250 - “ |R. Hasty | Clayton | “ |White| 11.5 | ... - Elvira |H. W. Crabb | Oakville | 1881| “ | 11.9 |.5145 - “ |Kramp & Bro. | Diamond | 1880| “ | 14.1 |.5475 - | | Springs | | | | - =============+================+===========+=====+=====+======+===== - | | | |Color| | - Variety | Name of | Locality. |Vin- | of | AV% | AAT - of Wine. | Contributor. | |tage.|Wine.| | - -------------+----------------+-----------+-----+-----+------+----- - Malaga |T. F. Eisen | Fresno | 1877|White| 14.6 |.6525 - “ | “ | “ | 1881| “ | 17.9 |.2175 - Madeira |B. Dreyfus & Co.| | “ | “ | 18.2 | ... - Muscat |I. De Turk | Santa Rosa| “ | “ | 11.5 |.5775 - “ |T. F. Eisen | Fresno | 1876| “ | 16.7 |.5325 - “ | “ | “ | 1881| “ | 17.2 |.2250 - Port, Zinfandel| “ | “ | “ | Red | 18.4 |.3450 - “ “ | “ | “ | 1878| “ | 21.0 |.4957 - Port |J. DeParth Shorb|San Gabriel| 1875| “ | 22.1 |.3525 - “ | “ | “ | 1881| “ | 22.9 |.2048 - Port, Tienturier|T. F. Eisen | Fresno | “ | “ | 18.8 |.3975 - Angelica |J. DeBarth Shorb|San Gabriel| 1875|White| 18.3 |.3825 - “ | “ | “ | 1881| “ | 21.8 |.1448 - Sherry | | | | | | - (Feher Szagos)|T. F. Eisen | Fresno | 1877| “ | 18.8 |.3600 - “ “ dry| “ | “ | 1878| “ | 16.1 |.5550 - =============+================+===========+=====+=====+======+===== - AV% = per cent. alcohol by volume. - AAT = Acid As Tartaric. - W/S = With Skins - Where the name of the locality is followed by (?), - it was omitted from the report. - - =Averages.=—In thirteen Mission wines: - Alcohol—maximum, 15.2; minimum, 8.5; average, 12.2. - Acid—maximum, .7395; minimum, .3300; average, .4955. - - In seven Malvoisie wines: - Alcohol—maximum, 17.2; minimum, 13.5; average, 14.77. - Acid in six—maximum, .6622; minimum, .2460; average, .4769. - - In ten Zinfandel wines: - Alcohol—maximum, 14.3; minimum, 11.9; average, 13.07. - Acid—maximum, .7170; minimum, .3900; average, .5731. - - In four Riesling wines: - Alcohol—maximum, 13.6; minimum, 12.5; average, 12.6. - Acid—maximum, .8325; minimum, .6180; average, .7194. - - In four Port wines, including two Zinfandel: - Alcohol—maximum, 22.9; minimum, 18.4; average, 21.1. - Acid—maximum, .4057; minimum, .2048; average, .3270. - - - - -INDEX. - - - Page. - Acetic acid, 194 - fermentation, 30 - Acid in California wines, x, 220 - in European wines, xii - increased by stems, 20 - in wine, x, xi, xii, 193, 220 - see acetic, carbonic, citric, - tartaric, malic, pectic, tannic, - salicylic, lactic, valeric, - succinic and plastering. - Acidity, disease, see sourness. - in casks, 65 - Acquired defects and diseases, 137 - Acrity, 149 - in bottles, 167 - Adjustable hoop, see utensils. - Aerating must, 23 - stirring pomace, 42 - see treading, air, influence of. - port wine, 112 - Age, effect on wine, 51, 52 - Aging wine—effect of various influences, 76 - general considerations, 76 - requisite to make agreeable and healthful, 76 - care to age and preserve, 76 - new wine, 76 - different wines require different periods, 76 - development of bouquet and flavor, 76 - old wine, characteristics of, 76 - color, aroma and flavor, 77 - influences which develop, also destroy, 77 - influences on weak wine and strong wine, 77 - influence of the air, see aerating, 77 - variations of temperature, 78 - influence of heat, 78 - aging by heat, 79 - preserving by heat, 80 - influence of cold and frozen wines, 81 - influence of light, 82 - aging by sunlight, insolation, 82 - effect of motion and voyages, 82-84 - wines suitable for shipment, 82 - aging by fining, 84 - generally, 84 - fine before aging, 84 - what wines gain the most by the processes, 85 - heating Madiera, 113 - see casks, size of - Air, influence of, 77 - see port, aerating - Albumen, see fining. - Alcohol in California wines, ix, x, 220 - in European wines, xii - relation to sugar, 11, 28, 34 - required in dry wine, 11 - to keep wine sweet, 58, 59, 106, 107 - in aging by heat, 80 - required in aging by sunlight, 82 - for shipping wines, 82 - by weight and by volume, 33 - burning to arrest fermentation, 74 - lost by evaporation, 112 - natural in sweet wines, 105 - adding in fining, 102 - to sweet wines, 105, 106, 107 - to port, 111, 112 - to sherry, 117, 123 - to Madeira, 114 - see rules. - amount in port, 112 - in Madeira, 115 - in sherry, 123 - estimation of, 187 - limits by fermentation, 36 - Alcoholic weakness, 133 - fermentation, see fermentation. - Aldehyde, 30 - Almonds, bitter, see bouquet, artificial - Analysis of dry lees, 176 - Areometer, 7 - Aroma, see bouquet. - Arresting fermentation, 72 - see sulphuring, sulphurous acid - by burning alcohol, 74 - aqueous sulphurous acid, 74 - bisulphite of lime, 74 - salicylic acid, 75 - Arrope, 119 - Artificial must, 14 - - Balling’s saccharometer, 7, 8, 9 - Barrels, see casks. - Barrel flavor, 145 - Basket, decanting, 169 - bottle, 205 - Bastardo grape, see port. - Basto, see sherry. - Baumé’s saccharometer, 7, 8 - Bins for bottles, 164 - Bisulphite of lime, 74 - Bitartrate of potash, see cream of tartar - Bitter almonds, see bouquet, artificial. - Bitterness, 131, 149 - in bottles, 167 - Blending, see cutting. - sherry, 122 - Blood, see fining. - Blotting paper, see fining. - Bluish wines, 134 - Boiling must, 106 - Borers of casks, 66 - Bottles, wine in, bottling, etc., - see wine in bottles. - washer, drainers, 156 - piling, 163 - racks and bins, 164 - baskets, 205 - Bouquet, short vatting promotes, 44 - development of, by age, 76, 77 - how lost, 77 - generally, 194 - artificial, 194 - substances used, 196 - iris, 196 - strawberry, 197 - gillyflower, stock gilly, 197 - vine flowers, 198 - mignonette, 198 - nutmeg, 198 - bitter almonds and fruit pits, 198 - sassafras, 198 - other aromas, 199 - effects, 199 - Brandy, shipments of California, vi - casks, empty, 66 - casks for, 66 - Bung turned to one side, 51, 53 - screw, 158 - Butyric fermentation, 29 - - California, prices of grapes, vi - exports of wine and brandy, vi - product of wine, vi - wines, alcohol and acid in, ix, x, 220 - wines compared, ix, x, 220 - musts, viii - Capsules and capsuling, 162 - Carbonic acid produced by fermentation, 34 - in wine, 193 - Carbon dioxide, see carbonic acid. - Casks, 61 - redwood, 61 - oak, different kinds, principles contained in, 61 - temper with new wine, 61 - storing, 61 - sulphured before storing, 62 - new, preparing, washing, 62 - old, washing, 63 - to remove lees, rinsing chain, 63 - to examine inside, visitor, 63 - wash empty ones at once, 64 - do not leave in the sun, 64 - examine to ascertain condition, 64 - leaky, to expel bad air, 64 - flatness in, acidity in, mouldy, 65 - rottenness, 66 - brandy, do not sulphur, 66 - for brandy, 66 - oil casks, 66 - which have contained aromatic liquors, 66 - borers, 66 - size of, 67 - see different wines. - large, preferable, 67 - why sulphured, 69 - how sulphured, 70 - caution in sulphuring, 71 - filling from vats, 45 - of new wine loosely closed, 48 - must be kept full, 48 - bung to one side, old wine, 51, 53 - for white wine, 55 - small for sweet, large for dry, 55 - filling during fermentation of white, 55 - see froth, racking. - flavor, 145 - how long wine to remain in, 154 - supporting and arranging, 89 - implements for tipping, 95 - Cellars, 87 - temperature, 87 - dampness, floors, 88 - ventilation, evaporation, 88 - other precautions, 89 - supporting and arranging casks, 89 - for port, 112 - for sherry, 118 - utensils, 204 - Cement for corks, see wax. - Centres, see white wine. - Chain for washing casks, 63 - Charcoal to remove sulphur flavor, 74 - deprives wine of color and carbonic acid, 74 - Citric acid, 193 - Clarification, clarifying powders, see fining. - Cleanliness about wine making, 94, 203 - Climate of sherry districts, 115 - Coal, see charcoal. - Cold, influence of on wine, 81 - Color, increased by long vatting, 44 - dark, not necessary to fine wines, 44 - precipitated by sulphur, 71 - by blood, 101 - removed by charcoal, 74 - changed by age, 77 - affected by light, 82 - heat and motion, 83 - weakened by fining, 99 - want of, 134 - dull, bluish, lead-colored wines, 134 - see port, tawny. - wine, see sherry. - Coloring matter in red wine, 39 - Composition of wine, 185 - cream of tartar, 185 - not composed of alcohol and water alone, 185 - alcohol, acid, and sugar generally, 185 - table of substances recognized, 186 - alcohol and estimation of, 187 - stills for and operation, 187 - monitor still, 190 - ethers, 190 - sugar and estimation, 190 - mannite, 191 - mucilage and mellowness, 191 - pectose, pectin, 192 - Composition of wine, 185 - fatty matters, 192 - glycerin, 192 - coloring matter, œnocyanine, 192 - aldehydes, 192 - acids, 193 - tartaric, 193 - malic, 193 - citric, 193 - pectic, 193 - tannic, 193 - carbonic, 193 - acetic, 194 - lactic, 194 - butyric, 194 - valeric, 194 - succinic, 194 - total, 194 - bouquet, natural and artificial, 194 - Copper affected by wine, 202 - Corks, 158 - preparation of, 160 - sealing for, 161 - utensils to remove, see utensils. - Corking machines, corking, 159, 160 - Corkscrews, 169 - Cream of tartar, see plastering, lees, - composition of wine, fining. - Crushing and methods of, 22 - aerating must by, 23 - Crushing and stemming, rapidity, 24 - special practice in the Médoc, 24 - effect of, 24 - dry grapes, 108 - Crushers, 23 - Cutting wines, 171 - most French wines mixed, 171 - when necessary, effect, 171 - tithe wines, singular case, 171 - no precise rules, 171 - mix wines of same nature, 173 - fine wines, 173 - ordinary wines, 174 - time must be allowed, 174 - quantity to mix, 174 - mixing new and old wines, 174 - green wine, 174 - white and red wine, 175 - diseased wines, 125, 126, 175 - mixing grapes, 175 - precaution, 175 - - Dampness, see cellars. - Decanting wine from bottles, 188 - basket, 169 - instrument, 169 - Decomposition of wine, see diseases. - Defects and diseases, 125 - division, general considerations, 125 - better avoided than cured, 125 - not always cured by mixing, 126 - doses in treating, 126 - natural defects, 126 - earthy flavor and causes, 126 - how prevented, treatment, 127 - wild taste, grassy flavor, 128 - greenness and causes, 128 - how prevented, treatment, 129 - roughness, 130 - not a fault, disappears in time, 130 - to avoid excess of tannin, 130 - how removed, 131 - bitterness and causes in new wine, 131 - how prevented, treatment, 131 - stem flavor, 131 - sourness and causes, 132 - how prevented, treatment, 132 - alcoholic weakness, 133 - how avoided, treatment, 133 - want of color and causes, 134 - how guarded against, treatment, 134 - dull, bluish, lead-colored wine, - flavor of lees, and causes, 134 - how avoided, treatment, 135 - putrid decomposition and causes, 136 - how avoided, treatment, 137 - several natural defects combined, 137 - acquired defects and diseases, 137 - flat wines, flowers, and causes, 137 - prevention, 138 - treatment, 139 - sourness, acidity, pricked wine and causes, 140 - what wines liable to, 140 - how prevented, treatment, 141 - pricked wine, experiments with substances - in treating, 142 - Machard’s treatment, 144 - other methods, 144 - cask flavor, barrel flavor, and causes, 145 - treatment, 146 - mouldy flavor, 147 - prevention, treatment, 147 - foreign flavors, 147 - ropiness, causes and treatment, 148 - in bottled wines, 148, 167 - other treatment, 148 - acrity and treatment, 149 - in bottles, 167 - bitterness, 149 - treatment, 150 - according to Maumené, 150 - in bottles, 167 - fermentation, taste of the lees, - yeasty flavor, 151 - how prevented, treatment, 152 - in bottles, 165 - degeneration, putrid fermentation, 87, 152 - in bottles, 167 - duration of different wines, 152 - treatment, 153 - deposits and turbidity in bottles, 166 - Degeneration of wines, 87, 152 - see diseases. - Density of sweet wines, 107 - musts, see musts, different wines, sugar. - Deposits, see diseases, lees, wine in bottles. - Diseases and defects, 125 - Drainers for bottles, 156 - Drawing off, see racking. - from vats, 43, 44, 45 - Dry grapes, crushing, 108 - wines, see white, red, treatment casks for, 55 - Dull-colored wine, 134 - Duration of different wines, 152 - of fermentation, see fermentation, - different wines. - - Earthy flavor, 126 - _Echaud_, 151 - Effervescent wines not to be sulphured, 71 - Eggs, see fining. - Empty casks, see casks. - Estufa, see Madeira, heating house. - Ethers, 190 - European wines, alcohol and acid in, xii - Evaporation of wine in cellars, 88 - weakens wine, 112 - see casks, size of. - _Event_, _éventé_, see flatness. - Exports of California Wine and brandy, vi - Exportation, see shipping. - - Fatty matters in wine, 192 - Ferments, origin of, 31 - destroyed by heat, 81 - see yeast, _saccharomyces_. - Fermentation, its causes, 25 - kinds of, 25 - alcoholic generally, 25 - yeast plant, _saccharomyces cerevisiæ_, 25 - functions of yeast, 26 - normal conditions of the life of, 26 - surface and sedimentary, 26 - physical conditions, temperature, 27 - chemical conditions, 27 - action of various chemical and - physical agents, 28 - viscous or mannitic, 29 - lactic, 29 - butyric and putrefactive, 29, 136, 152, 167 - acetic, aldehyde, 30 - _mycoderma aceti_, mother of vinegar, 30 - _mycoderma vini_, flowers of wine, 31 - origin of ferments, 31 - alcoholic, in wine making, 32 - sugar, cane, grape or glucose, 32 - alcohol by weight and by volume, 33 - its products, per cent. sugar to - per cent. alcohol, 34 - different authors, 34 - limits of sugar and spirit, 36 - temperature, 37 - surrounding vats with straw, 37 - fermenting houses, 38 - duration of in red wine, 44 - in white wine, 93 - insensible, 47, 48 - arresting, see sulphuring, arresting. - by burning alcohol, 74 - aqueous solution of sulphurous acid, 74 - bisulphite of lime, 74 - salicylic acid, 75 - increased by stems, 20 - by open vats, 40 - slow in closed vats, 40 - under pressure and not so complete, 42 - disease, 151, 165 - in bottles, 165 - see white wine, filling casks, different wines, - plastering, effects of. - Fermenting houses, 38, 109 - tanks or vats, 39, 41, 108 - material, size, number, arrangement of, 39 - surrounding with straw, 37 - filling, 39, 40, 108 - open, closed, 40 - best practice, 41 - hermetically sealed, cooled with condenser, 42 - practice in the Médoc, 42 - stirring pomace in, 42, 108 - drawing from, 43, 44 - Filling vats, 39, 40 - casks from vats, 45 - during fermentation of white wine, 55 - see froth, ulling. - Filtering, see fining. - Fining, 99 - when necessary, objects of, 99 - best avoided unless necessary, 91, 99 - caution, 99 - substances employed, 99 - which act mechanically, blotting paper, - fine sand, powdered stone, 99 - filtration, 99 - substances which act chemically and - mechanically, 99 - gelatinous substances, 99 - gelatine proper, 100 - its preparation, 100 - isinglass, fish glue, ichthyocol, 100 - its preparation, 100 - adding cream of tartar for white wine, 100 - albuminous substances, 101 - blood, milk, 101 - white of eggs, 101 - the fining for red wine, 101 - clarifying powders, 102 - gum arabic, 102 - addition of salt, 102 - addition of alcohol, 102 - addition of tannin, 102 - method of operation, 103 - implements for stirring, 103 - time necessary for, 103 - new wines, 50 - sweet wines, 106 - sherry, 124 - to age wine, 84 - before aging, 84 - wines extracted from lees, 179, 180 - Finings, see fining. - leaving wine on, 91, 104 - _Fino_, see sherry. - Fish Glue, see fining. - Flatness, influence of air, 78 - in casks, 65 - Flat wine, 137 - Flavor developed by aging, 76, 77 - how lost, 77 - causes of change of, 77 - sulphur, causes and removal, 73 - foreign, 147 - barrel, cask, 145 - sherry, madeira, port, 213 - fruity, see fruity flavor. - Flowers on wine, 31, 77, 118, 137 - Fortified wines, see sweet wines. - Fortifying, see alcohol. - rule for, 208 - Foul casks, 64 - French wines generally mixed, 171 - alcohol and acid in, xii - Froth in filling a cask, 104 - Frozen wine, 81 - Fruity flavor, how lost, 50, 52, 99 - preferred by _gourmets_, 84 - Fruit pits, see bouquet, artificial. - Funnels, see utensils. - Furmint wine, 107 - - Gallons of must per ton of grapes, 200, 201 - of wine per ton of grapes, 201 - of liquid, weight of, 206 - Galvanized iron affected by wine, 203 - Gas in empty casks, 64 - Gathering grapes, maturity, utensils, 1 - number of pickers, 1, 12 - when to commence, 1 - time of, successive gathering, 2 - before complete maturity, 4 - after complete maturity, 5 - Gelatine, see fining. - General treatment of table wines, 86 - sweet wines, 105 - see different wines - Gillyflower, see bouquet, artificial. - Glass, materials in, 157 - Gleucometer, gleuco-œnometer, 8 - Glucose, must, 6 - for a gallon of wine, 16 - cost of glucose wine, 16 - effect on Burgundy, 14 - experiment, 17 - use condemned, 17 - name of user published, 18 - grape sugar, generally, 32 - Glue, fish, see fining - Glycerine, produced by fermentation, 34 - in wine, 186, 192 - _Gourmets_, wine preferred by, 84 - _Gout d’évent_, see flatness. - _de travail_, 151 - Graduated measures, see utensils. - Grand wines should not be aged artificially, 84 - see different practices and treatment, - red wine, white wine. - Grapes, prices in California, v - Mission, v - picking, 1 - see gathering, maturity. - sorting, 3 - tons stemmed and crushed in a day, 24 - gallons of wine per ton of, 201 - juice, see must. - per cent. of stems in different, 201 - sugar, 6, 32 - Grassy flavor, 128 - Green wine, mixing, 174 - Greenness, 128 - Gum arabic, see fining. - Gypsum, see plastering. - - Head wines, see white wines. - Heat, influence on wine, 78 - aging by, 79 - preserving by, 80 - destroys ferment germs, 81 - see fermentation. - Heating Madeira, 113 - Hoop, adjustable, see utensils. - Houses, fermenting, 38, 109 - Hydrometer, 7, 8, 9 - tables, see appendix. - Hygienic effects of red and white wine, 54 - - Ichthyocol, see fining. - Implements, see utensils. - Influences, effect of various on wine, 76 - which develop, also destroy, 77 - Ingredients in wine, see composition. - Insensible fermentation, 47 - when finished, 48 - Insolation, see sunlight. - Iris, see bouquet, artificial. - Iron affected by wine, 202, 203 - Isinglass, see fining. - - Juice, grape, proportion to marc, 200 - see must. - - Lactic fermentation, 29 - acid, 186, 194 - see milk, fining. - _Lagar_, see port, sherry. - Lead affected by wine, 202 - Lead-colored wine, 134 - Leaky casks, see casks. - Lees, marc, piquette, 176 - residues often put in the still, 176 - wine, 176 - should not be neglected, 176 - quantity of wine contained in, 176 - contents of dry parts, analysis, 176 - composition varies, 176 - treatment of, 177 - wine should not be left long in - contact with, 178, 180 - except sweet, 106 - casks for, barreling, 177 - sulphuring, storing, ulling, 177 - how often to draw wine from, 178 - from diseased wine, put by themselves, 178 - extracting wine from with siphon, 178 - extracting wine from with faucet, 179 - fining wine extracted from, 179 - wines from lack color, difficult to clarify, 180 - red wine from, to fine, 180 - white wine from, to fine, 180 - pressing thick sediment, 180 - sacks for, 181 - press for, 181 - applying pressure, 182 - to remove from casks, 63 - use of dry, 182 - flavor of, 134, 151, 165 - see racking, fining, etc. - marc or pomace, piquette, 182 - unfermented and partly fermented pomace, 183 - fermented marc, 183 - Pezeyre’s method of washing, 183 - deposits, 86, 166 - Light, influence on wine, 82 - port, 112 - aging by, 82 - Liqueur wines, see sweet wines. - Liquid, to ascertain weight of, 206 - Lime, bisulphite, 74 - see diseases. - Loss by evaporation, see cellars, casks, size of. - - Madeira, 113 - making, casks, treatment, 113 - adding alcohol, 113 - heating, heating houses, 113 - general treatment, 114 - solera system, ullage, 114 - alcoholic strength, 115 - flavor, 213 - Malic acid, 186, 193 - Mannite, 186, 191 - Mannitic fermentation, 29 - Marc of sweet wine, use of, 107 - passing wine over, 139 - proportion of juice to, 200 - see lees, marc, piquette. - Matches, sulphur, 70 - Matters in wine, see composition. - Maturity of grapes, 3 - signs of, 4 - gathering before complete, 4 - gathering after complete, 5 - according to required strength, 5 - for port, 108 - Maturity for sherry, 115 - of wine, see white, red wine, aging. - Maumené’s sulphurer, 69 - Mellowness, how lost, 52, 84 - cause of, 191 - see white, red wine. - Measures, graduated, see utensils. - Metal utensils, wood preferable, 202 - affected by wine, 202 - Middle wines, see white wines, _centres_. - Mignonette, see bouquet, artificial. - Milk, see fining. - Miscellaneous chapter, 200 - Mission grape, v - Mixing pressings, 45, 47 - see red, white, port. - wines, see cutting. - _Monté, vin_, 151 - Mother of vinegar, 30 - Motion, effect of, aging, 82, 84 - shipping, 83 - Mouldy casks, 65 - flavor, 147 - Mucilage, 186, 191 - Muscat, sweet, 107 - Must, composition of, 6 - grape sugar, glucose, 6 - scale, saccharometer, 7, 8 - testing for sugar, 8 - proper amount of sugar, 11, 12 - sugaring, 13 - nothing gained by, 15 - artificial, 14 - cost of, 16 - glucose, experiment with, 17 - condemned, 17 - watering, 18 - when allowable, 16 - aerating, 23, 43 - rule for reducing, 206 - why sulphured, 69 - unfermented, sulphuring, 72 - clarifying, care of, 72 - prepared in two ways, 72 - proportion of to marc, 200 - shipping, 83 - of sweet wine, 57, 58, 105 - of dry white wine, density, 56 - of mellow wine, 57, 58 - of port, 108 - boiling, 101 - per ton of grapes, 201 - California, viii - Musty, see mouldy. - Mute wine, 72 - _Mycoderma aceti_, 30 - _Mycoderma vini_, 31 - see flowers. - - Natural defects, 126 - New red wine, treatment of, 47 - summary of rules, 50 - white wine, 58, 60 - wine differs from old, 76 - influence of heat, 78, 79 - shipping, 83 - see racking, fining. - Nutmeg, see bouquet, artificial. - - Oakwood, see casks, vats. - Oechsle’s must-scale, 7, 8, 9, 10 - Oenocyanine, 192 - Old red wine, treatment, 51 - characteristics, 52, 76, 77 - wine, influence of heat, 78, 79 - see racking, albuminous substances, fining. - _Oloroso_, see sherry. - - Passing wine over marc, 139 - Pedro Jimenes grape, 119 - Pectic acid, 193 - Pectin, 192 - Pectose, 192 - _Pèse-sirop_, _pèse mout_, 7 - Picking grapes, 1 - see gathering. - Piling bottles, 163 - Piquette, see lees, marc, piquette. - Pitchers, see utensils. - Plastering, 208 - common in Spain and South of France, 208 - objects, 209 - chemical effects, 209 - effects on health, 210 - report of committee at Montpellier, 210 - of _conseil des armées_, 211 - instructions of French Minister of justice, 211 - sherry and quantity added, 115, 212 - chemical reaction, 213 - by adding water, 213 - Pomace, per cent. in different grapes, 200, 201 - see lees, marc, piquette. - stirring in vat, 42 - Port wine, 108 - must, fermentation, maturity of grapes, 108 - filling lagar, stirring, drawing off, - sorting grapes, 108 - treading, 109 - Vizitelli’s description, 109 - adding alcohol, 111, 112 - storing, racking, 111 - storehouses, 112 - mixing, 112 - loses color in wood, 112 - alcoholic strength of, 112 - becomes weaker by evaporation, 112 - flavor, 213 - _Pousse_, 151 - Powdered stone, see fining. - Powders, clarifying, see fining. - Preserving by heat, 80 - Pressing and press wine, red, 47 - white wine, 56 - sweet wine, 107 - sediment, 180 - see different wines. - Pressings, mixing, different, 46, 47 - Presses, wine, 46 - for lees, 181 - Prices of grapes in California, v - Pricked wine, 140 - Proportion of juice to marc, 200 - wine to grapes, 201 - Pumps, 97, 98 - hand, see utensils. - Putrefaction, putrid fermentation, - decomposition, 29, 87, 136, 152, 167 - - _Queues_, see white wine. - - Racking, objects of, 91 - first time, 91, 92 - leaving wine on finings, 91 - rules for, 91, 92 - new red wines, 50, 92 - before shipping, 50 - old red wine, 51, 53, 93 - new white wine, 93 - subsequent rackings, 60, 93 - care to be observed, other precautions, 94 - lees must not be disturbed, 94 - different methods, 95 - by bucket and funnel, 95 - implements for tipping cask, 95 - without contact with air, 97 - pumps and siphons, 97 - see different wines. - Racks for bottles, 164 - _Rancio_ flavor caused by heat, 80 - in bottles, 167 - Red wine, 39 - coloring matter, 39 - fermenting tanks, or vats, filling same, 39 - open vats, closed vats, 40 - best practice, 41 - hermetically sealed vats, 42 - practice in the Médoc, 42 - stirring pomace in vat, 42 - souring of the crust, 43 - when to draw from vats, 43 - duration of fermentation, 44 - objections to long vatting, fine wines, 44 - how to know when to draw from vats, 45 - method of drawing from vats, filling casks, 45 - wine presses, 46 - pressing and press wine, 47 - practice for fine wines, 47 - treatment of new, 47 - insensible fermentation, 47 - storing new, 48 - tasting, filling up or ulling, 48 - summary of rules for treatment of, 50 - of old, 51 - characteristics of age, 51, 52 - grand and common characteristics, 52 - how soon bright, 52 - summary of rules for, 53 - hygienic effects of, 54 - how differs from white, 54 - should be sparingly sulphured, 71 - fining, see gelatine, 100 - see blood, milk, white of eggs, 101 - red wine extracted from lees, 180 - put in colored bottles, 157 - with earthy flavor, 128 - see racking, fining, etc. - Reducing must and wine, see rules. - Redwood, see casks, vats. - Rinsing chain for casks, 63 - Ripeness, signs of, 4 - see maturity. - Ropiness, viscous fermentation, 29, 148, 167 - Ropy wines should not be sulphured, 71 - Rotten casks, 66 - Roughness, 130 - improved by aging, 85 - Rules to ascertain weight of liquid, 206 - for reducing must, 206 - for sugaring must, 206 - for fortifying and reducing wine, 207 - to reduce with water, 207 - weaker wine, 208 - to fortify with stronger wine or alcohol, 208 - - Saccharometer, 7, 8 - _Saccharomyces cerevuisiæ_, 25 - conditions of life, 26 - action of chemical and physical agents, 28 - destroyed by heat and alcohol, 81 - Sacks for pressing lees, 181 - Salt in clarifying, see fining. - Salicylic acid, 75 - Sand, see fining. - Sassafras, see bouquet artificial. - Sealing wax for casks, 161 - to remove, 162 - Sea voyage, effect of, see aging. - Seeds should not be broken in crushing, 23 - tannin from, 103 - yield fatty matters, 192 - Settling and skimming must for white wine, 75 - Sherry, 115 - climate, vintage, crushing gypsum, 115 - pressing, 116 - stemming, fermenting, racking, 117 - fortifying, 117, 123 - casks in ullage and open, 117 - a nearly dry wine, 118 - _bodegas_ or storehouses, 118 - seasoned casks alone used, 118 - changes in the wine, 118 - _fino_, _oloroso_, _basto_, 118 - flowers, 118 - _vino dulce_, or sweet wine, - and preparation, 119 - _vino de color_, or color wine, - and preparation, _arrope_, 119 - mature wine, 120 - solera system, 120 - establishing a solera, 120 - standard soleras, 121 - drawing the wine, 122 - blending for shipment, 122 - formulas, fining, 123 - influence of air, 78 - flavor, 213 - Shipments of wine and brandy from California, vi - Shipping, rack before, 50, 106 - wine suitable for, 12, 82 - new wine or must, 83 - Shot, do not clean bottles with, 156 - Siphons, 97 - of glass, 178 - to clean, 95 - Skimming and settling must (white wine), 55 - Smoothness increased by pressure, 42 - Solera, see sherry. - Sorting grapes, 3, 108 - for grand white wines, 57 - Sour casks, 65 - Sourness, 132, 140 - Spirit, see alcohol, see tables in appendix. - Stems, effect on fermentation, 20 - how to remove, 22 - when to ferment with, 20, 21 - increase tannin, 20, 21 - when to remove, 20, 21 - effect of too long contact, 21 - flavor, 21, 44, 131 - per cent. in different grapes, 201 - Stemmers, 21 - Stemming, diversity of opinion, 20 - effect of, 20 - proper practice, 20 - see sherry, 117 - and crushing, 20 - rapidity of operation, 24 - special practice, 24 - Stills, assay, 187, 190 - Stirring implements, fining, 103 - pomace, see aerating, treading, vats, port. - Stockgilly, see bouquet, artificial. - Stone, powdered, see fining. - Storing casks, 61 - wine, see different wines, cellars. - casks for, 67 - Straw wines, 108 - Strawberry, see bouquet artificial. - Substances in wine, see composition. - Succinic acid, 34, 194 - Sugar, grape, 6 - testing for in must, 8 - in wine, 190 - correction for temperature, 10 - and alcohol, 11, 34 - in must of dry wines, 11, 12, 56 - sweet wines, 57, 105 - weight of for a pound of alcohol, 16 - for a gallon of wine, 16 - crystalized, purity of, 16 - and glucose generally, 32 - limits of in fermentation, 36 - necessary to growth of yeast, 27 - not all converted by first fermentation, 45 - to increase in grapes, 105 - in must, to reduce, rules, 206 - see must, tables in appendix. - Sugaring and watering must, 13 - carried too far, 13 - effect on burgundy, 14 - artificial must, 14 - nothing gained by sugaring, 15 - cost of glucose wine, 16 - experiment with glucose, 17 - glucose condemned, 17 - rule for sugaring, 206 - watering, 18 - rule for, 207 - Sulphur matches or bands, how made, 70 - flavor, how caused, 73 - how removed, 74 - Sulphurer or sulphur burner, 69 - Sulphuring casks, 62, 69, 70 - caution, 71 - partly empty, 73 - wine, 69, 71 - when to avoid, 71 - from lees, 177 - must, 69, 72 - white wine to arrest fermentation, 69, 72 - Sulphurous acid, 69 - arrests fermentation in two ways, 69 - aqueous solution of, 74 - see acetic fermentation, 31 - Sunlight, influence on wine, 82 - aging by, 82 - Sweet, fortified, liqueur wines, 105 - defined, 105 - sweetness of must for, 57, 105 - natural alcohol in, 105 - increasing sugar in grapes, 105 - without fermentation, 105 - care required, 105 - alcohol necessary to keep, 105 - fining, rack before shipping, 106 - boiling must, 106 - to be kept on lees, 106 - sweet muscat, 107 - pressing, 107 - marc, use of, 107 - alcohol, amount to add, 107 - density of, 107 - Furmint wine, 107 - straw wines, 108 - should not be sulphured, 71 - influence of heat, aging, 79, 80 - of sunlight, 82 - casks for, 55 - see air, influence of, heat, influence of, - red wine, white wine, port, - Madeira, sherry. - - Table wines, see treatment. - of substances in wine, 186 - of sugar, density, alcohol, hydrometers, - see appendix. - Tail wines, see white wines. - Tanks, see fermenting tanks. - Tannin increased by stems, 20, 21 - how to know if sufficient, 21 - excess of, how avoided 130 - how removed, 100, 131 - when added in fining, 102 - tannic acid, 102, 193 - use and proportions, 102 - from the vine preferred, 103 - how prepared from seeds, 103 - from stems, 103 - tannified wine, 103 - soaking seeds in wine, 103 - _Taré, vin_, 151 - Tartaric acid, 193 - see wine, California, European, acid in. - Tasters, see utensils. - Tawny color by age, 77 - see old wine. - flavor by heat, 80 - in bottles, 167 - Temperature, correction for in sugar testing, 10 - effect on yeast, 27, 81 - in fermentation, 37 - variation of, aging, 78 - see heat, cellars, hydrometers. - Testing for sugar in must, 8 - in wine, 190 - _Têtes_, see white wines. - Tin, affected by wine, 203 - Tipping casks, implements for, 95 - Tithe wines, see cutting. - _Tourné, vin_, 151 - _Travail, goût de_, 151 - Treading in vat, 42, 109 - crushing, 22, 109, 113, 116 - aerating must, 23, 43 - Treatment, general, of table wines, 86 - sweet wines, 105 - deposits, lees, 86 - degeneration, 86 - of Madeira, 113 - of wine in bottles, 165 - see different wines, cellars, racking, - fining, aging, etc. - Tubes to clean, 95 - Tuns, see casks, cellars. - Turbidity in bottles, 166 - see lees, deposits, etc. - - Ulling the casks, 48 - utensils for, 49 - Unfermented must, 72 - clarifying, care of, 73 - Unfortified wines, see treatment. - Utensils, wooden or metal, 202 - effect of wine on metals, 202 - cleanliness necessary, 203 - different cellar, 204, 205 - pitchers of tin and wood, 204 - wooden vessels, 204 - wooden funnels, 204 - adjustable hoop, 204 - bottle baskets, 205 - graduated measures, 205 - tin tasters, 205 - hand pump, 205 - for removing corks, 205 - for stirring, fining, 103 - for ulling, 49 - bung screw, 158 - bottle washer, 156 - bottle drainers, 156 - reservoir for filling bottles, 157 - corking machines, needles, 159, 160 - to remove wax, 162 - capsuler, 162 - bottle racks and bins, 164 - decanting basket, 169 - instrument, 169 - corkscrews, 169 - presses, wine, 46 - lees, 181 - sacks for pressing lees, 181 - for tipping a cask, 95 - rinsing chain, 63 - visitor to examine casks, 63 - crushers, 23 - for racking, 95, 96, 97 - for picking grapes, 1 - - Variations of temperature, aging, 78 - Valeric acid, 194 - Vats, see fermenting vats. - Vatting, long, effects of, 44 - Ventilation, see cellars, 88 - Vessels, see utensils. - Vine flowers, see bouquet, artificial. - _Vin de liqueur_, see sweet wines. - _monté_, _taré_, _tourné_, 151 - _dulce_, see sherry. - Vinegar, mother of, 30 - see acetic acid, acetic fermentation. - Vineyards, acreage of in California, vi - Vinification, essentials the same everywhere, vii - Vinous fermentation, see alcoholic fermentation. - Viscous fermentation, 29 - Visitor to examine casks, 63 - Voyage, effect on wine, see aging. - - Water, necessary to growth of yeast, 27 - Watering must, 18 - when allowable, 19 - rule for, 206 - wine, rule for, 207 - Wax for sealing corks, 161 - how removed, 162 - Weakness in alcohol, 133 - Weight of a liquid, to ascertain, 206 - Whip for stirring, 103 - White of eggs, see fining. - White wine, 54 - from red and white grapes, 54 - how differs from red, 54 - hygienic effects, 54 - process of making, 55 - settling and skimming, 55 - to keep sweet, 55 - to make dry, 55 - barrels for, 55 - filling barrels during fermentation, 55 - pressing and filling casks, 56 - different kinds of, 56 - dry white wines, 56 - mellow white wines, 56 - sweet white wines, see sweet wines. 57 - grand white wines, 57 - ripening the grapes, _pourris_, 57 - _têtes_, _centres_, _queues_, - head, middle, tail, 57 - treatment of, 58 - density of must to keep sweet, 58 - dry wines, 59 - mellow wines, 59 - summary of rules, racking, 60 - sulphured to keep from turning yellow, 69, 71 - bleached with sulphur, 71 - with blood, milk, 101 - fermentation arrested by sulphuring, 72 - fining, see gelatine, 100 - isinglass, 100 - white of eggs, blood, milk, 101 - extracted from lees, 180 - with earthy flavor, 128 - matures earlier than red, 155 - mixing with red, 175 - in transparent bottles, 157 - Wild taste, 128 - Wine, California, shipments, vi - product, vi - alcohol and acid in, ix, x, 220 - European, alcohol and acid in, xii - Wine making, essentials everywhere the same, vii - plastering, 208 - grand and common, characteristics, 52, 84 - red, maturity of, 52 - new, treatment of, 47 - old, treatment of, 51, 53 - see red wine. - why sulphured, 69 - how sulphured, 71 - when to be sulphured, 71 - effect of heat, 78, 79, 80 - varies in different casks, 67 - dry strength of, 11 - constantly undergoing changes, 76 - influence of heat, 78 - preserving by heat, 80 - weak, see influence of air. - heat, sunlight, see aging. - suitable for shipment, 82 - shipping new, 83 - kinds preferred by _gourmets_, 84 - which gain most by aging processes, 85 - diseased, see defects and diseases. - what liable to sour, 140 - duration of, 152 - lees, see lees. - from lees, see lees. - composition of, 185 - proportion of to grapes, 201 - rules for reducing and fortifying, 207 - mixing, see cutting. - bad, often due to want of cleanliness, 203 - should not be left on the lees - and finings, 178, 180 - unless sweet, 106 - presses, 46 - tannified, 103 - see aging, white wine, red wine, sweet, - fortified, new wine, old wine, grand wine, - general treatment, frozen wine, - the different kinds. - Wine in bottles, bottling, 154 - when ready for bottling, 154 - how long to remain in wood, 154 - how prepared for bottling, 155 - most favorable time for, 155 - bottles, washing, bottle washer, etc., 156 - shot must not be used, 156 - draining, drainers, 156 - rinsing with wine, 156 - sorting, 157 - different kinds, 157 - materials in glass, 157 - filling, adjusting casks, etc., 157 - reservoirs for, 157 - corks, 158 - corking machines, needles, 159, 160 - preparing the corks, 160 - how far inserted, 160 - sealing corks, 161 - sealing wax for, how made, how applied, 161 - coloring the wax, 161 - capsules and capsuling, 162 - pincers for removing wax, 162 - capsuler, 162 - piling bottles, 162 - bottle racks and bins, 164 - treatment of wine in bottles, 165 - fermentation in the bottles, 165 - deposits, turbidity, 166 - bitterness, acrity, ropiness, 167 - degeneration and putridity, 167 - decantation, 168 - corkscrews, baskets, 169 - operation of decanting, 169 - decanting instrument, 169 - Wood, wine, how long to remain in, 154 - Wooden utensils preferable, 202 - - Yeast plant, 25 - functions of, 26 - surface and sedimentary, 26 - conditions of life, physical and chemical, 26 - temperature, 27 - action of chemical and physical agents, 28 - water, sugar, oxygen, etc., necessary, 27 - origin of ferments, 31 - Yeasty flavor, see lees, flavor of. - Yellows, see white wine, sulphuring. - Yield of juice by different grapes, 200 - wine per ton of grapes, 201 - - Zinc affected by wine, 202, 203 - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE WINE PRESS AND THE CELLAR *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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