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diff --git a/old/67235-0.txt b/old/67235-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 853e7bc..0000000 --- a/old/67235-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,1829 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Caddo Indians of Louisiana, by -Clarence H. Webb - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: The Caddo Indians of Louisiana - -Authors: Clarence H. Webb - Hiram F. Gregory - -Release Date: January 23, 2022 [eBook #67235] - -Language: English - -Produced by: WebRover, Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed - Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CADDO INDIANS OF -LOUISIANA *** - - - - - - - Department of Culture, Recreation and Tourism - Louisiana Archaeological Survey and Antiquities Commission - Anthropological Study No. 2 - - THE CADDO - INDIANS - OF LOUISIANA - - [Illustration: Green Corn Ceremony of prehistoric Caddo - Indians. Presumed village, dress, and utensils about A.D. - 1000 as reconstructed from archaeological findings. Mural in - Louisiana State Exhibit Museum, Shreveport.] - - _Clarence H. Webb_ - - _Hiram F. Gregory_ - - August 1978 - - Baton Rouge, Louisiana - - * * * * * - -STATE OF LOUISIANA - - Edwin Edwards - _Governor_ - -DEPARTMENT OF CULTURE, RECREATION AND TOURISM - - Dr. J. Larry Crain - _Secretary_ - -ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY AND ANTIQUITIES COMMISSION - - _Ex-Officio Members_ - - Dr. Alan Toth _State Archaeologist_ - Dr. E. Bernard Carrier _Assistant Secretary_, Office of Program - Development - Mr. William C. Huls _Secretary_, Department of Natural Resources - Mr. Leon Tarver _Secretary_, Department of Urban and Community - Affairs - - _Appointed Members_ - - Mrs. Lanier Simmons Mrs. Dale Campbell Brown Mr. Thomas M. Ryan - Mr. Fred Benton, Jr. Dr. Clarence H. Webb Dr. Jon L. Gibson - Mr. Robert S. Neitzel - - * * * * * - -Editor’s Note - -More than 10,000 years of human settlement in Louisiana have left -a cultural heritage that is both rich and informative. With the -publication of “The Caddo Indians of Louisiana,” the Department of -Culture, Recreation and Tourism is pleased to continue the series of -_Anthropological Studies_ that will illuminate some of the major episodes -in Louisiana’s past. - -The two authors of the present study are eminently qualified authorities -on the Caddo Indians. Dr. Clarence H. Webb, a well-known Shreveport -physician, is equally distinguished by his pioneer archaeological -efforts in the Caddoan area. For more than four decades, he has led the -professional community in the illumination of Caddoan prehistory. Dr. -Hiram F. Gregory is Professor of Anthropology at Northwestern State -University and also a veteran of many years of Caddoan archaeology. -His professional career, which began with an exhaustive study of the -Spanish _presidio_ of Los Adaes, has acquired a pronounced ethnohistoric -orientation in recent years as the result of his close cooperation with -the Caddo and other living Indian groups. - -Recognizing that the past belongs to everyone, and not just to a handful -of scholars, the _Anthropological Studies_ are directed to a general -audience. It is hoped that these studies will bring cultural enrichment -to the people of Louisiana and stimulate an interest in preserving our -historic and archaeological resources for enjoyment and study by future -generations. - - Alan Toth - _State Archaeologist_ - - * * * * * - -State of Louisiana - -EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT - -Baton Rouge - -[Illustration] - -EDWIN EDWARDS - -GOVERNOR - -July 5, 1978 - -CITIZENS OF LOUISIANA - -This second edition of the Anthropological Study Series of the Department -of Culture, Recreation and Tourism and the Louisiana Archaeological -Survey and Antiquities Commission is dedicated to the late Margaret -Elam Drew, a charter member of the Commission. Affectionately known by -professional and amateur archaeologists as “Lady Margaret,” Mrs. Drew -and her close friend, Mrs. Rita Krouse, were instrumental in fostering -statewide governmental and private sector support for the protection of -Louisiana’s archaeological resources. - -Mrs. Drew was the wife of Representative Harmon R. Drew of Minden. Her -interest in archaeology began in 1962, with her daughter’s curiosity -about the location of Indian tribes in Northwest Louisiana. Mrs. Drew, a -devoted history buff, and Mrs. Krouse enthusiastically began researching -possible Indian sites. - -The Drew-Krouse team contacted Dr. William Haag, the Louisiana -State University professor later named as Louisiana’s first State -Archaeologist, for advice. Their research marked the beginning of a -fifteen-year partnership of field excursions, field training schools -and dedicated efforts to enlighten the public on archaeology and its -importance to everyone. - -Webster Parish had no registered archaeological sites in 1962. Through -the efforts of Mrs. Drew and Mrs. Krouse there are now twenty-nine -such sites. Claiborne Parish had two registered sites; there now are -twenty-five. Mmes. Drew and Krouse established seventeen sites in -Bienville Parish alone. - -In 1974, on Dr. Haag’s recommendation, I was honored to appoint Margaret -Drew a charter member of the Louisiana Archaeological Survey and -Antiquities Commission. Her appointment was but a token of her colleagues -and my appreciation for her efforts to promote the establishment of the -Antiquities Commission and her work to obtain public and private funds -for archaeological site surveys. - -The publication of this study recognizes and honors the late Margaret -Drew. Her selfless and tireless dedication to the preservation of our -archaeological resources will, through ages to come, be credited with -helping preserve this precious part of Louisiana’s cultural heritage. - -Cordially, - -EDWIN EDWARDS - - * * * * * - -[Illustration: Margaret Elam Drew - -(1919-1977)] - - * * * * * - - - - -INTRODUCTION - - -Northwestern Louisiana was occupied by the Caddo Indians during the -period of early Spanish, French, and American contacts. By combining -history and archaeology, the Caddo story can be traced back for a -thousand years—a unique opportunity made possible by a long tradition -of distinctive traits, especially in pottery forms and decorations. Our -story of the Caddo Indians in Louisiana, therefore, begins around A.D. -800-900 and can be traced by archaeology well into the historic period. - -The center of Caddoan occupation during contact times and throughout -their prehistoric development was along Red River and its tributaries, -with extensions to other river valleys in the four-state area of northern -Louisiana, southwestern Arkansas, eastern Texas, and eastern Oklahoma. -The successful agriculture of these farming peoples was best adapted to -the fertile valleys of major streams like the Red, Sabine, Angelina, -Ouachita and—in Oklahoma—the Canadian and Arkansas rivers. - -In spite of their linguistic (language) connections with Plains tribes -like the Wichita, Pawnee, and Arikara, the Caddos in Louisiana had -customs much like those of other Southeastern tribes. They maintained -trade and cultural contacts with the lower Mississippi Valley tribes of -eastern and southern Louisiana for many centuries. - - - - -PRE-CADDOAN DEVELOPMENTS - - -Northwestern Louisiana was occupied for thousands of years before the -beginnings of Caddo culture. In the upland areas, along small streams -and bordering the river valleys, projectile points and tools of Early -and Late Paleo-Indian peoples have been found (Webb 1948b; Gagliano and -Gregory 1965). In the western plains, the makers of the fluted Clovis and -Folsom points hunted now extinct types of big game (mammoth, mastodon, -sloth) between 10,000 and 8000 B.C. The later Plainview, Angostura, and -Scottsbluff points have been found with the extinct large bison. Since -all of these distinctive projectile point types have been found in the -Louisiana uplands and mastodon bones, teeth, and tusks have been found in -Red River Valley, big game hunting was possible in the state. However, no -camp or kill sites of Paleo-Indian people have been found thus far. - -The oldest camp sites in the Caddo area of northwestern Louisiana are -those of the San Patrice culture, thought to date between 8000 and 6000 -B.C. This culture, which some students look upon as late Paleo-Indian and -others as early Archaic, was named for a stream in De Soto and Sabine -Parishes (Webb 1946). When a camp site of two bands of San Patrice people -was excavated south of Shreveport (Webb, Shiner and Roberts 1971), only -their typical points and a variety of small scraping, cutting, and -drilling stone tools were found. The tools indicated that they still -depended largely on hunting—probably deer, bear, bison, and smaller -animals—with a gradual increase in reliance on gathering wild plant -foods. Stone points and tools of San Patrice people have been found over -much of the terrace and upland parts of Louisiana. - -A combination of hunting, fishing, and gathering of native foods by bands -of people, whom we call Archaic, was characteristic throughout Louisiana -from 6000 B.C. until almost the time of Christ. In favorable locations -they congregated in larger groups, at least during certain times of -the year, but did not form definite year-round settlements. Grinding -stones and pitted nut stones show that Archaic people harvested seeds -and nuts, such as hickory nuts, walnuts, pecans, acorns, and chinquapins -(chestnuts). They also made ground stone celts (hatchets) for wood -cutting and polished stone ornaments, especially beads. They hunted with -darts which are heavier than arrows and were thrown with the atlatl, or -throwing stick. - -Toward the end of the long Archaic period, by 1500 B.C., the Poverty -Point culture developed in northeastern, central, and southern Louisiana. -Sites of this culture have not been found on Red River, but there are -Poverty Point sites on the Ouachita River and the late Archaic people on -Red River had a few items—soapstone vessels, hematite plummets or bolas -weights, polished or effigy beads—which may have been traded from Poverty -Point. - -People who lived in small settlements and made pottery appeared in -the area about the time of Christ. Their crude pottery was generally -plain and resembled that of Fourche Maline people in eastern Oklahoma -and southwestern Arkansas. In northwestern Louisiana, the culture is -called Bellevue Focus, named for a small mound site on Bodcau Bayou near -Bellevue, in Bossier Parish (Fulton and Webb 1953). The small conical -Bellevue mound was found to cover flexed and partly cremated burials, and -is thought to represent the beginning of the trait of building mounds -as burial commemorations in this part of the state. There was no sign -of cultivated plants, although the Marksville people of this time may -have grown maize (corn) and squash. Probably, the Bellevue people lived -largely as had the Archaic folk, by hunting, fishing, and gathering of -the abundant native foods. At another half dozen small sites along the -Red River Valley margins and on the lateral lakes, small conical mounds -show a culture like that of Bellevue. One of these in Caddo Parish -also had polished stone and native copper beads with cremated burials. -An occasional decorated pottery sherd found at these Bellevue sites -resembles Marksville and Troyville pottery of the lower Mississippi -Valley. - -The Fredericks mound and village site, near Black Lake in Natchitoches -Parish, seems to be an outpost or colony of central Louisiana Marksville -and Troyville cultures, probably inhabited between A.D. 100 and 600. -A few scattered sherds at other sites along Red River show a thin -occupation or trade with Marksville, but Fredericks is the only large -mound and village site of this intrusive culture in the area. - -The first widespread occupation of northwestern Louisiana by pottery -making, farming people was that of Coles Creek culture. This culture -developed along the lower Mississippi Valley, in Louisiana and -Mississippi, including the lower Red River, starting about A.D. 700. -Probably because their agriculture was more advanced, Coles Creek -populations increased and spread widely, up the Mississippi Valley, -throughout northern Louisiana, eventually into the Caddoan area of the -other three states, and even to the Arkansas River in central Arkansas -and eastern Oklahoma. - -Coles Creek hamlets and villages were on the river banks, on the lateral -lakes, and on streams in the uplands. Many settlements were larger than -in previous times and large ceremonial centers evolved, some of which -featured mounds around a central plaza. There probably were temples atop -the flat-topped mounds and burials within other mounds. The temples were -either chiefs’ or priests’ lodges, or sacred temples, and ceremonies and -festivals presumably were held in the plazas. Pottery was well made and -hunting was with the bow and arrow which replaced the atlatl and dart in -this area about A.D. 600. - -[Illustration: Distribution of principal archaeological sites in -northwestern Louisiana. Reprinted with permission of New World Research -and the U.S. Army Engineer District, New Orleans.] - - - - -EARLY CADDO CULTURE: ALTO FOCUS - - -At some time before A.D. 1000, and probably by A.D. 800, the traits -associated with the beginnings of prehistoric Caddo culture replaced -Coles Creek over the four-state area. The change may have started along -Red River in northwestern Louisiana, although others have thought that -a group of “culture bearers” entered the Caddoan area of eastern Texas -overland from the more advanced culture centers of the Mexican Highlands. - -Whether the ideas that are shown in the prehistoric settlements came -overland or up the rivers, two conclusions seem certain: (1) early -Caddoan culture existed for a time with late Coles Creek; and (2) Caddo -beginnings added new customs and traits that seem to have originated in -Middle America, especially in the Mexican Highlands and on the upper -Mexican Gulf Coast. - -The early Caddo unquestionably derived many things from Coles Creek. -Their settlement patterns were similar, a culture change from Coles -Creek to Caddo often occurring in the same village or even in -building levels of the same mound. The Caddo continued bow and arrow -hunting, with identical or slightly changed stone arrow points. -Coles Creek and Caddo peoples practiced the same kind of intensive -maize-beans-sunflower-squash-pumpkin agriculture or horticulture. They -both made clay or stone effigy pipes and smoked tobacco ceremonially. The -Caddo shared many of the Coles Creek pottery types, especially in the -utility vessels, with minor changes taking place through time, as is to -be expected. The Caddo retained strong religious and civil authority in -the villages and the major ceremonial centers and were organized under -a chieftain type of authority. There are similarities to Coles Creek, -finally, in Caddoan ceremonial festivities, games, and customs of burying -the dead in mounds alongside the plazas. - -A Middle American origin can be assumed for a number of Caddoan ceramic -ideas. The bottle and the carinated bowl—a bowl with a sharp angle -separating the rim from the sides or the base—vessel shapes are likely -Mexican introductions. The same is true of the low-oxygen firing of -pottery and the burnishing or polishing of the exterior to produce glossy -mahogany brown or black surfaces. Decoration of these surfaces was often -by engraving after firing, combined with cut-out areas and insertion -of red pigment into the designs, and the frequent use of curved line -rather than straight line designs. The curved motifs included concentric -circles, spirals, scrolls, interlocking scrolls, meanders, volutes, -swastikas, and stylized serpent designs. A few curvilinear designs were -present in the earlier Marksville and Coles Creek pottery, but they -became more varied and frequent in Caddoan ceramics. - -Another trait introduced from Middle America was that of placing the -burials of important people, such as chiefs, priests, and family members -of the ruling class, in shaft graves, sunk into mounds or special -cemetery areas. Some of the more important early Caddo tombs are quite -large, as much as fifteen to twenty feet in length and eight to sixteen -feet in depth. Many had special sands or pigments on the pit floor, -numerous offerings, and indications that retainers or servants were -sacrificed to accompany the revered person in the afterlife. Shaft tombs -in mounds and pyramids occurred in the Maya areas of Guatemala and -Yucatan, and also in the Mexican Highlands, before and during the time of -the early Caddos. - -Other Mexican traits were the concepts of the long-nosed god and the -feathered serpent. These symbols are seen in the Caddo area in sheet -copper masks, on carved stone pipes, and on carved conch shells. In -Middle America, the long-nosed god symbol relates to the worship of the -rain god, Chaac, and the feathered serpent is the symbol of Quetzalcoatl -(Kukulcan in Maya). - -Signs of elaborate ceremonialism have been found in large Caddoan mound -groups or centers in each of the four states: Davis, Sanders, and -Sam Kaufman sites in Texas; Spiro and Harlan in Oklahoma; Crenshaw, -Mineral Springs, Ozan, and East mounds in Arkansas. Along Red River in -northwestern Louisiana, the well-known early Caddo centers are Gahagan -and Mounds Plantation. - -The Gahagan site is on the west side of Red River, almost equidistant -between Natchitoches and Shreveport. Formerly it was situated on an old -channel but much of the channel and site have been destroyed by river -caving. A village area, a conical burial mound, and a small flat-topped -mound surrounded a large plaza at Gahagan. Another small mound is about a -quarter mile distant. The burial mound was excavated by Clarence B. Moore -in 1912, and by Webb and Dodd (1939). Moore described a central shaft, -eleven feet in depth and thirteen by eight feet in dimensions, with five -burials and more than 200 offerings. Webb and Dodd found two additional -pits along the slopes, both starting at the mound surface and terminating -near the base. They were nineteen by fifteen and twelve by eleven feet in -dimensions, and contained six and three burials, respectively. Between -250 and 400 offerings were preserved in each pit. - -The burial offerings at Gahagan included ornate pottery, beautifully -flaked stone knives (called Gahagan blades), batches of choice flint -arrow points, long stemmed or figurine pipes of clay and stone, -copper-plated ear ornaments, sheet copper plaques, copper hand -effigies, long-nosed god copper masks, polished greenstone celts (some -spade-shaped), bone hairpins, and shell beads or ornaments. All of these -are unusual for this area and show that the early Caddos had widespread -trade channels for these esoteric objects and materials. The sources are -as distant as the Gulf coast, the Kiamichi Mountains of Oklahoma, the -central Texas plateau, Tennessee or Kentucky, and, possibly, the Great -Lakes area. - -[Illustration: Frog and human effigy stone pipes and polished and -engraved pottery vessel made about A.D. 1050. Artifacts from the Gahagan -Mound site, Red River Parish, Louisiana.] - -The second Caddo site where high ceremonialism existed is at Mounds -Plantation, on an old Red River channel just north of Shreveport. An -oval plaza, more than 600 yards in length and 200 yards in width (about -twenty-five acres), is surrounded by seven mounds of varying sizes, -with two smaller mounds at some distance. It was first described by -Clarence B. Moore (1912), then studied by surface collections and limited -excavations by Ralph R. McKinney, Robert Plants, and Clarence H. Webb, -with assistance of friends (Webb and McKinney 1975). At least four -culture periods were indicated by pottery sherds. Excavations proved -that Coles Creek people established and laid out the site, probably -constructing at least four of the mounds around the plaza. A flat mound -on the northwest corner, started by these people, was built higher by the -early Caddos in what seems to have been a period of rapid culture change. -The mound may have been the location of an arbor or lodge where food was -prepared and served during festivals or ceremonies held in the adjoining -plaza. - -At the southeast end of the plaza, the Coles Creek people prepared a -large burial pit, measuring sixteen by fourteen feet, in which they -placed ten adult or adolescent burials in two parallel rows. Offerings -found by the investigators were limited to flint arrow points, bone -pins, smoothing stones, traces of copper-plated ear ornaments, and ankle -rattles of tortoise shells filled with pebbles. A small mound had been -built over this pit, and into this mound later Coles Creek burials had -been placed. - -Subsequently, the Alto Caddos also used this mound for burials, digging -four large shaft tombs and three smaller pits. All but one of these -features contained offerings of superior quality. The most spectacular of -the graves was a large crater-shaped pit adjoining the Coles Creek pit. -It was nineteen by seventeen feet in dimensions, and was cut through the -mound to a depth of four feet below its base. In it were the skeletons -of twenty-one persons, from elderly adults to unborn infants. An adult -male, six feet tall, was provided with numerous personal effects which -included a sheathed knife on his left forearm and a well-preserved five -and one-half foot bow of bois d’arc wood placed by his left side. He is -thought to have been the paramount person whose death occasioned the -immense tomb, the ceremonial offerings, and the presumed sacrifice of -tribal members to accompany him in the afterlife. Part of the tomb was -covered with a framework of cedar logs, thus accounting for the unusual -preservation of many cane and wooden objects. - -[Illustration: Prehistoric Caddoan stone knives, finely chipped arrow -points, and ceremonial polished greenstone celts from Gahagan Mound site. -These Early Caddo artifacts date to the 11th century A.D.] - -Preserved offerings included an ornate pottery bowl, decorated with -a thumb-finger cross and eye symbols, flint knives of Gahagan type, -fifty-three arrow points, a long-stemmed pipe, copper-plated ear -ornaments, puma teeth, and objects of wood which included knife handles, -a comb, a baton, several small bows, and wooden frames. Also present were -leather, plaited cording or twine, and about 200 fragments of split cane -woven mats, some of them with diamond or bird head designs. A half pint -of seeds beside the important male were identified later as purslane -(_Portulaca oleracea_), a plant sometimes used for food by aboriginal -people. Also beside the male were four objects typical of Poverty Point -or late Archaic manufacture: two long polished stone beads, a polished -hematite plummet, and half of a perforated slate gorget. These ancient -objects, from a time 2000 years before the Caddo burial occurred, must -have been found and kept as venerated talismans by the Caddo leaders. - -Gahagan and Mounds Plantation have their counterparts as early Caddoan -ceremonial and trade centers at a dozen similar large sites in Texas, -Oklahoma, and Arkansas. The best known is the Spiro mound center on the -Arkansas River in eastern Oklahoma, where enormous amounts of well-made -and exotic objects from the entire midportion of the United States -were gathered or made as offerings. Close contact between these large -ceremonial centers is shown by the similarity of objects, materials, -or artistic concepts across the entire Caddo area. Contacts with other -cultural centers in the Mississippi Valley and into the Southeast also -are seen. - -Contrasting with these important centers, with their reflection of -Middle American ceremonialism, organized religio-civil leadership class, -and expensive cruel burial ceremonies, there were many small villages -and hamlets of early Caddo people. Their habitations, tools, and some -customs are known by explorations of sites at Smithport Landing (Webb -1963), Allen, Wilkinson, Swanson’s Landing, and Harrison’s Bayou along -the western valley escarpment (Ford 1936; Webb and McKinney 1975; Gregory -and Webb 1965). Colbert and Greer sites on upland streams in Bienville -Parish, and the recent study of a hamlet at Hanna on the Red River below -Gahagan (Thomas, Campbell and Ahler 1977). - -[Illustration: Early Caddo copper objects from Gahagan include beads, a -hand effigy, a finger cover, a Long-Nosed God mask, and copper-plated ear -ornaments.] - -Many other small settlements of this time are known but have not been -studied, thirty to forty altogether between Natchitoches and the -Arkansas state line (Thomas, Campbell and Ahler 1977; Webb 1975). They -are found in the Red River Valley, on lateral lakes and streams, and in -the uplands. Apparently, these were simple farming, gathering, hunting, -and fishing folk who did not share in the exotic materials of the -complex regional centers. They probably did participate in ceremonies, -festivities, and renewals of faith by visits to the centers and may have -provided food, local materials, and occasional man-power in exchange for -leadership and protection. For the next 500 years there is no evidence of -the Caddo being threatened by outsiders. - - - - -BOSSIER FOCUS - - -Between A.D. 1100 and 1200 the early Caddo culture was changing into a -simpler culture that has been named Bossier, for the parish in which -it was first discovered (Webb 1948a). The large centers faded out or -were inhabited by small groups. The people seem to have been secure, -not menaced, and beginning to spread out along the streams in small -settlements or family homesteads. Local materials were used and few -exotic objects have been found. Burial customs became simpler, usually -single graves with a few offerings and situated near the home or in small -cemeteries. The pottery of the Bossier folk was of good quality and -still had some of the decoration by engraving, incising, and punctating -techniques of the earlier period, but increasing amounts of everyday -wares were decorated by simple brushing (similar to Plaquemine pottery of -eastern and southern Louisiana). - -Between Caddo Lake and Natchitoches the location of settlements in the -Red River Valley almost disappeared at this time, possibly signifying the -beginning of the Great Raft. The villages and hamlets were on the lateral -streams, lakes, and into the uplands, along virtually every watercourse. -A calm period of pastoral life is indicated and probably lasted until -it was shattered in 1542 by Moscoso’s tattered Spanish army and the -subsequent arrival of other Europeans. - -One such hamlet or family homestead of Bossier people is under study at -the Montgomery site in upper Webster Parish at the Springhill Airport -(Webb and Jeane 1977). The people seem to have lived here long enough -for their thatched roof, clay-daubed houses to have been repaired and -relocated a number of times, leaving numerous post molds. Their simple -tools and arrow points were made of local cherts; ornaments are missing -and polished stone tools are rare. Residues of gathered or hunted food -stuffs are present: hickory nuts, acorns, persimmons, mussels, turtle, -fish, and deer bones. No corn, beans, or pumpkin seeds have been found, -but they must have grown these crops and probably did so in gardens -rather than in fields. Their pottery, as shown by broken sherds, ranged -from rough culinary or storage pots to nicely engraved bowls and -red-surfaced or engraved bottles. - -[Illustration: Bossier Focus pottery from Mill Creek site, Lake -Bistineau. Photos courtesy of Sergeant O. H. Davis.] - -A Bossier group of higher culture lived along Willow Chute, an old Red -River channel in the valley east of Bossier City. Farming homesteads and -hamlets are strung along its course and two large mounds—Vanceville and -Werner—mark the Bossier ceremonial centers. Beneath the Werner mound, -destroyed in the 1930’s, were the ruins of an immense lodge which was -circular with a projecting entrance. The entire lodge measured eighty -by ninety feet. It was probably ceremonial, or the lodge of a _Caddi_ -(chief), as few arrows, tools, or personal possessions were found. There -were quantities of deer and other animal bones, fish and turtle bones, -and mussel shells. Broken pottery in large amounts denoted feasts and the -ceramics were of exceptional quality. No burials or whole vessels were -found. - -Each lateral lake along Red River—Black Bayou, Caddo, Wallace, Clear, -and Smithport lakes on the west side; Bodcau, Bistineau, Swan, and -Black lakes on the east—has Bossier period sites around its margins. -Occupations continue westward to Sabine River and into eastern Texas, -southward almost to Catahoula Lake, eastward along D’Arbonne and Corney -bayous toward the Ouachita, and northward into Arkansas. Either late -Bossier or Belcher people could have been in the populous Naguatex -district described by the De Soto chroniclers, encountered just before -the Spaniards crossed Red River. - - - - -BELCHER FOCUS - - -The Belcher mound site, in Red River Valley about twenty miles north of -Shreveport, gives its name to this Caddo culture period. Radiocarbon -dates at the site and comparisons with other cultures suggest that the -Belcher Focus began about A.D. 1400 and lasted into the 17th century. -During its beginning. Belcher culture probably overlapped and coexisted -with Bossier culture. - -The Belcher site was excavated by Webb (1959) and his associates over -a ten year period. The Belcher mound contained a succession of levels -on which houses were built, burned or deserted, and covered over with -new buildings. Burials were placed in pits beneath the house floors or -through the ruins of burned houses. It is inferred that the houses were -ceremonial lodges or chiefs’ houses. The earliest house was rectangular, -with wall posts erected in trenches and packed with clay; a seven-foot -entranceway projected northeastward. The walls were clay-daubed, and the -gabled roof covered with grass thatch. Later houses were circular, also -with projecting entranceways, and with interior roof supports and central -hearths. They also were daubed and thatch-covered, but were divided into -compartments, which contained internal posts for seats or couches and -sometimes small hearths for each compartment. Food remains found on the -floors of Belcher houses included maize, beans, hickory nuts, persimmon -seeds, pecans, mussel and snail shells, and bones of deer, rabbit, -squirrel, fox, mink, birds, fish (gar, catfish, buffalo, sheepshead, and -bowfin), and turtle. Belcher tools encompassed stone celts (hatchets or -chisels), arrow points which had tiny pointed stems, flint scrapers and -gravers, sandstone hones, bone awls, needles and Chisels, shell hoes, -spoons and saws, and pottery spindle weights. - -[Illustration: Prehistoric Caddo pottery, conch shell ceremonial drinking -cups, and lizard effigy shell necklace from Belcher Mound, Caddo Parish, -Louisiana. Artifacts date approximately A.D. 1300 to 1400.] - -Ornaments found with burials or on house floors at Belcher include beads, -anklets, pendants and gorgets of shell, pearls, ear ornaments of shell, -bone and pottery, bone hairpins, bear tooth pendants, shell inlays, and -small shell bangles. Some of the shell pendants were carved in lizard or -salamander effigy forms. Ceremonial drinking cups made of conch shells -were sometimes decorated, one bearing a composite flying serpent-eagle -design. Platform and elbow pipes were of baked clay. Split cane basketry -or matting fragments show herringbone or 1-over-4-under weave. - -Belcher pottery was superior to that of the Bossier people and, indeed, -is some of the best in the entire Caddoan area. There was a diversity -of bowl, bottle, urn, jar, vase, miniature, and compound forms. Large -storage ollas were found broken on house floors. Techniques of decoration -involved engraving, stamping, incising, trailing, ridging, punctating, -brushing, applique nodes, insertion of red or white pigment into designs, -red slipping, polishing, pedestal elevation, rattle bowls, bird and -turtle effigies, and tripod and tetrapod legs. Many of the vessels had -ornate or intricate curvilinear designs, with scrolls, circles, meanders, -spirals, and guilloches; sun symbols, crosses, swastikas, and triskeles -were added. - -Many of the twenty-six burials found in Belcher mound exhibited a -carry-over of the early Caddo burial ceremonialism, presumably including -human sacrifice. Individuals or groups of up to seven persons were -placed in shaft burial pits, and often were surrounded by many pottery -vessels—sometimes in stacks—in addition to tools, arrows, ornaments, -food offerings, vessels with spoons, decorated drinking cups, pipes, and -other indicators of high rank. As many as twenty to forty pottery vessels -had been placed in a single pit. Even small children had ornaments and -numerous vessels, as though they were of the nobility. This suggests a -hereditary social ranking as was found among the Natchez Indians. - -Other mound centers of Belcher culture, occurring along Red River -into southwestern Arkansas, show similar ceremonialism. Villages and -hamlets along the river to Natchitoches and into the uplands are marked -by typical Belcher pottery sherds. In all, late Belcher people were -dispersed widely, and their way of life gave rise to the generalized -cultural base that existed at the time of European intrusion. - - - - -THE HISTORIC CADDO - - -If one views the Caddoan archaeological sequence as a tree trunk, -identifiable branches seem to begin spreading by about A.D. 1450 -(Belcher Focus). After that point, several distinct tribal branches can -be recognized, each with its own particular language, or dialect, and -customs. Within relatively short distances these groups often exhibited -striking differences. - -The Louisiana Caddoan-speaking groups were the Adaes, Doustioni, -Natchitoches, Ouachita and Yatasi. These groups seem to have been -concentrated around Natchitoches, Mansfield, Monroe, and Robeline, -Louisiana. Their total aboriginal territory stretched from the Ouachita -River west to the Sabine River and south to the mouth of Cane River. - -On Red River, in northeastern Texas and southwestern Arkansas, there were -other Caddoan groups: Kadohadacho, Petit Caddo, Nasoni, Nanatsoho, and -Upper Natchitoches. Eventually, due to pressure from the Osage, these -groups migrated south to Louisiana and settled north of the Yatasi, near -Caddo Prairie and Caddo Lake. - -The Caddoan tribes seem to have had strong cultural affiliations. In -fact, some anthropologists have considered them part of three vast -inter-tribal confederacies (Swanton 1942; Hodge 1907). In eastern Texas -another group, led by the Hasinai, consisted of the Ais, Anadarko, -Hainai, Hasinai, Nabiti, Nacogdoches, and Nabedache. This group also has -been considered a large confederacy (Hodge 1907). - -The various peoples mentioned above seem to have been regional groups, -fairly fluid in nature, but tied to general geographic boundaries. -Linguistic differences served to differentiate them (Taylor 1963:51-59) -and some, like the Adaes, could hardly be understood by the others. -However, the Kadohadacho language dominated in the east—where nearly -everyone understood it—and the Hasinai language in the west. - -These groups had chiefs, or _Caddi_. Generally one man had more prestige -than any other _Caddi_, but multiple chiefs—usually two—were present -in most communities. Other groups seem to have had _tama_ (local -organizers), but chiefs were weak or lacking. Polity, then, consisted -of the _Caddi_, or chiefs, and _tama_, a sort of organizational leader -(often confused with the chief by early Europeans) who was powerful -enough to gather the people for work, war, or ceremonials. The _Caddi_ -were a select group—likely the historic equivalent to the priest-chiefs -of prehistoric times. Priests and witches composed a non-secular -leadership among the Caddoan groups, but by historic times they had -become somewhat separate from the warrior-chiefs who led the tribes. - -It can be seen, then, that the Caddoan peoples had several of the -criteria of true chiefdoms (Service 1962): territory, leadership, and -linguistic-cultural distinctiveness. All of the Europeans—French, Spanish -and Anglo-American—who dealt with them left records relative to their -character and intelligence. As late as the 19th century the Caddo still -boasted that they had never shed white blood (Swanton 1942) and their -chiefs still were respected. - -In the age of tribal self-determination and Indian sovereignty, it -seems in order to explain basic Caddo tribalism. Contrary to many other -southeastern Indian groups, the Caddoan people seem to have clung -tenaciously to land and leadership even after the erosive effects of -European contact. The fact that their roots extended into prehistory gave -them strength and self-confidence. They kept their faith and polity, and -their traditions remain even today. - - - - -EUROPEAN CONTACT - - -The earliest contacts with Europeans in Louisiana were fleeting. The best -accounts were left by Henri de Tonti who reached a Natchitoches village -in February of 1690. He was searching for the lost La Salle expedition -and went on to visit the Yatasi, Kadohadacho, and Nacogdoches (Williams -1964). No other visits seem to be recorded for the next decade, even -though Spanish efforts to Christianize the East Texas Caddo intensified. -Contact is indicated by the 1690’s in such practices as the tribes -holding Spanish-style horse fairs (Gregory 1974). - -[Illustration: St. Denis and the Natchitoches Indians, 1714. Mural in -Louisiana State Exhibit Museum, Shreveport.] - -In 1701 Governor Bienville and Louis Juchereau de St. Denis, guided by -the Tunica chief, Bride les Boeufs or Buffalo Tamer, arrived at the -Natchitoches area. They visited the Doustioni, Natchitoches, and Yatasi -villages, and then returned to New Orleans. Bienville was especially -desirous of contacting the Kadohadacho to the north (Williams 1964; -Rowland and Sanders 1929). This trip, ostensibly for exploration, was -probably an attempt to obtain two commodities the French in lower -Louisiana were desperate for: livestock and salt (Gregory 1974). The -Tunica had long engaged in the Caddoan salt, and later, horse trades -(Brain 1977), and like them, the Natchitoches quickly began capitalizing -on their French connection. The Natchitoches employed an old Caddoan -trade strategy, that of moving to the edge of another tribe’s territory, -in order to be near their customers, and later returning to their own -territory. Accordingly, the Natchitoches claimed a crop failure and -relocated to the vicinity of Lake Pontchartrain, to trade with the -French. Eventually, in 1714, they returned to Red River with St. Denis -(McWilliams 1953). Likewise, the Ouachita had just moved back from the -Ouachita River where they had relocated in order to trade with Tunican -speakers (Gregory 1974). - -After St. Denis returned to Red River in 1714, the Caddoan people in -Louisiana were to be impacted constantly by European migrants. Indian -polity and territory were eroded severely by more European settlements -and the depredations of displaced populations of other Indian tribes like -the Choctaw, Quapaw, and Osage. - -Fort St. Jean Baptiste aux Natchitos was founded in 1714; it was the -earliest European settlement in northwestern Louisiana. The East Texas -missions, started in 1690, had not introduced many non-Indians to that -area. The French settlements were different, however, and the Caddoan -people began to see a gradual augmentation of European population. The -French had, in general, good relations with the Caddo and by the 1720’s a -number of them had Caddoan kinsmen. - -In 1723, to counter French attempts at establishing a western trade, -the Spanish established an outpost, Nuestra Señora del Pilar de Los -Adaes (Bolton 1914). The Spanish _presidio_, or fort, became a hub for -clandestine traders—French, Indian and Spanish—and lasted for some fifty -years (Gregory 1974). Horses, cattle, and Lipan Apache (Connechi) slaves -were traded via Los Adaes, and by the mid-eighteenth century the Spanish -governors had named the site the capital of Spanish Texas. - -The Caddo—Adaes, Natchitoches, Ouachita, Doustioni, and all the -others—were caught between the political and economic machinations of the -European powers. Gradually, the seesaw of European boundaries crossed -what the Caddo all knew as their tribal territories. Traders resided in -their larger communities, and seasonal hunts to the west tied them to the -mercantile policies of the French and Spanish. After Louisiana was ceded -to Spain at the end of the French and Indian War, French traders were -left in charge of most Indian affairs in Louisiana because of the quality -of their relationship to the Indians. For example, Athanase de Mézières -(Bolton 1914), St. Denis’ son-in-law, became a power on the frontier -because of his close relationship to the Caddo. - -[Illustration: Caddoan interaction, 18th century A.D.] - -Caddoan-European ties remained close until 1803 when the Louisiana -Purchase brought Anglo-Americans into contact with the Caddoan groups. -The Anglo-Americans had new trade and military policies, and in spite of -their agreement to recognize all prior treaties between France, Spain, -and Indian tribes, they were not very careful to do this. The French and -Spanish had ratified land sales by tribes and had insisted that their -citizens respect Caddoan land and sovereignty, but the Americans saw new -lands with few settlements, and were quick to encourage white settlement. -The old Caddo-French-Spanish symbiosis was ending. - -[Illustration: European settlements in Caddoan area, 18th century A.D.] - -The Caddoan-speaking groups began to move together by the late eighteenth -century. The Kadohadacho apparently absorbed several smaller groups—Upper -Natchitoches, Nanatsoho, and Nasoni—and shifted south. Osage raids had -taken their toll and the Kadohadacho moved to Caddo Prairie, farther from -the plains, on marginal land (Swanton 1942). They settled on the hills to -the southwest of the prairie (Soda Lake) near modern Caddo Station and -added their numbers to the other Red River tribes in Louisiana. - -Beset by many problems, the American agents at Natchitoches began moving -the agency about, trying to keep the Caddo away from white settlements. -It was moved to Grand Ecore, Sulphur Fork, Caddo Prairie, and finally to -Bayou Pierre about six to seven miles south of Shreveport (Williams 1964). - -The Louisiana Caddoans also found themselves estranged from their -cultural kinsmen in eastern Texas. First, the East Texas tribes remained -under Spanish domination while their neighbors were American. Policies in -Texas were quite different until the Texas Revolution and the foundation -of the Republic in the 1830’s and 1840’s. The new Texicans refused to -allow old patterns of trade and traverse for fear of having to deal with -even larger Indian populations. - -The Caddoan tribes were consolidated enough by 1834 that the American -agents had begun to treat them as though they were a single group. The -term Caddo, an abbreviated cover term for Kadohadacho, one of the larger -groups, began to cover _all_ the tribes in the American Period. It was -this amalgam of tribal units with which the United States decided to deal. - -[Illustration: Caddo Indian Treaty of Cession, July 1, 1835. Mural in -Louisiana State Exhibit Museum, Shreveport.] - -On June 25-26, 1835, some 489 Caddo gathered at the Caddo Agency seven -or eight miles south of Shreveport on Bayou Pierre and on July 1, 1835, -they agreed to sell to the United States approximately one million acres -of land in the area above Texarkana, Arkansas, south to De Soto Parish, -Louisiana (Swanton 1942). Two chiefs, Tarsher (Wolf) and Tsauninot, were -the leaders of the Caddoan groups present at the land cession. - -Present also at the land cession was their interpreter, Larkin Edwards, -a man they regarded so highly that they reserved him a sizable piece of -land (McClure and Howe 1937; Swanton 1942). Further, the treaty reserved -a sizable block of land for the mixed Caddo-French Grappe family. -Descended from a Kadohadacho woman and a French settler, François Grappe -had served his people well. His efforts to protect not only the Caddo, -but also the Bidai and others in East Texas, from American traders had -resulted in his termination as chief interpreter for the American agents. -The Caddoan people continued to respect and honor him. - -The Caddo were to be paid $80,000, of which $30,000 was in goods -delivered at the signing, and the remainder in annual $10,000 -installments for another five years. Immediately Tarsher led his people -into Texas and settled on the Brazos River, much to the chagrin of Texas -authorities (Gullick 1921). Another group, led by Chief Cissany, stayed -in Louisiana. They lived near Caddo Station in 1842 (seven years after -the land cession). Texicans actually invaded the United States to insist -that the Caddos disarm, the rumor in Texas being that the American -agent had armed the Caddo and made incendiary remarks regarding the new -Republic. The Louisiana chiefs offered to go to Nacogdoches as hostages -to show their good faith, but the Texicans refused them on the grounds -it might mean recognition of Caddoan land rights and polity in Texas -(Gullick 1921). - -Eventually these Louisiana Caddo left—their credit was cut off by local -merchants, their payments ended, and the United States protection was -failing—and headed for the Kiamichi River country in Oklahoma. The -Caddoan presence in Louisiana, after a millennium, or more, was over. - - - - -CADDOAN TRIBAL LOCATIONS AND ARCHAEOLOGY IN LOUISIANA - - -One of the most difficult problems in American archaeology is the firm -connection of historic tribal locations to specific material remains and -sites. In recent years a number of efforts (Wyckoff 1974; Tanner 1974; -Williams 1964; Gregory and Webb 1965; Neuman 1974) have dealt with this -topic for the Louisiana Caddoan groups. - -Again, the term Caddo has no real meaning. Each of the groups had its -own political existence, and both the Spanish and French realized that. -Their approach to Indian affairs has left us much better information than -that of the Americans. John Sibley, the first American agent, with the -aid of the half-Caddo, François Grappe, gave us good information, but -through time the American policy increasingly obscured tribal groups. By -the time of the 1835 land cession the Americans were talking merely of -the Caddo Nation. In the 1835 Treaty not a single warrior was identified -by tribe, nor were the chiefs (Swanton 1942); this was a purely political -machination by the Americans. - -[Illustration: Caddoan and adjacent Indian groups about A.D. 1700.] - -Since the early American policy has obscured the tribal diversity and -history of the Caddoan groups in Louisiana, it seems in order to return -to the older practice of recognizing the individual groups. Each will be -discussed briefly, in turn, and archaeological sites will be related -where possible. As was the practice in French and Spanish days, the -tribes will be discussed from southernmost to northernmost, as they would -be encountered as one ascended the Red River. - - - - -THE NATCHITOCHES - - -The Natchitoches, or “Place of the Paw-Paw” (all translations by Melford -Williams, personal communication, 1973), sometimes simply stated as the -“Paw-Paw People,” were the southernmost Caddoan group. They had absorbed -the Ouachita (“Cow River People”) by 1690 (Gregory 1974) and will be -treated as a single group here. - -The Natchitoches lived in a series of small hamlets, each with its own -cemetery and corn fields. One hamlet had a temple which was described -by Tonti (Walker 1935) and their whole settlement stretched from about -Bermuda, Louisiana, to the vicinity of Natchitoches. Throughout their -early history they remained in the alluvial valley of the Red River where -only a few areas, usually “islands” of older terraces, were above the -active floodplain. Wyckoff (1974) has stated that they preferred the -tupelo gum-bald cypress biotic zone along the Red River, but in reality -they seem to have lived on the mixed hardwood, cane-covered natural -levees or in the oak-hickory ecological communities found on higher -ground. - -Natchitoches chiefs’ names are scarce, and one gets the impression that -their chiefs were not very powerful. However, St. Denis seems to have -purchased property from a chief called the White Chief. It can be assumed -that the tribes all had _Caddi_, _tama_ and priests. However, it seems -that there were more egalitarian structures among the Natchitoches, -Adaes, and Yatasi than in the East Texas or Great Bend groups. - -Documents indicate that at least four sites were occupied by the -Natchitoches between 1690 and 1803: White Chief’s village, Captain’s -village (Pintado Papers), La Pinière village (Bridges and Deville -1967:239), and Lac des Muire village (Sibley 1832; Abel 1933). There are -a larger number of archaeological sites which have yielded _Natchitoches -Engraved_, _Keno Trailed_, or _Emory Incised_ ceramic vessels or sherds, -catlinite pipes, glass trade beads, copper or brass objects, knives, -and gun parts. These include the U. S. Fish Hatchery (Walker 1935), -the Lawton (Webb 1945), the Southern Compress (Gregory and Webb 1965), -Natchitoches Country Club, Chamard House, American Cemetery, Settle’s -Camp, and Kenny Place sites (Gregory 1974). - -The Southern Compress and American Cemetery sites seem to correspond -to White Chief’s villages. The Fish Hatchery and Kenny Place sites are -likely combinations of Ouachita and Natchitoches groups visited by Tonti -and others. Settle’s Camp site and Country Club site are along the -high hills west of the modern town of Natchitoches and may well be the -dispersed settlement known as La Pinière (Pine Woods) to the French. -Chamard House site may have belonged to the French trader Chamard, or -possibly one of the Grappes; located on the bluff overlooking the active -Red River, it remains undocumented. - -[Illustration: Historic Natchitoches pottery, French iron tripod pots, -and Venetian glass trade beads. These 18th century A.D. artifacts were -found at the Southern Compress and Lawton sites.] - -The Lawton site was the site seized for debts from the son of the -Christian Indian, known as Pierre Captain, probably a sub-chief or -possibly a _tama_, of the Natchitoches (Pintado Papers: 139). The latest -Natchitoches village, Lac des Muire, was north of Powhatan and on the -west bank of the Red River. Sibley (1922) pointed out that although the -tribe was reduced in number they retained their language and distinctive -dress. They were farmers and lived in houses, presumably their -traditional wattle-daub constructions. - -Natchitoches land was gradually surrounded by Anglo-Americans and, by -the time of the Caddo Treaty, Natchitoches was a thriving community. -The tribe lived north of the town, near the Grappes (their cultural -broker with the whites). Local tradition holds that they were loaded -on a steamboat on the Front Street dock and taken to Oklahoma in -1835—something that obviously did _not_ happen. In 1843 the tribe -was still together under Chief Cho-wee (The Bow) and living near the -Kadohadacho on the Trinity River in Texas (Swanton 1942:96). - -In the 1960’s Caddos living near Anadarko, Oklahoma, still could sing -a few Natchitoches songs (Claude Medford, Jr., personal communication, -1975) and the late Mrs. Sadie Weller recorded in that language. Most -contemporary Caddo remember the tribal name and a few “old” words, but -as a distinct group the Natchitoches seem to have been absorbed by the -Kadohadacho and Hasinai. - - - - -THE ADAES - - -The Adaes (from _Na·dai_ which meant “A Place Along a Stream”) were -supposed to have had a village on Red River, near the Natchitoches. If -their reported village is taken to mean a dispersed series of kin-based -hamlets—what Spanish colonial people called _rancherías_—the previously -described Chamard site may be it. - -In the 1720’s the Spanish established a mission for the Adaes, but its -priest and one lay-soldier were expelled by the French lieutenant, -Blondel (Bolton 1921). At the time there were no Indians living at the -mission. Apparently, they relocated nearer the Spanish, but conversions -were rare, and the Adaes were more interested in trade than religion. So, -for that matter, were the Spanish, and when the _presidio_ (now called -Los Adaes) was established in 1723, ostensibly to protect the mission, -the Adaes seem to have lived all around the vicinity. - -Los Adaes then became essentially an Indian dominated community: Lipan, -Coahuiltecans, Adaes, Wichita, Tawakoni, and others lived there off -and on. Even the commandant, Gil Ybarbo, was married to a _mestiza_, -a half-Indian woman. Whenever the Spanish authorities in Texas needed -translators for Caddoan languages, they sent for soldiers from Los Adaes -(Blake Papers). - -There was an Adaes village near Big Hill Firetower at a place called -La Gran Montaña (Bolton 1962) which has never been found, and another -nineteenth century village on Lac Macdon. The latter is probably a later -village than the one known on Spanish Lake where burials with European -goods were excavated by James A. Ford (1936, unpublished fieldnotes, -Museum of Geoscience, Louisiana State University). - -[Illustration: Historic archaeological sites in the Caddoan area.] - -Taylor (1963:51-59) finally placed Adaes as a definite Caddoan language, -but it was the most deviant of all (Sibley 1832), and the Adaes became -more and more western in their cultural orientation (Gregory 1974). They -gradually extended to the Sabine River where a late trash pit (A.D. 1740) -at Coral Snake Mound may be evidence of their presence (McClurkan, Field -and Woodall 1966). It contained glass trade beads, and a French musket -lock was found nearby. Their Lac Macdon village, where they remained as -late as 1820, was probably near the water body known today as Berry Brake -and may well be on Allen Plantation. - -Little is known of Adaes history or culture. De Mézières (Bolton -1914:173) noted that they were severely impacted by Europeans and -“extremely given to the vice of drunkenness.” Like the Natchitoches, they -seem to have had close relationships with the Yatasi who were sometimes -called the Nadas, likely a homonym for _Na·dais_. - -One Adaes chief who was their leader in the 1770’s has been identified -and they are clearly an archaeologically distinct group. Gregory (1974) -has pointed out the higher frequencies of bone-tempered pottery and the -ceramic types _Patton Engraved_ and _Emory Incised_ from trash pits at -Los Adaes. - -Unlike the Natchitoches and others, the Adaes are not remembered by -contemporary Caddo who may have heard of them merely as part of the -Yatasi, who are remembered as a group. Many may have been absorbed, as -Christians, into the general _mestizo_ population at Los Adaes and still -have descendants in northwestern Louisiana. - - - - -THE DOUSTIONI - - -Swanton (1942) translates Doustioni as “Salt People,” and they seem to -have lived near the salines northeast of Natchitoches. Little else is -known about them, and they do not seem to persist into the nineteenth -century. They either disappeared or mingled with the Natchitoches. - -A large village site, on Little Cedar Lick, has yielded shell-tempered -sherds, Venetian glass beads, and French faience, all early to middle -eighteenth century artifact types. The site probably was the major -Doustioni settlement. Other evidence of late occupations appears at -Drake’s Lick. Williams (1964) points out that the Doustioni once had a -village below the Natchitoches, and, though it has not been located, -it may have been near the confluence of Saline Bayou and Red River, -somewhere below Clarence, Louisiana. Saline Bayou provides easy access to -the salt licks and was described by several early travelers (Le Page du -Pratz 1774). - - - - -THE OUACHITA - - -The Ouachita were living on the river of that name before 1690. The -most likely site is Pargoud Landing at Monroe where recent excavations -have yielded early trade beads but no other goods (Lorraine Heartfield, -personal communication, 1977). Other sites considered for the historic -Ouachita were the Keno and Glendora sites (Gregory 1974; Williams -1964), but these are not certain since they may represent a Koroa -(Tunica) village with Caddoan trade connections or vice-versa. However, -animal burials and grave arrangements show that these sites are closer -culturally to the Red River sites than to other sites on the Ouachita. -Gregory (1974) has discussed the Moon Lake and Ransom sites northeast of -Monroe as possible Ouachita sites, but these may have been earlier Koroa -sites also. - -As was discussed earlier, the Ouachita fused with the Natchitoches, -likely at or near the U.S. Fish Hatchery site, which revealed their -ceramic styles and animal burials. Fish Hatchery was a very early French -contact site (Gregory and Webb 1965; Gregory 1974), and it is the only -historic Caddo site to share deliberate burial of animals (horses) -with the Ouachita River sites. The Ouachita apparently were absorbed -completely before the 1720’s. - - - - -THE YATASI - - -The name Yatasi, meaning simply “Those Other People” in Kadohadacho -language (Melford Williams, personal communication, 1977) apparently was -applied to a number of groups living in the hills north of the Adaes -and south of Caddo Lake. At least three villages are attributed to them -historically. One, located near Mansfield on Bayou Pierre in the Red -River Valley north of Natchitoches, was large enough to have a resident -trader (Bolton 1914). The Pintado Papers also refer to a group and their -chief, Antoine, who were living on a prairie known as _Nabutscahe_ near -Mansfield as late as 1784. Another village was located near LaPointe -on Bayou Pierre (American State Papers 1859), and a third was near the -Sabine River close to modern Logansport (Darby 1816). - -As was pointed out, the Adaes and Yatasi apparently were fairly closely -related, and they may not have been real tribes, but rather a series -of kin-linked bands, each with its own autonomy. The Caddoan term for -these groups sounds much like a more inclusive term which lumps small, -scattered groups. Whether their “chiefs” were really chiefs or local, -heuristic leaders remains problematical. Bolton (1914) mentions chiefs, -stating that the Athanase de Mézières gave peace medals to two chiefs, -Cocay and Gunkan, in 1768. - -[Illustration: Historic 18th century A.D. Caddoan pottery vessels from -Los Adaes, Natchitoches Parish, Louisiana.] - -Presently, the archaeological picture seems to support the hypothesis -that the Yatasi included a number of small autonomous bands. A cluster -of sites is located around Chamard Lake: the Arnold or Bead Hill site -(Gregory and Webb 1965), the Wilkinson site (Ford 1936), and the Eagle -Brake site (Gregory 1974). These sites have fairly large, deep middens -and all have yielded _Natchitoches Engraved_ sherds and trade goods. -This is somewhat different from the scattered shallow sites nearer -Natchitoches and suggests more clustered populations, but still a -dispersed settlement pattern. None of these archaeological sites seems -to correspond to the Red River-Bayou Pierre sites, though they shared -the drainage. Although it is known that the Lafittes, Poisot, and Rambin -claims were near the Yatasi villages, and all of these settlers traded -with the tribe (Pintado Papers:82-84), their documented sites remain to -be found. - -Contemporary Caddo, most of whom are Kadohadacho or Hasinai, frequently -mention the Yatasi when asked about other groups and know they once -existed. However, it remains obscure whether the Yatasi were one or many -little groups. They seem to have been absorbed by the Kadohadacho, but it -is hard to trace them after the American land sales. - - - - -THE KADOHADACHO - - -The Kadohadacho (“Great Chiefs” in the Caddoan languages) were the -dominant Caddoan-speaking group in the Red River Valley. They occupied a -widely dispersed settlement with a temple and a mound, in northeastern -Texas and probably near the Great Bend at Texarkana. The Petit Caddo, -Nasoni, Nanatsoho, and Upper Natchitoches were absorbed by the -Kadohadacho, and the tribes abandoned their Great Bend villages (at -least four archaeological sites there seem related to these groups) and -shifted south to Caddo Lake. Once there, their chief, Tinhiouen, dealt -politically with both the Spanish (Bolton 1914) and the Americans. - -The Kadohadacho language was the most widely understood of all the -Caddoan tongues, and, according to early accounts (Sibley 1922), the -tribe was the most influential of all the Caddos. They had a sort of -warrior class comparable to the “Knights of Malta.” It is, therefore, not -surprising that the Kadohadacho became the Caddo Nation of the American -Period (Williams 1964). - -The Kadohadacho settled, at least by 1797 (Swanton 1942), at a location -known as Timber Hill (Mooney 1896:323) near Caddo Lake (Swanton 1942). -Williams (1964) has pointed out that this village has never been located -archaeologically. However, it should be noted that the Texicans placed -the tribe near Caddo Station in 1842 (Gullick 1921). - -Immediately after the American land treaty, the tribe apparently split -into factions. A group under Tarsher moved to the Brazos River in Texas; -the others stayed in Louisiana until at least 1842, when they apparently -moved to live with the Choctaw some time that year (Swanton 1942:95). - -The late Miss Caroline Dormon (1935, unpublished field notes, Special -Collections, Eugene Watson Library, Northwestern State University) -recorded a single burial, with a “silver crown, copper, etc.,” which -was found near Stormy Point on Ferry Lake by James Shenich, son-in-law -of Larkin Edwards. This burial may have been very near the Kadohadacho -village. According to the Dormon notes, this was a favorite crossing -to Shreveport and the Indian trace was visible as late as the 1860’s. -In spite of the fact that “Glendora Focus” artifacts were not present -(Williams 1964), it can no longer be said that there were no historic -Caddoan sites in the Treaty Cession areas of De Soto and Caddo parishes. -In fact there is a good possibility that this was the grave of the -powerful chief, Dahaut, who died in 1833 (Caddo Agency Letters). - - - - -CADDOAN HERITAGE - - -The Caddo left their names, art, and culture in Louisiana. A number of -colonial European families can boast of Caddoan ancestors: Grappes, -Brevelles, Balthazars, and others. In Oklahoma, after years of wandering, -the Kadohadacho and Hasinai have become the dominant groups. Yet, as has -been pointed out, old traditions persist. People still recall stories -of floods on Caddo Prairie which left cows hanging by their horns in -the trees, and know that Natchitoches meant the place of “little yellow -fruits” that do not grow in Oklahoma. - -At Binger and near Hinton, Oklahoma, the old songs and dances continue to -be heard and seen. The Turkey Dance still is held before the sun sets, -and individuals sing the “Dawn Song” or “Tom Cat Song” on their way home -from the dancing. - -The Caddo now visit Louisiana, especially Natchitoches and Shreveport, to -see the places of their tradition. Places are part of Indian tradition -and pilgrimages are sacred acts. Perhaps now other Louisianians -will join the Caddo who realize how much Indian culture remains in -northwestern Louisiana. - - - - -BIBLIOGRAPHY - - -American State Papers - - 1859 _Documents of the Congress of the United States in - Relation to the Public Lands, Class VIII, Public Lands_, Vol. - 3, Washington. - -Blake Papers - - 1939 Translations of the Spanish Records of Nacogdoches County, - Texas. Manuscript. Special Collections Library, Stephen F. - Austin University, Nacogdoches. - -Bolton, Herbert E. - - 1914 _Athanase de Mézières and the Louisiana-Texas Frontier, - 1768-1780._ Arthur H. Clark, Cleveland. - - 1921 _The Spanish Borderlands._ Yale University Press, New - Haven. - - 1962 _Texas in the Middle Eighteenth Century._ Russell and - Russell, New York. - -Brain, Jeffrey P. - - 1977 On the Tunica Trail. _Louisiana Archaeological Survey and - Antiquities Commission, Anthropological Study No. 1_, Baton - Rouge. - -Bridges, Catherine and Winston Deville - - 1967 Natchitoches and the Trail to the Rio Grande: Two - Eighteenth Century Accounts by the Sieur Derbanne. _Louisiana - History_, Vol. 8, pp. 239-247. - -Caddo Agency Letters - - 1819-1835 Correspondence of George Gray and Jehiel Brooks. - Microfilm. National Archives, Washington. - -Darby, William - - 1816 _A Geographical Description of the State of Louisiana._ - John Melish, Philadelphia. - -Ford, James A. - - 1936 Analysis of Indian Village Site Collections from Louisiana - and Mississippi. _Department of Conservation, Louisiana - Geological Survey, Anthropological Study No. 2._ - -Fulton, Robert L. and Clarence H. Webb - - 1953 The Bellevue Mound: A Pre-Caddoan Site in Bossier Parish, - Louisiana. _Bulletin of the Texas Archeological Society_, Vol. - 24, pp. 18-42. - -Gagliano, Sherwood M. and Hiram F. Gregory, Jr. - - 1966 A Preliminary Survey of Paleo-Indian Points from - Louisiana. _Louisiana Studies_, Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 62-77. - -Gregory, Hiram F., Jr. - - 1974 Eighteenth Century Caddoan Archaeology: A Study in Models - and Interpretation. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis. Department of - Anthropology, Southern Methodist University, Dallas. - -Gregory, Hiram F., Jr. and Clarence H. Webb - - 1965 European Trade Beads from Six Sites in Natchitoches - Parish, Louisiana. _Florida Anthropologist_, Vol. 18, No. 3, - Part 2, pp. 15-44. - -Gullick, Charles Adams (Editor) - - 1921 _Papers of Mirabeau Lamar_, 6 Vols. A. C. Baldwin and - Sons, Austin. - -Hodge, Frederick Webb (Editor) - - 1907 “Caddo.” Handbook of American Indians North of Mexico. - _Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 30_, Part 1, Washington. - -La Page du Pratz, Antoine Simon - - 1774 _The History of Louisiana._ English translation published - by T. Becket, London. (Original: _Histoire de la Louisiane_, - Paris 1758). - -McClure, Lilla and J. Ed Howe - - 1937 _History of Shreveport and Shreveport Builders._ J. Ed - Howe, Shreveport. - -McClurkan, Burney B., William T. Field and J. Ned Woodall - - 1966 Excavations in Toledo Bend Reservoir, 1964-65. _Papers of - the Texas Archaeological Salvage Project_, No. 8, Austin. - -McWilliams, Richebourg G. (Editor) - - 1953 _Fleur de Lys and Calumet: Being the Pénicaut Narrative - of French Adventure in Louisiana._ Louisiana State University - Press, Baton Rouge. - -Mooney, James - - 1896 The Ghost-Dance Religion and the Sioux Outbreak of 1890. - _14th Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, - 1892-1893_, Part 2, pp. 322-324, Washington. - -Moore, Clarence B. - - 1912 Some Aboriginal Sites on Red River. _Journal of the - Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia_, Vol. 14, pp. - 482-644. - -Neuman, Robert W. - - 1974 Historic Locations of Certain Caddoan Tribes. In _Caddoan - Indians II_, pp. 9-147. Garland Publishing Inc., New York. - -Pintado Papers - - n.d. Land Claim Documents, State of Louisiana. Manuscript. - Louisiana State Land Office, Baton Rouge. - -Rowland, Dunbar and Albert S. Sanders - - 1929 _Mississippi Provincial Archives, 1701-1729._ Mississippi - Department of Archives and History, Jackson. - -Service, Elman - - 1962 _Primitive Social Organization._ Random House, New York. - -Sibley, John - - 1832 Historical Sketches of the Several Indian Tribes in - Louisiana, South of the Arkansas River, and Between the - Mississippi and Rio Grande. _American State Papers, Class II, - Indian Affairs_, Vol. 1, pp. 721-731, Washington. - - 1922 A Report from Natchitoches in 1807. Edited by Annie - Heloise Abel. _Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, - Indian Notes and Monographs, Miscellaneous Series_, No. 25, pp. - 5-102. - -Swanton, John R. - - 1942 Source Material on the History and Ethnology of the - Caddo Indians. _Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 132_, - Washington. - -Tanner, Helen Hornbeck - - 1974 The Territory of the Caddo Tribe of Oklahoma. In _Caddoan - Indians IV_, pp. 1-67. Garland Publishing Inc., New York. - -Taylor, Allen R. - - 1963 The Classification of the Caddoan Languages. _Proceedings - of the American Philosophical Society_, Vol. 107, No. 1, pp. - 51-59. - -Thomas, Prentice Marquet, Jr., L. Janice Campbell and Steven R. Ahler - - 1977 The Hanna Site: An Alto Village in Red River Parish. New - World Research, Report of Investigations No. 3. Unpublished - Manuscript, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, New Orleans. - -Walker, Winslow M. - - 1935 A Caddo Burial Site at Natchitoches, Louisiana. - _Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections_, Vol. 94, No. 14, - Washington. - -Webb, Clarence H. - - 1945 A Second Historic Caddo Site at Natchitoches, Louisiana. - _Bulletin of the Texas Archeological and Paleontological - Society_, Vol. 16, pp. 52-83. - - 1946 Two Unusual Types of Chipped Stone Artifacts from - Northwest Louisiana. _Bulletin of the Texas Archeological and - Paleontological Society_, Vol. 17, pp. 9-17. - - 1948a Caddoan Prehistory: The Bossier Focus. _Bulletin of the - Texas Archeological and Paleontological Society_, Vol. 18, pp. - 100-143. - - 1948b Evidences of Pre-Pottery Cultures in Louisiana. _American - Antiquity_, Vol. 13, No. 3, pp. 227-232. - - 1959 The Belcher Mound: A Stratified Caddoan Site in Caddo - Parish, Louisiana. _Memoirs of the Society for American - Archaeology_, No. 16. - - 1963 The Smithport Landing Site: An Alto Focus Component in De - Soto Parish, Louisiana. _Bulletin of the Texas Archeological - Society_, Vol. 34, pp. 143-187. - -Webb, Clarence H. and Monroe Dodd - - 1939 Further Excavations of the Gahagan Mound: Connections with - a Florida Culture. _Bulletin of the Texas Archeological and - Paleontological Society_, Vol. 11, pp. 92-126. - -Webb, Clarence H. and David R. Jeane - - 1977 The Springhill Airport Sites, J. C. Montgomery I (16 - WE 32) and II (16 WE 33). _Newsletter of the Louisiana - Archaeological Society_, Vol. 4, No. 3, pp. 3-7. - -Webb, Clarence H. and Ralph McKinney - - 1975 Mounds Plantation (16 CD 12). Caddo Parish, Louisiana. - _Louisiana Archaeology_, Vol. 2, pp. 39-127. - -Webb, Clarence H., Joel L. Shiner and E. Wayne Roberts - - 1971 The John Pearce Site (16 CD 56): A San Patrice Site in - Caddo Parish, Louisiana. _Bulletin of the Texas Archeological - Society_, Vol. 42, pp. 1-49. - -Williams, Stephen - - 1964 The Aboriginal Location of the Kadohadacho and Related - Tribes. In _Explorations in Cultural Anthropology_, edited by - Ward H. Goodenough, pp. 545-570. McGraw-Hill Book Company, New - York. - -Wyckoff, Donald G. - - 1974 The Caddoan Cultural Area: An Archaeological Perspective. - In _Caddoan Indians, I_, pp. 6-16. 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