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diff --git a/old/66711-0.txt b/old/66711-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 1cf6183..0000000 --- a/old/66711-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,3036 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Almond in California, by R. H. Taylor - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: The Almond in California - -Author: R. H. Taylor - -Release Date: November 11, 2021 [eBook #66711] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -Produced by: Charlene Taylor and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team - at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images - generously made available by The Internet Archive/American - Libraries.) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ALMOND IN CALIFORNIA *** - - - - - - _UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PUBLICATIONS_ - - COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE - AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION - BERKELEY, CALIFORNIA - - THE ALMOND IN CALIFORNIA - - BY - R. H. TAYLOR - - BULLETIN No. 297 - AUGUST, 1918 - - UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS - BERKELEY - 1918 - - - BENJAMIN IDE WHEELER, President of the University. - - -EXPERIMENT STATION STAFF - - -HEADS OF DIVISIONS - - THOMAS FORSYTH HUNT, Director. - EDWARD J. WICKSON, Horticulture (Emeritus). - HERBERT J. WEBBER, Director Citrus Experiment Station; Plant Breeding. - HUBERT E. VAN NORMAN, Vice-Director; Dairy Management. - WILLIAM A. SETCHELL, Botany. - MYER E. JAFFA, Nutrition. - CHARLES W. WOODWORTH, Entomology. - RALPH E. SMITH, Plant Pathology. - J. ELIOT COIT, Citriculture. - JOHN W. GILMORE, Agronomy. - CHARLES F. SHAW, Soil Technology. - JOHN W. GREGG, Landscape Gardening and Floriculture. - FREDERIC T. BIOLETTI, Viticulture and Enology. - WARREN T. CLARKE, Agricultural Extension. - JOHN S. BURD, Agricultural Chemistry. - CHARLES B. LIPMAN, Soil Chemistry and Bacteriology. - ‡CLARENCE M. HARING, Veterinary Science and Bacteriology. - ERNEST B. BABCOCK, Genetics. - GORDON H. TRUE, Animal Husbandry. - JAMES T. BARRETT, Plant Pathology. - FRITZ W. WOLL, Animal Nutrition. - WALTER MULFORD, Forestry. - W. P. KELLEY, Agricultural Chemistry. - H. J. QUAYLE, Entomology. - J. B. DAVIDSON, Agricultural Engineering. - ELWOOD MEAD, Rural Institutions. - H. S. REED, Plant Physiology. - W. L. HOWARD, Pomology. - †FRANK ADAMS, Irrigation Investigations. - C. L. ROADHOUSE, Dairy Industry. - O. J. KERN, Agricultural Education. - JOHN E. DOUGHERTY, Poultry Husbandry. - S. S. ROGERS, Olericulture. - J. G. MOODEY, Assistant to the Director. - Mrs. D. L. BUNNELL, Librarian. - - -DIVISION OF POMOLOGY - - W. L. HOWARD - R. H. TAYLOR - A. H. HENDRICKSON - *E. L. OVERHOLSER - W. P. TUFTS - W. L. SWEET - G. L. PHILP - ‡V. W. HOFFMAN - M. N. WOOD - -‡ In military service. - -† In co-operation with office of Public Roads and Rural Engineering, U. -S. Department of Agriculture. - -* Exchange professor from Cornell University for 1918-19. - - - - -THE ALMOND IN CALIFORNIA - -BY R. H. TAYLOR - - - - -INTRODUCTION - - -The almond (_Prunus communis_) is supposed to be native to the countries -around the Mediterranean and at present the bulk of the world’s supply -is produced in that region. It resembles the peach somewhat in manner of -growth and character of blossoms and leaves, but the wood is much harder -and the tree is longer-lived under equally favorable conditions. The -fruit, instead of having a thick, fleshy pericarp as in the case of the -peach, has a thin, leathery pericarp or hull, which splits on ripening -and generally opens when dry, exposing the nut inside. - -California produces over 98 per cent of the entire American crop and has -done so for many years. During the period from 1900 to 1913 the number -of bearing trees remained approximately the same, new plantings having -replaced old orchards that were being pulled out. The variation in -California production from year to year prior to 1915, as shown in figure -1, is due to seasonal variations rather than to change in acreage. - -Imports into the United States from the Mediterranean countries are also -shown in figure 1, the top line representing the total imports, the other -lines, as indicated, showing the proportion of that total originating in -the three principal countries exporting to the United States. Previous to -1912 the records of shelled and unshelled almonds were not kept separate. -Since the records have been segregated, the percentages of shelled -almonds imported each year have been approximately as follows: - - Per cent - 1912-13 83 - 1913-14 70 - 1914-15 71 - 1915-16 82 - 1916-17 79 - --- - Average 77 - -With the 1915 crop the production in California entered upon what appears -to be a long prospective increase. The large acreage of almonds set out -in the last four or five years is the result of greatly improved market -conditions due to the successful work of the California Almond Growers’ -Exchange. The first of these new plantings are now coming into bearing, -and each year for many years in the future will continue to see increased -yields. Large acreages are still being planted so that the almond -production in California bids fair to continue to grow. - -Within the next few years California growers will, in all probability, -be forced to accept lower prices for their almonds than they are now -receiving. The American markets are fully supplied at present prices, -yet constantly increasing acreage will inevitably result in a greatly -increased tonnage. European almonds are being produced at a lower net -cost and can be laid down on the Atlantic Coast more cheaply than is -possible with the California product. This brings the grower face to face -with the necessity of becoming more thoroughly familiar with the most -economical methods of production and marketing if they are to continue -to make a profit. It is essential, therefore, that a careful study be -made of all the factors concerned in the growth, production and final -disposition of the almond crop. - - -HABITS - -The almond is the first of the deciduous fruit trees to start growth -and come into bloom in the spring, and normally the last one to shed -its leaves in the fall. In other words, it has a very short period of -rest. When the trees are forced into premature dormancy by mites or -lack of moisture, they soon reach the end of their normal rest period -before the winter season is over. Then the first warm weather in spring -will bring the trees into blossom. In some cases where moisture and -temperature conditions are favorable late in the fall, they may actually -blossom before the winter season. In young trees that have become dormant -unusually early, the rest period may terminate and then the tips of the -branches resume growth and continue to slowly develop new leaves at the -terminals throughout the winter. Trees which have been kept growing -thriftily until the leaves have been forced to fall by the cold weather -and frosts of winter, do not tend to blossom as early in the spring, nor -do they open under the influence of a few days of warm weather in late -winter or early spring. - -Young trees blossom somewhat later than the older trees, and buds on -sucker growth blossom later than the more mature portions of the same -tree. The difference may amount to three or four days or almost a week. -Well-grown trees carry large numbers of blossoms over the entire tree, as -shown in figure 2. - -[Illustration: Fig. 1.—IMPORTS OF ALMONDS INTO THE U.S. - -Crops of 1899 to 1917.] - -The wood of the almond is very hard and strong, enabling the tree to bear -the weight of heavy crops where pruning has been given proper attention -during the formative period of the young tree. As with other fruit trees, -the almond is subject to heart-rot and care should always be exercised -to prevent the checking and cracking of large wounds and consequent -infection with decay organisms. The hardness of the wood makes it the -finest kind of fuel, and when old orchards are being dug up the returns -from the sale of wood often more than pay for the expense of digging and -cutting up the trees and burning the brush. - -The nuts are of two general classes—sweet and bitter almonds. The former -is primarily the almond of commerce, though the latter is used largely -in the manufacture of almond oil and almond flavoring, as well as in -the manufacture of prussic acid. The bitter almond is also used largely -in nurseries as a rootstock upon which to bud the almond and some other -fruits. - -For a long time there has been considerable evidence to show that some -varieties are always self-sterile while a few are sometimes self-fertile. -Work done in 1916 and 1917 by Tufts[1] shows that practically all -varieties are self-sterile and that some of the self-sterile varieties -are also inter-sterile. In these tests the principal commercial varieties -were used. Blossoms of each variety were pollenized with pollen from -its own blossoms and from each of the others. Checks were for natural -pollination with each variety. The important results of this work are -briefly summarized as follows: - -The Nonpareil and I.X.L. are inter-sterile, although both are -inter-fertile with the Ne Plus Ultra. - -The Languedoc and Texas are inter-sterile. - -The I.X.L. and Peerless are practically inter-sterile. - -The California has proved the best pollenizer thus far tested, for all -varieties that bloom near it. - -The Drake is inter-fertile with the Nonpareil, I.X.L., Ne Plus Ultra, -Peerless and Jordan, the only ones tested. - -The I.X.L. is inter-fertile with the Drake, Jordan, California, -Languedoc, Ne Plus Ultra and Texas. - -The Ne Plus Ultra is inter-fertile with the California, Drake, I.X.L., -Languedoc and Nonpareil. - - -REQUIREMENTS - -While the almond is in many ways an easy tree to grow where conditions -are favorable, it is more particular in its requirements than most -common orchard fruits, and the grower may find it difficult to produce -a good, thrifty tree unless he chooses the proper location. Very often -it will grow well and make a fine healthy tree, but owing to unfavorable -conditions, will not bear regularly, if it all. - -[Illustration: Fig. 2.—Seven-year-old Ne Plus Ultra almond in full bloom, -at the University Farm, March, 1915, showing distribution of blossoms -well down into center of tree. Paper bags cover blossoms pollenized by -hand.] - - -CLIMATE - -_Heat._—Where the conditions of soil and moisture are favorable the -almond will endure the intense heat of the interior valleys and even of -the Imperial Valley, provided it is pruned properly to shade the main -branches so as to prevent sunburn. Where trees, by severe pruning, are -opened up suddenly to the intense heat of the summer sun, almonds will -sunburn, but if the necessary opening up is done gradually, the bark will -become inured to the new conditions without danger. The nuts grow and -ripen more satisfactorily in the greater heat of the interior than along -the coast. - -_Frost._—The almond tree is hardy and will endure fully as much cold -as the hardiest peach without injury. Trees are found growing well in -Illinois, Ohio, New York and other Eastern states. In very favorable -seasons they may even bear fruit, though this happens very seldom, due to -the extremely early habit of blooming before the spring frosts are over. -The first warm weather seems to start the trees into bloom, especially -where the enforced dormant season of winter is very long. - -The blossoms, on the other hand, are very tender. There is a great range -in the degree of frost which will cause injury, depending largely on the -condition of the tree during the time that the fruit buds are forming and -developing, as well as on the duration and severity of the frost. Buds -and blossoms on trees which have been forced into premature dormancy, -either by lack of moisture or by severe attacks of red spider, are much -more susceptible to frost than those on trees which have continued -growth late enough in the fall to provide for the proper development and -maturity of the buds. After differentiation of fruit buds commences in -the summer, the almond leaves should remain on the tree until late into -the fall in order to strengthen and develop the fruit buds and store up -the elaborated food material for the use of the buds in their normal -development through the winter. Studies of almond buds gathered from -healthy trees which held their leaves until late fall frosts at Davis, -showed the first evidence of differentiation between fruit and flower -buds commencing about August 18, while the flower was not completely -developed until February 18 following. During the intervening time -development proceeded unchecked through the winter even though the tree -was apparently dormant. During the time the crop is ripening on the -trees, little is done toward storing food material for the buds. If the -leaves turn yellow or drop soon after harvest, the trees do not have the -opportunity of storing a sufficient supply of plant food for their normal -requirements and the buds are insufficiently nourished during the winter -period. The resulting buds are weakened and the indications are that they -are unable to endure unfavorable climatic conditions in the spring, such -as light frosts, continued cold weather or sudden changes from warm to -cold weather. - -The most tender stage in the blossoming and development of the young -fruit seems to be immediately following the dropping of the calyx lobes -from the young fruit as it first commences to swell rapidly. The blossom -becomes more and more tender as it opens out and reaches the above stage. -After the young fruit has attained the size of a pea it rapidly becomes -more resistant to low temperatures. Blossoms with the petals exposed but -not yet opened have been known to stand temperatures of 24 degrees F. -and blossoms with petals beginning to fall have stood 28 degrees F. No -records are available as to the duration of these temperatures. In other -cases, blossoms with the petals falling have been killed by temperatures -of 30 and 31 degrees F. It must be remembered in this connection that -the almond blooms earlier than other orchard fruits and, therefore, is -often subjected to much more severe frosts than occur during the blooming -period of the later fruits. The greatest injury is likely to occur when a -frost follows one or more days of warm weather. When the mean temperature -both day and night remains low, frosts that might otherwise kill the -flowers or setting fruit do no harm. This is what occurred in February, -1917, at the University Farm, when repeated frosts at blooming time did -no harm whatever. - -In determining the desirability of a location in regard to its freedom -from frost, the possibility of adequate air drainage is an important -item. For this reason the lands along the lower foothills immediately -above the floor of the valleys are ordinarily much less subject to -frost—because the cold air is free to drain away to the lower levels. -Generally the lands along the banks of streams which have been built -up higher than the other lands of the Great Valleys through which they -flow, are less subject to frost by reason of the natural flow of the -cold air from them to the lower lands adjacent. For the same reason the -planting of almonds in the lower lands of the valleys, no matter how -large the valleys may be, should be avoided, unless the locality has been -thoroughly tested for a long period of years and has proved to be an -exception to the rule because of some peculiar situation with favoring -air currents or air drainage, such as might exist near a natural draw -in the hills where the settling of the cold air in some portions of the -adjacent valley might be prevented. Such locations are generally confined -to very small areas. Oftentimes an opening or draw in the hills may -serve as an outlet for the drainage of much colder air from considerably -higher elevations beyond, and then the danger from frost is very greatly -increased. This is very common where cañons act as drains to conduct the -cold air from the high Sierras to the valleys below. - -Variable weather conditions, and especially as regards temperature in -the spring after growth commences, are highly undesirable. Warm weather -immediately followed by cold tends to produce sour-sap, fruit drop and -kindred physiological ills. Oftentimes crops have been lost where no -frosts occurred after blooming commenced, simply due to sudden changes -in the weather. However, it is highly probable that the greater portion -of the trouble with fruit dropping, when of the size of peas or larger, -is due to improper pollination. When the soil is not sufficiently well -drained at such a time, the sour-sap effect is greatly augmented. - -_Humidity._—Foggy or moist weather during ripening or harvesting is -highly objectionable. The nuts do not dry out rapidly enough on the trees -to prevent the growth of molds and consequent darkening of the shells. -The nuts then require much heavier bleaching to brighten them properly -for the demands of the market. The damp weather prevents the rapid and -thorough drying-out of the kernel; the sulphur fumes are absorbed by the -moist kernel and it sometimes becomes rancid before it is six months old. - -Much damp weather in the spring encourages the growth of “shot-hole” -fungus in the blossoms and fruit, often causing the loss of a -considerable portion of the crop; the loss of leaf surface from the -fungus infection is sometimes so great as to materially affect the vigor -and vitality of the tree. - -_Rainfall._—It is impossible to state any definite amount of rainfall -which will or will not maintain the trees and enable them to bear regular -crops of nuts, for so much depends not only on the variation in rainfall -in different sections and in different years, as regards distribution -throughout the year, but also on the time and intensity of the fall, -the character of the weather following the rains and the ability of the -soil to receive and retain the rain that falls. Ordinarily, however, -with the above factors favorable, it is conceded that where the winter -rainfall averages sixteen inches, almonds can generally be grown without -supplementing the water supply by irrigation, if the orchardist exercises -reasonable care to conserve the moisture for the use of the trees. Where -the rainfall is inadequate some means of irrigation must be found to make -up the deficit. - -In some sections the annual rainfall varies greatly from year to year. -Often it falls in such a way that a large proportion of it is lost in -the surface run-off. In many places the soil is so leachy that it is -incapable of holding sufficient water for the use of the trees throughout -the summer, much of the winter rainfall being lost in the underground -drainage. Under either of these conditions, 40 inches of rainfall might -not be sufficient. Very often winter rains are followed by desiccating -winds so that a considerable portion of the rain which falls is lost by -evaporation before anything can be done to hold it. - -Continued rainy, damp and cold weather at the time of blooming is -apt to sour the pollen or actually wash it away and thus prevent the -fertilization of the blossoms, without which a crop is impossible. -Bees and other insects are the principal means of accomplishing the -pollination of almonds and such weather prevents them from working. - - -SOIL - -The almond is a deep-rooting tree and draws heavily upon the -plant-nourishing elements of the soil. In ripening the large number of -seeds which it is required to do, the tree must draw upon a considerable -area of soil in order to supply the large amount of mineral matter that -is needed to develop and mature the seeds. Analyses of almonds, as -compared with other commonly grown fruits and nuts, made by Colby,[2] -show that the almond leads in the total quantity of mineral matters -withdrawn from the soil. Colby further states that “The stone fruits fall -much below the almond in total ash (mineral matter) excepting the olive, -the ash of which, however, is largely silica (nearly eight-tenths), an -ingredient so plentifully distributed in all soils that it is of no -pecuniary value.” Table I illustrates this statement. - -These figures suggest the necessity of having a deep, rich, well-drained -soil for best results. For this reason and because of the deep-rooting -habit of the almond, the soil should be at least ten or twelve feet deep. - -_Hardpan._—Compacted substrata in the soil, whether they be hard clay -layers or cemented layers of silicious, ferruginous or calcareous origin, -are objectionable. They not only prevent the roots from foraging to a -considerable depth as they normally tend to do, but they prevent proper -drainage and aeration of the soil. If such layers are comparatively -thin, that is, not more that two or three feet thick at the most, they -may be shattered with dynamite so as to allow the moisture, air and -roots to penetrate to the better soil below. Hardpan, therefore, should -be avoided where it is too thick to be broken up or where it is not -underlaid by desirable soil. - - -TABLE I - -SOIL INGREDIENTS EXTRACTED BY THE ALMOND AS COMPARED WITH OTHER ORCHARD -TREES, AS SHOWN BY ANALYSIS OF 1000 LBS. EACH OF THE CROPS IN A FRESH -CONDITION - - Phosphoric Total - Potash, Lime, Acid, Ash, Nitrogen, - Fruit lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. - - Almond (hulled) 5.49 1.72 4.33 15.00 16.40 - Almond (not hulled) 9.95 1.04 2.04 17.29 17.01 - Walnut (hulled) 1.50 1.81 2.78 7.50 10.20 - Walnut (not hulled) 8.18 1.55 1.47 12.98 5.41 - Chestnut (hulled) 3.72 .71 1.89 8.20 8.00 - Chestnut (not hulled) 3.67 1.20 1.58 9.52 6.40 - Prunes (green) 2.66 .13 .53 4.03 1.48 - Apricots (green) 2.83 .18 .71 5.16 2.29 - Olives 8.85 2.32 1.18 94.63* 5.85 - - * 80.7 pounds of which is silica. - -_Humus._—A plentiful supply of humus in the soil is essential. It not -only improves the physical condition of the soil, but assists drainage, -moisture retention and in rendering the plant food available in -sufficient quantities for the use of the trees and for the maturing of -full crops of almonds. Many orchards have been very light producers year -after year because of a deficiency of humus in the soil. - -_Drainage._—The almond root is very particular as to its air and moisture -requirements in the soil. It will not endure standing water in the soil -for any length of time, especially during the growing season. Exclusion -of air by excessive moisture is believed to be one of the most productive -causes of “sour-sap.” If allowed to continue for any length of time such -conditions will cause the death of many or even all the roots and with -them the top. - -_Water Table._—A factor which is very commonly overlooked in connection -with the natural drainage of almond lands is the position of the water -table at different seasons of the year. Great care must be exercised in -choosing a location to be sure that the water table does not rise during -the summer. This is a very serious problem in many irrigated sections. -Where the water table during the winter months is less than 12 feet in -depth it is highly desirable to have as little fluctuation as possible. -Where fluctuations take place at a greater depth than 12 feet they are -not generally serious. The ideal condition is where the water table is -highest in the winter and quickly drops after the winter rains are over, -to a depth of from 10 to 12 or 15 feet, remaining at that point during -the remainder of the growing season. - -The soil in addition to being well drained, must be sufficiently -retentive of moisture to supply the tree throughout a long, dry -growing-season. If the soil will not retain a sufficient amount of the -winter and spring rains, recourse must be had to irrigation to supply the -deficiency. - -_Alkali._—Alkali lands are unsuited to almond culture and should be -carefully avoided. - -In summarizing the soil requirements for almond culture, it may be -stated that the ideal almond soil is a medium loam, uniform in texture, -or nearly so, to a depth of at least twelve feet, well drained and -yet retentive of moisture for the use of the tree during the summer. -Fortunately some of the best almond soils are situated along stream banks -where the land is relatively high, and is, therefore, less subject to -frost. These streams flowing from the mountains and foothills have built -up their own beds by the detritus brought from the hills. The coarser -particles being deposited first and nearest the stream itself, make the -better drained soils, while the finer particles and the clays, deposited -further back from the bank and in the lower lands, form the heavier soils. - -The various conditions mentioned above are what the tree should have for -best conditions of growth and production. Oftentimes these conditions -may be approached without the soil being as deep as ten or twelve feet. -Exceptions to this will be mentioned in discussing the various almond -districts of the state. It is essential to understand that trees, -while growing and bearing on shallow soils in some localities, do so -because of other exceptionally favorable conditions; either the soil is -exceptionally well drained and yet sufficiently retentive of moisture, or -the humus in the soil is plentiful and the roots are able to work into -the underlying partially decomposed rock for moisture and some plant -food. In such localities the trees bear comparatively well because of the -exceptional freedom from frost in the spring. Trees in these localities -are generally smaller than on the deeper, richer soils, and where other -conditions are equal, they bear crops in proportion to their size. - - -ALMOND DISTRICTS - -Almonds are grown in nearly every county in California. In some counties -the few trees growing only occasionally succeed in producing a crop of -nuts. There are sections in nearly all parts of the state, however, -where they are a success commercially. Within these sections may be -found desirable and undesirable locations, depending upon soil and -moisture conditions and freedom from injurious frosts. Any discussion of -a district, therefore, does not necessarily mean that all lands within -that district are uniformly adapted to almond culture. On this account -it is impossible to define a district any more closely than to name the -center and include with it the outlying districts. In the same way it is -sometimes impossible to say just where one district begins and another -ends. Adaptability of any special location can be determined only by -careful study of the land itself and diligent inquiry of those familiar -with it. - -As far as possible, districts should be chosen where a definite cold -winter season exists. Warm weather and lack of freezing temperatures do -not hold the trees fully dormant and any frequent occurrence or unusual -continuation of spring weather in the winter will start the trees into -growth; cooler weather following, interferes with the normal flow of sap, -results in injury to the tree and blossoms, and often causes gumming -of the nuts which mature. This condition exists largely in the lower -elevations in Southern California and especially in the coastal portion, -where the ameliorating influence of the Pacific is felt. This same -condition exists close to the coast in the northern portion of the state. -Further inland and at higher elevations the winters are more pronounced, -and where these are not too severe or prolonged the almond thrives best. - - -SACRAMENTO VALLEY AND FOOTHILL SECTIONS - -Commencing in Solano County, about eight miles northwest of Suisun and -extending as far north as the southern end of Shasta County, close to -the base of the foothills on the west side of the Sacramento River, are -a large number of orchards on the bottom lands of the valley. These are -found principally on the higher lands along the banks of streams flowing -from the Coast Range in a generally easterly direction to the Sacramento -River. The two most important streams of this type are Putah Creek, -forming the boundary between Yolo and Solano counties, and Cache Creek, -flowing through the Capay Valley and across Yolo County to the Sacramento -River. - -These plantings being on the floor of the valley are more subject to -frost than the foothill plantings, but they have the advantage of being -on the rich valley soils, and while they may lose a crop occasionally -from frosts, they make it up in the long run by the much larger growth of -the trees and their ability to produce larger yields. Many orchards do -not show any such ability to produce large crops, but such a failure must -be attributed to lack of pruning and care, rather than to any inherent -inability of the large trees to produce nuts. Again, trees on the rich -and moist bottom lands may be kept so vigorous and healthy by good care -that they are apparently able to endure lower temperatures than less -vigorous trees on the shallow and poor upland soils where frosts are less -common or severe. - -Many recent plantings have been made along the lower foothills on the -west side of the Sacramento Valley. The three most important districts -where these plantings have been made are west of Dunnigan, Arbuckle -and Corning. The plantings in these districts are mostly on a gravelly -clay or clay loam soil which is not as rich nor generally as deep as -the bottom lands and, consequently, the trees are somewhat smaller, but -they have the advantage of freedom from spring frosts due to superior -air drainage. The problem in this district is chiefly one of moisture -retention by cultivation, as in most cases the growers are unable to get -water for irrigation at a reasonable cost, if at all. - -The valley districts extend to Tehama County and down the east side of -the Sacramento River, the same as on the west side, the principal centers -being at Chico, Durham, Liveoak, Pennington and Sutter. Parts of the -Liveoak section are too low and many orchards have suffered from poor -drainage both of water and air. - -The foothill sections on the east side are principally around Antelope, -Fairoaks and Orangevale in Sacramento County and the southern end of -Placer County. Here the danger from frost is slightly greater than on the -western foothills because of the proximity to the snow-covered Sierra -Nevada Mountains. On the other hand, water from the Sierras renders -irrigation possible at a reasonable cost, so the trees can be kept in -good condition. Care must be exercised here to avoid frost pockets. There -is also danger of poor soil drainage in the swales. - - -SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY AND FOOTHILL SECTIONS - -Conditions here blend very much into those of the Sacramento Valley -sections. Continuing south there are plantings around Acampo, Lodi, -Stockton, Linden, Ripon, Modesto and more scattered plantings farther up -the valley. The danger from spring frosts increases southward due to the -earlier blooming of the trees. In some of these sections, notably around -Ripon and Modesto, the excessive use of irrigation water for alfalfa and -other crops has resulted in a rise of the water table in many places -until it is within a foot or two of the surface during the summer months, -and in many other places comes to within four feet of the surface. - -On the west side of the San Joaquin Valley the principal plantings have -been in eastern Contra Costa County. Most of these orchards are of old -trees, planted from 15 to 30 years ago. In order to obtain satisfactory -air and soil drainage the orchards were planted on the rolling hills, -the soil being nearly all blow-sand. Irrigation is too expensive to be -installed on most of this land, and the problem in that section is to -conserve moisture and at the same time hold the soil in place and prevent -it from being carried away by the wind. - -[Illustration: Fig. 3.—Typical hillside orchard of Jordan almonds near -Los Gatos. Trees are variable in size, and some are missing. In the right -foreground is a typical spot of missing trees resulting from Oak fungus -infection.] - - -THE COAST SECTION - -Almonds were planted quite extensively in past years in many of the coast -valleys, such as the Santa Clara, and where they were protected from the -direct influence of the moist ocean breezes, they apparently did well. -Later most of these orchards were replaced by prunes and apricots as they -were generally found to be better paying crops in these valleys. On the -hills, however, many typical hillside orchards remain, as shown in figure -3. - -Localities directly affected by the coast breezes have proved themselves -to be unfit for commercial almond culture. - - -INTERIOR COAST VALLEYS AND HILLS - -Back from the coast in the smaller valleys and on the hills where the -coast fogs seldom reach, many locations may be found where almonds are -producing successfully. These favorable localities are scattered, owing -to lack of proper soil or moisture conditions. - -_Paso Robles District._—The one outstanding district in the coast hills -where the almond is being grown successfully is in the country west of -Paso Robles. There, at an elevation ranging from 900 to 2000 feet, where -there is sufficient air drainage to the considerably lower land near -by, the almonds are doing well. These plantings are, in most cases, on -a comparatively heavy soil, sometimes approaching adobe, and underlaid -by marl. This limestone formation is quite permeable to both water and -the roots of the trees, and the rock itself acts as a sponge and holds -considerable quantities of moisture. On the other hand, consisting of -steep hills, the land is excellently drained and the trees seldom suffer -from standing water around the roots. - -The chief objection is that most of this land is very shallow, generally -ranging from two to four or five feet deep. In some places almonds are -found growing where the marl is so close to the surface as to be turned -up by the plow. This makes the retention of moisture for the use of the -trees a serious problem. The trees do not attain large size on such soils -and the nuts are inclined to be somewhat smaller than normal. The steep -character of much of the land makes tillage and spraying rather difficult -and expensive. As long as the price of the land is kept down to a -reasonable figure, the grower can afford to put more money into the care -of both land and trees. It must be thoroughly understood that there are -many localities close to Paso Robles that are greatly subject to frost -and hence not at all suited to almond culture. This is especially true of -the lands directly around and east of Paso Robles, and also of any of the -comparatively low lands throughout the district. - - -SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA - -The entire coast district of Southern California has practically proved -itself to be unfitted for almond culture, except at elevations above 1500 -or 2000 feet. The limiting factor seems to be the lack of a sufficiently -definite winter season at the lower elevations. Trees are inclined to -bloom too early in the season or before the winter is over. - -Above 1500 or 2000 feet the increased elevation gives a sufficiently -definite cold winter season and the trees tend to blossom at more -seasonable times. Aside from scattered plantings in the hills of San -Diego County and a few orchards around Hemet and San Jacinto in Riverside -County, the principal plantings are at Banning and in the Mojave Desert. - -_Banning District._—Within a radius of three miles of Banning, with an -average elevation of 2300 feet, where a plentiful supply of water is to -be had from the mountains to the north, are a large number of orchards -ranging in age from 2 to 29 years. The bulk of the plantings were made -during 1910 and 1911. This is the oldest district in southern California -and has proved itself to be well fitted for almond culture. - -_Antelope Valley and Vicinity._—The old plantings in the Mojave Desert -are few and far between. They have, however, served as an impetus for -large plantings in recent years many of which have turned out to be -failures. This happened in many portions of Antelope Valley, west of -Lancaster, on the Southern Pacific Railroad in northern Los Angeles -County. Many more of these plantings are young and still have to prove -themselves. - -Orchard almond trees are never grown from seed, as they do not reproduce -true to type, but are propagated by budding desirable varieties on -seedling roots in the manner commonly employed in nursery practices for -other stone fruits, like the peach. Every grower must decide, however, on -what rootstocks he will plant his trees. - - -ROOTSTOCKS - -There is much to learn yet regarding the behavior of the different -roots under varying conditions when used as stock for the almond, but -sufficient information has already been gathered to permit of certain -recommendations being made. - -_Almond Root._—The greatest proportion of almonds in this state are -on almond roots. Where the most desirable soil, moisture and drainage -conditions exist it is best to select the almond root. It will live -in comparatively dry soils, but cannot be expected to make a tree of -large size or bear crops of nuts if the dry conditions continue. Where -irrigation is not available, and the soil is deep and of proper texture, -sufficient moisture may be retained in most years by cultivation to -enable the tree to grow and bear fruit. When extra dry years come, the -almond root may not enable the tree to grow or produce any better than -would another kind of root, but it will carry the tree over a few dry -seasons as well or better than any other. Then, when sufficient moisture -does come, the almond root is ready to start the tree off in its normal -course with the least loss of time. - -[Illustration: Fig. 4.—Languedoc almond on peach[3] root; typical of -other trees in same orchard, near Davis. Planted about forty-seven years -before. Compare with trees in same orchard on Myrobalan root, as shown in -Fig. 5.] - -The bitter almond is often recommended as being superior to the sweet -almond as a stock. This claim has never been proved. Experiments indicate -that there is fully as much variation between the bitter almond seedlings -grown from seed from different trees as there is between seedlings from -bitter and sweet almonds. Both are equally subject to attack by gophers. -The grower’s chief object, therefore, should be to secure as healthy, -vigorous trees as possible whether they be on sweet or bitter almond -roots. - -_Peach Root._—Where the soil moisture is quite variable in different -portions of the soil, or variable from time to time during the growing -season, the peach root will probably be most satisfactory. Soils less -than six or eight feet deep, or where gravelly or hardpan layers occur -at less depths, are not satisfactory in most cases for the almond root, -and under these conditions the peach root is better. The peach root is -a little better where irrigation is practiced during the summer, and -especially so where there is danger of slow drainage of excess water -from the soil. The peach does not thrive with standing water around -its roots, but will better withstand fluctuating or temporary extremes -in water supply than the almond. Its union with the almond is entirely -satisfactory. See figure 4. - -[Illustration: Fig. 5.—Languedoc almond on Myrobalan root, typical of -many other trees in same orchard, near Davis, planted about forty-seven -years ago. Compare with trees planted same time on peach root as shown in -Fig. 4.] - -_Davidiana Root._—Within the last five or six years the United States -Department of Agriculture has introduced the seed of a Chinese peach, -_Prunus davidiana_, the root of which is more resistant to alkali than -the ordinary peach. This has been found to unite readily with the almond, -although experiments have not yet gone far enough to fully determine its -true value. It gives promise, however, of being a very desirable stock -for sections where alkali may be troublesome. - -_Undesirable Roots._—The Myrobalan plum has frequently been recommended -as a stock for the almond on poorly drained soils. The two make a strong -union, but the plum root grows much slower than the almond top, as -indicated in figure 5. A comparison with figure 4, in which both trees -are 48-year-old Languedoc, shows that the trees on Myrobalan root are -pinched-in below the union while those on peach root are swollen at the -base. Even young trees show the same pinching-in below the union. Almond -trees on Myrobalan root do not make as large trees nor do they bear -satisfactory crops in any portion of the state where it has been possible -to compare them with the same varieties on other roots in similar -situations. - -The apricot is occasionally recommended because of its strong, thrifty -growth, but it is a mistake to attempt to use it, as the union is not -satisfactory. The trees grow thriftily for awhile, but before they reach -full bearing they either break off at the union or are blown over above -the union by moderate winds. - - -TOP-WORKING OLD TREES - -Often through injudicious selection of varieties for original plantings, -or for some other reason, it becomes desirable to work over old trees to -more desirable varieties. This may be done by budding or grafting. In -either case the tree may be entirely reworked in one season or one-half -may be done the first season and the other half the next. The almond -will recover fully if completely deheaded to a height of from five to -six feet from the ground, provided it is not subjected to severe winds -or excessive moisture in the soil. Winds are liable to break off the -new top during the first year or two. Where these are dangerous it may -be well to leave half of the tree on the windward side to be worked the -second season. The remaining portions will help to serve as a wind-break -until the top-worked portion of the tree has a chance to unite solidly -with the stub of the main branch to which it is attached. Where winds -are not likely to do damage it is generally the most economical method -to work over the entire tree at one time. If the roots are subjected to -excessive moisture conditions during the first season, the new growth may -be unusually vigorous and much more likely to be blown out as a result of -the heavy top and the poor attachment to the stub. “Sour-sap” may also -be very serious. Under such conditions leaving half the tree the first -season will enable it to distribute the growth more evenly with less -undesirable forcing. - -Whether the top-working shall be done by budding or grafting depends -largely upon the wishes of the grower and the skill of the workman. -Grafting will give a new tree more quickly than budding, because by the -latter method a year is lost in growing a supply of new wood on the stubs -into which the buds must be placed. By grafting, the new scions may start -growing the first spring without any delay. Ordinarily the best method -is to graft the trees the first winter and then, where the grafts fail -to grow, buds may be inserted in the new growth which will come from -the stub. During the first two seasons especially, great care must be -exercised to keep out the sprouts that interfere with the growth of the -scions. At the same time, all water-sprouts should not be removed during -the first summer or there will not be sufficient leaf surface to perform -the necessary functions of the tree. In addition, the scions tend to grow -so rankly that they will be top-heavy and much more liable to be blown -out by the wind, as shown in figure 6. This may largely be prevented by -pinching the ends of the new scion growth during the early summer to -force lateral branching. At the end of the first year all water-sprouts -should be removed leaving nothing but the growth from the scions. - -[Illustration: Fig. 6.—Twenty-seven-year-old trees deheaded two years -before, showing the break-off of the new growth by strong winds.] - - -PLANTING - -The usual preparation given land for orchard purposes prior to planting -should be applied to land being prepared for almonds. Special care must -be given to insure thorough aeration of the subsoil by breaking up all -hardpan, plow-pan or other compacted layers in the soil, where possible. - -[Illustration: Fig. 7.—Almonds planted twelve feet apart. Trees in very -weak condition and almost entirely defoliated by mites before harvest. -The few nuts ripening on the trees are small “sticktights.” Photo taken -September 21, 1915.] - -_Distance._—Almonds in most soils should be planted 30 × 30 feet on the -square. In rich, deep soils the trees quickly fill the intervening space, -the roots occupying the entire soil area long before the tops touch. In -poor, shallow soils, or soils deficient in available moisture, the trees -may not occupy the entire area above ground, but the roots will require -more horizontal feeding space to enable them to make the size trees and -bear the crops that they should. - -Trees planted too close together often abstract the moisture from the -soil before the growing season is completed. This shortage of moisture, -with the aid of mites, commonly called red-spider, causes the loss of -the leaves long before they normally should drop. Under such conditions -the fruit buds are unable to make the vigorous growth which they should. -These weak buds are unable to endure the degree of frost or other -unfavorable conditions that stronger ones withstand without serious -injury. - -The trees must have plenty of sunlight and air. If planted too close, the -trees tend to grow too high, each one striving for the light which is -only available from above. In figure 7 the upward tendency of the trees -is clearly shown. Such trees, if pruned as they ought to be, have a much -greater tendency to send out numerous water-sprouts than trees which -have plenty of room for the tops to expand laterally. After the tops of -the trees interlock and shut out the sunlight from the lower portions, -the smaller branches and fruit spurs in those parts gradually weaken -and die, and eventually the entire crop is produced on or near the tops -of the trees, where direct sunlight is available, as shown in figure 7. -The excessive upward growth of the trees, with the consequent forcing of -the fruit bearing to the top, not only greatly increases the difficulty -and cost of pruning, spraying and harvesting, but reduces the possible -bearing surface of the trees. - -_Setting the Trees._—The utmost care is necessary in setting out the -trees to secure a uniform stand of vigorous trees. The trees are planted -much the same as other deciduous orchard trees, but care must be used to -spread the roots well to secure a thorough compacting of the soil around -all the roots, and to see that the trees are not planted deeper than they -were in the nursery. - - -CULTURE - -_Soil Handling._—The almond is one of the most exacting of fruits as -regards its cultivation. The assumption is very often made by growers -that because the tree will live through periods of prolonged drouth, it -will also thrive under careless or poor methods of cultivation. That -this is entirely erroneous may be inferred from the fact previously -referred to that the almond draws more heavily upon the plant food of -the soil for the ripening of its crop than any of the common orchard -fruits. Experience has abundantly proved that many almond orchards are -not bearing profitable crops because the requisite soil constituents are -not available in sufficient quantities during the long growing season. -The reasons for this condition may be one or several. First, there may -not be sufficient moisture available throughout the season, or it may not -be distributed evenly or in sufficient amounts throughout the entire soil -area. Second, there may be insufficient aeration of the soil; and third, -there may not be sufficient humus to fix the soluble plant food in the -soil and render it readily available as needed by the roots. - -Proper distribution of moisture in sufficient quantities is essential to -secure adequate solution of the mineral elements needed by the roots for -the use of the tree in all its parts. Sufficient aeration is needed to -provide for the normal oxidation and weathering of the soil particles, -and also for the respiration of the roots themselves. - -There seems to be no question about the value of spring plowing and -cultivation to put the soil in good physical condition, but many growers -apparently question the value of summer cultivation. Though the surface -of the soil appears to be unchanged after a period of several months, -the fact is entirely overlooked that the structure of the mulch has been -gradually changed and capillarity to the surface has been restored. The -result is that evaporation takes place so rapidly from soils in such a -condition, as well as from the leaves of the trees, that long before the -end of the season the moisture is practically gone. - -The methods and tools used are much the same as for other orchard -trees and it is only necessary to call attention to items likely to -be neglected. Spring plowing should vary in depth from year to year -to avoid the formation of an impervious plow-sole. The depth to plow -ranges from a minimum of six inches to ten or twelve inches or more as -desirable. Summer cultivation should be kept up at least once a month, -and preferably oftener, throughout the summer months and the soil should -be stirred to a depth of four inches to provide a mulch sufficient to -hold the moisture effectively in the hot, dry climates where almonds are -grown. The actual number of cultivations necessary will depend on the -types of soil. Harness with projecting hames or broad singletrees or with -projections of any kind to catch on the branches or bark of the trees -should never be used in an orchard. - -_Cover Crops._—Constant cultivation throughout the summer allows the -humus to be burned out of the surface soil and, by hindering the growth -of vegetation, prevents the addition of a natural supply of humus to -replace that which has been lost. It is necessary, therefore, that some -artificial means be used to supply the deficiency. The annual growth of -winter cover crops to be plowed in during the spring, while not entirely -replacing the humus burned out in the summer, serves to reduce the annual -loss and at the same time assists materially in improving the texture of -the soil. - -A shade crop, such as alfalfa, may be grown successfully in mature -orchards where irrigation water is available, and where perfect drainage -of surface and subsoil can be maintained. During the first four or five -years or more such a crop is generally a detriment to the almond trees, -but after the trees reach maturity it may be beneficial in securing -better drainage and aeration of the soil by the penetration of the -numerous roots to considerable depths and their consequent decay when -it is plowed in. Alfalfa also supplies nitrogen to the soil and thus -gradually increases the fertility. The great danger with such a crop is -that the orchardist is apt to irrigate for the alfalfa at the expense of -the trees because of the quicker returns from the former. In deep, rich -soils the cuttings of alfalfa may be removed from the land, though the -last cutting in the fall should be allowed to remain on the land. Where -this is done, a natural mulch is obtained which helps to increase the -supply of humus. If the soil is poor and lacking in humus it is better -to leave more cuttings of the alfalfa on the ground to decay. As this -continues the soil becomes, through the increased accumulations of humus, -more permeable and yet more retentive of moisture, and less irrigation -will serve the trees more effectively. - -During the early spring a well-established stand of alfalfa may assist so -materially in getting rid of the excess water in the soil that sour-sap, -fruit drop and kindred ills resulting from the unseasonable warm weather -while the ground is filled with water and the trees are starting into -growth, may be greatly reduced or avoided entirely. - -_Irrigation._—Water for irrigating almonds must always be used with great -care whether it be in summer or winter. All water should be so applied -that it will readily spread through the soil and not remain in excessive -quantities for any length of time. Water should not be applied during -blossoming or setting of the fruit in the spring or within a week or -more of harvest. On the other hand, water applied just before the hulls -commence to open, where the soil has become too dry, greatly reduces -the number of sticktights, or almonds in which the hulls stick to the -ripening nuts without opening. - -_Fertilization._—Little or no systematic work has been done up to the -present time in the use of commercial fertilizers on almonds. The use of -barnyard manure is desirable wherever obtainable. The value of almond -hulls as fertilizers is doubtful because of the difficulty of bringing -about their thorough decay when applied in sufficient quantities to be -worth while. The use of lime to correct soil acidity and for improving -the texture of heavy soils will be found desirable where this is -obtainable at reasonable rates. - - -PRUNING - -The almond trees normally set a larger number of fruit buds than they -are capable of maturing. The number of blossoms set on a healthy tree to -produce a full crop will be generally not more than 20 per cent of the -total number which opened in the spring, and oftentimes much less. It has -frequently been noted that trees which are somewhat lacking in vigor are -inclined to set a larger number of fruit buds than those that are strong -and vigorous. The normal set of blossoms on a young, vigorous tree is -shown in figure 2. The result is that with the sub-normal strength of -such trees being distributed among the extra number of fruit buds, the -latter are not able to develop into the strong, healthy buds they should. -The results of such conditions have been discussed on pages 23, bottom, -and 24, top. One of the best means of securing and keeping healthy, -productive trees is by careful, thoughtful and systematic pruning. The -treatment given most of the almond orchards would indicate that the -growers consider pruning to be one of the least important of the cultural -practices. - -[Illustration: Fig. 8.—Typical Drake almond tree in University Farm -orchard; nine years old.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 9.—Typical Languedoc almond tree in University Farm -orchard; nine years old.] - -To be most effective, pruning must be followed systematically throughout -the entire life of the tree. The details of the practice will vary -greatly, depending on the soil, moisture and climatic conditions -surrounding the tree, as well as other treatment accorded it. At planting -time, it is generally agreed that the tree should be cut back to between -18 and 24 inches from the ground to reduce the top to correspond to the -shortened root system and to form a low head for the tree. A low head is -desirable to avoid sunburn of the trunk and to keep the tree within easy -reach for pruning, spraying and harvesting. During the first summer in -the orchard much can be done to obtain a well-balanced head, to get the -main branches well spaced on the trunk, and to prevent crowding later on, -by pinching out all undesirable growth as fast as it appears and forcing -the growth into those parts of the tree which are to remain. If these -branches tend to grow too long and willowy, they may be made to branch -by pinching back when they attain the desired height. In this way, if -the tree can be kept growing vigorously, the beginning of an excellent -foundation framework may be developed the first year. - -[Illustration: Fig. 10.—Typical Nonpareil almond tree in University -Farm orchard; nine years old. Note numerous water sprouts which must be -removed.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 11.—Typical I.X.L. almond tree in University Farm -orchard; nine years old.] - -The following winter, when the tree is one year old in the orchard, if it -has grown too vigorously and the branches are too long and willowy and -not properly branched it should be headed back to improve the shape and -symmetry of the whole tree. If the tree has not made sufficient growth -to give it a properly shaped head, it should also be cut back even more -severely than in the case of the too vigorous growth. There sometimes -will be trees that during the first year will develop such a well-shaped -and stocky frame that no further heading will be necessary, all future -pruning being limited to thinning out undesirable and interfering -branches. Ordinarily, however, it will be highly desirable or necessary -to continue the practice of heading-in the yearling tree at least. As -long as heading continues it will pay to give special attention to -pinching and thinning the following summer. In this way the frame of the -tree may be developed more quickly and the future necessity of heading be -materially lessened. In rich bottom lands where moisture is plentiful, -heading may be necessary when the tree is two, three and, in extreme -cases, 4 years old, in order to spread the tree and prevent it from -growing too high. The necessity for this can only be determined by a -careful study of the tree itself and the conditions surrounding it. - -[Illustration: Fig. 12.—Typical Ne Plus Ultra almond tree in University -Farm orchard; nine years old.] - -The habit of growth of a given variety will have a great deal to -do with the number of seasons during which heading back will be -practiced. Spreading varieties, such as the Drake (see figure 8), if -making a strong, vigorous growth, should not be headed any longer than -is necessary to start a sufficient number of main branches. Every -opportunity must be given the trees of this variety to grow as upright as -possible. Summer pruning of the drooping, undesirable branches wherever -they develop, will help to increase the growth of the upright branches. -By pruning as far as possible to inside buds, every opportunity will be -given the trees to grow upward. If trees of such varieties make a poor, -weak growth, a very heavy heading will force them to make a stronger and -more vigorous growth the following season, provided any unfavorable soil -and moisture conditions are corrected. Care must be exercised with these -trees to prevent the downward growth of any of the branches by pruning -them off during the summer, as suggested above. As soon as a strong, -upright growth is started, no further heading should be done, but careful -thinning by removal of undesirable growth should be continued. - -Upright varieties, such as the Languedoc (see figure 9) and Texas, may -require heading for a longer time than the more spreading varieties. It -is necessary to force them to branch nearer the ground and they should be -made to spread as much as possible. Pruning to outside buds and summer -pinching will aid materially and make it unnecessary to head back after -the first two or three years. Where this is not done, heading may be -necessary at the end of the third and possibly to the fourth year if the -tree is in rich, deep, moist soil. Another advantage of summer pinching -and removal of water sprouts is that the trees are not allowed to develop -a thick “crow’s nest” at the end of the stubs where heading back was done -the previous winter, making the following winter pruning much easier. The -habit of growth of each of the principal commercial varieties is shown in -figures 8 to 12, inclusive. - -After the main framework is properly started, further pruning will be -limited to thinning out the tree to keep it sufficiently open and to -remove all dead, injured and interfering branches. Most of the growth -after this will continue from the ends of the remaining branches and as -the trees grow higher they will tend to branch more. All cross branches -and those that are liable to interfere later should be taken out. All -water sprouts should be removed unless they are needed to fill in -undesirable open spaces. - -As the trees come into full bearing and approach maturity, the vigorous -wood growth will cease and will be replaced by a moderate yearly growth -of wood which will gradually increase the size of the tree without making -it unmanageable. Where trees continue to make excessive wood growth when -they should be bearing, the trouble may generally be traced to unusually -rich, moist soil, a condition which pruning cannot correct. It may be -beneficial to stop pruning altogether for a few years, which will be -likely to throw the trees into heavy bearing and thus stop excessive wood -growth. After the bearing habit is once thoroughly established, moderate -pruning may be done to get the tree back into proper shape. - -[Illustration: Fig. 13.—Eighteen-year-old almond trees deheaded six feet -from ground, in the Armstrong orchard near Davis. Stubs painted with -white lead. Photo taken February, 1914. Compare with Figs. 14 to 19.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 14.—Same trees as Fig. 13, showing growth one year -after deheading. Photo taken March, 1915. On some of the trees long -stubs were left near the bottom of the trees from which new growth never -started. Only a moderate thinning out of the new growth was done.] - -The mature tree should have its branches so spaced that sunlight may -penetrate to all portions of the tree. This is necessary for the -continued health and life of the fruit spurs in the lower portions of the -tree. If the top is too dense, the new growth can only continue in the -top and outer portions of the tree where sunlight can penetrate. When -an adventitious bud does start in the center of the tree it immediately -makes a strong vigorous growth to reach the sunlight far above. Such a -growth is called a water sprout. If the trees are kept so pruned that -the shadow on the ground during the greater part of the day is mottled -with sunlight while the trees are in full leaf, the small growth may be -maintained in the center and the bearing surface greatly increased. Where -this is done the trees will not tend to grow as high as they otherwise -would. Pruning of healthy, mature trees, therefore, will be limited to -thinning out and removal of dead and interfering branches and water -sprouts. Portions which grow too high may be brought down by removal -close to a shorter and lower branch. By giving this treatment only to -small portions of the tree during a season, the forcing of water sprouts -may be largely avoided. - -[Illustration: Fig. 15.—Same trees as Fig. 14, showing two seasons’ -growth after deheading. Photo taken February, 1916, just after pruning -had been completed.] - -Old trees, or those which, through improper care or neglect have become -weak and unfruitful, may often be rejuvenated. One method is to dehead -them to a height of about six feet from the ground and to grow entirely -new tops. By this method about three years are required to bring the -trees back to the point where they are again ready to bear profitable -crops. The objections to this are that it is an expensive operation, no -crops whatever can be obtained for two years, organisms of decay may gain -entrance to the wood, and sometimes the sudden shock to the tree renders -it more subject to physiological disturbances. The advantages are that if -proper care is given the trees during the rebuilding period, much better -formed trees may be obtained and a finer quality of bearing wood be -secured throughout the new trees. - -[Illustration: Fig. 16.—Same trees as Fig. 14, showing three seasons’ -growth after deheading. Photo taken January, 1917. No pruning done this -winter. Trees have not borne more than a few almonds but have a good set -of fruit buds.] - -To be successful, the deheading process must be followed by careful -thinning of the sprouts that will be forced from the old stubs. If too -much thinning is done the first year, there is danger of those that are -left becoming top-heavy and breaking off. This is especially troublesome -in sections subject to strong winds. The new sprouts should be left -sufficiently thick to help support each other, and yet should be thinned -out sufficiently to prevent crowding. At the end of the first season’s -growth, further trimming should be done, giving those branches best -adapted for the frame of the new tree a chance to take the lead the -following season. A sufficient amount of secondary growth should be left -to help take care of the excessive sap flow in the shortened tree, but -this must be watched to see that it does not interfere with the growth -which is to be permanent. By the end of the second year, the permanent -branches should be sufficiently strong and firm to permit the entire -removal of all other branches. The amount of wood to be left until the -end of the second season and then removed is clearly shown in figures 18 -and 19. The third year the tree should make sufficient growth to restore -very largely the equilibrium between the top and the roots and also -produce a small crop. Figures 13 to 17, inclusive, illustrate the steps -in rejuvenating an orchard by the deheading process from the start until -the trees are again in commercial bearing. - -[Illustration: Fig. 17.—Same trees as Fig. 14, showing four seasons’ -growth after deheading. Photo taken December, 1917, after trees have -borne their first good crop of nuts. No pruning has been done since -January, 1916.] - -Some growers find it more desirable to cut back only one-half of each -tree at a time. The shock to the tree is not so great and the liability -to sour-sap correspondingly less. The halves of the tree left standing -act as a wind-break to prevent the blowing out of the new growth, which -at the same time is less likely to break off because of its slower and -more sturdy growth. The objection to this method is that the other half -must be cut off the following winter and the shaping process is more or -less uneven, and necessarily continued over a long time. - -[Illustration: Fig. 18.—Two seasons’ growth before pruning of almond -trees deheaded six feet from the ground January, 1914, in the Armstrong -orchard near Davis. The tree was only moderately thinned at the end of -the first year. Photo taken February 2, 1916.] - -The other method of rejuvenation is to thin out gradually the dead and -weakened branches in the old trees and rebuild them gradually, removing -only a small portion in any one year. As the new growth is forced out it -is used to replace the old wood where possible. Such a system requires -more cutting of small branches high up in the tree to be successful, for -it must not be opened to sunlight too suddenly or sunburn will result. -The cutting of a large number of small branches tends to force the growth -of new buds over a large proportion of the tree and if done moderately -many of these will quickly develop into fruiting wood. Eventually, many -large branches may have to be removed as newer branches are developed, -but this must necessarily be a comparatively gradual process. The -advantages of this method are that there is no sudden shock to the tree, -there is always sufficient leaf surface to care for any extra supply of -sap which may be forced into the tree by unfavorable weather and moisture -conditions, and cropping will be continuous. - -[Illustration: Fig. 19.—Same tree as Fig. 18 after pruning. The actual -time required to prune this tree was twenty-five minutes. Photo taken -February, 1916.] - -Whatever method of rejuvenation is used, the grower must be very -careful from the first to protect all large wounds by some paint or -other protective covering, such as asphaltum, to prevent checking and -weathering and to keep decay from getting started and working into the -heart of the tree. With very large wounds a protective covering must be -kept on during the remainder of the life of the tree, or until the wounds -heal over completely. - - -INFLUENCE OF CULTURE ON NUTS - -The effect of culture on the nuts is quite marked. All varieties will -vary in size from season to season and in different orchards during the -same season, depending on the plant food and moisture supply available -during the time the nuts are maturing. Some varieties, notably the -Nonpareil, will vary more in size than in plumpness, while other -varieties, like the Ne Plus Ultra, are more inclined to produce somewhat -shriveled kernels and imperfectly developed shells and the variation -in size will not be as great. As the trees bear larger crops the nuts -produced are inclined to be smaller. Young, vigorous trees with a light -crop will often produce unusually large nuts with comparatively thin -shells. The value of a variety, therefore, will depend largely upon its -behavior after the trees reach full maturity and bearing. - - -ORCHARD HEATING FOR FROST PREVENTION - -There has been considerable interest in protecting almonds from frost -because of the frequency with which they are subjected to such conditions -by reason of their early blossoming habit. The use of orchard heaters -in some districts has become a common and successful practice. It is -possible to economically control several degrees of frost for three or -four nights or possibly more by a judicious use of heaters. - -The best type of heater for almond orchards has not been thoroughly -worked out as yet, but the reservoir heaters of the Bolton or Hamilton -type have been commonly and successfully used. The former are commonly -known as “pots.” At least 75 one or two-gallon heaters per acre are -necessary to control temperatures as low as 27 or 28 degrees F. Probably -not over 100 pots to an acre would be needed at most. Double the number -of pots should be placed around the outside row of the orchard to afford -the necessary protection. - -The gravity of oil best suited for orchard heating is between 20 and 25 -degrees Beaumé. It is essential that it be as free from impurities, such -as sulphur, as possible. During the spring of 1917, orchard heating was -done very extensively in some districts of the state while the trees -were approaching full bloom. As the season progressed it became apparent -that some serious injury had been done by the heating, for the bulk of -the blossoms fell off and the leaves turned yellow in streaks as if -burned by an acid. The appearance was exactly as if the particles of -soot settling on the pistils of the flowers and on the young leaves had -absorbed sulphur dioxide gas (a product of oil combustion where sulphur -is contained in the oil) and that the dews uniting with it to form -sulphurous acid had done the damage. Had the heating been done later and -only after the trees had passed full bloom, it is possible that a much -heavier set of nuts might have been secured, since the small fruits, -where they had formed, seemed to have been uninjured, only the pistils -of the flowers having been affected, probably preventing pollination and -fertilization of the ovules. - -The time of heating is therefore a very important point. Almond blossoms -become progressively more tender to frost as they advance in development. -With their petals on they are not nearly as tender as they are after the -petals have fallen. They reach their most tender stage after the calyx -shucks have fallen from the young expanding fruits before they are the -size of a pea. Ordinarily, orchard heating before the trees have passed -full bloom is a waste of time and material and is often injurious. The -most needed time is for a period of two or three weeks after the bulk of -the petals have fallen, unless temperatures below 28 or 29 degrees are -encountered before that time. - - -CROP HANDLING - -_Harvesting._—The harvesting of the crop should be commenced as soon -as the hulls have opened to their fullest extent and no time should be -lost in completing the work. The nuts in the center of the tree are the -last ones to ripen and so may be used as indicators. If harvesting is -commenced early, the nuts will cling to the tree rather tenaciously and -knocking must be very vigorous in order to shake them loose. On the other -hand, if they are allowed to hang too long after ripening, a number of -difficulties may be encountered. They may be blown to the ground by light -winds and the cost of gathering be increased, as quite commonly occurs -with the Peerless, or the hulls may dry up and in doing so, close around -the nuts to a greater or less extent and add to the cost and difficulty -of hulling. This is most noticeable with the Nonpareil. Strong winds -will break off a great many of the nuts of any of the varieties, and -promptness is doubly essential where there is any likelihood of such -winds during the harvest season. Depredations by birds may cause serious -losses, especially with the soft and papershell varieties. Infestation by -worms may often be quite serious in the papershell varieties when they -are allowed to hang too long. In case of damp or foggy weather the shells -turn dark and sometimes commence to mildew, requiring heavier bleaching -to brighten them sufficiently for market demands. Rain stains can never -be removed entirely by bleaching. - -[Illustration: Fig. 20.—Harvesting almonds by knocking onto sheets spread -on ground.] - -The crop is gathered by knocking the ripened nuts and hulls with long -poles onto sheets spread on the ground under the trees. The knocking -should be done near the portions of the trees where the nuts are borne -and by striking a number of light, quick blows, rather than by a heavy -blow aimed to jar a large branch. This will avoid injury to the bark by -bruising and will accomplish the work in less time. The blows should -always be delivered squarely against the branch. A glancing blow will -tear the bark and break off a great many fruit spurs, thus reducing the -bearing surface for the next year. For this reason harvesters must be -watched closely all the time to insure the proper use of the poles. The -sheets, two in number, are spread under the trees so they will overlap -and catch all the nuts that fall (see figure 20). When sufficiently -loaded with nuts to make dragging the sheets from one tree to another -difficult, they are emptied into lug boxes and sent to the huller. - -The character of the harvesting equipment may vary considerably, -depending on the acreage, character of trees and ground, time required, -capital available, and the personal wishes of the owner. Some growers -use heavy poles of pine, spruce or fir, while others prefer the lighter -bamboo poles. The heavy poles are from 1½ to 2 inches in diameter at the -base and from ¾ to 1 inch in diameter at the top. Experience has shown -that poles of this type over 20 feet in length become unwieldy, and not -only swing slowly but do more damage because of the greater difficulty of -control. Most growers prefer 16-foot poles with a few 20-foot ones for -use in the tops of the taller trees. Where the tops cannot be reached -with these, the men climb into the trees with shorter poles. The bamboo -poles used are about 24 feet long and because of their lightness can be -used with greater speed. Bamboo poles with short internodes should be -selected as they are less likely to break. Breakage may also be reduced -by storing the poles in a cool place where drying-out will not be -excessive. - -The sheets used are made of duck ranging in weight from 7 to 12 ounces. -Sizes of single sheets range from 12 × 24 to 24 × 48 feet. Sheets need -not be much longer than the longest diameter of the tree. To prevent -mildew and rotting of the fabric in the sheets they should be boiled in -a solution of tannin before being used. The life of sheets thus treated -will be greatly lengthened. - -A number of growers have provided special contrivances by which sheets -are mounted on sleds or wheels so they are not dragged on the ground. The -principal objection to such an arrangement is that the sled or wheeled -frame must be made in two sections, one for each side of the tree, thus -increasing the cost of the operation because the horses can be used for -nothing else while harvesting is in progress. On the other hand, by the -dragging process sheets will not last more than two or three seasons, -whereas by the sled or wagon method they will last from six to ten years -longer. The two wagons shown in figure 21, each 12 × 24 feet, cost -between $60 and $70, about 1914. The canvas portion is of 8-ounce duck. -By this method the knockers can gather ten lug boxes before emptying. -The work can be done much faster with wagons. With the sleds a sheet is -fastened lengthwise on the right-hand side of one and another on the -left-hand side of the other sled. - -_Hulling._—After harvesting, the almonds, hulls and all are taken while -still moist, to the huller to separate them. If they become dry before -hulling they must be dipped in water or the shells will be broken. All -hulling was formerly done by hand, and this is still done where only -small lots are to be handled. The invention of machinery for this purpose -has reduced the cost of hulling from 60 to 80 per cent, for most outfits -separate the hulls from the nuts before they leave the machine. Some of -the hand hullers consist simply of the hulling portion of the large power -machines without the separating screens. These cost about one-sixth or -one-seventh as much as the large machines, and where a man has a small -acreage and is too far away to haul to a large huller, a hand machine -will greatly facilitate the work, even though the final separation must -be done by hand. - -[Illustration: Fig. 21.—Portable almond sheets mounted on wheels as used -by N. J. Lund, Oakdale, California, 1916.] - -There are three different kinds of hulling and separating machines now -in operation in California, all invented by California almond growers. -The first one made was the Read “Sure-Pop” almond huller. This is now -manufactured in three sizes by the Schmeiser Manufacturing Company, -Davis, California. The No. 3 huller does not have any separating device -and is generally best for orchards of less than ten acres. It may be -operated by hand or by a small engine or motor. The No. 2 hullers both -hull and separate and are operated only by power. They should pay in -orchards of ten acres or more. The No. 1 is the largest made and is for -use in large orchards of 100 acres or more. - -The Beach huller is of more recent origin, having been in use only since -1895. It was invented by J. E. Beach of Fairoaks, California, and is -being manufactured by him. The two sizes of this machine are both power -outfits; they are doing satisfactory work at the present time. - -The third huller is that made by C. U. Reams of Suisun. One of the first -machines made by him was in 1897, and is now in working order at the F. -O. Scarlett ranch, northeast of Suisun, and is doing satisfactory work. -Since the first invention, Reams has made a number of improvements both -in the method of hulling and of separating. - -Many growers do not have sufficient tonnage to enable them to afford -a commercial huller, and yet hulling by hand is a slow and tedious -practice. C. E. Sedgwick, Manager of the Solano District of the Pacific -Gas and Electric Company, located at Dixon, California, conceived the -idea of using a centrifugal blower operated by a small electric motor -to do the hulling. His description of this outfit, quoted from “Pacific -Service Magazine,” April, 1916, page 393, after making two small -corrections given by Mr. Sedgwick, is as follows: - - The equipment consists of a No. 0 Sturtevant exhaust fan belted - to a 1 h.p. motor. The nuts are fed into the suction side of - the fan where they are picked up by the runner, hurled against - the casing of the fan and blown out of the discharge into a box. - - The motor consumes three-tenths kilowatts when almonds are - fed into the fan at the rate of a lug box every minutes and - one-half, so that the power cost, even at the 8-cent lighting - rate, is only 2.4 cents per hour. The fan costs about $20, - while the regular commercial hullers run as high as $750. - -Further inquiry from Mr. Sedgwick developed the fact that this huller has -operated for three seasons on a 20-acre almond orchard. Peerless, Drake -and I.X.L. almonds were all hulled successfully. Nonpareils have not -as yet been tried. The speed most commonly used was about 1200 r.p.m., -though it varied somewhat with the different varieties. He believes that -a larger size would do better work. - -The efficiency of any of the above hullers depends largely upon the speed -of the machine and upon the condition of the almonds in the hulls. If -the machine runs too fast the almonds will be broken and injured, and if -it runs too slowly many of the almonds are not hulled. If the almonds -are allowed to hang on the trees too long, or if allowed to lie around -too long after being harvested, the hulls become dry and leathery and -the difficulty of hulling is greatly increased. Dipping in water in such -cases may help to overcome this difficulty to a limited extent. - -The papershell varieties, notably the Nonpareil, are much more difficult -to hull without breaking the shells than are the harder shelled -varieties. The Nonpareil hull has a tendency to close around the nut on -drying, making hulling under such circumstances very difficult. - -Often when the moisture supply in the soil is exhausted before the nuts -are ripe, or where the loss of leaf surface due to mites is serious -prior to ripening, the hulls open only slightly or not at all, but dry -onto the shell of the nut. Such “sticktights” can only be disposed of -profitably by allowing them to thoroughly dry, when they are cracked and -sold as kernels. - -After the hulling operation all almonds must be gone over by hand to -remove pieces of hulls and inferior or gummy nuts. Where canvas drapers -are not available for sorting directly from the huller, the nuts are -piled in hoppers and sorted on benches beneath them. - -_Drying._—Immediately following the sorting, the nuts are spread on trays -and thoroughly dried in the sun. In the interior valleys during the hot, -dry weather the nuts will sometimes dry so quickly that by the time the -sorting from hoppers is completed the nuts are sufficiently dry to be -bleached. The grower must be certain, however, that such is the case -before any bleaching is done, or before the almonds are delivered to the -warehouses for bleaching. The nuts are sufficiently dry when the kernels -will break without bending. Quick drying is essential to prevent the -excessive darkening of the shell. - -_Bleaching._—When thoroughly dry the nuts are ready for bleaching. The -shells are first moistened by spraying with water or subjecting them to -low-pressure steam for 10 to 20 minutes. The shells are then subjected -to the fumes of burning sulphur for 10 to 30 minutes. The sulphur fumes -are absorbed by the moisture on the shells, which are bleached to a -bright yellow color. After bleaching the nuts are exposed to the air for -a few moments to allow them to dry. The market demands a nut that has -been sufficiently bleached to give it a bright, clean, yellow color. -An over-bleached almond is equally objectionable because of its pale, -sickly, yellow or whitish color. Over-steaming or sulphuring permits -excessive penetration of the sulphur fumes, with the resulting danger -of absorption by the kernel. While this may not be noticeable in the -flavor, it will eventually result in premature deterioration in the form -of rancidity. Unbleached almonds remain edible much longer than bleached -almonds in nearly every case. Ordinarily one to three pounds of the best -flowers of sulphur is required to bleach a ton of almonds. Lump sulphur -is not satisfactory. - -_Sacking._—During the preliminary handling of almonds ordinary grain -sacks are commonly used. After bleaching, in which condition they are -ready for market, they are put in standard almond bags, measuring 20 × 40 -inches and weighing 1¼ pounds. The weight of a bag of almonds will vary, -depending not only on the variety but also on the year in which the crop -was grown and the locality in which it was produced. For selling purposes -the California Almond Growers’ Exchange estimates weights of different -varieties to be as follows: Nonpareil about 85 pounds to the bag; I.X.L. -about 80 pounds; Ne Plus Ultra, 75 pounds; Drake, 90 to 100 pounds; -Languedoc, 100 pounds; and hardshell almonds, 100 to 120 pounds. - -_Shelling._—Within the past two years the shelling of almonds has taken a -prominent place in the consideration of the men charged with the disposal -of the almond crop. The increasing popularity of shelled almonds, and -the limited market for unshelled almonds, makes the production of more -shelled almonds imperative in view of the prospects of greatly increased -production in the next few years. A small proportion of the shelled -almonds marketed are those accidentally shelled during the hulling -process. This probably averages less than 30 pounds per ton of almonds -hulled in ordinary years. - -The varieties most commonly shelled are the papershells. They are much -more easily shelled without breaking the kernels than are the harder -shelled varieties and, in addition, are worth more for shelling because -of the high percentage of kernel compared to shell. - -_Grading._—Grading almonds for size is not done at present but probably -will be within the next few years. Grading for quality is done regularly -by testing an entire lot rather than attempting to separate inferior -nuts. The standard grade consists of all lots having the required -percentage of good kernels, free from worms or gummy nuts. This -requirement varies between 90 and 95 per cent, depending on the condition -of the crop as a whole and on the market conditions. The standard grade -of a given variety sells on guarantee that it shall be up to advertised -standard. All lots which cannot pass this are sold on sample, and -therefore, on their own individual merits. - - -MARKETING - -The marketing of the California almond crop is at present on a firmer -basis than at any time in the past. Previous to 1910 there was little or -no coöperation among growers and the buyers had everything their own way. -In May of that year, however, Mr. J. P. Dargitz, an almond grower near -Acampo, California, successfully organized the California Almond Growers’ -Exchange, consisting of nine local associations with a total membership -of 230 growers. The Exchange started business with $1000 borrowed -capital, personally guaranteed by the directors. On June 1, 1918, there -were 22 sub-associations representing about 2000 growers, controlling -about three-fourths of the crop. The Exchange now is not only out of debt -but owns investments aggregating $100,000 in value, including warehouses, -a central shelling plant and other property. At the same time, the -growers have been receiving about 50 per cent more for their almonds -than before the Exchange was organized. - -The success of the Exchange, with the consequent higher prices to the -grower, has resulted in a large increase in the acreage of almonds in -California. This increase is making it necessary to develop new markets -to absorb the greater tonnage, and this can only be done effectively or -satisfactorily by coöperative effort. - -Heretofore, California almonds have been marketed chiefly in the shell. -A small proportion has been cracked annually to supply western brokers -and confectioners, and practically all of these have been sold west of -the Rocky Mountains. Only the whole nuts have been shipped to the eastern -markets. - -The European crops are sent to the United States largely as kernels and -have had a practical monopoly of the shelled almond business east of -the Rockies. The Tarragonas and Valencias shipped to America come into -direct competition with the I.X.L., Drake, Languedoc and other California -almonds, all of which are unshelled for the eastern markets. The imports -of unshelled almonds average about the same as the California production. -The Jordan, Princess and other varieties, however, come in shelled, -constituting the bulk of the importations. The Jordan, because of its -superior quality, is in a class by itself and does not compete at present -with the California product. The Princess and other almonds of that -type are much the same as the California shelling varieties and will be -serious competitors when sold in the same markets.[4] - -_Storing._—Almonds awaiting removal or sale will become rancid if stored -in warm or damp places. If the almonds have been properly cared for -during the handling process to prevent worm infection, and if the nuts -have been thoroughly cured, they will keep satisfactorily for a year or -more. The ideal condition is to keep them stored in a uniformly cool, dry -storage place with ample ventilation. - - -YIELDS - -The yield of almonds in different years and in different orchards is -probably more variable than that of any other of the common orchard -fruits. The fluctuations from year to year are largely due to climatic -conditions, while the variations in different orchards are largely due -to variety, care given the trees throughout their life, the character of -the soil, and location with relation to local frost conditions. - -Almonds first commence bearing at from two to four years of age; the -first crop ranging from one or two nuts up to a hatful or possibly -more. The trees will first commence to bear a crop which it will pay -to harvest, at from three to five years of age. Ordinarily, it will be -nearer the latter, depending upon the type of soil in which the trees are -growing and the moisture conditions surrounding them. On the hill lands -the trees begin to mature much earlier than in the rich bottom lands and -consequently come into bearing earlier. It must be borne in mind that a -crop which it will pay to harvest does not necessarily pay for the cost -of orchard maintenance. A crop is not considered a paying crop until it -pays for the cost of maintenance as well as harvesting and handling. -Almond orchards, as a rule, reach this point at from five to seven -years of age. From this time on the trees should continue to increase -in production from year to year, allowing for failures due to frost and -other unfavorable conditions, until they are from 12 to 20 years old. -Under the common methods of care that most orchards receive, the trees -commence to decrease in their production at from 25 to 30 years, although -in some cases it will be even sooner than that. On the other hand, well -cared-for orchards will continue their maximum production even longer. -The age at which an orchard will no longer pay will range from 30 years -upward. The top limit is still unknown. - -Investigations carried on during 1913-1914[5] brought out the following -facts: The average production of almonds in California is between 700 -and 800 pounds per acre; if care is exercised in the selection of a -proper location for an orchard and if good judgment is used in managing -it, 1000 pounds per acre would be a safe estimate for business purposes; -in many years competent men might be expected to obtain 1500 pounds per -acre, but this could not be expected to hold for a ten-year average. The -possibilities are shown by the crop from one acre on the University Farm, -at Davis, California, of ten-year-old trees which amounted to nearly 2800 -pounds in 1917. - - -COST OF PRODUCTION - -The cost of producing almonds involves a number of variable factors, -including overhead charges, such as the cost of the land, equipment, -taxes, insurance and depreciation; and also the cost of maintenance -and handling. Maintenance includes such costs as pruning, plowing, -cultivating, spraying and irrigation. Handling includes harvesting, -hulling, hauling, and warehousing. Tabulations of estimates in tables II -to VIII are based on information collected during the years 1913 to 1916, -inclusive, from a large number of growers in practically all the almond -districts of the state, and represent as accurately as possible with the -data at hand the average costs which actually exist throughout California. - -_Cost of the Land._—The estimates given in table II are to be taken as -only partially indicative of conditions which actually exist in the -various districts mentioned. These figures do not give the entire range -of prices but indicate some of the more common values placed upon the -land. - - -TABLE II - -VALUE OF ALMOND LAND IN CALIFORNIA - - Land in bearing - District— Bare land orchard - - Best Sacramento Valley land $200-$400 $400-$600 - Other good interior valley lands 150- 300 400- 500 - Sacramento Valley, foothill sections 75- 150 200- 400 - Contra Costa County 100- 300 250- 500 - Santa Clara and San Benito counties 300- 600 500- 800 - Paso Robles district 50- 150 ........ - Banning district 400- 800 600-1000 - --------- -------- - Averages for California $250 $500 - -_Equipment._—It has been found impossible to gather accurate figures upon -cost of equipment in almond orchards, and especially so in view of the -present abnormal economic conditions, but the list given in table III -will give an idea of the equipment required. In addition, there will be -other small items the grower will need which are not mentioned here. - - -TABLE III - -ALMOND ORCHARD EQUIPMENT - - Plows - Harrows (spike-tooth and spring-tooth) - Disc Cultivator - Weed cutter - Clod masher - Roller - Hoes, shovels, etc. - Pruning tools - Brush burner - Spray outfit - Wagon - Barns, sheds and other buildings - Harvesting equipment: - Almond sheets - Poles - Lug boxes - Hulling machine - Sorting tables and bins - Drying trays - Sacks for transportation to warehouse - Orchard heating equipment ($25-$30 per acre) - Horses or tractors - Harness - -_Average Overhead Charges._—Table IV shows the average overhead charges -for almond orchards. Interest and depreciation on buildings are not -included because of the great variation in their character, so that an -extra charge must be figured on these items by the individual grower. - - -TABLE IV - -AVERAGE OVERHEAD CHARGES PER ACRE - - Taxes and insurance $4.00 - Interest 30.00 - Depreciation on working equipment 4.00 - ------ - Total $38.00 - -_Cost of Production._—Table V shows the average cost of production -for bearing orchards of varieties in all districts, based on personal -observation and cost records from a large number of orchards mentioned -previously. Wherever cost is dependent upon tonnage the average yield of -700 pounds per acre is used as the basis for computation. Depreciation -on buildings and trees, time spent by teams in idleness, feed consumed -during such times and other minor items are too variable to safely -estimate, but must be considered. - - -TABLE V - -AVERAGE COST OF PRODUCTION OF ALL BEARING ORCHARDS IN CALIFORNIA - - Per acre - Maintenance: - Pruning $3.00 - Plowing 2.75 - Harrowing .75 - Cultivation and weed cutting 3.00 - Spraying 3.00 - Irrigation 2.00 - Handling: - Harvesting, hulling, etc. 20.00 - Warehousing (including bleaching), @ ¼c per lb. 1.75 - Miscellaneous expense for maintenance and handling 2.00 $38.25 - ------ - Overhead charges 38.00 - ------ - Total cost per acre $76.25 - Cost per pound for maintenance and handling $0.055 - Cost per pound for overhead charges 0.054 - ------ - Total cost per pound $0.109 - -_Returns._—Prices paid to growers have fluctuated considerably, due to -the great variation in both the California and European crops from year -to year. Table VI shows the average prices per pound paid to the growers -for the four principal varieties marketed through the Exchange since its -organization. - - -TABLE VI - -NET PRICES REALIZED BY THE EXCHANGE MEMBERS FOR DIFFERENT VARIETIES FOR -THE YEARS 1910 TO 1916, INCLUSIVE, IN CENTS PER POUND - - Ne Plus Crop - Year Nonpareil I.X.L. Ultra Drake tons - - 1910 14.00 13.00 12.00 10.00 3,500 - 1911 16.50 15.50 14.50 12.00 1,450 - 1912 13.25 12.25 11.25 9.50 3,000 - 1913 17.25 16.25 15.25 13.25 1,100 - 1914 18.00 15.00 14.50 11.50 2,250 - 1915 13.00 12.00 11.00 9.25 3,500 - 1916 17.25 14.75 13.75 13.00 3,400 - ----- ----- ----- ----- ------- - Average 15.61 14.11 13.18 11.22 2,571.4 - -Table VII shows the average price per pound paid to the growers for -all almonds (unshelled) regardless of quality and variety, based upon -the entire crop handled by the Exchange during the years 1910 to 1916, -inclusive. From these figures the average return per pound for all -varieties for seven years based on the crop tonnage for each year, 1910 -to 1916, inclusive, has been found to be 13.09 cents per pound. - - -TABLE VII - -AVERAGE PRICES PER POUND PAID GROWERS FOR ALL UNSHELLED ALMONDS FOR THE -YEARS 1910 TO 1916, INCLUSIVE - - Price per pound, California crop, - Year cents tons - - 1910 12.0 3,300 - 1911 13.5 1,450 - 1912 11.0 3,000 - 1913 15.5 1,100 - 1914 14.05 2,250 - 1915 10.75 3,500 - 1916 13.97 3,400 - ----- ------- - Average 13.09 2,571.4 - -The relation of yields, returns and profits from the growers’ standpoint -is one which every person must consider before entering the business. In -view of the extravagant claims which have been made as to the enormous -profits realized by the average grower, the figures in tables II to VIII -have been worked out and presented here. The summation of the relation -of yields, returns and cost of production to the profits for the average -grower of almonds is shown in table VIII. - - -TABLE VIII - -RELATION OF AVERAGE YIELDS, COSTS AND RETURNS, TO PROFITS - - Average yield per acre 700 pounds - Average returns to grower per acre $97.30 - Average cost of production per acre 76.25 - ------ - Average profit per acre $21.05 - - -Depreciation on buildings and trees, and other unfigured costs, are too -variable to estimate, but they must come from these profits. - - -DISEASES - -_Crown Gall._—Also commonly known as root-knot. This disease is one -of the most serious with which the grower has to contend. It is found -practically everywhere almonds are grown and either greatly reduces the -vitality of or kills the trees affected, depending upon the seriousness -of the attack. - -The disease is caused by a bacterial organism, _Bacterium tumefaciens_, -that seems to be native to most California soils. It is characterized by -large swellings on the root crown or main roots just below the surface of -the ground, though lesser infections may sometimes be found also on the -smaller roots. When cut open, these knots appear spongy as if the bark -and wood were all mixed together in one mass. They are most serious when -spread over a large surface, either partially or completely girdling the -root or crown of the tree. - -Control methods are of three kinds: - -(1) Plant nothing but clean, healthy nursery trees, free from all trace -of galls. In planting these trees be careful to trim off all broken or -injured roots, leaving nothing but smooth clean cuts at the ends of the -roots which will heal over readily with the minimum opportunity for -infection. - -(2) Galls on orchard trees may be cut out to clean, healthy wood with a -sharp knife or gouge chisel. The wound should be thoroughly disinfected -with a strong copper-sulphate or corrosive-sublimate solution, and -painted with a protective covering such as paint or melted asphaltum, -or it may be covered directly with Bordeaux paste and then the earth -returned to its place over the roots. - -(3) A method used with apparent success is to bore a one-inch hole about -two-third of the way through each gall, as soon as the trees have become -dormant in the fall. Then fill each hole with a concentrated solution of -copper sulphate and plug the opening. By spring, when growth is ready -to start, the gall may be knocked off with a hammer. In most cases the -gall is so thoroughly permeated by the solution that the infection is -completely killed and further gall growth ceases in that place, unless -later infection occurs. - -The use of resistant stocks has been suggested as a means of avoiding -infection, but no such stock suitable for the almond has yet been proved -to be sufficiently resistant under average conditions to be safely -recommended. The greatest hopes for future success in combating this -disease, however, lie along this line. - -_Oak Fungus._—This is one of the most difficult diseases to control -because it works and spreads beneath the surface of the ground in the -roots of trees. In some sections of the state it is very serious in many -orchards. - -The disease is often known as root-rot, being caused by a fungus -_Armillaria mellea_, commonly called “toadstool” fungus. It is known as -Oak fungus because the disease is most commonly found in spots where old -oak trees have stood. Where orchards have been planted on such land, -spots appear in which the trees gradually die, the disease spreading from -tree to tree, in ever-widening circles, involving ordinarily about one -row of trees each year. During the winter, clusters of toadstools may be -seen at the base of the affected trees. The fungus lives over in the old -oak roots for many years and, as the orchard becomes well established, -the fungus spreads to the almond roots. If not checked the spot will -eventually involve the entire orchard and prevent further growth of -almonds on such land for many years. - -Control is very difficult but may be secured by digging a deep trench -around the affected area and preventing the infection from passing beyond -through the roots. The spread of the disease may sometimes be held in -check by grubbing out a row or two of healthy trees outside the affected -area and taking care that all of the large roots are removed to a depth -of several feet. Carbon bisulphide has been suggested for killing the -fungus, but the cost is prohibitive except in small spots just starting. - -There are no resistant stocks known at present upon which the almond can -be worked. The fig, pear or black walnut might safely replace the almond -in such spots. - -_Shot-hole Fungus._—There are three different fungi that produce the -shot-hole effect on the leaves of the almond, thus giving rise to the -name. - -(1) _Coryneum beyerinikii_, or peach blight, is the most common form. It -is not as serious on the wood of the almond as it is on the peach, but -in seasons of damp spring weather it does much damage to the blossoms, -fruits and leaves. Affected blossoms are killed outright, the entire -blossoms turning brown and dropping much as if killed by frost. The young -fruit becomes spotted by the fungus and this causes malformation, gumming -and shriveling of the nuts, varying considerably with the severity of -the attack. On the leaves many small dead spots appear, the dead tissue -soon falling out and giving the shot-hole effect. Where the twigs are -affected, small dead spots appear during the winter, most often at the -buds. This causes the death of the buds and often the ends of the twigs. -During the spring, after growth starts, considerable gumming occurs from -these spots. - -Effective control can only be secured by two sprays—Bordeaux mixture in -the fall, as soon as the tree becomes dormant, and either Bordeaux or -lime-sulphur solution (winter strength) just before the buds open in the -spring. Both fall and spring sprays must be thoroughly applied to be -effective. - -(2) _Cercospora circumscissa_ is another fungus causing much the same -effect as the Coryneum. It is difficult for an untrained person to -distinguish between them. The same sprays used for Coryneum are effective -in controlling this, though if this form alone is present the Bordeaux -mixture or lime-sulphur spray in the spring should be sufficient. - -(3) _Gloeosporium amygdalinum_, while apparently uncommon in this state, -has been found to exist in some places. Further work must be done on this -to determine its behavior and the most satisfactory methods of control, -but it is believed that the control measures mentioned for the other -forms of “shot-hole” will also be applicable to this. - -_Prune Rust_ (_Puccinia Pruni_).—This fungus is worst in the southern -coast sections where almonds are not extensively grown. It is not -serious on thrifty trees well supplied with moisture. The disease is -characterized by reddish pustules on the under-sides of the leaves, -appearing generally about July or August and causing a premature -yellowing and dropping of the leaves. - -Ordinarily the only treatment needed is to supply the necessary moisture -in the soil to keep the trees healthy and vigorous. - -_Heart Rot._—This is one of the most insidious of tree diseases, for it -works inside beneath an apparently healthy exterior until the decay has -progressed so far that the tree commences to break down, and then it is -too late for remedial measures. The almond is not as susceptible to this -as most other kinds of orchard trees, but where large wounds have been -exposed to the weather, infection may take place readily, and after it is -once well started it continues at a comparatively rapid rate. Decay is -caused in most cases by one or more of about a dozen different fungi, of -which the oyster-shell fungus is by far the most common. - -Control consists in taking care to leave no open wounds exposed to the -air to dry and crack, thus permitting the entrance of decay organisms. -Much of this can be avoided by care in pruning the young tree so that the -removal of the large limbs will not be necessary later on. Where such -wounds must be made, measures should be taken to prevent infection. This -can best be done by making smooth, clean cuts close to the part from -which the branch to be removed emanates, leaving no stub. Stubs dry out -and crack more quickly and require very much longer to heal over, if this -is possible at all. Further, all such wounds which will not heal over -the first season should be covered with some good disinfectant, such as -corrosive sublimate, one part to one thousand parts of water, and then -painted over with some elastic coating, such as “Flotine” or asphaltum, -grade D, applied with a brush. The entire wound must be covered or the -work is largely wasted. - -_Die-back._—This is serious in many orchards where moisture is -insufficient to carry the trees through the growing season, and the -trees show considerable dying-back of the branches. Unfavorable soil -conditions, such as hardpan, gravel or sand may be the direct cause of -such moisture shortage. Lack of soil fertility is also a common cause. -Control measures consist in remedying the defective conditions and where -this cannot be done economically it is better to abandon further attempts -at almond culture on such land. - -_Sour-sap._—This is one of the so-called “physiological diseases” and is -quite common with the almond. It is most frequently found where trees -are planted in heavy or poorly drained soils. The inability of the -almond to endure standing water around its roots for any length of time -and particularly so after growth commences in the spring, renders it -especially liable to sour-sap when planted in soils where excess water -from the late winter and spring rains cannot be readily drained away. The -direct cause of the trouble is sudden changes in weather from warm to -cold after growth commences, which checks the flow of sap very suddenly, -causing stagnation, cracking of the bark and then fermentation. With an -unusually strong flow of sap in trees in wet soils, such climatic changes -cause unusually severe disturbances in the normal functioning of the -trees. - -The affected trees ordinarily show the disease first in the spring when -gum may be seen oozing from the bark of the trunk or main branches, and -sometimes even from the smaller branches. Small or large branches may -die, and in severe cases the tree may die soon after having commenced to -leaf out strongly. On cutting through the bark to the wood and peeling -back, a strong sour odor is noticeable. The cambium layer appears -brownish or reddish in color and often masses of gum may be found between -the bark and the wood. Mild cases may not be serious enough to show on -the outside of the tree and only portions of the cambium layer may die. -The sudden dropping of the blossoms or young fruit may in some instances -be attributable to sour-sap. - -All affected parts on smaller branches should be cut back to healthy -wood, while on the main branches or trunk, where only a small portion or -one side is affected, it is best to clean out the dead bark and paint the -bared wood with a protective covering until new bark can cover the spot. -At the same time every effort should be made to remedy the soil-moisture -conditions which were largely responsible for the trouble in the first -place. - -_Fruit-drop._—The same conditions which cause sour-sap may cause fruit -drop. It may be caused by lack of pollination due to improper mixing of -varieties or to rain during blossoming. Frost may also produce the same -thing by killing the germ in the young fruit. In such cases, the fruit -may remain on the tree for one or two weeks after the injury occurs -before falling, and in some cases, may even appear to continue its -development for a short while. - - -INSECT PESTS - -_Mites._—Commonly called red spiders. There are two kinds of mites that -do much damage in almond orchards, the brown or almond mite and the -yellow or two-spotted mite. Both are common in all parts of the state and -are the worst pests the almond grower must regularly face. - -The brown mite (_Bryobia pratensis_) is the larger of the two, is dark -red or brown in adult stage, has very long front legs, and a flattened -back. It does not spin any web and works on the green bark of the small -twigs as well as on the leaves, sucking the plant juices from beneath -the bark. It causes a mottling of the leaves which eventually fall, -although not as readily or in such large numbers as when attacked by the -yellow mite. The injury to the tree is equally as great because of the -serious drain on the vitality as a whole and because it commences work -earlier in the season. This mite may spend its entire life on the tree; -the very small, round, red eggs being laid largely on the under-side of -the branches and in cracks and crevices in the bark and twigs. These -remain on the tree throughout the winter and hatch early in the spring -soon after the trees have their leaves half developed, leaving the white -egg-shells in place. Most of their work is done in the spring and early -summer. - -[Illustration: Fig. 22.—Nonpareil almonds. Branch on left free from Red -Spider and holding its full supply of leaves in green, healthy condition; -branch on right defoliated by Yellow Mite. Note premature ripening of -nuts on defoliated branch.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 23.—Forty-three-year-old Languedoc almonds on peach -root, near Davis. This orchard has not been thoroughly cultivated or -irrigated. Mites have largely defoliated the trees. See contrast in Fig. -24.] - -The brown mite may be controlled satisfactorily by means of a dormant -spray of lime-sulphur solution, 1 gallon to 10 gallons of water, applied -just before the buds open in the spring. Crude oil emulsion as a dormant -spray is also effective, if thoroughly applied over the entire tree under -high pressure. This also applies to applications of the lime-sulphur -spray. - -During the growing season a milder material must be used. Dry dust -sulphur, using only the very finest grade of “flowers of sulphur,” is -often very effective, provided weather conditions are satisfactory, but -generally this must be applied a number of times if best results are to -be obtained. The work is done by blowing the sulphur dust into the tree -with blowers in the early morning when there is little or no wind. - -A more satisfactory method is the use of “Atomic sulphur” or other -sulphur pastes or similar material. “Atomic sulphur” is a prepared spray -whose value consists in the fact that the sulphur is held in suspension -in water so that it may be applied as a liquid spray. By this method the -material may be more effectively and thoroughly applied. “Atomic sulphur” -is applied at the rate of 10 pounds to 100 gallons of water. - -[Illustration: Fig. 24.—Forty-three-year-old Languedoc almonds on -peach root, near Davis. This orchard has been irrigated and thoroughly -cultivated, and mites have not defoliated the trees. Note contrast in -Fig. 23.] - -The use of lime-sulphur, the commercial strength of 33 to 34 degrees -Beaumé being diluted 1 part to 35 parts water, is another effective -method. For such use a flour paste may be added at the rate of 4 gallons -to each 100 gallons of the spray mixture to act as a spreader. This paste -is made by cooking one pound of flour with enough water to make one -gallon of the mixture. - -The yellow mite (_Tetranychus telarius_) is much smaller than the brown -mite and is of a pale yellow color with occasionally a reddish tinge and -sometimes with two darker spots on either side of the body. Unlike the -brown mite, the winter is spent in concealment somewhere, presumably -off the tree. During the warm days of early summer, generally in June, -the mite makes its appearance on the trees, spinning a fine web on the -leaves, generally on the upper surface, and then works under this web. -The mite sucks the plant juices from the leaves giving them a yellowish -mottled appearance. These leaves soon die and drop to the ground. In -serious infestations the trees are often almost completely defoliated by -the end of August. (See figure 22.) - -The use of dormant sprays is not effective for controlling the yellow -mite, but the summer sprays mentioned above are all satisfactory, and for -best results, must be applied under high pressure, preferably 200 pounds -or more. - -The mites are much easier controlled where a comparatively high -percentage of moisture is kept in the soil by frequent cultivations, or, -if necessary, by irrigation (figures 23 and 24). - -_Peach Twig Borer_ (_Anarsia lineatella_).—In the larval stage these -borers work on the young buds and shoots in the early spring. They -are especially troublesome in newly planted orchard trees when a -comparatively small number may kill most of the new shoots which are -needed to make the desired framework of the tree. In some years they may -be serious in large trees also. Dormant spray of lime-sulphur applied -under high pressure just as the buds are opening in the spring will -control the borers very effectively. This same spray may be used to -control the brown mite, thereby accomplishing double control. - -_California Peach Borer_ (_Ægeria opalescens_).—The larvae are serious in -many parts of the state where they burrow just under the bark near the -surface of the ground. They may be detected by the small bits of frass -and gum at the entrance of their burrows. If allowed to continue, they -will eventually girdle the tree. - -The surest means of control is to dig out the worms with a knife or kill -them with a wire probe. This work should be done systematically once -or twice every year and very thoroughly if it is to be effective. The -application of hot “Flotine” or asphaltum, grade D, after the worms are -killed should help considerably to prevent the entrance of the larvae. To -be effective it must be applied at least twice a year on young trees and -probably the same on old trees. - -_Thrips._—These are most serious on the almond leaves, their attacks -being serious enough to cause considerable defoliation in late spring or -early summer. They may be controlled by spraying with lime-sulphur, 1 -to 30, to which has been added black-leaf 40 (40 per cent nicotine) at -the rate of 1 part to 1500 parts of water or other spray-mixture. It is -possible that other than the pear thrips have been doing damage, but the -same spray as described above should be effective against all. - -_Grasshopper._—Grasshoppers have been serious in orchards in outlying -foothill districts in some years, and especially so in young orchards -where it has been almost impossible to get trees started properly. In -such locations special means must be employed on a large scale to protect -orchards from their devastations, of which poisoned bait and hopper -dozers are the most effective. - -[Illustration: Fig. 25.—Almonds infested with larvae of Indian Meal Moth -(_Plodia interpunctella_).] - -Indian Meal Moth (_Plodia interpunctella_).—The larva of this moth feeds -on the kernels of the harvested almonds when they are stored. Infestation -usually takes place in storerooms or warehouses in which the nuts have -been placed for a time. The warehouses become infested from old grain -bags which have been kept there at one time or another. So far as known, -infestation does not take place in the field. The larvae will continue to -work in the stored almonds for a long time, doing a very great amount of -damage (fig. 25). They may be controlled by thoroughly cleaning out the -corners of the warehouse and thoroughly disinfecting. The nuts should be -disinfected with carbon bisulphide (explosive when in the form of a gas -mixed with air), or other means used to control insects in grain.[6] -Prevention is far easier than the cure in this case. - -Scale, aphis, diabrotica and other insects are sometimes found on the -trees, but are generally not sufficiently troublesome to require special -attention. Most of them are held in check by the control measures used -for the more serious pests. - - -OTHER PESTS - -_Gophers._—These often do great damage to the trees by girdling them -just below the surface of the ground, or if they do not actually girdle -the trees, they cut them enough to devitalize them and, in addition, the -wounds made by their gnawings frequently become infected with crown-gall -organisms. The only safe means of control is the constant use of traps -supplemented by poisoned bait. - -_Squirrels._—Squirrels are very troublesome, as they harvest a large -amount of almonds before they are sufficiently ripe to be harvested by -the grower. The use of poisoned grain or “gas,” if used over a large area -of surrounding territory, will prevent serious depredations. - -_Birds._—Birds also carry off large amounts of almonds if the orchards -are near open country or hills, especially if wooded. Crows, bluejays, -blackbirds, yellow-hammers, robins and other similar birds are the worst -offenders. Sometimes linnets eat off large numbers of fruit buds in the -spring in a few of the newer sections where plantings are scattered. -Sap-suckers have been known to girdle entire trees or large branches by -cutting large numbers of holes in a series of lines close together around -the trunk or limbs. - -_Morning-glory._—This is probably the worst of the weeds in almond -orchards, and is the hardest to control. Sheep and chickens may be used -with excellent results, provided care is taken to see that the sheep are -not allowed to go hungry, for then they will bark the trunks of the trees -very quickly. An excellent plan is to arrange gates so that the sheep -must go through the orchard from pasture to get water. In passing back -and forth they will forage over the entire orchard and dig up all the -morning-glory in sight. Chickens are fond of the succulent new shoots, -and will keep them below the ground until the underground stems and roots -weaken and die. Cultivation throughout the growing season, often enough -to prevent the morning-glory from developing any leaves for a whole year -at least, and longer if necessary, will starve the plants to death. - - -VARIETIES - -The problem of selecting varieties of almonds for planting in California -is to choose the ones that are most marketable and at the same time to -secure best results in cross-pollination. At the present time there are -comparatively few varieties of almonds which have won and retained their -popularity with the grower and the trade. There are a number of reasons -for this condition. The cultural, climatic and soil conditions under -which the almond thrives are much more limited than for most of the -common deciduous fruits; the area of production in America is limited -largely to California; the industry is comparatively new, and in general, -there is not the great varietal variation in season, appearance, texture, -flavor and behavior that is found in the apple, peach, pear and similar -fruits. The comparatively rapid deterioration of fleshy fruits after -ripening makes a succession of varieties desirable to extend the period -of consumption. With almonds, the season of all varieties extends from -one harvest to the next, if properly handled. Growers are, therefore, -recommended to plant only standard, marketable varieties as far as -possible. - -Early ripening varieties must be chosen. The crop must be in the hands of -the trade early, for the bulk of it is used in the holiday trade. This -is especially true with unshelled almonds. Early almonds only can be -harvested and sold before the bulk of the European shipments arrive. - -The actual time of ripening of the different varieties is variable from -season to season, and in different sections or even different orchards -in the same season. Generally, harvesting commences early in August and -closes about the middle of October. The approximate order of ripening of -the better known varieties is shown in table IX. - - -TABLE IX - -APPROXIMATE ORDER OF RIPENING OF VARIETIES OF ALMONDS - - 1. Nonpareil - 2. I.X.L. - Jordan - 3. Ne Plus Ultra - 4. Peerless - Princess - California - King - Silver - 5. Golden State - 6. Lewelling - 7. Drake - 8. Languedoc - Texas - -Many new varieties have been originated in California but most of them -have fallen into disfavor in a short time. In fact, it is impossible to -locate even single trees of some varieties which were formerly well -known. From time to time, however, worthy varieties have been introduced -and have succeeded in making a permanent place for themselves through -their ability to fill a demand that before had been but partially or -poorly supplied. - -In view of the changing market situation for California almonds, due to -the rapidly increasing acreage and the very limited demand for unshelled -almonds, it is safe to predict that the only new varieties which will -be of value in the future will be those that are primarily of superior -quality for shelling purposes. Yield must take second place. - -Well known varieties are not only in heavier demand in the principal -markets, but they invariably bring much better prices than the newer -varieties. In some years, when the domestic crop of a given variety is -light and the demand good, it is possible to unload poorer or less known -varieties at fairly good prices. More often, however, they are a drag on -the market. - -Owing to the increasing consumption of shelled almonds and the -probability of a still greater increase in the future, growers should -arrange future plantings with a view to supplying the best shelling -varieties. At the present time, the best shelling varieties are not -ordinarily the heaviest producers. With a limited production they may not -even bring as large returns as the poorer but heavier yielding varieties. -As the production increases, which it is doing very rapidly, the relative -value of the best shelling varieties will increase in proportion and they -may be sold at good prices when it will be impossible to move a heavy -tonnage of a poor variety at a profitable price. - -Although the future almond markets will no doubt use shelled almonds very -largely, there will always be a limited demand for unshelled almonds -for use in the holiday trade and for home table use. Unshelled almonds -to be acceptable for such purposes must be large, attractive nuts with -light-colored, clean-looking shells, soft enough to be broken with the -hands. The kernels must be well filled and free from gum. The I.X.L. is -the most popular and highest-priced nut for this purpose. The Ne Plus -Ultra ranks next because of its attractive outside appearance and shape; -one of the principal objections to it being its tendency to have gummy -kernels. The Drake is another variety in demand for this purpose. It -is moderately large, plump and well filled with a good quality kernel, -and while not as attractive as the I.X.L. or Ne Plus Ultra, it is -popular with the medium-priced trade. A certain class of trade prefers -the Nonpareil for such use, and it appears to be growing in popularity -because of the attractive kernel and the ease with which shelling by hand -is accomplished. - -The confectioners, on the other hand, care nothing for shell. They want -a medium or large sized kernel, uniform in shape, and plump; one that -can be coated smoothly or evenly with candy. For blanching and salting -purposes, the kernels must be large and smooth. The best California -variety for this purpose is the Nonpareil. It is also the best nut for -table use when sold shelled. As a rule, the papershell varieties are the -best for shelling because of the large percentage of unbroken kernels -which may be obtained. The broken kernels and those obtained from -cheaper and less desirable varieties are used largely by the bakers and -almond-paste manufacturers. - -The planting of large blocks of orchards to single varieties is not a -wise practice. Planting of several varieties will assist greatly in -lengthening the harvest season, and thus enable one to handle large -crops with fewer men and less equipment. For example, the four best -varieties—the Nonpareil, I.X.L., Ne Plus Ultra and Drake—ripen in the -order named; the Nonpareil ripening about two weeks before the I.X.L., -the Ne Plus Ultra about a week after the I.X.L., and the Drake about -two weeks after the Ne Plus Ultra. Where there is danger of failure -of varieties to set fruit due to frost or improper pollination or -unfavorable weather conditions during, or soon after, blooming, the -grower is more likely to get a crop from some variety if several are -planted to secure a succession of bloom in the spring. - -The principal reason for interplanting varieties is to secure adequate -cross-pollination. For this purpose the Ne Plus Ultra and Drake are -probably the best to use as pollenizers. - -Other combinations, as indicated on page 6, may be made that will be -satisfactory, though care must be exercised to secure varieties that -blossom near enough together to be effective. Figure 26 shows the -effective blossoming period for fifteen varieties. - -_Adaptation of Varieties._—The best marketable nuts are, as has been -suggested, few in number, and most of these do well in all of the -principal almond districts of California. Where the climatic and soil -condition are equally favorable there is no great variation in their -behavior, but owing to such differences it has been found that certain -varieties are better adapted to some districts than others. - -The Nonpareil, the best variety known at the present time for California -conditions, bears more nearly uniform crops from year to year and shows -a wider range of adaptation than any of the other good commercial -varieties. It has proved itself to be satisfactory in every almond -district in the state. The Drake closely approaches the Nonpareil in this -respect. The I.X.L. and Ne Plus Ultra are the most variable in their -behavior. The blossoms of the two varieties seem to be more tender and -hence more liable to injury under unfavorable conditions; gumming is more -prevalent near the coast, and during harvest the slower ripening and -opening of the hulls in the more moist atmosphere in many of the coast -valleys causes excessive darkening and sometimes molding of the shell. -The Ne Plus Ultra does its best on comparatively high, well-drained -soils, adjacent to the larger streams in the Sacramento Valley, such as -the lands along the Sacramento River, Putah Creek, Cache Creek, etc., -though it also grows and produces well in the Banning district and in -many of the foothill sections where conditions are favorable. The I.X.L. -does best on the foothills surrounding the Sacramento Valley, notable -on the west side. In the Banning district the Ne Plus Ultra seems to be -a better producer than the I.X.L. Varieties which ripen later than the -Drake should be avoided in the Banning district because of the liability -to damage from the frequent October rains. - -There are a number of different varieties, such as the Eureka and Jordan, -which give promise of filling a limited place in the markets but which -have not yet been thoroughly tested throughout the state. The Eureka -is popular with confectioners because of the similarity in shape to -the Jordan. In limited quantities the demand is good. It is still a -question as to whether it would hold up in price if grown in very large -quantities. The Jordan nut is of excellent quality but in California -the trees are variable in vigor. In some cases the trees make unusually -large, vigorous growth while in others they are small and apparently -stunted. The cause of this has never been adequately determined. In -general, the Jordans do not bear sufficiently heavy crops to make them -pay at the prevailing low prices. The chief reasons for the low prices -are the extreme hardness of the shell and the absence of satisfactory -methods of shelling. The invention of a satisfactory machine for this -purpose would probably make it pay to plant Jordans in much larger -quantities. - -[Illustration: Fig. 26.—Period of Effective Blossoming of -Almonds—University Farm—1917.] - -Other varieties, such as the Texas, have been sufficiently tested to -show them to be well adapted to most districts, but they are not to be -recommended because of the difficulty experienced in marketing them at -a profit in large quantities. The Texas has been planted extensively -in California without sufficient justification. It was planted because -of its value as a pollenizer, its precocious and prolific bearing, and -its upright habit of growth. In small quantities it was sold in less -exacting markets as a Drake, but in larger quantities there has been a -good deal of objection to it on the part of the trade. As the bearing -trees become older and bear heavier crops, the nuts tend to become -smaller and the shells harder, which increases the difficulty of selling. -From the standpoint of the grower as well as the market, the lateness in -ripening is very objectionable. The California Almond Growers’ Exchange -is finding it harder each year to satisfactorily market the rapidly -increasing tonnage of this variety. It should, therefore, be avoided in -new plantings. - - -SIZE OF ALMONDS - -Records of fourteen varieties of almonds grown in the same orchard under -similar conditions of soil and culture have been kept at the University -Farm at Davis, for the years 1913 to 1916, inclusive. These trees are all -of the same age, except the Texas, Peerless and Harriott, which are one -year younger than the others. These figures show that there is a wide -variation within varieties from year to year, not only as regards size, -but proportion of shell to whole nut, and in the proportion of double -kernels. - -Table X shows the variation in size from year to year, as indicated by -the number of nuts per pound. Five-pound samples of each variety were -used to determine the average size: - - -TABLE X - -NUMBER OF ALMONDS PER POUND FOR YEARS 1913 TO 1916, INCLUSIVE - - Variety 1913 1914 1915 1916 Average - - Nonpareil 256 240 224 223 236 - I.X.L. 149 149 159 150 152 - Ne Plus Ultra — 163 179 169 167 - Drake 189 132 131 130 145.5 - Languedoc 226 220 185 213 211 - Texas 182 171 165 173 173 - Reams 138 123 143 148 140.5 - Lewelling 154 150 158 139 150 - Peerless — 118 127 134 124 - Princess 270 241 190 252 238 - California — 232 211 206 216 - King — 246 234 244 241 - Harriott — 175 151 176 167 - Jordan — 76 70 75 74 - -The value of an almond for shelling depends not alone on its relative -ease of cracking, but also upon the percentage of kernel to the whole nut -as shown in table XI: - - -TABLE XI - -PERCENTAGE OF KERNELS TO WHOLE NUTS - - 1913 1914 1915 1916 Average - Variety Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent - - Nonpareil 67.5 65.0 67.2 67.0 66.6 - I.X.L. 45.31 48.5 60.6 54.7 52.28 - Ne Plus Ultra — 53.25 57.6 58.5 56.45 - Drake 46.33 42.40 47.0 42.2 44.48 - Languedoc 48.75 50.0 49.4 48.5 49.16 - Texas 43.75 45.0 42.4 44.4 43.89 - Reams 45.94 42.5 49.25 43.4 45.27 - Lewelling 43.44 48.8 50.6 45.0 46.96 - Peerless — 36.0 39.65 32.5 36.05 - Princess 65.0 73.0 70.6 73.8 70.6 - California — 71.2 70.6 69.5 70.43 - King — 70.0 72.0 71.6 71.2 - Harriott — 56.25 54.2 50.6 53.68 - Jordan — 25.0 23.8 26.9 25.23 - -Double kernels are particularly undesirable in nuts for shelling because -of the irregular shape of the halves, which renders them unfit for -confectionery or bakery purposes where whole kernels are used. Table XII -shows the percentage of double kernels by number: - - -TABLE XII - -PERCENTAGE OF DOUBLE KERNELS FOR DIFFERENT VARIETIES - - Variety 1914 1915 1916 Average - - Nonpareil 1.09 1.96 6.10 3.05 - I.X.L. .50 .50 .80 .60 - Ne Plus Ultra 4.30 5.76 12.06 7.37 - Drake 12.72 6.25 6.65 8.54 - Languedoc .99 .32 1.60 .97 - Texas 11.56 7.40 11.90 10.29 - Reams 9.92 13.79 4.82 9.51 - Lewelling 13.30 28.70 46.50 29.50 - Peerless 4.44 7.05 8.38 6.62 - Princess .83 .21 4.61 1.88 - California .00 .00 .097 .032 - King .00 1.28 2.13 1.14 - Harriott 1.43 .40 .80 .88 - Jordan 1.32 3.72 3.74 2.93 - - -METHODS OF CLASSIFICATION - -Almonds are classified according to hardness of shell, into four classes: - -_Papershell._—Those almonds having a thin, papery shell which may easily -be broken between the fingers of one hand. - -_Softshell._—Those which have a more or less spongy or thin shell which -may be broken between the fingers of two hands. - -[Illustration: Fig. 27.—Almond varieties. - -LANGUEDOC. TEXAS. DRAKE. - -NONPAREIL. I.X.L. NE PLUS ULTRA. - -TARRAGONA. JORDAN. PEERLESS.] - -_Standardshell._—Those requiring very strong pressure of the hand or the -use of a nut-cracker to break. These may have a spongy or smooth outer -shell. - -_Hardshell._—Those which cannot be broken by hand but require a sharp -blow with a hammer or strong pressure with a nut cracker to crack them. - -The papershell varieties are excellent for shelling as they contain a -large percentage of kernels which may easily be obtained whole. The -principal objections are that birds are particularly fond of them since -they can crack them easily, and the shells are often poorly sealed. The -latter fact makes it difficult to prevent worm infestation and to prevent -the penetration of sulphur fumes to the kernel during the bleaching -process. As a result practically none of the papershells are bleached but -are sold for shelling purposes. - -The softshells are generally more attractive for table use because the -shells are more perfect and, in commercial varieties, are brighter in -color and more attractive. The shells are usually well sealed and can -be bleached to give additional brightness with less danger of the fumes -penetrating to the kernel than the papershells. - -[Illustration: Fig. 28.—Almond varieties. - -HARRIOTT. EUREKA. LEWELLING. - -KING. CALIFORNIA. PRINCESS. - -STUART. LA PRIMA. BATHAM.] - -The standardshells have the greatest range in character, thickness -and hardness of shell. For table use they are sometimes too hard for -high-class trade. The percentage of kernel is too low to make them very -attractive to the retail trade. Of this class of almond the Drake is -probably the best of the California varieties. Almond varieties of all -these classes are shown in figures 27 and 28. These illustrations show -most of the varieties grown to any extent in California and others that -have attracted much interest and inquiry, together with the European -Tarragona. - - - - -FOOTNOTES - - -[1] Tufts, W. P., unpublished data from experiments conducted in the -University Farm orchard, at Davis, California. - -[2] Colby, Geo. E., Ann. Rept. Cal. Agri. Exp. Sta., 1895-1896 and -1896-1897. - -[3] As this bulletin goes to press doubt is raised as to whether some -of these trees may not be on almond stock, but this in no material way -affects the discussion. - -[4] Just what conditions will exist after the close of the present war -cannot be forecast with any degree of accuracy. One thing is certain, -the increasing popularity of shelled almonds makes it essential that the -American markets become familiar with the California shelled product, and -that this trade be extended as quickly as possible. - -[5] Cir. 121, Univ. Calif. Agri. Exp. Station, October, 1914. - -[6] The fumigation of Stored Grain, Dried Fruits, and Other Products, E. -R. DeOng, Cal. Agr. Exp. Sta., Dec., 1917. - - - - -BIBLIOGRAPHY - - -TREAT, W. - - 1890. Almond Culture. Report of California Board of - Horticulture, 1900, pp. 72-78. - -FULLER, A. S. - - 1896. The Nut Culturist, pp. 12-43. Orange Judd Co., New York. - -CORSA, W. P. - - 1896. Nut Culture in the United States, Embracing Native and - Introduced Species. U. S. D. A., Division of Pomology, pp. - 19-28. - -COLBY, GEO. E. - - 1898. Analysis of California Almonds. University of California - Agr. Exp. Sta. Report 1895-1896; 1896-1897, pp. 145-151. - -FAIRCHILD, DAVID G. - - 1902. Spanish Almonds and Their Introduction into America. - Bulletin 26, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. D. A., pp. 7-14 - and 8 plates. - -DARGITZ, J. P. - - 1909. The Almond Commercially Considered. Proc. 36th Cal. State - Fruit Growers’ Convention, pp. 64-71. - -WICKSON, E. J. - - 1914. California Fruits and How to Grow Them. 7th edition., pp. - 424-430. - -BAILEY, L. H., and WICKSON, E. J. - - 1914. Almond, Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture, vol. I, pp. - 249-251. - -HUNT, THOS. F., and Staff. - - 1914. Some Things the Prospective Settler Should Know. Circular - 121, Cal. Agr. Exp. Station, pp. 3, 8, 41-42. - -TAYLOR, R. H. - - 1915. Present Status of the Nut Industry in California. - Proceedings of the Society for Horticultural Science, 1915, pp. - 31-39. - - 1915. A Symposium of California Pomology: The Almond. - Proceedings American Pomological Society, 1915, pp. 121-126. - -PIERCE, GEO. W. - - 1915. The Status of the Almond Industry of the Pacific Coast. - Proceedings American Pomological Society, 1915, pp. 75-82. - -STEUBENRAUCH, A. V., and TAYLOR, R. H. - - 1915. Some Lessons from the California Nut Industry. - Proceedings 14th Ann. Conv. National Nut Growers’ Association, - 1915, pp. 90-93. - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ALMOND IN CALIFORNIA *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm -concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, -and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following -the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use -of the Project Gutenberg trademark. 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