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diff --git a/old/67471-0.txt b/old/67471-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 8d2408f..0000000 --- a/old/67471-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,2461 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Invention of Typography, by -Frederick W. Hamilton - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: The Invention of Typography - A Brief Sketch of the Invention of Printing and How it Came About - -Author: Frederick W. Hamilton - -Release Date: February 22, 2022 [eBook #67471] - -Language: English - -Produced by: Richard Tonsing, Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier, and the - Online Distributed Proofreading Team at - https://www.pgdp.net - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE INVENTION OF -TYPOGRAPHY *** - - - TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES FOR APPRENTICES—PART VIII, No. 50 - - - - - THE INVENTION OF TYPOGRAPHY - A BRIEF SKETCH OF THE INVENTION OF PRINTING AND HOW IT CAME ABOUT - - - BY - FREDERICK W. HAMILTON, LL.D. - EDUCATION DIRECTOR - UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA - -[Illustration] - - PUBLISHED BY THE COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION - UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA - 1918 - - - - - Copyright, 1918 - United Typothetae of America - Chicago, Ill. - - - Composition and electrotypes contributed by - Evans-Winter-Hebb, Inc. - Detroit - - - - - PREFACE - - -The writer of this book makes no claim to original investigation. The -materials for such investigation do not exist to any considerable extent -in this country. The results of such an investigation would form a book -not suited to this series. - -The writer has attempted to set forth briefly the conditions which -brought about the invention of printing and to present the main lines of -discussion concerning the inventor. He has consulted with some care a -considerable number of authorities and has endeavored to present the -results in comprehensive shape. - -The writer believes that the history of any particular event is a part -of the general history of the time in which it occurred. He has, -therefore, endeavored throughout the historical portion of this series -to indicate the general historic background of all particular historical -events sufficiently to set these particular events in their relations to -what was going on at the time in the world generally. - -In addition to the supplementary reading indicated in the several -volumes which follow, the writer ventures to hope that the students will -familiarize themselves with some good general text book on modern -history. - - - - - CONTENTS - - - INTRODUCTION 7 - - - CHAPTER I - - CONDITIONS IN THE MIDDLE OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY 11 - - - CHAPTER II - - STEPS TOWARD TYPOGRAPHY 17 - - - CHAPTER III - - CLAIMS TO THE INVENTION 26 - - - CHAPTER IV - - THE INVENTION 32 - - - CHAPTER V - - MATERIALS AND METHODS OF THE FIRST PRINTERS 47 - - - SUPPLEMENTARY READING 52 - - - REVIEW QUESTIONS 53 - - - - - THE INVENTION OF PRINTING - - - - - INTRODUCTION - - -Many persons and many places have claimed the honor of the invention of -typographic printing. That these conflicting claims should be made is -the most natural thing in the world. Almost all epoch-making inventions -and discoveries are of more or less doubtful origin. The reason for this -is that such discoveries grow out of conditions and needs. At the time -appointed they appear as inevitably as the blossom on the plant. Very -likely they appear in several places at once. Often, also like the -blossoms on a plant, only one produces what the gardener calls a “set,” -that is, a fruit which ripens and matures seed for reproduction. The -state of human knowledge or the pressure of human need may be such that -many students are at work at the same time upon problems which seem to -demand solution. In this way the theory of evolution, whose adoption, -revolutionizing as it did the entire system of human thinking, was the -most important event of the nineteenth century, was independently -discovered by Darwin and Wallace, who were working at the same time -along independent lines of investigation. - -The advance in surgery and a keen appreciation of the suffering under -operation which made many operations impossible led to the simultaneous -discovery of anesthesia by at least two investigators, William T. G. -Morton and Dr. Charles T. Jackson. Investigation of the uses of -electricity led to the independent invention of the telephone by Bell -and Dolbear. It is certain that occasional European sailors found their -way to the western hemisphere through several centuries before Columbus -made his famous voyage. These are only a few of the most notable -instances of such disputed or independent discoveries. - -In some cases the judgment of the world has probably awarded the glory -incorrectly. In other cases the glory has gone, perhaps justly, to that -one of two or more discoverers who succeeded in making his invention -practically or commercially useful. For instance, while Morton was -probably not the original discoverer of anesthesia, it was he who made -it practically useful in surgical operations, and while there appears to -be no question that Dolbear antedated Bell in the discovery of the -telephone, Dolbear’s interest was purely scientific while Bell gave the -telephone to commerce. - -The same conditions of doubt and obscurity surround the invention of -printing. As we shall later see, more at length, the invention of -printing was a development of existing processes called for by the needs -of the time and arising out of the conditions of the time. It was -inevitable that typographic printing should be discovered by somebody in -the middle of the fifteenth century. So far as the evidence at our -command shows, the art was not invented in several places at the same -time, but was developed by one man out of familiar processes. For some -reason which is not now clear, the work of this man, though considerable -in extent, appears to have been without immediate direct results of much -importance. At a very early stage the invention was seized upon by -another who, with his associates, established a center from which the -art steadily grew and developed. So important in its practical results -was the work of this man and his associates that he has been for -centuries hailed as the inventor of printing. It is needless to say that -this man was John Gutenberg. - -In the judgment of the present writer, however, the claim that Gutenberg -invented typographic printing cannot be maintained. The discussion has -been long and sometimes bitter. The arguments, or at least many of them, -are of a highly technical nature and many minor points yet remain to be -cleared up. In a book of this sort it would be obviously out of place to -go at length into the details of the argument. The writer, moreover, -lays no claim to original investigation. An attempt will be made in the -following pages to show the conditions out of which the discovery arose, -to tell the story of the invention, to place the credit both of actual -invention and practical application where it belongs, and to bring out -certain points which may be interesting about the work of the very -earliest printers. - -In taking the position which he does with regard to the invention the -writer regrets that he is obliged to dissent from the conclusions of De -Vinne. In his Invention of Printing, De Vinne ably maintains the claims -of Gutenberg. No one can be more ready than the present writer to pay -homage to the greatness of De Vinne and to acknowledge the immense debt -which the printers of America owe to him. His series of historical and -critical essays on the practice of typography are still unapproachable. -In spite of the changes which have taken place in the years since they -were written, their substance is not affected excepting in some minor -and unimportant details. They are still supreme authority in their -field. De Vinne’s historical work was also of great importance and for -the most part may still be accepted without question. Under these -circumstances it is only natural that the conclusions of De Vinne should -carry great weight and that the great body of American printers should -have accepted the Gutenberg attribution without question upon De Vinne’s -authority. - -It must be remembered, however, that De Vinne’s work was written nearly -forty years ago. Just before he wrote, Dr. Van der Linde had published a -voluminous work in which the theory of the Gutenberg invention was -supported at great length and with great show of scholarship. This was -later followed by other volumes of similar purport. For a considerable -time Van der Linde’s books were considered as settling the question. De -Vinne, as may clearly be seen from his preface, wrote under the spell of -Van der Linde’s influence. Later investigations, however, have shown -that Van der Linde’s scholarship was largely show, that he was not only -uncritical but unskillful in his use of authorities, and that his -voluminous works are written with the sole purpose of bolstering up a -preconceived theory. Most of this investigation had not been conducted -when De Vinne wrote. The discussion cannot be said to have swung the -balance of probability to the other side until after De Vinne’s literary -activities ceased. The knowledge we now possess, however, has forced the -present writer to abandon the De Vinne position and to base the -historical part of this series of text-books on acceptance of the belief -that typographic printing was discovered by Coster, of Haarlem, in -Holland. - - - - - CHAPTER I - CONDITIONS IN THE MIDDLE OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY - - -As was briefly indicated in the preceding volume in this series, the -conditions existing in the world of letters at the middle of the -fifteenth century were such as to demand imperatively some new method of -making books. The slow march of civilization had gone on with many -setbacks and interruptions through the centuries, but was now proceeding -with a swiftness hitherto unknown. The demands of the human mind were -pressing hard against the physical boundaries to progress created by the -methods of book-making then in use. It must be remembered that men were -still making books just as they had done for nearly two thousand years. -A vast store of knowledge had been accumulated and additions were being -made with tremendous rapidity, but there was no adequate means of -getting this knowledge before the people. At the same time there were -more people intensely eager for knowledge than ever before. - -It is worth while to stop for a moment to consider the conditions of the -period. The Hundred Years’ War between France and England, which had -paralyzed the energies of a divided France and had exhausted the powers -of England in useless attempts at an impossible conquest, had at last -come to an end. The English had withdrawn to their own island. They had -given up the dreams of a continental empire which had danced before -their eyes ever since William of Normandy, in 1066, had added England to -his possessions. In reading English history we are liable to forget that -during a great part, if not the whole, of the four hundred years -succeeding the Conquest, the English kings had considered their -continental possessions the more important, regarding the little island -which they shared with the Scotch, then an independent nation, as a sort -of colonial possession. It is true that they maintained their capitals -there and took their titles thence, because in England they were kings, -whereas they governed their broad possessions on the continent as dukes -or counts only. From the time of Henry V they had claimed to be kings of -France. Now these continental ambitions were definitely given up and -England was free to develop her own nationality, and a much more -vigorous national life immediately began. - -The same events mark an era in the development of France. Free from the -horrors of war and the dread of another conquest, a new opportunity was -given for the development of the arts of peace. - -Italy was still divided into a great number of independent states whose -quarrels and changing alliances make the Italian history of the period -extremely difficult to study on its political side. There had, however, -developed in Italy a group of strong rulers who governed states of -respectable size and kept them for considerable periods in comparative -stability. The Italian states had rallied more quickly from the -barbarian invasions which overthrew the Roman Empire than the rest of -Europe and their progress in civilization had been very remarkable when -one considers the civil wars and wars between small states which had -been almost continuous. - -For the most part Germany had lagged far behind the rest of Europe in -the development of civilization. The greater part of it, however, was -now in a fairly stable political condition and many of the German states -had become important centers of learning. This was especially true of -western and southern Germany, where the influence of Rome had been -strongest and where the influence of France and Italy had been most -felt. - -Much of Spain was still in the hands of the Moors, who were in many -respects more civilized than their Christian neighbors. Portugal was -enlightened and advanced. - -The great schism known as the Babylonish Captivity which had rent the -Catholic Church in twain, with rival popes ruling at Rome and Avignon, -had come to an end, and for the time being the unity of Christendom was -undisturbed. - -The political conditions of Europe were thus more favorable than they -had been for a long time for the development of the intellectual life. -They were still far from ideal and there were many dark days in store, -but the bad old times were never fully to come back. - -This political condition, however, was only a background for the revival -of intellectual activity known as the Renaissance which distinguishes -this remarkable period. - -This movement may perhaps be said to have begun with Petrarch, the -Italian poet, philosopher, and student, who died in 1374. By the middle -of the fifteenth century, however, many men had appeared in the world of -letters whose names are famous for all time. These great thinkers and -writers revived the study of the ancient languages, recast the study of -philosophy, and even ventured to discuss the fundamentals of religion. -In so doing they not only revived the ancient learning, but started a -new one. - -New universities sprang up, among them Erfurt in 1392, Leipsic in 1409, -St. Andrews, in Edinburgh, in 1411, Louvain in 1426. The revival of the -study of great literature in Italy may be said to have begun about 1400. -About 1450, there were many eminent Greek scholars and their enthusiasm -for Greek literature had led to the revival of the philosophy of Plato. - -The revival of interest in the art of the ancients, classic literature, -and the philosophy of Plato brought about the great advance of modern -art which marked the second half of the century, Perugino, the teacher -of Raphael, being born in 1446. - -All this intellectual activity stirred a new spirit of adventure. Just -as the men whose intellectual energies had been absorbed in the petty -quarrels of church and state now devoted themselves to constructive -thinking, so those whose physical energies had been devoted to the -constant succession of small wars of which we have spoken now gave -themselves to exploration. By the middle of the century important -discoveries had been made by the exploring expeditions sent out by the -Portuguese prince, Henry the Navigator. The known world was to be -doubled in size by the voyage of Columbus before the end of the century. - -It is easy to see that all this meant the creation of many books. -Learning without books is a manifest impossibility. There was a renewed -interest in the old books and a great call for copies of them. All this -new learning and discovery required books for record and for -dissemination. It is true there were many more books than there had been -formerly and many more were being made, but the possibility of supply -was hopelessly behind the demand. Great libraries were being formed and -many individuals had remarkable collections of books. Some of these -libraries still exist, the best known probably being the library of the -Vatican, at Rome, which was started in 1447. The trade of book-making -had long since outgrown the monastery. As we saw in the preceding -volume, practically all of the book-making of the so-called Dark Ages -was in the monasteries and much was still done there, but there was now -in existence a regularly organized trade of copyists. No really good -book of this period was complete without its ornamental capitals, -pictures, and other embellishments. These adornments, or illuminations, -as they were called, extended in some cases to every page of a book. -They were not generally made by the men who did the copying or writing -of the text, but by a class of specially trained men who were called -illuminators. - -Clearly the shortcomings of the manuscript books are very evident. First -and foremost must be placed the absolute impossibility of making by the -laborious process of writing out by hand anything like the number of -books required to meet the demand. Either some new method of making -books must be devised or the new learning and the new civilization were -to be strangled at birth. Moreover, the manuscript books were -necessarily very costly and they were also very inaccurate. Any one who -has had any experience in the hand-copying of large amounts of -manuscript will see how impossible it is to avoid errors, even with the -most careful checking over. It is not probable that any two copies of -any manuscript book were ever exactly alike. It is true that the -invention of printing did not automatically remove errors. Indeed errors -and inaccuracies, very common in the early books, are far from unknown -at present, but at any rate all the copies of one edition are alike and -errors may be corrected either in subsequent editions or by the -insertion of errata in the printed book. - -Not only was the time ripe for the invention of a new method of -book-making, but the materials were ready with the vital exception of -type, and that was within a step of discovery. The materials are paper, -ink, presses, and type. Paper is supposed to have been invented by the -Chinese about the end of the first century A. D., and to have been more -or less known in the East for a long time before the knowledge of it was -brought to Europe. The Arabs conquered Samarkand in 751, and from this -conquest it is supposed that the knowledge of paper and paper-making -came to Europe by way of Spain, the greater part of which was then in -the hands of the Moors, who were themselves Arabs. As early as the -eleventh century there were paper mills at Valencia, Xativa, and other -Moorish towns in Spain. From Spain the art of paper-making spread to -Italy where we know that there was a paper mill at Fabriano before 1340, -and to France where there was a mill at Troyes about the same time. Not -long after we find paper-making at Nuremberg. By the middle of the -century paper was familiar throughout Europe, but the use of it was not -extensive. The paper of that time did not lend itself readily to writing -and the makers of the manuscripts preferred the use of parchment. - -Obviously, printing can not be done with writing ink. Very different -qualities are necessary for the two arts, but as early as the beginning -of the century special inks were being made for printing from blocks. -Those inks were not exactly like those soon to be used for printing from -type, but they were near enough in their general character to indicate -the improvements which were needed to produce a true printer’s ink. Who -invented these inks is not known, but it is generally supposed that they -were invented by artists who were accustomed to the handling of color -and pigments. The invention has been attributed by some to an unknown -Italian painter, by others to Hubert Van Eyck, a great Dutch painter of -the period. It is not probable, however, that the invention, if it can -be said to be the invention of an individual, can ever be traced to its -author. - -The press needed was only an adaptation of a very simple machine in -common use for many different purposes. The use of the press in -squeezing grapes for wine, in molding cheese and squeezing out the whey, -and for a great number of other purposes was so common that the problem -of the exertion of pressure was already solved. Everything was ready but -the type, and when one sees how far men had gone toward the use of type -one wonders that the invention was not made long before it really -occurred. Probably it was only waiting for the imperious demand of -necessity to spur some one to the making of the necessary experiments. - - - - - CHAPTER II - STEPS TOWARD TYPOGRAPHY - - -Typographic printing, briefly defined, is printing from movable types. -That is to say, it is the impression of words upon paper or other -material by the use of movable types which have first been covered with -ink, the inked face of the type transferring the characters to paper and -producing the printed page. This includes any printing from a type form -in which movable cuts may be locked up with the type, or in some cases -may be used alone on the press as in printing full-page illustrations. -It was this process which was invented in the middle of the fifteenth -century. - -The practice of making impressions upon various substances by the use of -various devices prepared for that purpose goes back to the dawn of -civilization. The earliest device of this sort appears to have been a -seal used for impressing a device which might stand for a personal -signature or indicate the official authentication of a document or other -public act. These seals are found in great numbers among the most -ancient remains. Two early ones from the island of Crete are shown -herewith. - -[Illustration: Ancient Seals from Crete] - -There are also in existence many ancient Babylonian seals. These seals -were of various sorts. Sometimes the design was cut in the flat surface, -leaving a raised impression when stamped upon wax, clay, or some other -yielding substance. Such seals are said to be made in intaglio. -Sometimes the surface is cut away leaving the designs standing out, thus -making a depressed mark in the soft surface. These seals are said to be -cut in relief. Sometimes the surface of the seal, instead of being flat, -was a cylinder rolling on a pivot so that the impression of whichever -sort it might be was made by rolling the seal with pressure over the -soft substance. It is said that the Romans came very near the discovery -of typographic printing. The Roman potters stamped their names letter by -letter in the soft clay of their ware before it was fired. The use of -dies for stamping coins and metal seals is also very ancient. - -[Illustration: Assyrian Clay Tablet] - -The Assyrians not only inscribed their records upon cylinders of soft -clay by pressing a sharp stick into them to make the curious -wedge-shaped characters of their alphabet, but it is evident that they -carved rather long inscriptions on plates, probably of wood, and -transferred these to bricks by pressure. The illustration shows an -Assyrian stamped brick of this sort. Wherever we touch the history of -civilized man we find some form of printing by the use of a seal, a -stamp, or even a single letter. Some manuscripts long before the middle -of the fifteenth century seem to have had the initial letters put in by -means of stamps which were applied either by heavy hand pressure or by -the blow of a mallet. These initial letters certainly show the use of -color in making the impression. It is probable that such use of color -was early thought of as a means of making the impression of the seal -more distinct and dispensing with the pressure necessary to force the -seal into the substance of the parchment, papyrus, or paper which was -being used. Thus through the ages we slowly grow toward a more varied -and extensive use of these primitive methods of printing. - -If we turn to Asia we find that the Chinese and their neighbors, the -Japanese and the Coreans, anticipated Europe by many centuries in -printing, as well as in other arts. The Chinese appear to have hit upon -the device of multiplying books by cutting all the characters needed for -a page on a block of wood and then applying the inked block to the paper -as early as the sixth century, A. D. Books printed by this process, -generally known as block books, were common among the Chinese as early -as the tenth century. The Japanese were using blocks for printing before -the year 800, A. D. The British Museum contains a Corean book apparently -printed from movable types which is supposed to date as far back as -1338. - -All this is very interesting, but there is not the slightest evidence -that it had any effect whatever on the development of printing in -Europe. Chinese and Japanese typography is not a development from their -own block books, but is a recent importation from Europe. The Chinese -characters, which are also used by the Japanese, are not letters but -ideograms. Instead of having a few characters representing the -fundamental sounds, by the combination of which words are expressed, -they have a vast number of characters, many thousands of them. These -characters represent to the mind an idea as a whole. They may be -vocalized as a word or a syllable, but not as a single sound out of a -combination of which syllables and words may be built up. It was quite -practicable to carve the characters representing a page on a block and -print from that, but it was clearly not practicable to make movable -types representing all these almost innumerable characters. Typographic -printing is possible only through the selection for common use of a -small number of the most essential characters and using them as the -basis of a working vocabulary. The introduction of typography represents -probably a step toward the reduction of this great number of characters -to a comparatively small number representing the sounds or syllables -most in use. A font of Chinese type is a fearful and wonderful thing, -and learning the case for Chinese composition is a task which very few -western people would care to undertake. - -[Illustration: Modern Chinese Type Case] - -The accompanying illustration shows a Chinese compositor at his case in -the Lakeside Press, Chicago. The “frame” contains one complete font of -approximately seven thousand characters. It is about sixteen feet long -by five feet high, and is made up of a number of smaller “cases” -approximately twelve by fifteen inches over all, each holding about two -hundred and forty characters. This font is approximately ten-point body -according to United States standards. It required an entire month to -“lay the cases.” It requires about ten thousand characters to print a -Chinese book, but some of them are made by combinations of primary -characters, so that the seven thousand in the case will do the work. - -During the centuries previous to the invention of printing the number of -persons who could read was very small. The common people, farmers, -soldiers, workmen, and the like, received but little instruction outside -the immediate necessities of their lives. That little was largely by -word of mouth reinforced by symbol and picture or statue. In those days -the churches were the poor man’s schools and libraries. The Bible -stories were told him by the priests and nuns and by the old men and -women. The churches were elaborately ornamented with statues, stained -glass windows, brasses, paintings, and carvings. Many of these painted -or sculptured representations were conventionalized. If one saw a figure -with a great key in his hand, no matter what the costume of the figure -or the design of the face, he knew it was St. Peter. If he saw another -figure with a book and a sword, he knew that it was St. Paul, and so on. -He saw the sacrifice of Isaac, the Massacre of the Innocents, the -Crucifixion, the Martyrdom of St. Stephen, and all the other Bible -stories visibly expressed. He saw the statues of kings and bishops and -was told the meaning of the scenes in which these and other characters -were represented in picture or sculpture. He thus read and reread the -statues, stained glass windows, and sculptures of his church as we read -and reread our Bibles and our histories. Many carvings and pictures were -put into the churches which we should today consider entirely out of -place. Caricature began here as well as religious and historical -instruction. We find represented scenes which recall the current fables -of the time and sometimes pictures of scenes ridiculous or even -indecent, according to modern ideas, which satirized the vices and -faults of men and women while they warned against them. - -By and by the desire came to bring this instruction into the homes of -the people who were too poor to have paintings and carvings of their -own. This desire was met by the production of what is known as image -prints. The picture of some saint was carved on a piece of wood and from -this block, or more properly plate, because the pictures were carved on -the side and not the end of a flat piece of wood, an inked impression -was made on parchment or paper. This process seems to have come in use -some time in the fourteenth century. By the beginning of the fifteenth -it was fairly common. The earliest dated woodcut of this sort, bearing -the date 1423, is shown herewith. It is interesting not only as being -the oldest dated work of this sort, but as being typical of the way in -which these pictures were conceived and executed. It represents St. -Christopher. The saint is shown fording the river with the Child Jesus -on his shoulder and represents the entire legend of St. Christopher, the -Christ Bearer. - -[Illustration: Reduced Facsimile of Early Wood-cut] - -At first these images appeared upon single sheets bearing only the -picture. Later, words were carved upon the block in addition to the -picture, giving us on one page the combination of picture and text. Very -probably the owner could not read the inscription, but he could be told -what it meant and the very form of it would recall to his mind the words -which he had learned. - -From this single picture there were two lines of development. One was -the binding up of several pages of such pictures and texts into a book. -Each page was printed from a single block and the result was a block -book. Of these there were two especially famous and often printed, The -Biblia Pauperum, or Poor Man’s Bible, and the Speculum Humani -Salvationis, or Mirror of Human Salvation. The Poor Man’s Bible, of -course, was a collection of prints recalling the biblical stories. The -Mirror went further afield and showed pictures representing moral -teaching. Great numbers of these books were printed and circulated, -especially in Holland and Germany. - -The other development was the printing of whole pages of text. Certain -books were in great demand. The advantage of being able to reproduce -them quickly and cheaply was obvious. The two best known are alphabet -books for beginners called Abecederia, or Abecederium in the singular, -and the elementary Latin grammars abstracted from the works of an old -Latin grammarian named Donatus. These grammars were commonly called -Donatuses. These books, especially the school books, were printed mostly -on vellum, partly because of its greater durability and partly because -the use of paper was not yet common. - -We have here the lines of development which led directly to the -invention of typography. We have already mentioned books printed from -plates with pictures without text, pictures with text, and text without -pictures. What would be more natural than to cut off the part of the -block containing the text and use the picture alone, or to combine the -text with text cut from another block or with another picture from which -the text had been removed? If we could do this why could we not cut out -a single word or a single letter and why not make a considerable number -of these single letters and combine them into words? If parts of two or -more blocks were to be used for the same picture, they must be fastened -together in some way, or as we should say today the form must be locked -up. Why could not separate letters be fastened together in the same way -so that we could print anything we wanted by the simple process of -putting together the necessary letters in the proper relation? As we -shall see presently, this is exactly what happened, and the invention of -printing thus considered is the most natural thing in the world. - -Before passing to the next phase of the discovery, a word should be said -about playing cards. Until recently playing cards were considered as -having a place in this development which they probably never occupied. -Playing cards, like many other things good and bad, were invented in the -East. They made their appearance in Europe somewhere about 1375 A. D. -and by 1400 they had become popular. The first cards were hand painted -which, of course, made them expensive and confined their use to the -wealthy. A little later, however, they were painted by the use of -stencils so that they could be produced cheaply and plentifully. Later -still they were printed from blocks like the image prints and colored by -hand. Color being essential to playing cards, the development thus -outlined was the most natural. It has been supposed that the -comparatively small playing card was first made and that the image print -was derived from the playing card. There now seems no question that the -process was the other way about, as there are no printed playing cards -known as early as the St. Christopher above referred to. The -block-printed playing card seems to have been clearly an imitation of -the image print, and not the image print an evolution from the playing -card. - - - - - CHAPTER III - CLAIMS TO THE INVENTION - - -De Vinne mentions fifteen cities or towns as having been specified by as -many different authors as the true birthplace of typography. The names -of these are Augsburg, Basle, Bologna, Dordrecht, Feltre, Florence, -Haarlem, Lubeck, Mainz, Nuremberg, Rome, Russemburg, Strasburg, -Schelestadt, and Venice. The various authors assign to these towns the -names of the following alleged inventors: Castoldi, Coster, Fust, -Gensfleisch, Gresmund, Gutenberg, Hahn, Mentel, Jenson, Regiomontanus, -Schoeffer, Pannartz and Sweynheym, and Louis de Vaelbaeske. - -Of these claims there are only three which deserve any consideration -whatever. The first of these claims, the alleged discovery at Avignon, -is by far the most recent and may be quickly disposed of. In 1890 the -Abbé Requin discovered five curious documents in the notarial records of -Avignon, in southern France. These papers deal with the business -dealings of the silversmith Procopius Waldfoghel with certain other -persons regarding the art of writing artistically, instruction therein, -and certain tools therefor. There are mentioned in these papers two -steel alphabets in Latin, one iron alphabet in Hebrew, two iron frames, -one steel screw, forty-eight forms of tin, and divers other forms -belonging to the art of writing. There is also mention of instruments or -tools of iron, steel, copper, latten, lead, tin, and wood for writing -artistically. These documents date from 1444 and 1446, before Gutenberg -had produced any results. On the evidence of these documents attempts -have been made to show that printing was being done at Avignon several -years before the earliest date that can be assigned to the 42-line -Bible, the Letters of Indulgence, or even the somewhat doubtful Latin -Grammar. - -A careful study of the documents, however, hardly bears out this claim. -It is said that the writing was to be done on “stuffs” (cloth), but -nothing is said of paper, ink, or other materials needed for printing, -and it is a stretch of the imagination to see punches and matrices in -the iron and steel alphabets and the forty-eight forms. - -The probability is that Waldfoghel cut letters of ornamental and -artistic forms on dies to be used as initials and the like on -manuscripts or on cloth and other materials and devised or borrowed a -method of printing from them by the application of power through some -sort of screw press. This is in harmony with much that we know to have -been done at that time, but is quite apart from anything like typography -as we are considering it. - -The second is the so-called Coster legend. This story in its legendary -form says that Lourens Janssoen Coster invented printing from the chance -trifling of an idle hour. He is said to have been strolling in the woods -near Haarlem one day and to have cut some pieces of birch bark in the -form of letters. With some of these letters dipped in ink he made marks -on parchment or paper and found that he could combine them and recombine -them so as to make words and sentences. He then began experimenting in -earnest. His first letters were carved out of wood, then he made them -out of lead, and at last out of tin. Finding the ink used by the -copyists unsatisfactory he invented an ink of more viscous kind better -suited to the work in hand. The story runs that his new invention -attracted much attention and that he made many books which he sold at -good profit. The work grew beyond his personal capacity to do it and he -took servants or apprentices. Among them was a young fellow named John. -John had more brains than honesty, and one day while the family were at -church John packed up the type and the matrices and left Haarlem. From -Haarlem, the story goes on to say, he went to Mainz where he set up in -business for himself and prospered exceedingly. It is from this act, -says the story, that all the Mainz printing proceeded. In this form the -story is obviously legendary. We shall examine it later in another -connection when we shall see this point more clearly, some of the -details being evidently introduced to fill the gaps in what may be -regarded as history. - -The third claim is the commonly accepted Gutenberg legend. Concerning -Gutenberg himself we know very little, although somewhat more than we -know about Coster. What we do know of him rests almost entirely upon -public registers and the records of law suits. No authentic record of -his birth exists, but it is supposed to have taken place at Mainz about -1399. Mainz, like many other cities of the time, was a prey to internal -disputes and as a result of some such political overturn Gutenberg’s -family went to Strasburg some time before 1430. In a legal document in -existence at Strasburg we find mention of John Gensfleisch, otherwise -known as Gutenberg, of Mainz. His name occurs in a proclamation issued -in 1430 granting political amnesty to the Mainz exiles. In the same year -he negotiated with the authorities of Mainz for a pension for his mother -and in 1432 he was in Mainz. He next appears in the Strasburg court -records in 1439, when he was defendant in a suit brought against him by -his business partners. In these records are obscure references which -have been interpreted as referring to printing. In the light of the -clearer reference of later law suits it is not probable that this -interpretation is correct. - -Gutenberg was then, as for all his life, in financial difficulty. -Whatever the outcome of the 1439 suit, he borrowed a hundred pounds in -1441 and in 1442 sold an annual income of four pounds for eighty pounds -cash. The Strasburg tax books show that he was in arrears for taxes -between 1436 and 1440. By some writers these financial difficulties are -supposed to have arisen out of Gutenberg’s devotion to his experiments -in typography. It is more probable, however, that they were owing to -lack of business ability and possibly to lack of business integrity. The -shifts to which he had recourse in his financial difficulties run at -times perilously near the line of dishonesty. - -In 1448 Gutenberg was back in Mainz and again borrowing money. What -happened next can best be read back from what is known as the -Helmasperger document, a notarial instrument relating to a law suit -which John Fust brought against Gutenberg in 1455. From this document it -appears that about 1450, or slightly before, Gutenberg became acquainted -with John Fust, who was a prosperous business man in Mainz. The two -entered into a contract of partnership for five years. Fust was to -advance 800 guilders to Gutenberg at six per cent interest for use in -procuring tools and materials, said tools to remain mortgaged to Fust -until the loan was paid. In addition Fust was to advance to Gutenberg -300 guilders every year to provide for servant’s wages, house rent, -vellum, paper, ink, etc. In return Fust was to receive one half of the -profits, but was to be responsible for no debts and was to take no -personal part in the business. - -It is reasonably clear from this contract that while Gutenberg had hopes -in 1450, and we shall probably see later upon what they were founded, he -had not even made the necessary tools for printing, much less printed -anything. Things did not, however, go smoothly under the new -partnership. Instead of Fust paying the eight hundred guilders at once, -he spread the payments over two years. Gutenberg, on his part, did not -find the three hundred guilders a year sufficient. Fust, therefore, -proposed that instead of paying the three hundred guilders a year for -the remaining three years of the partnership, he should pay eight -hundred guilders down, and remit the interest on the first eight hundred -guilders as an offset for the one hundred guilders which Gutenberg would -lose under this modification of the original contract. - -These arrangements seem to have been carried out but in 1455 the results -were so unsatisfactory that Fust brought suit to recover the money -advanced. The court decided at least in part in favor of Fust. Gutenberg -was unable to return the money which the court awarded to Fust, and in -consequence Fust took possession of the business and equipment. -Gutenberg appears to have saved something out of the wreck and found a -new financial backer in the person of Conrad Humery, a physician and -town clerk of Mainz. To this new office are attributed a number of books -and pamphlets, the most important one being a Catholicon, 1460, nearly -eight hundred pages large folio. In 1462 the city of Mainz was besieged -and sacked and the printing industry therein was broken up. In 1466, -however, we find printing done in Eltville, a suburb of Mainz, with type -which is supposed to have been Gutenberg’s. As this was the birthplace -of Gutenberg’s mother and there was a family estate there it is quite -probable that the Gutenberg-Humery office was set up in that place. In -1465 we find Gutenberg appointed one of the officers of the court of -Adolph II, the militant prince-bishop who had captured and looted Mainz -three years before. The patent states that this appointment is made on -account of “agreeable and voluntary service rendered to us and our -bishopric.” This is the last we hear of Gutenberg except the record of -his death in February, 1468. - -In brief, this legend tells us that Gutenberg was for years a patient -but disappointed seeker after an invention which he had dreamed of but -could not make practical, that he finally succeeded only to be robbed of -the fruits of his success by an unscrupulous money lender, that in his -old age he began again with undaunted courage, struggling always against -financial difficulties and always failing to make a wordly success of -his great invention, reaping his only reward in the tardy favor of the -prince-bishop. That Fust and his son-in-law, Schoeffer, did make a -financial success of printing, and that further success was made by -Bechtermüntz, who is said to have been a relative of Gutenberg and to -have inherited type and material from his second shop, and that from -Mainz as a center the art of printing spread over the civilized world -are beyond question. These are the legends of the invention. Now let us -see if we can find out what really happened. - - - - - CHAPTER IV - THE INVENTION - - -The study of the question of the invention of printing, like that of any -other historical question, must deal with the examination of three -classes of evidence or so many of them as may be available. These three -classes of evidence, in order of their importance, are first, remains, -second, contemporary documents, and third, documents or evidence of a -later period. For example, there may be tradition widely current and -running backward in literary form to within a hundred years of the death -of the person referred to, that a certain king ruled in a certain -country and did certain things. That is evidence of the third class. -There may be extant contemporary works of travelers, histories of other -countries, or even the published recollections of old men, which said -that at a certain period that king lived and did certain things. That is -evidence of the second class. There may be coins, official inscriptions, -public documents, emanating directly from this king or even bearing his -signature. This is evidence of the first class. This class of evidence -is conclusive. The second class is strong, but not conclusive, the third -class is very uncertain. - -Now it happens that with regard to the invention of printing we have -evidence of all three classes. All of it is conflicting, but the -conflicts, it is to be noted, are mainly in the evidence of the third -class. The evidence of the second class exists mainly in Mainz, but is -not nearly as conclusive as has been supposed. Evidence of the first -class comes entirely from Haarlem, and is there supported by one or two -important pieces of evidence of the second class. With this brief -introduction perhaps it will be easier to understand the argument which -follows. - -Of course, the material of the first class, namely, remains, would be -the earliest known pieces of printing. If these pieces of printing were -dated as books are today, they could not be questioned, but as they are -not so dated, but must be placed by other evidence, they have been -questioned. There exist, in whole or in part, forty-seven distinct -pieces of printing each bearing evidence of being among the first pieces -of printing produced. These forty-seven works in their present condition -run all the way from an entire book to a fragment of a single page. A -group of three or four of them may be identified by reference to -officials whose official dates were known as being either in 1474 or -immediately preceding it. This, however, does not date the whole group. -These few specimens are much more advanced in their appearance and -workmanship than the rest of the forty-seven. Several other editions of -some at least of these better books appear in this interesting lot of -remains. The other editions are of a much more primitive appearance, -showing that the period covered by the forty-seven works ended not later -than 1474. - -Of these forty-seven works, forty-five are in Latin, which, as we know, -was the language of schools, courts, and churches at this period in all -nations. One, an edition of a book of which there are several editions -in Latin, was in Dutch. One was in French. That these forty-seven books -all came from Haarlem is pretty clearly shown by certain internal -evidence. One of them is clearly placed in Holland by the fact that it -was printed in Dutch. Nobody at the very outset of printing would print -books in Dutch except a Dutchman. All the rest of the forty-seven are -closely related to these, as is shown by the similarity but not identity -of their types. - -The earliest printers were imitators of the copyists. They made their -pages look as much like a manuscript page as they could, not perhaps -with intent to deceive, but because nothing else occurred to them. You -will find that all the earliest types are modeled upon the handwriting -current among the copyists of the place where the printing was done. -Certainly these books did not come from Mainz. Nobody has ever claimed -that they did. Almost equally certainly they did come from Holland and -from Haarlem. The handwriting is the handwriting of the Haarlem copyists -of the period. An attempt was made at one time to assign these books to -Utrecht, but it is not only true that each country had its prevailing -copyist’s hand, but that each important center had its own system -variously developed in the local schools in which copying was taught. -The Utrecht hand is not the Haarlem hand. The books resemble the Haarlem -hand and not the Utrecht. - -While the forty-seven books show a considerable number of varieties of -type, the editions being identified by these type differences, all the -type faces show a strong family resemblance. They are designed from a -common model, but not at the same time, and consequently they show -marked resemblances and marked differences. The question may be asked -why the same printer should use eight or nine different fonts of type -for only forty-seven books. The answer is found in the fact that -type-making was as yet in an experimental stage and that durable -material had not yet been found for that purpose. When we come to the -discussion of evidence of another class we shall find confirmation of -this. There is no evidence of the second or third class connecting early -printing with any Dutch town except Haarlem. There is, however, -important evidence of the other classes which does connect printing with -Haarlem. There are not, however, forty-seven different works. Twenty of -the forty-seven books are different editions of the Donatus, that is to -say they are Donatuses showing such typographic differences as to show -that no two of them could have been printed from the same type form. -Four of them are editions of the Speculum and eight are different -editions of the Doctrinale. The Doctrinale was a brief compend to -Christian doctrine approved by the church and widely circulated among -the faithful. - -Nearly all of the fragments of these forty-seven books have been found -in Haarlem or in the neighborhood. It is evident that the publications -of this press, whatever its date, were locally sold and that neither its -fame nor its product went far from the place of production. - -Having thus shown the reasons for believing that these forty-seven -pieces of early printing came from Haarlem, let us see what they have to -say for themselves as to the time of their production. It has already -been pointed out that a small group of the best of them dated themselves -no later than 1474, as is shown by their contents. So far as the -contents themselves are concerned we have nothing to date the others. -There are certain things about the books themselves, however, which show -that their production must have begun long before 1474. - -For one thing, there are twenty editions of the Donatus. We have no way -of knowing how near together the editions were, but when we compare them -with the editions of the Donatus later published we shall see that it is -not unreasonable to suppose that they run back some thirty years. There -were also four editions of the Speculum and eight editions of the -Doctrinale. In each case the evidence of other printers shows that even -one of the small editions usually published at that time lasted for a -considerable period. The appearance of the books themselves bears out -this conclusion. Good as the later ones are, they are inferior to Mainz -workmanship of their period and the earlier ones are far inferior to -Mainz workmanship of any period. They are not only without signatures, -initial directors, hyphens, and catch words, all of which had come into -use before 1474, but they show certain other remarkable peculiarities. - -Many of these editions were printed on vellum, which is not in itself -remarkable, as vellum continued to be used for a good many years for -some books and for special copies of certain editions. Some of them show -a further peculiarity of having vellum and paper combined together, some -of the pages being printed on sheets of vellum and some being printed on -sheets of paper. A considerable number of these books are printed only -on one side of the page. None of the early Mainz books show this -peculiarity. Some of these books not only show the curious combination -of paper and vellum just noted, but curious combinations of the use of -block and type. In some cases the upper part of the page shows a picture -printed from a block while the lower part is printed from type. - -The blocks thus used are the old familiar blocks of the Speculum but -with no text carved on the block. Some of the books show the peculiarity -of certain pages of text printed from blocks and other pages of text -printed from type. - -The accompanying illustrations show a reproduction of a page of a -Donatus printed from blocks, and a reproduction of a Donatus printed -from type by Coster. They are taken from Holtrop’s Monuments -Typographiques des Pays-Bas. Two pages, not consecutive, of the printed -Donatus, were found in the binding of a book published in Delft in 1484. -The leaves are of vellum, printed on one side only. The ink is pale and -is soluble in water. There is no punctuation and there are no hyphens at -the ends of lines where words are divided, showing that the font -contained only letters. The lines are fairly regular in length and end -with either a complete word or a syllable. The form is well locked up -and the presswork is fair. The letters are of slightly varying size and -are not in perfect alignment. Apparently each letter was cut -independently on the end of the type body and the cutter was not -sufficiently skillful to center them perfectly. - -Compare this page with the reproductions of the Mazarin, or forty-two -line Bible, shown on pages 48 and 49. We know that the Mazarin Bible was -printed not later than 1456. By some it has been attributed to -Gutenberg, or at least to his types, but it is now considered the work -of Schoeffer. The Mazarin Bible is one of the most perfect and splendid -pieces of typography that has ever been produced. Other work attributed -to Gutenberg shows a high degree of excellence. It has always been one -of the wonders of invention that so difficult and complicated an art as -typography should have sprung into being fully perfected, without trace -of imperfect experiment. In the rough page of Coster’s Donatus we -clearly see the imperfect beginning—the missing link. - -These peculiarities are exactly what we should expect to find in the -missing links between the printing of block books and the printing of -books from type. The printer is experimenting. He cuts the lettering off -his blocks and combines them with type. He uses type and blocks for the -same edition. He experiments with paper. He is very primitive in his -methods. A block book could be printed only on one side. He is not yet -sure that the type-set book can be printed on both sides. Not improbably -he began by using for his type page the same method of printing that he -used with his wooden block. It seems pretty clear that in this mass of -material, known collectively as the Costeriana, we have the records of -the course of experimentation which led from the printing of the image -print, with its legend cut on the same block, by placing a sheet of -paper or vellum on the inked surface of the block and pressing it down -with a frotten, to the production of the book from type-set pages -impressed upon both sides of the paper by means of a press. - -We have thus gone through the evidence of the first class which exists -for the invention of printing. We have seen that there exists -indisputable evidence that forty-seven editions were printed at Haarlem -before 1474 by an experimenter who seems to have gone over the road from -the block book to the type-set book. - -[Illustration: Reduced Facsimile of Type Page by Coster.] - -[Illustration: Reduced Facsimile of Block Printing] - -We have a few bits of evidence of the second and third class which bear -upon this subject and confirm our conclusions. Jean Le Robert, Abbot of -Cambray, says in his diary that he bought in 1446 and 1451 copies of the -Doctrinale of Alexander Gallus printed from type. Certainly no -Doctrinales were printed from type in Mainz as early as 1446, although -we know that the Costeriana include Doctrinales in eight editions which -may well have gone back to 1451. The opponents of the Haarlem theory -claim that the Abbot refers to Doctrinales printed from blocks but we -have no knowledge of the existence of any Doctrinales so made, and the -term by which he describes them is a term which from the beginning has -been specifically applied to the making of type and could not be applied -to the making of blocks. Presumably the Abbot knew what he was talking -about and told the truth. - -Hadrianus Junius, in 1568, tells the story of Coster and the birch bark -letters as we have previously told it. It is not necessary to repeat the -story, but it is interesting to note certain features of it. Junius says -that Coster printed his leaves on one side, pasting two together to -avoid the recurrence of alternate blank pages. He further says that he -saw one or two of Coster’s books thus made. He claims that he got the -story in his youth from his tutor, Nicholas Gaal, a very aged man, but -of good memory, who said that in his boyhood he had heard a certain -Cornelis, a book binder, then eighty years old, tell the story of -Coster’s invention and his struggles to perfect it, including the use of -one side of the paper and of several different materials for type. The -Burgomaster of Haarlem, Quirinius Talesius, admitted to Junius that in -his youth Cornelis had told him the same story, and it is interesting to -note in this connection that some of the Costeriana fragments are found -in bindings made by this same Cornelis. - -One more evidence which, like that of Junius, falls into the third class -remains to be cited. In 1499 Koelhoff published the Cologne Chronicle in -which he speaks of the invention of printing, using as his authority -Ulrich Zell, a printer of the Mainz school, who settled in Cologne. He -says that Zell told him that “the art of printing was first found at -Mainz, but in the manner as it was then (1499) practiced; the first -prefiguration, however, the beginning of that at Mainz, was found in -Holland from the Donatuses which had been printed in that country -before.” Certainly this is not an attribution of the invention of -printing either to Mainz or to Gutenberg. It is a distinct confession -that it is only the sort of work then being done which was invented at -Mainz and that it was suggested by work brought from Holland. It -entirely agrees with the Junius account above quoted. - -In the Haarlem Town Library there is a pedigree of the Coster family. In -its present form it dates from 1559, but the earlier part was evidently -copied from an old document. This pedigree says that Lourens Janssoen -Coster invented printing in 1446. - -While we have not here an exact agreement of dates we have one near -enough for all practical purposes. The Costeriana run back for a period -which may be conservatively stated at thirty years from 1474, that is to -say, to 1444 or thereabouts. Zell says that printed Donatuses came from -Holland, but that the art of printing as practiced in 1499 was invented -at Mainz, and this invention, as we shall presently show, is fixed as -subsequently to 1450. Junius, writing in 1568, says that Coster -discovered printing 128 years previously, that is to say, 1440. - -If we now turn to the examination of the evidence in support of the -claim for Gutenberg, we find that it is lacking in material of the first -or even of the second class. It is not absolutely certain that we have -any book printed by Gutenberg. If, however, for the sake of the argument -we admit that he printed nearly or quite all of the works that are -attributed to him we find that they are all much better in workmanship -and appearance than the Haarlem books. None of them are printed on one -side of the page only, excepting, of course, small matters which would -not cover more than one page, and there are no signs whatever of -transition from any previous type of printing to typography. Those who -have accepted the theory of Gutenberg’s invention have marveled at the -perfection of his work, as well they might. - -There are only two pieces of evidence of the first class. One is the -Helmasperger document, a notary’s document concerning the law suit which -Fust brought against Gutenberg in 1455. A close examination of this -document would appear to show that it tells rather against than in favor -of Gutenberg. It appears to show conclusively that Gutenberg had not -done any printing before 1450, and had not at that time even made the -tools with which to print. In this document Fust speaks of “the work” -and “our common work.” Gutenberg speaks of “tools” in preparation. -Clearly he is borrowing money in order to make tools. He speaks further -of “servants’ wages, house rent, vellum, paper, ink, etc.” and of “the -work of the books.” The judges speak of “the work to the profit of both -of them,” “their common use,” and the like. There is not a word which -speaks distinctly of an invention. It is true that the argument from -silence is always dangerous and that those who believe that Gutenberg -invented printing could easily read between the lines of this document -references to the invention. To one who approaches the subject with an -open mind, however, the language is rather that of one who enters into -partnership for the carrying on of a business enterprise which is -understood by both parties and from which both expect to receive profit -rather than that of the man who undertakes to finance an inventor for a -share in the invention. - -The other piece of evidence of the first class is the letters patent by -which Adolph II appointed Gutenberg one of the officers of his court. -The document states that the appointment is made for “agreeable and -voluntary service rendered to us and our bishopric.” It has been argued -that as Gutenberg was not a soldier this agreeable and voluntary service -must have been the invention of printing. Surely this is a violent -assumption. If we believe that Gutenberg invented printing, we may -perhaps see in these words a reference to the invention, although we -then marvel why so epoch-making an accomplishment was not specifically -mentioned. It is difficult, however, to see why an unconvinced person -should be expected to see in such a statement as this any evidence that -Gutenberg had invented printing. Certainly there are many other kinds of -service which might well have been rendered by one of whom we know so -little as we do of Gutenberg. - -Zell’s testimony, already referred to, is of the second class. Zell’s -testimony also counts against Gutenberg. He distinctly does not claim -that Gutenberg invented any more than the method of printing in use in -1499, admitting that he got his suggestion from the Donatuses brought -out of Holland. It has been argued that these Donatuses were block books -and that it was from them that Gutenberg got the idea of typography. -This argument, however, breaks down at once when we remember that many -block books were printed in Germany. There is no earthly reason why the -suggestion of typography should have come from a Dutch block book when -everybody was familiar with the German ones and had been so familiar for -many years. - -A careful examination of the documentary evidence which will be found -set forth in chronological order in the article on Typography in the -eleventh edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica shows several -interesting things. While the earlier mentions of printing generally -attribute the beginnings of the art to Mainz, few of them speak -distinctly of its being invented there. They speak of its being -practiced there and being given to Germany and the world from there, -claims as we shall presently see quite consistent with the theory of -invention elsewhere. Nearly, if not quite, all of the early statements -that printing was invented by Gutenberg are traceable either directly to -Gutenberg himself, to his family, or to people who would be quoting him -or his family. It is not until a comparatively late period that we find -any agreement among writers in attributing the invention to Gutenberg. - -We are now perhaps in position to form a pretty clear idea of just what -happened and to award discriminating credit where it belongs. The -present writer believes that it may be considered as settled that Coster -invented printing in Haarlem about 1446. Coster did not, however, found -a school of printing. He ceased to print not far from 1481, as about -that time we find some of his material used elsewhere. The later years -of the century see a few printers in Holland. How far they derived their -inspiration from Coster is doubtful. It is certain that Haarlem was not -a center from which spread to the rest of Europe and ultimately to the -whole world the art preservative of all arts. - -The honor of being this center clearly belongs to Mainz. How did the art -get there? Probably not through the treachery of a dishonest apprentice. -That is one of the legendary features of the Junius story, explained by -the fact that in his time everybody knew that the center from which -printing spread was Mainz and that the first two printers were John -Gutenberg and John Fust. We may at this point accept Zell’s account as -the true one. Some of Coster’s work found its way to Mainz, together, -probably, with some general, unscientific statements as to how it was -produced. Acting on this hint and with these models before him, -Gutenberg reinvented the art, that is, he worked out from the finished -product and a general idea of how it was made what was to all intents -and purposes an original process superior to the one by which the work -in his possession had been produced. - -His association with Fust, the business man, and Schoeffer, the -craftsman, was the means whereby the invention became profitable to the -world, though not to Gutenberg. There is no reason to suppose that Fust -was an unprincipled schemer who stole Gutenberg’s invention and profited -by it. He was a business man who made a contract with another man for -the carrying on of a certain manufacturing process, setting his capital -against the other man’s labor for an equal share in the profit. There -was not only no profit, but the working partner did not live up to his -side of the contract. Fust sued, obtained a judgment, and under this -judgment took over a great part at least of the equipment which his -money had paid for. While the criminal procedure of this age was of a -very harsh and primitive sort the judgments of the German courts in -civil cases appear generally to have been fairly just. When we consider -Gutenberg’s record of financial slipperiness there seems no reason to -doubt that it was just in this case. On obtaining the business Fust -associated with himself the young journeyman, Peter Schoeffer, who had -learned the business in the Gutenberg and Fust establishment and had -married Fust’s daughter. He was an excellent workman and his skill, -backed by Fust’s capital, set the new invention on a practical basis and -insured its future. - -In deciding against the claims of Gutenberg to the invention we by no -means deprive him of all share in the glory. The reinvention with -improvements was nearly if not quite as creditable a task as the -invention, especially when we remember how simple a step the actual -inventor took in going from his block book to his type-set book. The -invention of Coster was sterile. The reinvention of Gutenberg was -fruitful. It was Mainz and not Haarlem which actually gave printing to -the world. - -In view of all this the early testimonies are not so conflicting as they -seem. We have seen that the testimonies of Junius and of Zell supplement -each other. We can see that the early authorities were right in their -claim that printing was given to Germany and the world by Mainz, and at -the same time that the claim is not, as has been hastily supposed, a -claim that it was invented there. We can see that the reinvention of -printing might well seem so important to Gutenberg himself and to his -family that they should claim that he invented it. The statement in the -letters patent may well refer to the service which Gutenberg rendered to -the court and bishopric of Adolph II by the introduction of typography -because he unquestionably did thus render them great service, and we are -no longer surprised at the omission of a distinct statement that -Gutenberg was rewarded for inventing typography. In a word, the -Gutenberg monuments need not come down, but the inscriptions on them -should be changed. - - - - - CHAPTER V - MATERIALS AND METHODS OF THE FIRST PRINTERS - - -Our knowledge of Coster is much less complete than our knowledge of -Gutenberg. Much, however, that could be said of one would undoubtedly be -true of the other. It is reported that Coster began with wooden type. -This would naturally be the first step forward from the block book, -which was invariably printed from wood. Finding that wooden type was -unsatisfactory in the press, he experimented with lead and with tin, we -are told. Obviously he would not get satisfactory results with either of -these metals unalloyed. The use of unsatisfactory material probably -accounts for the number of fonts of type which he employed in his -comparatively small output. - -[Illustration: Showing Principle of a Type Mold] - -Gutenberg and his associates invented a more satisfactory type metal and -an improved method for the making of type. The first types appear to -have been carved individually by hand. This was a great task, but not as -great as might appear. The early printers printed their books page by -page. When one page was printed in sufficient numbers for the edition -the type was distributed and another page set up, and so on. In this way -a comparatively small amount of type would suffice for the equipment of -a small shop. It was not long, however, before the superiority of -casting was perceived. - -The first mold was probably two notched blocks of brass or copper, like -those shown in the accompanying illustration, a method being provided of -accurately positioning the matrix under the opening in the mold and also -of holding the two blocks firmly together. From the illustration it will -be noted that when the blocks are forced together a square opening -remains. Still keeping the blocks together, but sliding down the one at -the right, one dimension of the opening does not change, but the other -can be varied. This mold has been improved in detail, but not greatly -altered in principle down to this day. A fairly satisfactory form of -matrix very similar to the one in use today was soon devised. This was -made by cutting the letter in relief on the end of a soft steel or iron -punch which was then hardened and driven into a block of soft brass or -copper, which became the matrix. - -[Illustration: Type of the Mazarin Bible (exact size)] - -The type, as has been said, was cut to resemble the handwriting of the -scribes in the locality where the book was printed. This would be the -obvious method because it must be remembered that the rapid reproduction -of manuscripts was the sole end which the first printers had in view. -They did not think of developing a conventional book type different from -handwriting or script. They simply imitated the script which was -current, and consequently most legible, in their neighborhood. The -school boys of that day did not have to learn two alphabets, one the -script letter and the other the printed letter, as we do today. The -device of spacing was immediately adopted. The letters were cast, -however, upon bodies with wide shoulders at top and bottom and used -without leads. - -[Illustration: Page from the Mazarin Bible (reduced)] - -The types of the period were both handsome and legible. Perhaps they may -not be easy for us to read, but that is because we are not familiar with -the forms of the letters used and especially with the contractions and -abbreviations which were common. The beauty of some of these early types -will be seen from the little specimen of the type of the Mazarin Bible -which is herewith reproduced in full size. - -With the example of the illuminators before them the early printers paid -much attention to the ornamenting of their pages. They introduced some -ornaments of their own and they occasionally left space for the hand -illuminator to use in supplementing their work. A full page of the -Mazarin Bible greatly reduced is shown herewith. By comparing that with -the specimen of full size type and imagining the whole page thrown up to -natural size one can see what a really beautiful book this famous Bible -was. - -[Illustration: An Early Printing Press] - -The press in use was of the most simple form imaginable, as shown by the -accompanying illustration. It was an adaptation of a familiar mechanical -device, with no originality about it. It was made of wood and was -operated by a screw turning through a nut, the moving of the screw -bringing the platen and bed into contact. The form was released by the -reverse movement of the screw. After a while the sliding bed and frisket -shown in the accompanying illustration were introduced and there the -mechanism stopped for a long time. - -[Illustration: Bed of Hand Press Showing Tympan and Frisket] - -The first twenty-five years or so of printing have been described as a -period of stagnation. They have also been described as the period of the -workman. Apparently the vast possibilities of the new art were slow in -obtaining recognition. The earliest printers were only mechanics. They -had not yet got the vision of combining scholarship with their art and -so unlocking the treasuries of the world to mankind generally, still -less that of adding to the sum total of human knowledge. They had found -out an art by which manuscripts could be rapidly produced and money made -by their sale, and that was all. - -They contented themselves with a slavish imitation of manuscripts, with -apparently no thought of their being anything more than manuscript -imitators. This condition of things, however, could not last long. It -was inevitable that the scholars of the world should become interested -in this new process and should begin to see its advantages. After twenty -or twenty-five years of printing this took place. The period of sluggish -and practically dormant infancy passed and the development of the art -began, as we shall see in the next volume of this series, No. 51, A -Short History of Printing, Part I. - - - SUPPLEMENTARY READING - - THE STORY OF BOOKS. By Gertrude Burford Rawlings. McClure, Phillips & - Co., New York. - - THE INVENTION OF PRINTING. By Thedore L. De Vinne. Oswald Publishing - Co., New York. - - HAARLEM, NOT MAINZ. By J. H. Hesels. - - EARLY PRINTED BOOKS. By E. Gordon Duff. - - BOOKS AND THEIR MAKERS IN THE MIDDLE AGES. Vol. I. by George Haven - Putnam. G. P. Putnam’s Sons, New York. - - ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA. Eleventh Edition. Article on Typography. - -Pupils who have access to large libraries should consult J.W. Holtrop’s -Monuments Typographiques des Pays-Bas and Samuel Sotheby’s Principia, -both of which contain many excellent reproductions of very early -printing. Sotheby’s book is commonly referred to as above, but is -published under several different names in editions which vary but -little. Perhaps the best is entitled Typography of the Fifteenth -Century. - - - - - SUGGESTIONS TO STUDENTS AND INSTRUCTORS - - -The following questions, based on the contents of this volume, are -intended to serve (1) as a guide to the study of the text, (2) as an aid -to the student in putting the information contained into definite -statements without actually memorizing the text, (3) as a means of -securing from the student a reproduction of the information in his own -words. - -A careful following of the questions by the reader will insure full -acquaintance with every part of the text, avoiding the accidental -omission of what might be of value. These primers are so condensed that -nothing should be omitted. - -In teaching from these books it is very important that these questions -and such others as may occur to the teacher should be made the basis of -frequent written work, and of final examinations. - -The importance of written work cannot be overstated. It not only assures -knowledge of material but the power to express that knowledge correctly -and in good form. - -If this written work can be submitted to the teacher in printed form it -will be doubly useful. - - - QUESTIONS - - 1. What interesting fact is noted about most great inventions and - what is the reason for it? - - 2. Give some well known instances. - - 3. How does this condition apply to the invention of printing? - - 4. Why may we question De Vinne’s decision? - - 5. Why was the discovery of typography inevitable about 1450? - - 6. What was the condition of England and France at this time? - - 7. What was the condition of Italy? - - 8. What was the condition of Germany, Spain, and Portugal? - - 9. What was the condition of the church? - - 10. What important movement was made possible by these political - conditions? - - 11. Name some important events in the movement. - - 12. What had all this to do with book-making? - - 13. What were the shortcomings of manuscript books? - - 14. What materials were already invented and ready for the printer? - - 15. Tell what you can about each. - - 16. What is typography? - - 17. What were the earliest predecessors of typography? - - 18. Tell of some later methods of making impressions. - - 19. What early attempts at printing were made by the Chinese and - their neighbors? - - 20. Did these attempts develop into typography, and why? - - 21. What devices took the place of books among the poor before the - invention of printing? - - 22. What were image prints, and how made? - - 23. What were the two lines of development from the image prints? - - 24. How did these developments suggest typography? - - 25. How were early playing cards made, and what was their relation - to block printing? - - 26. Name some of the places where and persons by whom typography is - said to have been invented. - - 27. Tell the story of Waldfoghel, and what we conclude about it. - - 28. Tell the Coster legend. - - 29. What do we know about Gutenberg before 1450? - - 30. What was his contract of that year with Fust? - - 31. How did it work out? - - 32. What do we know of Gutenberg after 1455? - - 33. Give the main points of the Gutenberg legend. - - 34. What are the clear facts about early Mainz printing? - - 35. What are the three classes of historical evidence? - - 36. What can you say, with this distinction in mind, about the - evidence concerning the invention of typography? - - 37. What evidence of the first class is there coming from Haarlem? - - 38. Why do we claim that this evidence comes from Haarlem? - - 39. Why did the printer use so many fonts of type for so few books? - - 40. What internal evidence is there for the date of these books? - - 41. What are the peculiarities of these books? - - 42. What do these peculiarities show? - - 43. What piece of evidence of the second class have we which bears - on these books? - - 44. What pieces of evidence of the third class have we which bear - on these books? - - 45. What does all this evidence seem to show as to who invented - typography, where, and when? - - 46. What do the printed pieces attributed to Gutenberg show? - - 47. What does the Helmasperger document show? - - 48. What does the patent of Adolph II show? - - 49. What does Zell’s statement show? - - 50. What can you say of the early statements that Gutenberg - invented typography? - - 51. Compare the results of the work of Coster and of Gutenberg. - - 52. How did the Haarlem invention get to Mainz? - - 53. What did Gutenberg really do? - - 54. What was the outcome of his work? - - 55. How does this theory explain the doubtful or conflicting - evidence? - - 56. What can you say about Coster’s type? - - 57. How were the first types made? - - 58. What two important inventions in type-making do we owe to - Gutenberg and his associates? - - 59. What can you tell about the first type faces? - - 60. Why are the early books so beautiful? - - 61. Describe Gutenberg’s press and the first improvements upon it. - - 62. What has the first period of about twenty-five years of - typography been called, and why? - - - TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES FOR APPRENTICES - - -The following list of publications, comprising the TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL -SERIES FOR APPRENTICES, has been prepared under the supervision of the -Committee on Education of the United Typothetae of America for use in -trade classes, in course of printing instruction, and by individuals. - -Each publication has been compiled by a competent author or group of -authors, and carefully edited, the purpose being to provide the printers -of the United States—employers, journeymen, and apprentices—with a -comprehensive series of handy and inexpensive compendiums of reliable, -up-to-date information upon the various branches and specialties of the -printing craft, all arranged in orderly fashion for progressive study. - -The publications of the series are of uniform size, 5×8 inches. Their -general make-up, in typography, illustrations, etc., has been, as far as -practicable, kept in harmony throughout. A brief synopsis of the -particular contents and other chief features of each volume will be -found under each title in the following list. - -Each topic is treated in a concise manner, the aim being to embody in -each publication as completely as possible all the rudimentary -information and essential facts necessary to an understanding of the -subject. Care has been taken to make all statements accurate and clear, -with the purpose of bringing essential information within the -understanding of beginners in the different fields of study. Wherever -practicable, simple and well-defined drawings and illustrations have -been used to assist in giving additional clearness to the text. - -In order that the pamphlets may be of the greatest possible help for use -in trade-school classes and for self-instruction, each title is -accompanied by a list of Review Questions covering essential items of -the subject matter. A short Glossary of technical terms belonging to the -subject or department treated is also added to many of the books. - -These are the Official Text-books of the United Typothetae of America. - -Address all orders and inquiries to COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION, UNITED -TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS, U. S. A. - - PART I—_Types, Tools, Machines, and Materials_ - -=1. Type: a Primer of Information= By A. A. Stewart - - Relating to the mechanical features of printing types; their sizes, - font schemes, etc., with a brief description of their manufacture. - 44 pp.; illustrated; 74 review questions; glossary. - -=2. Compositors’ Tools and Materials= By A. A. Stewart - - A primer of information about composing sticks, galleys, leads, - brass rules, cutting and mitering machines, etc. 47 pp.; - illustrated; 50 review questions; glossary. - -=3. Type Cases, Composing Room Furniture= By A. A. Stewart - - A primer of information about type cases, work stands, cabinets, - case racks, galley racks, standing galleys, etc. 43 pp.; - illustrated; 33 review questions; glossary. - -=4. Imposing Tables and Lock-up Appliances= By A. A. Stewart - - Describing the tools and materials used in locking up forms for the - press, including some modern utilities for special purposes. 59 pp.; - illustrated; 70 review questions; glossary. - -=5. Proof Presses= By A. A. Stewart - - A primer of information about the customary methods and machines for - taking printers’ proofs. 40pp.; illustrated; 41 review questions; - glossary. - -=6. Platen Printing Presses= By Daniel Baker - - A primer of information regarding the history and mechanical - construction of platen printing presses, from the original hand - press to the modern job press, to which is added a chapter on - automatic presses of small size. 51 pp.; illustrated; 49 review - questions; glossary. - -=7. Cylinder Printing Presses= By Herbert L. Baker - - Being a study of the mechanism and operation of the principal types - of cylinder printing machines. 64 pp.; illustrated; 47 review - questions; glossary. - -=8. Mechanical Feeders and Folders= By William E. Spurrier - - The history and operation of modern feeding and folding machines; - with hints on their care and adjustments. Illustrated; review - questions; glossary. - -=9. Power for Machinery in Printing Houses= By Carl F. Scott - - A treatise on the methods of applying power to printing presses and - allied machinery with particular reference to electric drive. 53 - pp.; illustrated; 69 review questions; glossary. - -=10. Paper Cutting Machines= By Niel Gray, Jr. - - A primer of information about paper and card trimmers, hand-lever - cutters, power cutters, and other automatic machines for cutting - paper, 70 pp.; illustrated; 115 review questions; glossary. - -=11. Printers’ Rollers= By A. A. Stewart - - A primer of information about the composition, manufacture, and care - of inking rollers. 46 pp.; illustrated; 61 review questions; - glossary. - -=12. Printing Inks= By Philip Ruxton - - Their composition, properties and manufacture (reprinted by - permission from Circular No. 53, United States Bureau of Standards); - together with some helpful suggestions about the everyday use of - printing inks by Philip Ruxton. 80 pp.; 100 review questions; - glossary. - -=13. How Paper is Made= By William Bond Wheelwright - - A primer of information about the materials and processes of - manufacturing paper for printing and writing. 68 pp.; illustrated; - 62 review questions; glossary. - -=14. Relief Engravings= By Joseph P. Donovan - - Brief history and non-technical description of modern methods of - engraving; woodcut, zinc plate, halftone; kind of copy for - reproduction; things to remember when ordering engravings. - Illustrated; review questions; glossary. - -=15. Electrotyping and Stereotyping= By Harris B. Hatch and A. A. -Stewart - - A primer of information about the processes of electrotyping and - stereotyping. 94 pp.; illustrated; 129 review questions; glossaries. - - PART II—_Hand and Machine Composition_ - -=16. Typesetting= By A. A. Stewart - - A handbook for beginners, giving information about justifying, - spacing, correcting, and other matters relating to typesetting. - Illustrated; review questions; glossary. - -=17. Printers’ Proofs= By A. A. Stewart - - The methods by which they are made, marked, and corrected, with - observations on proofreading. Illustrated; review questions; - glossary. - -=18. First Steps in Job Composition= By Camille De Véze - - Suggestions for the apprentice compositor in setting his first jobs, - especially about the important little things which go to make good - display in typography. 63 pp.; examples; 55 review questions; - glossary. - -=19. General Job Composition= - - How the job compositor handles business stationery, programs and - miscellaneous work. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. - -=20. Book Composition= By J. W. Bothwell - - Chapters from DeVinne’s “Modern Methods of Book Composition,” - revised and arranged for this series of text-books by J. W. Bothwell - of The DeVinne Press, New York. Part I: Composition of pages. Part - II: Imposition of pages. 229 pp.; illustrated; 525 review questions; - glossary. - -=21. Tabular Composition= By Robert Seaver - - A study of the elementary forms of table composition, with examples - of more difficult composition. 36 pp.; examples; 45 review - questions. - -=22. Applied Arithmetic= By E. E. Sheldon - - Elementary arithmetic applied to problems of the printing trade, - calculation of materials, paper weights and sizes, with standard - tables and rules for computation, each subject amplified with - examples and exercises. 159 pp. - -=23. Typecasting and Composing Machines= A. W. Finlay, Editor - - Section I—The Linotype By L. A. Hornstein Section II—The Monotype By - Joseph Hays Section III—The Intertype By Henry W, Cozzens Section - IV—Other Typecasting and Typesetting Machines By Frank H. Smith - - A brief history of typesetting machines, with descriptions of their - mechanical principles and operations. Illustrated; review questions; - glossary. - - PART III—_Imposition and Stonework_ - -=24. Locking Forms for the Job Press= By Frank S. Henry - - Things the apprentice should know about locking up small forms, and - about general work on the stone. Illustrated; review questions; - glossary. - -=25. Preparing Forms for the Cylinder Press= By Frank S. Henry - - Pamphlet and catalog imposition; margins; fold marks, etc. Methods - of handling type forms and electrotype forms. Illustrated; review - questions; glossary. - - PART IV—_Presswork_ - -=26. Making Ready on Platen Presses= By T. G. McGrew - - The essential parts of a press and their functions; distinctive - features of commonly used machines. Preparing the tympan, regulating - the impression, underlaying and overlaying, setting gauges, and - other details explained. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. - -=27. Cylinder Presswork= By T. G. McGrew - - Preparing the press; adjustment of bed and cylinder, form rollers, - ink fountain, grippers and delivery systems. Underlaying and - overlaying; modern overlay methods. Illustrated; review questions; - glossary. - -=28. Pressroom Hints and Helps= By Charles L. Dunton - - Describing some practical methods of pressroom work, with directions - and useful information relating to a variety of printing-press - problems. 87 pp.; 176 review questions. - -=29. Reproductive Processes of the Graphic Arts= By A. W. Elson - - A primer of information about the distinctive features of the - relief, the intaglio, and the planographic processes of printing. 84 - pp.; illustrated; 100 review questions; glossary. - - PART V—_Pamphlet and Book Binding_ - -=30. Pamphlet Binding= By Bancroft L. Goodwin - - A primer of information about the various operations employed in - binding pamphlets and other work in the bindery. Illustrated; review - questions; glossary. - -=31. Book Binding= By John J. Pleger - - Practical information about the usual operations in binding books; - folding; gathering, collating, sewing, forwarding, finishing. Case - making and cased-in books. Hand work and machine work. Job and - blank-book binding. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. - - PART VI—_Correct Literary Composition_ - -=32. Word Study and English Grammar= By F. W. Hamilton - - A primer of information about words, their relations, and their - uses. 68 pp.; 84 review questions; glossary. - -=33. Punctuation= By F. W. Hamilton - - A primer of information about the marks of punctuation and their - use, both grammatically and typographically. 56 pp.; 59 review - questions; glossary. - -=34. Capitals= By F. W. Hamilton - - A primer of information about capitalization, with some practical - typographic hints as to the use of capitals. 48 pp.; 92 review - questions; glossary. - -=35. Division of Words= By F. W. Hamilton - - Rules for the division of words at the ends of lines, with remarks - on spelling, syllabication and pronunciation. 42 pp.; 70 review - questions. - -=36. Compound Words= By F. W. Hamilton - - A study of the principles of compounding, the components of - compounds, and the use of the hyphen. 34 pp.; 62 review questions. - -=37. Abbreviations and Signs= By F. W. Hamilton - - A primer of information about abbreviations and signs, with - classified lists of those in most common, use. 58 pp.; 32 review - questions. - -=38. The Uses of Italic= By F. W, Hamilton - - A primer of information about the history and uses of italic - letters. 31 pp.; 37 review questions. - -=39. Proofreading= By Arnold Levitas - - The technical phases of the proofreader’s work; reading, marking, - revising, etc.; methods of handling proofs and copy. Illustrated by - examples. 59 pp.; 69 review questions; glossary. - -=40. Preparation of Printers’ Copy= By F. W. Hamilton - - Suggestions for authors, editors, and all who are engaged in - preparing copy for the composing room. 36 pp.; 67 review questions. - -=41. Printers’ Manual of Style= - - A reference compilation of approved rules, usages, and suggestions - relating to uniformity in punctuation, capitalization, - abbreviations, numerals, and kindred features of composition. - -=42. The Printer’s Dictionary= By A. A. Stewart - - A handbook of definitions and miscellaneous information about - various processes of printing, alphabetically arranged. Technical - terms explained. Illustrated. - - PART VII—_Design, Color, and Lettering_ - -=43. Applied Design for Printers= By Harry L. Gage - - A handbook of the principles of arrangement, with brief comment on - the periods of design which have most influenced printing Treats of - harmony, balance, proportion, and rhythm; motion; symmetry and - variety; ornament, esthetic and symbolic. 37 illustrations; 46 - review questions; glossary; bibliography. - -=44. Elements of Typographic Design= By Harry L. Gage - - Applications of the principles of decorative design. Building - material of typography: paper, types, ink, decorations and - illustrations. Handling of shapes. Design of complete book, treating - each part. Design of commercial forms and single units. - Illustrations; review questions, glossary; bibliography. - -=45. Rudiments of Color in Printing= By Harry L. Gage - - Use of color: for decoration of black and white, for broad poster - effect, in combinations of two, three, or more printings with - process engravings. Scientific nature of color, physical and - chemical. Terms in which color may be discussed: hue, value, - intensity. Diagrams in color, scales and combinations. Color theory - of process engraving. Experiments with color. Illustrations in full - color, and on various papers. Review questions; glossary; - bibliography. - -=46. Lettering in Typography= By Harry L. Gage - - Printer’s use of lettering: adaptability and decorative effect. - Development of historic writing and lettering and its influence on - type design. Classification of general forms in lettering. - Application of design to lettering. Drawing for reproduction. Fully - illustrated; review questions; glossary; bibliography. - -=47. Typographic Design in Advertising= By Harry L. Gage - - The printer’s function in advertising. Precepts upon which - advertising is based. Printer’s analysis of his copy. Emphasis, - legibility, attention, color. Method of studying advertising - typography. Illustrations; review questions; glossary; bibliography. - -=48. Making Dummies and Layouts= By Harry L. Gage - - A layout: the architectural plan. A dummy: the imitation of a - proposed final effect. Use of dummy in sales work. Use of layout. - Function of layout man. Binding schemes for dummies. Dummy - envelopes. Illustrations; review questions; glossary; bibliography. - - PART VIII—_History of Printing_ - -=49. Books Before Typography= By F. W. Hamilton - - A primer of information about the invention of the alphabet and the - history of book-making up to the invention of movable types. 62 pp.; - illustrated; 64 review questions. - -=50. The Invention of Typography= By F. W. Hamilton - - A brief sketch of the invention of printing and how it came about. - 64 pp.; 62 review questions. - -=51. History of Printing= Part I By F. W. Hamilton - - A primer of information about the beginnings of printing, the - development of the book, the development of printers’ materials, and - the work of the great pioneers. 63 pp.; 55 review questions. - -=52. History of Printing= Part II By F. W. Hamilton - - A brief sketch of the economic conditions of the printing industry - from 1450 to 1789, including government regulations, censorship, - internal conditions and industrial relations. 94 pp.; 128 review - questions. - -=53. Printing in England= By F. W. Hamilton - - A short history of printing in England from Caxton to the present - time. 89 pp.; 65 review questions. - -=54. Printing in America= By F. W. Hamilton - - A brief sketch of the development of the newspaper, and some notes - on publishers who have especially contributed to printing. 98 pp.; - 84 review questions. - -=55. Type and Presses in America= By F. W. Hamilton - - A brief historical sketch of the development of type casting and - press building in the United States. 52 pp.; 61 review questions. - - PART IX—_Cost Finding and Accounting_ - -=56. Elements of Cost in Printing= By Henry P. Porter - - The Standard Cost-Finding Forms and their uses. What they should - show. How to utilize the information they give. Review questions. - Glossary. - -=57. Use of a Cost System= By Henry P. Porter - - The Standard Cost-Finding Forms and their uses. What they should - show. How to utilize the information they give. Review questions. - Glossary. - -=58. The Printer as a Merchant= By Henry P. Porter - - The selection and purchase of materials and supplies for printing. - The relation of the cost of raw material and the selling price of - the finished product. Review questions. Glossary. - -=59. Fundamental Principles of Estimating= By Henry P. Porter - - The estimator and his work; forms to use; general rules for - estimating. Review questions. Glossary. - -=60. Estimating and Selling= By Henry P. Porter - - An insight into the methods used in making estimates, and their - relation to selling. Review questions. Glossary. - -=61. Accounting for Printers= By Henry P. Porter - - A brief outline of an accounting system for printers; necessary - books and accessory records. Review questions. Glossary. - - PART X—_Miscellaneous_ - -=62. Health, Sanitation, and Safety= By Henry P. Porter - - Hygiene in the printing trade; a study of conditions old and new; - practical suggestions for improvement; protective appliances and - rules for safety. - -=63. Topical Index= By F. W. Hamilton - - A book of reference covering the topics treated in the Typographic - Technical Series, alphabetically arranged. - -=64. Courses of Study= By F. W. Hamilton - - A guidebook for teachers, with outlines and suggestions for - classroom and shop work. - - - - - ACKNOWLEDGMENT - - - This series of Typographic Text-books is the result of the splendid - co-operation of a large number of firms and individuals engaged in - the printing business and its allied industries in the United States - of America. - - The Committee on Education of the United Typothetae of America, - under whose auspices the books have been prepared and published, - acknowledges its indebtedness for the generous assistance rendered - by the many authors, printers, and others identified with this work. - - While due acknowledgment is made on the title and copyright pages of - those contributing to each book, the Committee nevertheless felt - that a group list of co-operating firms would be of interest. - - The following list is not complete, as it includes only those who - have co-operated in the production of a portion of the volumes, - constituting the first printing. As soon as the entire list of books - comprising the Typographic Technical Series has been completed - (which the Committee hopes will be at an early date), the full list - will be printed in each volume. - - The Committee also desires to acknowledge its indebtedness to the - many subscribers to this Series who have patiently awaited its - publication. - - COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION, - UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA. - - HENRY P. PORTER, _Chairman_, - E. LAWRENCE FELL, - A. M. GLOSSBRENNER, - J. CLYDE OSWALD, - TOBY RUBOVITS. - - FREDERICK W. HAMILTON, _Education Director_. - - - - - CONTRIBUTORS - - - =For Composition and Electrotypes= - ISAAC H. BLANCHARD COMPANY, New York, N. Y. - S. H. BURBANK & CO., Philadelphia, Pa. - J. S. CUSHING & CO., Norwood, Mass. - THE DEVINNE PRESS, New York, N. Y. - R. R. DONNELLEY & SONS CO., Chicago, Ill. - GEO. H. ELLIS CO., Boston, Mass. - EVANS-WINTER-HEBB, Detroit, Mich. - FRANKLIN PRINTING COMPANY, Philadelphia, Pa. - F. H. GILSON COMPANY, Boston, Mass. - STEPHEN GREENE & CO., Philadelphia, Pa. - W. F. HALL PRINTING CO., Chicago, Ill. - J. B. LIPPINCOTT CO., Philadelphia, Pa. - MCCALLA & CO. INC., Philadelphia, Pa. - THE PATTESON PRESS, NEW YORK, New York - THE PLIMPTON PRESS, Norwood, Mass. - POOLE BROS., Chicago, Ill. - EDWARD STERN & CO., Philadelphia, Pa. - THE STONE PRINTING & MFG. CO., Roanoke, Va. - C. D. TRAPHAGEN, Lincoln, Neb. - THE UNIVERSITY PRESS, Cambridge, Mass. - - =For Composition= - BOSTON TYPOTHETAE SCHOOL OF PRINTING, Boston, Mass, - WILLIAM F. FELL CO., Philadelphia, Pa. - THE KALKHOFF COMPANY, New York, N. Y. - OXFORD-PRINT, Boston, Mass. - TOBY RUBOVITS, Chicago, Ill. - - =For Electrotypes= - BLOMGREN BROTHERS CO., Chicago, Ill. - FLOWER. STEEL ELECTROTYPING CO., New York, N. Y. - C. J. PETERS & SON CO., Boston, Mass. - ROYAL ELECTROTYPE CO., Philadelphia, Pa. - H. C. WHITCOMB & CO., Boston, Mass. - - =For Engravings= - AMERICAN TYPE FOUNDERS CO., Boston, Mass. - C. B. COTTRELL & SONS CO., Westerly, R. I. - GOLDING MANUFACTURING CO., Franklin, Mass. - HARVARD UNIVERSITY, Cambridge, Mass. - INLAND PRINTER CO., Chicago, Ill. - LANSTON MONOTYPE MACHINE COMPANY, Philadelphia, Pa. - MERGENTHALER LINOTYPE COMPANY, New York, N. Y. - GEO. H. MORRILL CO., Norwood, Mass. - OSWALD PUBLISHING CO., New York, N. Y. - THE PRINTING ART, Cambridge, Mass. - B. D. RISING PAPER COMPANY, Housatonic, Mass. - THE VANDERCOOK PRESS, Chicago, Ill. - - =For Book Paper= - AMERICAN WHITING PAPER CO., Holyoke, Mass. - WEST VIRGINIA PULP & PAPER CO., Mechanicville, N. Y. - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES - - - 1. Silently corrected obvious typographical errors and variations - in spelling. - 2. Retained archaic, non-standard, and uncertain spellings as - printed. - 3. Enclosed italics font in _underscores_. - 4. 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