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diff --git a/old/67533-0.txt b/old/67533-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 453dbc2..0000000 --- a/old/67533-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,12058 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Book of Alfalfa, by F. D. Coburn - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: The Book of Alfalfa - History, Cultivation and Merits : Its Uses as a Forage and - Fertilizer - -Author: F. D. Coburn - -Release Date: March 1, 2022 [eBook #67533] - -Language: English - -Produced by: Charlene Taylor, Harry Lamé and the Online Distributed - Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was - produced from images generously made available by The - Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BOOK OF ALFALFA *** - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - - Texts printed in italics and bold face have been transcribed between - _underscores_ and =equal signs= respectively. Small capitals have been - replaced with ALL CAPITALS. - - More Transcriber’s Notes may be found at the end of this text. - - -[Illustration: _F. D. Coburn_ - -It is the pleasure of the publishers to present to those who are -interested in alfalfa, the man who declined an appointment as United -States Senator, that he might continue to direct the affairs of the -Kansas State Board of Agriculture in general and of farmers in -particular.--Orange Judd Company.] - - - - - The Book of Alfalfa - - HISTORY, CULTIVATION AND MERITS. - ITS USES AS A FORAGE - AND FERTILIZER. - - [Illustration] - - * * * * _Spanish clover, such as has - Usurped the Occident and dwells - On Sacramento’s sundown hills, - And all the verdant valley fills - With fragrance sweet and delicate - As wooing breath of woman is._ - - --_Joaquin Miller_. - - _By_ F. D. COBURN - Secretary Kansas Department of Agriculture. - - Illustrated - - 1912 - ORANGE JUDD COMPANY - New York - - - - - Copyright, 1906 by - ORANGE JUDD COMPANY - - New Revised Edition Copyrighted 1907 by - ORANGE JUDD COMPANY - - _All Rights Reserved_ - - - _Printed in the U. S. A._ - -[Illustration: THERE ARE SOME SILENT SUBSOILERS THAT DO THEIR WORK WITH -EASE, AND IN THEIR WAY, MORE EFFECTUALLY THAN ANY TEAM OR PLOW EVER -HITCHED. THE CLOVER PLANT IS RIGHTEOUSLY FAMED AS ONE OF THESE, BUT -ALFALFA IS ITS SUPERIOR. ITS ROOTS WORK, SUNDAY AS WELL AS SATURDAY, -NIGHT AND DAY; THEY STRIKE 5, 10, 15 OR 20 FEET DEEP, MAKING INNUMERABLE -PERFORATIONS, WHILE STORING UP NITROGEN, AND WHEN THESE ROOTS DECAY THEY -LEAVE NOT ONLY A GENEROUS SUPPLY OF FERTILITY FOR ANY DESIRED CROP, BUT -MILLIONS OF OPENINGS INTO WHICH THE AIR AND RAIN OF HEAVEN FIND THEIR -WAY, AND HELP TO CONSTITUTE AN UNFAILING RESERVOIR OF WEALTH, UPON WHICH -THE HUSBANDMAN CAN DRAW WITH LITTLE FEAR OF PROTEST OR OVERDRAFTS.] - - “Its long, branching roots penetrate far down, push and crowd the - earth this way and that, and thus constitute a gigantic subsoiler. - These become an immense magazine of fertility. As soon as cut, they - begin to decay and liberate the vast reservoir of fertilizing matter - below the plow, to be drawn upon by other crops for years to come.” - - - - -The Author’s Foreword - - -This volume, however strong its statements in favor of alfalfa may -appear to those unacquainted with that plant’s productivity and -beneficence, is by no means presented as an argument that everyone -should raise alfalfa. It is intended rather as a conservative setting -forth of what others have found alfalfa to be and do under wide -variations of soil, climate, condition and locality; of its -characteristics and uses; the most approved methods of its raising and -utilization, and the estimates of it by those who have known it most -intimately and longest as a farm forage crop and a restorer and -renovator of the soil. - -The author believes in alfalfa; he believes in it for the big farmer as -a profit-bringer in the form of hay, or condensed into beef, pork, -mutton, or products of the cow; but he has a still more abiding faith in -it as a mainstay of the small farmer; for feed for all his live stock -and for maintaining the fertility of the soil. - -To avoid the appearance of both special pleading and exaggeration the -statements have been guarded, and many of a laudatory nature, which -fully authenticated facts seemed to justify, have been omitted, as -neither the author nor the publishers have desire or willingness to -extol unduly a commodity so little needing it as that of which the -volume treats. Alfalfa’s strongest commendations are invariably from -those who know it best; none are incredulous who know it well, and none -have grown it but wished their acreage increased. - - F. D. COBURN. - - Topeka, Kansas. - 1906 - - - - -Introductory - -BY - -Former Governor W. D. Hoard, of Wisconsin - -_Editor Hoard’s Dairyman_ - - -I am exceedingly gratified by the preparation and publication of a new -and larger work devoted to the subject of Alfalfa. The earlier effort by -Mr. Coburn upon the same subject was in many respects a classic, and I -am sure farmers everywhere will now hail with joy the advent of a -kindred work by him, still more complete. - -It is strange, this late awakening all over the Union and in Canada to -the feeding value and possibilities of this marvelous plant. Again, it -is wonderful to me that within a few years farmers everywhere are being -compelled to revise their judgment as to their chances of success with -it. A large correspondence on this subject comes to me from every state -in the Union and the provinces of Canada, and success is being had in -the growing of alfalfa where not more than three years ago it was deemed -impossible to make it live. Of course the question of growing alfalfa -contains a thousand or more chances for good or poor judgment. Men who -are not too conceited, too ignorant or too stubborn to learn by reading -other men’s experience will go ahead rapidly and soon make a success of -it. - -I believe this alfalfa movement is the most important agricultural event -of the century. For the production of beef, mutton and milk, the -combination of corn ensilage and rightly cured alfalfa hay, furnishes -almost a perfect ration, requiring but a small addition of grain feed. -Both of these can be cheaply and easily produced on nearly every farm in -the land. In my herd of nearly fifty registered and grade Guernsey cows -these feeds constitute the sheet anchor of my dairy work. - -No one more literally abets the growth of two blades of grass where one -grew before than he who effectively urges the cultivation of alfalfa -upon those who are strangers to it, and no one is more truly working for -the benefit of agriculture, the basis of all prosperity, than he who -proclaims its excellence as the foremost forage. - -_Hoard’s Dairyman_ will do all in its power to enhance the circulation -and reading of such a book as Mr. Coburn has made. - - W. D. HOARD. - - Fort Atkinson, Wisconsin. - 1906 - - - - -Publisher’s Announcement - - -All the plates of the “Book of Alfalfa” were destroyed in the disastrous -fire that consumed our mechanical department January 28, 1907. We have -taken advantage of this emergency and present the present volume in a -new and revised edition, with the additional material furnished by the -author. - - ORANGE JUDD COMPANY. - - - - -Table of Contents - - - Page - - The Author’s Foreword iv - - Introductory v - - CHAPTER I - History, Description, Varieties and Habits 1 - - CHAPTER II - Universality of Alfalfa 13 - - CHAPTER III - Yields, and Comparisons with other Crops 20 - - CHAPTER IV - Seed and Seed Selection 27 - - CHAPTER V - Soil and Seeding 44 - - CHAPTER VI - Cultivation 67 - - CHAPTER VII - Harvesting 79 - - CHAPTER VIII - Storing 93 - - CHAPTER IX - Pasturing and Soiling 107 - - CHAPTER X - Alfalfa as a Feed Stuff 125 - - CHAPTER XI - Alfalfa in Beef-Making 138 - - CHAPTER XII - Alfalfa and the Dairy 143 - - CHAPTER XIII - Alfalfa for Swine 154 - - CHAPTER XIV - Alfalfa for Horses and Mules 165 - - CHAPTER XV - Alfalfa and Sheep Raising 171 - - CHAPTER XVI - Alfalfa and Bees 175 - - CHAPTER XVII - Alfalfa and Poultry 180 - - CHAPTER XVIII - Alfalfa Food Preparations 182 - - CHAPTER XIX - Alfalfa for Town and City 187 - - CHAPTER XX - Alfalfa in Crop Rotation 189 - - CHAPTER XXI - Nitro-Culture 197 - - CHAPTER XXII - Alfalfa as a Commercial Factor 204 - - CHAPTER XXIII - The Enemies of Alfalfa 206 - - CHAPTER XXIV - Difficulties and Discouragements 220 - - CHAPTER XXV - Miscellaneous 223 - - CHAPTER XXVI - Alfalfa in Different States 231 - - Index 325 - - - - -List of Illustrations - - - Page - 1. F. D. Coburn _Frontispiece_ - 2. A Typical Alfalfa Plant 1 - 3. Typical Stems and Foliage of the Alfalfa Plant 1 - 4. An Eight-year-old Alfalfa Plant 6 - 5. Crown of Plant Shown in the Preceding Illustration 6 - 6. Alfalfa Blossoms Enlarged 7 - 7. Intergrading Types of Seed Between Alfalfa and Sweet Clover 12 - 8. Seeds of the Weed Known as Buck-horn 13 - 9. Alfalfa Seeds Magnified Five Diameters 13 - 10. Sweet Clover--Alfalfa--Yellow Trefoil 26 - 11. Three Distinctive Types of Alfalfa Seed Magnified Twelve Times 27 - 12. Yellow Trefoil Pods 32 - 13. Alfalfa Seed Pods 32 - 14. Sweet Clover Pods 33 - 15. Bur Clover Seed Pods 33 - 16. Yellow Trefoil: Black Medic: Hop Clover (_Medicago lupulina_) 37 - 17. Three General Types of Alfalfa Seed 44 - 18. Dodder Seed Magnified 45 - 19. Alfalfa Seed Magnified 45 - 20. Dodder Plant on an Alfalfa Stem 46 - 21. Dodder (_Cuscuta arvensis_) 47 - 22. Alfalfa and Dodder Seed (Actual Size) 47 - 23. Dodder (_Cuscuta epithymum_) 47 - 24. Bur Clover Pod 66 - 25. Yellow Trefoil Seed Pod 66 - 26. Alfalfa Seed Pod 67 - 27. Spotted Clover Pod 67 - 28. Gathering Alfalfa Hay into Windrows with a Side-delivery - Horserake 78 - 29. Cutting a Fine Field of Alfalfa 79 - 30. Gathering an Alfalfa Crop in Page County, Iowa 92 - 31. Alfalfa Harvesting Scene in Yellowstone County, Montana 92 - 32. Mast and Boom Stacker, with Six-tined Jackson Fork 93 - 33. A Derrick Stacker 93 - 34. Lattice Rack for Feeding Alfalfa to Cattle 106 - 35. Box Rack for Feeding Alfalfa to Sheep 106 - 36. Lattice Rack for Feeding Alfalfa to Sheep 107 - 37. Box Rack for Feeding Alfalfa to Cattle 107 - 38. Trocar and Cannula 119 - 39. Alfalfa Field in Central New York 124 - 40. Fourth Cutting of Alfalfa in Shawnee County, Kansas 124 - 41. A Second Cutting of Alfalfa (July 28) in Shawnee County, - Eastern Kansas 125 - 42. Kansas Farmer Viewing One of His Alfalfa Fields 138 - 43. Harvesting Alfalfa in Ohio 139 - 44. Showing Advantage of Early Fall Sowing 154 - 45. Five-year-old Alfalfa 155 - 46. Alfalfa One Year Old, Showing Effects of Inoculation 170 - 47. A Good Type of a Four-year-old Alfalfa Plant 171 - 48. Alfalfa Plant and Roots Showing Bacteria Nodules 196 - 49. Tubercles on Clover Roots 197 - 50. Peculiar Nodules in Groups on Small Rootlets 206 - 51. Alfalfa Roots Showing Normal Nodules 207 - 52. Gopher Poisoning Tool 214 - 53. And There’s Still More to Follow 220 - 54. Dead Prairie Dogs 221 - 55. Pot Culture Experiments at University of Illinois 230 - 56. Six Months’ Growth of Alfalfa Foliage 231 - 57. Cutting Alfalfa in Southern California 256 - 58. Baling Alfalfa in Southern Oklahoma 256 - 59. A 400-ton Rick of Alfalfa 257 - 60. A Cable Derrick, Provided with a Grapple Fork 257 - 61. Sweet Clover (_Melilotus alba_) 288 - 62. Yellow Trefoil (_Medicago lupulina_) 289 - -[Illustration: =A Typical Alfalfa Plant= - -as it appears before the blossoms are developed. From Michigan -Experiment Station Bulletin No. 225] - -[Illustration: =Typical Stems and Foliage of the Alfalfa Plant= - -when beginning to blossom the most suitable for hay. Grown in Shawnee -County, Kansas, on unirrigated upland prairie with a “gumbo” or hardpan -subsoil. From the season’s third cutting, August 20; height 24 and 26 -inches] - - - - -ALFALFA - -(_Medicago sativa, Linn._) - - - - -_CHAPTER I._ - -History, Description, Varieties and Habits - - -HAS ALWAYS BEEN KNOWN - -There appears no record of a time when alfalfa was not in some portions -of the world esteemed one of Nature’s most generous benefactions to -husbandry and an important feature of a profitable agriculture. Its -beginning seems to have been contemporary with that of man, and, as with -man, its first habitat was central Asia, where the progenitors of our -race knew its capabilities in sustaining all herbivorous animal life, -and where, possibly, it too afforded the herbage which sustained -Nebuchadnezzar in his humiliating exile, and eventually restored him to -sanity and manhood. - -It was carried by the Persians into Greece with the invasion by Xerxes -in 490 B. C., utilized by the Romans in their conquest of Greece, and -carried to Rome in 146 B. C. Pliny and other writers praise it as a -forage plant and it has been in cultivation in parts of Italy -continuously from its introduction. Some writers are disposed to aver -that it was brought to Spain and France by the Roman soldiery under -Cæsar and early thereafter, but more probably it was not introduced -into those countries until several centuries later. It is known to have -been cultivated in Northern Africa about the time it was first brought -to Italy; and the name “alfalfa” being Arabic the inference might be -reasonable that it was introduced into Spain by the Moors from Northern -Africa at the time of their conquest of Spain about 711 A. D., but this -is of small consequence to the twentieth century. From Spain it crossed -to France, and later to Belgium and England. It was highly spoken of by -an English writer of the fifteenth century. - - -AMERICA INDEBTED TO SPAIN - -But in those ages Europe was not so much interested in agriculture as in -war. Land tenures were not well fixed and ownerships were uncertain. -Spain, however, was to perform at least two important services for half -the world, if none for herself. She was to reveal to civilization a new -continent, and give to it the most valuable forage plant ever known. And -so, in 1519, Cortes, the Spaniard, and his remorseless brigands carried -murder, rapine and havoc to Mexico, but gave alfalfa. Less than a score -years later Spain also wrote in Peru and Chili some of the bloodiest -pages of human history, but left alfalfa there, where it has since -luxuriantly flourished. If it was brought to the Atlantic coast of the -United States in that century, it was not adopted by the Indian -inhabitants, who were not an agricultural people, nor by the early -European settlers. - -It was not until about 1853 or 1854 that it was introduced into northern -California, the legends say from Chili, but it had been grown by the -Spaniards and Indians in southern California for probably a hundred -years, having had a gradual migration from Mexico. Strange to relate, -while it is even now on the Atlantic coast discussed as a new plant, -there is good evidence that it has been in cultivation on a small scale -in the Carolinas, New York and Pennsylvania for probably one hundred and -fifty years. Certainly there are small fields in those states that have -been producing for over sixty years, and there are to be found articles -and letters written far earlier showing that it was then known and had -been proven. One Spurrier, in a book dedicated to Thomas Jefferson, and -written in 1793, spoke highly of alfalfa, called “lucerne;” told how it -should be cultivated, and that three crops of valuable hay could be cut -annually. In the “Transactions of the Society for the Promotion of -Agriculture,” published at Albany in 1801, it was favorably mentioned, -and in the “Farmers’ Assistant,” printed in Albany in 1815, alfalfa was -praised and the statement made of its yielding 6 to 9 tons of hay per -acre “under the best cultivation and plentiful manuring.” Yet its -cultivation did not spread. The inertia of farmers, or perhaps their -indifference to new ideas, in the early days must have been marvelous. -According to Spurrier the difficulties were not considered greater than -now; he said one planting would survive many years and the yield was -three times as great as that of any other forage plant. The seed was no -doubt introduced there from England or France; it was probably scarce, -and difficult to secure from growings in this country. - - -THE NAME AND ITS ORIGIN - -The name “Alfalfa” is from an Arabic word meaning “the best fodder,” -which honor it can certainly still claim. Many writers have assumed that -the name “Lucerne” which it bears in France and England, was from the -name of the Swiss canton, Lucerne. This is a mistake as it was not known -there until long after it was cultivated in France and England. The name -is probably from the Spanish word “Userdas” which the French changed to -“La-cuzerdo” and later to “Luzerne,” still later to “Lizerne” and then -to “Lucerne.” - -Among other names by which alfalfa is known are the following: Lucerne; -French Lucerne; French Clover, in part; Mexican Clover, in part; Lucerne -Clover; Lucerne Medicago; Alfalfa Clover; Chilian Clover; Brazilian -Clover; Syrian Clover; Sainfoin, erroneously; Spanish Trefoil; Purple -Medick; Manured Medick; Cultivated Medicago; Medick. _Persian_, Isfist; -_Greek_, Medicai; _Latin_, Medica, Herba Medica; _Italian_, Herba -Spagna; _Spanish_, Melga or Meilga, also (from the Arabic), Alfalfa, -Alfasafat; _French_, La Lucerne; _German_, Lucerne, Common Fodder, Snail -Clover, Blue Snail Clover, Branching Clover, Stem Clover, Monthly -Clover, Horned Clover, in part, Perennial Clover, Blue Perennial Clover, -Burgundy Clover, Welsh Clover, Sicilian Clover. - -Alfalfa belongs to the botanical family Leguminosae, or the legumes, of -which there are thousands of species, and is thus related to all -clovers, peas, vetches and beans. Its botanical name is _Medicago -sativa_. There are some fifty species of the genus Medicago that are -known, but alfalfa and one or two others are all that are of practical -value as fodders. It is a true perennial plant, smooth, upright, -branching, ordinarily growing from one to four feet high, yet in some -instances much higher, owing to conditions of soil, climate and -cultivation. Its leaves are three parted, each leaflet being broadest -about the middle, rounded in outline and slightly toothed toward the -apex. The purple pea-like flowers instead of being in a head, as in red -clover, are in long, loose clusters or racemes. These are scattered -along the plant’s stems and branches, instead of being especially borne, -as in red clover, on the extremities of the branches. The matured -seed-pods are spirally twisted through two or three complete curves, and -each pod contains several seeds. The seeds are kidney-shaped, and -average about one-twelfth of an inch long by half as thick. They are -about one-half larger than seeds of red clover, and in color are at -their best an olive green or a bright egg-yellow, instead of a reddish -or mustard yellow, or faded brown. The ends of the seeds are slightly -compressed where they are crowded together in the pod. - -Alfalfa is very long-lived; fields in Mexico, it is claimed, have been -continuously productive without replanting for over two hundred years, -and others in France are known to have flourished for more than a -century. Its usual life in the United States is probably from ten to -twenty-five years, although there is a field in New York that has been -mown successively for over sixty years. It is not unlikely that under -its normal conditions and with normal care it would well-nigh be, as it -is called, everlasting. - - -ITS WONDERFUL ROOT SYSTEM - -In its root growth it is probably the greatest wonder among plants. -While it usually grows no higher than four or five feet (although it has -been known to reach more than ten feet; an unirrigated stalk is on -exhibition at the office of the Kansas Board of Agriculture, measuring -nearly seven feet) and its normal height is about three feet, its roots -go down ten, twenty, or more feet, and one case in Nevada is reported by -Charles W. Irish, chief of Irrigation Inquiry United States Department -of Agriculture, where the roots were found penetrating through crevices -in the roof of a tunnel one hundred and twenty-nine feet below the -surface of an alfalfa field. Prof. W. P. Headden of Colorado found roots -nine feet long from alfalfa only nine months old, and another reports -roots seventeen inches long of but four weeks’ growth, the plants being -but six inches high. It usually has a slender taproot, with many -branches tending downward, yet with considerable lateral growth. As the -taproot is piercing the earth it is also sending out new fibrous roots, -while the upper ones, decaying, are leaving humus and providing -innumerable openings for air, the rains, and fertilizing elements from -the surface soil. The mechanical effect of this root-growth and decay in -the soil constitutes one of the greatest virtues of the plant, and by -its roots alfalfa becomes, self-acting, by far the most efficient, deep -reaching subsoiler and renovator known to agriculture. - - -VARIETIES AND PECULIARITIES - -There are several other varieties of alfalfa besides _Medicago sativa_, -the most common being the _Intermediate Lucerne_ or _Medicago media_, -the Yellow Lucerne or _Medicago foliata_ and Turkestan alfalfa or -_Medicago sativa Turkestanica_. None of these have such unqualified -value as the ordinary alfalfa; in fact the first two are properly -regarded as weeds when found with _Medicago sativa_. In 1898 when there -had been reported many failures in the alfalfa districts of the extreme -North and the extreme Southwest, the United States Department of -Agriculture sent Prof. N. E. Hansen of South Dakota to Russia, -especially the cold, arid and semi-arid portions of northern Turkestan, -to discover if possible a more hardy strain of alfalfa than that grown -in America. He brought back from there several hundred bushels of seed -which was distributed to government stations and individual -experimenters in forty-seven states and territories. The reports of its -behavior varied greatly, some growers being enthusiastically in its -favor, while most reported results below or not above the average from -other sorts, and some practically a failure. It would appear from the -consensus of opinion at this time that the Turkestan alfalfa has not -demonstrated in America any such superiority as to justify its general -adoption, even in the dry and warm regions of the Southwest, in our -colder states, or in Canada. - -[Illustration: =An Eight-year-old Alfalfa Plant= - -with 312 stems growing from one root. Grown at Manhattan, Kan., on high -upland prairie having a stiff, hardpan subsoil. Depth to water 180 feet -Height of growth May 6, ten inches] - -[Illustration: =Crown of Plant Shown in the Preceding Illustration= - -Stalks removed to show branching crown] - -[Illustration: Alfalfa Blossoms Enlarged] - -Among other claims for Turkestan alfalfa by the government officials in -charge of its introduction and exploitation have been that “its seed -will germinate much quicker and the plants start into growth earlier -under the same conditions than common alfalfa. The plants are more -leafy, grow more rapidly, and have a stronger, more vigorous root -system. Another advantage which the Turkestan variety has is that the -stems are more slender and less woody, the plants making a more -nutritious hay of finer quality. That it will withstand drought under -the same conditions better than ordinary alfalfa seems certain from the -reports of the experimenters. In the West and Northwest, at least, it -seems to be more productive, both with and without irrigation.” - -At the North Dakota station Turkestan alfalfa sown in 1901 yielded in -the three years following (1902-3-4) at the average rate of slightly -more than two tons per acre annually. - -Acclimation of alfalfa is a slow process, and numerous close observers -think there are too many radical differences in climate and possibly of -soil between Turkestan and New Mexico, or North Dakota, to admit of this -variety’s becoming a preeminently valuable acquisition to America. It is -thought more reasonable to let the American-grown alfalfa gradually -accustom itself, as it will, to any particular region, sowing seed from -nearly the same latitude and grown under as nearly as possible the -conditions it will encounter in its new environment. - -In 1903 the Department of Agriculture began experimenting on a small -scale at stations in Arizona, California and the warm regions with -alfalfa seed procured by Mr. D. G. Fairchild, from Arabia. The officials -in charge observe that the plants from this seed appear to make a much -quicker growth after cutting, and as a result of this one more crop in a -season than is obtained from other alfalfa may be possible. It differs -from other strains in having larger leaflets and in being much more -hairy. “It is thought very probable that by careful selection hardiness -can be bred into Arabian alfalfa so that it will grow much farther north -than it does at present.” - - -AN OPINION FROM HEADQUARTERS - -As a latter day opinion or estimate of alfalfa from an official who is -presumed to speak as an authority, without bias and knowing his subject, -the words of W. J. Spillman, agrostologist of the United States -Department of Agriculture, should carry weight. In an address before the -eleventh annual convention of the National Hay Association, at St. -Louis, in 1904, Professor Spillman said: - -“Alfalfa is the oldest plant known to man; it is the most valuable -forage plant ever discovered. It has not been appreciated in the eastern -part of the United States until the last five years. We are now growing -it successfully in every state in the Union, and I believe it is safe to -say in every agricultural county in the United States it is being grown -with success. Two weeks ago I secured a picture of a field of alfalfa in -South Carolina that was sowed over sixty-nine years ago. It was still in -pretty good condition. I know of another field in New York State sowed -forty-five years ago, and one in Minnesota that was sowed thirty-three -years ago. All over the West there are thousands of fields of alfalfa -that were sowed twenty-five years ago that are still yielding large -crops. In Wisconsin alfalfa yields three crops of hay a year, and in -Texas, four and five large crops. In southern California, below -sea-level, where they never have any frost, they cut alfalfa eleven -times a year, and in Texas, south of the Rio Grande, they cut it nine -times a year. - -“Alfalfa does not exhaust the soil. Nitrogen is the soil’s most -important element, and the one most liable to give out; the one the -farmer is called upon to supply first. Alfalfa does not ask the farmer -for nitrogen at all, because it can get its nitrogen out of the -atmosphere. Four-fifths of the atmosphere consists of nitrogen. -Ordinarily, plants cannot make use of that nitrogen at all; the roots of -the alfalfa will leave in the soil eight or ten times as much nitrogen -as was there before. The farmer who plants alfalfa, clover or peas does -not have to get nitrogen from the fertilizer factories. I know one -farmer who for the past eight years has made an average of eight and -one-half tons per acre of alfalfa on irrigated land in the state of -Washington. I have heard of other men that produced twelve tons an acre -in southern Texas on irrigated land. It would hardly be possible to -produce that much on land that is not irrigated, because rain does not -come to order. - -“I have lived ten years in a country where the horses, cattle, sheep, -hogs and chickens eat alfalfa hay, or green alfalfa, the year round. It -is the richest hay food known. Eleven pounds of it is worth as much for -feeding purposes as ten pounds of bran.” - -A most pleasing word-picture of alfalfa is that by Geo. L. Clothier, M. -S., who has studied his subject closely in the field, the feed lot and -the laboratory, and he paints it thus: - -“The cultivation and feeding of alfalfa mark the highest development of -our modern agriculture. Alfalfa is one of nature’s choicest gifts to -man. It is the preserver and the conserver of the homestead. It is -peculiarly adapted to a country with a republican government, for it -smiles alike on the rich and the poor. It does not fail from old age. It -loves the sunshine, converting the sunbeams into gold coin in the -pockets of the thrifty husbandman. It is the greatest mortgage lifter -yet discovered. - -“The alfalfa plant furnishes the protein to construct and repair the -brains of statesmen. It builds up the muscles and bones of the -war-horse, and gives his rider sinews of iron. Alfalfa makes the hens -cackle and the turkeys gobble. It induces the pigs to squeal and grunt -with satisfaction. It causes the contented cow to give pailsful of -creamy milk, and the Shorthorn and white-faced steers to bawl for the -feed rack. Alfalfa softens the disposition of the colt and hardens his -bones and muscles. It fattens lambs as no other feed, and promotes a -wool clip that is a veritable golden fleece. It compels skim-milk calves -to make gains of two pounds per day. It helps the farmer to produce pork -at a cent and a half a pound and beef at two cents. - -“Alfalfa transforms the upland farm from a sometime waste of gullied -clay banks into an undulating meadow fecund with plant-food. It drills -for water, working 365 days in the year without any recompense from man. -The labor it performs in penetrating the subsoil is enormous. No other -agricultural plant leaves the soil in such good physical condition as -alfalfa. It prospects beneath the surface of the earth and brings her -hidden treasures to the light of day. It takes the earth, air, moisture -and sunshine, and transmutes them into nourishing feed stuffs and into -tints of green and purple, and into nectar and sweet perfumes, alluring -the busy bees to visits of reciprocity, whereon they caress the alfalfa -blossoms, which, in their turn, pour out secretions of nectar fit for -Jupiter to sip. It forms a partnership with the micro-organisms of the -earth by which it is enabled to enrich the soil upon which it feeds. It -brings gold into the farmer’s purse by processes more mysterious than -the alchemy of old. The farmer with a fifty-acre meadow of alfalfa will -have steady, enjoyable employment from June to October; for as soon as -he has finished gathering the hay at one end of the field it will be -again ready for the mower at the other. The homes surrounded by fields -of alfalfa have an esthetic advantage unknown to those where the plant -is not grown. The alfalfa meadow is clothed with purple and green and -exhales fragrant, balmy odors throughout the growing season to be wafted -by the breezes into the adjacent farmhouses.” - -[Illustration: =Intergrading Types of Seed Between Alfalfa and Sweet -Clover= - -The six seeds to the left being alfalfa, the five to the right Sweet -clover. Magnified eight diameters] - -[Illustration: =Seeds of the Weed Known as Buck-horn= - -Ribbed plantain, English plantain, or Rib-grass, (_Plantago -lanceolata_). Very commonly present in alfalfa seed, especially that of -European origin A bad weed. Magnification five diameters] - -[Illustration: =Alfalfa Seeds Magnified Five Diameters= - -Note the characteristic angular point at one end, typical of alfalfa. -The kidney-shaped type, as in “a” is also characteristic. The rounded -type “b” is rare, and resembles Sweet clover. Seeds marked “c” and “d” -resemble Yellow trefoil in the projecting “beak”] - - - - -_CHAPTER II._ - -Universality of Alfalfa - - -ITS WIDE DISTRIBUTION - -As the history of alfalfa is traced in the preceding chapter the -conclusion is reached that its distribution is not to be circumscribed -by any hard and fast lines of climate and soil. It is grown profitably -in every country of Europe, in central Asia, its original home, in -Australia, the islands of the sea, and in almost every state and -territory of the United States, and in Canada. Only two states, Maine -and New Hampshire, and only one territory, Alaska, are left wholly in -the experimental column. Everywhere else there have been such results as -to prove that it ought to become, in greater or less degree, a staple -crop on practically every farm, dependent only upon more energy, faith -and skill on the part of the farmer, and a natural acclimation. There -are several other states such as Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, -Rhode Island, Michigan, Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas and North Dakota -where the experiment station experts are not fully ready to recommend it -as a regular crop for every farm, yet, in each of these there are -enterprising farmers who have for years found profit in its raising. The -station authorities in Vermont say that success with alfalfa there -“depends first on the man, and second on the soil.” - -W. R. Dodson, botanist of the Louisiana station, says it is his firm -conviction that nothing will contribute so much as alfalfa toward making -the southern farm self-supplied with feed for work animals, for the -production of dairy products, and home raised meat. “I doubt,” he also -says, “if alfalfa does better anywhere outside the irrigated regions of -the West than it does in the alluvial lands of Louisiana. We have had as -high as eight cuttings in one year, with a total tonnage larger than is -had in Kansas or Nebraska, and our annual rainfall is sixty-five inches, -or more.” - -From Ontario, Canada, comes a report of a yield of four tons to the acre -in three cuttings, on a clay hillside; at far-off Medicine Hat, -Northwest Territory, it makes a growth pronounced “phenomenal,” and at -the experimental farm at Brandon, Manitoba, three cuttings per year are -harvested. On a gravelly hill in the District of Columbia, a field was -sown in April, 1900. Two crops were cut from it that summer, three in -1901, and the first cutting in 1902 yielded three tons per acre. In -southern Minnesota, some thrifty Germans, not knowing that “alfalfa will -not grow in Minnesota,” have been raising it since 1872, while others -were declaring it impossible. A half-score of men in the sagebrush wilds -of Nevada decided to try it, and in 1872 they had 625 prosperous acres, -without plowing and without irrigation. J. H. Grisdale, agriculturist of -the Central experimental farm at Ottawa, (Bul. No. 46) says, “it is -grown in Canada more or less extensively from the Atlantic to the -Pacific. It is the staple forage plant for winter in the dryer part of -British Columbia, and it has been grown in Southern Alberta for many -years. It is not much known in Manitoba, but is possible of easy -propagation in almost all parts of Ontario. It is, and has been grown -long and successfully in Quebec, and is not unknown in Nova Scotia and -New Brunswick.” In Cape Colony, South Africa, “lucerne can be cut from -four to six times in summer and from once to twice in winter, and is the -greatest forage plant in the world.” In 1901 the British consul at -Buenos Ayres reported alfalfa as covering “an enormous area in -Argentina, and every year becoming more important.” - - -NOT PARTICULAR AS TO SOIL - -While experts have been declaring that alfalfa would only grow in -certain soils and in certain climates it has proven adaptability to -nearly all climates and almost all soils. It produces with a rainfall as -scant as 14 inches, and in the Gulf states flourishes with 65 inches. It -gives crops at an elevation of 8000 feet above sea level, and in -southern California it grows below sea level to a height of six feet or -over, with nine cuttings a year, aggregating ten to twelve tons. An -authenticated photograph in possession of the writer, reproduced -opposite page 231, shows a wonderful alfalfa plant raised in the -(irrigated) desert of southern California, sixty feet below sea level, -that measured considerably more than ten feet in height. Satisfactory -crops are raised, but on limited areas as yet, in Vermont and Florida. -New York has grown it for over one hundred years in her clay and gravel; -Nebraska grows it in her western sand hills without plowing, as does -Nevada on her sagebrush desert. The depleted cotton soils of Alabama -and rich corn lands of Illinois and Missouri each respond generously -with profitable yields to the enterprising farmer, while its accumulated -nitrogen and the sub-soiling it effects are making the rich land more -valuable and giving back to the crop-worn the priceless elements of -which it has been in successive generations despoiled by a -conscienceless husbandry. - -Its introduction into Maryland was largely through the perseverance of -Prof. W. T. L. Taliaferro of the agricultural college, who says: “The -future for alfalfa for southern Maryland is bright, indeed, and with its -general introduction will come a new era of prosperity for the ‘lower -counties.’ Live stock farming will take the place of tobacco farming. -The fertilizing elements of the soil will be concentrated at home -instead of being shipped abroad. Larger crops will be raised. Soil -improvement will take the place of soil exhaustion; worn-out farms will -be restored to their original fertility.” - - -THE ORACLES REFUTED - -One by one the oracular statements of so-called experts have been shown -at fault. One said, “it will grow wherever corn will grow;” and as -promptly men from New York and Louisiana rise and say that they are -growing it where corn will not grow. Another declares, “it will not grow -over a hardpan or gumbo subsoil;” at once a New York man reports a good -field of alfalfa with roots fifteen feet long that pass through six -inches of hardpan which was so hard that it had to be broken with a pick -axe in following the root. A Kansas man writes that he has eighty acres -that has stood five years and promises to continue indefinitely, -yielding 4¹⁄₂ tons from three cuttings a year, and the whole of it on -gumbo soil where corn raising was a failure. Another declares, “it must -have a rich, sandy loam,” and forthwith from the deserts of Nevada, the -sand hills of Nebraska and the thin, worn, clay soils of the South come -reports of satisfactory yields. Such results are significant, indicating -better returns than any other crop brings from these varied soils, and -that few farmers are justified in postponing the addition of alfalfa to -their agriculture because of supposed hindrance of soil and climate. - - -A NEW YORK EXAMPLE - -As citing an example, and suggestive of the fact that alfalfa not only -grows but flourishes in the eastern states where the claim has been made -that it would not grow, the following by the editor of the _Rural -New-Yorker_, in his journal of September 3, 1904, is forcibly to the -point: - -“A farmer visiting the New York state fair this year will do well to -take time to look at some of the alfalfa fields near Syracuse. Whether -it means that the soil in this locality is well suited to alfalfa, or -that farmers have learned how to grow it, it is a fact that the crop -makes a wonderful showing there. You find it everywhere--in great -billowy fields of green, along the roadsides--even in vacant city lots. -The crop crowds in whether the seed is sown by hand, dropped from a -passing load or scattered by the wind. The majority of the farms show -great fields of it, and the character of farming is slowly changing as -more and more alfalfa is cut. On fruit farms or small private places the -crop is changing methods and habits. A few acres in alfalfa provides -all the roughness needed for stock on these small places, and gives -extra room for fruit or similar crops. In fact, the most interesting -thing about these alfalfa fields is the way they are changing the entire -conditions of the country. It is similar to what happens when a new -industry is established in a town or city. - -“The Grange meeting at a Mr. Worker’s farm, was held in a great barn. He -had delayed the alfalfa cutting so that the barn might be empty. Some -other farmers nearby had already cut. I had a chance to see alfalfa -growing under what seemed to me about the toughest chance you can give a -plant. The city of Syracuse is buying gravel from his field, to use on -the street. The workmen are digging right into the hill, and it requires -hard labor to pick up this tough, hard soil. As they dig they follow the -roots of the alfalfa down. Some of the roots are quite as large as my -thumb, and I am sure that many of them had gone down twenty feet at -least into this tough soil. These big roots make plowing an alfalfa sod -anything but fun. This is one of the few objections to the crop. I had -supposed that the plant does its best where it can work down into an -open or gravel subsoil. I have been told by one who is called an -‘expert’ that alfalfa cannot thrive on a hardpan subsoil, yet here it -was going down into the toughest soil I ever saw, and covering the -surface with a perfect mat of green stalks. Mr. Worker goes so far as to -say that the tougher the subsoil the better the alfalfa goes through it, -provided water does not stand about the roots. That is one point upon -which all agree--the alfalfa cannot stand wet feet. It must have water -enough; that is why its roots go down so far, but it will not thrive in -wet fields where water does not run easily away. - -“On other farms I saw the alfalfa growing at the top of steep clay -hills, which were formerly almost useless for farm purposes unless -stuffed with stable manure. Now that alfalfa has been started these -hill-tops have become about the most profitable fields on the farm. At -another place I saw a fair crop of alfalfa growing in a thin streak of -soil over a rocky ledge. There were not eighteen inches of soil covering -the solid rock, yet the alfalfa was thriving. I have been told that this -is the condition under which alfalfa will not grow, yet here it was -giving more forage than any red clover we can grow. I have said that the -spreading of these alfalfa fields is changing the character of farming -in central New York. It is not easy to realize just what this means -without visiting this favored section. This new forage plant brings -fertility and feed to the farm. It is just like having a fertilizer -factory and a feed store drop out of the skies upon the farm, to get -this alfalfa well started. Of course as the farmer learns what the crop -will do he uses it more and more to feed both stock and the farm. It -would not be a very bright farmer who would continue to grow wheat or -some other annual crop which brings him $25 per acre when a permanent -crop like alfalfa will guarantee $60. Some farmers are quicker to see -this than others, but in the end the majority of them see it and then we -see a change. These alfalfa farmers are giving a great object lesson, -and their farms are more interesting than any exhibit at the state -fair.” - - - - -_CHAPTER III._ - -Yields, and Comparisons With Other Crops - - -COMPARED WITH CLOVER - -Many things are understood best through contrasts with others better -known. In every part of the country certain crops are considered -standard, and all others are judged by comparison with these. For -example, red clover in most parts of the United States is ranked as the -richest and best yielding forage, and the fertilizer and renovator _par -excellence_. - -The Massachusetts experiment station after a series of tests reports -that 100 pounds of clover contain 47.49 pounds of digestible food and -6.95 pounds of proteids, while 100 pounds of alfalfa contain 54.43 -pounds of digestible food and 11.22 pounds of proteids. - -The New Jersey station reports that the average yield per annum of green -clover to the acre is 14,000 pounds, and of green alfalfa 36,500 pounds; -the protein in the clover is 616 pounds and in the alfalfa, 2214 pounds; -one ton of alfalfa has 265 pounds of protein, and clover only 246 -pounds. But alfalfa will produce three, four, or more cuttings each -year, while clover will produce but one or at most two. Further, clover -will ordinarily survive but two years, while alfalfa will last from ten -to one hundred, thus saving many plowings and seedings. It is also -estimated that the stubble and root-growth of alfalfa are worth at least -four times as much for humus as are those of clover, while the -mechanical and other beneficent effects of the long alfalfa roots far -excel those of clover. The alfalfa field is green for pasturage a month -earlier in the spring than clover and may be mowed a month earlier. It -starts a vigorous growth at once after cutting, covering the ground with -its luxuriant foliage before the second growth of clover has made any -substantial progress. - -The Wisconsin experiment station says that “one acre of alfalfa yields -as much protein as three acres of clover, as much as nine acres of -timothy and twelve times as much as an acre of brome grass.” - - -COMPARISONS WITH SEVERAL GRASSES - - -----+--------------------------------------------+-----+--------- - | | | Yield - Plat| | Hay,|per acre, - No.| Variety Grown | lbs.| lbs. - -----+--------------------------------------------+-----+--------- - 1 |June Clover | 473 | 2,365 - 2 |Mammoth Clover | 475 | 2,375 - 3 |Alsike Clover | 413 | 2,065 - 4[1]|Alfalfa (first cutting) 26 inches high, June| | - |29th | 816 | 4,080 - 5 | Blue-grass | 575 | 2,875 - 6 | Orchard grass | 478 | 2,390 - 7 | Timothy | 560 | 2,800 - 8 | Red-top | 470 | 2,350 - 9 | Meadow fescue | 375 | 1,875 - 10 | Tall meadow oat grass | 600 | 3,000 - 11 | Italian rye grass |.... | .... - 12[2]| Timothy, blue-grass and orchard grass mixed| 203 | 1,015 - -----+--------------------------------------------+-----+--------- - - [1] The alfalfa plat yielded a second cutting 26 inches high on August - 2nd, and a third 24 inches high September 1st; there was also a - six-inch after-growth estimated at 180 pounds. The total alfalfa yield - was equivalent, “approximately to 6¹⁄₂ tons of good dry forage.” None - of the other clovers or grasses gave more than one cutting. - - [2] Robbed somewhat of both plant food and moisture by an adjacent row - of grown cottonwood trees. - -The Nebraska experiment station has made very careful tests of the -comparative yields of various grasses, clovers and mixtures. These were -on plats of one-fifth of an acre. The foregoing table shows the yields -the second year from planting, which owing to the very dry spring was a -quite unfavorable season. - - -COMPARED WITH CORN - -The Colorado station reports a comparison with corn as follows: - - ------------------------------------ - Yield per acre of Corn and Alfalfa - -------------------+-------+-------- - | Corn, |Alfalfa, - | lbs. | lbs. - -------------------+-------+-------- - Dry Matter | 3,605 | 5,611 - Albuminoids | 296 | 1,198 - Starch, Sugar, etc.| 2,186 | 3,114 - Fiber | 1,060 | 1,198 - Fat | 63 | 101 - -------------------+-------+-------- - - -INDIVIDUAL INSTANCES OF CASH RETURNS - -A Lincoln county, Kansas, farmer writes that from five acres of alfalfa -he received in one season $100 for hay, $150 for seed and $20 for straw. - -A farmer near Atwood, Rawlins county, Kansas, cut two crops for hay and -threshed the third crop for seed, realizing 13 bushels per acre, which -sold at $5 per bushel. - -A Harlan county, Nebraska, farmer reports an income of $774 in one year -from seed and hay from six acres. - -Scott Bros., of Pottawatomie county, Kansas, report to the author as -follows concerning their returns from a twelve-acre field in one year: - - 2 hay crops, 30 tons at $12 $360 - 105 bushels of seed at $6 630 - Straw 50 - Fourth cutting, 12 tons at $12 144 - ------ - Total, one year’s return $1,184 - -A Buffalo county, Nebraska, farmer sold from a year’s growth on 22 -acres, hay worth $328.12, seed $1000, and straw $150. - -A Montgomery county, Kansas, farmer reports to the author a return of -$106 per acre in one year from hay, seed and straw. - -Another report was sent in 1904 from southern Kansas, of five cuttings, -making 8¹⁄₂ tons per acre, which sold at $5 per ton in the field. - - -SOME REPORTS OF YIELDS - -A farmer of Harvey county, Kansas, reported in 1903 two hay crops and -one seed crop, the hay, seed and straw returning more than $50 per acre -from a field that two years before had failed to yield enough corn to -justify its gathering. - -Sixteen acres in Reno county, Kansas, are reported to have pastured in -1904 four hundred pigs and yielded one cutting of hay of over 16 tons. - -An alfalfa field of eleven acres in Washington, on the bank of the -Columbia river, under irrigation, produced in 1901 over 100 tons of hay. - -Former Governor W. D. Hoard, of Wisconsin, reports from three-fifths of -an acre on his farm in the southern part of the state, four cuttings in -one season, yielding 5.7 tons of hay. - -Alva Langston, of Henry county, Indiana, sowed five acres of alfalfa May -20th, and harvested nearly 1¹⁄₂ tons of hay per acre August 25th -following, and about the same quantity September 20th to 25th. This was -on upland, thirty or more years in cultivation. The alfalfa was clipped -twice before the cutting for hay. - -In 1902 F. S. Kirk of Garfield county, Oklahoma, sowed a field near a -creek, but about 25 feet above water, with thirty to thirty-five pounds -of alfalfa seed per acre, broadcast. The soil, which he calls “high -bottom,” was a dark brown and contained considerable sand. For two years -no attention was given the alfalfa except harvesting from it three crops -the second year and four the third year. In 1905 he harvested from ten -acres nine cuttings, estimated to weigh fully one and one-half tons -each, per acre. The longest time between any two cuttings was twenty-two -days, and the shortest fourteen days. During the season of 1904 seven -cuttings were made and the field was gone over with a disk harrow early -each time after removing the hay from the field. It was possible to cut -another growth of 8 to 12 inches, had he not preferred to use it as -pasturage for stock. - -Mr. Kirk does not irrigate and maintains that in his part of the country -“the best irrigation for alfalfa is with a disk harrow.” He also insists -that “alfalfa can be entirely killed by disking in the dark of the -moon,” especially if the weather that follows is hot and dry. He -pastures his alfalfa with cattle and horses in fall and spring, and -disks in the spring as soon as the stock is removed. - - -SOME MONEY COMPARISONS - -A good acre corn crop in Ohio is forty bushels, worth not to exceed $20, -after all the labor of cultivating and husking; the stover, if properly -cared for, ought to be worth $5, making a total of $25. An Ohio farmer -reports a yield of 4¹⁄₂ tons of alfalfa hay per acre, worth for feed as -compared with the price of bran about $12 per ton, or a total value of -$54, from only one plowing in six years (as long as he let it stand) and -with less labor in harvesting than for husking corn and caring for the -stover. - -A good Kansas or Nebraska corn yield (far above the state average) is 50 -bushels per acre, worth ordinarily about $17, with stover worth $3. The -farmer should obtain from his alfalfa at least four to five tons, worth -to him for feed for cattle, hogs or sheep from $10 to $12 per -ton--practically two or three times his income from an acre of corn, -while the cost of production is much less. - -The average year’s corn or wheat crop is worth only about $10 per acre, -while the average alfalfa crop is worth on the market from $15 to $35, -or more, per acre, owing to the market appreciation of the crop, and -from $35 to $60 as feed for stock. - -Many thousands of acres in western Kansas and Nebraska are now returning -from their alfalfa fields an income of from $15 to $25 per acre where -but a few years earlier the land was deemed worthless for agriculture. -Hundreds of acres in western New York that were returning only a small -income above cost of labor and fertilization are now supporting great -money making dairies from alfalfa. Cotton land in the South rents for $5 -per acre, while alfalfa fields bring a yearly rental of three times that -amount. - -[Illustration: =Sweet Clover Alfalfa Yellow Trefoil= - -The Sweet clover and alfalfa are magnified five diameters and the -trefoil seven diameters] - -[Illustration: =Three Distinctive Types of Alfalfa Seed Magnified Twelve -Times= - -The one at the left rounded; the one at the right kidney-shaped; and the -one in the middle angular pointed. The latter is the most characteristic -form seen in alfalfa seed] - - - - -_CHAPTER IV._ - -Seed and Seed Selection - - -NO SUCCESS WITHOUT GOOD SEED - -It is a time-worn but no less true saying that good seed is essential to -good agriculture. No matter how well the farmer prepares his land, no -matter how much time, labor and money he spends on it, if much or all of -his seed fails to grow, he will either have a poor crop or be obliged to -reseed, thus losing time and labor. Many causes may contribute to -prevent a good stand, but if he can eliminate any one of these, he is by -so much the gainer. Poor seed is a primary and great cause of a poor -stand. - -The farmer obtains his seed from one of two sources; he raises it or -buys it. If the former, there should be less danger, as the chief source -of poor seed is careless handling in harvesting and storing. If the seed -becomes damp, mold will damage much of it, or it will sprout, then dry -out, and the germ be killed. If seed is bought of strangers or from a -distance, the chances of poor quality increase many fold. If all seed -were bought of reliable dealers, there would be less cause for -complaint, but farmers too often buy where they can buy cheapest. They -pay for trash that is either full of harmful weed seeds or has a liberal -admixture of old and dead seeds left over from previous seasons. - -Before seed is purchased it should be tested for purity and germination. -The adage that a dollar saved is a dollar earned well applies here; it -is an easy matter to waste a dollar on seed, and when profit depends on -avoidance of useless expenditure the use of inferior seed points its own -moral. - - -IMPORTANCE OF SIMILAR CONDITIONS - -The farmer who has brought himself to the point of introducing alfalfa -upon his farm should be extremely careful in the selection of seed. In -the first place it is important that he should sow such as is produced -in about the same latitude as his farm and from a region of about the -same rainfall, thus keeping in a line of acclimation, and with the -habits and habitat, as it were, of what he is seeking to raise. Next, he -should not sow seed raised under irrigation if he is in a non-irrigation -region. A Michigan farmer, for example, should sow seed grown as near to -his latitude as possible, say, from Wisconsin, Minnesota or the Dakotas, -or not south of Nebraska or Kansas. It is questionable, at present, -whether it is wise or profitable to attempt raising alfalfa seed in the -more humid districts of the eastern and southern parts of the United -States. It may be economy to leave the raising of seed to those regions -with the least summer rainfall, keeping always in mind the securing of -seed grown under conditions nearly like those to which the seed is to be -introduced. - -Speaking of the alleged different varieties of alfalfa, the seed of -which is urged upon buyers by seedsmen, the editor of the _Oklahoma Farm -Journal_ pertinently says: - -“We see occasional references to ‘dry land’ alfalfa and statements that -it’s a kind that just longs for the hilltops so that it may turn off big -crops of rich hay from land too dry and hard to yield good sorghum. -Don’t forget that the one thing to look for when purchasing alfalfa seed -is good seed, that will grow. It’s hard to find and the price is usually -high. When you buy it, buy subject to test and send a fair sample of -about an ounce to your experiment station, where it will be tested -without charge. At the present time there is but one variety of alfalfa -that Oklahoma farmers should buy, and that is good alfalfa seed. There -is no ‘dry land’ variety of alfalfa, and the much boomed Turkestan -variety isn’t as good for sowing in Oklahoma as Oklahoma or Kansas grown -seed. Rich soil, thorough preparation, good seed well sowed, cutting at -the right time, harrowing when weeds and grass bother, all these are -requisite to success with this most valuable crop, and it pays for all -the bother.” - -Seed from Nebraska and northwestern Kansas has been generally successful -through Iowa and Illinois, and is probably adapted to Ohio and southern -Pennsylvania. Utah seed produces good crops in Minnesota, the extremes -of cold and heat in Utah having developed a strain that does well in -cold climates. The writer would use Utah grown seed for New York, -northern New Jersey and northern Pennsylvania, and seed from Wyoming or -Montana for New England. On the sandy land of southern New Jersey, in -Delaware and Maryland, the seed grown in southern Colorado and southern -Kansas ought to do well. - -Prof. H. M. Cottrell, formerly agriculturist of the Kansas experiment -station, says: “One year I sowed 20 acres to alfalfa--19 acres with Utah -grown seed and one acre with imported seed; both showed a germination of -over 98 per cent, and the growth was good from both lots all through the -season, with no difference that could be detected. The next spring there -was a good stand all over the 19 acres seeded with Utah seed, and not a -single live plant on the acre seeded with the imported seed. I have seen -several trials with imported seed, and never yet saw a good crop -harvested from it. Usually after passing through the first winter there -is from one-fourth to one-half a stand from such seed; the plants make a -weak growth and, if allowed to remain, most of them die out in two or -three years. Descriptions of the puny growth in reports of failures of -this crop, given by eastern growers, make one think that probably -imported seed had been sown. No intelligent farmer would take corn grown -in the warm soil and climate and long season of southern Kansas and -expect to grow a good crop in New York on heavy soil with short seasons. -It is even more difficult to succeed with so great a change in growing -alfalfa, as it would have to withstand the long severe winter, as well -as the change in summer conditions. No one should sow alfalfa seed -without knowing where and under what conditions it was grown.” - -New seed, other conditions being right, is always preferable, although -that kept for several years, properly cared for, may have retained most -of its germinability. Such tests as have been made appeared to show a -loss in well stored seed of only about one and one-half per cent of -germinability in five years. W. P. Headden (Colorado Bul. No. 35) after -various experiments declares, “the results are positive in showing that -the age of seed up to six years does not affect its germinating power.” -It is usually handled and stored by seedsmen in the ordinary seamless -cotton sacks holding from 150 to 160 pounds, and quoted and sold by the -pound or hundred-pounds instead of by the bushel. The legal weight of a -bushel of recleaned alfalfa seed is sixty pounds. - -Although the seed is handled in sacks for convenience, seedsmen say -there is no good reason why it might not be safely stored in bulk in -bins without any deterioration from heating, or otherwise. There might, -however, be some degree of danger from weevils or other insect pests in -warm weather. Exposed to too much light, seed will lose its bright -yellow color and change to a brownish cast. When stored, dealers say, it -does not go through a “sweating” process as do the seeds of some other -forage plants and grasses. - - -IMPORTS AND EXPORTS OF SEED - -In years of large production in America and a shortage in other -countries, considerable American seed goes abroad to Italy, France, -Germany and Australia. The largest portion is consigned to Germany -because extensive seed houses at Hamburg act as distributers to all -portions of the world, from which they receive demands. - -In recent years the United States has been a buyer rather than a seller, -and imports have been as follows: - - Year Lbs. - 1902-3 1,018,559 - 1903-4 2,200,267 - 1904-5 2,865,324 - -According to the government authorities the bulk of the imported seed -comes from Germany and France. That having the best reputation in Europe -comes from Provence, (southeastern) France. A small quantity comes from -Italy, but it is not generally considered to be of as good quality as -that grown farther north. Seedsmen complain that many consignments of -the foreign seed contain large quantities of Yellow trefoil and Bur -clover. - -It is a fallacy popular among farmers and country seed dealers that -great quantities of alfalfa seed are exported to be used for dyeing -purposes. There is no foundation in fact for such a belief, and the -exportations made, like the importations, are for seeding purposes -exclusively. - - -IMPURITIES AND ADULTERATIONS - -A foremost source of danger and loss, aside from infertile seed, is -impurities and adulterants in the alfalfa seed planted. Growers often -are careless and do not examine their alfalfa before or at the time of -harvesting, and do not reclean their seed after threshing, thus sending -out among innocent purchasers seed mixed with those of weeds, inferior -grasses and forage plants, and with various trash which adds bulk and -weight but has no value. The commonest seed adulterants or impurities -are those of Sweet clover (_Melilotus alba_) (Illus. opp. p. 26), Bur -clover (_Medicago denticulata_), Spotted clover (_Medicago Arabica_) (p. -67), Yellow trefoil or Hop clover (_Medicago lupulina_) (p. 26), and the -Dodders (_Cuscuta epithymum_ and _Cuscuta arvensis_), (pp. 45 and 47). - -[Illustration: =Yellow Trefoil Pods= - -The pods of Yellow trefoil are shaped as here shown and contain but a -single seed. Magnified four diameters] - -[Illustration: =Alfalfa Seed Pods= - -Alfalfa has a spiral pod of two or three turns, often containing five or -six seeds. Magnified four diameters] - -[Illustration: =Sweet Clover Pods= - -Magnified four diameters] - -[Illustration: =Bur Clover Seed Pods= - -The seeds are enclosed in a coiled pod which is covered with bristly -projections as shown above. Magnified four diameters] - -That an extraordinary proportion of the alfalfa seed in the markets, -wheresoever from, is adulterated to an amazing extent with seeds of -undesirable plants or loaded with worthless, if not actually harmful -impurities, is being demonstrated by the United States Department of -Agriculture. In a circular pertaining to this work is given the -following, showing the adulterants found in samples bought in the open -markets of the cities named: - - --------------------------------------------------------------- - Seeds used as adulterants. - ------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------- - | Sweet | Bur | Yellow | Total - City where bought | clover | clover | trefoil |adulterants - ------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------- - |_Per Cent_|_Per Cent_|_Per Cent_|_Per Cent_ - Providence, R. I. | .... | 3.47 | 32.86 | 36.33 - Denver, Colo. | .... | 16.86 | .... | 16.86 - Rochester, N. Y. | .... | 5.02 | 39.48 | 44.50 - Milwaukee, Wis. | .... | 5.74 | .... | 5.74 - Indianapolis, Ind.| .... | 4.27 | 38.43 | 42.70 - „ „ | .... | 3.90 | 39.53 | 43.43 - Marblehead, Mass. | .... | 3.00 | .... | 3.00 - Petersburg, Va. | .... | .... | 1.25 | 1.25 - Cedar Rapids, Iowa| .... | 5.49 | .... | 5.49 - Indianapolis, Ind.| .... | 3.37 | 38.54 | 41.91 - Pittsfield, Mass. | 9.52 | .... | .... | 9.52 - Atlanta, Ga. | .... | 10.04 | .... | 10.04 - Salem, Ill. | .... | .... | 6.98 | 6.98 - St. Paul, Minn. | .... | .... | 31.77 | 31.77 - Louisville, Ky. | .... | 16.53 | .... | 16.53 - New Haven, Conn. | .... | 5.88 | 39.85 | 45.73 - Independence, Iowa| .... | 12.69 | .... | 12.69 - New Orleans, La. | .... | 2.57 | .63 | 3.20 - Troy, N. Y. | .... | 6.23 | 31.26 | 37.49 - ------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------- - -In Farmers’ Bulletin No. 194 of the United States Department of -Agriculture is given the table on page 34 to show the result of -analyses of alfalfa seed imported within a period of six months. - - ----------+-------+------+-----+--------+---------+-------+-------- - | |Broken| | Number | Number |Alfalfa| - | | seed | | of weed|of dodder| seed | - Laboratory|Alfalfa| and | Weed|seeds in|seeds in |that’ll| Amount - test No. | seed | dirt |seeds|1 pound |1 pound | grow |imported - ----------+-------+------+-----+--------+---------+-------+-------- - | _Per_ | _Per_|_Per_| | | _Per_ | - | _Ct._ | _Ct._|_Ct._| | | _Ct._ |_Pounds_ - 21000 | 93.38 | 5.8 | 0.82| 2,160 | .... | 63.73 | 4,000 - 21001 | 92.1 | 7.34| .56| 900 | .... | 59.17 | 30,800 - 21002 | 82.28 | 15.92| 1.8 | 3,060 | .... | 66.64 | 5,500 - 21003 | 84.72 | 11.58| 3.7 | 3,420 | .... | 57.39 | 32,877 - 21004 | 89.16 | 8.78| 2.06| 2,700 | 90 | 62.18 | 14,700 - 21005 | 74.06 | 21.38| 4.56| 15,928 | 2,520 | 53.87 | 7,613 - 21006 | 58.74 | 34.46| 6.8 | 32,420 | 5,490 | 28.78 | 33,075 - 21007 | 86.12 | 11.34| 2.54| 8,964 | 270 | 61.36 | 8,779 - 21008 | 73.02 | 22.32| 4.66| 12,829 | 90 | 49.65 | 32,963 - 21009 | 96.82 | 2.72| .46| 990 | .... | 85.2 | 33,000 - 21010 | 86.2 | 12.1 | 1.7 | 3,060 | .... | 55.59 | 30,800 - 21011 | 96.96 | 2.16| .88| 1,710 | .... | 87.26 | 5,500 - 21012 | 88.84 | 3.98| 7.18| 17,299 | .... | 43.2 | 33,000 - 21013 | 96.24 | 2.66| 1.1 | 3,510 | .... | 77.47 | 21,340 - 21014 | 91.06 | 5.44| 3.5 | 7,650 | .... | 62.14 | 8,778 - 21015 | 93.44 | 2.7 | 3.86| 8,526 | .... | 77.08 | 33,000 - 21016 | 77.78 | 16.04| 6.18| 16,435 | 360 | 47.83 | 33,000 - 21017 | 81.52 | 12.18| 6.3 | 21,848 | 720 | 7.13 | 16,280 - 21018 | 69.48 | 23.78| 6.74| 23,082 | 810 | 5.21 | 38,172 - 21019 | 96.5 | 3.04| .46| 1,080 | .... | 88.53 | 44,000 - 21020 | 96.4 | 2.82| .78| 1,260 | .... | 91.82 | 44,000 - 21021 | 94.4 | 5.04| .56| 1,620 | .... | 90.15 | 72,600 - 21022 | 24.5 | 70.96| 4.54| 21,070 | 4,950 | 6.34 | 12,540 - 21023 | 94.14 | 1.8 | 4.06| 3,780 | .... | 73.43 | 234 - 21024 | 94.58 | 3.44| 1.98| 3,060 | .... | 51.78 | 5,500 - 21031 | 87.72 | 11.02| 1.26| 4,140 | 90 | 81.14 | 143,000 - 21032 | 90.56 | 8.08| 1.36| 3,420 | .... | 76.29 | 33,000 - 21033 | 89.04 | 10.5 | .46| 1,260 | 90 | 84.7 | 6,673 - 21035 | 72.36 | 27.1 | .54| 270 | .... | 64.58 | 13,516 - ----------+-------+------+-----+--------+---------+-------+-------- - -Bearing also upon the adulterations, impurities and defectives found in -alfalfa seed sold in the markets, extracts from reports of tests made at -the Wooster, Ohio station (Bul. No. 142) are exceedingly interesting. In -fifteen samples bought, each of one dollar’s worth, the quantity of pure -germinable seed was found to range from 5.1 to 9.3 pounds; the number of -noxious seeds found in a dollar’s worth of that bought as alfalfa seed -ranged from 360 to 185,940. Seven of the fifteen one-dollar samples each -carried more than 23,000 noxious seeds. - -Seed bought at $7.80 per bushel showed as low as 61.2 per cent that was -germinable, of which the _actual_ cost was $12.74 per bushel. None of -the fifteen samples had less than 77 per cent of germinable seed. One -pound sample contained 21,728 noxious seeds, of which 18,144 were -lamb’s-quarter or pigweeds; the same pound also had 3126 seeds of -dodder. Another pound carried 6420 seeds of crab grass, and one had 3325 -seeds of foxtail. - -The station authorities recommend that no alfalfa seed be sown until -carefully screened through a screen fine enough to remove dodder seeds. -Wire sieves or screens with twenty meshes to the inch are found to serve -the purpose. - - -ADULTERANTS DESCRIBED AND ILLUSTRATED - -As a further and more thorough discussion of the frequent adulterants, -Prof. H. F. Roberts, botanist of the Kansas experiment station, has -kindly prepared, with illustrations, for this volume the quoted -statements which follow here: - -“The immense and steadily increasing value of alfalfa as a forage crop -in the United States, and the high price of the seed, make the securing -of sound, pure seed a matter of supreme importance to farmers, and -render it equally important for them to be able to recognize, by sight, -the presence in alfalfa seed of the adulterants and seeds of certain -weeds most commonly known to occur. There is conclusive evidence that an -amount of adulteration and substitution is actually practiced with -alfalfa seed. It is usually charged that this is done abroad, -especially, as is alleged, in Germany. - -“The writer has been informed that, to a limited extent, the practice -exists in America. The chief adulterant used is the seed of the Yellow -trefoil, or, as it is sometimes called, Hop clover or Black medick. (See -illustrations opposite pages 26 and 32.) About fifty species of plants -are known as ‘medicks’ or, scientifically, _Medicago_; but it so happens -that the only perennial species among them is alfalfa, which goes under -the botanical name of _Medicago sativa_, (p. 1). Other species such as -Yellow trefoil (_Medicago lupulina_) (p. 38) and Bur clover (_Medicago -denticulata_,) while they possess some forage value and are useful to a -limited extent, lack, for the most part, the lush, abundant growth of -alfalfa itself, and are notably inferior through the fact of their -annual habit. It is because of its perennial nature, therefore, as well -as on account of its rank, succulent growth, that no species of annual -leguminous plant can hope to compete with alfalfa for a moment in -importance. This means, then, that any substitute for alfalfa seed, or -adulteration of it with the seed of another related species, such as -Yellow trefoil or Bur clover, is distinctly a fraud of serious -character, despite the fact that the adulterants are plants that make -fair pasturage and have some forage value. They are merely annuals, -ending their life with the season, whereas a field of alfalfa should -live twenty years or more, under right conditions. - - -THE CHIEF ADULTERANT - -“At present, as stated, Yellow trefoil is the chief adulterant used in -American alfalfa seed. A number of cases, indeed, of complete or almost -complete substitution of Yellow trefoil for alfalfa seed have come to -the writer’s attention within the past year. It is important, therefore, -for farmers to know the characteristic marks of distinction between the -seed of alfalfa and of its chief adulterants. What are the chief -characteristics of alfalfa seed? Facing page 13 are samples of pure -alfalfa seed, photographed under a magnification of five diameters. It -will be noted that seeds of three general types exist: (1) A -kidney-shaped type, marked ‘a’ in the illustration; (2) a type in which -one end terminates in an acute wedge, marked ‘e’; and (3) a type that is -round or nearly so, marked ‘b’. These types clearly illustrated, -arranged for comparison in parallel rows are shown opposite page 44. See -also page 27. It should be noticed that type 2 is the most -characteristic and frequent, and that the perfectly round type is -extremely rare. This angular slant toward one tip of the seed is found -nowhere among any of the adulterants. Neither does the kidney shape of -seed occur, except in Bur clover; and, in that case, the difference in -the size of the seeds of the two species is sufficient to distinguish -them, in most instances. - -[Illustration: Yellow Trefoil: Black Medic: Hop Clover (_Medicago -lupulina_)] - -“It is when we consider the round or roundish type of alfalfa seed that -there is difficulty in distinguishing from alfalfa the seeds of Yellow -trefoil and of Sweet clover (illus. opp. p. 26), which latter frequently -occurs as a weed seed, and possibly in some cases in sufficient quantity -to be suspected as an adulterant. By comparison of the seeds of alfalfa -with the two adulterants just mentioned, (p. 26) the resemblances and -differences of the three species will become evident. In general the -seeds of Yellow trefoil are shorter and rounder than those of alfalfa, -the largest seeds of trefoil measuring 0.0629 inch wide by 0.0897 inch -long; whereas the largest alfalfa seeds measure 0.0653 inch wide by -0.1153 inch long; so that the largest alfalfa seeds are a trifle wider -and more than a third again as long as the largest trefoil seeds. The -smallest seeds of Yellow trefoil are usually plumper and shorter than -those of alfalfa (0.0511 inch wide by 0.0291 inch long, as compared with -0.0496 inch wide by 0.0751 inch long in alfalfa); nevertheless, among -both the small and the large seeds, so far as the criterion of size -goes, individuals occur that equally well belong to either species, and -the average differences in size are not so great as the differences -found on comparing the largest and the smallest seeds of the two -species, the average for the trefoil being 0.0574 inch by 0.0799 inch, -and for alfalfa 0.0582 inch by 0.0944 inch. So it will be seen at once -that while trefoil seeds as a rule are smaller, shorter and rounder than -those of alfalfa, the rule is transgressed by many individuals. We must, -therefore, turn to the form and general outline of the seed. A farmer -can detect at once an attempt to substitute wholly Yellow trefoil for -alfalfa seed by the fact that _in no case will the kidney-shaped or the -regular-pointed types of seed be found in trefoil, whereas these always -occur in alfalfa_. (Illustrated opp p. 26.) - -“In the more common cases, where adulteration rather than complete -substitution is practiced, detection is more difficult--is practically -impossible, in fact, without the aid of a lens or magnifying glass -having a power of about fifteen diameters. There are many seeds of -trefoil which can scarcely be distinguished from certain rounded seeds -of alfalfa. Generally, however, the trefoil seed has a little projection -or “beak” on the middle line of the seed, just back of the scar marking -where the seed was attached to the pod. This is rarely found in alfalfa. - -“Bur clover as an adulterant is probably not so frequently used as -Yellow trefoil, since the larger size of its seed renders detection -easy. Were it not for this fact, Bur clover would be a most effective -adulterant, because its seeds resemble those of alfalfa more closely -than do those of Yellow trefoil. There are, of course, smaller seeds of -Bur clover and larger seeds of alfalfa that approximate each other in -size, but the average Bur clover seeds measure 0.0604 inch by 0.1188 -inch, as compared with an average for alfalfa of only 0.0582 inch by -0.0944 inch. - -“So far as the plants of Yellow trefoil and Bur clover are concerned, -they are easily distinguishable from alfalfa. Both are of lower growth, -as a rule, than alfalfa. Both have wider leaflets, which, in Bur clover, -are like broad, inverted wedges. The flowers of these plants are yellow, -and are borne in scanty clusters. The pods are wholly unlike those of -alfalfa. Alfalfa has a spiral pod of two or three turns (p. 32), -containing as many as five or six seeds. Yellow trefoil has a straight -pod (p. 32), containing but one seed. Bur clover has a coiled pod (p. -33), but covered with bristly projections that give the plant its name. -Where adulteration or substitution is practiced, some of the pods are -very apt to occur in the bulk seed, and they can then easily be -identified and distinguished from those of alfalfa. - -“Seed of Sweet clover seems to occur frequently in western-grown alfalfa -seed (p. 26). Sweet clover (illustrated in this book) grows to a height -frequently of from four to six feet, bearing small, white flowers on -slender spikes three or four inches long. Unfortunately, and unlike -Yellow trefoil and Bur clover, Sweet clover is generally rejected by -stock. On this account, it is a plant of no generally established value -for hay or as pasture, although, in some instances, it is successfully -used. The seeds of Sweet clover are of a golden yellow when ripe; those -of alfalfa, trefoil and Bur clover being greenish yellow. The seed coat -of Sweet clover seed is covered with minute elevations, while alfalfa -seed is smooth. The seeds of Sweet clover (p. 26) are rounder and -plumper than those of alfalfa, and have a very pronounced groove between -the main body of the seed and the ridge which marks the location of the -rootlet of the young plant within. It is this ridge that in alfalfa -seeds runs off, as a rule, in a marked slant, but which in both trefoil -and Sweet clover, especially in the latter, forms a well-rounded curve -to the tip of the seed. No pointed or kidney-shaped seeds are ever seen -in Sweet clover. (See illus. opp. p. 26.) - - -A COMMON WEED IN IMPORTED ALFALFA SEED - -“It remains to mention the most common weed found in imported alfalfa -seed--the English or Ribbed plantain, or, as it is more generally called -in the West, Buck-horn or Rib grass. It is a difficult weed to -eradicate, lots of seed containing any noticeable percentage of it -should be rejected. (See illus. opp. p. 13.) - -“The farmer is often to blame for the poor seed of which he makes -complaint. Prime alfalfa seed is expensive, and a cheap grade will -inevitably be poor in quality, containing much dead seed, rubbish, and -the seeds of many kinds of weeds. Where ‘cheap’ alfalfa seed is demanded -it will always be sold, and buyers need not be surprised by its quality. -On the other hand, there is no excuse or palliation for the offense of -selling, under the name and at the price of standard alfalfa seed, seed -of substituted species. It is the duty of seed dealers to ascertain -beforehand the character and genuineness of seed that they sell under -any given name, and this applies to the retailers as well as to the -wholesale dealers. On the other hand, farmers cannot expect to obtain -the best seed unless they are willing to pay the price it brings.” - - -DODDER SEED - -Dodder seeds are somewhat smaller than alfalfa seeds (pp. 45 and 47), -but are not separated from them except by careful recleaning; -consequently, they are often sown along with the alfalfa seed, -especially in that which has been imported. If a field is badly -infested, it should be plowed up and devoted to some other crop for a -few years. Prof. F. H. Hillman of Nevada (Bul. No. 47) says there are -several kinds that infest alfalfa, but two kinds are especially common -and destructive in this country. _Cuscuta epithymum_ is the commoner. -“The seeds of this (p. 47) are very small, and are almost sure to escape -detection on casual examination of the samples; yet, once recognized -under the lens, their presence may be easily discovered. They are so -much smaller than alfalfa seeds that the use of a sieve of twenty meshes -per inch separates them from the latter when only free dodder seeds are -present. Not only are various other small weed seeds disposed of in the -process, but little if any alfalfa seed worth buying is lost. The few -ripened flowers of dodder retaining matured seeds, which sometimes pass -the thresher uninjured, may be removed by proper fanning. It is safe to -say that no purchaser of alfalfa seed can afford to neglect sifting his -seed carefully with a twenty-mesh sieve, which is the mesh the writer -recommends for the separation of this kind of dodder from alfalfa seed. - -“_Cuscuta arvensis_ is another dodder as destructive when once -established. Its seeds (p. 47) seem to be less common, however. They are -larger than the preceding, many of them being practically the same size -as the smaller, more rounded alfalfa seeds, which they often strikingly -resemble. Thus they are hard to detect, and cannot be removed without -the loss of much small alfalfa seed. This should be the more dreaded of -the two dodders, because alfalfa seed infested with seeds of _Cuscuta -epithymum_ can be made practically free from them with comparatively -little loss and expense. Not so, however, with seed containing _Cuscuta -arvensis_, which should not be purchased at any price. Dodder seeds can -scarcely be regarded as an adulterant, yet as an impurity they are very -common and most objectionable.” (See illustrations opp. pp. 45, 46 and -47.) - - - - -_CHAPTER V._ - -Soil and Seeding - - -VARIATE, YET UNIFORM - -In this double title we have a case of the widest variations and the -most positive and rigid uniformity. Alfalfa may be grown in almost every -possible kind of soil and under almost all soil conditions (save two), -but omitting these the seeding, including the tilth of the ground, is -based, so far as any future success is concerned, on perfect -cultivation. The dictum, “Alfalfa must have a dry, warm, sandy loam, -very rich” has become obsolete, as already pointed out. - -There are just two soil conditions that seem absolutely against the -growth of alfalfa. The first is a soil constantly wet. The common -remark, “Alfalfa will not stand ‘wet feet’,” seems to be the expression -of a law. It does not do well where the water is nearer to the surface -than six feet, or where in winter water will stand on the ground for -over forty-eight hours. This invariably smothers the plants; in fact it -usually kills any crop. If water flows over the field for some such -time, due to a freshet, the alfalfa is often found uninjured if too much -soil has not been deposited on and around the plants. Even in such -instances fields have been saved by a disking once or twice, but it is -wholly unwise to sow on a field subject to overflow, or one where water -rises to the surface in winter or spring; likewise on a field so flat -that water will not run off in time of a heavy rain or promptly drain -out through the sub-surface. The time is rapidly coming everywhere when -the intelligent farmer will not try to raise any crop on such a field, -undrained. The alfalfa roots will find their way to moisture if given -the right surface conditions. There are profitable alfalfa meadows in -parts of Kansas where it is eighty feet to water, but there has not yet -been found one that is prosperous where water comes close to the -surface, or where it stands on the ground in winter. - -[Illustration: =Three General Types of Alfalfa Seed= - -The right-hand column, kidney-shaped, a characteristic form, but not so -common as the type in the central column. The left-hand column -approaches more nearly the rounded type of Sweet clover. Magnification -five diameters] - -[Illustration: Dodder Seed Magnified] - -[Illustration: Alfalfa Seed Magnified] - -The other kind of soil where alfalfa refuses to grow is that in which -there is too much acidity. This is often the case where corn and wheat -have been raised for many years, thus robbing the soil of much lime; a -condition that may be remedied by an application of lime to the land -just before sowing the alfalfa, harrowing it in beforehand or, if the -seed is to be broadcasted, the lime may be applied just before sowing, -when once harrowing will suffice for both, or it may be sown with a -drill--500 to 1000 pounds per acre. - -A simple test for acidity is to make a deep cut in the ground with a -knife, pressing the earth slightly apart; then push a piece of litmus -paper into the opening and press the earth together. Leave the paper -there for a few hours. If upon examination the litmus paper has a pink -appearance it is proof of acidity, and this, as already said, may best -be remedied with lime. - - -SOIL PREPARATION - -With the only two negative points considered, the more important -conditions upon which success will depend may be discussed. One chief -essential is the advance preparation. Many of the most successful -growers begin their preparations two or three years before they sow the -seed. There must be, by rights, the most perfect physical condition of -the soil. It should have been plowed deep for at least two years, and in -most fields in the central and northern states a two- or three-inch -subsoiling along with a seven- or eight-inch plowing will be very -helpful. - -If corn is to precede a spring sowing, the ground should have a liberal -dressing of stable manure plowed under for humus, to encourage -earthworms and to introduce the particular bacteria so essential to -alfalfa’s welfare or at least furnish favorable conditions for bacteria, -and the harrow should follow the plow each day. The soil’s condition -should be like that for a garden. Care should be taken never to work -with the ground when too wet, as such working almost inevitably results -in clods and baked soil. The corn should be cultivated often, and a -liberal sowing of cowpeas just before the last cultivation, which should -be shallow, has been found quite helpful. This crop will repress and -take the place of weeds, furnish a rich food for fattening pigs or lambs -after the corn is cut, add fertility to the soil, and also introduce -bacteria similar to the bacteria for the alfalfa. The cowpea, being a -legume, prepares the way for alfalfa, its near relative. - -[Illustration: Dodder Plant on an Alfalfa Stem] - -[Illustration: =Dodder=, (_Cuscuta arvensis_) - -(a) A group of seeds (enlarged), showing the prevailing forms; (a, b, -and c) individual seeds having somewhat the form of clover seeds; (d) a -group showing the natural size] - -[Illustration: Alfalfa and Dodder Seed. Actual Size] - -[Illustration: =Dodder=, (_Cuscuta epithymum_) - -(a) A group of seeds showing comparative forms and relative size -(enlarged); (b) a group showing the natural size; (c) the embryo removed -from the seed, showing the form it usually assumes; (d) a section of a -seed, showing the manner in which the embryo lies imbedded in the -endosperm] - - -KEEP DOWN THE WEEDS - -It is always timely to emphasize the very great importance of keeping -down weeds in the cornfield where alfalfa is to be sowed the next -spring. If corn is husked from the fields, the stalks should not be -pastured except when the ground is fully frozen. Later they should be -thoroughly broken, raked and burned, to leave the land in the best -condition for spring work. If the corn is cut and fodder hauled off, the -stubs should be broken in cold weather by a pole or other drag, and -raked and burned as recommended for the stalks. This adapts the ground -for disking and harrowing early in March. Then every ten days the field -should be disked or harrowed to conserve moisture, to start weeds and -then kill them, and to bring the ground into the desirable tilth. -Ordinarily, in the central states, sowing may be done early in April, -while in the South this may be done by the middle of March, and in -Wisconsin and Canada by the last of April or early May, although the -dates are variable. Many report seeding in Kansas the middle of May, -obtaining a clipping in July and a hay crop in September. Others report -sowing in March and cutting a hay crop in June. Some Wisconsin reports -say that the first of June is early enough, while others in that state -and in Minnesota prefer to sow two or three weeks earlier, and still -others in Wisconsin sow in April. The important things to keep in mind -are to have the soil right and the weeds disposed of, and to sow when -the weather and moisture and conditions are right. Alfalfa is a child of -the sun; permanent shade from any source is its enemy, and when young it -is not a good fighter against adversaries of any sort. More failures -are due to weeds than to any other one cause, and unfortunately all the -weeds do not grow on the land of the farmer who is shiftless or -neglectful. The latter is so benevolent as to permit his weeds to -scatter their seeds to the fields of his neighbors. - -If a spring sowing is to be made on wheat ground, the land will be -helped by a liberal dressing of manure immediately after the harvest, -and by plowing and harrowing at once; then sowing about the last of -August to rye or wheat for fall and winter pasturage, and to prevent the -soil from leaching or washing. In the spring the land should be disked -and harrowed for alfalfa, keeping in mind the point emphasized in the -preceding paragraph. Instead of the rye or wheat, cowpeas may be sowed -after the wheat harvest; thus both fertility and bacteria will be added -to the soil, and the farmer have a valuable pasture crop for pigs or -lambs. If the season is extremely favorable, a hay crop may be cut in -early October. - -If potatoes are to precede a spring sowing of alfalfa, more than usual -care should be taken to keep the field clean of weeds. Some farmers do -well by sowing millet with the last cultivation of potatoes, leaving the -potatoes in the ground until after the millet is harvested, and when the -crop is dug the land is free from weeds. Then it may be harrowed or -disked and seeded to rye for winter pasture. Some plow the potato ground -in the fall and sow to wheat or rye. Certainly if weeds are present the -ground should be plowed as soon as the potatoes are dug. The idea is to -secure a fine seed bed and have the ground free from weeds, the great -curse of the American farm. All things considered there is probably no -crop which leaves the soil in finer physical condition for -alfalfa-sowing than millet, and none that is more unsatisfactory for a -like purpose than sorghum or Kafir corn that was planted in hills or -rows. - -A clover sod for a spring sowing should be plowed in September or -October, disked or harrowed, and not infrequently a light sowing of rye -for winter pasture is feasible. In early spring use disk and tooth -harrows on the land. It is excellent if a liberal application of rotted -stable manure is plowed under with the clover sod. Usually it is better -to follow clover with a corn or potato crop before seeding to alfalfa. - - -FALL SOWING - -Fall sowing presents fewer difficulties than spring sowing. Corn is not -the preceding crop and hence the weed problem is not so formidable. -Usually a fall sowing follows millet or oats, cowpeas or potatoes. -Almost any crop except the sorghums may be grown to precede alfalfa for -a fall sowing; these should not be as they consume too much moisture. If -possible, put on a dressing of stable manure the preceding winter; plow -deep in the spring and work to a fine tilth for the summer crop. -South of the latitude of 40 degrees cowpeas is one of the best -preparatory crops. They are legumes, and the bacteria that live on their -roots are similar to those upon the alfalfa roots; they are also -nitrogen-gatherers, taking nitrogen from the air as does the alfalfa, -and thus they prepare the soil for alfalfa. Besides, cowpeas are a -valuable forage, the hay being worth almost as much, pound for pound, as -that of alfalfa. When cut off they leave the ground ready for disking -and other preparation. Millet is also excellent for this purpose, -leaving the soil unusually friable. Potatoes make a satisfactory -preparatory crop, but the danger from them too often is neglect to keep -the weeds down. As soon as the land is free, it should be disked and -harrowed, and this repeated about every ten days until the time for -sowing. - - -RECENT PLOWING NOT DESIRABLE - -It is seen that plowing for alfalfa just preceding the seeding is not -recommended. Plowing leaves the sub-surface too loose, thus depriving -the roots of a sufficiently firm footing and making a full sowing more -liable to harm from freezing and thawing, and the spring sowing to harm -from a dry summer. The necessity of the most perfect surface conditions -cannot be to often emphasized, and this too includes considerable -compactness rather than a too light or ashy condition. There must be no -clods, no stiff and stubborn humps. - -If alfalfa is to follow clover, and to be seeded in the fall, the sod -should be broken early after the clover is harvested and each day’s -plowing harrowed that day; then the field disked and cross-disked and -harrowed again. After that it should be disked, lapping half, every ten -or fifteen days until time for seeding. Alfalfa may follow timothy if -the sod is not too old and stubborn, and it may be treated the same as -clover sod. - - -INTRODUCE BACTERIA BY PREPARATORY SOWING - -Another form of preparation followed by many successful growers, men who -do not complain about alfalfa not doing well “here,” is the sowing of a -few pounds of alfalfa seed on the field two or three years before it is -intended to sow for a permanent crop. Mr. Joseph E. Wing, of central -western Ohio, a widely known farmer, stockman, and writer on matters -agricultural, uses alfalfa in a regular rotation, and two years before -he is ready to sow it on a given field as a main crop, sows clover and -timothy along with two or three pounds of alfalfa seed, for a pasture -crop. Thus the bacteria are introduced, and when the pasture is plowed -for the full sowing of alfalfa, the disking and harrowing that follow -distribute the bacteria throughout the soil, and the probabilities of a -good stand are greatly enhanced. He sometimes sows two or three pounds -of alfalfa seed to the acre with a wheat crop two years before he is to -sow the field entirely to alfalfa. Another, in a state where the -experiment station director still declares alfalfa-raising to be -doubtful, writes that he has not had a failure in a decade, and his plan -is to precede alfalfa with winter wheat, sowing a little alfalfa seed -with the wheat, probably three pounds to the acre, and the next fall -after giving the land a thorough preparation he sows fifteen pounds of -alfalfa seed to the acre. Another reports pleasing results in two -different fields by sowing in the spring five pounds of alfalfa seed -with clover; in two years the alfalfa stood thick on the ground, having -crowded out the clover. If these plans introduce the bacteria into the -soil, it may be wondered why it would not be equally helpful to sow two -or three pounds of alfalfa seed per acre with the oats or millet in the -spring, preparatory to the thorough seeding to alfalfa in the fall. - -Another man, whose profit in raising alfalfa has been marked, reports -that his soil is very waxy and hard to deal with. He has met this -trouble by listing his ground in the fall and leaving it thus open for -hard freezing throughout the winter. He then disks and cross-disks in -the spring, putting the soil in fine tilth, and sowing millet as a -preparatory crop. He has occasionally sowed alfalfa in the spring, -following the fall listing and later freezing of his ground. - - -ALL CROPS DEMAND CONDITIONS - -Alfalfa, like corn and cotton, demands certain conditions of the soil -and certain constituents in that soil. Every crop demands its certain -foods. All crops except alfalfa and the other legumes obtain practically -all their food, including nitrogen, from the soil. The latter crops use -nitrogen but get it from the air. Alfalfa takes nitrogen from the soil -only during the first few months of its growth, and thereafter not only -takes its own necessary supply from the air, but a large surplus which -it stores in the soil, available for whatever crop may follow. Other -crops take much nitrogen from the soil, but contribute nothing to its -enrichment. - - -SPRING OR FALL SOWING--WHICH? - -This has been a much argued question with experimenters. Possibly it -will be found to be of minor importance in itself, depending more upon -other conditions than the season. From the northern tier of states many -reports favor spring sowing, yet from each come letters in favor of fall -sowing. Several experiment stations in the South are in favor of spring -sowing, yet report satisfactory results from fall seeding. It seems -pretty well established, however, that fall sowing is safer in the -central latitude states, say including Ohio, Nebraska, Missouri, Kansas, -Colorado and Utah, and states within the same parallels. - -In other states prevailing opinions favor spring sowing. Nevertheless, -when all conditions are understood, fall sowing seems likely to become -the established practice throughout the United States. This is in line -with the system for the more staple crops and common rotation; it gives -opportunity to bring the ground into better condition; the preparation -and sowing come at the most convenient season, and one of relatively -greater leisure; there is less interruption by unfavorable weather; the -soil, responding more readily to surface cultivation, permits the work -to be done with less danger of surface water retarding normal root -development, and the annual weeds being dead they cannot interfere with -the first growth of the alfalfa. Sown in the fall, with time to secure -some growth for winter protection, alfalfa will be ready to respond to -the first call of spring, and for the mower early in June. Moreover, if -it fails from freezing or other cause, little crop-time is lost. The -farmer has but to disk and harrow in April or early May, and sow half as -much seed as he sowed in the fall, and he will have prospect of a -cutting in eighty or ninety days, at an expenditure of but few pounds of -seed and a little labor. - - -DISADVANTAGES OF SPRING SOWING - -Ordinarily, if a farmer sows in the spring, he has his old enemy, the -weeds, to contend with. If the season be damp and cloudy, the alfalfa -may not grow fast, but weeds will. Therefore, June may see him mowing to -retard a rampant growth of weeds instead of gathering a profitable -cutting of prime hay. It is not improbable that he may be doing the same -in July or in September, thus losing a whole season. Again, the spring -preparation comes when the farmer needs to be working his corn and -potato land; hence he is likely to slight or neglect the careful -preparation of the alfalfa ground and so do a poor job, with, in such -cases, the usual result of a “poor stand.” Then too, the frequent rains -interfere with regular disking and harrowing and the weeds may obtain a -start the farmer cannot check. In most cases fall sowing means three -cuttings the following year. In many instances spring sowing means no -crop the first season, although better farming will gain a September -crop, while the best farming, with no weeds, may give two if not three -crops; not heavy ones, perhaps, but of no inconsiderable value. - -Commenting on spring sowing in the more northern states, Henry Wallace, -editor of _Wallaces’ Farmer_, says: - -“Our own experience in growing alfalfa both in Nebraska and Iowa has -taught us that it is a waste of time and labor to sow in the spring. If -sown in the spring without a nurse crop, it will have to be mowed twice, -probably three times, to keep down the weeds, and even then it will not -be in as good condition as if a crop of early corn or even oats was -taken off, and the ground put in fine condition and seeded in August. - -“In 1904 we sowed in the spring 250 acres of alfalfa on our Nebraska -farm, and some twenty or thirty acres of it was washed in ridges by a -very heavy rain immediately after. We reseeded the vacant spaces in the -fall and later could see no difference between the fall sowing and the -spring sowing. We did the same thing on one of our Iowa farms, sowing in -the spring and mowing three times. Another piece was sowed in August. -The August sowing was much better than the spring sowing. It should be -said, however, that the land was richer and the difference was therefore -not all due to the time of sowing. So long as Kansas farmers continued -to sow their alfalfa in the spring they had but partial success, owing -to the fact that Crab grass and other grasses will come up in the early -fall and smother out the spring sowing. By using some other crop the -first part of the season, then putting the land in fine condition in the -month of August or even by September 1st, an alfalfa crop can be started -which will have a strong enough growth to smother out the weeds the next -spring. - -“We don’t know that we would insist on this so strongly for northern -Iowa and Minnesota, but certainly from the latitude of the Northwestern -railroad in Iowa, south, and corresponding latitude in other states, we -would abandon spring sowing and sow alfalfa on well prepared ground in -August. We would not, however, plow the ground for this fall sowing, but -put the soil in first-class condition for a spring crop, then use a disk -and harrow for the fall preparation.” - - -SEEDING BY DRILL OR BROADCAST? - -Here too, there is a variety of opinions, all based on experience. Those -who object most to drills may have used poor implements, with feeding -gears not well regulated, or possibly they have not known how to use the -drills. Many who object to the broadcast method have had little training -or skill in it. It is reasonable to suppose, however, that given soil in -fine tilth, and a good drill rightly adjusted, there will be a more -even, and hence a more economical distribution and a better and more -uniform covering of the seed. It is also claimed that drilling secures a -more uniform distribution of soil moisture. The general opinion is that -by sowing with a drill, properly regulated, one can safely use five -pounds less of seed per acre. Some alfalfa raisers use a wheelbarrow -seeder; others use a kind of swing seeder strapped to the sower’s body; -still others, who have had training in the old-fashioned method of -broadcasting, declare it the best, but the experiment stations of -practically all the states, and most up-to-date farmers, favor the use -of the press drill. There are now on the market different types of -alfalfa seeders which can be attached or are already attached to the -ordinary grain drill, and that will distribute the seed in any desired -quantities per acre with broadcast effect or leave it in drill rows as -may be preferred. At the Kansas Experiment Station success has followed -broadcasting, and cross-drilling gave no particular advantage. - - -HOW MUCH SEED TO THE ACRE? - -Reports of seed sown, varying from six to sixty pounds to the acre, -indicate much ignorance of the nature of the alfalfa plant; or a great -recklessness and extravagance. Twenty pounds to the acre, if all seeds -germinated, would mean 2,500,000 to 3,000,000 plants, whereas a stand of -500,000 is ample. Most of the experiment stations favor twenty to thirty -pounds to the acre, although several experts at these stations insist -that fifteen pounds of clean, germinable seed to the acre is as much as -should be sowed. Even if these all grew it would give nearly 44 plants -to the foot square of land, or four to five times as many as would -thrive after two years old. Of course the quantity may depend upon a -variety of circumstances, such as the vitality of the seed, condition of -the surface soil, condition of the subsoil as to moisture, the method of -sowing, weather conditions at the time of sowing or immediately after, -also the natural fertility of the soil and the bacterial life present, -or at least the conditions for propagating or sustaining bacterial life. -With land prepared by sowing a few pounds of seed six months or a year -preceding, with a heavy application of stable manure plowed under six -months before, perfect soil preparation, normal moisture, and clean -seed, testing ninety per cent germinable, there should be no need for -more than ten pounds to the acre. Disking that the field should have -later will split the crowns and many new stalks will be sent up; so that -in a few years a square foot of surface will not accommodate more than -six to ten robust, vigorous plants, and having these the ideal stand has -pretty nearly been attained. One plant has been known to send out as -many as 360 branches from its single main root, resembling in form a -spreading bush. A successful farmer in Geary county, Kansas, who has -been raising alfalfa for twenty years, seldom sows more than six pounds -of seed to the acre and never more than ten. A prominent Ohio farmer -usually sows but ten, and never over twelve or fifteen pounds to the -acre, although he has always introduced alfalfa bacteria into the soil -one or two years before ready to give it a full seeding. Of strictly -good seed, well cleaned, twelve pounds would likely be too much rather -than too little, other conditions being right. - - -WITH OR WITHOUT A NURSE CROP? - -The practice of sowing a nurse crop with alfalfa was inaugurated when -the nature of the plant was not as well understood as now. It was also -somewhat on the theory too that “a half-loaf is better than no bread.” -It began when there was a good deal of doubt about “getting a stand,” -and the farmer thought no doubt that a crop of oats or barley would pay -for the plowing even if the alfalfa failed. While the practice is -continued by many, the prevalent later method is to provide no nurse -crop. Few who have abandoned the nurse crop have returned to it. The -alfalfa plant does not need protection from the sun, nor is it bettered -by dividing any of the soil moisture or fertility with those of another -crop. On the other hand, if alfalfa is sowed in the spring, it is -important that it obtain an early start in order that its roots can -quickly work their way down into the moisture of the subsoil, against -the dry days of July and August. When a nurse crop of any vigor is -removed the alfalfa plants are likely to be found weak, spindling and -with little root growth; the nurse crop also has taken up some of the -soil nitrogen needed by the young alfalfa; or if the nurse crop is -heavy and has lodged, there will be left bare spots, where the alfalfa -has been smothered out. - -Cutting the nurse crop is likely to be attended with no little damage to -the tender alfalfa plants by trampling their crowns into the ground, or -by breaking them off. Practically all the experiment stations favor -sowing alone. With few exceptions the second and third years have -brought heavier yields where no nurse crop was used. The theory that the -nurse crop will prevent the weeds choking the alfalfa is apparently, as -a rule, not well founded. In the first place alfalfa should not be sown -on foul land, and in the second place proper disking and harrowing, at -near intervals for four or six weeks before sowing, will disturb or kill -far more weeds than can any nurse crop. Besides, the oats or barley sown -as a nurse will when cut leave weeds in good growth, or dormant and -ready to spring up as fast or faster than the alfalfa. No nurse crop is -ever used with fall sowing. When ground has been thoroughly prepared for -the preceding crop, and then properly cared for, and made ready for the -alfalfa by the preliminary weed destruction, it will be found advisable -to sow alfalfa alone, even in the spring. - - -INOCULATING THE SOIL - -It has been found where alfalfa shows thrifty vigor, is making a good -stand, and is at least two years old, that on the roots are little -nodules or wart-like protuberances. On fields where the alfalfa is -unthrifty or failing to make a good stand, examination will probably -fail to discover any of these nodules. Scientists tell us that these -nodules are the homes of bacteria, microscopic vegetable organisms -obtaining their sustenance from the nitrogen of the air and the starch -of the plant; that they collect much more nitrogen than they need, the -over-supply being taken up by the alfalfa, which, after these nodules -are formed and occupied, takes no more nitrogen from the soil, but -annually stores about its roots more from the air, thus adding to the -nitrogen supply in the soil instead of taking from it as do all other -farm crops except the legumes. Each legume--clover, alfalfa, cowpeas, -etc.--has a distinct species of bacteria, or at least bacteria with a -distinct development, excepting, as has been found, that Sweet clover -(_Melilotus alba_) and Bur clover (_Medicago denticulata_) develop the -same species as does alfalfa. - - -BUYING INFECTED SOIL - -Several methods of preparing land for alfalfa by introducing its -peculiar bacteria have been suggested, and practiced to some extent. -Many farmers and experimenters have used with success infected soil upon -their lands; soil from established alfalfa fields, or that from along -the roads or creeks where the Sweet clover or Bur clover has been -growing. This soil is spread upon the field or sown with alfalfa just -before the seeding. If the drill is to be used the inoculated soil is -spread on and harrowed in. If the seed is to be broadcasted, the -infected soil may be harrowed in with the seed. It is better, however, -to harrow this infected soil in thoroughly before seeding. Experiment -stations recommend an application of two hundred pounds of such soil to -every acre, but good results have been secured from half that quantity. -This will depend very much upon the nature of the soil, and the subsoil -especially. Many fields seem to have these bacteria waiting for the -coming of alfalfa. Land that has been well manured and contains abundant -humus, and land that is light and friable will usually respond to the -bacterial life attached to the alfalfa seed. Most farmers who have -established fields will sell soil to their neighbors, which should be -from the top six or eight inches, and include roots, stubble and earth. -Both Sweet clover and Bur clover are found in almost every neighborhood -in the northern states, while the latter is very general in the South. - -Some alfalfa raisers make a business of selling and shipping inoculated -soil. Probably any experiment station will ship small quantities to -farmers within its state, at about the cost of digging, sacking and -delivering at the railroad station. Therefore, if a farmer desires to -use it, little labor or expense is attached to doing so. There is -reason, however, to doubt the need of this method in any of the western -or central western states where the suggestions mentioned in the first -part of the chapter are closely followed. No doubt there are advantages -in using it in most states east of the Mississippi river, in order to -hasten the development of the bacteria and to make a good stand more -certain. Preparation one or two years in advance as already described, -by a light sowing of alfalfa seed for introducing its peculiar bacteria, -is less expensive, and requires less labor and carries no risk of -introducing the seeds of other clovers or weeds. Most farms have enough -weed seeds already. - - -DANGERS OF INOCULATION BY SOIL TRANSFER - -Touching upon the dangers possibly resulting from inoculation by soil -transfer a bulletin from the United States Department of Agriculture has -this to suggest: - -“Satisfactory inoculations have been obtained by transferring soil from -old fields on which the legume has been grown, but experience has shown -that there are dangers incident to such methods of soil transfer which -it is wise to avoid. - -“The source of supply of such soil should be definitely known, and in no -case should soil be used from fields which have previously borne any -crop affected with a fungous disease, a bacterial disease, or with -nematodes. Where a rotation of crops is practiced, it is often difficult -to make sure of this factor, so that the method of soil transfer is, -under average circumstances, open to suspicion, if not to positive -objection. Numerous animal and plant parasites live in the soil for -years, and are already established in so many localities that it is -manifestly unwise to ship soil indiscriminately from one portion of the -country to another. - -“The bacterial diseases of the tomato, potato, and egg plant, and the -club-root, brown rot, and wilt disease of the cabbage, all more or less -widely distributed, are readily transmitted in the soil; while in the -South and West there are the wilt diseases of cotton, melons, sweet -potatoes, cowpeas, and flax, and various nematoid and root-rot diseases -which might easily become a serious menace over areas much larger than -they now occupy if deliberately spread by the careless use of soil for -inoculation purposes. There are several insects and fungous diseases of -clover to be avoided, and various diseases of beans and peas. There is -also a disease of alfalfa, the ‘leaf spot,’ which is causing damage in -some regions. These are only a few of many diseases liable to be -transmitted in soils. The farmer should therefore be on his guard. The -danger from such sources is by no means imaginary. The Department of -Agriculture has had specific cases of such accidental distribution -reported, and if the business of selling soil for inoculation is made to -flourish by farmers purchasing without question ‘alfalfa soil,’ ‘cowpea -soil,’ etc., there is every reason to believe that experience will -demonstrate the folly of such haphazard methods. - -“Of scarcely less importance is the danger of disseminating noxious -weeds and insect pests through this plan of inoculation by means of -soils. Even though weeds may not have been serious in the field, the -great number of dormant seeds, requiring but a slight change in -surroundings to produce germination, is always a menace. The enormous -damage to crops caused by introduced insects and weeds should convey a -warning and lead to caution. It is not the part of good judgment to view -the risk as a slight one.” - - -OTHER METHODS OF INOCULATION - -There are two or three better ways of inoculating land than by using a -neighbor’s soil. Some alfalfa raisers recommend the sowing of alfalfa -meal with the seed. Another plan which appears reasonable and -practicable is for the farmer who wishes to introduce alfalfa to buy -alfalfa hay the year before and feed it to his live stock; then haul -the manure to the fields and plow it under for the crop to precede -alfalfa. It is claimed by those who have done this that a satisfactory -stand is well-nigh certain, other conditions being met. It can be said, -however, that some high authorities on this crop, men who have -experimented on many different kinds of soil and who have succeeded -under varying conditions, declare that neither soil nor seed inoculation -is necessary. It is altogether probable that if a field has been well -farmed for a few years previous to the alfalfa-sowing, with unusually -good cultivation the preceding year, a heavy application of stable -manure plowed under at least five months before, then given the proper -preparation and seeding, using seed raised in about the same latitude -and under similar conditions in which the new crop must grow, and with -seed testing ninety per cent germinable, there should be little anxiety -about the need of inoculation. Of course old, worn-out land may require -more fertilizers, restoring to the soil not only necessary nitrogen that -has been exhausted by other crops, but also the potash and phosphorus. -In eastern states it has been found advantageous also to apply a very -light top-dressing of stable manure just before sowing the seed. If lime -is deficient, that must be applied. An examination of any particular -soil will usually be made without charge by the state chemists, and the -farmer may thus approximately ascertain just what the soil will need for -alfalfa, corn, or any other crop he may desire to raise. - - -KEEP ON TRYING - -It is important to say to the eastern farmers, especially, that there is -little difference between successful alfalfa-growing and the successful -growing of other crops. Poor farming never brings big crops, nor will -poor land produce as big yields as the more fertile. Failure to restore -to the soil the necessary elements of which it has been robbed means the -same in New York, Kansas, Virginia, or anywhere else. Every farm plant, -to prosper, must find in the soil, readily available, the elements -needed for its development. If a farmer finds the soil lacking in -elements needed for certain crops, he should either apply the deficiency -or not attempt their raising. This is true of corn or wheat, cotton, or -tobacco, no less than alfalfa. - -Alfalfa needs especially nitrogen, potash and phosphorus. The average -virgin soil in the United States contains enough of these to last -several hundred years. If there had been at all times an intelligent -rotation of crops, these chemical elements would be found in just as -large proportions in the soil that has been farmed a hundred years as in -the soil never cultivated. Hence, if after trying alfalfa a man meets -with failure, he should not stop, and say, “Alfalfa won’t grow ‘here’,” -but try it again _immediately_. If he discovers a seeming failure in -March or April, he should disk and harrow and as early as possible sow -about ten pounds of seed to the acre; in many instances he will have to -clip his alfalfa in about six or eight weeks and can mow a crop of hay -in September, or possibly two hay crops in the season. There have been -various cases reported where three hay crops were secured the first -season after such cultivation, when the fields had been pronounced a -failure in March. Alfalfa may be sown on such ground as late as the -first of June if the weeds have been thoroughly subdued. Or, if it has -been sown in the spring and the weeds seem to be overtopping it in July, -mow close to the ground, rake into windrows and burn. Then disk and -harrow thoroughly and sow again. In all probability there will be -something of a crop to mow early in September, with a considerable -autumn growth to follow. If it is not desired to sow alfalfa in -midsummer, disk this ground and sow to rye or oats for pasture; then -late in August disk and put in readiness for September sowing. The -failure may have been because the soil had not enough bacteria, or -favorable environment for the bacteria. Some of the seed sowed at first -undoubtedly germinated and some bacteria were developed; enough -certainly to prepare the soil for the second sowing. It is unwise after -such a failure to go to another field or to wait for another year. It is -wiser to meet the conditions at once, and vigorously persevere. - -In reference to the application of lime, mentioned on a preceding page, -it should be noted that the later experiments seem to indicate that it -is better to apply smaller quantities at shorter intervals than larger -quantities at longer intervals; also that air-slacked lime is less -caustic than the quicklime, and not so liable, when recently applied, to -harm the young plants which may come in contact with it, hence more of -the former may be used and with greater safety. Ordinarily quicklime is -considered the most beneficial. - -[Illustration: =Bur Clover Pod= - -Magnified six diameters] - -[Illustration: =Yellow Trefoil Seed Pod= - -Magnified twelve diameters] - -[Illustration: =Alfalfa Seed Pod= - -Magnified six diameters] - -[Illustration: =Spotted Clover Pod= - -Magnified six diameters] - - - - -_CHAPTER VI._ - -Cultivation - - -CLIPPING IS AN INVIGORANT - -Strange as this title may seem it suggests a very important means of -securing a satisfactory stand. In fact in some parts of the South, where -the land has become very foul, it is occasionally recommended to sow the -alfalfa in rows, eighteen inches apart, for regular cultivation the -first season. After the second year the crowns will have sent up so many -stems that the surface of the ground will be well occupied. Spurrier, in -his work referred to in Chapter I, recommended drilling in rows and -cultivating the first year. But it is better to get rid of the weeds -before trying alfalfa. The cultivation here recommended is clipping, -manuring, disking and harrowing. Frequently when alfalfa is sowed in the -spring it comes up weak and spindling. In such case clip it just before -ready to bloom, having the mower sickle set rather high. If the growth -is not very heavy, leave this cutting on the ground; if quite heavy, -remove it. The field may need to be clipped again during the summer, but -the farmer can feel reasonably assured that he will have a good stand -the following spring. If the leaves turn yellow, mowing is the remedy. -If there is any sign of the “spotted leaf” disease, the mower should be -used forthwith. Of course if alfalfa comes up strong, vigorous, and -free from weeds, it should stand until blossoming is well begun and then -be mown for hay. - -It should not be supposed that the purpose in clipping and allowing the -clippings to remain on the ground is primarily to make a mulch. It is to -retard the weeds, and as no other way equally convenient and economical -has presented itself, the young growths are mown and left on the ground. - -In many parts of the country Crab grass (_Panicum sanguinale_) is the -plant or weed that most persistently interferes with the prosperity of -alfalfa during its first year, and frequent mowing is the remedy most -recommended and resorted to, but there are growers who maintain that -such treatment is not best. An extensive and very successful grower in -southern Kansas tells the author repeated experience has demonstrated to -his satisfaction that the advice to mow alfalfa frequently during the -first summer may under some circumstances be quite wrong. If the season -happens to be wet, and there is a rank growth of Crab grass, frequent -mowing causes the Crab grass to set in a close sod and smother out the -alfalfa. He says: “My practice has been, under these conditions, to let -the Crab grass grow with the alfalfa until matured, before mowing. The -young alfalfa will usually keep its head out sufficiently to breathe, -and will survive until the Crab grass is matured and all is cut. If -allowed to mature, the Crab grass will not start a second time, and the -alfalfa immediately springs up and occupies the ground. Where the Crab -grass is very rank it may sometimes be blown down in spots and smother -out some alfalfa, but even under these conditions one will have a much -better stand than is possible by repeated mowings. This is not mere -theory, but has been proven correct by frequent experience and close -observation of the other method during the same seasons.” Something -similar may be said of Witch-grass (_Panicum capillare_), which, -however, is less obnoxious than the Crab grass, because of not having -the habit of rooting at the joints. - -In many parts of the country Crab grass (_Panicum sanguinale_) is the -plant or weed that most persistently as to make burning in the spring -seem the most feasible means of getting rid of them, and fire is -resorted to. Prof. A. M. Ten Eyck says he has seen this done a number of -times without injury to the alfalfa crowns. He, however, recommends -disking after burning, to loosen the exposed soil and leave the surface -generally in a better condition. Sowing additional seed on the ground -before such disking may do much to improve and thicken the stand. - -The editor of the _Nebraska Farmer_ has been collecting information on -alfalfa culture from every section of the United States for the past ten -years, and as a result of this work unhesitatingly advances the opinion -that “nine-tenths of the failures with alfalfa have been due to failure -or neglect to cut it as should have been done when young. This is the -law of alfalfa culture; it must be cut down. And the man who has not the -courage, morally and physically, to use a mowing machine persistently -had best pass by alfalfa culture. It takes moral courage to cut baby -alfalfa; but it must be cut down to save it.” - - -MANURING - -A light top-dressing of manure after sowing, or, in case of fall sowing, -any time during the winter, helps to conserve moisture as well as to -give the growing plants some nitrogenous food. Applying a top-dressing -of stable manure at least every second or third winter is certain to -prove profitable. If it contains coarse straw or other litter, this -should be raked and hauled off later, but before the alfalfa grows too -high, especially if the hay is intended for the city market. Many -successful growers in Kansas, who claim to cut from five to seven tons -of alfalfa hay per acre in a season apply a top-dressing of manure every -winter. The highest yields reported from eastern states are where this -practice is followed. Some experiment station men believe that where -this is not done the crop will after eight or ten years tend to -impoverish the land instead of further improving it. - - -DISKING - -The foremost method of cultivation is with the disk harrow, one of the -most excellent farm implements ever invented. Alfalfa sown in the fall -is almost invariably helped by disking the following spring, with the -disks set quite straight, so as not to cut the crowns but to split them. -It is usually well to follow this disking with a tooth harrow, with its -teeth set straight. Occasionally in a dry summer the disk may be used to -great advantage after the second, and possibly the third, cutting also. -Many disk their alfalfa field every spring, and some after each cutting, -others do so only once in every two or three years, owing to weather -conditions and the conditions of the alfalfa. In some instances the -common harrow is used instead of a disk. - -The disking has several beneficial effects. It splits and spreads the -crowns, causing more and consequently finer stems to spring up, -affording hay of the most delightful quality, easily cured; it loosens -the soil about the crowns, conserves moisture and destroys the weeds. -There need be no fear of killing the plants if the disks and the -harrow-teeth are set straight and weighted or otherwise adjusted to give -direct and steady forward movement. As an implement for the cultivation -and invigoration of an alfalfa field the disk harrow has no equal, and -its frequent use is by those who know it best deemed quite -indispensable. - - -RESEEDING - -If it is a question of reseeding the whole field, the problem is simple. -In that case disk and harrow the ground and sow half as much seed as was -sowed at first. But to restore bare spots is more difficult; the young -plants from the reseeding in these spots will be shaded by the larger -growth about them, and such reseeding seldom gives the desired results. -There is no doubt that very many fields are given up as failures and -inferior crops planted in them, when a thorough disking would have -renewed the growth, saved a crop, and, what is more important, a stand -of alfalfa. Many reports have come to the writer of fields that had -little sign of life the first of March, yet when thoroughly disked, -cross-disked and harrowed, surprised the neighborhood by showing in two -weeks a strong growth. - -Some wishing to be on the safe side, have sown a little seed after this -heavy disking and harrowing, but many of them have reported an entire -loss of the seed, as the plants from the previous sowing came up so -thick as to choke out those from the later seeding. In some states a -common plan of thickening a stand is to let the third crop ripen seed, -and then about the last of September disk and harrow the seed into the -ground where it grew. This frequently saves the stand and adds many -years to its life. But where a field begins to fail after a third year -it is usually better to plow it up and raise one or two crops of corn, a -crop of oats or of millet, and then reseed. - - -ALFALFA UNDER IRRIGATION - -The greatest yields of alfalfa are produced by irrigation. Reported -yields of six or more cuttings, aggregating eight to twelve tons per -acre each year, are almost invariably, yet not always, from districts -where irrigation is practiced. It is claimed by experiment station -experts from the irrigation states that the tendency is to use too much -water; too much at a time and too often. The general recommendation is -to irrigate thoroughly before the ground is plowed or disked, and not -again till the alfalfa is about four inches high. Then again a week -before each cutting. It has been found that old alfalfa fields do not -need as much water as new fields, the alfalfa roots seeming to find -moisture and bring it to the surface. - -It is insisted that the surface must be perfectly smooth to keep water -from settling into low places and smothering the plants. Some farmers do -not irrigate for the second crop if as much as two inches of rain falls -after the first mowing. Others claim that old fields do not need -flooding for the second crop even if there has been no rainfall after -the first cutting. - -Wilcox in his “Irrigation Farming”[3] says: “The critical time with -alfalfa is the first six weeks of its growth. Flooding during this -period is quite certain to give the plants a backset from which they -seldom fully recover before the second, and sometimes not before the -third year, and it is not often in the arid states that rain falls with -sufficient frequency to dispense with the necessity for irrigating the -plants while small. By soaking the earth from thirty-six to forty-eight -hours before seeding, however, the plants will make vigorous growth -until they are ten to twelve inches high, after which they may be -irrigated with safety. - - [3] “Irrigation Farming,” by Lute Wilcox: 314 pp. Orange Judd Company, - New York. - -“When alfalfa has become established, a single copious irrigation after -each cutting will ordinarily be found sufficient. Irrigation before -cutting is undesirable, because it leaves the earth so soft as to -interfere with the movement of machinery and loads. It also makes the -stalks more sappy, and, while they will retain the leaves better, there -is more difficulty to be experienced in the curing at harvest time; and -taken all in all, we much prefer to irrigate after each cutting. In -Colorado we cut alfalfa three times and often four times in a season, -hence the stand gets as many irrigations. Some people irrigate very -early in springtime, before the crowns have awakened from their hibernal -rest, but this practice is not right. The chill of the water in very -early spring is not conducive to quick growth and may often retard the -plants in getting an early start. We do not irrigate prior to the first -cutting unless the season is particularly dry and the plants seem to -actually demand water. We irrigate late in the fall and apply a -top-dressing of light barnyard manure, which is found to be of great -service in several ways.” - - -INFLUENCE OF IRRIGATION UPON COMPOSITION - -I find no report of experiments published by any station in which the -influence of irrigation upon alfalfa hay is made a special study, but -Bulletin No. 80 of the Utah station contains a great deal of information -along this line relative to grain crops, potatoes, and mixed grasses. In -summing up the results of the experiments, the following conclusions are - -“Heavy irrigations increase the percentage of weight of the heads of -plants; light irrigations increase the relative weight of leaves. - -“Irrigation modifies definitely the composition of plants and plant -parts; the seeds are affected more than any other plant part. - -“The percentage of protein in corn kernels was increased from 12.05 to -15.08, as the amount of irrigation decreased; in oat kernels from 14.07 -to 20.79; in wheat kernels from 15.26 to 26.72. In all these seeds the -fat and nitrogen-free extracts were increased by liberal waterings. - -“Increased irrigations increased the starch content and decreased the -protein content of potatoes. - -“The water in plants is somewhat dependent on the water in the soil. - -“The proportion of ear corn to stover increased regularly with the -increased application of water. - -“The percentage of grain in the wheat crop increased with increased -irrigations. - -“The yield of wheat increased up to thirty inches of water. - -“Crops in an arid district require a greater number of pounds of water -for one pound of dry matter than in humid climates.” - -The experiments cited do not include alfalfa, yet the results with other -crops would indicate that the percentage of protein in alfalfa hay may -be less where the crop is grown by irrigation than where it is grown by -dry-land farming. The composition of the hay, however, will depend upon -the quantity of water supplied to the crop and not upon the method; that -is, alfalfa which receives as much natural rainfall as other alfalfa -would receive by irrigation, would be similarly affected in composition, -and from the experiments with grains reported in the bulletin noted, it -would appear that with the application of large quantities of water the -percentage of protein is decreased; yet, the yield is increased, and -although the feeding value of the crop may be a little less, the -quantity may be greater, due to large applications of water. - - -WIDE VARIATIONS IN CONTENT - -Professor Ten Eyck compiled from their station bulletins the following -figures on the composition of alfalfa hay in four different states: - - ----------+--------+----------+----------+----------+--------- - |Bulletin| | Carbo- | |Number of - | Number | Protein | hydrates | Fat |Analyses - ----------+--------+----------+----------+----------+--------- - | |_Per Cent_|_Per Cent_|_Per Cent_| - New Jersey| 148 | 15.84 | 38.97 | 3.82 | 2 - Colorado | 39 | 17.36 | 36.71 | 1.65 | 9 - Utah | 61 | 9.22 | 43.25 | .97 | 29 - Kansas | 114 | 11.89 | 41.03 | .66 | 3 - ----------+--------+----------+----------+----------+--------- - -On this showing he remarks: - -“Although it was not definitely stated, I take it that the Colorado and -Utah hay were grown by irrigation, while the New Jersey and Kansas hay -received no irrigation. It will be observed that while the percentages -of protein and fat in the Utah samples are low, the percentage of -carbohydrates is high; yet the Colorado samples grown under irrigation -show a larger percentage of protein and fat than the Kansas samples -grown without irrigation. The crude protein often varies in quantity -according to the stage of maturity of the alfalfa when it is cut for -hay, as shown by experiments at the Kansas station, and described in -Bulletin No. 114. - -“The general conclusion may be that the protein content of alfalfa hay -will decrease to some extent, according as the supply of water furnished -the crop is increased; that is, by supplying the right quantity of -water, a better quality of hay may be grown by irrigation than is often -grown in humid climates in soil which receives only the natural -rainfall. From what I know of the Colorado and Utah stations, I would -judge that the quantity of water supplied at the Utah station was much -larger than that supplied at the Colorado station. At the Colorado -station the supply of irrigation water is often limited, and hence, the -larger percentage of protein and fat which appears in the samples of hay -grown and analyzed at that station.” - -The annual report of the secretary of agriculture (1904) says that at -the Utah station a series of co-operative experiments is in progress to -determine the water necessary, and the most favorable method of -application, to insure a maximum yield of alfalfa, and also experiments -to determine the minimum application of water required to secure a crop. -“It has been found that abundant irrigation throughout the season, 61 -inches of water being applied, gave a yield of 6.2 tons per acre, while -four irrigations in the early part of the season with only 25 inches -gave five tons per acre, showing that beyond a certain supply the excess -is wasted.” - -A. S. Hitchcock, in United States Farmers’ Bulletin No. 215, speaking of -the Utah experiment just mentioned, says that where the supply of water -is limited a much less quantity than is ordinarily used will produce -paying crops. The minimum quantity to produce a crop of alfalfa, and the -time at which the water should be applied, depends upon the soil and -climatic conditions. Below are results of experiments in 1903, by the -Utah station: - - -WATER REQUIRED BY ALFALFA; QUANTITY AND DATE OF APPLICATION - - -------------------------------------------------------------+------- - Date of each irrigation and quantity of water applied | Total - --------------+--------------+--------------+----------------+ Water - First | Second | Third | Fourth |applied - -------+------+-------+------+-------+------+-------+--------+------- - |_Acre_| |_Acre_| |_Acre_| | _Acre_ |_Acre_ - | _in._| | _in._| | _in._| | _in._ |_in._ - June 16| 3.360|July 29| 3.359| .... | .... | .... | .... | 6.719 - June 29| 5.970|July 29| 3.359|Aug. 19| 3.359| .... | .... |12.688 - June 16| 5.070|July 8 | 5.036|Aug. 6 | 5.003| .... | .... |15.109 - June 29| 7.020|July 8 | 5.036|Aug. 19| 5.002| .... | .... |17.058 - June 15| 5.030|July 3 | 5.100|Aug. 1 | 5.036|Aug. 24| 5.002|20.168 - June 20| 6.774|July 8 | 6.694|Aug. 19| 6.682| .... | .... |20.150 - July 8|12.490|Aug. 9 |12.506| .... | .... | .... | .... |25.002 - June 20| 8.303|July 6 | 8.352|Aug. 19| 8.362| .... | .... |25.017 - June 15| 6.320|July 6 | 6.248|Aug. 1 | 6.248|Aug. 29| 6.250|25.066 - June 16| 6.250|June 23| 4.280|June 30| 5.705|July 7 |[4]5.230|61.465 - June 23| 6.250|July 7 | 6.220|Aug. 15| 6.250|Aug. 31| 6.250|24.970 - June 16| 6.250|July 7 | 6.220|Aug. 6 | 6.750|Aug. 31| 6.250|25.470 - June 23| 6.610|July 7 | 3.720|Aug. 15| 3.250|Aug. 31| 3.750|17.330 - June 16| 3.980|July 7 | 3.720|Aug. 6 | 3.750|Aug. 31| 3.750|15.200 - -------+------+-------+------+-------+------+-------+--------+------- - - [4] This plat was given 5 inches of water on each of the following - dates: July 14, July 22, July 28, August 4, August 17, August 25, - August 31, September 8. - - -DATE OF HARVEST AND YIELD OF HAY - - --------------------------------------------------+--------+---------- - Date of harvest and yield of hay at each cutting | Total |Calculated - ----------------+----------------+----------------+ yield | yield - First | Second | Third | of plat| per acre - -------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+--------+---------- - |_Pounds_| |_Pounds_| .... |_Pounds_|_Pounds_| _Tons_ - June 26| 264 |Aug. 12| 50¹⁄₂| .... | .... | 314¹⁄₂| 3.145 - June 26| 177 |Aug. 12| 101 | .... | .... | 278 | 2.780 - June 26| 261 |Aug. 12| 68¹⁄₂| .... | .... | 329¹⁄₂| 3.205 - June 26| 204 |Aug. 12| 108¹⁄₂| .... | .... | 312¹⁄₂| 3.125 - June 26| 191 |Aug. 12| 85¹⁄₂| .... | .... | 276¹⁄₂| 2.765 - June 26| 175 |Aug. 12| 74 | .... | .... | 249 | 2.490 - June 26| 93 |Aug. 12| 62 | .... | .... | 155 | 1.550 - June 26| 99 |Aug. 12| 44 | .... | .... | 143 | 1.430 - June 26| 224 |Aug. 12| 140 | .... | .... | 364 | 3.640 - June 18| 176¹⁄₂|Aug. 10| 177¹⁄₄|Oct. 16| 120¹⁄₂| 474¹⁄₄| 6.243 - June 18| 170¹⁄₂|Aug. 10| 136¹⁄₂|Oct. 16| 73³⁄₄| 380³⁄₄| 5.017 - June 18| 147 |Aug. 10| 141 |Oct. 16| 61 | 349 | 4.598 - June 18| 105 |Aug. 10| 112¹⁄₄|Oct. 16| 46 | 263¹⁄₄| 3.468 - June 18| 112¹⁄₂|Aug. 10| 106 |Oct. 16| 35 | 253¹⁄₂| 3.340 - -------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+--------+---------- - -“It will be observed that the maximum crop was produced by applying -plenty of water throughout the growing season. However, it is also to be -noted that a much less quantity of water, when applied at intervals of -three or four weeks, produced a fair crop. Fifteen and 17 inches of -water applied in this way produced more than half as much as 61 inches -applied at frequent intervals. Furthermore, three irrigations of 15 to -17 inches produced about the same results as the same amount applied at -four irrigations. In applying irrigation water to fields it is necessary -to saturate the soil to a reasonable depth. All the water that drains -off beyond the amount required for use is lost to the crop. It is not -necessary to apply water again until the crop has removed a large part -of the available supply.” - -[Illustration: Gathering Alfalfa Hay in Windrows with a Side-delivery -Horserake] - -[Illustration: Cutting a Fine Field of Alfalfa] - - - - -_CHAPTER VII._ - -Harvesting - - -CALLS FOR INTELLIGENCE AND PAINSTAKING - -Considerable space in this volume is devoted to the discussion of soil -and seeding, but their importance cannot well be over-estimated. Really -the whole subject of alfalfa might well be treated under the two heads, -“Seeding” and “Harvesting,” so very inclusive are these two phases of -the subject. Without careful seeding one cannot have a crop to harvest, -and without careful harvesting he might almost as well not have a crop. -Both call for intelligence and painstaking farming, and much patience -and hard work. But the rewards of these virtues and labors are heavy -yields from the most valuable forage plant. If it is worth nine times as -much as timothy, it can well demand a little more time and labor than -the average crop. - - -GREAT VALUE OF LEAVES - -The first point to accentuate as we approach the subject of harvesting -is the preeminent value of the leaves. These contain from seventy-five -to eighty per cent of the protein of the whole plant, that valuable -compound that goes to produce milk and meat. It has been estimated that -a ton of properly cured alfalfa leaves is equal in protein to 2800 -pounds of wheat bran; and when it is also estimated by careful observers -that the loss of leaves in harvesting, even under favoring -circumstances, ranges from fifteen to thirty or more per cent it is -readily seen that the harvesting is an important part in alfalfa -haymaking. - - -WHEN TO CUT - -For the best hay the cutting should begin when the alfalfa is about -one-tenth in bloom. Of course, if the acreage is small, calling for but -one or two days’ cutting, it might stand without particular harm until a -fifth or fourth was in bloom. Cutting should be completed, if possible, -by the time one-half is in bloom, as after that it is cut at a loss of -leaves. As they have more experience the tendency among farmers is to -cut alfalfa earlier than had before been believed at all desirable, and -some experienced growers and feeders now insist upon cutting just before -the blossoming stage is reached. - -Experiments seem to show that horses like the hay that has been cut when -at least half in bloom, or later, better than do other stock. For sake -of the after effects on the plant, it is highly important that the first -cutting be made in the early bloom, as, if it is delayed, the second -crop starts more slowly and gives a lighter yield. Frequently a short -delay in cutting the first crop means that the field will produce but -two crops instead of three or four. So important is this that Prof. H. -M. Cottrell declares that he has found it profitable to cut the first -crop of a season in earliest bloom even if it were to be injured by -being rained upon, or in fact entirely lost. - - -MOST PROTEIN IN EARLY CUTTINGS - -The Utah experiment station found by a feeding test that the early cut -alfalfa was worth far more than any later cutting. It reported: - - ------------------------------+----------+----------- - |Hay worth,| Beef, lbs. - Stage of Growth | per ton | produced - ------------------------------+----------+----------- - When ¹⁄₁₀ in bloom | $5.35 | 706 - When in full bloom | 4.90 | 562 - When ¹⁄₂ of blooms have fallen| 4.35 | 490 - ------------------------------+----------+----------- - -The Kansas station found the protein content to be: - - Stage of Growth Protein content - When ¹⁄₁₀ in bloom 18.5 per cent. - When ¹⁄₂ in bloom 17.2 „ „ - When in full bloom 14.4 „ „ - - -CONSTANT WATCHFULNESS DEMANDED - -In humid regions, the alfalfa farmer at the time of the first cutting -often finds himself in a trying position. The value of the leaves -demands early cutting, and this may be just when it is likely to rain -with great frequency. He knows that a wetting will injure his hay, and -that this results in more or less loss of some of its most valuable -parts from the hour of cutting until it is thoroughly cured. The -Colorado station reports that alfalfa hay left out for fifteen days -after cutting and rained on twice, lost 26.1 per cent of its feeding -value. Hay left out for seven days and having only one light rain, lost -10 per cent. Another lot left out three days, without rain, lost 5 per -cent. Wetting delays the curing, and by the washing the hay loses much -sugar, dextrin and other soluble matters, and also develops fungi. -However, the only thing to do is to cut, exercising good judgment of -course as to the amount each day. - - -LOSSES IN CURING - -Headden found, at the Colorado station, that in an average alfalfa plant -the stems amounted to forty to fifty per cent of the weight, while with -very leafy, small-stemmed plants the leaves sometimes form more than -sixty per cent of the entire weight. The leaves were readily lost if the -hay was not handled carefully. He concluded that the minimum loss from -the falling off of the leaves and stems in careful haymaking amounts to -from fifteen to twenty per cent; and in cases where conditions have been -unfavorable, as much as sixty or even sixty-six per cent of the entire -dry crop is lost. Stated in another way, with the best of conditions, -and with great care, for every 1,700 pounds of hay taken off the field, -at least 300 pounds of leaves and stems are left scattered on the -ground, “and, in very bad cases, as much as 1,200 pounds may be left for -each 800 pounds taken.” A study of these facts should induce the careful -haymaker to use all possible skill in curing alfalfa, and they show that -it will be profitable to expend more than the usual amount of labor in -saving the leaves, considering that they are worth, pound for pound, -nearly four times as much as the stems. - - -HARVESTING IN HUMID REGIONS - -Ordinarily, it is not well to cut alfalfa immediately after a heavy -rain, because the wet ground will operate against proper curing. Begin -cutting in the morning, when the dew is well off. If the weather is -fair, the tedder ought to follow about two hours behind the mower. It is -a mistake to think that the sun is the great curing agent. Too long -exposure to the sun makes the curing all the more unsatisfactory, -besides drying the leaves in such a way that they crumble and drop off. - -As long as alfalfa remains “alive” water will be exhaled from the -surface of the leaves and be pumped constantly from the stalks in a -natural way much as though they were still standing. On the other hand, -if newly cut alfalfa is spread too long in hot sunshine, the leaves are -scorched to such an extent that transpiration of moisture from pores -becomes impossible. Hence, that in the stalks can only escape by simple -evaporation, which is very slow. By this means much undesirable, in fact -harmful, moisture in the hay is brought to the barn or stack, although -the leaves of the hay are dry and crisp. - -As J. E. Wing has well said in his bulletin (Bul. No. 129 prepared for -the Pennsylvania department of agriculture), “there is a principle to be -observed in making alfalfa hay that applies to making hay from all -clovers. If it can be so managed that the leaves are not at once burned -and dried to powder, the moisture from the stems is the more easily -removed. Leaves are natural evaporators of sap; stems are not. -Therefore, while the leaf has yet pliancy and some semblance of its -natural condition, it is most efficiently carrying away the sap of the -stem, but when it is dried up it no longer aids in drying the plant at -all. Therefore, the best hay in all respects is made partly in the -shade, in loosely turned windrows, or in narrow cocks.” - -Two or three hours behind the tedder start the rake and keep it going -regardless of the noon hour, and unless the hay is very heavy it may be -put into small cocks, this to be completed before the dew forms. In -humid regions, hay is cured best and with greatest safety by the use of -hay-caps, and these should be put on the cocks also before the dew -forms, and removed each morning. The hay may be left in these cocks for -four or five days, as found necessary, and then stacked or stored in the -barn. This may not follow, however, unless the weather is favorable. -Many prefer to leave the hay in the windrows until the second morning, -turning them by hand or otherwise before noon and putting into cocks in -the afternoon, letting these stand for two or three days. If it is left -in the cocks over three days, they should be moved or the plants under -them will be smothered. All agree that alfalfa should not lie in the -swath over two or three hours. Most who have ever used a tedder like it -if the alfalfa is less than half in bloom. If half or more in bloom, the -tedder may cause the breaking off and loss of many leaves. Most -experiment stations recommend that the hay be put into small cocks on -the day of the cutting, if the weather is at all fair, not risking it in -the windrows over night. It is a fact that cocked green alfalfa, even -without caps, will shed much rain, while when fairly well-cured it will -not do so. - -A Colorado farmer reported that he started the mower one morning as soon -as the dew was off, followed it with the tedder one hour later, and with -the rake one hour behind the tedder; he kept a force of men only two -hours behind the rake putting the alfalfa, yet quite green, into small -cocks. These stood through two days of heavy rain. Later the cocks were -opened and found to be unharmed, and after one day the hay was put into -stacks in excellent condition. This was a somewhat unusual circumstance, -surely, and might not often occur in a climate less dry than that in -some parts of Colorado. - -A grower in southern Kansas, however, who harvests about one thousand -tons of alfalfa per year, and is working with it nearly every day from -the second week in May until November 10, insists that alfalfa, under -the same conditions of rainfall, is much easier to save in fair feeding -condition than red clover. He finds the side-delivery rake especially -excellent for turning over the green or wet windrows to the sun and air -with the least loss of leaves, and cured thus, after being wet, the -natural color is better preserved. “That alfalfa hay has a higher -feeding value than almost any other, even when saved under the most -unfavorable circumstances, should be impressed upon the inexperienced.” - - -THE USE OF HAY-CAPS - -Any man who goes into the business of raising alfalfa anywhere in the -rain belt cannot well afford to ignore hay-caps as a part of his -equipment. Comparatively the cost is slight and the trouble of using -them small considered in the light of their great utility, although the -expense, and the use and care of them may at first blush appear to be -quite formidable. American haymakers do not seem to appreciate the bad -effect of dew upon the color and aroma of all kinds of hay. Prof. F. H. -Storer in his “Agriculture” (Vol. III, p. 559) says: “One advantage -gained by the use of hay-caps to protect the cocks during the night, is -that they hold in the raked-up warmth, and keep the hay from cooling -off. Thus it happens that the hay not only improves a little as to -dryness during the night, but is all ready to dry rapidly when the cocks -are again exposed to the air and sunshine, on being uncovered in the -morning. All this as a normal and constant benefit, to say nothing of -the advantages derived from the caps in case light rains, or even heavy -rains, should fall before the cocks are again opened. The caps keep dew -from settling upon the hay, moreover, and thus prevent the loss of -aromatic matters that would result if the dew were to dry off from the -hay.” - -“With regard to the exclusion of dew, it is not alone its power to carry -off aroma that should be considered. When dew ‘falls’ it must tend to -carry with it any particles of solid matter that may happen to be in the -air from which it is deposited, and, in this way the spores of fungi, -such as would cause the hay to mold, are put upon it. It can scarcely be -questioned that many of the organisms deposited with the dew are likely -to promote hurtful decomposition, especially in case the hay should -remain or become damp, and the less of these organisms that infest the -hay the better it will be.” - -When the farmer considers that a ton of well-cured alfalfa hay is worth -about as much as a ton of wheat bran, he ought to see that it is -profitable to protect it from the rain and the dew. He would scarcely -hesitate to provide suitable covering if he had several tons of bran in -the field exposed to the elements. Hay-caps will soon pay for -themselves by the finer quality of the hay they assure, aside from the -larger quantity of the best grade that their protection guarantees. - -Storer further says, “there can be no question as to the very great -merit of hay-caps when properly used. They are simply pieces of stout, -cotton cloth of suitable size, say 40 to 45 inches square as a minimum, -(60 inches square would be far better--Author) which are thrown over the -cocks when rain is imminent, or at nightfall. These cloths may have -wooden pegs or some sort of weight attached to each corner to hold them -in place; the pegs can be driven into the ground or pushed under the -hay, as seems most suitable to the size of the cock or conditions of the -weather. The porosity of the cotton cloth hinders dampness from -collecting beneath it at the top of the cock which it covers.” - -Curing alfalfa in dry regions where the problems and dangers of rainfall -do not need any large consideration, is attended with few of the -difficulties which confront the grower in a region of much humidity. In -western Kansas and Nebraska, and in Texas and other states where summer -rains are somewhat infrequent, the mowers start at the beginning and do -not stop until the field or fields of alfalfa are all in the swath. The -rakes follow close behind, frequently the side-delivery rake, and then -the gathering implement, usually designated as a “go-devil,” keep only -about a half-day behind, dragging the cured hay to the stack or rick -where the horse-fork lifts and carries it to the center of the stack, to -be distributed and placed by men with pitchforks. The market and feeding -value of hay so cured and gathered, is deemed by some authorities as -not the highest. Curing in the windrow alone is likely to be a mere -drying (perhaps too rapid drying) of one side of the exposed portions. -Alfalfa should cure successively in the swath, windrow, cock and stack -or mow, to develop its greatest value. The man who has so many acres -that he cannot cure it in this way might do better with fewer acres for -hay, and pasture hogs on the remainder, or use the land for other crops. -Still it is true that alfalfa even poorly cured has no inconsiderable -feeding value. Many farmers in the West and Middle West claim to secure -very good hay by early following the mower with the tedder, this with -the rake, and then the “buncher,” letting the hay remain in bunches over -night and dragging it to the stack the next day. Others take from the -windrow to wagons by a hay-loader, preferably one operated by a belt. - -After all is said and done, and regardless of thrift and yield, it is -unquestionable that the grower of alfalfa in humid regions meets with -difficulties in the matter of satisfactory curing that in some years are -almost or quite disheartening, and of a character to which his brother -in arid territory is virtually a total stranger. Curing in the two -regions presents different problems, with advantage all the time -favoring the man in the country of little rainfall. - -Second and later cuttings are not so much endangered by rains as is the -first, and, hence, these are usually cured in better condition. -Notwithstanding this, virtually all tests point out that the first -cutting has more feeding value and is better relished by all kinds of -stock. Most farmers are agreed that it pays to cut every time the -alfalfa blooms, up to the last of September in the North, and possibly a -month later in the more southern latitudes. A few have reported that -they prefer to make but two cuttings a year, claiming to realize a -greater feeding value by so doing; but it seems that the loss in leaves -and protein, together with the fact that live stock has less relish for -the more mature cuttings, makes frequent cutting by far the most -profitable. - -To sum up, the points to be emphasized in cutting alfalfa for hay, and -its treatment immediately after, are: - -_Cut in early bloom._ - -_Handle as little as possible._ - -_Prevent its being wet after cutting._ - -_Cure if possible partly in the swath, in the windrow, in the cock and -in the stack or mow._ - -_Cut as often as it blooms, which will range from twice in New England -to nine times a year in southern Oklahoma, southern California, Texas -and Louisiana._ - -_In a region of frequent rains protect with hay-caps._ - - -HARVESTING FOR SEED - -The first cutting should not be used for seed for three reasons: First, -if that cutting is delayed until the seed has ripened, the second and -third cuttings will be very light, and in the extreme northern alfalfa -territory there may not be even a second. A stronger reason is that at -the time of the first cutting, favorable weather is likely to be much -less certain and rains will interfere with the stacking of the seed -crop, which, to insure its best value, must be put in the stack or mow -without wetting. Another is that the seed pods at that season are not -usually so well filled and the proportion of fertile seeds is less -because the bees and other insects have not so early in the season had -time and opportunity to aid in the pollenation. - -Cutting should be done when the greater proportion of the seeds are -hard, but not sufficiently ripe to shell. At this stage a majority of -the pods are turned a dark-brown color and the seeds are fully -developed. Frequently the cutting can be raked into windrows after two -hours if the weather is drying, and in two or three hours more put into -cocks and let stand for twenty-four to forty-eight hours, as the weather -may justify. It should, however, be well cured and thoroughly dry when -put in the stack, or there is danger of heating, and stack-heating -seriously injures the vitality of the seed. It is not uncommon, if -extremely ripe, to leave the cutting in the swath only an hour or a -half-hour, then stack, and let stand for autumn or later threshing. If -allowed to stand in the stack for about thirty days, the entire mass -goes through a sweating and curing process which makes the threshing -easier, while less of the seed is left in the straw than would be if it -had not stack-cured. In western Kansas many seed raisers cut their seed -crop with a self-binder, put the sheaves in shocks the same day and -thresh in about ten days, or put it into a stack to await a convenient -threshing time. They claim to secure 20 per cent more of the seed in -this way than if they cut with the ordinary mower. Others cut with a -mower having a dropper attachment which leaves the alfalfa in small -bunches at the will of the driver, in the center of the swath, and -these are “straddled” by the team and the wheels of the mower in the -subsequent rounds. These bunches are left for two or three days and then -stacked. There is little, if any, danger from mold or spontaneous -combustion in stacks of alfalfa cut for seed, but there is danger of the -seed heating in the stack if stacked when damp. If bright, clean seed is -expected, the stacks must be well topped with slough grass, or covered -with tarpaulins or boards, or given other protection. It is better still -to put the alfalfa intended for seed into a barn. - -One Kansas farmer in the western part of the state reports that he used -a self-binding harvester, shocked the sheaves like those of grain, let -them stand ten days and then put in a mow, with no bad results. - - -YIELDS OF SEED - -The yield of seed ranges all the way from two to thirteen bushels per -acre, the normal yield in the seed regions being four to eight bushels. -It is threshed with ordinary grain separators with seed attachments, -although the clover-huller is usually preferred. No threshing machine -cleans the seed satisfactorily or sufficiently, and a careful recleaning -is necessary. Fanning mills or seed-cleaners are now made that will -remove most weed seeds, seeds of dodder, and all light-weight and -probably infertile alfalfa seeds. However, no raiser should by rights -thresh, to say nothing of marketing, the seeds of the dodder or any -other weed with his alfalfa; these should be cut out of the field with -scythe, sickle or knife a month before the alfalfa is cut. - -The threshed alfalfa straw is worth only about half as much as the hay, -yet it makes excellent feed for horses, colts and calves. Or, if put -into stacks of alfalfa of the third cutting, in alternate layers, it may -be fed to any stock to good advantage, as it is relished quite as well -as ordinary third cuttings, notwithstanding its lower feeding value. - - -THE THIRD CUTTING FOR SEED - -Seed raisers in some instances, especially in Kansas, use the third -cutting for seed, claiming that the pods are more uniformly filled and -the seeds more generally fertile, due to the assistance of the bees in -pollenation. They claim, too, that this cutting has fewer weeds and weed -seeds than its predecessors; also that they are thus sure of two good -hay crops, while often if they use the second crop for seed, the third -crop is hardly worth more than the cutting. The only point left in favor -of using the second cutting for seed, where the farmer is confident of a -third, is that the protein value of the second is the lowest, and hence -its hay can better be spared than that from any other cutting. - -The raising of seed in the more humid eastern states should not, -generally, be attempted, as it will not only interfere with obtaining -full value in the hay crop, but the less fertile soil will not produce -as vigorous seed as will the newer and richer lands west of the Missouri -river. At present the best seed for general use is produced between that -river and the Rocky mountains. Utah produces a hardy seed, but much if -not most of it is raised under irrigation, and, hence, at least -theoretically, not deemed best adapted for regions dependent entirely -upon soil moisture from rains. - -[Illustration: =Gathering an Alfalfa Crop in Page County, Iowa= - -Photograph by courtesy of Henry Field] - -[Illustration: =Alfalfa Harvesting Scene in Yellowstone County, -Montana]= - -[Illustration: =Mast and Boom Stacker, with Six-Tined Jackson Fork= - -The mast is held in place by guy ropes from the top. Leading to the -right may be seen the rope to which is attached a team of horses. The -base of the derrick is in the form of sled runners, so that the whole -may be drawn along the stack by attaching a team] - -[Illustration: =A Derrick Stacker= - -with six-tined Jackson or California fork. The derrick is substantial, -and guy ropes are not necessary. Stakes driven into the ground around -the base hold the derrick in place] - - - - -_CHAPTER VIII._ - -Storing - - -CARE IN CURING - -After all possible care has been taken in seeding, cultivating and -harvesting alfalfa, its feeding value may be greatly impaired or quite -lost by ignorance or carelessness in storing; that is, by stacking or -putting it into sheds or barns, or by baling it for market when in an -unsuitable condition. - -The only path to safety in stacking or storing in shed or mow is having -the hay in proper condition for completing its own curing. The true -medium for its curing is air, not sun; the sun has done possibly more -than its share already. But good hay is not completely and properly -cured in swath, windrow and cock. If cured in the windrow, the exposed -parts are liable to be much injured by the sun. Therefore the principle -stands, “Handle alfalfa green.” It must be cut green, teddered, raked -and cocked or bunched while comparatively green, and must not then be -allowed to dry and parch to brittleness. True, it must not be put into a -stack so long as it is possible to wring water out of the stalks. A -constant study should be to find the best method of getting the hay into -storage without loss of its natural color. The method that will safely -store it greenest will be the best to follow. Handled green the leaves -are saved, and these constitute from 50 to 75 per cent of the whole -value. - - -PUTTING INTO WINTER QUARTERS - -When (in regions of much humidity) the hay is safely in cock, covered -with hay-caps, and has had a few days of curing, it is ready for -permanent quarters. Remembering that the hay after its drying has begun -should be handled as little as possible, the cocks have been made small -enough so that two men may lift them bodily onto a wagon, if a wagon is -used in the stacking. From the wagon, the hay is lifted by a hayfork to -the stack. Or, more careful still, the farmer will use three slings to -each wagon, which are lifted by a hook to the stack or mow. A sling is a -heavy sheet the size of the wagon hayrack. One is spread on the bottom -of the rack, another on top of the first one-third of the load, and the -other on top of the second third. These slings are banded at the ends; -the ends are drawn together and a third of the load lifted to the stack -or mow, thus saving in some instances a third more leaves than any other -method. - -In arid and semi-arid territory, cocking and loading on or off wagons -are dispensed with by dragging the rapidly dried hay directly to stacks -built in the fields, where the lifting into place is done with great -expedition by horse implements. A wheel-rake or “go-devil” is used to -take at once several cocks, bunches or a part of a windrow to a nearby -stack. Others use a rope to drag one or more large cocks to the stack; -or, if the hay is to be taken from windrows, it may be put upon wagons -with a loader. The loader is an excellent implement for handling -timothy and clover, but is apt to shake off a good many leaves of -alfalfa if the hay is very dry. The more common sling now on the market -is made of ropes, four ropes the length of the hayrack and with ropes -across like a rope ladder, and used to handle one-third or one-fourth of -a load. Others are made like the carriers of a threshing machine with -slats and ropes. - - -STORING IN THE BARN - -The barn is the best place for alfalfa if all conditions are right. -Cases of spontaneous combustion in stack and mow make farmers fearful of -using the barn, especially for the first cutting, which is always most -difficult to cure. There are certain conditions that must be observed if -this hay is to complete its curing properly and safely in the mow. The -bottom of the mow should be elevated at least a foot from the ground, -floored with poles or joists, and they should be about two-thirds -covered with boards or other material in such a way as to provide -numerous openings or air spaces of considerable size. If the mow already -has a tight floor, a part of the flooring should be removed before the -hay is put in. Then a box or barrel should be placed in the center of -the space and lifted up as the filling proceeds. If the mow is over -thirty feet long, a second barrel should be used; that is, an air shaft -should be left in about each fifteen to twenty feet. A layer of dry hay -or straw sandwiched in about every four of five feet, as the mow fills, -can be used to much advantage. If the mow is large enough in length and -width, an excellent, safe plan is to spread the first cutting over the -entire bottom, filling up to a height of four or five feet. The second -cutting may be placed over this, on top of a layer of straw, and the -third cutting over this. There is virtually no danger from spontaneous -combustion or from mold if this is done, and the hay will be as bright -and green and almost as rich in protein in January as when harvested. - -J. W. Berry of Jewell county, Kansas, member of the board of regents of -the state agricultural college, uses this method and bales his hay in -October for the city markets, finding it in perfect condition. He puts -his hay into the mow green but not wet, direct from the cocks, or -windrows the day it is cut, in layers about four feet deep, with the -slightest possible loss of leaves, no bleaching and no injury by dew. In -1905 he cut his alfalfa four times and stored the fourth cutting on top -of the three preceding. He says that having an open floor and plenty of -air from the outside, the hay can be put in the barn as described; that -it should not be tramped, and it will settle and cure perfectly. The -bottom layer or first cutting may show some dust when taken out if -handled loose, but the color will be good and it will bale in with the -other cuttings and all grade well. Hay cured in this way in 1904 graded -“choice” in the St. Louis market. - -Spontaneous combustion does not occur very often, but it is a -possibility, and it is well to bear in mind that hay may be put in the -barn too green. Observation teaches that it never takes place unless the -hay has been put in the barn while containing a large amount of -moisture, and piled too deep. Alfalfa and other clover hays may safely -be put in the barn when they contain not to exceed 30 per cent of water. -If, however, they contain much more than this there is considerable -danger, especially where large quantities are put together, as is the -case in large, deep mows and sometimes in large stacks. A practical test -which may be safely followed is to take a handful of hay, twist it as -hard as possible, and if no juice can be wrung out of its stems, it is -dry enough to be put in the mow. Bunches of wet hay mixed with dry hay -have often caused combustion. Such should always be discarded. It is -poor policy to haul clover hays into a barn after sundown, as at that -time it absorbs moisture from the atmosphere very rapidly. - -It is a good plan for the haymaker to go into his mow every morning -while the hay is curing and observe the conditions, but he should not, -however, become alarmed if he finds that the top of his hay is very -damp. This will always be the case, even if it was comparatively dry -when put in; considerable heat develops during the night, which in turn -evaporates moisture. The following morning, when the air is cool, a -large percentage of this, especially if the mow is not well ventilated, -is condensed and settles back on the hay. If the moisture, however, is -excessive, it is a good plan to scatter a load of dry straw over the -top. This will absorb the moisture in part, after which filling may be -continued. In case a load has been put in the barn too wet, it should be -spread to the outer edges, as there is much less danger of combustion at -these places than in the center. In fact, the greatest heat is always -developed in the center, where the so-called craters form, and from -which moisture and gases are given off as a result of heating and -oxidation below. - -From the fact that spontaneous combustion cannot take place until the -water has all been evaporated, there is no danger until three to four -weeks after the hay has been stored. During the first week or so, if the -hay heats to such an extent that there is danger of combustion, it is -well to open up the center as much as possible and allow some of the -heat to escape. If, however, the heating has continued much longer, it -is dangerous practice to open the hay at all, because all that is -needed, after the water has been evaporated, is air, or oxygen to -support combustion, and the mass will at once burst into flames. -Sometimes combustion takes place without flames, in which case the -center of the mow gradually chars, leaving the hay there as black as -charcoal, and without value. - -Professor Cottrell, discussing spontaneous combustion (Kansas Bul. No. -114), says that all cases observed by him have occurred in hay of the -season’s first cutting--cut at a time when the growth was rank and the -curing most difficult. A period of wet, muggy weather in July or August -increases the danger, which in dry weather seems much less. On account -of previous trouble from heating in the barn, he had four years prior to -writing stacked the first cutting out of doors and put only the later -cuttings in the barn. - - -LOSSES FROM STACKING - -The Colorado station found that the loss in feeding value from the hour -of cocking to the hour of taking from the stack was 12.4 per cent, -while the loss in hay stored in the barn was about 2.5 per cent. If we -add to this the stacked hay lost by exposure, it will easily reach more -than 20 per cent under average conditions while in many cases it would -reach 40 per cent. This certainly represents an enormous waste, and by -preventing it a man with any considerable area of alfalfa could soon -save enough to pay for a barn. - - -THE HAY SHED - -After a barn the next best place for storing hay is a shed with an -adjustable or lifting roof. The ground dimensions should be ample to -allow the first cutting to cover its floor and not be over five or -possibly six feet deep when first put in. The bottom of the mow should -be raised at least one foot from the ground, and the floor should have -at least a twelve-inch air space about every three feet. Poles or joists -covered with dry straw or old hay make a good floor. Spread the hay over -the entire floor surface, on a layer of straw or other dry material. Use -barrels or boxes as recommended for ventilation in the barn, and lower -the roof until the second cutting. For such a roof the covering should -be of some such material as ruberoid, and the rafters need not be heavy, -except about every sixteen feet. Strong iron clamps can be easily -adjusted to the supports. When the second cutting is ready, raise the -roof, which should be in sections, and put the second crop on top of the -first. Follow this plan for all other cuttings. If a shed with a -stationary roof is used, dry straw, or hay, or corn stover should be -put on top of each cutting to protect the alfalfa from rain. Almost any -kind of a shed or covered structure is preferable to a stack. - - -CONDITIONS FOR STACKING - -If the hay is to be stacked, there are also special conditions that the -experienced insist should be observed. This is not to say that alfalfa -hay stacked under conditions quite different may not give fair results, -and much depends on the locality and the climate. However, the result -desired is palatable and nutritious hay and not such as is moldy, -stack-burned or dusty. Stacking the hay directly on the ground is sure -to mean a loss of some portion of it. Elevate the bottom of the stack -with poles, timbers or other like material; put straw at the bottom and, -preferably, build a rick rather than a round stack. Start the bottom -sixteen or eighteen feet wide and build straight up instead of tapering -or slanting the sides, as alfalfa hay will not shed rain or snow water. -If there is much moisture and it is convenient to do so, use a layer of -straw or dry hay of some kind every five or six feet. Keep the stack -full in the middle, or a little higher than the sides, and well tramped -all the time. When the stack has reached the desired height, top it out -with slough grass, or dry timothy or prairie hay, or very green alfalfa, -or protect with tarpaulins or boards; the boards may be nailed and -chained together, lapped and weighted at the corners, making a very -satisfactory roof. If these directions are followed, the losses will be -kept at a minimum. The Kansas experiment station authorities say that in -an experiment made there an application of salt to the hay when being -stored seemed to decrease, if anything, rather than increase its feeding -value. Lime applied in stacking is claimed to have a beneficial effect -in preventing mold. - -The raised bottom and layers of straw are useful accessories for the -stack, shed or mow, while the barrel or other ventilating contrivances -should not be overlooked in either sheds or mows. - - -STORING AS SILAGE - -As land values increase and farmers and dairymen come to more fully -appreciate the worth of green feed in winter, the silo grows in -estimation. Eastern farmers who keep cows or young stock of any kind use -the silo more or less, to conserve for winter the value of both green -grass and corn. Alfalfa makes an excellent silage, but its peculiar -quality of retaining its green food value, as hay, when properly cured, -makes its ensiling much less a necessity. Alfalfa hay taken from the mow -in February, green, appetizing and nutritious, falls little, if any, -short of serving the purposes of silage. - - -OFTEN PROFITABLE TO ENSILE THE FIRST CUTTING - -However, it is not infrequently found that the first cutting of alfalfa -may be ensiled directly from the field at a season when rains would -prevent its proper curing for hay. If this is done, it is important that -the rakes and wagons follow very closely after the mower, as even two -hours of sun exposure in the swath lessens its value for silage. Men who -have cut alfalfa during a light rain and raked and hauled it directly -to the silo have reported satisfactory results. Others report having cut -it in the late afternoon and, the next morning, after a heavy rain, -raked and hauled it to the silo while dripping wet. Therefore the farmer -in the eastern and southern states, in the Pacific Northwest, or even in -the central states may, on occasion, plan for the ensiling of his first -cutting, in the faith that it will come out in fine condition if his -silo is properly constructed. - - -SUGGESTIONS FOR SILOING - -The Kansas and Colorado experiment stations recommend that alfalfa for -silage should be cut into lengths of, say, two inches. Long alfalfa does -not pack sufficiently close in the silo, and when so stored the loss is -much more than if in short lengths. It should always be heavily weighted -and great care taken to pack it well at the outer edges. Round silos are -most approved because their contents are more readily compacted. The -points urged by Professor Ten Eyck, of the Kansas experiment station, -are, (a) getting the alfalfa to the silo quickly after mowing, allowing -little, if any, curing; (b) cutting the alfalfa into short lengths -rather than storing it whole; (c) packing it tightly, and weighting -heavily when all in. He says, however, that if the weather will permit -proper curing of the alfalfa, it will make more valuable winter feed as -hay than as silage. - - -BALING - -The increasing general demand for alfalfa hay in the city markets of the -United States, away from the distinct alfalfa regions, has made finding -a method of preparing it for economic shipment of much importance. The -compressing of timothy and prairie hay has become so general that -alfalfa raisers and shippers are also following this method. The problem -of saving the leaves, and, at the same time, being able to market -alfalfa green, has been hard to solve. Baling it uncured meant mold, and -baling it when very dry meant loss of leaves and, hence, loss in feeding -and selling value. The Kansas station a few years ago carried on a -series of experiments extending over several years from which the -conclusion was that the only safe procedure is to cure carefully in the -field, put in the stack or mow, and bale after the final sweating--say -thirty days. Most of the hay cured and baled in the field was moldy or -brown. It is possible, however, that a more careful curing, the use of -hay-caps, letting it stand for several days in cock, baling, and then -storing in an open shed, the bales stacked on edge and separated about -every third layer by poles, rails or rafters, might result in securing -high-grade hay direct from the field without stacking. Seemingly it will -never be safe, away from the semi-arid regions, to bale the first -cutting from the field; but the secret may yet be found of so baling the -second and third cuttings and obtaining prime hay. Its doing is not -likely to prove satisfactory, however, except in the drier portions of -the alfalfa district where large cocks of, say, 500 pounds may be made -and left standing for several days before baling. But baling is not -likely to be largely followed except in territory where extensive areas -are devoted to alfalfa. When practically every farmer in the United -States has his field of alfalfa as he now has of corn, cotton or clover, -the greater part of the product will be fed on the farm and the surplus -hauled direct to the local markets. Western Kansas and Nebraska alfalfa -raisers are having this problem solved for them by the growing practice -of stockmen shipping cattle and sheep from the mountain ranges to be fed -or fattened where the hay is raised, and hauled directly from the stack -to the feed lots. - - -POOR STUFF - -Hay dealers report that much of the baled alfalfa shipped is poor stuff. -They advise small bales, weighing about sixty to eighty pounds; about 27 -to 36 inches long, 14 or 15 inches thick and 18 inches high when laid on -edge. They also recommend that in loading a car the bales be placed on -their edges instead of on the sides, as they are less liable to heat. -The problem of the city hay dealer is to sell what he has received, with -satisfaction to the purchaser and profit to himself and to his client. -If he receives moldy, dead hay, with little protein value, he is not -able to please his customer, not able to secure a good price, and hence, -not able to please either shipper or buyer. The farmer who raises and -ships hay and receives two dollars less per ton for it than his -neighbor, should learn by such money losses the necessity of harvesting -and storing his product properly. - -A. S. Hitchcock says in Farmers’ Bulletin No. 215, of the United States -Department of Agriculture, that the baled hay for export to Alaska, -Hawaii, and other trans-oceanic points is compressed by the process -known as double compression, done with baling machines operated by -electricity or hydraulic power. The hay obtained by loosening the -ordinary bale is compressed into square or cylindrical packages of -smaller and more compact form than the ordinary bale. The hydraulic -presses used for making the round bales are similar to those used for -the cylindrical bales of cotton. The measurements of the different types -of double-compressed bales are about as follows: Square, 15 by 18 by 38 -inches, weight 160 pounds; square bale for Alaskan trade, 14 by 18 by 26 -inches, weight 100 pounds; round bale, 2 feet in diameter, 24 inches -long, weight 145 pounds, or 36 inches long, weight 260 pounds. The -saving of space in transit may best be understood by comparing the -weight and cubic contents of baled and compressed hay. The ordinary bale -occupies 140 to 160 cubic feet per ton, and round bales 55 feet per ton. -The most essential point in loading new hay into a car is to see that it -is not loaded flat, that is, with the flat sides of the bale up. When -loaded in this way, with the smooth sides of the bales together, no -space is left for air and as a consequence the hay not infrequently -heats. A properly loaded car has the edges or rough sides of the bales -together. This allows air space between the bales and always prevents -danger of heating. - -A new machine is being introduced which makes (from the windrow if -desired) a cylindrical bale, with a hollow space lengthwise through its -middle. This open space must undoubtedly facilitate the curing of hay -baled before sufficiently dry. The machine has a capacity of four to six -tons per hour, makes a bale thirty-six inches long and twenty inches or -less in diameter, as desired, bound with twine, and the hay can be eaten -from the bale, with a minimum of waste, without unfastening. This -baler, if it justifies the claims of its inventors, should be very -useful to those who grow alfalfa for marketing away from the farm. - - -GRADING AND GRADES OF ALFALFA HAY - -On account of the increasing demands for alfalfa hay, and growth in the -business of selling it in cities, dealers have found that the -establishment of some uniform and generally accepted method of grading -the different qualities was a business necessity. As a result of this -its consideration was taken up by the National Hay Association’s -committee on grades and upon the committee’s recommendation the -association in 1905 adopted the following classification: - -Choice Alfalfa--Shall be reasonably fine, leafy alfalfa, of bright green -color, properly cured, sound, sweet and well baled. - -No. 1 Alfalfa--Shall be coarse alfalfa of bright, green color, or -reasonably fine, leafy, of good color, and may contain five per cent of -foreign grasses; must be well baled, sound and sweet. - -No. 2 Alfalfa--Shall include alfalfa somewhat bleached, but of fair -color, reasonably leafy, not more than one-eighth foreign grasses, sound -and well baled. - -No. 3 Alfalfa--Shall include bleached alfalfa, or alfalfa mixed with not -to exceed one-fourth foreign grasses, but when mixed must be of fair -color, sound and well baled. - -No Grade Alfalfa--Shall include all alfalfa not good enough for other -grades, caked, musty, grassy, or threshed. - -[Illustration: Lattice Rack for Feeding Alfalfa to Cattle] - -[Illustration: Box Rack for Feeding Alfalfa to Sheep] - -[Illustration: Lattice Rack for Feeding Alfalfa to Sheep] - -[Illustration: Box Rack for Feeding Alfalfa to Cattle] - - - - -_CHAPTER IX._ - -Pasturing and Soiling - - -PASTURING NOT ALWAYS ECONOMY - -Its perennial nature and the reports of its wonderfully productive and -nutritive qualities might naturally lead the farmer, without better -acquaintance, to suppose that with alfalfa he has perpetual pasture; -that he will open the gate to his live stock in the spring, send for the -butcher or buyer in October, and then winter in luxurious leisure. But -he finds that the easiest is not always the most profitable way. -Pasturing with any stock is an expensive and extravagant method of -gathering a valuable crop from high-priced land. Where land is cheap and -pasture is wild, stock are not expensive help in gathering a cheap crop; -but it is easily demonstrated that when land values are high and a crop -value is in a like altitude, man with machinery can do the harvesting -more economically than can a cow, a steer or even a sheep. - - -ALFALFA A TENDER PLANT - -In some respects alfalfa does not seem to be a natural pasture plant. -The stems are delicate, it will not thrive in a hard, trampled soil, and -the crowns when broken off will not revive; if some of the plants bloom -and drop their flowers early in the season, they lose vigor and many of -them die. These peculiarities would at least indicate that it should -not be pastured at all until it has become established, has its crowns -well spread, has abundant stems and its roots have a strong start on -their underground career. Not an animal should be turned on an alfalfa -field until the second or third year if it is desired that the stand -endure for several years, nor should it be pastured too early in the -spring or too late in the fall. There should be something of a growth -left for winter protection. Careful alfalfa raisers are known who -pasture their older fields, but never put on a full quota of stock until -they have cut over the field when the plants are first coming into -bloom. They insist that this cutting invigorates and gives the plants -new life. They then pasture quite closely until some time in September, -after which there is time for some final growth for winter protection. - - -A GOOD SWINE PASTURE - -A chief exception that most farmers insist on is that it is an excellent -pasture for pigs and, if it is not stocked too heavily, its use for -grazing young swine will not largely decrease the yield of hay. Its -marked protein property seems to give to the pigs a superior growth of -frame and flesh. Farmers claim that pigs a few weeks old turned into an -alfalfa field derive almost their entire living from it and leave the -sows two weeks earlier than other pigs, coming in September with a gain -of from 100 to 125 pounds, while the field has yielded its three -cuttings of hay. Of course, if too many pigs are grazed, the hay yield -will be less. But even here the question of labor _versus_ hay must be -considered. - - -DANGERS TO CATTLE AND SHEEP - -The greatest objection to pasturing alfalfa is its bloating cattle and -sheep. Hogs and horses do not suffer, although a Texas farmer writes -that he lost some pigs from something similar to bloat that he -attributed to the alfalfa. But this may be considered questionable, as -thousands have regularly pastured hogs and horses on alfalfa with no -symptoms of bloat. From hundreds of inquiries sent out by the experiment -stations, it is determined that over ninety per cent of those who have -pastured cattle or sheep on alfalfa have lost one or more animals by -doing so, yet many report having pastured the same kind of stock on -alfalfa for years, regularly every season, without loss. Careful -investigations have been made with the purpose of finding out why some -have been immune while others suffered. Since, in the cases of loss, -only a small proportion of the animals pastured are affected, it may be -inferred that much depends upon the nature and condition of the -individual animal. Practically every western station has carefully -experimented, following the directions of men who have been free from -loss, yet it has cost each station valuable animals. - -Horse stock of all ages find alfalfa pasturage conducive to growth, -fattening, and their general health. If the foliage is short and scant, -horses are severe on the fields used in winter because they are able to -crop close, and not infrequently paw loose dirt away from the plants, -biting off the crowns a fourth or even half inch below the surface of -the ground. It is easy to understand the loss of the bud or growing -point may be detrimental to the growth and usefulness of the plants, -causing many to die, resulting in bare spots later to be overgrown by -noxious weeds and grasses. After the damage is done there remains no -remedy but to plow up the field and reseed, or to disk thoroughly and -then reseed the bare spots. If the field has not deteriorated too much, -the latter is much to be preferred. By diligence and careful treatment, -or prompt action closely following any encroachments upon the life of -the plants, the quality and yield may be maintained and the profits -relatively enhanced. Alfalfa has wonderful recuperative powers, but -continuous nipping of the crowns will do most serious harm and -eventually decrease the yield not a little. - - -EXPERIENCES WITH CATTLE - -One man reports turning eighty steers into one alfalfa field where there -was running water, and a second herd into another field without running -water, but water ran through a wild grass meadow adjoining, into which -this herd was driven every afternoon and turned back into the alfalfa -the next morning. The first herd suffered no loss, while five valuable -animals died in the second field on the second day, before they could be -removed. When all were put into the first field there was no more bloat. -Another reported turning cows into a small field where there was a -trough full of water all the time. Here, as in the case of the steers, a -full feed was given before the cows were turned on the alfalfa. Before -noon one cow had to be relieved by a trocar, and another by being driven -rapidly about the field. The wherefores of such occurrences present a -problem yet to be solved. Certainly there is more danger in pasturing -cows and sheep on alfalfa than most people care to risk. Aside from the -financial loss, there is, also, the humane side of the question. - -A very fair statement, representative of those made by parties who -pasture cattle on alfalfa without losses from bloat, is the following, -given to the author by Mr. S. C. Hanna, an extensive and reputable -breeder of Shorthorns, in Elk county, (southern) Kansas, who says: - -“I have been pasturing alfalfa successfully without bloating my cattle -for a number of years; in fact, I have never lost an animal from alfalfa -bloat. As I am raising high priced, pure bred Shorthorns and graze them -on my meadows more or less at all times of year, I always sow a good -mixture of English blue-grass (_Festuca elatior_) and orchard grass -(_Dactylis glomerata_) with it, making alfalfa the base and principal -seeding. I am very partial to orchard grass in this mixture because it -makes considerable hay, and springs up so quickly after each mowing. In -this section orchard grass is a stayer, and will hold its own against -all comers. - -“I always am cautious when we first turn the cattle on alfalfa, seeing -to it that they have a good fill on something else beforehand, and hold -them at first on some part of the field where the mixed grasses are the -thickest, so they can graze there first. In twenty minutes they will be -safe to go where they wish, and may be allowed to run at will -thereafter. I find, however, that on the clear alfalfa meadows there is -almost no danger from bloat after the plants have begun to bloom. I -usually have some hay stacked in the pastures, that the cattle may run -to. I have, however, pastured alfalfa in all stages where there would be -perhaps twenty acres of alfalfa in one place, and some prairie grass -and also tame grasses in the same enclosure, and had no bloat. This has -been, too, sometimes in May and June, when showers were frequent and the -alfalfa most succulent. It would seem that the cattle will take care of -themselves if they have a good chance. I usually superintend these -changes personally, and see that all conditions are right. - -“I find we get almost as much hay from the mixed fields as from the -exclusively alfalfa meadows, and the fall aftermath is much better. The -theory that alfalfa will not flourish with the other grasses is wrong. -My favorite meadows contain a mixture of this kind, including some red -clover, and I have cut four good crops of hay from them this season, -after pasturing moderately from March 15 to May 1. I always get the -stock horses and mules on pasture by March 15, and the cattle about -April 1, and move them to wild grass prairie pasture about May 1, except -a few that we will keep on the meadows all season. These we change from -one field to another when the alfalfa becomes tall enough to be trampled -down or damaged. - -“If my object was only to raise hay for market, I would sow the alfalfa -alone and keep the stock off altogether, but for my purpose I prefer a -mixture. By doing my way I never miss a good stand, and the mixture -keeps down the foxtail and crab grass. I have been sowing this mixture -for about fifteen years, and have over 300 acres.” - -Mr. J. F. Stodder of Cowley county, Kansas, a prominent breeder of pure -bred cattle, makes this statement to the author, which is simply further -testimony that a mixture of other grasses with alfalfa intended for -grazing greatly diminishes, if it does not entirely eliminate, the risk -and dangers of bloat: - -“I have several fields of mixed grasses. These contain enough alfalfa so -that we cut them for hay at regular times, and the proportion of grasses -and alfalfa is largely in favor of the latter. In such fields as these I -pasture cattle at will, and have never seen any evidence of bloat -therefrom. But my experience with the straight alfalfa fields leads me -to be very cautious. I find that I can pasture them at times without -danger, and at other times a large proportion of the cattle will bloat. -It is possible that I have made the statement that I never lost cattle -by pasturing alfalfa, which is true, because we have always been lucky -enough to discover the ailing animals in time to give them relief.” - -Mr. F. S. Kirk of Oklahoma, mentioned in Chapter III, pastures his -cattle on alfalfa in fall and spring, but does not give them access to -his meadows in the morning until the dew has dried off, and for only -twenty or thirty minutes the first day or two; then for an hour or two -for a few days, and after that they are left in the pastures until -sundown. - - -GENERALLY DANGEROUS TO SHEEP - -Experiments with sheep seem to be even more disastrous than with cattle. -In an investigation conducted by the Colorado station, losses were -reported by nearly every man who had pastured sheep on alfalfa. Some -lost but one or two, while others lost forty or fifty. A few reported -that each spring they lost a few sheep the first day they were on the -pasture, and then no more, and that the losses of old sheep were of less -importance than the growth of the lambs, these being seldom affected by -bloat. Most, however, advised that the old should not be turned on -alfalfa under any circumstances, but that lambs, if well fed in the -morning, let on the alfalfa after the dew was off and then kept there -night and day would do well, and the loss be smaller than that in a -normal season from other causes. J. E. Wing states that his loss from -pasturing lambs on alfalfa in Ohio is less than it formerly was from one -or two parasitic diseases that never trouble alfalfa-pastured lambs. He -gives his lambs a full feed in the morning, turns them on the alfalfa -field about ten o’clock, and leaves them there continuously until -September. He begins the pasturing just before the seasons first growth -of the alfalfa blooms. - -While by no means without risk, pasturing sheep on alfalfa is not always -necessarily fatal and the following, related in the _Breeder’s Gazette_ -by Mr. C. H. Williams of Powell county, Montana, is interesting: - -“We have been pasturing sheep in large numbers on alfalfa for the past -eight years. We have lost from bloat as many as 26 in one day from a -flock of 1600, but we seldom lose one now. We find they are much more -apt to bloat on windy days; more especially if the wind blows from the -south and is soft and balmy. This may seem strange, but we believe it a -fact. We have in our employ a shepherd who has during the greater part -of his life herded sheep on alfalfa in the vicinity of Pau and d’Oloron, -France. The day we lost 26 ewes from bloat this man was several miles -from the home ranch. When visited by the camptender he remarked: ‘This -will be a bad day for the old ewes on the alfalfa.’ Why so? ‘Because the -wind is soft and warm,’ said he. That afternoon we found 26 dead. - -“Our French shepherd has a simple and never failing remedy for bloat -from alfalfa or clover. It is simply a half-pint of sweet milk -administered to the animal when found bloated. I saved a fine ram lamb -the other day. He was fearfully bloated, unable to walk and scarcely -able to breathe. I found an old can in the road, hastened to the -pasture, milked a half pint of milk from a cow, set the lamb on his rump -and poured the milk down his throat. In a half hour he was all right and -following the flock. Milk from a ewe will answer just as well. We have -adopted the following rules: Never allow the sheep to go on alfalfa -pasture when very hungry; if possible get a little dry feed in their -stomachs in the morning before going to the alfalfa; watch them closely -on windy days, and have the herders carry a bottle of sweet milk.” - - -A POSSIBLE EXPLANATION - -The most of the losses reported were of animals which had been taken off -the pasture at night and turned back the second morning when hungry and -eager to graze. Yet there are reports of severe losses the first day, -even after a full feed. Possibly it will be found that the animals that -suffer from bloat are not in good physical condition, and are more -nervous and greedy in their habit of eating than those not affected. It -may be that an intelligent sorting of the animals to be turned on the -pasture might save loss. It is also quite generally believed that -alfalfa growing on uplands is less liable to cause bloat than that -raised on bottom lands. - - -RULES FOR PASTURING - -The most generally approved rules in regard to pasturing are: - -At the beginning of the pasturing season give animals a heavy feeding in -the morning before turning upon the alfalfa. - -Have water in the pasture all the time. - -Keep the animals in the pasture night and day, after they have become -accustomed to it, until removed permanently. - -Use upland in preference to bottom fields for pasture. - -Watch the stock closely the first few days and remove permanently -animals that show symptoms of bloat. - -Sow blue-grass, brome grass, or meadow fescue with alfalfa in fields -intended for permanent pasture. - -The following valuable information upon bloat (_tympanitis_) and its -treatment was prepared by Nelson S. Mayo, formerly professor of -veterinary science at the Kansas agricultural college: - -“Bloating, in all cases, is accumulation of gas in the stomach or -intestines, or both, but more particularly in the paunch (rumen). This -gas is produced by a fermentation, similar to that observed when cider -is ‘working’ and the gas escapes in bubbles. There is usually a small -quantity of gas given off from the food during normal, healthy -digestion, but so small that it causes no trouble, and passes off -readily through the intestines, though sometimes from the stomach, up -the esophagus, and out of the nose or mouth--‘belched up,’ as it is -commonly expressed. These gases which cause an animal to bloat are -generated in considerable quantities if a large amount of juicy, green -food is eaten. Alfalfa, clover and frozen roots are very liable to -produce bloating. - -“It is well known that only part of the animals in a herd pasturing upon -clover or alfalfa bloat; so the blame cannot be laid entirely upon the -food, but is probably the result of a slight derangement of the -digestive organs, not ordinarily noticed, but easily aggravated by -certain foods which ferment easily. Animals that are ailing are very -liable to bloat when turned on alfalfa pastures. Alfalfa and clover are -much more liable to produce bloating if wet with rain or dew, and -especially hoar frost, and animals are more apt to bloat if turned into -the pastures when very hungry, as they gorge themselves, and the food is -not properly masticated. Hence, cattle should not be allowed to go -hungry to the pastures. - -“It is generally believed by those who have had considerable experience -in pasturing clover or alfalfa, that cattle and sheep are less liable to -bloat if they have free access to dry food, such as hay or straw. Common -bloating, or hoove, occurs in animals having a compound stomach and that -chew the cud--ruminants, as they are called. Of our common domestic -animals, cattle and sheep belong to this order. - -“One of the first symptoms noticed is that the animal stops feeding, and -remains lagging behind or stands by itself. Rumination, or chewing of -the cud, is suspended; the animal appears dull and listless, the back -slightly arched; the whole abdomen or belly is distended with a -prominent swelling on the left side just forward of the point of the -hip. If the swelling is tapped lightly with the fingers there is a -hollow, drum-like sound; hence the technical name, _tympanitis_. - -“The rumen being distended with gas not only makes the animal appear -much fuller than usual, but it presses forward on the diaphragm, or -‘midriff,’ and this presses against the lungs, and interferes seriously -with the animal’s breathing. The breath is short and rapid. The animal -often grunts, or moans, with each breath. The animal’s nose protrudes, -and there is a driveling of saliva from the mouth. Sometimes there are -quite severe colicky pains, shown by the animal’s kicking at its belly -and stepping about uneasily. Sometimes, also, the pressure is so great -as to cause eversion or bulging out of the rectum. The symptoms of -bloating are so prominent, especially when the history of the case is -taken into account, as to make this disease very easy to recognize, even -by an ordinary observer. - -“When animals die from bloating, death usually takes place in the -following manner: The diaphragm is pressed against the lungs so hard -that the animal cannot breathe, and it dies of suffocation. Animals -usually remain standing until near the end, when they gradually lose -consciousness, stagger, and fall, and in falling rupture some of the -vital organs. - -“Treatment must depend somewhat upon the condition of the animal. If the -animal is badly bloated, with labored breathing and staggering gait, -energetic measures must be resorted to at once. The best and most -satisfactory treatment for bad cases is tapping. This consists in making -a hole through the skin and muscles, over the prominent swelling on the -left side, into the rumen or ‘paunch,’ thus allowing the gas to escape -at once, relieving the animal. - -“The best method of tapping is by means of an instrument called a -_trocar_ and _cannula_. A trocar is a sharp-pointed instrument, five or -six inches long, and about the size of a lead pencil, with a handle at -one end. Over the point of the trocar slips a tube, called a cannula, -not quite as long as the trocar, with a wide flange around the upper end -of the tube, as shown in the illustration herewith. - - -TROCAR AND CANNULA - -“To use a trocar and cannula, proceed as follows: Tie the animal so it -cannot get away. With a sharp knife, make a small incision through the -skin over the prominent part of the swelling on the left side. This -incision should be made about half way between the point of the hip and -the last rib, and should be large enough to admit the trocar and cannula -readily. The incision should be made quickly; then the animal will not -notice it. After the incision is made the trocar and cannula are pushed -quickly in and directed downward, inward, and forward; push the trocar -in until the flange of the cannula rests against the skin. Withdraw the -trocar and the gas will rush out; that is, it usually does so; -occasionally, however, the end of the cannula is plugged up with green -food. This can usually be remedied by pulling out the cannula part way, -or pushing the trocar in again and withdrawing it. If this doesn’t work, -tap the stomach again in another place, using the same hole through the -skin. The escape of gas is usually accompanied by a small quantity of -green food. - -[Illustration: Trocar and Cannula] - -“If a trocar and cannula are not available in an urgent case, a knife -can be used very successfully--a good-sized pocket knife blade, pushed -quickly through the skin and muscles, in the same manner as described -for the trocar and cannula. Care must be taken that the sharp edge of -the blade is not turned towards the animal’s tail, as it sometimes jumps -forward, and a much larger hole is cut than was originally intended. - -“A careful and observing stockman of Colorado, who has had a large -experience with alfalfa bloating, informs me that he prefers a -moderately small, sharp butcher knife to either a trocar and cannula or -a pocket knife. It gives relief quicker and with no bad effects. -Sometimes, if the opening through the skin is small, made by a small -knife, a quill or small tube is fastened in to keep the incision open, -so the gas can escape. It is usually necessary to keep the incision open -for several hours. The only bad result of tapping is that occasionally -green food gets outside of the rumen into the abdominal cavity in -sufficient quantities to cause inflammation and death; but if the -operation is intelligently performed, these bad results are extremely -rare--probably not more than one case in 100. If the weather is warm, -care should be taken that flies do not bother the wound in the skin. - -“If the case is not severe enough to warrant tapping, the following -remedies will be found useful: A gag made by winding a good-sized rope -back of the horns and through the mouth, or a bit, made of a piece of -wood the size of a fork handle, can be tied in the animal’s mouth. The -bit should be smooth, to prevent injuring the mouth. Then a small -handful of salt should be thrown well back on the roots of the tongue. -This causes the animal to work its tongue, increases the flow of saliva, -and thus favors the regurgitation, or gulping up, of the gas. The salt -and saliva swallowed help to stop fermentation. - -“Blankets wrung out of cold water and wrapped around the abdomen or -belly, or cold water dashed on with a bucket, often give relief. -Turpentine given as a drench, in milk sufficient that it will not -irritate the animal, is good, two ounces of turpentine for adult cattle -and one-half ounce for sheep being a dose. Hyposulphite of soda, -dissolved in water and given as a drench, is good; one ounce for cattle -and two drachms for sheep. This can be repeated every half hour for two -or three doses. Aqua ammonia, two ounces for cattle and one-half ounce -for sheep, well diluted with water; carbolic acid, cattle 30 drops, -sheep 8 to 10 drops in sufficient water; common soda, in half-ounce -doses for cattle and one-half drachm for sheep, can be given. In giving -medicine as drenches, they should be well diluted with water or other -substances until they will not burn when touched to the tongue. In -giving drenches, be careful and not choke the animal. If the animal -coughs or struggles violently, stop at once until it recovers somewhat. -Give drenches slowly. - -“Drenches are mostly administered from a long-necked, thick, glass -bottle, or drenching horn. Take hold of the nose with the left hand, by -putting the thumb and finger in the nostrils, while an assistant takes -hold of the horns, and tips the head back. Standing on the right side of -the animal, with the right hand put the neck of the bottle in the right -corner of the mouth, and pour the medicine in slowly. After the bloating -has been relieved, it is a good plan to give the animal a purgative--one -pound of Epsom salts, with one-half pound common salt, for cattle; and -for a sheep, six ounces of Epsom salts and three ounces of common salt, -dissolved in plenty of warm water, and given as a drench. The animals -should also be dieted until their digestive organs regain their normal -condition. By dieting, I do not mean starving, but plenty of easily -digested and nutritious food. An animal that bloats once is very liable -to bloat again. By judicious handling and feeding, by watching animals -closely, and treating them in time, few will be lost by alfalfa -bloating.” - - -ALFALFA AS A SOILING CROP - -Alfalfa may be cut for soiling just when it contains the highest per -cent of protein, while if pastured some is eaten before its best period, -the most of it after that point is reached, and probably a large portion -of the leaves is lost entirely. Cut for soiling and fed daily, when -wilted, there is less danger from bloat, as in this way animals will eat -stalks as well as leaves: the entire product is used and there is no -loss from trampling the fields nor by plants being covered and smothered -with animal droppings. - - -SOME COMPARISONS - -The Nebraska station reports that in an experiment there it required .71 -of an acre to keep a cow for a given time by soiling, while by pasturing -it required 3.63 acres; also that the cows kept on pasture during the -experiment actually consumed more grain than those that were soiled. -This report further states that while the pastured cows gave more milk -each day, the cost of production was greater. By another experiment with -cows for a single year it was indicated (Bul. No. 69) “that about twice -as much feed was secured from the land when the alfalfa was soiled as -when it was pastured. The average daily production of milk and of -butterfat was markedly greater when the crop was pastured than when -soiled. In one test this amounted to one-third more, but in the other -test the difference was not so great. The profits from soiling as -compared with pasturing will depend largely on two factors--the price of -labor and the value of the land.” - -A western Kansas farmer writes that one acre of alfalfa cut daily for -soiling maintained as many cows as he was able to keep on a five-acre -field used as pasture. - -The Kansas station reported that in an experiment, lasting 144 days, the -cows on alfalfa pasture returned an income, less cost of grain fed, of -$4.23, while cows soiled on alfalfa cut and fed green returned an -income, less the grain fed, of $18.08. This station also reported that a -neighboring dairyman maintained ten milch cows for a whole summer, -without any grain, on two acres of alfalfa, cut and fed to them fresh -three times a day. - - -A METHOD FOR THE SMALL FARMER - -In the Central West where labor is scarce and land comparatively low in -price, farmers are not likely to adopt the soiling system while such -conditions exist; but east of the Mississippi river, and especially in -New York, Pennsylvania and New England, where land is high and labor -scarce, alfalfa offers great possibilities as a soiling crop. The small -farmer who now cannot afford to raise many pigs, because he does not -raise enough corn to fatten them, will find that by soiling alfalfa he -can maintain from May to September from five acres as many as ten cows -and fifty pigs; and that these pigs, with some grain from the first of -August, while being fed green alfalfa, may by the middle of November be -made ready for market. If he has another five acres of alfalfa for hay, -it will yield enough in three cuttings to go far toward wintering his -cows, a team of horses, and his sows. His ten acres will be growing -richer every year, and at the end of five years be in prime condition to -yield him big returns in corn, wheat, or potatoes and other vegetables. -Alfalfa is distinctly a crop adapted to the small farmer, everywhere; -there is, as a rule, little question that this method of utilizing it -brings much greater returns per acre than if it were used as pasturage -or hay. - -Green alfalfa when pastured, (barring bloat), or cut and fed daily is -peculiarly valuable for all such young stock as colts, lambs, calves and -pigs. It tends to develop strength of bone and hastens the growth of -muscle. - -[Illustration: =Alfalfa Field in Central New York= - -Showing growth August 22, 1907, seven days after third cutting] - -[Illustration: =Fourth Cutting of Alfalfa in Shawnee County, Kansas= - -Photo taken in September] - -[Illustration: =A Second Cutting of Alfalfa (July 28) in Shawnee County, -Eastern Kansas= - -This was sown on the last half of the preceding September. Four cuttings -probable with an aggregate yield of four tons per acre] - - - - -_CHAPTER X._ - -Alfalfa as a Feed Stuff - - -AS AN APPETIZER - -The feeding value of alfalfa is largely in its chemical compound known -as protein; its extreme digestibility is another desirable quality to be -considered, and not least is its appetizing character. Not only do all -animals like it, but when given in moderate quantities it seems to -increase the general appetite for more fat-making feeds. Steers -beginning to “fall off” on a heavy diet of corn will come to their -appetites after being fed only a few pounds of alfalfa daily, and will -eat and assimilate more corn than before. - -Alfalfa alone is not a fat-making feed. Animals fed upon it grow in -weight, but the weight is principally of bone, blood and muscle. It is -without a sufficiency of fat and carbohydrates, and these should be -added in such foods as corn, corn meal, Kafir corn, or Kafir corn meal; -or to a limited degree even in corn stover, sorghum or millet. When -alfalfa is fed alone all the protein cannot be digested, and, therefore, -it is always economical to add some carbonaceous foods, if animals are -fattening for market. - -For several years feeders have been deploring the fact that fattening -mainly with corn was becoming less and less profitable. When they began -to figure the exact cost of each pound of gain on a steer or hog, they -saw clearly that corn alone made the pound of gain cost too much; -sometimes as much as it was worth in the market, leaving neither profit -nor interest on the investment. The problem then became how to produce -the pound of meat more economically. - -Such a condition has prompted the state stations to make tests to -determine the feeding value of various articles, and especially the -value of alfalfa as a balance to the more carbonaceous foods. The tables -here appended are worth studying: - - -FOOD VALUE OF SEVERAL FODDER CROPS - -(From New York experiment station Bul. No. 118.) - - ------------------+----------+--------+----------+---------- - | | | Total | - | Yield per| Dry |digestible| - | acre of | matter | matter |Digestible - |total crop|per acre| per acre | protein - ------------------+----------+--------+----------+---------- - | _Pounds_ |_Pounds_| _Pounds_ | _Pounds_ - Alfalfa | 34,100 | 8,000 | 5,280 | 875 - Corn, entire plant| 28,000 | 5,800 | 3,800 | 300 - Red clover | 18,000 | 5,220 | 3,200 | 491 - Oats and peas | 13,000 | 3,120 | 2,521 | 350 - Timothy | 10,000 | 3,500 | 2,000 | 228 - Rutabagas | 31,700 | 3,400 | 3,000 | 279 - Mangels | 25,000 | 3,500 | 2,750 | 232 - Sugar beets | 17,800 | 2,500 | 1,800 | 213 - ------------------+----------+--------+----------+---------- - - -ANALYSES OF FEEDSTUFFS - -The following table gives the analyses of a number of feedstuffs, -showing the percentage of digestible nutrients and fertilizing -constituents in each: - -(From Texas experiment station Bul. No. 66) - - ------------------+------+--------------------+-------------------- - | | Digestible | Fertilizer con- - | | nutrients | stituents in 1000 - | Dry | in 100 pounds | pounds - |matter+------+------+------+------+------+------ - | in | |Carbo-| Ether| | Phos-| - | 100 | Pro- | hy- | Ex- |Nitro-|phoric| - |pounds| tein |drates| tract| gen | acid |Potash - ------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------ - HAYS: | | | | | | | - Alfalfa | 91.6 | 11.0 | 39.6 | 1.2 | 21.9 | 5.1 | 16.8 - Cowpea | 89.3 | 10.8 | 38.6 | 1.1 | 19.5 | 5.2 | 14.7 - Oat hay | 91.1 | 4.3 | 46.4 | 1.5 | .... | .... | .... - Fodder corn | 57.8 | 2.5 | 34.6 | 1.2 | 17.6 | 5.4 | 8.9 - Sorghum | 82.04| 2.4 | 40.6 | 1.2 | .... | .... | .... - Cottonseed hulls| 88.9 | .3 | 33.1 | 1.7 | 6.9 | 2.5 | 10.2 - GREEN FEEDS: | | | | | | | - Alfalfa | 28.2 | 3.9 | 12.7 | .5 | 7.2 | 1.3 | 5.6 - Cowpea | 16.4 | 1.8 | 8.7 | .2 | 2.7 | 1.0 | 3.1 - Oat fodder | 37.8 | 1.6 | 18.9 | 1.0 | 4.9 | 1.3 | 3.8 - Corn silage | 20.9 | .9 | 11.3 | .7 | 2.8 | 1.1 | 3.7 - Sorghum | 82.4 | 2.4 | 4.1 | 1.2 | .... | .... | .... - Rape | 14.0 | 1.5 | 8.1 | .2 | 4.5 | 1.5 | 3.6 - GRAINS: | | | | | | | - Wheat bran | 88.1 | 12.2 | 39.2 | 2.7 | 26.7 | 28.9 | 16.1 - Cottonseed meal | 91.8 | 37.2 | 16.9 | 12.2 | 67.9 | 28.8 | 8.7 - Corn | 89.1 | 7.9 | 66.7 | 4.3 | 18.2 | 7.0 | 4.0 - Cowpea | 85.2 | 18.3 | 54.2 | 1.1 | 33.3 | .... | .... - Cotton seed | 89.7 | 12.5 | 30.0 | 17.3 | 31.3 | 12.7 | 11.7 - ------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------ - -From the above table we find that five tons of alfalfa hay contains -1,100 pounds of protein, equal to this food element in - - Cotton seed meal 2,956 pounds - Linseed meal 3,754 pounds - Wheat bran 9,016 pounds - Cowpea hay 10,185 pounds - Red clover hay 16,176 pounds - Timothy hay 39,285 pounds - - -RELATIVE VALUES OF DIFFERENT CUTTINGS - -The most interesting experiments comprehending tests of the comparative -yield, composition and digestibility of early, medium and late cuttings -of alfalfa, of the first, second and third crops; the relative feeding -value of the various cuttings, and of the different crops, have been -made at the Utah station, details of which are recorded in the station’s -bulletins Nos. 31, 44 and 61. These tests and investigations extended -continuously through a period of five years, and following are the more -important facts developed and the conclusions that may be legitimately -drawn from them, as summarized (Bul. No. 61) by Profs. Luther Foster and -L. A. Merrill who supervised the work: - -1. The largest annual yield of hay per acre is obtained by the method of -early cutting and the lowest by the late, the average result standing as -follows: early cutting, 100; medium, 92; and late, 85. - -2. The early cut alfalfa contains the highest per cent of protein and -fat, the most valuable food constituents, and the lowest per cent of -crude fiber, the most indigestible portion. The former decrease -constantly while the latter increases rapidly from early bloom to the -full maturity of the plant. - -3. The proportionate amount of leaves to stems is greater at early bloom -that at any subsequent time, and both leaves and stems contain a greater -per cent of protein and a less per cent of crude fiber at this time than -at any later period in the growth of the plant. The relative proportion -of leaves to stems in the different cuttings is as follows: early, 42 to -58; medium, 40 to 60; and late, 33 to 67. - -4. Alfalfa leaves as compared with stems are very much richer in -protein, fat and nitrogen-free extract, and they contain a much smaller -proportion of crude fiber. The per cent of the protein and fat grows -constantly less, and that of the crude fiber greater, from the time of -early bloom to maturity. The average composition of all cuttings and -crops shows the leaves to contain 150 per cent more protein than the -stems, 300 per cent more fat, 35 per cent more nitrogen-free extract, -and 256 per cent less crude fiber. - -5. The more important nutrients, protein and fat, have the highest per -cent of digestibility in the early cuttings and it grows less and less -with the age of the plant. - -6. In the feeding tests, the highest gains were made from the early -cuttings and the lowest from the late, the results standing -proportionately as follows: early cutting, 100; medium, 85; and late, -75. - -7. The variation in the amount of the different cuttings eaten per day -was very slight, being the highest for the early cutting and the lowest -for the late, but the quantity of dry matter and also of digestible -matter required for a pound of gain was decidedly lowest for the early -cutting and highest for the late, the relative amounts of dry matter -standing as follows: early cutting, 100; medium, 131; and late, 166. - -8. The annual beef product per acre was largest from the early cuttings, -not only in the general average but in each separate season’s test, and -that from the late cuttings was smallest, the proportional products -standing as follows: early cutting, 100; medium, 79¹⁄₂; and late, 69¹⁄₂. - -9. Taking all points of comparison into consideration, both separately -and collectively, including everything that pertains to the largest -yield and the highest feeding value, the tests favor cutting alfalfa for -cattle feeding when the first blooms appear. - - -CROP COMPARISONS - -10. The first crop gave the largest yield in each of the five tests and -in fourteen out of the fifteen cuttings, while the third crop gave the -lowest for every test and in every cutting but one. The average acre -yields for the five years, including all cuttings, stand in the -following relation: first crop, 100; second, 78; and third, 39; for the -early cuttings alone, first crop, 100; second, 83; and third, 66. - -11. In the average composition of all cuttings for three years, the -nutrients of the three crops vary but little. The second has slightly -the highest per cent of protein and fiber; and the third the most fat -and nitrogen-free extract. - -12. The third crop has the largest proportion of leaves to stems; but -the per cent of protein in the leaves is highest in the second crop; and -next highest in the first. The leaves of the first crop contain the most -fat and of the second, the least. - -13. The third crop produced a higher average rate of gain in the feeding -tests than the first or second and also higher than any of the separate -cuttings. The amount eaten daily was also highest of all, but the dry -matter and digestible matter for a pound of gain were the lowest. In a -pound per pound comparison the gains stood as follows: first crop, 100; -second, 81; and third, 126; dry matter for a pound of gain, first crop, -100; second, 115; and third, 69. - -14. The beef product per acre, taking the average result of all cuttings -for the five years, was very much the highest for the first crop and -decidedly the lowest for the third, standing as follows: first crop, -100; second, 61; and third, 45. But taking the early cuttings alone they -stand, first crop, 100; second, 80; and third, 69. - -15. Pound for pound, taken as a whole, the results show the highest -feeding value for the third crop and the lowest for the second. - -16. The average annual beef product from early cut alfalfa was 705.61 -pounds per acre; it required 9575 pounds of timothy to produce an equal -weight; 11,967 pounds of red clover, and 10,083 pounds of shredded corn -fodder. - -Prof. John A. Widtsoe at the Utah station (Bul. No. 48) made a study of -the nutrients of the alfalfa crop, and some of the facts gathered are -given in the following table: - - -------------------------------------------------------------------- - FIRST CUTTING - ------------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+------- - Condition of growth | Protein| Nitro- | | | - | |gen-free| Crude | Ether | - | | extract| fiber | extract| Ash - ------------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+------- - |_Pounds_|_Pounds_|_Pounds_|_Pounds_|_Pounds_ - May 4. Height, 6¹⁄₂ in | .... | 607 | 168 | 40 | 167 - June 1. Height, 18 in | 697 | 1,247 | 618 | 103 | 369 - July 7. Full flower | 745 | 2,278 | 2,108 | 118 | 431 - Aug. 10. Flowers fallen,| | | | | - leaves dry | 644 | 2,298 | 2,531 | 116 | 423 - Aug. 24. Still drier | 428 | 1,776 | 2,544 | 94 | 311 - ------------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+------- - SECOND CUTTING - ------------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+------- - July 7. Budding | 334 | 657 | 357 | 50 | 197 - July 20. Medium bloom | 519 | 1,140 | 1,031 | 78 | 314 - Aug. 3. Full flower | 551 | 1,529 | 1,316 | 81 | 323 - Aug. 24. Leaves dry | 388 | 1,484 | 1,329 | 81 | 333 - ------------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+------- - THIRD CUTTING - ------------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+------- - Aug. 17 | 138 | 317 | 155 | 17 | 85 - Aug. 31 | 322 | 757 | 634 | 33 | 211 - Sept. 14 | 298 | 934 | 818 | 43 | 214 - ------------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+------- - - -COMPARATIVE CROP AND FEEDING VALUES - -The following is another table showing the average yield of alfalfa as -compared with some of the more common fodder crops and hays, as found in -New Jersey station Bulletin No. 148. - - -------------------+------------+--------+-------- - | Total Yield| Dry | Total - |Green Forage| Matter | Protein - | per acre |per acre|per acre - -------------------+------------+--------+-------- - | _Pounds_ |_Pounds_|_Pounds_ - Alfalfa | 36,540 | 8,258 | 2,214 - Corn (entire plant)| 24,000 | 5,040 | 408 - Red clover | 14,000 | 4,088 | 616 - Barnyard millet | 16,000 | 4,000 | 384 - Crimson clover | 14,000 | 2,674 | 434 - Cowpeas | 16,000 | 2,624 | 384 - Oats and peas | 14,000 | 2,107 | 363 - -------------------+------------+--------+-------- - | Dry | Total - | Matter | Protein - --------------------------------+--------+-------- - |_Pounds_|_Pounds_ - 1 ton alfalfa hay contains | 1,809 | 265 - 1 „ red clover hay contains | 1,694 | 246 - 1 „ oats and peas contains | 1,375 | 175 - 1 „ timothy contains | 1,736 | 118 - 1 „ wheat bran contains | 1,762 | 308 - 1 „ wheat middlings contains | 1,758 | 312 - 1 „ rye bran contains | 1,768 | 294 - 1 „ oats contains | 1,780 | 236 - 1 „ rice meal contains | 1,796 | 240 - 1 „ buckwheat bran contains | 1,790 | 248 - --------------------------------+--------+-------- - -At the Colorado station (Bul. No. 26) Prof. W. W. Cooke compared an acre -of dent (Golden Beauty) corn, planted May 16 and harvested September 21, -with returns from an acre of alfalfa on an adjoining plat, three years -seeded. The corn crop was a fair one, and including ears and stalks -weighed 15,500 pounds, containing 35.62 per cent or 5539 pounds of dry -matter. The alfalfa yielded three cuttings of hay weighing respectively -4600, 3350 and 3250 pounds, or 5.6 tons, containing 10,304 pounds of dry -matter. But, as Professor Cooke says, this is not quite a fair -comparison, for a pound of dry matter from the corn crop is more -digestible and has a higher feeding value than an equal amount from the -alfalfa. The corn crop contained 3605 pounds of digestible feeding -material, while the alfalfa crop contained 5611 pounds, or a little more -than half as much again. The corn crop per acre in feeding value was -equivalent to three and a half tons of alfalfa hay. - -The total digestible nutrients of the two crops are presented in the -following table: - - -------------------+-----------------+----------------- - | TOTAL | DIGESTIBLE - +--------+--------+--------+-------- - | Corn |Alfalfa | Corn |Alfalfa - -------------------+--------+--------+--------+-------- - |_Pounds_|_Pounds_|_Pounds_|_Pounds_ - Dry matter | 5,539 | 10,304 | 3,605 | 5,611 - Albuminoids | 405 | 1,602 | 296 | 1,198 - Starch, sugar, etc.| 3,263 | 4,782 | 2,186 | 3,114 - Fiber | 1,472 | 2,800 | 1,060 | 1,198 - Fat (ether extract)| 84 | 246 | 63 | 101 - Ash | 315 | 829 | .... | .... - -------------------+--------+--------+--------+-------- - - -COMPARATIVE VALUES OF ALFALFA HAY AND OTHER FEED STUFFS FOR PROTEIN - - -------------------------------+------------------------------ - |Value per ton when prairie hay - | is worth per ton-- - Feedstuff | $2.00 | $3.00 | $4.00 - -------------------------------+---------+---------+---------- - Alfalfa hay (average) | $6.05 | $9.08 | $12.11 - Red clover hay | 3.88 | 5.82 | 7.77 - Orchard-grass hay | 2.74 | 4.11 | 5.48 - Millet hay | 2.57 | 3.85 | 5.14 - Timothy hay | 1.65 | 2.48 | 3.31 - Sorghum hay | 1.37 | 2.05 | 2.74 - Corn-fodder (stover) | 1.14 | 1.71 | 2.28 - Oat straw | .91 | 1.37 | 1.82 - Wheat straw | .45 | .68 | .91 - Sugar beets | .62 | .94 | 1.25 - Mangel-wurzels | .57 | .85 | 1.14 - Alfalfa hay containing 12.9 per| | | - cent digestible protein | 7.36 | 11.05 | 14.73 - Wheat bran | 7.02 | 10.53 | 14.04 - -------------------------------+---------+---------+---------- - -It is seen that the alfalfa yielded nearly twice as many pounds of dry -matter as the corn, with the digestible nutrients far in the lead, and -the protein of the alfalfa was three times that of the corn. - - -THE BALANCED RATION - -No feeder can learn to use alfalfa, or in fact any forage or grain, in -the most economical way until he understands somewhat the compounding of -a balanced ration. All foodstuffs for either man or beast are, as -already stated, made up of three classes of substances--namely, protein -or proteids, carbohydrates and fats. The animal’s digestive and -assimilative organs are so constructed that it cannot use these three -classes of substances interchangeably; in other words, an animal fed -wholly upon any one of these three would be in process of gradual -starvation. Given in the proportions needed to best supply the vital -organs of the body, these substances become the sustenance for animal -life and growth. The protein builds up the brain, nerves, muscles and -other tissues in which the life force is active, and without protein -there would be no life. - -To balance a ration for domestic animals is to so adjust the quantity of -digestible proteids, fats and carbohydrates it contains that the animal -economy may use each without waste. The balanced ration means an -economical ration, allowing the digestive organs to work at their -highest efficiency; an unbalanced ration is one in which one of the -three classes of food substances is in excess, or is deficient. Fed such -a ration, the animal retaliates upon its owner by failure to digest the -excess, which is worse than wasted; for the feeding of any class of -substances in excess adds to the labor of the digestive organs and -reduces their efficiency. - - -MAKING A BALANCED RATION - -In Press Bulletin No. 12, from the Kansas station, the following is -given to illustrate somewhat how a balanced ration would differ from -others into which consideration of a proper balance had not entered: - -“There are three important groups of substances in feeds--protein, -carbohydrates, and fat. Protein includes all materials in feeds which -contain nitrogen. It enters into the composition of milk, blood, muscle, -hair and the brain and nerves; is necessary in the formation of these, -and no other substance can take its place. Protein is also used in the -body in producing heat, energy and fat. Carbohydrates include the fiber -of feeds, the sugars, starch, and gums, and furnish heat, energy and fat -in the body. Carbohydrates and fat can take each other’s places, one -pound of fat being worth 2.2 pounds of carbohydrates for production of -heat in the body. - -“Extended investigations have shown that to obtain the best results, -feed should be given which will furnish these materials in the following -proportions: - -“Dairy cow--protein, 2¹⁄₂ pounds; carbohydrates, 12¹⁄₂ pounds; fat, ¹⁄₂ -pound. - -“Fattening steer--protein, 2¹⁄₂ to 3 pounds; carbohydrates, 15 pounds; -fat, ¹⁄₂ to ³⁄₄ pound. - -“Growing cattle--protein, 4 pounds; carbohydrates, 13¹⁄₂ pounds; fat, 2 -pounds. - -“For a young animal (cattle) gradually decrease the proportion of -protein until at the age of two years the proportions are similar to -those for the fattening steer, but less in quantity. A pig two to three -months old needs feeds containing seven and one-half pounds of protein -to each thirty pounds of carbohydrates and fat, while a year-old pig -needs seven and one-half pounds of protein to each forty-eight pounds of -carbohydrates and fat. Feeds containing a greater proportion of protein -than called for by these standards can be fed, because protein can take -the place of the other materials. Carbohydrates and fat cannot take the -place of protein, however, and no matter in how large quantities they -may be fed, if protein is lacking, the growth or gain will be less. - -“The weak point in feeding is that the average rations are greatly -deficient in protein, and have too much carbohydrates and fat. Every -feeder knows that good pasturage produces rapid growth, good gains, and -abundant milk yields. It furnishes nutriment in the proportion of three -pounds of protein, twelve pounds of carbohydrates, and one-half pound of -fat. The proportions in some of our feeds in pounds per 100 pounds of -feed, are as follows: - - -----------+-------+--------+----- - | | Carbo- | - |Protein|hydrates| Fat - -----------+-------+--------+----- - Corn | 7.8 | 66.7 | 1.6 - Kafir-corn | 7.8 | 57.1 | 2.7 - Prairie hay| 3.5 | 41.8 | 1.4 - Corn fodder| 2.0 | 33.2 | 0.6 - Sorghum hay| 2.4 | 40.6 | 1.2 - -----------+-------+--------+----- - -“It will be seen that none of these contain a sufficient proportion of -protein to secure best results, and all combinations of these feeds will -have the same defect. - -“Some feeds have too great a proportion of protein to be fed alone, as -shown below, the figures indicating pounds per 100 pounds of feed: - - -----------------+-------+--------+------ - | | Carbo- | - |Protein|hydrates| Fat - -----------------+-------+--------+------ - Alfalfa hay | 10.6 | 37.3 | 1.4 - Gluten-meal | 31.1 | 43.9 | 4.8 - Linseed-oil meal | 28.8 | 32.8 | 7.1 - Cottonseed-meal | 37.0 | 16.5 | 12.6 - Soy-beans | 39.6 | 22.3 | 14.4 - -----------------+-------+--------+------ - -“Making a balanced ration is combining the feeds deficient in protein -with those having an excess of it, to make a ration which will contain -the right proportions for the animals fed.” - - -VARIATIONS IN ANALYSIS - -Variations in the foregoing tables would indicate that the analysis is -likely to vary with the product of different soils and different -cultivations. In spite of variations it may be readily seen that alfalfa -with its high protein value makes a very effective and economical -balance for corn for heavy feeding. When it is taken into consideration -that this forage so rich in protein can be raised at home, and that its -growing is at the same time enriching the soil, the conclusion is easy -that alfalfa hay may profitably constitute a part of all the fattening -operations; it is also clear that the economical way to market alfalfa -is through the farm’s live stock. - - - - -_CHAPTER XI._ - -Alfalfa in Beef-Making - - -The cattle feeder is not much given to sentiment and cares less for the -beauty of the purple flowers of the alfalfa than he does for the best -method of converting those purple flowers and the accompanying foliage -into marketable beef. An accepted but unwritten rule of cornfeeding is -that 1000 pounds of grain with ordinary forage will produce 100 pounds -of gain, under normal conditions. - - -SOME FEEDING TESTS - -The Kansas station in a careful feeding test of 153 days produced 100 -pounds of gain with 718 pounds of grain by using alfalfa hay for -roughness. This test also gave the following table of gain in values, -from the use of different feeds in the same given time: - - Corn and alfalfa hay $109.74 - Corn and prairie hay 56.96 - Corn and sorghum hay 27.09 - Corn and oat straw 43.28 - Barley and alfalfa hay 57.16 - -The Utah station after a feeding test published the statement that to -produce 705.61 pounds of beef it required: - - Of alfalfa hay 7,182 pounds - Of timothy hay 9,575 „ - Of red clover hay 11,967 „ - Of shredded corn fodder 10,083 „ - -[Illustration: =Kansas Farmer Viewing One of His Alfalfa Fields= - -Showing ten days’ growth after first cutting in 1907] - -[Illustration: Harvesting Alfalfa in Ohio] - -At this station steers made a most rapid gain when fed upon early cut -alfalfa hay, either with or without an accompanying ration of grain. “By -early cut hay was meant hay cut just before bloom. The gain upon this -early cut alfalfa hay was one-third more than that upon hay cut when in -full bloom or later.” - -The Utah station also reports a cattle feeding test (Bul. No. 61) in -which 100 pounds of gain from feeding alfalfa hay cost $3.76; from -timothy, $4.71, and from corn fodder, $6.21. - -At the Nebraska station Prof. Howard R. Smith (Buls. 85 and 90) fed 50 -yearling and 50 two-year-old grade steers in lots of ten for six months, -each lot of each fifty having rations different from the others, and the -table herewith shows the average cost per pound of gain made by each -steer of each lot of yearlings: - - Lot fed corn and prairie hay 8.27 cents - „ „ corn 90 per cent, oil meal 10 per cent, and - prairie hay 6.82 „ - „ „ corn 90 per cent, oil meal 10 per cent, and - corn stover 6.09 „ - „ „ corn 90 per cent, oil meal 10 per cent, and - sorghum hay 7.00 „ - „ „ corn and alfalfa hay 6.04 „ - -Below is shown the cost under similar conditions with the two-year-olds, -(the cost of the corn and oil meal fed them having been slightly greater -than that fed the yearlings): - - Lot fed corn and prairie hay 8.23 cents - „ „ corn 90 per cent, oil meal 10 per cent, and - prairie hay 8.27 „ - „ „ corn 90 per cent, oil meal 10 per cent, and - corn stover 6.49 „ - „ „ corn 90 per cent, oil meal 10 per cent, and - sorghum hay 7.87 „ - „ „ corn and alfalfa hay 6.89 „ - -Among the deductions from these experiments, Professor Smith records the -following, bearing upon the use of alfalfa: - -“Alfalfa is much superior to prairie hay when the grain consists of corn -alone. It also proved to be a cheaper source of protein than oil meal. -The returns on the cattle fed alfalfa hay, were the alfalfa figured at -$11.14 per ton, would have been as great as the returns on prairie hay -at $6 per ton, with corn as the grain ration at 39 cents per bushel. In -comparison with prairie hay at $6 when oil meal worth $28 per ton was a -part of the grain ration, the alfalfa returned a value of $8.28 per ton. -(In these experiments the cost of all alfalfa hay and all prairie hay -was figured at the one price of $6 per ton.--Author.) - -“Bright, well-cured corn stover fed with an equal weight of alfalfa, the -grain consisting of corn alone, gave slightly larger gains than corn and -alfalfa, and proved the most economical ration in the experiment. The -addition of corn stover may have improved, to some extent, the corn and -alfalfa ration by furnishing greater variety, and by its tendency to -check scours sometimes caused by alfalfa. The stover fed with alfalfa -returned a value of $4.57 per ton in comparison with alfalfa at $6 per -ton as the sole roughness. - -“By feeding alfalfa hay, which is a protein-rich roughness, extremely -palatable and readily masticated, in place of prairie hay with corn -alone, 14 per cent less grain was required for each pound of gain on -two-year-olds and 27 per cent less on yearlings. - -“Alfalfa hay, fed once per day in connection with corn and well-cured -cornstalks, furnished sufficient protein for two-year-olds to make the -three foods a combination producing heavy and very economical -gains--more economical than any other ration in the experiment. - -“Alfalfa is pronouncedly superior to prairie hay for beef production, -and the more rapid the extension of the area of land devoted to the -production of alfalfa, supplanting the less valuable and lower yielding -native hay, the more rapid will be the production of wealth from our -soil.” - -One authority who has made a study of such problems says, “steers can be -fattened on one-third less corn with alfalfa for roughness than -without.” - -W. H. Jordan, director of the New York (Geneva) experiment station says: -“Probably no species of forage are known that are more economical -sources of high-class cattle food than alfalfa and corn, and if in the -realms of stock raising corn is king, alfalfa is queen.” - - -FEEDING TOO MUCH ALFALFA - -Many feeders make the mistake of feeding too much alfalfa hay to young -steers grained heavily on corn. Careful tests seem to prove that cattle -on a heavy feed of corn, corn meal, Kafir-corn or Kafir-corn meal gain -as much with 15 or 20 pounds of alfalfa hay per day as by having 35 -pounds, the very common quantity in feeding. It is also reported by -experienced feeders that steers over three years old may be fattened on -alfalfa with a moderate feed of corn, while for younger steers the heavy -feed should be corn with 15 to 25 pounds of alfalfa hay per day. - -A Colorado feeder put a lot of steers nearly four years old on a daily -ration of ten pounds of corn chop and fifteen pounds of alfalfa hay for -100 days. The gain was surprising and the steers weighed on the Denver -market about 1430 pounds per head. - -A feeder in Osborne county, Kansas, reported to the author the -following: “Began feeding 22 two-year-old steers on February 3rd, -averaging 941 pounds in weight. Gave them no feed but alfalfa hay until -March 4th. From March 4th until May 1st fed all the alfalfa they wanted -and 243 bushels of corn chop, when they weighed out at an average gain -of 259 pounds each in 86 days, or three pounds per day on a feed of 11 -bushels of corn chop and plenty of alfalfa hay per steer.” - -Western feeders generally claim to be able to put fat cattle on the -market from 20 to 30 per cent cheaper with alfalfa as the balance than -on corn alone, or with corn and bran or any purchased protein foods. The -cheapest beef-making in the West is the raising of calves on alfalfa, -and at 20 to 24 months fattening them by a heavy feeding of corn and -alfalfa hay for 100 days. Cattle carried to 1000 to 1200 pounds on -alfalfa, and then finished by strong feeding on corn with alfalfa hay -for fifty to sixty days, make beef of a choice quality at a low cost. - - - - -_CHAPTER XII._ - -Alfalfa and the Dairy - - -MAKING A MARGIN - -The most enthusiastic advocates of alfalfa are dairymen. The market -price of milk is quite well fixed and the price of butterfat at the -creameries remains, in the different seasons, pretty much the same year -by year. Hence, the problem of increasing his financial returns must -depend upon the dairyman’s being able to increase the volume of his -product or to decrease the cost, or both. If he is selling butterfat at -a profit of five cents and he cannot force the price any higher, it is -the sensible thing to decrease the cost per pound and thereby enlarge -his profit. - -The dairyman who buys all his feed has but little margin. To raise -enough clover calls for considerable land. Alfalfa will yield a large -bulk of excellent feed from a few acres of well treated land. For profit -he must raise more feedstuff and buy less. The Kansas station reported -that with common scrub cows fed on alfalfa hay and Kafir corn meal it -was possible to produce butterfat at a cost of seven cents a pound. - - -SOME MILKING TEST VALUATIONS - -The New Jersey station as a result of a very painstaking milking test -reported: (1) In a ration where alfalfa hay was tested against wheat -bran and dried brewers’ grain the saving in the cost of milk was 12.7 -cents per hundred, and 2.3 cents per pound of butter when alfalfa hay -was used. This saving means a great deal when it is considered that the -alfalfa is raised and not purchased. (2) That the milk value of one acre -of alfalfa was $74. - -A Kansas dairyman is reported to have kept ten cows through one summer -on the alfalfa cut daily from a patch containing four square rods less -than two acres. - -Some dairymen believe that there is a great saving in the alfalfa hay by -cutting it into two-inch lengths, and feeding it dry. It is also -believed that it will always be a matter of economy to feed with the -alfalfa, green or as hay, a small ration of carbonaceous food, even -corn-stover serving such a purpose. - -Former Governor Hoard, editor of _Hoard’s Dairyman_, says that with -alfalfa hay at $10 and bran at $20 per ton there is a saving, by using -alfalfa, of $2.80 for every 100 pounds of butter made, and a saving of -19.8 cents for every 100 pounds of milk. - -In a section of New York where alfalfa has been quite generally -introduced, dairymen claim an increase in their profits of 15 to 30 per -cent by its use, besides the enrichment of their farms for other crops. - -Prof. D. H. Otis, telling of experiments with the dairy herd at the -Kansas agricultural college, states that, “it is usually recommended to -feed a cow all the rough feed she will eat, and then balance up the -ration with grain. The experience at the college indicates that much -rough feed is wasted in careless feeding. The cow will eat the best -first, and, if given too much, will pick the most desirable morsels, -leaving what might be called passably good, which too frequently is -treated as waste and thrown under foot. No more hay should be given an -animal than it will eat up clean. This refers to first-class quality, -however, as a cow could not be expected to eat poor hay clean. - -“In feeding the rough feeds, the following table has been used by the -college as a guide: - - ----------------------------------------------------------------- - ROUGHNESS.--Value per ton when alfalfa is worth $1.00 per ton - ---------------+-------+-------+-----------------+---------+----- - | Total |Protein| | Total |Protein - | nutri-| nutri-| | nutri-| nutri- - FEED | ents | ents | FEED | ents | ents - ---------------+-------+-------+-----------------+-------+------- - DRY ROUGHNESS | | |GREEN ROUGHNESS | | - Alfalfa | $1.00 | $1.00 | Alfalfa | $0.34 | $0.37 - Corn-fodder | .32 | .19 | Corn silage | .13 | .12 - Cowpeas | .97 | 1.02 | Fodder corn | .14 | .09 - Fodder Corn | .40 | .24 | Pasture grasses| .03 | .24 - Millet | .64 | .42 | Sorghum fodder | .12 | .06 - Oat hay | .59 | .41 | Soy-beans | .28 | .30 - Oat straw | .33 | .15 | | | - Orchard-grass| .60 | .45 |ROOTS AND TUBERS | | - Prairie hay | .51 | .33 | Mangels | .10 | .09 - Red clover | .70 | .64 | Sugar-beets | .14 | .10 - Sorghum | .43 | .23 | Turnips | .11 | .08 - Soy-beans | .98 | 1.02 | | | - Mixed hay | .67 | .56 | | | - Timothy | .47 | .27 | | | - Wheat straw | .25 | .08 | | | - ---------------+-------+-------+-----------------+-------+------- - -“Students working with the dairy herd were anxious to have the cows make -the best possible yields, and were tempted to give all the good alfalfa -hay the cows would eat. When we discovered the alfalfa hay going too -rapidly we looked for the cause and found that the dairy cows had -consumed an average of forty-three pounds per head daily, besides -fifteen pounds of Kafir corn fodder. The quantity of alfalfa was reduced -to thirty-three pounds and the Kafir-corn fodder to three and one-half -pounds daily per cow, and we found that the daily yield of milk was -slightly increased. The quality of the hay was the same in both -instances. In the latter case it was eaten up clean, while in the former -considerable was hauled away and fed to dry cows. Later records show a -still greater reduction in the allowance of alfalfa without decreasing -the flow of milk. This experience shows some of the leaks that may take -place in feeding roughness, especially when those feeds are appetizing, -like alfalfa and red clover. - -“For ease of calculation the roughness is figured on the basis of -alfalfa hay selling for one dollar per ton. When alfalfa is worth six -dollars per ton the other rough feeds are worth six times the amount -indicated in the table; when alfalfa is worth eight dollars per ton the -other feeds are worth eight times as much, and so on. Usually we find -that we can give practically all the rough feed that the cows can eat, -although, as indicated above, with a good quality of alfalfa or clover -hay more may be eaten than will be consumed at a profit. At this writing -alfalfa hay is selling in Manhattan at seven dollars per ton. This would -make the feeding values of the other rough feeds worth seven times the -amount indicated in the table. Red clover, for instance, would be worth -seven times seventy cents or $4.90 per ton; prairie hay would be worth -$3.57 per ton; and millet hay would be worth $4.48 per ton. If the -problem was to select the most economical roughness, we would select -alfalfa at seven dollars per ton, in preference to red clover at six -dollars per ton, or prairie hay at four dollars per ton, or millet at -five dollars per ton. Knowing the cost of these different rough feeds -and having this table before him, a feeder can tell which is the most -economical feed to use. It will be noticed that the table is divided -into two parts, the first part giving the value of the total nutrients, -and the second one the value of the protein nutrients. It frequently -happens that we have plenty of carbohydrates and fat, but that we are -lacking in protein. In this case we would consult the ‘protein -nutrients’ column in order to determine what feed to buy in order to -furnish the protein most economically. If it be carbohydrates and fat as -well as protein that is required, as was the condition in the dry year -of 1901, then we should take the total nutrients’ column. When it is -possible to get a rough feed containing a large amount of protein, we -find that in feeding a liberal allowance of roughness the grain can be -reduced. Hence, the importance of providing roughness rich in protein, -like alfalfa.” - - -SELLING FARM PRODUCTS THROUGH THE COW - -No other branch of agriculture presents more advantages than -dairying--disposing of the products of the farm as milk and butterfat. -When the latter may be sold to creamery stations and the skim milk fed -to calves and pigs along with alfalfa the profits are greater than from -almost any other form of agriculture. No other business tends so rapidly -to build up the fertility of the farm, and, when judiciously conducted, -no other branch of farming yields more satisfactory financial returns. -Raising and feeding alfalfa will add from 15 to 30 per cent to the -profits of dairying over the use of any other feedstuff that may be -raised or bought. The profit problem for the dairyman is constantly to -find the feed that will decrease the cost of his production. - -The diagram below, prepared by the editor of the _Nebraska Farmer_, is -to “represent the digestible protein or milk property contained in -different kinds of roughness. Points represent the decimals of a pound, -and the bars are an exact representation of the superiority of one kind -of food over another for the production of milk. Each bar represents 10 -pounds of roughness. The approximate yield is also given per acre:” - -Approximate Yield Per Acre. - - Corn Stover 6 to 8 Tons 17 Points - ------------- - Drilled Corn Fodder 10 to 14 Tons 25 Points - ------------------- - Timothy Hay 2 Tons 28 Points - -------------------------- - Prairie Hay 2 Tons 30 Points - -------------------------------- - Millet Hay 3 Tons 32 Points - --------------------------------------- - Oat Hay 3 to 4 Tons 43 Points - --------------------------------------------- - Red Top 2 Tons 48 Points - --------------------------------------------------- - Red Clover 2 Tons 68 Points - ---------------------------------------------------------- - Alsike 3 Tons 84 Points - ---------------------------------------------------------------------- - Alfalfa 6 to 8 Tons 110 Points - ---------------------------------------------------------------------- - -A. S. Hitchcock cites as an illustration of feeding alfalfa alone, the -case of the dairy farms in the vicinity of Moneta, Cal., where the stock -are ordinarily fed no other ration than alfalfa. As alfalfa is not a -balanced ration, a number of local dairymen tried to replace a part of -the alfalfa by sorghum, thus giving a more nearly balanced ration. The -cows, however, did not give as much milk upon this combination as upon -pure alfalfa. “This result may be assigned to the fact that the cattle -were unable to consume a sufficient quantity of the mixture to produce -the same results as the alfalfa alone. These dairymen find they can -secure a larger yield by feeding a little grain; but the increased yield -does not pay for the grain, which is high priced in this locality.” - - -AN ESSENTIAL IN MILK PRODUCTION - -Oscar Erf, professor of dairying at the Kansas experiment station, -writing for this volume, says: “Alfalfa is quite indispensable in -successful dairy operations, being one of the cheapest sources of -protein, that most essential compound in feeds for milk production. The -Kansas station found that for milk 1¹⁄₄ pounds of well-leaved alfalfa -hay, containing a high per cent of protein, is equal in feeding value to -a pound of bran. In case the alfalfa is of a stemmy nature it requires -1³⁄₄ pounds to equal the feeding value of a pound of bran. Alfalfa hay -is worth from $4 to $7 per ton on the farm, while bran costs from $14 to -$20 per ton, hence it is far more economical to feed the alfalfa hay. - -“Like other hays alfalfa varies in composition according to the time of -cutting, the soil on which it grows, and its per cent of leaves. It has -been found that three-fourths of a pound of alfalfa hay is equal in -feeding value to a pound of clover hay of equal brightness and quality. -A good stand of clover yields about 2¹⁄₂ tons per acre per year, while a -good stand of alfalfa yields about 5 tons per acre per year. Hence, on -an acre of land, 1100 pounds of protein can be produced by raising -alfalfa while only 340 pounds can be produced by growing clover, the -protein in the alfalfa and that in the clover being equally digestible. -This comparison is chosen from the fact that clover is the next cheaper -source of protein found on the farm. - -“At the Kansas station the following experiment was conducted, and -illustrates the low cost of a ration including alfalfa hay for roughness -as compared with a ration in which prairie hay was used. The experiment -was with ten cows. The first ration consisted of 21 pounds of alfalfa -hay and 9 pounds of corn. While the cows were on this ration each -produced an average 26 pounds of milk per day, the milk containing 3.9 -per cent of butterfat. To formulate a ration from prairie hay and bran -which had the same amount of nutrients, we were obliged to feed 19 -pounds of bran and 15 of hay. Fed on this each cow produced only 24 -pounds of milk per day, containing 4 per cent of butterfat. The 21 -pounds of alfalfa hay at $7 per ton, which is rather a high estimate, -and 9 pounds of corn at 70 cents per hundred weight cost 13.6 cents per -day. At this rate it cost 3¹⁄₃ cents to produce a gallon of milk, or -approximately 13.5 cents for a pound of butterfat. Estimating bran at -$16 per ton and prairie hay at $5 per ton, the cost of the second ration -was 18.95 cents per day, and milk approximately 7 cents per gallon, -making the butterfat worth 19.7 cents per pound. - -“The following two tables show the difference in cost between a ration -in which alfalfa is used for part of the roughness and one which -contains no alfalfa but has the same amount of digestible nutrients: - - Alfalfa hay 19 lbs at $ 7.00 per ton $ .066 - Corn 7 lbs at .70 per cwt .049 - Bran 2¹⁄₂ lbs at 18.00 per ton .0225 - ------- - $ .1375 - - Sorghum hay 10 lbs at $ 3.50 per ton $ .0175 - Prairie hay 12 lbs at 6.00 per ton .036 - Ground wheat 8 lbs at .80 per bu .1066 - Cottonseed meal 3 lbs at 24.00 per ton .036 - ------- - $ .1961 - -“As shown by the table a gain of 5.86 cents is made by feeding the -alfalfa. Being a proteinaceous feed it can to a great extent be -substituted for cottonseed meal, linseed meal or gluten meal, and will -entirely substitute other leguminous hays and forages, such as soy bean -hay, cowpea hay, clover hay and vetch hay, any one of which is more -expensive, for nutrients contained, than alfalfa hay. - -“The Kansas station has found it practicable, from results obtained in -the past three years, to ensile green alfalfa for dairy cows. This is -superior to dry alfalfa, owing to its succulent nature. In the eastern -part of the United States ensiling alfalfa has another advantage in that -all cuttings can be harvested in perfect condition. As a rule the first -cutting throughout this whole territory is liable to be damaged more or -less by rains. By putting the green alfalfa into a well constructed silo -this loss can be obviated and the full value retained. For example: a -man has 40 acres of alfalfa, from which he harvests for the first crop -1¹⁄₂ tons per acre. Estimating the price of good, clean alfalfa hay at -$7 a ton, this would be worth $420. Should the hay be damaged by rain -its value would be greatly reduced and, as has been the case for many -years, such damaged hay could be purchased for $2 or less per ton. -Accordingly this damaged hay would be worth $120. The loss caused by -rain would therefore be $300. Put into the silo this first cutting would -be equal in value to the best bright hay. - -“The cost of a 100-ton silo is $250, hence the owner could not only save -the first cutting, but money besides. Furthermore, it is not -infrequently the case that alfalfa of the first cutting is of a stemmy -nature, and it has been estimated that fully 28 per cent of such hay is -wasted when fed to cows, as they do not eat the coarse stems. This loss -can be entirely eliminated by the siloing, for cows will readily eat the -stems as silage. - -“The value of alfalfa silage in influencing the milk flow was indicated -when a ration was fed to sixteen cows, in which 12 pounds of alfalfa -hay, 20 pounds of corn silage, 5 pounds of bran and 4 pounds of corn -meal were used; this ration was afterward changed by substituting -alfalfa silage for the corn silage, and at the same time the bran was -reduced to 1 pound, and the corn increased 1 pound. By these changes the -milk was increased 10 per cent. - -“With butterfat worth 23 cents a pound the value of a ton of alfalfa -silage has been estimated at approximately $8. This silage solves the -problem of feeding cows economically in summer, as well as in winter, -under a system of intensive farming.” - -W. J. Fraser, chief in dairy husbandry at the University of Illinois, -says: “Corn silage and alfalfa, two of the best feeds for dairy cows, -make practically a complete or balanced ration in themselves. Several -years’ experience in supplying the university dairy herd with various -kinds of soiling crops in midsummer has led to this high recommendation -of corn silage and alfalfa.” - -Alfalfa hay has much the same laxative effect as June pasture. An Elgin, -Ill., dairyman, with fifty cows, says: “Every month I feed alfalfa in -winter gives me a month in which I have practically pasture conditions. -The cows show the pasture-effect in the glossy condition of their hair -and in the yield of milk, and have never before looked quite so well.” - - - - -_CHAPTER XIII._ - -Alfalfa for Swine - - -HOGS WILL EAT HAY - -In the preceding chapter it was stated that alfalfa is a valuable -pasture or soiling crop for pigs. It is equally true that they will -actually eat alfalfa hay. A hog is not usually ranked as a hay-eating -animal but an exception must be made as to his eating alfalfa hay. As a -pasture or soiling crop for sows and young pigs, alfalfa proves a -wonderfully helpful ration for milk-making in the sow and for growth in -the pigs. Experiments have shown that pigs make better growth when the -dam is fed considerable alfalfa than those from sows fed the best of -commercial rations, but with no alfalfa. Given two sets of pigs, one fed -clover, rape and soaked corn and the other fed only alfalfa forage, the -latter seemed to grow the more rapidly. For brood sows it is a most -valuable food, either as hay, a soiling crop, or as pasture. The litters -of such sows are generally large and vigorous and the dams have a strong -flow of nutritious milk. Alfalfa meal in slop may be used with profit -where the hay is not to be obtained. It is also claimed that sows fed on -alfalfa during pregnancy will not devour their young, its mineral -elements seeming to satisfy the appetite of the sow, while contributing -to the fetal development of the pigs. - -[Illustration: =Five-year-old Alfalfa= - -at the time of its third cutting. September 8, and its root development. -Grown at Manhattan, Kansas, on upland prairie having a heavy clay -subsoil] - -[Illustration: =Showing Advantage of Early Fall Sowing= - -Beginning on the left the seed was sown August 19, September 15 and -October 1 respectively. All were dug up April 13 of the following -spring. Nebraska Experiment Station Bulletin 84] - -On a farm of Governor Hoard, in Wisconsin, all the brood sows have for -several years been wintered on alfalfa hay of the third cutting, and -their drink, without any grain until the last two weeks of gestation. -Mr. Hoard says the object was to give the sows a food that should keep -them in a non-feverish state and furnish protein sufficient to build the -bodies of the forthcoming pigs. (Their “drink” was the skim milk from -the dairy.) - -“It was a matter of experiment at first, our only guide being what -knowledge and reason we could exercise from what we knew, or thought we -knew, of the philosophy of gestation. The experiment proved to be a -success from the first. The sows went through their work in fine -condition, giving milk abundantly. The pigs came with splendid vitality, -thus reducing our losses from early death fully 30 per cent over what -they had previously been. The hay is fed dry and is thrown into the pen -on the feeding floor without any cutting or chaffing whatever. We have -sometimes thought we would try the experiment of cutting it into -half-inch lengths and moistening it. Possibly it would take less hay in -this way. The sows keep in good flesh, fully as much so as we like.” - -A Finney county, Kansas, farmer reports having pastured 30 pigs on one -acre of alfalfa from May 1st to September 1st, when they weighed 100 -pounds each and were in fine condition for fattening. Another Kansas -farmer reports keeping 100 pigs from about the middle of April to -September on five acres of alfalfa pasture. A little grain during the -last two months would have gained him many pounds of pork. Many alfalfa -raising pig-growers insist that their pigs can be maintained from May -to October on alfalfa for one-half what it would cost for almost any -other feed. - -The Utah station found that young shoats gained one-third of a pound a -day on alfalfa pasture without grain. But the station found also that -the gain was not so great in older hogs. A Wisconsin dairyman reported -that he kept nine sows all winter and spring on alfalfa hay and skim -milk, without any grain, and raised from them 75 pigs, all healthy and -vigorous. - -The Colorado station considers that a ration of three-fourths corn and -one-fourth alfalfa hay is the best for fattening hogs for market, but -for young hogs not ready for fattening the proportions should be -reversed. The station does not recommend grinding alfalfa hay for hogs, -probably on the theory that the hog’s time is not worth much at best. - - -A VALUABLE FEEDING TEST - -The Kansas station in the fall of 1898 made a series of experiments of -interest to feeders everywhere. The test was to determine the value of -alfalfa hay fed to fattening hogs that were receiving all the grain they -would eat. The results are related here in the language of the bulletin: - -“The hogs fed in this experiment were bought of farmers, and averaged in -weight 125 pounds each. They were placed in lots of ten each, in large -pens, having for shelter some sheds open to the south. The alfalfa hay -used was of the best quality, carefully cured. Blackhulled White -Kafir-corn was the grain used, the hogs being fed all they would eat -without waste. The hay was fed dry in forkfuls in a large flat trough. -The pigs were given more than they could eat, and they picked out the -leaves and finer stems, rejecting the coarser stems. One lot of hogs was -fed Kafir-corn meal dry and alfalfa hay; one lot whole Kafir-corn dry; -one lot Kafir-corn meal dry, and one lot Kafir-corn meal wet. - -“The experiment began on November 24 and lasted nine weeks. By that time -the alfalfa-fed hogs became well fattened, and were marketed. We -estimated that it would require four to five weeks additional feeding, -with ordinary weather, to get the hogs that were fed grain alone into -good marketable condition. - -“The gain in nine weeks from the different methods of feeding were as -follows: - - Gains per hog - in pounds - Kafir-corn meal dry and alfalfa hay 90.9 - Kafir-corn whole 59.4 - Kafir-corn meal fed dry 52.4 - Kafir-corn meal fed wet 63.3 - -“The gain from feeding alfalfa hay with Kafir-corn meal fed dry, over -the meal alone fed dry, is more than 73 per cent. - -“The gains per bushel of feed were as follows: - - Pounds - Kafir-corn meal dry and 7.83 pounds alfalfa hay 10.88 - Kafir-corn whole 8.56 - Kafir-corn meal fed dry 7.48 - Kafir-corn meal fed wet 8.09 - -“Ten hogs in nine weeks were fed 656 pounds of alfalfa hay; and as shown -above, for each 7.83 pounds of alfalfa hay fed with the dry Kafir-corn -meal, the hogs gained 3.4 pounds over those having dry Kafir-corn meal -alone--a gain of 868 pounds of pork per ton of alfalfa hay. These -results are not due to the feeding value of the alfalfa alone, but also -to its influence in aiding the hogs to better digest the Kafir-corn. The -alfalfa hay also gave a variety to the ration, making it more appetizing -and inducing the hogs to eat more grain. The ten hogs having grain alone -ate 3885 pounds of dry Kafir-corn meal, while the ten hogs having hay -and grain ate 4679 pounds of the Kafir-corn meal and 656 pounds of -alfalfa hay. The hay-fed hogs ate more grain and gained more for each -bushel eaten. - -“In a former experiment pigs were pastured through the summer on alfalfa -with a light feeding of corn. After deducting the probable gain from the -corn, the gain per acre from the alfalfa pasture was 776 pounds of pork. - -“These facts indicate that to produce pork most cheaply the Kansas -farmer must have alfalfa pasture in summer and alfalfa hay in winter.” - -The Kansas station also found in another test that one acre of alfalfa -produced pork worth $20.30, while one acre of rape produced pork worth -$10.05. - -The Iowa station director estimated that one acre of alfalfa pastured -was worth at least three acres of blue-grass for pigs. It is claimed by -Kansas farmers that an average acre of alfalfa will pasture 15 pigs, -while some report having pastured 20 or more pigs per acre. Those who -have used alfalfa as a soiling crop for pigs admit, however, that one -acre so utilized is equal to two if not three used as pasture. - -It is argued by feeders that as many hogs may profitably be allowed with -cattle that are being fattened on corn and alfalfa as when fed corn -alone, as the feeders believe in cleaning out the feed-racks every few -days and giving the left-over stems to the hogs. If necessary, a little -corn is added to the hog ration. - - -A NEBRASKA TEST - -The Nebraska experiment station, from a hog-feeding test made in 1903 -reported the following: - -“With the alfalfa hay worth $7 per ton, the leaves, containing 40 per -cent more protein, would be worth approximately $10 per ton. The shorts -cost $12.50 per ton delivered. The dairy department charged 15 cents per -hundred for the skim milk used. Corn was delivered to the barns at 30 -cents per bushel. Adding the usual rate of 6 cents per hundred for -grinding, the corn meal cost $12 per ton. At these prices, each hundred -pounds of gain in the several lots cost as follows: - - Lot 1, corn alone $4.48 - Lot 2, corn and skim milk 3.97 - Lot 3, corn and shorts 3.53 - Lot 4, corn and alfalfa 3.40 - -“This experiment shows that at the market prices quoted and the -proportions used in the experiment, skim milk will make corn bring four -cents more per bushel, wheat shorts eight cents more, and alfalfa leaves -nine cents more. Assuming that only five per cent of the 252,520,173 -bushels of corn produced in Nebraska this year is being fed to hogs as a -single food, these figures would go to show that $1,000,000 more wealth -would be added to the state if wheat shorts or alfalfa were substituted -for one-fifth of the corn fed.” - - -CUT ALFALFA EARLY FOR HOGS - -It is especially important that alfalfa intended to be fed to hogs -should be cut early. An experiment at the Kansas station showed that a -ton of early cut and well-cured alfalfa, fed with grain, produced 868 -pounds of pork while a ton late cut and poorly cured, fed with grain, -produced only 333 pounds. For fattening hogs it is well to feed about -one ton of well-cured alfalfa hay with each 250 bushels of grain. - -Farmer’s Bulletin No. 215 of the United States Department of Agriculture -declares that alfalfa is an ideal pasture plant for hogs. “There is no -danger from bloat and with a limited number of hogs there is practically -no injury to the alfalfa field. Vigorous alfalfa will support 15 to 25 -head of pigs per acre. It is best to limit the number of pigs to that -which will be insufficient to keep down an alfalfa field. Cuttings of -hay may then be made at intervals and the growth thus rejuvenated. On -the average pigs weighing 30 to 60 pounds in the spring will make a gain -of about 100 pounds each during the season. Although pigs may be grown -and fattened upon alfalfa alone, it is best to combine the alfalfa with -some kind of a grain ration. Alfalfa by itself is too rich in protein to -give a balanced ration. Where pigs are pastured upon alfalfa alone they -may be prepared for the market by feeding for a few weeks upon corn. It -is still better, however, to feed a third to a half of a ration of corn -or other grain during the time of pasturing.” - -The great mistake made by too many who attempt to pasture swine on -alfalfa is in overstocking. There is a tendency to keep within a small -pasture more stock than it can comfortably support, with the result that -the stand is gnawed, trampled and rooted out, while the animals fail to -prosper as they would under more rational treatment. - -One of the most extensive and successful swine raisers in Kansas tells -the author this: “Twenty-five years of pasturing hogs of all ages on -alfalfa has proven conclusively to me that with a fourth to a half grain -ration, while they are on such pasture, will produce in them a greater -growth per day than when in dry lots on full feeds of corn. Hogs will -maintain a reasonable growth, but not fatten much, on alfalfa pasture -alone; I believe it profitable to feed them some grain while running on -green alfalfa. If it is desired to full-feed hogs, they will make a -rapid fattening growth by increasing the grain ration while on the -pasture, and with the full grain ration the meat will be nearly as firm -as those of the dry lot, where grain alone has been fed. I find no -distinction on the market between alfalfa-fed swine and those purely -grain-fed, and they sell price and price alike. The general health of -the alfalfa-fed hogs is equal to that of those maintained on any other -feed, and they are prolific.” - -The Kansas station realized $11.90 per acre from rape pasture and $24.10 -per acre from alfalfa pasture in ninety-eight days. These results were -obtained from the following experiments, which were begun July 25 and -concluded October 31. - -Thirty shoats, averaging fifty-two pounds in weight, were divided as -nearly equally as possible into three lots of ten each. Lot I was fed on -a grain mixture of shorts one-half, corn meal one-fourth, and Kafir-corn -meal one-fourth, in a dry lot. The other two lots were fed the same -grain ration, but one received rape pasture and the other alfalfa -pasture in addition. Each lot was given what grain the hogs would eat up -clean, and each had access to water and ashes. The weights of grain -consumed and gains made are as follows: - - --------------------+---------+--------+--------------- - | Grain | Total |Grain consumed - Feed | consumed|gain, in| per 100 lbs. - |in pounds| pounds |gain, in pounds - --------------------+---------+--------+--------------- - I. No pasture | 3,801 | 1,023 | 371 - II. Rape pasture | 3,244 | 1,076 | 301 - III. Alfalfa pasture| 3,244 | 1,078 | 300 - --------------------+---------+--------+--------------- - -The gains of the three lots are very nearly equal. The dry lot consumed -557 pounds (or seventy pounds for every 100 pounds of gain) more grain -than the pasture lots. The lot on rape required one acre of pasture, -while the alfalfa lot used a trifle less than one-half acre. - -The lot without pasture required 3.71 pounds of grain to produce one -pound of gain. Assigning the same value to the grain fed the hogs on -rape pasture, we have 877 pounds of pork credited to the grain and 199 -pounds credited to the rape. At six cents per pound, the price at which -hogs were selling at the close of the experiment, this would be a credit -of $11.90 per acre for the rape. In a similar manner, the alfalfa is -credited with 201 pounds of pork, equal to $12.05, and as there was only -a half-acre of alfalfa, this makes a rate of $24.10 per acre. - -The cost of preparing the seed bed and seeding the rape was $1.80 per -acre. It was seeded in the feed lots, on soil that would otherwise have -remained idle or would have grown up to weeds. - -The shoats on pasture enjoyed their diet and seemed satisfied. Those in -dry lot seemed to be hankering after something green, and their -appetites seemed unsatisfied without some kind of roughness. They would -even nibble at straw, in a vain attempt to satisfy their craving. - -“The experiment,” says Prof. D. H. Otis, “emphasizes the superior value -of alfalfa pasture. Where alfalfa is not available, or where variety is -wanted, or it is desired to utilize otherwise waste land, Dwarf Essex -rape, seeded at the rate of six to eight pounds per acre, any time from -early spring to late summer, will furnish an excellent diet that is -greatly relished by the hogs.” - -J. E. Woodford, of Coffey county, Kansas, April 1, 1905, placed ten -choice pure bred Poland-China brood sows from twelve to eighteen months -old that were due to farrow in the latter days of June, on a five-acre -field of alfalfa. They were given no other feed than the alfalfa -pasturage until they had farrowed and their pigs were a week old. After -that the sows had in addition to the alfalfa some bran slop until about -August 20, when new corn was fit for feeding. He says: “The sows from -the time they were turned on the alfalfa until the last week in June -made a remarkable growth, besides gaining somewhat in flesh. They did -well with their pigs, reared an average of seven to each sow, and as -sucklers they were a sight to see. The pigs were the most attractive -bunch ever raised in Coffey county, as admitted by our breeding -competitors. We weighed a gilt from this lot when six months and five -days old, and her weight of two hundred and twenty-five pounds was not -above the average of the whole lot. In our lifelong experience in -rearing swine we have found nothing of the grass kind for them that in -value approaches alfalfa.” - -A plat of thrifty, well-established alfalfa suitably fenced and used for -pasturing swine of whatever age can scarcely fall short of being among -the most profitable parts of any farm upon which swine husbandry is -given attention. - - - - -_CHAPTER XIV._ - -Alfalfa for Horses and Mules - - -J. W. Robison, a Kansas breeder of Percherons, who ranks among the -foremost anywhere, raises his colts to three years at an average weight -of 1700 pounds and his four-year-olds at 1900 pounds, ready for the sale -yard, on alfalfa, except such limited quantities of grain as will make -it more nearly a properly balanced food, and incidentally expedite -growth. His opinion, fortified by sixty years of experience, is that -alfalfa as pasturage and hay constitutes by far the most excellent and -economical frame- and muscle-forming food available to the live stock -industry. His colts have alfalfa as their first green food, and, if -foaled in winter, are taught in a few days to nibble the cut hay. He -also says colts reared mainly on alfalfa have equal spirit and vigor and -better dispositions than those given much grain. His brood mares are -made to rely on alfalfa as their main ration, and for three months -before foaling it is practically, unless in midwinter, their only feed. -As a result they are always in ideal condition, their colts are -delivered easily, the mares give an abundance of nourishing milk, free -from feverish tendencies, and the colts are robustly rugged from their -beginning. The cost of rearing colts and horses by this method, he -says, is less, quality and rapidity of their growth considered, than by -any other of which he has knowledge. - -The well-known J. E. Wing, of Ohio, says: “There is no one thing so good -for the work horse as alfalfa. He needs less grain, and has more life -and spirit than when fed upon any other hay, yet even working teams can, -on account of its richness, be fed too much. This puts an undue strain -upon their excretory organs to eliminate the unnecessary food substances -from the tissues. The overfeeding of alfalfa hay to horses has in some -localities caused the use of it to become unpopular, and to raise an -outcry against it. The writer has fed no other hay to his -horses--working teams, driving horses, mares and foals--for many years, -and has yet to observe the first instance of evil result, save that the -driving horses when not used regularly become soft and easily sweated. - - -GOOD FOR WORK HORSES - -Until recently it was not thought in the eastern states that alfalfa was -an especially good feed for horses. On the somewhat noted Watson ranch -at Kearney, Nebraska, the grain supply became exhausted one summer when -the prices were high. There was an abundance of alfalfa hay, and -although it was in August and the horses were at heavy work, such as -plowing and ditching, the entire force of eighty was kept on alfalfa hay -and but little grain, without any injurious effect. They relished the -hay, did the hard work every day and looked as sleek as if on pasture. -Since that time alfalfa hay has been the principal ration for all of the -farm’s work horses, colts and driving stock. - -In western Kansas farm horses have been wintered on a daily feed of 10 -pounds of alfalfa hay and some corn stover, and thin horses fattened on -alfalfa hay and a little corn. - - -CRESCEUS EATS ALFALFA - -Again, the prevalent notion that it is not good for driving horses has -been contradicted by hundreds of farmers who use it for such horses, and -by hundreds in western towns who use it for delivery horses, dray -horses, and light drivers, as well. In parts of California it is the -only hay fed to horses. “Cresceus, the great race horse, is said to have -been raised on it and it is said that he is fed no other hay, even while -on the racing circuit.” The same was said of Sysonby, the fleetest -Thoroughbred in the races of 1905. Many of the city transfer companies -in Denver, Kansas City and Omaha use alfalfa hay, claiming that it -enables them to reduce their grain ration, while their horses seem -stronger and look better than they did with the former feed of corn and -timothy. - - -TOO MUCH HAY FED - -It is no doubt true that Americans feed their horses too much hay. It is -common among horse owners to let horses stand to full mangers when not -at work. In London the cab horses, for example, are given hay for but -two hours a day, in the evening. At the end of two hours the mangers are -cleared. Careful testing in decreasing the timothy hay ration one-half -has not shown that the horses required any more grain than before to -keep them in equally good condition. - -Horses do not need a heavy ration of alfalfa hay. Fed with grain, -probably 10 or 15 pounds of it is equal to a manger full of other hay. -As they become accustomed to the alfalfa it may be increased a little, -and the grain decreased. It is a rich food and should not be used as -freely as hays with less protein. - -Prof. L. A. Merrill of the Utah station made six tests of alfalfa hay in -comparison with timothy for horses under varying conditions of work, and -found that it was less difficult to maintain their weight with alfalfa. -The appearance of the horses in every comparison was in favor of the -alfalfa-fed horse, and no ill results were noted on their health by -long-continued alfalfa feeding. Fourteen-hundred pound horses at hard -work could be maintained in condition on 32.6 pounds of alfalfa hay per -day, and at rest 20 pounds was sufficient for the same horses. - -The quantity of hay fed on most farms could be reduced at least -one-half. - -With all its merits alfalfa hay is by no means a properly balanced -ration for all purposes, and those unacquainted with this fact are -liable to feed it, exclusively or otherwise, in such quantities as are -both extravagant and harmful. D. C. Smead, a veterinarian of note, in -writing about using the hay in too great quantities, especially in -feeding horses, says this: - -“There is more danger in deranging the digestion or man or beast by an -excess of protein than by overfeeding on a carbonaceous food. The -proteins in food are more easily acted upon by the digestive fluids, and -thus more easily digested and carried into the blood, where an excess -means work for the kidneys to carry it off. We can founder a horse more -easily on wheat than on corn for this very reason. Alfalfa has a -nutritive ratio of practically 1 to 4. An ordinary 1000-pound horse, if -given all it will eat of it, will eat from thirty to forty pounds in -twenty-four hours. As the alfalfa contains about 11 per cent of easily -digested proteins, you will readily see that the horse would be taking -into his system nearly four and one-half pounds of protein. - -“About two and one-half pounds of digestible protein is all that an -ordinary horse or cow of a thousand pounds weight, when at work or in -milk, can utilize. In the alfalfa hay we have nearly twice as much as is -needed. If it were not for some of it being physicked off, we would soon -have an animal with overworked kidneys or muscular stiffness of a -rheumatic nature. In case of a mare in foal, when fed on alfalfa and -nothing else, the chances are she would drop her colt prematurely, or if -it went full time, the colt would be a nice, fat, little, plump fellow, -with little vitality and with a tendency to rickets or bowel disease, -all because the alfalfa was too narrow a ration. - -“Now if we fed this mare alfalfa hay once a day or even twice a day, in -moderate quantities, say fifteen pounds, and gave her one feed of straw -or timothy hay or corn fodder, which are carbonaceous foods, with a -quart of oats a day to impart a little nerve force, we would have her -practically on right lines. Alfalfa, good as it is, is not an -all-sufficient food for any animal. The danger lies in sections where it -is being thrown to the animals relishing it so well and the owner having -it in such abundance that it will come to be considered all-sufficient, -and then trouble is liable to follow. But fed with judgment it is the -best of all protein foods, and will enable the farmer to feed wisely and -well many of the unmarketable rough foods he raises, like straw and corn -stover, the one balancing the other.” - -Here and there are horses with digestive apparatus not suited for the -best use of alfalfa, but they are rare exceptions rather than the rule. - - -PRODUCES RAPID GROWTH - -One of the foremost horse breeders in America, who constantly maintains -upwards of one hundred head of various ages, writes the author this: - -“In my experience of twenty-five years in pasturing horses on alfalfa, -results have convinced me that it produces more bone, muscle and blood -in horses in less time than any other pasturage with which I am -acquainted. But I believe it profitable in raising the best horses to -also use a moderate grain ration, to stimulate rapid growth and early -development; my horses, however, have shown no ill effects from -pasturing on alfalfa without grain, or other feed, and I have found such -pasturing conducive to health and prolificacy, maturing animals equal -for service to any reared otherwise. I have raised three-year-olds grown -on alfalfa and a light grain ration to exceed a ton in weight, carrying -all the good qualities of the breed to which they belonged. Further, I -find using alfalfa as a horse pasture a much more economical method of -raising horses than any other.” - -[Illustration: =Alfalfa One Year Old Showing Effects of Inoculation= - -Plants on the left inoculated with “nitro-culture,” those on the right -not inoculated] - -[Illustration: =A Good Type of a Four-year-old Alfalfa Plant= - -grown on Kansas upland. Height, May 28, 36 inches. The crown shows the -effect of splitting with a disk harrow] - - - - -_CHAPTER XV._ - -Alfalfa and Sheep-Raising - - -The day is not far distant when the free “range” will be practically -eliminated from the stockman’s assets. His stock must be reared on -cultivated crops instead of by grazing on grasses that cost nothing. -Pound for pound alfalfa is more fattening for young lambs or old sheep -than clover. Lambs soiled on alfalfa cut daily make a phenomenal growth -and are as a rule free from disease. They may be carried through the -summer on a light feeding of green alfalfa and general pasture or farm -grazing, and fattened in the fall on alfalfa hay and cowpeas or a little -grain, at a generous profit. - -Thousands of sheep and lambs are every year brought from Colorado and -Montana to western Kansas and Nebraska and fattened for market on -alfalfa hay and grain, making for these commodities a convenient market -at good prices. - - -HOW TO PREVENT BLOATING - -Pasturing sheep or lambs on alfalfa is dangerous, although there are -sheep raisers who make it a main reliance. One man reports absolute -freedom from loss for several years, and his method is to have his sheep -pen adjoining the alfalfa field and early in April when the alfalfa is -just beginning to put on its green, he arranges a “creep” for the lambs -to go through into the field, and lets them stay there at pleasure. They -soon wean themselves; the “creep” is then closed and a safe pen in the -alfalfa field is used for shelter from rains and protection from dogs. -When necessary to fasten them in at night to guard against dogs or -wolves, he cuts green alfalfa each evening to give them with a little -grain in the morning before turning them back to the field. The lambs -grow rapidly and none ever bloat. Nevertheless, most sheep raisers will -continue to reckon alfalfa pasture too expensive when it costs so many -animals for the privilege of its use. Safety is the exception, and not -the rule. - -Owners of large flocks of sheep claim to be able to market lambs from -alfalfa pasture, or when soiled, at one-half to one-third the cost of -maintenance with any other crop. Green or cured it seems to hasten -development and the lambs are in fine condition for fattening in -October, or the ewes to put into the breeding pen. - -The Nebraska station in a winter experiment of 98 days with one hundred -50-pound lambs, divided into different lots and variously fed with -prairie hay, alfalfa hay, shelled corn, wheat bran, oats and linseed -meal figured at the prices then current, reached these results: - -1. The alfalfa-fed lambs consumed 1.34 pounds of alfalfa hay and one -pound of grain per day as against .88 pound of prairie hay and .89 pound -of grain consumed by the prairie hay fed lambs. - -2. The alfalfa-fed lambs made fifty-two per cent greater gains than the -lambs fed prairie hay and the same grain ration. - -3. The lambs fed prairie hay with corn and 16 per cent of oil meal made -26 per cent larger gains than the lots fed prairie hay with a grain -ration of shelled corn, or shelled corn with 25 per cent of bran or oats -added. - -In the twenty-fifth annual report of the Ontario agricultural college -are some interesting reports on feeding lambs on various foods. The -feeding periods were 74 days for the first experiment and 42 for the -second. - -By these tests alfalfa hay was shown to be slightly better for the lambs -in every way than clover hay under practically equivalent conditions. - -The first and second cuttings of alfalfa were equal in value; the third -cutting was slightly better than the first. - -W. L. Carlyle, dean of the Colorado agricultural college declares -alfalfa hay is the basis of the feeding industry in northern Colorado. -“Without alfalfa our agriculture would be of very little moment. Alfalfa -forms the basis of all our sugar-beet growing. It not only enriches the -soil in which it grows, but prepares it for the growing of sugar-beets -in a way that no other crop or system or cultivation can, and while -doing this preparatory work it yields an enormous tonnage of the most -valuable feed for fattening sheep and cattle. Usually lambs are given -free access to the hay and are allowed to eat all of it that they will.” - -Lamb feeding in northern Colorado has been carried on quite extensively -for a number of years, and with such success that “Fort Collins lambs” -are recognized in the eastern markets as superior to anything that is -shipped from any other section of the country. The name “Fort Collins -sheep” has extended to all of northern Colorado, just as the “Greeley -potato” is the term given to all potatoes grown in the northern part of -the state. - -In recent years many thousands of old ewes have been fed at the various -sugar factories upon beet pulp, alfalfa hay and corn. The old ewes -thrive much better upon the beet pulp than the lambs or younger sheep. -It produces a very desirable sappiness of flesh, and when these sheep -have been on this feed with alfalfa hay for two or three months and are -then finished with corn, they bring the highest price on the market. - - - - -_CHAPTER XVI._ - -Alfalfa and Bees - - -THE BEE FERTILIZES THE ALFALFA - -It has been discovered that the honey bee is of even more importance to -the alfalfa than the alfalfa is to the bee. The wonderful strength and -speed of the bees take them long distances for their food and they have -recourse to a great variety of plants. But the peculiar construction of -the alfalfa blossom renders it unable to fertilize itself and its shape -makes cross fertilization very difficult. In the marvelous “balance of -good” in nature, alfalfa, like thousands of other plants, is aided in -its lease on life by the insect world. It is not known just how many -insects or birds assist this remarkable plant, but the honey bee is the -most conspicuous, the most industrious, the most eager, and certainly -the most useful. - -Careful observations have been made of seed pods grown near colonies of -bees, and also of those so far from any bee colonies that it was safely -assumed no bees had visited the fields producing the pods. In every case -it was found that those from nearby fields had from 50 to 75 per cent -more seeds than the others and that they were larger and more perfectly -developed. In Colorado and western Kansas, where bee culture has been -greatly developed in recent years, it is found that the alfalfa seed -crop in fields nearest to bee colonies is much heavier and of better -quality than that of fields but a few miles away. - -At the Kansas experiment station a small plat of vigorous alfalfa was -covered just before coming into bloom with mosquito netting supported on -sticks. It was therefore known that no bees nor other insects could come -into contact with the blossoms. Later a careful examination disclosed -that the pods which had formed were entirely without seeds. - - -HOW THE FERTILIZING IS ACCOMPLISHED - -As suggesting something of the relation of bees and like insects to the -cross fertilization of alfalfa blossoms and consequent increased seed -production, Prof. S. J. Hunter, entomologist of the University of -Kansas, who has spent much time making critical observations of bees in -the alfalfa fields of the Middle West, writes the following for this -volume: - -“Every farmer is familiar with the evil effects of continuous inbreeding -among live stock. In plant life this same continuous fertilization of -one plant by its own pollen works no less injury to its race of plants. -To prevent such inbreeding among plants nature has devised several -means. One of these is illustrated in the alfalfa blossom. If the reader -will tear away the purple blossom exposing the true organs of -fertilization, it will be seen that the central round body, the stigma, -designed to receive the pollen grains, is higher than the surrounding, -elongated, pollen-bearing anthers. It will become evident, then, that it -will be possible and most likely for the pollen to drop to the base of -the flower without coming in contact with the stigma, and the flower -will thus go unfertilized. This is as nature intended it should be, -namely, that the plant should go unfertilized if it could be fertilized -only by the pollen of its own blossom. Provision, however, is made for -cross fertilization, that is, fertilization from the pollen of another -flower. - -“The color of the flower itself, its fragrance, and finally the sip of -nectar secreted at the base of the flower, are all intended to attract -flower-frequenting insects. Chief among these is the honey bee. The -fragrance of the flower draws the insect from afar. The color of the -flower reveals its exact location to the insect and when the tongue of -the bee is inserted into the flower, in quest of the coveted nectar, the -stamens and pistil spring up, striking the under part of the -hairy-covered head. These hairs are barbed and readily retain the -pollen, so that the flower both discharges its own pollen and also takes -from the head and breast of the bee pollen previously collected from -other flowers. Obviously, the first flower which the insect visits is -not cross-fertilized. Practical observations upon the relations existing -between the honey bee and the alfalfa plant are of value in illustrating -the effects of the bees upon alfalfa. - -“A case in point: A hundred well matured pods were collected upon an -alfalfa field less than one-half mile away from a large apiary. A -similar number were taken from another field. The two fields were as -nearly identical as possible in the matter of soil, culture, and -conditions governing the vegetable growth of the alfalfa plant. The -second field, however, was about twenty-five miles away from a colony of -bees. No bees were observed in the field and since there was no timber, -nor other place of shelter where bees might possibly live, it seemed -reasonably safe to say that there were no wild bees in the vicinity. An -examination of the seed pods from each of the two localities was made -and the number of seeds counted. In the field near the apiary the -average number of seeds in a pod was found to be 5.58. The seeds were -plump and the pods were numerous upon a cluster. The pods themselves had -several spirals. In the other field, the one remote from a known colony -of bees, the average number of seeds in a pod was 3.35. The seeds in at -least one-third of the pods were small and shriveled. The pods were few -in the cluster, short, and with but few spirals. The seed crop of the -first field could be estimated on this basis at two-thirds greater than -that of the second field. - -“It is a well-known fact that the seed yield per acre for Red clover is -comparatively small. Red clover belongs to the same family of plants as -alfalfa and it, too, is dependent upon insects for fertilization of its -flowers. The work, however, is restricted largely to the bumble bee, -since but few other insects have tongues long enough to reach down to -the nectar of the clover blossom and consequently do not visit the -clover blossom and bring about proper formation of seed. So in -proportion as the bumble bees thrive, the clover flourishes. Alfalfa, -however, is not so limited in its number of insect assistants, since the -flower itself is shorter and the nectar accordingly accessible to a -greater number of insects.” - - -THE HONEY PRODUCT - -Alfalfa raisers find it to their advantage to have a few stands of bees. -As the original cost is slight and the bees provide their own food, go -after the raw material for the manufacture of honey, demand but slight -attention and make such bountiful returns, bee culture has come to be a -valuable “side line” for the farm. As blooms are to be found in alfalfa -districts every day from early May to late October, the bees have a -constant opportunity for service. - -Alfalfa honey is white and clear, in an extremely delicate comb, has a -delicious flavor, and an aroma that is delightful. One authentic report -from a western Kansas county is of a single hive that contained nearly -two hundred pounds, and of another having ninety-six pounds. The owner -of these had twenty-five acres of alfalfa which in one year yielded him -over one hundred tons of choice hay besides the honey. The next year he -increased his apiary to fifty stands. - -While the average yield per hive elsewhere varies from fifteen to thirty -pounds, the average in the alfalfa-growing territory is far higher. Thus -the financial returns of alfalfa may be greatly increased and in some -instances doubled by having, say, two colonies of bees for each acre. Or -if only a part of the alfalfa raisers in a neighborhood keep bees, this -ratio could be doubled or trebled by those who do. Unlike other -trespassers on neighbors’ fields the bees do the neighbors a distinct -favor, by fertilizing their alfalfa. - - - - -_CHAPTER XVII._ - -Alfalfa and Poultry - - -BETTER THAN MEDICINE - -At first it might seem that too much was claimed for alfalfa if written -of as a specially valuable adjunct in poultry raising. The poultry -industry of the United States is making wonderful advances, and the -volume of its returns is enormous; the figures are well-nigh incredible. -One of the handicaps is disease. Poultry men are a unit in saying that -where alfalfa in any form can be supplied to poultry disease is almost -unknown. Fowls like it green, and whether allowed the run of the field -or it is given to them daily they eat it greedily and thrive. Many -farmers say emphatically that the hens lay more and larger eggs when -allowed alfalfa in any form. Its nitrogen contributes to the albumen of -the eggs and to the growth of the young chickens. - - -MAY INFLUENCE EGG FERTILITY - -Scientific tests of feeding alfalfa to poultry have not been made, but, -no doubt, will be in the near future. If it is found that the eggs are -larger when the hens are given alfalfa, it may also be found that the -percentage of fertility is greater. For years the complaint has been -made by farmers and poultrymen that there are too many infertile eggs. -The financial losses are great if a fourth or third of the eggs used -for incubation prove infertile. It would seem that the same elements -that contribute to the growth of the hatched chicken should also add to -the vitality of the embryo, increasing the percentage of fertility and -adding to the vigor of the newly hatched chick. - - -AIDS IN PREPARING FOR MARKET - -The growth of young chickens is greatly aided by alfalfa. One man -reports an experiment with five hundred capons, hatched early in March, -that averaged in December nearly eight pounds and sold in the city -market at nineteen cents per pound. They were given the run of a patch -of alfalfa for a time and ate little other feed. Later they were put in -the yards and fed with alfalfa cut into short lengths, with a little -grain; still later alfalfa meal was added, with a little wheat. Then, -finally, alfalfa hay was cut and steamed and added to the ration. The -cost of maintenance and fattening must have been small compared with the -large returns. - -This item is from the Harper, Kansas, _Sentinel_: A subscriber tells us -that the mites and chicken lice were completely driven out of his barn -and hen house, as soon as he had alfalfa hay put in his barn and used it -in the house for nests. He says that before the hay was cut, it was -impossible to keep a horse in the barn or to have a hen hatch a nest of -eggs, but neither mites nor lice can be found now. This is a new use for -alfalfa, but if it does the work, it will be lots cheaper than buying -poisonous decoctions and spraying pumps to get rid of lice and mites, -the greatest pests to poultry raisers. - - - - -_CHAPTER XVIII._ - -Alfalfa Food Preparation - - -The growing appreciation of alfalfa as a stock and dairy food and the -expense of baling and shipping it as hay, the loss of leaves, and the -liability to heat and mold unless well cured, have led to the -manufacture from it of several food preparations. These in some cases -are made by simply grinding into a meal, and in others by mixing the -meal with molasses, or a variety of food products, and assumed -condiments and appetizers. - -The Colorado station in a feeding test concluded that the ground alfalfa -was not an economical feed for fattening pigs. With cut alfalfa hay -costing $8 a ton and ground alfalfa $16 a ton the cost of producing one -hundred pounds of gain with the former was $2.62 and with the alfalfa -meal $3.12. With corn and cut alfalfa hay fed in equal parts by weight -the cost of producing one hundred pounds of gain was $2.72. With corn -and alfalfa meal fed in equal parts by weight the cost was $3.96. It is -not improbable, however, that better results would have been obtained if -a less proportion of ground or cut alfalfa had been fed. It is also -probable that the hog’s grinding machinery is better adapted to his -digestive apparatus than is any other. - - -PROFESSOR COTTRELL ON ALFALFA MEAL - -It is worth while, however, to consider the arguments in favor of -grinding alfalfa. Prof. H. M. Cottrell says: - -“Grinding alfalfa increases its digestibility. How much has not been -determined. Grinding increases the digestibility of corn and oats as -much as 14 per cent, and of wheat 10 per cent. It is probable that there -is a greater gain in digestibility from grinding alfalfa, a coarse feed, -than there is from grinding grain. - -“When alfalfa is to be fed at a distance from the place where grown it -must be baled for shipping. When the bales are opened and scattered in -feeding a considerable part of the leaves is wasted. Over 8 per cent of -the protein in alfalfa is found in the leaves, and the loss of protein -from leaves wasted in feeding baled hay is frequently from one-fourth to -one-half of the total amount in the original hay. With ground alfalfa -there is no waste in feeding either from leaf or stem. Alfalfa ground is -in the best condition for shipping and handling cheaply and without -waste. - -“Ground alfalfa is not only a good feed itself but when mixed with grain -aids in the digestion of the other feeds, enabling the feeder to get -more out of his home grown grain. - -“Experiments have not been made to determine the exact value of this -diluting effect of alfalfa meal in increasing the feed value of heavy -grains. Tests have shown that corn-and-cob meal has the same feeding -value as an equal weight of clear corn meal. Practically worthless -ground cobs by their ‘lightening up’ the heavy corn meal add 20 per cent -to the feeding value of the meal with which they are mixed. It is -reasonable to believe that a rich feed like ground alfalfa has even a -greater influence when mixed with corn meal. The more intimate the -mixture the greater the benefits from alfalfa, and for this reason -ground alfalfa is far superior to the whole hay. - -“Grinding alfalfa hay reduces the power needed to digest and assimilate -it. It takes power for an animal to chew the feed, digest it and bring -about the chemical changes that convert it into flesh or milk. All this -energy is taken from the actual food material in the alfalfa. -Experiments show that a much larger amount of food value is used up in -this way with coarse feeds than with concentrated fine feeds. In corn, a -concentrated feed easily worked up in the animal’s body, three-fourths -of the protein actually in the hay is digested; and in straw, a still -coarser feed, only one-tenth. Forty-eight per cent of all the energy in -coarse hay is used up in chewing and digesting it, while only twenty per -cent of the energy in oats is used in these processes. This shows the -value of preparing feed in such a way as to require the least effort on -the part of the animal to use it. - -“In a well constructed mill it requires one horse-power ten hours to -grind alfalfa sufficient for a month’s ration for a dairy cow in full -milk. This indicates what a saving the grinding of alfalfa makes in its -effective use by an animal. - -“Experiments show that good alfalfa hay and wheat bran have practically -the same value in feeding for milk. In a test made of bran and alfalfa -meal, two lots of cows were selected that were giving equal weights of -milk. One lot was fed bran, the other lot the same weight of alfalfa -meal. For each 100 pounds of milk given by the cows fed bran, 141 pounds -were yielded by the cows fed alfalfa meal.” - -As an example, “Alfamo” is the name of one of the numerous new feeds on -the market, having alfalfa meal as its principal ingredient. After a -year of experimenting with grinding and mixing various feeds it was -determined by the manufacturers that a feed made of three parts alfalfa -meal and one part beet-sugar molasses would possess a very high value. -The ingredients are mixed by a special apparatus and subjected to a -process which retains and preserves the high nutriment of the feed. - -Prof. Samuel Avery of the Nebraska station made an analysis of “Alfamo,” -which showed the following composition: - - Per cent - Moisture 2.74 - Protein 15.04 - Carbohydrates 50.48 - Ash 13.87 - Crude fiber 17.85 - -Professor Avery also states: “This feed was made by mixing molasses with -alfalfa meal which contained 16.15 per cent protein. It will be noticed -that the protein content is not greatly reduced, while a large quantity -of nutritious matter has been added in the molasses. An analysis of the -molasses used in this product, showed practically fifty per cent sugar, -and it should be remembered that the sugar in molasses is all digestible -and ready for the animal without extra effort on the animal’s part, -which is not so in corn or other foods, strong in carbohydrates from -which the starch must be extracted by the digestive apparatus.” - - -SOLVING THE TRANSPORTATION PROBLEM - -Several mills for the manufacture of alfalfa foods have been and are -being established, and it is reasonable to assume that the use of these -foods will become quite general in cities and districts remote from the -alfalfa regions. Whether or not the actual feeding value is appreciably -increased, or the nutritive constituents made more thoroughly available, -is as yet not determined by sufficient tests, nor has it been determined -by any station test that any factory food preparation is more economical -than alfalfa hay, where the hay can be obtained well cured and with a -reasonable proportion of its leaves. It is altogether probable, however, -that alfalfa meal will be more economical in distant cities than baled -hay. If these preparations of alfalfa prove to be satisfactory to -consumers in distant markets, it will lead to the multiplication of -mills in the alfalfa regions, thereby decreasing the cost of -transportation and giving the grower a wider and probably a better -market. The use of the meal or the food preparations is likely to prove -most especially valuable for dairy cows and poultry. - - - - -_CHAPTER XIX._ - -Alfalfa for Town and City - - -While the preceding chapters have dealt with almost every phase of -alfalfa, it is thought well to emphasize the advantages of its more -general use in cities and towns. In the minds of many there is an -undefined impression that alfalfa is for farm consumption only. Often -when first introduced into a community, farmers who raise more than they -have stock to consume, complain that it is difficult to sell in small -towns. - - -THE TOWN COW NEEDS ALFALFA - -Milk producers who know it best concede that alfalfa is an invaluable -feed in the dairy, closely akin to wheat bran in results and usually -much less expensive. In the average small town or city there is about -one cow for every ten or fifteen people. Therefore, in a town of one -thousand population, there will probably be seventy-five to one hundred -cows. If alfalfa will increase the quantity of their milk and butterfat, -giving a product at a lower cost than the concentrated foods, it should -be more used. But as yet it is not generally used, because it is not -understood and appreciated. - -The best time to secure a supply is when it is being harvested and can -be taken directly from the field. If the mow is large enough for three -or more tons, a ton can be stored from each of the different cuttings, -and be cured in superior condition almost regardless of the weather. It -would be found a most economical feed for the family cow and, if fowls -are kept, it could constitute one-third of their ration, adding to -growth and to the egg supply. - - -A CHEAP FEED FOR HORSES - -The larger users of hay in the towns and cities are liverymen, -deliverymen and teamsters. These have been unacquainted with or doubtful -of the utility of alfalfa and have never given it a fair trial, or -possibly any trial at all. Those who have used it and thought its -effects harmful have perhaps not understood its highly nutritious -character and may have fed it in too large quantities. Having such a -large protein content it should not be used with the same prodigality as -prairie hay. For driving horses it should be cut when more matured than -for other stock, or when about half in bloom, and should be well cured. -Fed then, in reasonable rations of from ten to twenty pounds a day, -livery horses may be kept in vigorous thrift with a small additional -quantity of grain, and thus a saving be made of twenty to thirty per -cent in cost of maintenance. In the alfalfa districts there may be found -many liverymen who, having had experience with alfalfa hay, feed their -horses little of anything else. In the last few years there has been a -growing demand for alfalfa hay for southern towns and cities. - -The coat and general appearance of horses fed alfalfa are improved, as -compared with those fed timothy or prairie hay and the tendency to -constipation and indigestion is greatly lessened. It is rarely that an -alfalfa-fed animal of any kind is constipated. - - - - -_CHAPTER XX._ - -Alfalfa in Crop Rotation - - -MAINTAINING FERTILITY - - -It is a fundamental principle of the best agriculture that every acre -should be kept constantly at its highest productive capacity. In one -sense the farm is a great machine for the production of food. All -prosperity must originate on and emanate from the farm; the farmer is -really the only original producer. The measure of the world’s material -success must be the relative amount of the product of the farm. As lands -decrease in fertility, the cost of living increases in direct -proportion. As fertility decreases, land values decrease and rural -population decreases. Already there are districts in America that are -almost depopulated because of the barrenness of what was, but a short -while ago, fertile land. - -The fundamental principle of maintaining fertility is to restore to the -land annually those chemical elements taken from it by the crops grown. -A prominent importer of horses relates that he was once entertained on a -great horse farm in France, whose owner told him that much of the farm -had been in cultivation for over eight hundred years and was, he -believed, as productive now as ever in its history. - -Alfalfa ranks as the greatest fertilizing plant known to scientific -agriculture. All cereal crops use large quantities of nitrogen. A field -cropped for years in corn or wheat will come to have too little nitrogen -for the production of a profitable crop. Alfalfa, as has already been -stated, after the first few months of its life obtains its whole supply -of nitrogen from the air; in fact, more than it really needs. As a soil -improver it possesses at least five valuable properties: - -1. It gathers nitrogen from the air for its own maintenance and a -surplus that is constantly being added to the soil. - -2. It is a deep feeder and its roots penetrate the earth to -extraordinary depths, drawing toward the surface and utilizing moisture -and valuable mineral elements that other crops would never reach, -leaving the desirable elements there for future crops, of whatever -kinds. - -3. By capillarity, these roots and rootlets draw up moisture from below -the surface until it modifies the very top soil, changing wonderfully -the nature of the field. The analysis of a cubic foot of earth of a -flourishing alfalfa field shows a marvelous change in moisture content -since the sowing. - -4. The mere mechanical effect of the extensive root system can scarcely -be over-estimated. As soon as germination begins the plant starts its -tiny roots downward on the search for moisture. Roots four feet long -have been found on alfalfa but four months old; roots nine feet long -have been found below alfalfa but nine months old. After the taproot -reaches a few inches below the surface, it sends out smaller roots that -have a lateral growth of but a few inches, when they too, take a -downward course for moisture and for mineral elements needed for the -growth above. These first smaller roots decay and others start out from -the taproot lower down. These decay and still others start. The decaying -roots add humus to the soil, and the openings left by them form a -wonderful system of channels for the penetration of air and water into -the soil. The erstwhile compact earth is honeycombed and air and water -penetrate the graves of the dead roots until, when the alfalfa field is -ready to be used for a different crop, the soil has been wonderfully -changed not only in its chemical elements but in its physical character. - -5. The regular deposit of alfalfa leaves, from the cuttings, under the -best care, has been estimated at one-half ton or more per acre every -year. As these leaves contain a great percentage of protein, it can -readily be seen that they make a heavy contribution to the soil’s -fertility. - - -VALUE OF STUBBLE AND ROOTS - -When in his system of rotation the farmer is ready to plow up his -alfalfa, he has another inestimable contribution to the land’s fertility -in the stubble and roots. It is not recommended to plow under any -considerable growth as a green manure, as the hay crop is too valuable. -Its market value would buy more fertilizers than the same growth is -worth for humus. After a field has stood for five or six years, the -roots have added largely to the humus content. Prof. W. P. Headden of -Colorado, estimated that the fertilizing value of the stubble and 6¹⁄₂ -inches of roots plowed under is about $20 per acre, while the value of -the stubble and entire root system is not less than $35 per acre. - -The New Jersey station estimated that the amounts of plant food gathered -by an acre of alfalfa in two years were equivalent in nitrogen to that -contained in 3500 pounds of nitrate of soda; in phosphoric acid to that -contained in 600 pounds of boneblack superphosphate, and in potash to -the amount contained in 1200 pounds of muriate of potash, or equal to -what would have cost $124. - - -EFFECTS ON SUCCEEDING CROPS - -The Wyoming station, at Laramie, under direction of Prof. B. C. Buffum -(Bul. No. 44) made some tests that proved the market fertilizing value -of alfalfa. A plot of ground that had been in alfalfa for five years -adjoined a plot of the same size that had been in varied crops, wheat, -oats, potatoes, etc. After the alfalfa sod was broken the two plots were -prepared together and planted crosswise to wheat, oats and potatoes, -with half of each on the broken sod and half on the other plot with the -following yields and gains: - - After - After Other Money - Alfalfa Crops Gain - Wheat 30 bu. 18 bu. $8 to $12 - Oats 78 bu. 37 bu. 16 - Potatoes 81 bu. 52 bu. 16 - -Stating the results in another way, Prof. Buffum says: “The value of -alfalfa harvested from one-half acre of land for five years was about -$50 more than the cost of producing it. - -“The value of potatoes and grain from an adjoining half-acre for five -years was about $44 more than the cost of producing, at local prices. - -“When the alfalfa half-acre was plowed and planted to wheat it produced -$8 to $12 more value in wheat per acre than the land which had grown -potatoes and grain before. - -“When the alfalfa half-acre was plowed and planted to oats it produced -$16 worth of grain more than land which had grown potatoes and grain -before. - -“When the alfalfa half-acre was plowed and planted to potatoes it gave -$16 worth more of potatoes per acre than was obtained from land which -had grown potatoes and grain before. - -“By growing alfalfa the increase of yields and values were produced with -absolutely no cost for fertilizing the land.” - -This gain, it will be noted, cost nothing in the way of fertilization, -as the alfalfa had every year been more profitable than the other crops. -A Marion county, Kansas, manager of large estates reports that a field -of wheat after alfalfa averaged forty bushels per acre while an -adjoining field of equal original fertility averaged but fifteen -bushels. These results have been duplicated in innumerable instances -where alfalfa fields have been plowed and planted to other crops. A -Colorado man who farms 1000 acres, with 200 acres of it in alfalfa, says -he cannot afford not to plow his alfalfa after he has had from it four -years’ crops; that it is necessary to maintain the general farm -fertility and obtain big crops of corn, oats and potatoes. In the potato -districts of Colorado alfalfa is used systematically as a rotation to -maintain the yields and quality of their potatoes, both of which are so -famous. - -In the corn belt, which may be said to extend from the central meridian -of Kansas to Pennsylvania, alfalfa used in rotation will do much to -prevent the disgrace of raising an average of but twenty or twenty-five -bushels of corn to the acre. And so in what were once famous wheat -belts, alfalfa will restore the crop records, if properly used in a -rotation. - - -ROTATION A NECESSITY - -Some experiment station men insist that where alfalfa is allowed to -stand for many years it will cease to have a fertilizing value; that -alfalfa draws heavily on the potash and phosphoric acid in the soil, and -will after, say, eight or ten years begin to deplete it of these -important elements. Therefore they insist that alfalfa should not be -allowed to stand for over six or eight years unless it is given an -annual top-dressing of manure. They favor plowing up the alfalfa after -about five years and cropping to corn or cotton. - -Former Governor Hoard in speaking of the value of alfalfa as compared -with that of clover in a crop rotation says that, “alfalfa having a much -larger root development goes deeper down, thoroughly subsoils the -ground, brings up phosphorus and potash from the lower strata, and -leaves much more vegetable matter to decay and furnish humus. Nothing -else we have ever tried equals alfalfa for putting the soil in good -tilth.” - - -SPREADS THE BACTERIA OVER THE FARM - -Men who are raising alfalfa for use in a regular rotation never leave it -over six years; many prefer five, while others make it a rule to plow -up their fields every four years; thus the bacteria becomes fixed in the -soil of the whole farm. Such farmers use alfalfa as they formerly used -clover, to restore fertility needed for profitable crops of grain, hay -and forage. - -The sod is hard to plow. It is well to do the breaking immediately after -the season’s cutting, if possible; disk and harrow it several times and -sow to rye for winter pasture, and plant to corn or cotton or potatoes -in the spring. The winter’s freezing will help to put it in fine tilth. -If it is desired to follow with wheat (not always advisable, however, on -account of causing a too rank growth), the sod may be plowed after the -year’s second mowing, disked and sowed to rye to prevent the soil from -leaching. - -Breaking up a well set alfalfa field is no trifling matter. It may be -done with three heavy horses, but it is hard work for them, and they -will not be able to break more than one acre a day. An authority says -the best plan is to use five heavy horses--three in the lead and two on -the end of the beam. They can go right along and plow two acres a day. -Alfalfa roots are very tough and strong when the plants have attained -full growth, and they give a jerky motion to the plow, which is severe -on horses’ shoulders. A cast steel plow is the best to use and if it is -tempered right a file can just cut it. It can be hammered out thin at -the blacksmith’s shop when it becomes too thick to file easily. “The -reason for filing, rather than using the hard, thin edge as in other -plowing is that the edge needs to be rough as well as thin, or the roots -will slip along the sloping edge of the share and not be cut.” It is -important that the furrow turned shall not be wider than the plowshare -will all the time cut clean, as any main roots that are left uncut will -send up a more vigorous growth of stems than before, which, in another -cultivated crop will be the same as weeds. - -[Illustration: Alfalfa Plant and Roots Showing Bacteria Nodules] - -[Illustration: =Tubercles on Clover Roots= - -In untreated soil - -In inoculated soil] - - - - -_CHAPTER XXI._ - -Nitro-Culture - - -AN OLD-NEW THEORY - -The inoculation of soil, like many other lately exploited theories, has -no doubt been known for hundreds of years. There are evidences that it -was practiced in England at least a century ago, and it is thought to be -an old custom among the Chinese. Some space was given to “soil -inoculation” in a preceding chapter, attention there being devoted to -the simple methods of infecting soil with bacteria. - - -IMPORTANT DISCOVERIES - -Some twenty years ago a German scientist, Nobbe, discovered that the -small nodules found on the roots of the leguminous plants contained -bacteria that took nitrogen from the air and transferred it to the -plant. It had been known that cultivated soils were rapidly losing their -original supply of nitrogen and there seemed no practicable way of -restoring it in sufficient quantity. Commercial nitrogen costs fifteen -cents per pound and the expense of applying it to the land to equalize -the loss from an ordinary farm crop is almost equal to the value of a -crop. Hence, the discovery that the legumes were nitrogen-gathering, by -means of these bacteria, was hailed as one of the greatest of the age. -With millions of pounds of nitrogen over his land there seemed now a -method whereby the farmer could utilize some needed portions of it. The -bacteria live in tubercles upon the roots of various leguminous plants, -such as Red clover, Sweet clover, Bur clover, alfalfa, cowpeas, garden -peas, vetches and beans. These tubercles are the home of the bacteria, -minute forms of vegetable life, too small to be seen with the naked eye. -The legumes have no power in themselves to draw nitrogen from the air, -yet these bacteria seem to have the power to absorb the free nitrogen -and cause it to combine with other elements, forming nitrates or other -assimilable compounds suitable for plant food. It has also been -demonstrated that, as a rule, there are different species of these -bacteria for different species of legumes. - -After German scientists had made their discoveries, one of the existence -of these bacteria on the roots of the legumes and another that in the -laboratory, these organisms could be bred and multiplied, they seemed -unable to develop them of sufficient vigor to survive any general -distribution. At this point Dr. George T. Moore of the United States -Department of Agriculture, hit upon a plan of cultivating them in a way -by which they could be preserved for many months, and he also gave them -a much greater power. This nitrogen-fixing power was so developed that -seeds soaked in the solution, it is claimed, sprouted and produced -plants in sand that possessed no nitrates. He then found that these -bacteria when grown upon nitrogen-free media will retain a high activity -for a long time, if carefully dried out and then revived in a liquid -medium. He also devised a plan by which they could be mailed to any part -of the world and arrive in perfect condition. - -Most experiment station men have given to Dr. Moore great credit for his -discoveries and have tried, with rather marked success, his method of -nitro-culture; on the other hand a few have been opposed to the method -from the beginning and are still opposed. It would seem that the tests -made prove that nitro-culture does introduce bacteria when directions -are followed. - -Of course if a farmer’s soil has the alfalfa bacteria, it is not -necessary to use any system of inoculation. If Sweet clover or Bur -clover is growing in the vicinity, or if alfalfa is thriftily growing -near without the aid of inoculation, it is hardly necessary to make -there further efforts for the introduction of bacteria. - - -SUGGESTIONS FROM THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE - -In a preceding chapter the opinion was expressed that in most states, -and in most localities in those states, inoculation was unnecessary -because bacteria were already present; yet it is true that these -bacteria are present, if at all, in varying quantity. If comparatively -few are present, any method of inoculation that will introduce more into -the soil, to hasten the growth of the tubercles and promote the -gathering of nitrogen, will be helpful. The fact is, we know as yet -comparatively little of all there is to be learned about this wonderful -principle. It is altogether probable that the use of nitro-culture is as -practicable and as free from objections as the use of inoculated soil, -especially from distant and unknown fields. In one of its bulletins the -United States Department of Agriculture has summarized its advice as to -inoculation as follows: - -_When Inoculation is Necessary._--Inoculation is necessary-- - -1. On a soil low in organic matter that has not previously borne -leguminous crops. - -2. If the legumes previously grown on the same land were devoid of -nodules, of “nitrogen knots,” thus showing the need of the -nodule-forming bacteria. - -3. When the legume to be sown belongs to a species not closely related -to one previously grown on the same soil. For instance, soil in which -Red clover forms nodules will often fail to produce nodules on alfalfa -when sown with the latter crop for the first time. - -_When Inoculation May Prove Advantageous._--Inoculation may prove -advantageous-- - -1. When the soil produces a sickly growth of legumes, even though their -roots show some nodules. - -If the cultures introduced are of the highest virility, their use will -often result in a more vigorous growth. - -2. When a leguminous crop already sown has made a stand, but shows signs -of failing, owing to the absence of root nodules. - -The use of the culture liquid as a spray or by mixture with soil and -top-dressing may save the stand if other conditions are favorable. - -_When Inoculation is Unnecessary._--On the other hand, inoculation is -unnecessary and offers little prospect of gain-- - -1. When the leguminous crops that are usually grown are producing up to -the average, and the roots show nodules in normal abundance. - -Cultures of nitrogen-fixing bacteria are not to be regarded in the light -of fertilizers, or as capable of increasing the yield under average -conditions. They do not contain nitrogen itself, but bacteria, which -make it possible for the legumes to secure nitrogen from the air -(through the formation of root nodules). Where the soil is already -adequately supplied with these bacteria, it will not usually pay to -practice artificial inoculation. - -2. When the soil is already rich in nitrogen. - -It is neither necessary nor profitable to inoculate a soil rich in -nitrogen when sowing legumes. Not only does the available nitrogen in -the soil render the formation of nodules less necessary, but the -nitrogenous materials in the soil largely prevent the bacteria from -forming nodules. - -Any increased virility in nitrogen-fixing power possessed by any of the -types of bacteria yet distributed, may be rapidly lost in a soil -containing an abundance of nitrogen, because the bacteria are in a -medium in which there is no demand for activity in securing atmospheric -nitrogen. - -_When Failure is to be Expected._--Inoculation will fail where other -conditions (aside from the need of bacteria) are not taken into account, -among which are the following-- - -1. In soil that is acid and in need of lime. - -Liming to correct acidity is as important for the proper acidity of the -bacteria as for the growth of the plants. - -2. In soil that is deficient in fertilizers, such as potash, phosphoric -acid or lime. - -The activity of the bacteria in securing nitrogen from the air and -rendering it available to the legumes does not do away with the need for -such fertilizing elements as potash and phosphorus. - -3. It must also be remembered that inoculation does not “act like -magic”; it will not overcome results due to bad seed, improper -preparation and cultivation of the ground, and decidedly adverse -conditions of weather and climate. - -In the use of the cultures, also, failure is almost certain where the -directions are not carefully studied and intelligently followed. - - -SWEET CLOVER SOIL USED TO INOCULATE ALFALFA FIELDS - -The discovery in Illinois that inoculation of the soil for alfalfa was -necessary in certain places and not in others suggested the theory that -bacteria living on some other, probably native, plant were identical -with the alfalfa bacteria. Investigations led to satisfactory evidence -that this was the case and that the native plant was the ordinary Sweet -clover (_Melilotus alba_). The illustration facing page 230 shows the -results of a series of pot culture experiments made at the University of -Illinois and reported in Bulletin No. 94 by Prof. Cyril G. Hopkins. The -four photographs were made five, six, seven and eight weeks, -respectively, from the time of planting. Alfalfa seed were planted in -each of the five pots, in carefully prepared soil practically free of -combined nitrogen, and at the same time four of the five pots were -inoculated as follows: - -Pot No. 1.--Not inoculated. - -Pot No. 2.--Inoculated with bacteria obtained from infected alfalfa -soil. - -Pot No. 3.--Inoculated with bacteria obtained from alfalfa root -tubercles. - -Pot No. 4.--Inoculated with bacteria obtained from infected Sweet clover -soil. - -Pot No. 5.--Inoculated with bacteria obtained from Sweet clover root -tubercles. - -The results indicate that the same effect is produced upon the growth of -the alfalfa by the nitrogen-gathering bacteria obtained from Sweet -clover as by those from the older alfalfa, and seem to prove that -infected Sweet clover soil can be used for the inoculation of alfalfa -fields. Investigations have shown that 100 pounds of thoroughly infected -soil to the acre is sufficient to produce a satisfactory inoculation -within one year from the time it is applied. - - - - -_CHAPTER XXII._ - -Alfalfa as a Commercial Factor - - -EFFECT ON LAND VALUES - -Only a few years ago alfalfa hay was not named in the market reports. -Now it is conspicuous in the lists of hays. Then there were thousands of -sandy acres in Kansas and Nebraska being held at from $2 to $5 per acre -that now, seeded to alfalfa, are selling at from $30 to $75 per acre. -Then, cultivated farms in those districts could be rented for $1 per -acre; now, seeded one-half to alfalfa, they rent for $3 to $5 and more -per acre. In the South cotton lands rent for $5, and alfalfa lands at -$15 per acre. Land in the Yellowstone valley was worth, wild, $1.50 per -acre; now, under irrigation and seeded half to alfalfa and half to wheat -it commands $100 per acre. A few years ago labor commanded in those -districts that now raise alfalfa about $1 a day; since then, during -alfalfa harvest, hundreds of men have been imported there and paid $2 or -$2.50 per day. Then farmers were poor and trade was dull; now, a farmer -who owns eighty acres well set in alfalfa, harvests about 300 tons of -hay worth from $5 to $12 per ton and has the proceeds available for -added comforts, improvements and luxuries. - -A few years ago it was thought that America was approaching a crisis in -the matter of beef and pork and mutton production because of the rapid -diminishing of the free public ranges by the forest reserves, irrigation -projects, and the like. It was insisted that the farmers could not -nearly sustain the meat supply. Possibly they cannot, but alfalfa is -doing wonders in helping to solve the problem of cheap meat production. -Millions of sheep and thousands of cattle are being fattened annually on -the alfalfa of California, Montana, Colorado, Kansas and Nebraska, and -in some portions where a few years ago the sandy prairies gave but a -scant subsistence to scrawny range cattle. - - -ENHANCES DAIRY INTERESTS - -In parts of the East since the introduction of alfalfa, the number of -dairy cows in many townships has trebled and the dairy product more than -quadrupled. When two acres of alfalfa will carry ten dairy cows through -a summer, the day and opportunity of the small dairyman are certainly at -hand. When, as is the case, alfalfa increases the rental and selling -value and consequently the taxable value of land; when it increases the -demand for and price of labor; when it increases the fertility of the -land for other crops that may follow; when it brings enlarged profits to -the entire stock-raising and stock-fattening interests, and puts more -money in circulation, it is inevitably to be considered a commercial -factor. - - - - -_CHAPTER XXIII._ - -The Enemies of Alfalfa - - -The most notable enemies of alfalfa are weeds, insects, parasites, and -animals. More failures to raise alfalfa are caused by weeds than by all -other enemies combined. The cause of weeds in a field is usually poor -farming. Clipping alfalfa early in May will kill many weeds. If the -weeds grow up, clip again and do the same every time they threaten to -become rampant. If they are kept from seeding, and do not in a large -measure crowd out the alfalfa, good crops may be had from it the second -season. If sowed in the fall, disking early in April may kill most of -the weeds. It is folly to sow alfalfa on a foul field, as it is far less -expensive to kill out the weeds beforehand. Disking and clipping will do -much to destroy them, but if they secure a strong foothold the best -thing to do is to plow up the field, plant it in corn, give it clean -cultivation, and sow alfalfa again when the weeds have been -exterminated. - - -DODDER - -Dodder is an annoying enemy. It is a parasite, belonging to the -morning-glory family, growing from its own small seed but attaching -itself very soon to the alfalfa stalk. It then separates itself from its -own root and thereafter lives on the juices of the alfalfa until it -ripens its seeds or has killed the alfalfa. The wisest and safest thing -to do is to sow only seed so thoroughly cleaned that there will be no -dodder with it. If, later, it is found that any dodder seed escaped the -cleaning operations and is growing, the grower should go through the -field with a knife or sickle and a large basket or sack and cut out and -burn every dodder vine and every plant to which dodder is attached. If -so unfortunate as to have sown seed with a considerable mixture of -dodder, clip the alfalfa early in May, let the clippings dry for two or -three days or longer, and then burn on the field, watching carefully to -have the fire touch every part. It will facilitate a complete burning to -sprinkle parts not burning readily, with kerosene. If there is a poor -stand of alfalfa, largely infested with dodder, safety lies in plowing -it up and cultivating the field in corn or potatoes for two or three -years. - -[Illustration: =Peculiar Nodules in Groups on Small Rootlets= - -and distant from the large alfalfa roots. From Michigan Experiment -Station Bulletin No. 225] - -[Illustration: =Alfalfa Roots Showing Normal Nodules= - -small and near the large roots. From Michigan Experiment Station -Bulletin No. 225] - -From an excellent article on the dodder that infests alfalfa (_Cuscuta -epithymum_) by Mr. F. E. Dawley, a New York authority on alfalfa, and -printed with illustrations in the _Country Gentleman_, the excerpts here -following are taken: - -“The only sure method of keeping alfalfa fields free from dodder is -through exercising greater caution in the purchase of seed. There is no -reason why thoroughly recleaned alfalfa seed should have any dodder seed -in it, as reference to the illustrations will show. The relative sizes -and forms of the seeds of alfalfa and dodder are shown herewith. It will -be seen that there is a marked difference in both the sizes and the -shapes of the seeds. The alfalfa seed is shaped like a little kidney -bean, and varies in color from light yellowish-green to a rich -golden-yellow, and in some instances, because of weathering, or sweating -in the cock, or perhaps standing too long, it shows a reddish-brown -color. The dodder seed is darker in color than the alfalfa, all of that -which I have succeeded in gathering from the plants being a rich -golden-brown. The accompanying illustrations show the form of the dodder -and alfalfa seed respectively. - -“The seeds, being sown, germinate in the soil, throwing up a slender, -thread-like stem somewhat resembling a corn silk, which retains its -connection with the ground until it comes in contact with the stem of -the alfalfa plant. It twines around this tightly, sending its feeding -suckers through the outside bark, and as soon as it is firmly attached -to the host plant, the ground connection is severed and it is sustained -by the plant juices which are taken in by the suckers. It continues to -grow and spread, twining around other stalks and increasing very rapidly -until a colony is established. Continuing to grow, it climbs toward the -upper portion of the plants, feeding on their juices and sapping their -vitality, but never goes to the extreme top, seeming to prefer the -dampness and darkness of the matted alfalfa rather than sunlight. The -plants first attacked begin to die, and the dodder, spreading out in all -directions, forms a circle or ring. - -“The rapidity with which the pest spreads makes it a serious menace to -the alfalfa grower. Comparatively little work has been done by -scientific men in studying the dodders and methods of eradication, and -the fact that the little rootlets or suckers (haustoria) become so -firmly affixed to the host plant that it must be destroyed together -with the parasite, has made the work hard and the results obtained -unsatisfactory. There are a number of methods by which dodder may be -spread through a field. As soon as it becomes thoroughly established on -a host plant, the many little branches, waving about like the shoot -produced from the seed, attach themselves to other plants, and thus the -colony is increased in size. In legumes, the host plant first attacked -soon dies, but before this occurs, the parasite has become firmly -established on adjoining plants and is reaching out and completing the -colony. As soon as a host dies, the dodder also perishes, but before -this happens it is very likely to have blossomed and seeded. - -“In the operations of mowing, tedding, raking and drawing the alfalfa -hay, these little colonies are spread about the fields by the machines -and the workmen, and on the horses’ feet. The sale of infested hay is a -prolific means of dissemination. Hunters and pleasure seekers, walking -through the fields, notice the peculiar corn-silk-like growths and -often, by picking up particles of it which are soon cast away, establish -new colonies. The flower is very peculiar and attracts the attention of -people passing, who are apt to pick them together with some of the -maturing seed, and scatter these over the fields. In a pastured field, -the animals spread the seed to some extent while moving from place to -place in feeding. The most serious menace, however, is from the purchase -of impure seed; farmers should always be absolutely certain that the -alfalfa seed which they are buying is thoroughly recleaned and that no -small weed seed is to be found in it. One should never sow clover or -alfalfa from a field or even from a locality in which dodder is known to -exist. It is probable that the seeds thoroughly ripened will retain -their germinating powers for some years. The purchase of hay from dodder -infested fields, or the purchase of manure from barns where infested hay -has been fed, are sure sources of contamination. - -“Where a newly seeded alfalfa field shows evidence of quite general -dodder infection, it is useless to attempt to eradicate it, and the -field should be plowed up and planted with some hoed crop for a period -of years. Old fields that have been thoroughly infested will probably be -more economically treated in this manner than in any other. In newly -sown fields, one of the most effective methods is probably hoeing over -the spots where the dodder appears, going over them once in two weeks -and allowing nothing to grow on them until the dodder seed is -germinated. A modification of this method has been used successfully by -spading in fields where the colonies of dodder were seen, raking out all -the tops, roots and branches, adding a little straw or hay and burning -the mass, and then keeping the spot thoroughly hoed for a season. For -fields where the colonies are small and scattered, this method of hoeing -and shallow cultivation is probably the most practicable, as it helps to -secure the early germination of any seeds that were left in the ground, -and also kills them as soon as they are germinated. If the seed has -developed, one must be careful not to spade it in too deep, as it may -retain its vitality for some years if left covered in the moist soil. - -“Burning has been recommended by some, raking the dodder vines and what -is left of the alfalfa to the center of the colonies, putting brush or -straw with it, together with some fine, light wood or chips and -sprinkling with kerosene, so that the alfalfa plants will be burned -close to the ground. This is necessary from the fact that the little -coils of dodder close to the crown of the plants will retain their -vitality and grow after a very severe burning, providing the alfalfa -which is above the ground is not killed also. The most difficult problem -to be confronted in killing out dodder where it has become established, -arises from the fact that if these little coils which wind themselves -closely around the plant are not killed or removed, the dodder will -spread from these and make a new growth. Many experiments have been made -with chemicals, but none of them have proved wholly successful, from the -fact that these little rings were not destroyed. All the rest of the -plant was killed and the production of flowers and seed prevented; but -as these little rings were not killed, the dodder began growing again -and continued to grow throughout the season.” - - -LEAF SPOT - -Leaf spot is a very peculiar disease and, fortunately, not common in -this country. It has been known in France since 1832. In 1891 it was -destructive in Iowa alfalfa, the loss in the neighborhood of the -experiment station being estimated at 50 per cent. In reference to this -infliction the Iowa station, among other information, printed the -following: - -“Any time after the plant has attained a growth of four to six inches -from the seed, but most commonly after the first year’s growth, there -appears upon the upper side of the leaves small, irregular brownish -spots, which enlarge to about one-sixteenth of an inch in diameter and -extend through the leaf to the under side, turning all parts brown. When -many spots occur on the same leaf the whole leaf soon turns yellow and -falls off. This falling of the leaves and the natural loss in vigor, due -to the diseased condition before the falling, constitute its great -damage. Frequent cutting of the crop materially prevents the disease.” - -In eastern states farmers report that there are frequent patches in -their fields where the leaves turn red and the plant dies. The probable -explanation of this trouble is “wet feet,” which alfalfa will not abide. -Don’t expect to get a crop of alfalfa from a field in which water is -near the surface. Drain it or use another field. - - -ROOT ROT - -A disease peculiar to portions of the southern states is called “root -rot,” and similar to the root rot found in cotton fields. The alfalfa -dies in spots, these spots widening in circular form. This is a fungus -that spreads only in summer. The only means of eradicating so far -(reported by the Texas station) is the application of common salt and -kerosene. It has not proven a serious annoyance. - - -GOPHERS AND PRAIRIE DOGS - -Gophers and prairie dogs are great pests in some parts of the Middle -West, and about the only successful means of combating them is poison. -The state of Kansas has, probably more than any other, made a systematic -effort to destroy its gophers and prairie dogs, by liberal -appropriations and a field agent to supervise the work to be carried -out under provisions of law by local officials. - -The injury done by the gophers consists chiefly in throwing up mounds of -soil taken from the burrows and these greatly interfere with operating -the mowing machine in harvesting. In the alfalfa fields there is also a -noticeable thinning out of the plants, by reason of the cutting off of -the roots. These root cuttings are stored in the burrows in considerable -piles, and are used in cold weather by the gophers for food. It is -claimed by some alfalfa growers that this process of thinning out the -plants is a benefit rather than an injury to the field, but, says Prof. -D. E. Lantz, the official formerly in charge of the Kansas work, “I have -known fields where this thinning has continued until the crop did not -half cover the ground at cutting time, and the fields were plowed up for -the planting of other crops. The loss from gopher depredations to the -alfalfa growers of Kansas during 1901 was probably fully one-tenth of -the entire product, and had a money value of at least $500,000.” - -According to Professor Lantz, carbon bisulphide and other poisonous -gases have frequently been recommended for the destruction of the -pocket-gopher, but the great length of the burrows and their -irregularities in depth prevent the gases from flowing into every part, -and the animals often escape. Trapping, if properly done, is a sure -method of killing the gopher; but it is attended with considerable labor -and is very slow. An excellent trap for general use is the No. O -ordinary steel trap. Sink it in loose soil to the level of the runway, -nearly conceal it by sprinkling fine earth over it, and leave the hole -open. - -Gophers are easily poisoned. They are fond of potatoes, sweet potatoes, -apples, raisins and prunes. The presence of strychnine, arsenic or other -poisons does not seem to deter them from eating the food; but if the -poison is sweetened they seem to eat it more readily. In summer it may -be desirable to sweeten the poison, but in the fall and early spring it -does not seem worth while. The poisoned food being introduced to the -burrows below the surface, there is no danger of poisoning stock. It -might be well, however, not to let swine run in the fields for a time -after the poison has been put out. - -The following method of introducing poison is recommended: Cut the -potatoes or other food into pieces not more than three-fourths of an -inch in diameter. Cut a slit in each piece and with a point of the knife -blade insert a little sulphate of strychnine; as much as half the bulk -of a grain of wheat. Having prepared the bait in sufficient quantity, go -to the field armed with a round, sharp-pointed implement an inch or an -inch and a half in diameter and of sufficient length. The tool here -illustrated was made by a blacksmith. - -[Illustration] - -It is a spade handle shod with an iron point. A bar is attached about -fifteen inches from the point to enable the operator to use his foot in -pressing it into the soil. With this tool it is only necessary to find -the runway of the gopher. The handle is sufficiently thick to make a -hole large enough to permit one to drop the poisoned potato directly -into the burrow. The operator then passes on to another place, leaving -the hole open. No digging with a spade or other hard labor is necessary. -An experienced person can distribute poison to many acres of alfalfa in -a day; and if proper care is taken to rightly distribute the bait, it -will not be necessary to go over the ground a second time. Some -experience is required to find the burrows quickly. It is best to insert -the food as near as possible to the freshest mounds of earth. Two or -three pieces of potato at that place are worth many scattered in other -parts of the runway. The operator should avoid the larger mounds and -those that are not freshly made. - -For destroying prairie dogs, Professor Lantz says that out of thousands -of suggestions nothing has been found more effective than strychnine -poison and carbon bisulphide. Following are directions for preparing and -using the strychnine: - -“Dissolve one and a half ounces of strychnine sulphate in a quart of hot -water. Add a quart of syrup--molasses, sorghum, or thick sugar and -water--and a teaspoonful of oil of anise. Thoroughly heat and mix the -liquid. While hot pour it over a bushel of clean wheat and mix -completely. Then stir in two or more pounds of fine corn meal. The -quantity of corn meal needed will depend upon the amount of extra -moisture present. There should be enough to wet every grain of the wheat -and no more. Care should be taken that there is no leakage from the -vessel in which the wheat is mixed. Let the poisoned grain stand over -night, and distribute it in the early morning of a bright day. Use a -tablespoonful of the wheat to each hole occupied by prairie dogs, -putting it near the mouth of the burrow in two or three little bunches. -Do not put out the poison in cold or stormy weather. It will keep for a -considerable time, and is much more effective after a cold period, as -the animals are then hungry and eat the grain readily. A bushel of wheat -should poison 1000 to 1200 holes. An excellent substitute for the oil of -anise in this formula can be made by soaking two ounces of green coffee -berries in the whites of three eggs. Let this stand for about twelve -hours, and use the liquid instead of anise oil.” - -A tablespoonful of carbon bisulphide, upon some such absorbent material -as cotton, dry horse manure, or a piece of corn-cob, and rolled into the -burrows, is effective. It is best immediately to cover the hole with a -sod and stamp down firmly. - - -GRASSHOPPERS - -Grasshoppers are a source of no little loss to alfalfa growers in some -parts of the West. They usually do their greatest damage to the season’s -second crop, the young not being very destructive to the first. The best -remedy, or rather prevention, is deep disking in April and then -harrowing to destroy the eggs. - -Where the pests attack or are about to attack a field of alfalfa, Prof. -L. Bruner, of the Nebraska station recommends the use of a “hopper -dozer,” which is “simply a long, shallow pan of stove-pipe iron or -galvanized iron mounted on runners and backed by a light frame covered -with cloth. The pan is about four inches deep, from eighteen inches to -two feet wide, and from ten to sixteen feet long. It is partly filled -with water and a little kerosene. A horse drags the machine across the -field over the stubble of the first crop and the half-grown hoppers -jump into the pan where the oil coats them over and kills every one that -it touches. The hopper dozer works best on level land. On sloping ground -the oil and water run to one end and slop over. To prevent this the pan -is usually divided into sections by a number of partitions. The runners -should stick out in front of the pan about a foot and one-half, and a -piece of chain or heavy rope should be stretched loosely between them to -drag ahead of the machine and make the hoppers jump. On level fields -there are no great difficulties in the use of the hopper dozer. Careless -driving may spill oil on some alfalfa and kill it. If these machines are -to be really effective, they must be used before the grasshoppers get -their wings. The first crop of alfalfa should be cut as early as -possible, and the hopper dozers should follow the rakes as closely as -may be. On the whole, they should be used only where plowing and -harrowing have not been done or have failed to keep the grasshoppers in -check.” - -Of the use of this implement or machine Prof. S. J. Hunter has this to -say: - -“The height of the runners depends upon the height of crop to be -protected. It is important that there be no timbers in front of the pan, -so that its front line may come in contact with the grain passed over. -The insects then fall directly into the fluid. When ready for use place -two buckets of water and one-half gallon of coal-oil in a pan, and then -drive back and forth across the end of the field where the grasshoppers -are entering until you have filled the pans; remove the insects, -replenish with oil and water, and continue until the field is rid of the -pest. - -“Many grasshoppers will be seen strike the sheet-iron back, drop into -the pans and immediately jump out again. Those farmers who observed the -experiments were at first of the opinion that the locusts that jumped -out had jumped away ‘to live another day.’ The writer asked those -interested to watch the insects and note the actions of grasshoppers -that had jumped out. In every case the report was that the insects -became sick and soon died. In fact, persons going over fields where a -day or so before the hopper dozer had been at work, were impressed with -the number of dead grasshoppers on the ground. An examination showed the -presence of coal-oil upon the body. This kerosene and water is an -external irritant, and my observations have been that the mixture is -more effective than the oil alone. - -“The use of the machine may be best shown by examples. In Ford county, -Kansas, a large tract of alfalfa was cut, and the locusts at once began -moving into a large field of Kafir corn which had been sown broadcast. -The hopper dozer was drawn back and forth across the end of the corn -field nearest the alfalfa land until a portion of the field about twenty -rods deep had been gone over. Here it was apparent that there were very -few grasshoppers; or, in other words, the advance line of the locusts’ -march only extended twenty rods into the field. Two days later the same -area of ground was covered, but not as many insects were taken. -Grasshoppers no longer entered this corn and the hopper dozer was no -longer used at this point. - -“It has been my experience with this machine that after it has passed -over vegetation it does not injure the plants, but in some way renders -the vegetation distasteful to the grasshoppers, so that they turn their -course and seek food elsewhere. I have observed that these native -grasshoppers enter a field from one corner or side, and that they are -not as a rule scattered over the whole field, but occur in great numbers -in patches. This being the case, it is evident that with very little -labor with this machine the products of a field can be given full -opportunity to mature.” - - -ARMY WORMS - -In Nebraska the fall army worm has caused considerable damage. It is -distinct from the true army worm, having small hairs growing out from -small black spots; it has a whitish “Y” shaped mark upon the head. The -parent of the worms is a moth of a yellowish, ash-gray color. The female -moth deposits her eggs in clusters upon the leaves and stems. With the -approach of cold weather the worms pass into the ground and enter the -chrysalis stage about one or two inches below the surface. When very -numerous the only effective treatment is to disk thoroughly in the -spring. - - -BIND WEED - -Bindweed, belonging to the morning-glory family, is one of the meanest -weeds that annoy alfalfa raisers. It spreads from the root, and is more -than liable to smother out alfalfa or any other crop which tries to -occupy its ground. If infested fields could be grazed closely with hogs -or sheep, they might keep the bindweed down and finally eradicate it. If -this cannot be done, the only remedy is to plow and use the land for -some other crop. - - - - -_CHAPTER XXIV._ - -Difficulties and Discouragements - - -Notwithstanding the fact that alfalfa is now grown successfully in all -parts of the United States, in almost all kinds of soils and under many -dissimilar conditions of climate, there are grouped here as a summary -from preceding chapters the several difficulties and discouragements -that may confront the one who would grow it. - -1. _Securing a Good Stand._ Theoretically, the farmer should secure a -good stand every year with every crop, but he does not. He obtains, -however, poor stands of wheat and corn and potatoes oftener than a poor -stand of alfalfa. Why does he fail with alfalfa? The following, at least -in part, suggests why: - -_a_ He neglects to prepare sufficiently in advance. He should select his -alfalfa field one or two years before he intends sowing. If he raises -wheat, he should sow a little alfalfa seed with wheat, one or even two -years before ready for alfalfa. This will leave a few roots and the -proper bacteria will have been introduced into the soil. For two years -there should be a vigorous fight against weeds, the fewest possible -being permitted to ripen seed. - -_b_ He neglects to prepare properly for the preceding crop, and -sometimes plants the wrong crop, although sorghum and Kafir corn are -about the only very objectionable planting to precede alfalfa. These -have usually taken too much of the land’s moisture, especially if the -season has been somewhat dry, to permit a prosperous beginning of the -plants from fall sown seed. Millet, oats or cowpeas are the best crops -to precede, i. e. for the first trial. The plowing for this preceding -crop should be deep. In clay land a subsoil plow (the kind which loosens -but does not throw the subsoil to the surface) should follow. It is -extremely important that a dressing of stable manure be plowed under for -this preceding crop. The seed bed should be carefully prepared, and -under favorable conditions. Working the ground when too wet would make -it impossible to secure a proper seed bed later when preparing for -alfalfa. - -[Illustration: And There’s Still More to Follow] - -[Illustration: =Dead Prairie Dogs= - -gathered up in a 20-minute walk through a “town” that had been poisoned. -Nearly all the animals die inside their burrows. The cost of destroying -them, according to Professor Lantz, is not over two cents per acre, not -counting the labor, and a man can distribute the poison over about a -quarter-section in a day] - -_c_ He neglects to prepare the alfalfa seed bed properly. He should -begin disking and harrowing as soon as the preparatory crop is off the -ground, and continue this at intervals of ten or fifteen days until time -for sowing, when the soil should be as fine as for an onion bed. - -_d_ He uses poor seed; seed that is infertile, or adulterated with weed -seeds--undesirable and unreliable in every way. - -2. _Dying out the second year_, which in most instances is due to one of -two causes, viz.: neglect to plow under stable manure for the preceding -crop, or pasturing alfalfa in its first year. Not an animal should be -turned on an alfalfa field for pasture until the second or, preferably, -the third year. Another cause is disturbance of the soil and plants by -severe freezing. This may often be prevented in a degree by a light -top-dressing of manure in December. - -3. _Failure through harvesting and stacking_. - -4. _Injury from insects or disease_. - -These are practically all the things that need occasion serious -vexation. Of course alfalfa calls for more work in harvesting than corn, -or clover, or timothy; but one acre of prosperous alfalfa is worth two -or three of corn, or clover or timothy, even for market, while for -feeding purposes the difference is even greater. The “poor” farmer, the -lazy farmer, the “corner grocery” farmer should not sow alfalfa. - - - - -_CHAPTER XXV._ - -Miscellaneous - - -ALFALFA IN THE ORCHARD - -Probably nine-tenths of those who have written on this subject have -condemned the practice of sowing alfalfa in the orchard. They have said -that the alfalfa demanded so much moisture that the trees would be -dwarfed if not destroyed. In going through an immense amount of material -in the preparation of this book only two instances have been found of -men who claim that the alfalfa is a benefit to orchards. One of these -was from Texas and the newspaper quoting him did not give his name. He -was reported to have used his orchard for hog pasture, keeping on five -acres from ten to fifteen sows with their pigs from early April to -September. He claimed that the alfalfa instead of robbing the orchard of -moisture actually contributed to the surface moisture and benefited the -trees. - -Prof. F. L. Watrous, of the Colorado station, is an earnest advocate of -the use of alfalfa in the orchard and from an article of his this is -quoted: - -“Whatever may have been believed or imagined as to the uncongeniality of -trees and alfalfa the theory is destined to an early downfall. The -evidence is at hand now to show that not only is alfalfa not a -detriment when grown among fruit trees, but in many ways it is a -positive benefit, lending itself and its properties to the advantage of -the trees. - -“On land where moisture can be found at from six to ten feet from the -surface, the congeniality of the alfalfa plant and the apple tree -becomes apparent. Both need plenty of water the first year, a little -less the second, and very little or none thereafter. - -“After trees become old enough to bear and need all the land between -them, and that fertilized and renovated, alfalfa may be used as a food -gatherer and distributer. It pushes down into the lower strata, bringing -up mineral elements, captures nitrogen from the air through its root -processes, and brings all together near the surface, thus giving to the -trees the food they need to fill up and mature fruit. Nor is this all. -The alfalfa falling on the ground makes a soft cover upon which -windfalls may drop with little bruising; it so occupies the soil as to -allow no foul growth to creep in; it does away with the work of weeding -or cultivating, and keeps the surface cool and porous, furnishing -excellent pasture for hogs if the trees are protected. It would be -possible, of course, in this system of co-operation between fruit trees -and alfalfa to secure a crop of hay or seed during the off years for -fruit, but whether this would prove profitable may be questioned. -Orchards growing under the conditions described have produced -magnificent crops of fruit which, for size, quality and coloring, is -seldom equaled.” - - -SOME ALFALFA “MUSTS” AND “DON’TS” - -A Knox county, Ohio, man, in expressing himself as to some of the -requisites for success with alfalfa, as observed from his viewpoint has -this to say: - -“I have known about alfalfa from boyhood; been familiar with it for -thirty years, and have grown it successfully on many soils, from a stiff -clay, upwards. The failures which I have seen have been accounted for by -the non-performance of some of the essentials. There are certain -‘musts’, not ‘shoulds,’ to be observed to secure success. Here they are -from my experience: - -“First of all the seed must be pure, of high germinating power, and of -the highest possible vitality. If I doubted my own proficiency in these -determinations, I would consult the nearest experiment station. I have -had occasion to consult experiment stations, from New Jersey to -Wisconsin, on various subjects, and in every instance have met with -prompt and valuable--and sympathetic--assistance. - -“The soil must have lime; either as one of its natural constituents, or -lime must be added. If the soil is deficient, then the lime must be -incorporated with the soil some months before seeding. - -“The land must have efficient drainage, either natural, or, as in the -case of clay and heavy clay loams, artificial. - -“The land must be fertile to a depth of at least nine inches. Beyond -that depth the taproot in its search for water will take care of -itself.” - -Another writer, impressed by practices he regards as reprehensible, -enumerates them as follows: - -“Don’t sow any nurse crop. - -“Don’t sow on freshly plowed land, no matter how carefully prepared. - -“Don’t let weeds or grass grow over six inches high without clipping. - -“Don’t clip or mow when wet with rain or dew. - -“Don’t let alfalfa stand; if turning yellow, cut it. - -“Don’t sow old seed. - -“Don’t sow less than twenty pounds per acre, one-half each way. - -“Don’t sow twenty-five acres at first; sow five. - -“Don’t pasture it. - -“Don’t put any of the rotten manure anywhere but on your alfalfa plot. - -“Don’t depend upon ‘culture cakes’ or soil from some distant field. - -“Don’t let any water stand on it. - -“Don’t let it go if a thin stand, but disk in more seed; don’t be afraid -you will kill it. - -“Don’t replow the land, disk it. - -“Don’t wait for it to stool; it never does. - -“Don’t try to cut for hay until the alfalfa takes the field. - -“Don’t sow on any land not well underdrained. - -“Don’t leave your land rough; use a roller or a plank float to level and -smooth it. - -“Don’t give up.” - - -ALFILERILLA OR “ALFILARIA” - -(_Erodium citcutarium_.) - -On account of the similarity of its name to that of alfalfa and the -possibility of the two plants being confused in the minds of those not -acquainted with them, it is proper to make mention here of the plant -referred to in the caption above. It is not generally known nor widely -distributed, and has as yet its principal habitat in semi-arid parts of -the southwestern United States. The Century Dictionary calls it -Pin-clover or Pin-grass, and classifies it with the Geranium family. -Webster’s Dictionary speaks of it as a weed in California. It is an -annual and seeds profusely; a few seeds scattered over quite a large -area result in a thorough seeding the second year. A stockman in Arizona -writes that it will grow on any kind of soil except alkali; that it was -introduced from Australia by sheep carrying it in their wool. It is a -southern plant and should not be seeded largely north of the northern -line of Oklahoma until tested by the experiment stations. It should not -be confused with alfalfa, as it is entirely dissimilar and not related. - -In discussing this plant an Arizona editor writes the following: - -“It is by no means a new or experimental crop, for it was the main -reliance of Arizona stockmen during ten years of drouth. We suppose that -the experiment stations in the West have given it little attention -because it is as well known as alfalfa here, and millions of acres are -covered with it in various portions of the Territory. - -“We know from many years experience that alfilaria will thrive and keep -stock in good condition where no grass roots would live through one of -the dry seasons. It is peculiarly adapted to the poorer soils in western -Kansas, Nebraska, the Texas Panhandle, New Mexico, and portions of the -northern section of Mexico. - -“Its merits are that it will grow in seasons so dry that other forage -fails and that it will keep cattle in better health and condition as to -flesh and growth than anything else we can grow in Arizona, not -excepting alfalfa. In the spring cattle and horses will go miles to find -it and it is better than ‘condition powders’ to put them in condition -for summer growth. - -“What it will do on other classes of soil, under excess of moisture, is -a matter of experiment; but where it is needed most--as above outlined, -there is nothing that has ever been tested under these adverse -conditions which can compare with alfilaria. This will be certified to -by every ranchman and cattleman in this section of Arizona.” - - -MEASURING HAY IN THE STACK - -Some method of arriving at the quantity in a stack, rick, or mow without -weighing it, is, at one time and another, found desirable by everyone -who has to do with loose hay. There can be no absolute rule laid down -for this because of the varying compactness the hay attains under -differing conditions of coarseness or fineness, moisture, length of time -stacked or stored and the weight which has rested upon it. - -For prairie hay stacked not less than thirty days a cube seven feet -square (343 cubic feet) is not uncommonly bought or sold as a ton; yet -seven-and-a-half feet square, or 422 cubic feet, are often made the -basis of estimating. The author is advised that in the alfalfa growing -districts of the Yellowstone valley it is the general custom to accept -as a ton 422 cubic feet of alfalfa hay if it has settled thirty days or -more. Also that hay-men find there is a noticeable variation between the -different cuttings. The first cutting will fall short of actual weight -more than the second, while the third cutting will hold up in weight, -and sometimes overrun. Prof. E. A. Burnett, of the Nebraska experiment -station, thinks an eight-foot cube, or 512 cubic feet, a fair figure. - -Professor Ten Eyck says: - -“The rules for measuring hay in the stack will vary according to the -length of time the hay has been stacked and the kind and quality of the -hay, and also according to the character of the stack. With alfalfa or -prairie hay which has been stacked for thirty days it is usual to -compute an eight-foot cube or 512 cubic feet as a ton. When the hay has -been stacked five or six months, usually a seven-and-a-half-foot cube or -422 cubic feet is calculated for a ton. In old stacks which have been -stacked a year or more a seven-foot cube or 343 cubic feet is allowed -for a ton. - -“There are different methods of measuring a stack, depending upon its -shape and also its size. For a long stack or rick the usual method is to -throw a line over the stack measuring the distance (in two or three -places, and use the average) from the bottom on one side to the bottom -on the other; add to this the average width of the stack, divide this -sum by four (which equals one side of the square) and multiply the -quotient by itself and this product by the length of the stack; this -will give the number of cubic feet in the stack, which may be divided by -512, 422, or 343 in order to find the number of tons. For small, low -ricks the rule is to subtract the width from the ‘over,’ divide by 2, -multiply by the width and multiply the product by the length, dividing -the result by the number of cubic feet in a ton. - -“There is no established rule for measuring round stacks, but this one -will approximate the contents of one of the ordinary conical form: Find -the circumference at or above the base or ‘bulge’ at a height that will -average the base from there to the ground, find the vertical height of -the measured circumference from the ground and the slant height from the -circumference to the top of the stack. Multiply the circumference by -itself and divide by 100 and multiply by 8, then multiply the result by -the height of the base plus one-third of the slant height of top. The -hay in a round is necessarily less compact than in a rectangular stack, -hence a greater number of feet should be allowed for a ton; with well -settled hay, probably 512 feet. - -“The rules given may also be used in measuring any kind of hay, sorghum -or Kafir-fodder in the stack. However, for sorghum or Kafir-fodder only -approximate results can be procured by stack measurements because the -fodder is apt to vary greatly in weight, according to the moisture it -contains.” - -[Illustration: =Pot Culture Experiments at University of Illinois= - -showing effect produced upon growth of alfalfa by nitrogen-gathering -bacteria obtained from older alfalfa and Sweet clover. Reading from top -to bottom the four photographs were made five, six, seven and eight -weeks, respectively, from time of planting - - +----------------------------------------------+ - |Bottom row, signs from left to right: | - |ALFALFA. No Bacteria. | - |ALFALFA. Bacteria from Alfalfa soil. | - |ALFALFA. Bacteria from Alfalfa Tubercles. | - |ALFALFA. Bacteria from Sweet Clover Soil. | - |ALFALFA. Bacteria from Sweet Clover Tubercles.| - +----------------------------------------------+] - -[Illustration: =Six Months Growth of Alfalfa Foliage= - -grown from one crown under irrigation in southern California, sixty feet -below sea level Height slightly less than eleven feet] - - - - -_CHAPTER XXVI._ - -Practical Experiences of Alfalfa Growers in the United States of America - - -ALABAMA - -_Prof. J. F. Duggar, Director Alabama experiment station._--Alfalfa is -grown in Alabama with entire success on the lime soil of the central -prairie region of the state. This is a strip of land from 10 to 20 miles -wide, extending southeast and northwest almost across the state and into -Mississippi. Beginning near Union Springs, this prairie passes near -Montgomery, Selma, Demopolis, Greensboro and northwestward towards -Columbus, Miss. On the prairie lands in this area alfalfa affords from -three to six cuttings per year, usually four, and the yield is from -three to six tons per acre. Irrigation is not practiced. The seed is -sown either in September or in the early part of March, usually from 20 -to 24 pounds per acre. Almost a full crop is secured the first year from -fall seeding, but only from one-third to two-thirds of a full crop is -secured the first year from sowing seed in March. It is not customary on -this soil to use fertilizer on alfalfa, but an application of even a -light coat of stable manure immensely increases the yield on the poor -spots. Failure has generally attended attempts to grow alfalfa on -non-calcareous or sandy soils, though under favorable conditions, with -liberal manuring and constant warfare against crab-grass, it -occasionally succeeds. In Bulletin No. 127 of the Alabama experiment -station the results in alfalfa growing are summarized as follows: -Usually the best crop to precede spring sown alfalfa is cotton, -especially if cotton follows melilotus (Sweet clover). The best crop to -prepare the land for fall sown alfalfa is cowpeas, sown very thickly. -Farmers have found that alfalfa thrives when sown on Johnson grass -meadows, holding its own, at least for the first few years, against this -aggressive grass. Dodder, a yellow threadlike growth, is a serious enemy -of alfalfa. One of the remedies consists in mowing and burning. Seed -merchants often pass alfalfa seed through a machine which is claimed to -remove the dodder seed. On sandy upland soils at Auburn, alfalfa has not -afforded very profitable yields. On such soils it requires heavy -applications of lime or barnyard manure, and it is believed that more -profitable use can be made of manure. At Auburn neither nitrate of soda -nor cottonseed meal very greatly increased the yield of alfalfa that was -properly stocked with root tubercles. Acid phosphate and potash -fertilizers are considered indispensable here, and generally advisable -on sandy or other soils not rich in lime. Inoculation with soil from old -fields of either alfalfa or Bur clover greatly increases the yields of -alfalfa growing on sandy land. The germ that causes tubercles to develop -on Sweet clover also causes tubercles to develop on the roots of -alfalfa. Hence artificial inoculation of alfalfa is not necessary when -it is grown on prairie land that has recently borne a crop of -melilotus. Artificial inoculation of alfalfa is probably advisable even -for prairie soils when it is uncertain whether either the melilotus or -alfalfa germs are present in great numbers. In regions in Alabama where -neither alfalfa, melilotus, nor Bur clover is extensively grown, -inoculation of alfalfa is advisable. For this purpose one may use soil -from old fields of either of these plants or inoculating material -prepared in the laboratory. - - -ARIZONA - -_John Blake, Graham county._--Alfalfa is the king of forage plants here. -It will stand considerable dry weather and live, but it will not yield -profitably unless irrigated, or on naturally damp ground. It does not do -well here on clay soil, and if clay subsoil is near the surface it is -likely to dry out, unless watered. I have grown alfalfa for eight years -on 175 acres, first and second bottom, and upland, with sandy and loam -soils, with small patches of clay and various subsoils; the alluvial -bottoms are usually loam of different depths, underlaid with sand and -gravel; the next bottom more clayey, with quicksand about 13 feet deep -and gravel about 30 feet below the surface. On first bottoms, well water -is reached at a depth of 3 to 8 feet, the soil being dry on the surface -only; on the upland, the soil is dry for 20 to 30 feet, or until water -is reached. Land intended for alfalfa had best be cultivated in other -crops for two or three years, thus insuring the killing off of native -brush and grass, and their roots; then it must be laid off in “lands” of -various widths, according to the slope, each land being leveled -uniformly and bordered to hold water. Seed may be sown in August, -September, and October; in fact, all the year, except from the middle -of April to the first of August, when it is so hot and dry here. The -quantity of seed used varies with the preparation, from 12 to 20 pounds -per acre. Sow with a “Cahoon” seeder, and cover with a brush or light -harrow. It is generally sown here with barley, wheat, or oats. The grain -is cut early for hay, or ripened and headed, in which case the stubble -and alfalfa are cut immediately afterward and hauled off. The ground is -then irrigated, and if it has previously been foul, there will be plenty -of weeds. Another cutting in good time will usually eradicate these. The -plant will not winterkill here if old enough to have four leaves before -frost. We irrigate abundantly, from the Gila river, in winter and -spring, filling up the soil and thus making less need for water during -the hot, dry period. Irrigate after each crop is taken off, and some -land is benefited by two irrigations for each cutting. The quantity of -water needed depends on the character of the soil and subsoil; some on -the bottoms needs but little after the first year, and it is a good -plan, if the subsoil is open, to let the plant go without artificial -water after it has a good start, as it sends its roots down to moisture -or water, if at a reasonable depth below; it will then thrive on much -less water, and the crop will be more nutritious. If one is raising hay -for quantity, of course this does not apply. The four crops per season -yield on an average: First, 1¹⁄₂ to 2 tons; second and third, 1¹⁄₄ to 4; -fourth, three-fourths to one ton. If cutting for quantity, mow when -fairly in bloom; if for feeding, when the seed has formed. I have raised -no seed, but the crop used for that purpose is usually the second, and -it is not irrigated. The time required for curing depends on the stage -at which the hay is cut, the dryness of the ground, etc.; a good rule is -to rake as soon as the rake will take it up clean, and let it cure in -windrows or cocks. I use a “Landen” single pole stacker, with slings, -which puts the hay, just as it laid on the wagon, in the center of the -stack. The seed, threshed on an ordinary thresher, contains straw and -chaff, which are easily taken out by running through ordinary wire -screen-door netting, and then it is suitable for the “Cahoon” seeder. On -land worth $40 per acre, the hay in the stack costs $3 per ton. Baling -costs $2 per ton, the best size being 100 or 150 pounds in weight. Size -does not affect the keeping quality of the hay. The hay has sold here -for $6 to $12, averaging about $7.50, and the seed sold here last year -for 9 cents per pound. I do not think the straw is of much value. -Alfalfa will yield abundantly the second year, and, if harrowed with a -good harrow, digging up the soil, it will yield for a very long period. -Mine, which is 10 years old, looks as well as it did when two years old. -To rid land of it, it would be well to plow when dry, then cross plow -later on. On naturally damp bottom it is hard to kill. Cattle pastured -on rank alfalfa in the spring are liable to bloat. - -_Thomas C. Graham, Pinal county._--Though I have been familiar with -alfalfa growing for 10 years, my first experience on a large scale was -five years ago, when I seeded the Kenilworth farms, containing 900 -acres. I was successful in securing a good stand on the entire tract. -Some of the land is upland, with sandy loam soil, washed from the -mountains, and various subsoils, hardpan being, in places, only 10 -inches below the surface; the remainder of the land is low, or bottom, -with adobe soil. Well water is found at a depth of 95 feet, and the soil -is dry from the surface to within a few feet of the water stratum. -Before sowing, the surface soil is plowed and harrowed thoroughly; 20 -pounds of seed is used to the acre, and covered not more than one-half -inch deep. In our section, the best time for seeding is in September and -October, and there is no danger from the winter frost. During the first -season we cut twice or three times, to destroy all weeds, and obtain -2¹⁄₂ or 3 tons of hay per acre, but have never been able to get a paying -crop of seed from the first season’s cutting. For irrigation, we obtain -water from the Gila and Salt rivers, but in some sections of our country -water is pumped from wells by steam pumps. It has not been found -practicable to lift the water from a greater depth than 50 feet for this -purpose. The first year, as the land is very dry, it requires twice the -quantity of water that is needed the second year and after. We flood the -alfalfa five or six times a year--once in the fall, in the spring, and -after each cutting, using water enough to cover the land to a depth of -about one inch. We have no rain to amount to anything here, and depend -entirely on irrigation. I think the ground should be prepared in the -fall, and seeded in February or March as, if seeded in the fall, the -young plants might be liable to injury from frost. In all cases, the -soil should be thoroughly prepared, and the seed not covered more than -one-half inch deep. It is not uncommon to harvest six crops of alfalfa -in a single season, and its feeding qualities are unequaled for cattle, -horses, or swine. It is found, by careful tests, that alfalfa is 45 per -cent better than clover and 65 per cent better than timothy for feeding -farm animals. In my opinion, there is no other hay that will equal -properly cured alfalfa. That grown without irrigation is much better, as -it contains less sap and is not so stalky. The threshed hay is splendid -feed for milch cows, and is sold here for the same price brought by the -hay cut earlier. Last season I pastured 65 head of hogs on 10 acres of -alfalfa, and they did well. In my experience, it is far better than -clover, from the fact that it cannot be dislodged, the roots penetrating -to a depth of 10 to 20 feet. The pasturage is profitable and -satisfactory for sheep and horses, and 45 per cent better for cattle -than clover. They will bloat sometimes, but if properly handled there is -little danger. The best preventive is to not allow the cattle to become -too hungry. We get, on an average, three cuttings a year, averaging 1 to -1¹⁄₂ tons per acre each, and have pasture for five or six months. For -hay, we mow when in full bloom, rake as soon as possible, and let stand -in windrows until the stems are about half dry; then put in the cock for -two days, and stack in large ricks of about 80 to 100 tons each. If put -up damp or green, it will mold. The seed is harvested, usually, from the -second crop, when the pods turn black and can be shelled out by rubbing -in the hand. It is cut, raked in windrows, and allowed to stand until -thoroughly dry. I used, this season, a J. I. Case separator, and -threshed and cleaned 6000 pounds of seed in three days. An ordinary -yield is 100 pounds to the acre, and the cost of cutting and threshing -is 3 cents a pound. The total cost of the hay in the stack is about $3 -a ton on $50 land, with 15 cents an acre for irrigation. The average -selling price for hay is $4 a ton, and for seed, 10 cents a pound. With -proper care, alfalfa will last time without end, and improve each year, -and it is difficult to kill it out, as it makes more or less seed every -crop. An open soil, free from hardpan, is best for it. - - -CALIFORNIA - -_Henry Miller, San Mateo county._--Since 1871, we have gradually -increased our acreage of alfalfa, until we now have about 20,000 acres. -This is on reclaimed swamp and upland, under a complete system of -irrigation, with the exception of a little light, loamy soil, with water -near the surface and no irrigation. On the latter ground the plant is -short-lived, on account of the gophers. The depth at which well water is -found varies from 10 to 40 feet, and, with irrigation, it is immaterial -whether the soil is naturally moist or dry. The preparation for seeding -consists of deep plowing and cross plowing, and the depth for planting -is not over two or three inches. For light, loamy soils, 12 pounds of -seed to the acre is ample, while for hard, rough, new land, from 16 to -20 pounds is required to insure a good stand. Seeding may be done here -after the cold season, and when danger of heavy frost is past, but in -time to take advantage of the spring rains, which are very essential. -During the first season, the weeds should be mowed as they require it, -without regard to returns of alfalfa, and after they are subdued it is -well to let the first year’s growth go to seed and allow it to be -trampled into the soil by young stock, but if there is a full stand this -is not necessary. We irrigate from streams, applying water as soon as -the spring opens and every time a crop is cut, the quantity of water -needed depending on the quality of the soil. Drainage is very necessary, -especially when irrigation is done in warm weather. After the first -irrigation, less water is needed at an application than at first. -Winterkilling seems to be effectually prevented by watering in the fall. -Alfalfa will attain its best state in three or four years, and its -condition after that will depend upon its treatment. We put stock on our -land generally after the first and second growth is cut, and the only -rest the land receives is when it is being irrigated. After hay has been -cut for several years, we harrow in the spring with a heavy harrow or -disk cutter, and take the opportunity to reseed that which shows lack of -vigor. The more sun and the less shade there is, the better the growth -and the more satisfactory the yield. We find it more difficult to get a -stand than to get rid of it; but, in some instances, where we have -wanted the land for orchard, vegetables, or root crops, we found several -plowings would destroy it. Without irrigation, we have not found the -crop very profitable, but there are a few favored spots in the state -where it can be grown without water; but when we plant we usually select -such land as can be put under a perfect system of irrigation before -using. Longevity of the plant depends on treatment and on the nature of -the soil. On heavy adobe soil it will not live and thrive as long as on -loamy soil, and on sandy, light soil it will be of short duration -without constant and judicious irrigation. After the first season, we -make two cuttings a year, and consider two tons to the acre each time a -good yield. For hay, we cut when the first crop is moderately ripe--say -nearly in full bloom; the second crop and any later ones are cut when -the bloom first shows; otherwise the lower leaves will drop off. The -first crop is generally preferable for seed, provided butterflies and -other insects have not injured the bloom, as they often do. If the -second crop is used for seed, it should ripen longer than the first. The -crop for seed is mowed, windrowed as soon as possible, allowed to dry in -that state, gathered with a hand fork, loaded on hay wagons, and put in -stack as gently as possible. We find a good crop of seed a rare thing, -but use the ordinary threshing outfit, and turn out 800 to 1000 pounds a -day, in rare instances double that quantity, with a cost for threshing -and cleaning of about 5 cents a pound. The hay we never put in barns, -but stack in small, narrow ricks, to avoid danger of heating, -endeavoring to get it in the rick as dry as possible, gathering in the -forenoons to avoid shelling. When we use our own press and men, the cost -of baling does not exceed $1 per ton. The weight of the bale depends on -the kind of press used. An average, handy bale weighs about 150 to 175 -pounds, and we never have any trouble about the hay keeping perfectly in -bales of that size. The average price per ton for hay in our San -Francisco market is about $8 to $10; of seed, by the ton, 8 to 12¹⁄₂ -cents a pound, 10 cents a pound being about the usual average price. For -feeding farm animals, good, well-cured alfalfa hay is better than -clover. For milch stock, especially, we consider it fully as good as any -other hay. We find but little difference between the straw and the hay, -and while all stock like the straw better, there is no doubt that the -hay contains the more nutriment. Like all rank growths, alfalfa will -produce double under irrigation, and the quantity will greatly -overbalance any possible improvement in quality without irrigation, for -I have found little difference between that grown by irrigation and -under natural moisture. For horses, there is no pasture better than the -alfalfa; for sheep and cattle, it sometimes works injury by way of -bloat, caused by too rapid grazing, especially when there is dew, thin -cattle and young stock being most liable. Cattle in high condition and -cows suckling or well forward in calf do not bloat. As preventive of the -bloat, hay should be kept in the pasture where the stock can run to it, -and a good supply of salt in troughs to which they have constant access. -The plant will not stand trampling by stock unless the surface of the -ground be entirely dry, and we do not allow sheep or cattle on the -fields during certain stages of growth nor during certain states of the -weather. We consider this pasture better than clover for swine, -especially when the ground has a smooth surface, but if the soil is of a -sandy nature, and allowed to dry, it is not so good. The capacity per -acre depends on the nature of the soil, and the gain in weight made by -the hogs depends on the breed and on the comfort they have. We can raise -hogs on alfalfa, and by feeding them two months on grain (say barley, -wheat, or Egyptian corn) they will average, when 10 months old, 250 -pounds, gross. - -_J. B. De Jarnette, Colusa county._--I have had 11 years’ experience -with alfalfa, and have about 100 acres bordering on the Sacramento -river. The soil ranges in depth from 10 to 20 feet, and rests on a clay -subsoil, while water is reached at a depth of from 12 to 20 feet. In -sinking two wells on my place, the soil was found as follows: First 12 -feet, decomposed vegetable matter; 4 feet of quicksand; 4 feet of clay -loam; 4 feet of hardpan; 16 feet of yellow clay; 6 feet of hardpan; 2 -feet of black sand, and at 48 feet, coarse gravel. The ground should be -thoroughly pulverized--the finer the better--after plowing at least 12 -inches deep, and then seeded with not less than 25 pounds of seed to the -acre. I have had the best results from sowing in the early fall, -immediately after the first rains, using the “Gem” seeder, harrowing in -with very light harrow, and rolling the ground well. The first crop is -usually quite weedy, and of little value, but the second is better, -producing about 1¹⁄₂ tons of hay to the acre, if the stand is good. -Stock of all kinds should be kept off the first year. There is no danger -here of winterkilling, and by the second year the full yield is -realized. The length of time the plant continues vigorous depends on the -treatment. If pastured extensively, it will require to be reseeded in -from five to eight years; but otherwise it may go considerably longer. I -invariably obtain three crops a year, averaging per acre for the first -2¹⁄₂, and for the others 1¹⁄₂ to 2 tons. I irrigate only in the winter, -when the river is bank full and I can turn in water from it. Alfalfa -produces the best results with irrigation after each cutting, and in -that case there are five to seven cuttings obtainable, where with winter -flooding I can secure the three only. I mow for hay as soon as the bloom -begins to develop, raking in the afternoon following the morning -cutting, commence hauling about the third day after, and then put in the -barn with plenty of salt. The third crop is given the preference for -seed, and is harvested when the plant is well matured. I let it cure in -the windrows and haul to the thresher, handling as little as possible. -The common yield of seed is from 100 pounds up, according to the stand. -The cost of my hay, on land worth $100 to $150 per acre, does not exceed -$2 per ton, and it sells for from $5 to $8, while seed brings from 8 to -16 cents per pound. The hay after threshing is of but little value. The -pasture is unquestionably the most profitable I have ever had any -experience with, supporting more stock of any kind to the acre than any -other forage plant. In early spring, cattle are liable to bloat on the -rank alfalfa, but after the first of June I have had no trouble. There -is no special difficulty in ridding land of the plant, and it is -undoubtedly as good for fertilizing as Red clover. - - -COLORADO - -_Jacob Downing, Arapahoe county._--I introduced alfalfa into Colorado in -1862, and have between 500 and 700 acres. It is on upland, clay, sandy -and loam soil, with some adobe subsoil, but mostly sandy loam; it is -generally dry to sand rock, and then it is necessary to drill 50 to 100 -feet to get water. The plant will not thrive where there is hardpan, but -will grow in any soil that is dry. Unlike most other forage plants it -derives considerable nourishment from the air and water, though too much -moisture will kill it. After deep plowing and thorough pulverizing of -the soil, the land should be scraped thoroughly smooth, as this cannot -be done after sowing, and is needed to make the mower work smoothly. I -sow about 25 pounds to the acre, drilling in about two inches deep, -12¹⁄₂ pounds one way, and the other 12¹⁄₂ pounds across it, thus making -an even stand. Prefer to sow in the spring, early. After the plant is -eight inches high, it may be cut and used for feed, but is not very -good. After this there will be no weeds. It matures in three years, and -after that is good for seed. I have seen, near the city of Mexico, -fields of alfalfa 300 years old that had been constantly cropped and -never reseeded. It will last 1000 years, and possibly forever. Irrigate -from streams, as is required; when there is a great deal of heat and -wind, probably three times. The water must not run too long, or the -plant will be killed, and the land should be kept as dry as possible -during the winter, particularly in cold climates, as on wet soil alfalfa -winterkills. Well water is better than the stream, provided it is pumped -into a reservoir and allowed to get warm. Water is brought from the -streams by ditches. Less water can be used the first year than after the -plant is matured. I am five miles west of Denver, and 500 feet above the -city, in warm valleys. With plenty of water, I can obtain three cuttings -a year. Have raised as much as 3¹⁄₂ tons to the acre at one cutting, and -my highest yield of seed per acre has been nine bushels. Hay is cut when -the plant is in bloom, cured until it is dry to the touch of the hand. -Stacking by hand makes the best hay, as machinery is likely to pack it -in bunches, causing it to heat and become dusty. Hay in the stack costs -about $1.50 per ton. Baling costs $2 per ton; 100-pound bales are well -esteemed, but it is probable that large bales keep better than small, if -properly cured. The seed pod assumes the form of a cornucopia, and, when -the seed is ripe, it is of a rich brown or mahogany color. The first -crop is preferable for seed, and should be cut and stacked as the hay -is. It can be left and threshed when most convenient, but the longer it -remains in the stack the more easily its threshes. The ordinary -threshing machine does for the alfalfa, but the seed must be fanned to -be marketable. Six bushels is a common yield, and the cost of threshing -and cleaning is probably 25 cents per bushel. The price of hay has -ranged from $5 to $15 per ton, and of seed, from 8 to 20 cents per -pound. The straw has almost no value, as it is cut up very fine, and can -be used only where it is threshed; if fed there, it is very fattening. -For feeding horses for slow work, the hay is better than clover or -timothy. For fattening purposes, it is the best in the world, for, while -the animal lays on fat, it is never feverish, but always healthy. For -pasturing cattle and swine, alfalfa is superior to anything else, and, -after it is mown, it makes very excellent feed for horses and sheep. If -the alfalfa is wet, ruminants pastured on it bloat and die very quickly. -It is not properly a pasture plant, and such animals should be kept away -from it, but the hay, properly cured, is superior to any other food -raised for fattening purposes. There is no difficulty in ridding land of -the plant, as a good team and sharp plow will cut it out without any -trouble. I have plowed fields of alfalfa under and put in oats, -obtaining three or four times the usual yield, and have known of 50 -bushels of wheat to the acre on broken alfalfa land. - -_L. W. Markham, Prowers county._--I have had four years’ experience with -alfalfa. Have under my charge 500 acres. It is on both second bottom and -upland; part has clay subsoil, other dark loam, and all has more or -less sand. Water is reached at from 10 to 40 feet, and on land not -irrigated the soil is dry all the way down to the water veins. The -preferred time for sowing is either April 1 or August 1. Have as good -success right on the sod as on old land. If to raise seed only, 10 -pounds is sufficient to the acre; for hay, 20 pounds is not too much. -Seed not more than two inches deep. About June 15 cut weeds and tops of -young alfalfa, and then irrigate well, and you get one-half to one ton -of hay in September. It is best to not try for seed the first year, but -give all the strength to the roots. It does not winterkill here. We -irrigate from the Arkansas river, and the number of irrigations depends -on the soil. The first year requires twice as much water as later ones. -Usually three applications are needed: in early spring, mid-summer, and -late fall. I have 160 acres not irrigated for three years. We have three -cuttings, yielding 1¹⁄₂ to 2 tons per acre each. Cut for hay just when -coming into full bloom, and stack in the field--never in barn--in long -ricks, 12 feet wide by 80 to 120 feet long. It will not heat in the -stack. Let all pods become dark brown or black before cutting for seed. -The second crop is preferable, unless there is a large acreage, when I -take one-half the first crop and one-half the second, in order to help -the farmer out with work. Have men follow the machine closely, and cock -up, to remain four or five days before stacking. Never cut for seed with -a mowing machine, as you will lose one-third of the crop in trying to -gather it. The cost of alfalfa in the stack is not over $2 at the -outside. To bale--preferably in 80-pound bales--costs $1.50 per ton. An -ordinary yield of seed is five bushels per acre. The cost for threshing -is 60 cents per bushel. There is a special alfalfa huller, as even the -ordinary clover huller is not a success. For a number of years the -average price paid the farmer for alfalfa seed has been $4.50 per -bushel, and hay in the stack has sold for $3.50 to $5. For feeding farm -animals, alfalfa hay is far more valuable than timothy or clover. Horses -will work and do well the year round on the first cutting of alfalfa, -and no grain whatever. The pasturage for hogs and cattle is far better -than clover, and is profitable and satisfactory for horses and sheep. I -have 250 hogs now, and raise them to weigh 200 pounds on green alfalfa -alone; turn the sows in the lot in early spring; they raise their young, -and I never bother them for eight months at a time, as they have plenty -of alfalfa and water. Put cattle on the pasture in early spring and let -them run, and few, if any, will bloat; but when they are not used to it, -they eat too fast, or too much, and bloat. The hay is not so good after -it is threshed as that cut earlier for hay alone, but the straw sells -readily at $1.50 in the stack. The stand gets better every year for hay, -and I know of fields in old Mexico 60 years old that have never been -reseeded. There is no difficulty in ridding land of the plant if it is -plowed under eight inches deep while green. It makes far better green -manure than does red clover. On the same quarter section, wheat grown on -old wheat land produced 20 bushels per acre, and that on broken alfalfa -land 50 bushels per acre. - - -CONNECTICUT - -_Dr. E. H. Jenkins, Director Connecticut experiment station._--Alfalfa -has been tried in a haphazard way in Connecticut for many years and -scattered plants and colonies may often be seen in fence corners and -headlands. Within five years, however, some farmers under direction of -the agricultural station at New Haven, or on their own initiative, have -made more careful experiments and while failures are numerous, there are -at present a number of small areas well established, yielding three or -four cuttings yearly and highly valued by their owners. On the farm of -C. W. Beach of West Hartford, F. H. Stadmueller had for seven years a -considerable field of alfalfa which yielded well and was used as a -soiling crop. Mr. Barnard of North Haven, after repeated failures, has a -fine field and feeds it to both cows and poultry. The Gaylord Farm -sanatorium at Wallingford, John Matthies of New Milford and others might -be cited as successful growers of alfalfa. It does well on a variety of -soils with us. Liming heavily, 1500 to 2000 pounds per acre, is a -necessity. Some form of inoculation of the soil is generally required -and clean, well-tilled land. Weeds are the worst enemy of the newly -seeded alfalfa and easily smother the crop. For that reason we prefer -August seeding, using at least 30 pounds of clean, fresh seed. It will -pay to fallow the land, in order to kill the weeds before seeding down. -Thin spots cannot be successfully patched by seeding later. Great care -in preparing the land pays with a permanent crop like alfalfa. - - -DELAWARE - -_Dr. Arthur T. Neale, Director Delaware experiment station._--Twenty -years ago, I drilled alfalfa in rows 18 inches apart, and cultivated at -intervals of ten days until the crop occupied the ground, seeding late -in March, say the 28th. The first cutting of nearly 8 tons of green -forage per acre was made nine weeks later. Thereafter four additional -cuttings were made that season, resulting in a total yield of 21 tons of -green forage per acre. This plot remained in good profit, all told, for -five years. An adjoining plot seeded broadcast, grew into a weed crop -the first year, but during four succeeding years was in every respect -the equal of its neighbor, the drilled plot. Twenty similar experiments -made during that year in as many other sections of the state failed -utterly. The dates of seeding were in every instance subsequent to March -28, but followed each other as rapidly as men could travel from point to -point, drilling the seed on well and previously prepared soil. Two years -later nine similar failures resulted from spring seedings. Late summer -is now the time most frequently selected for alfalfa seedings, but -success is by no means invariably attained even then. Liming has been of -service in one five-acre test conducted in Kent county, by W. H. Dickson -in co-operation with this station. The third trial within four -consecutive years appears at present to be a complete success. The first -seeding gave a satisfactory stand, but the plants died late in the -following spring. The ground was limed that summer, after thorough -preparation of the seedbed. Nitro-cultures from federal sources were -used upon portions of the seed, and 1000 pounds of soil per acre from a -successful alfalfa plantation were applied to the other areas. This -second seeding also failed. The five-acre plot was then plowed, wheat -was drilled and a fair crop resulted. The wheat was harvested, lime was -again used after the seedbed had been prepared, and alfalfa seed sown -as usual. The crop this year has exceeded anticipations. The check -strip, to which no lime whatever has been applied, but upon which -nitro-cultures were used, carries no crop. It will be disked after the -third cutting of alfalfa this year, well limed and again seeded. - - -GEORGIA - -_Prof. R. J. Redding, Director Georgia experiment station._--This -station has successfully cultivated alfalfa for 12 years, and we have -never found it necessary to inoculate when we have sown the seed on -rich, well prepared land. The plants at once became supplied with -nitrogen tubercles and grew as luxuriantly as might be expected from the -quality of the land. Our practice is to fertilize annually in January or -February by sowing from 800 to 1000 pounds of acid phosphate and -one-fourth as much muriate of potash per acre. We run a cutaway harrow -over the alfalfa two or three times in different directions. We then use -a smoothing harrow and finally a heavy roller. This puts the land in -good shape for the mowing machine and at the same time destroys weeds -that come up during the fall and early winter. I believe that it is not -desirable to continue land in alfalfa more than six or eight years, -because of the impossibility of preventing infestation of weeds to such -extent as to very greatly diminish the yield of alfalfa. We have a plot -growing, that was sown about April 10, which seems to be as favorable a -time as any, provided there shall be one or two good rains to give the -young plants a start. The main factors in success are: First, a deep, -well-prepared and well-drained soil, made very rich; and second, good -seed, carefully sown and repeated mowings at the proper time. - - -IDAHO - -_H. W. Kiefer, Bingham county._--I have grown alfalfa in Idaho, under -irrigation, for 12 years. Have 40 acres on second bottom, heavy clay -soil for 12 feet. This subsoil pulverizes by the action of the air, and -will produce a good crop of small grain. Water is reached at 100 feet. -The 12 feet of clay is dry; the gravel and sand below are more or less -moist till water is reached. Land having produced two successive crops -of small grain is preferred for alfalfa. Sow 20 pounds, in the spring, -and cover lightly with harrow, brush, or drag, or roll. The plants -should be vigorous enough to choke out weeds. Amount of hay obtained the -first year is governed by conditions and treatment. When sudden freezing -and thawing occur, it is liable to winterkill. The frequency of our -irrigation is governed by the rainfall, but is usually done when the -ground is dry, without regard to stage of growth, allowing the water to -run until the soil is wet the depth of a spade; usually average two -irrigations to each cutting. Our supply of water comes from Snake river -and tributaries, which furnish sufficient for the Snake river valley. -Have noticed no difference in amount of water required during first or -later years, except as affected by the amount of rainfall. We get three -cuttings, averaging about five tons for the season, cutting for hay when -in bloom, and for seed when seed is matured, which generally requires -the entire season to mature in this locality. The seed crop should be -handled as little as possible, to avoid loss of seed. Alfalfa should -cure at least two days, and, if dry, will not mold in stack. The cost of -alfalfa hay, if irrigated, is about $2 per ton. Cost of baling, $1.75 -per ton, in bales weighing 75 to 100 pounds, the keeping being governed -more by the solidity than size of bale. During the past six years, hay -has averaged about $4 per ton, in the stack, and seed about 8 cents per -pound. Alfalfa makes satisfactory pasturage for sheep and horses. Cattle -are liable to bloat, but, if taken in time, may be relieved with a gag, -and by exercise which will cause the gases to escape; the knife is used -as a last resort. The straw from which seed has been threshed has about -the same value as green oat straw. The various soils here appear equally -favorable to longevity. Usually the third year gives about the best -yield. If not damaged by freezing, it will not need reseeding for 10 or -15 years. We have no trouble in ridding land of alfalfa. We cut a hay -crop, and plow under, for spring wheat, with good results. Our best -alfalfa land is clay, which requires moisture, artificial or natural. -Our best yields have been six tons per acre for the season. The feeding -qualities of the hay have been well established. - -_James Otterson, Logan county._--Have had 12 years’ experience growing -alfalfa on sagebrush land, that will grow nothing but sagebrush without -irrigation. It is fine, sandy loam, extending down 6 to 10 feet, where -lava is encountered, which is from 1 to 100 feet deep. The soil is dry -until water is struck, which is at a depth of from 100 to 200 feet. -There is no water in the soil. When preparing for alfalfa, we plow well, -level the ground, and sow 15 to 20 pounds of seed per acre, and harrow -lightly, or brush it in. Sow as early as the ground can be worked--about -March 1. The first crop, if properly handled, will yield from three to -five tons per acre; it will have more or less sunflowers, which are a -protection while the plant is getting a start. It seldom winterkills. We -irrigate by flooding the ground twice each season from a stream. After -the first year, three cuttings are had; 2¹⁄₂ tons per acre the first; -1¹⁄₂ to 2 the second; and one ton per acre the third. Cut for hay as -soon as well blossomed. It grows too rank here for seed. Hay should cure -in from one to two days, and, if properly cured, stack as other hay. -Alfalfa costs, in stack, $3 per ton. The size of bales is immaterial, -except in fitting cars. Prices for hay have ranged from $5 to $10 per -ton; for seed, from 7 to 15 cents per pound. It is the best hay in use -for farm animals. Horses will thrive on it without grain, if properly -handled. For swine pasture it is far ahead of clover. It is satisfactory -for sheep. In some localities it will cause cattle to bloat; as a -preventive, feed well with dry hay before turning them on the pasture. -Deep soil is the best for the long life of the plant. The second year it -is at its best, and, if properly handled, and does not winterkill, will -last for all time. It is much better than Red clover for green manure. - - -ILLINOIS - -_Prof. C. G. Hopkins, Agronomist Illinois experiment station._--Alfalfa -is being introduced into Illinois to a considerable extent. Very careful -and somewhat extensive investigations conducted by the experiment -station, beginning in 1901, have positively established the fact that -alfalfa can be grown in this state on several of our most abundant types -of soil. As a rule, it is markedly advantageous to thoroughly inoculate -the soil with alfalfa bacteria, preferably by taking infected soil from -a well-established alfalfa field, where root tubercles are found in -abundance or from land where Sweet clover (melilotus), has been growing -successfully for several years. Infected Sweet clover soil serves just -as well as infected alfalfa soil for the inoculation of alfalfa fields. -As a rule, the best results are secured from summer seeding. The land -should be thoroughly prepared and made as free from weeds and foul grass -as possible and then seeded between June 15 and August 15, if the -conditions are favorable. Under exceptional conditions good results are -obtained from earlier and later seeding. Three cuttings are usually -obtained in the northern part of the state and four in the southern -part. The average yield is five or six tons per acre. A liberal use of -farm manure in getting the alfalfa started is advantageous and on some -soils the application of lime is necessary in order to correct the -acidity of the soil. As a rule, the yield is increased by adding to the -soil some form of phosphorous. A yield of 8¹⁄₂ tons of thoroughly -air-dry hay has been obtained where a special effort has been made to -make the conditions favorable. - - -INDIANA - -_C. M. Ginther, Wayne county_ writes in _Orange Judd Farmer_, July 8, -1905:--“Up to last year there had not been half a dozen attempts to grow -alfalfa in Wayne county, not because there was no desire on the part of -the farmers to raise the crop, but because the farmers knew absolutely -nothing about the methods to pursue in order to get a fair stand. Last -year, however, a number of agriculturists in the county determined to -try the crop. A mile west of Richmond lies the farm of J. H. -Hollingsworth, a well-known farmer, whose practical ideas about farming -have given him a local reputation. He is an advocate of intensive -farming and cultivates his crops in the most thorough manner. He keeps a -herd of dairy cattle and in his search for more economical food than -mill stuffs and clover hay, he decided to try alfalfa and feed it with a -ration of corn meal. He had a tract of five acres. This land was a clay -loam with a good mixture of sand. It was not underdrained, and Mr. -Hollingsworth believes the result would have been better had there been -a thorough system of underdrainage. The soil is what is known here as -sugar tree land. About May 1 of last year, the tract was plowed -moderately and then rolled. During the previous winter a heavy -top-dressing of barnyard manure had been applied to two acres for the -purpose of comparison. One week later the roller was run over it again. -After this the ground was thoroughly torn up with a two-horse -cultivator. This was for the purpose of killing the weeds, which had -been given time to take a start. After the cultivator had thoroughly -torn up the ground, the field was harrowed twice both ways. It was then -rolled, and pronounced in first-class condition. The weeds had succumbed -to these repeated attacks and but very few appeared in the crop later. -This thorough preparation of the ground is absolutely necessary for the -successful starting of alfalfa. It is a fastidious plant, requiring the -most favorable surroundings in its early life, but gradually grows quite -robust and strong. Its early weeks seem to be the critical time in its -life, and if it can once be started well its thrifty nature will assert -itself and it will grow with amazing rapidity. On June 11 the seed was -planted. It was sown broadcast and harrowed in lightly. One hundred -pounds pure alfalfa seed were sown, which was 20 pounds to the acre. The -experience of many others is that 15 pounds per acre is better. The seed -was first treated with bacteria, procured from the department of -agriculture at Washington, and when the seeds were thoroughly dry, they -were planted. Exactly five weeks after the seed was planted, the crop -was 1 foot high and covered the ground everywhere. On that day it was -clipped first and later given two more clippings during the season. The -effect of the clipping was to cause the crop to become more stalky, and -spread out more over the ground. None of the crop was removed from the -soil last year, the three clippings being allowed to remain about the -roots as a mulch. This was regarded as highly important and its effect -was noticeable in the perfect manner in which the crop passed through -the winter. Early this spring it started to grow and on April 18 the -plants averaged 12 inches high all over the tract. Mr. Hollingsworth is -a firm believer in the efficacy of the bacterial treatment of the seed -before planting. He attributes the wonderful growth of this crop to the -effect of the organisms produced by inoculation. It is interesting to -note the effect of the top-dressing which was applied to two acres of -the tract. The crop on that part of the ground is larger and more -luxuriant than the part that received no dressing. The crop all over the -tract appears vigorous and healthy, but the two acres show a decided -improvement and superiority.” - -[Illustration: Cutting Alfalfa in Southern California] - -[Illustration: Bailing Alfalfa in Southern Oklahoma] - -[Illustration: =A 400-ton Rick of Alfalfa= - -in Malheur County, southeastern Oregon. Dimensions, 400x30x26 feet] - -[Illustration: =A Cable Derrick, Provided with a Grapple Fork= - -The cable is supported by poles at the ends, and these in turn by guy -ropes] - -_Farmers Guide_ says:--With alfalfa more generally grown throughout -Indiana we are hearing less complaint regarding hay crop failures. In -fact, some farmers who have taken our advice and tried the crop are now -saying that they are having all they can do to take care of their crops -of hay. Think of cutting four or even three crops of good hay from the -same area each season. Isn’t it worth being busy and not going fishing -when a farmer can do that? It means an enormous saving in high-priced -land when ten acres will produce as much hay as thirty or more formerly -did, and hay better in quality also. And then, think of keeping a field -in meadow thirty, forty, or more years and having it growing better each -year. There is not much necessity for crop rotation under those -conditions, is there? especially when every season means three or four -crops of good hay. But that is the way with alfalfa and the more farmers -get of it the more they usually want. We are glad so many Indiana -farmers are getting busy with this crop, and there is no question of its -keeping them busy if they will only give it a trial. - - -IOWA. - -_Prof M. L. Bowman, Department Farm Crops, Iowa experiment station._--We -are receiving very good results from the alfalfa which is being grown at -this station, making from three to four cuttings each season with the -yield ranging from 4 to 7 tons to the acre. From one field, seeded in -August, 1905, the first cutting was taken June 11, 1906, and yielded -2.17 tons per acre. Two other cuttings were made. We believe alfalfa is -sure to become one of Iowa’s great crops as desirable results are being -obtained in many parts of the state where land is properly seeded. We -take great pains to see that the ground is in good physical condition -and that the seed is sown in late summer, some time between August 5 and -15, so that the young plants will make sufficient growth to withstand -the winter. If the seeding takes place in the fall, the alfalfa plants -will not make sufficient growth to withstand the winter. Alfalfa should -not be pastured the first season. The growth from seeding time until -winter sets in should be 6 to 8 inches and should be left on the ground -for winter protection. A nurse crop should not be used. Alfalfa will not -do well on low, wet ground, but must have land that is well drained. In -the northern parts of the state it may be sown in the spring, and in -this case desirable results have been secured by using a nurse crop. If -oats are used at all, they should be an early variety. Wheat or barley -is much better. They are not so likely to lodge. If the nurse crop is -heavy, a poor stand of alfalfa is almost sure to follow. Not more than -one-half the usual amount of grain should be sown to the acre. Better -results may be expected if no nurse crop is used. In this case, it will -be necessary for the weeds to be mowed down two or three times during -the summer, so that the alfalfa will not be choked out. It is better to -sow in the spring than late in the fall. Late summer seeding is the -best. The following year it will be freer from weeds and have a better -stand than that which was sown the spring before. Cornstalk ground which -was well manured the year before for corn is generally used for spring -seeding. The stalks should first be removed. The field may then be -thoroughly disked and harrowed. The seed should be sown about the middle -of April. - - -KANSAS. - -_C. D. Perry, Clark county._--In 1887, I sowed 200 acres of alfalfa, and -now have 270 acres. This is nearly all on second bottom land, with -black, sandy loam, black sand, and gumbo. The land is largely “made” -land, about 6 to 12 feet of good soil, with gumbo only on top for 12 or -14 inches. On the heavy land the dry soil begins at the top, and, at the -breaking of the sod, extended down eight or nine feet. Water is found at -a depth of 12 to 21 feet. We irrigate most of our crop from the Cimarron -river. The first time the land is watered it takes from two to five -times as much water as is required later, and now we find the best -results are obtained by watering about 10 days before cutting, using -three or four inches of water. There is no damage by frost, except on -low, wet land. Without irrigation, I should double plow the ground -before seeding, having one plow follow the other in the same furrow, and -going as deep as possible. Seed by drilling one-half to one inch deep, -10 pounds to the acre for seed, 20 pounds for hay, and 30 pounds for -pasture, usually about March 15 here. We mow the weeds the first year -before they seed, leaving them on the ground. After this, there will be -a yield of three-fourths to two tons of hay, or one to six bushels of -seed to the acre, depending on the season. In two or three years the -plant is at its best, and does not seem to need reseeding after that. We -have from three to five crops a year depending on promptness in -watering and cutting. Any later cutting is better than the first for -seed, and, before cutting, two-thirds of the seed pods should be black. -We mow, then rake and cock at once, stacking as soon as well cured. Hay -should be cut when it is coming into bloom. To make good hay, let it lie -for half a day (if dry weather), then rake and cock, and let cure -thoroughly. We stack in long ricks, and it keeps well. The alfalfa land -is valued at $50 an acre, and the four irrigations cost 25 cents each; -the estimated cost of the alfalfa in the stack is $2.15 a ton. An -average yield of seed is three bushels to the acre, and the cost of -threshing and cleaning it is 80 cents a bushel. Hay has sold for $5 a -ton, and seed for 6, 8 and 10 cents a pound. The threshed hay is not so -good as that cut earlier, but cattle eat it all clean. The pasture is -excellent for horses, hogs, and cattle. If the alfalfa is wet, it is -liable to cause bloating with sheep; for cattle, there is not much -danger, except for the first few days they are turned on. If the animal -is seen in time, it may be relieved by driving around, but if too bad to -be helped in that way, it needs the trocar. I have had 50 hogs on six -acres of pasture this summer, and have 50 pigs, 3 to 12 weeks old; used -two bushels of ground wheat and barley each day, and think I could have -had as many more hogs on the pasture. The sod is very hard to plow, but -it can be killed. On a piece of hog pasture plowed under, I raised 70 -bushels of barley to the acre. My alfalfa seems to do the best on black, -sandy land and on gumbo, with sand or open subsoil below. - -_J. R. Blackshere, Chase county._--I began with alfalfa in 1875, by -sowing 1¹⁄₂ bushels of seed bought in San Francisco, at the rate of $21 -per bushel. As the germination was defective, or the seed grown so far -away was not adapted to our soil or climatic conditions, a good stand -was not at first obtained, but I now have 700 acres on Cottonwood river -bottom land, having a clay subsoil underlaid by a layer of sand 20 feet -below, and with a good portion of gumbo, where the best alfalfa grows. -The soil is not especially moist until water, 20 to 30 feet below, is -reached. My best results have been obtained on corn land, cutting across -the rows with a disk harrow, leveling with a plank drag, and sowing, -after danger of freezing is past, 20 pounds of seed per acre with a disk -having seeder attachment, being sure to have all the seed covered. I cut -the weeds off with a mower, and leave them on the ground. After the -first year my average product annually for 10 or 12 years has been about -five tons per acre. That permitted to ripen seed yields three to five -bushels per acre. I do not irrigate. The plant will thrive on upland -having a clay subsoil without a stratum of hardpan. Grazed closely late -in the fall, it is liable to die out in a dry winter. - -_Benj. Brown, Osborne county._--I have had four years’ experience with -alfalfa growing in this country, and have also grown it in England, -without any irrigation, and now have 45 acres. The land is bottom rising -to second bottom, with vegetable loam and some gumbo in the upper -portion, and loam subsoil, similar to surface, but somewhat paler, for -15 feet down. Well water is found by digging 11 to 22 feet through the -soil, which is usually moist except in dry weather, when the upper two -or three feet are not. It has been found best to plow six inches deep, -in August or September; to roll or level with a heavy float about April -15, then harrow, and broadcast 25 pounds (or drill 20 pounds) of seed to -the acre. I broadcast all of mine, and harrow and roll or level. The -best time for sowing here is April 14 to 30, as it almost invariably -rains here about April 20, and frosts have never hurt my crop, nor does -it winterkill. Mow first when the weeds are six to nine inches high, -and, if worth hauling, stack; if not, let lie; generally mow again about -July 4 to 20, and stack; there may be one-fourth to one-half ton of hay -per acre. The second season we cut three times, unless we ripen seed, -and obtain from one-fourth to one ton each cutting; after this it grows -about a foot high by October. For hay, mow as soon as about half full of -flowers, rake the same morning, and haul in one or two days, as the -leaves fall if dry. It does not heat nor mold here if the sap is half -out and the straw long; I use the “Acme” hay harvester, making stacks -with rounded ends, nine steps long by five wide, and top out with straw -or hay, taking care to keep the middle well filled. The total cost of -hay in stack is about $1.50 per ton, the land being valued at $15 per -acre, or $60 with a good stand of alfalfa. The hay has sold for $4 to $6 -per ton during the past four years. The best crop for seed depends on -the weather; sometimes the first flowers set best, and again the later -ones do better; on my bottom land the plant grows too large for seed, -unless in a dry time. If seed is ripe, cut only while damp or in the -early morning, rake into rows immediately or early the next morning, -haul with a “Monarch” rake, and use a stacker. Last year and year -before I obtained four bushels of seed to the acre, and it cost me 60 -cents per bushel for cleaning. Used ordinary threshing outfit, and set -hind end of thresher 10 inches lower than front. The seed has sold here -during four years for $5 to $8 per bushel. Horses and sheep should not -be pastured on the alfalfa, as it pays to mow and haul it to them, -either green or dry. It makes good pasturage for cattle, but they must -not be turned on when the ground is frozen, nor when they are hungry, as -it is necessary to start them gradually to avoid bloating. Mine never -have bloated, and I feed milch cows in the early spring and on the -fourth crop in the fall. Alfalfa ripened and threshed has little value, -as it breaks up into dust and chaff. My stand improved every year; was -about at its best the sixth year, and continues about the same for an -indefinite time. If it gets a fair start, and is cut three times, a good -stand can be kept; but if it is pastured, and the weeds are not eaten, -it is apt to thin itself. A neighbor plowed under alfalfa for green -manure, but the next year it grew up as thick and strong as if not -plowed. We do not need manure here. I have seen several pieces of fairly -good alfalfa on high prairie, with some gumbo in the soil, but it grows -best where the subsoil is fairly open. Upland is generally best for -seed, as the plants should grow only one to two feet high, and mine on -the bottom grows 2 to 3¹⁄₂ after the second year. I think there is no -other crop here to compare with alfalfa. My third year’s crop cleared me -over $20 per acre. I have known of nine bushels of seed on one acre, and -have heard of 15 in this county. My bottom lands will grow three good -crops of hay almost without rain, and kill out all the weeds. - - -KENTUCKY - -_Prof. H. Garman, Botanist Kentucky experiment station._--We have grown -alfalfa on the experiment farm for a good many years and have been -impressed with its many good qualities, although we have not found it as -well adapted to our soil and climate as it appears to be in the western -states. In our small experimental plots, on good soil, it has recently -done remarkably well. This is partly the result of understanding it -better than formerly, and partly due to the care which these plots -receive. Last year we harvested, from some of them, hay at the rate of -from 6.32 to 10.03 tons per acre. The same plots are yielding very well -this season, but I think will not produce quite as much hay as last -year, though they look very well at present. Farmers in this state are -becoming interested in alfalfa, stimulated by the reports made to them -at farmers’ institutes, and urged by failure to grow Red clover -successfully in some parts of the state. But thus far they have not met -with uniform success. Part of this is due to a lack of acquaintance with -the plant and part may be attributed to our climate. A few men have been -growing alfalfa successfully for eight or 10 years, and I can see no -reason why many others should not succeed with it. The chief difficulty -appears to come in getting a start. Alfalfa, thoroughly started, holds -its own better than Red clover and yields much more forage. The value of -the forage is recognized by everybody, and I expect to see in the course -of the next quarter of a century a much larger acreage sown in -Kentucky. - - -LOUISIANA. - -_Prof. W. R. Dodson, Director Louisiana experiment station._--Alfalfa -has been grown by the Louisiana stations since 1887. At the time the -stations were established there was little or no alfalfa grown in the -state. From the very first experiments conducted by Dr. W. C. Stubbs, it -was apparent that the plant was well suited to the alluvial lands of the -Mississippi and Red rivers. Dr. Stubbs never lost an opportunity to -advocate its culture, and the great progress made in securing its -extensive cultivation is largely due to his efforts. Alfalfa is now -extensively grown in the Red river bottoms, and a very large percentage -of the sugar planters grow it for soiling and for hay for the plantation -mules. We get from four to seven cuttings per year. The average is about -1¹⁄₂ tons for the first three cuttings, but less for the last cuttings. -The station one year secured a harvest of 12 tons of cured hay per acre; -six tons in a season is a good yield. Were it not that one or more of -these cuttings will fall due during a rainy season, when it is difficult -to cure hay, we would go into the business very extensively in this -state. As to the quality of the hay or forage, there is no question -about its place at the head of the list of desirable forage crops. The -sugar planters find it especially desirable to mix with their cheap -molasses, as the former is rich in protein and the latter rich in -carbohydrates. In the southern portion of the state best results are -secured by planting in the fall. In the northern portion good results -are secured from early spring planting. We use from 25 to 30 pounds of -seed to the acre. Some planters use more than this. Land that is least -suited for growing corn in Louisiana, because of its stiffness, is the -very best land for alfalfa. Where the crop has once been used and the -local supply runs short, it is shipped in from Colorado to supply the -demand. It is selling now for $15 a ton. No better testimonial need be -given of the people’s estimate of its value. - - -MASSACHUSETTS. - -_Prof. William P. Brooks, Director Hatch experiment station._--Our -experiments with alfalfa have been continued both upon our own grounds -and those of a few selected farms in different parts of the state. We -are bringing to bear upon these experiments information in regard to -successful methods from every possible source. We find in all cases a -distinct benefit from a heavy initial application of lime. We have used -from 2,000 to 3,000 pounds per acre. We are enriching soils already -naturally good by heavy applications both of manures and fertilizers, -using materials which experience has proved best. We are also giving the -soil a most thorough preparatory tillage. It has usually been -fall-plowed, and in addition it is plowed in the spring, and repeatedly -harrowed to destroy weeds which start in the early part of the season. -We have tried inoculating the soil, both with earth obtained from a -field in New York, where alfalfa is successfully grown and with the -cultures sent out by the department of agriculture and prepared by -private firms. We have not attained such degree of success as justifies -us in recommending the crop. We have occasionally got a fair stand of -alfalfa, but in all cases the winters prove more or less injurious. In -the course of a few years the alfalfa is mostly crowded out by grasses -and clovers. The alfalfa almost every year suffers from leaf spot, which -tends to cut down the yield. We have found a very distinct benefit from -the inoculation with earth from the New York alfalfa field. We have not -found an equally distinct benefit to follow inoculation with any of the -cultures; and, although we are not as yet ready to make a final report, -it should be here remarked that the most careful experiments on the use -of these cultures in sterilized soils, under conditions calculated to -give accurate results, indicate that they have little, if any, value. In -our various experiments alfalfa has been tried on a wide variety of -soils. We have had a quarter of an acre field upon a coarse-textured -soil upon a farm in this neighborhood where there is never any standing -water within 50 to 60 feet of the surface. Even on this soil the -alfalfa, although it did fairly well for a year, has been injured by -successive winters, until it is at the present time almost ruined. In -this connection I call attention further to the fact that D. S. Bliss of -the department of agriculture, who has been making special efforts to -promote the introduction of alfalfa into New England, and who has -traveled extensively for the purpose of studying the results obtained, -now speaks very discouragingly as to the outlook in general. In -conclusion, while we are not inclined to discourage experiments with -alfalfa, we do wish most emphatically to caution against engaging in -these experiments upon an extended scale, for we feel that -disappointment is almost inevitable. - - -MICHIGAN - -_Prof. C. D. Smith, Director Michigan experiment station._--Alfalfa has -had and is having a checkered career. Under favorable conditions it -makes a good stand. Some fields have produced crops for many years, the -ground being occasionally fertilized by manurial salts. The difficulties -that environ the crop are: (1) The severe winters, which sometimes kill -off whole fields, leaving scarcely a root alive; this has happened to -fields two, three, or four years old. (2) The Blue grass crowds it out -badly; (3) the ignorance of the farmers in regard to the requirements of -the crop and the consequent imperfect preparation of the soil in the -matter of tillage or fertilization, has made it difficult to introduce -it in a broad way. Notwithstanding these difficulties and the farther -consideration that alfalfa does not easily lend itself to a short -rotation, the crop is advancing in the state by leaps and bounds. -Hundreds of farmers are experimenting with it and are learning how to -prepare the ground, sow it and care for the crop afterwards. Statistics -are not at hand to show how many acres of alfalfa there are in the -state, nor can definite figures be given as to the growth of interest in -the crop and its actual acreage. When proper strains have been -developed, it seems fair to presume that alfalfa will be one of the -staple crops in Michigan. On the station grounds at the agricultural -college fields of alfalfa have been continuously maintained from 1897 to -1904. There are fields here sown in 1903 bearing their three crops each -year, yielding from 5 to 7 tons of dry hay annually per acre. There has -been some difficulty in getting pure and vigorous seed. - - -MINNESOTA - -_Prof. W. M. Liggett, Director Minnesota experiment station._--Our -experience with alfalfa has extended over 12 or 15 years. In the early -days of this station, it was not very successfully grown. During the -past eight or ten years, however, the changes in soil due to manures and -cultivation and the discovery of several varieties of alfalfa which -appear to be hardy, have made it possible to grow it successfully in -nearly every part of the state. For the past five years we have cut -three crops of alfalfa hay, yielding from 4 to 5¹⁄₂ tons per acre each -year. With the land properly prepared and some attention given to -seeding at the right time, there is no difficulty in growing it on the -state farm. Occasionally it will winterkill. We were unfortunate enough -to have a heavy, driving rain during March of the present year which -froze as it fell and smothered the alfalfa crop. We are not discouraged, -however, as the clover crop in southeastern Minnesota was killed at the -same time and from the same cause. We regard alfalfa just as sure as Red -clover. It is sometimes a little difficult to get a stand under careless -methods of farming. With the land nicely prepared and with a good supply -of humus in such condition that the plant food is readily available, -strong, vigorous growth and a good stand can be secured during any -normal year. We have alfalfa growing at the northwest sub-station at -Crookston, and in several localities in the northwestern part of the -state, where even clover is not supposed to grow. The outlook at the -present time for this crop is very bright. Dairymen, swine raisers and -sheep men unite in praising its merits as stock food. - - -MISSOURI - -_Prof. M. F. Miller, Agronomist, Missouri experiment station._--Alfalfa -is being grown with success on various types of soil, although many -soils are not well adapted to its growth. A knowledge of the -peculiarities of the plant will ultimately make it possible to extend -Its culture to most soil types of the state. Liberal manuring is the key -to successful culture on upland soils. The manure may be applied before -plowing and also as frequent top-dressings. The value of the crop as a -feed and its high yield, where favorable conditions are supplied, make -it a particularly desirable one to grow, at least in small areas, on -farms where mixed fanning or dairy farming is practiced. While alfalfa -makes a most nutritious pasture crop, it does not lend itself well to -pasturing unless certain precautions are taken. Where it is grown for -hay, difficulty is often experienced in harvesting the first, and -sometimes other cuttings, on account of wet weather. The silo may be -used in such cases. The stiff subsoils of the state are responsible for -most failures reported, because it requires some knowledge of the -methods of handling the crop to make it succeed under such conditions. -Alfalfa is not adapted to our soils, liming, manuring or drainage being -necessary to prepare such for the crop. If sown on upland soils that -have never grown alfalfa or Sweet clover, it is benefited by -inoculation. On bottom lands or lands that are very fertile, inoculation -has little or no effect. The surest and often the simplest means of -inoculation is by means of inoculated soil. The cultures prepared for -seed inoculation have in many cases given excellent results, but they -are still in the experimental stage and some skill is required to -handle them properly. The best preparation of the seedbed is that which -allows of an early plowing and the use of a harrow every time a crust -forms or weeds start before time to sow the seed. The seedbed should be -much like that for wheat--loose above but firm below. The best time to -sow in this state is between the middle of August and the middle of -September, the last week in August usually giving best results. The -amount of seed to sow is between 15 and 20 pounds, depending upon the -quality and the character of the soil. It is best sown without a nurse -crop. It must be clipped frequently the first and sometimes the second -season, especially on soils to which it is not well adapted. It should -usually be cut when the lower leaves begin to turn yellow. - - -MONTANA - -_Alfred Rasicot, Deer Lodge county._--Alfalfa is the most valuable crop -that is raised in Idaho or Utah for hay, growing on any kind of land but -that which is low and wet, yielding five to seven tons of hay to the -acre, and providing excellent feed for all kinds of farm animals. For -about 20 years I have grown from 20 to 50 acres on second bottom and -upland of heavy clay soil, with gravel below and water at a depth -varying from 16 to 100 feet on different localities. We irrigate from -streams, flooding the land and turning the water off as soon as the land -has been all covered, applying once for the first cutting and twice for -each succeeding cutting, whenever the ground is dry. The first year on -new land requires fully one-third more water than is needed afterward. -Before seeding, the ground should be mellow, then harrowed with the -back part of the harrow or brushed, and seeded with 15 to 20 pounds to -the acre, between the first and middle of April. The plant will usually -run out the weeds, and on that account no special treatment is needed. -The first season will produce a small crop of hay, but no good seed. -Unless water is allowed to freeze on the land, alfalfa does not -winterkill here, and at two or three years of age it is at its best, -continuing vigorous for 10, 20 or 30 years without seeding. The first -cutting of the season yields about 2¹⁄₂ to 3 tons to the acre, the -second about 2 to 2¹⁄₂, and the third 1 to 1¹⁄₂ tons. The hay is cut -when the plant has been in bloom 8 or 10 days, allowed to lie for 24 to -36 hours, and treated as Red clover is. The second crop is always the -best for seed here. The cost in the stack, on $25 land, irrigation -costing 50 to 75 cents an acre, is $2 a ton. To put this into 100-pound -bales costs $2.50 a ton. On the ground it sells for $3 to $5 a ton, -while the seed brings $3, $4 and $5 a bushel. An ordinary yield of seed -is 300 pounds to the acre, and this is threshed with the same machine -used for grain, at a cost of about one-fourth of the seed. The straw is -worth about one-fourth as much as the hay. We consider alfalfa hay, for -cattle, sheep, and hogs, far superior to clover, but for horses timothy -is best. It will keep steers and sheep fat all winter, providing they -are under shelter, and is excellent for milch cows. The pasture for -swine and cattle is far better than clover, and for work horses and -sheep it is good, but not the best for horses that are driven fast. -Cattle will bloat about as they do on Red clover when turned onto it -after rain, dew, or frost. To rid land of a stand of alfalfa is very -difficult, requiring four stout horses with a very sharp plow to turn it -over, but as a green manure it has about the same effect as Red clover, -producing two or three extra crops afterwards. - - -NEBRASKA - -_Olmstead & Olmstead, Furnas county._--Alfalfa, while excellent for all -other stock, is preeminently the feed for hogs. Its early appearance, -its wonderfully rapid growth, its nutritious properties, its perennial -nature (keeping green until about December), its resistance to drouth, -its wonderful fecundity, and, lastly, its adaptability as a dry feed, -make it, in our opinion, the most profitable crop that can be grown. Ten -acres of alfalfa will pasture 150 head of hogs, and give them abundance. -From the 15th of March, or at most not later than the 15th of April, -hogs and cattle can be turned on pasture, and kept there until snow -flies. On first bottoms, six tons per acre can be depended upon as a -fair, average yield, while many fields this year have made as high as -eight. On divide, or high land, where it has been tested for three -years, it averages about two to four tons per acre, but this land gives -the best returns for seed, not growing too rank. Since we have been -investigating and gathering information on this subject, we have had -reported to us a yield as high as eight bushels of seed per acre, and -quite a number as high as nine, and some eleven. Six bushels an acre on -a good stand is an average yield, while some will fall below that. The -seed has never sold here below $4 per bushel. Last year and this, all -seed grown in this part of the country sold readily at $5 per bushel, -and for the next five years will probably not go lower than $3. One crop -of seed and two of hay are the average on low land, and one crop less of -hay on high land. The threshed hay is nearly as good for feed as the -unthreshed. There is no waste in feeding this hay, and horses are -especially fond of the coarse stems. It stands our winters remarkably -well, so far, coming through in excellent condition. There is no stock -but eats alfalfa hay as well or better than clover or timothy. Young -colts and calves will winter in fine condition on this hay, with little -or no grain. If the last cutting is allowed to stand, with a growth from -six to eight inches, horses and cattle will graze on it through the -winter, the same as on Red clover, doing equally as well. Now, as to the -other side. Will this clover grow in all latitudes and longitudes as -well as Red clover? We think it doubtful. It requires a dry, porous -soil, in which there is no hardpan nor too much clay, and it does not -like too much water. It does well where the soil is somewhat sandy, its -roots penetrating to a depth of from 15 to 25 feet, thus drawing its -nutrition from various strata of soil. What else against it? If cattle -are turned on after a rain, when it is wet, or dew is on, they often -bloat and die; but if turned on in the spring, and kept on continuously, -have little danger of gorging themselves or bloating. No other stock is -adversely affected by it. This is all that can be honestly said against -alfalfa, and this is obviated by a little care by the farmer, while the -many good things said about it must certainly recommend it to the -intelligent husbandman. Thus we can enumerate: First, its certainty as a -crop; second, its enormous yield; third, its excellent pasturage -qualities; fourth, its nutritious qualities, being equally good green or -dry; fifth, its yield and price of seed, which is threshed with an -ordinary grain separator; sixth, its tremendously rapid growth during -the summer season. There are many more attributes that can be credited -to alfalfa. - -_W. O. Thompson, Lincoln county._--I have had 20 years’ experience with -alfalfa, on second bottom and upland. The upland has a clay subsoil; the -second bottom soil is three feet deep, underlaid with a bed of sand and -gravel. Abundant water is found from 8 to 23 feet from the surface. If -dry soil is found, it is the first three feet below the surface. Land -should be tilled several years before seeding, in order to perfectly -subdue the sod. Use about 16 pounds of seed per acre, and prepare the -ground the same as for wheat, sowing in the spring. The first crop will -be nearly all weeds; cut and haul these off the ground. The second crop -will produce about one ton of hay per acre. Alfalfa is liable to -winterkill if the winter is warm and dry. I irrigate from a stream two -or three times during the season, with sufficient water to flood all the -ground. The first year the ground is soft and porous, and twice the -water is required as in the following years. From three to four crops -are raised during the season, yielding from 1¹⁄₂ to 2 tons each cutting, -or from five to six tons per acre in one season. Cut when in bloom for -hay, and let the seed ripen before cutting for seed, using either the -first or second crop for this seed. When cutting for seed, it should be -pitched out of the way of the mower after each round; then let it dry -before stacking, but not enough for the leaves to fall off when -handled. Stack in the ordinary way, but be sure the hay is thoroughly -dry in the shock before stacking. It is more liable to get moldy in the -barn than in the stack. About $2 per ton will cover all expenses of -raising, on land worth $50 per acre. The expense of baling is about -$1.50 per ton, 100-pound bales being preferred. It should not be baled -until perfectly dry in the stack. About six bushels per acre is the -average yield of seed, and it costs about 75 cents per bushel to thresh -and clean. A clover huller is the most satisfactory for threshing -alfalfa. The hay has sold here at $3 to $10 per ton, averaging $6. The -seed has brought from $3 to $10 per bushel averaging $5. One acre of -alfalfa will raise 35 hogs, with the aid of a little grain. Horses -thrive on it, but it is unsafe for sheep and cattle. Animals which chew -the cud will bloat if pastured on alfalfa. The only way to prevent it is -to keep them from the pasture. The best way to cure it is to insert a -tube into the paunch, to allow the gas to escape. As to the longevity of -the plant, I call to mind a patch sown in 1873, on upland, and it is -still growing. Alfalfa attains its best growth in about two years. I do -not think it can be profitably raised on high, arid ground, without -irrigation. Hogs can be wintered on alfalfa hay and a very little grain, -and cattle can be fattened for the home market, but it produces softer -flesh, and they could not be shipped a great distance in the best -condition. - -_Richard Stolley, Hall county._--In reading the farm papers I see many -articles about seeding alfalfa, but have failed to see anything in the -line of advice regarding a sure way to kill it, if it has to be done. We -have had alfalfa on our place as long as I can remember--nearly thirty -years. At first it was a small piece, just for experiment’s sake. -Finally we sowed about nine acres on good soil and had it well manured -before sowing. The result was immense crops, as high as four cuttings; -and, really, the worst feature was to harvest the crop so often, since -it came just as regularly as clock-work. It actually stood in the way of -alfalfa, for I asked one of our neighbors, who had very little hay, why -he did not sow alfalfa, and all he could answer was: “Well, I have to -harvest it too often and I haven’t the time to do it.” - -We did not sow more of it until we got more improved methods of handling -it, and we have had as high as fifty to sixty acres on a 160-acre farm -here at home. Some fields run out in about ten years. Our plan is to -then plow it up. The first thing you learn is to have a very sharp plow, -and it must have a strong cutter bolted to the share, being long enough -to reach well through the sod. Then if you have three good horses you -are fixed out. A riding plow that we tried was thrown out too easily or -pulled too hard. Others had the same experience, and the old reliable -fourteen or sixteen-inch walking plow fills the bill best. We plowed -some of it quite early in the spring and after harvesting the oats we -had a wonderful stand on the field in the fall. All the inconvenience -the clover had was to take a little time to start work at the crown and -start sprout at the other end; that is the root end. - -I do not know of any other plant that is not a weed that has this -peculiarity. Planting corn on alfalfa sod cannot work well, because the -roots are so tough that no cultivator will be able to cut them, and -since burning does not make any difference, it only has a tendency to -start roots and sprouts at both ends at the same time. This is, of -course, only possible in a wet year. Now, we tried late plowing in the -spring; that is, let the clover get up to about six or eight inches. We -had a chain on the plow and disked and harrowed it well, and to kill it -sure, put in millet to smother it. We intended to raise seed from the -millet, but the crop got too heavy and we cut it for hay. After putting -it up I saw very little alfalfa signs and went home contented that all -was dead. - -Some nice rains came on and soon I noticed from our house, since I did -not go to that corner of the farm in between, that all of it was green -again, and sure enough, there was a comparatively good stand and the -sprouts showed quite a bit of vigor. This surprised me. I had no time to -plow right away and having a large harvest of bottom hay, I did not go -to the field for three weeks, and when I saw it again it was just about -ready to cut. I actually did cut and harvest it and it was well worth -the time it took us to do the work. The next plowing and disking, of -course, thinned it out, and especially as dry weather came just right to -assist in killing it. - -All this made it clear to my mind that we did not find the right time to -plow alfalfa, so the next time I tried it still later; in fact, it was -almost in bloom, and, being a wet year, there was little difference in -the result. This year I waited the second time for the alfalfa to come -up a foot high before plowing it back and drilled in sweet corn, and now -I can hardly see any difference on parts of the field. - - -NEW HAMPSHIRE - -_Prof. Frederick W. Taylor, Agriculturist New Hampshire experiment -station._--We have tried to secure a stand of alfalfa for four -consecutive seasons, but so far our efforts have been unsuccessful. -Various types of soil, from a heavy boulder clay to a light sandy loam, -have been tried, and, contrary to our expectations, the most promising -crop was on the heavy clay soil. Our chief difficulty has been in having -the alfalfa keep ahead of the weeds and in getting a uniform catch that -would withstand our winters. From one-fourth to one-half of the plants -have usually wintered over in good condition and made a vigorous growth -the next season, but there has not been enough of them to say that we -have made a success with alfalfa. We have largely eliminated the seed -question by plowing the ground early and keeping it harrowed until about -the middle of July, when it is sown. Our experience seems to indicate -that an application of lime is beneficial, if not absolutely necessary, -in this section and we have accordingly been using it at the rate of a -ton to the acre. We have also tried inoculation with the various -cultures, but in no case have any benefits been observed. So far as we -know, there have been no successful attempts to grow alfalfa on a medium -or large scale in this state, although several farmers in the -Connecticut river valley have reported success on some areas of an acre -or less. When we more thoroughly understand the plant, and the -conditions necessary for its growth, we believe it can be grown upon -some of our soils. - - -NEW JERSEY - -_Dr. E. B. Voorhees, Director New Jersey experiment station._--The -farmers of the state have manifested much interest in the growing of -alfalfa, and many experimental plots have been seeded in the past two or -three years. In order to obtain accurate information as to the methods -employed, and the results obtained, a circular letter was sent out -during the past summer to 140 growers. Detailed replies were obtained -from 101 growers. Of these there were 57 distributed over 15 counties, -which showed the successful establishment of the crop. The soils upon -which these successful crops are growing vary widely, both in their -physical and chemical character, ranging from a light, sandy loam, with -sandy subsoil, to a medium heavy clay, with compact clay subsoil, which -indicates clearly that success does not depend so much upon the -character of the soil as upon the methods of seeding, fertilization and -after-treatment, though the most successful stands were, as a rule, -obtained upon sandy soils, overlying a reasonably open subsoil. -Twenty-seven growers had a more or less satisfactory experience, while -17 were absolute failures. A study of the reports of failures shows that -in most instances they were due to lack of observation of the methods -recommended for the seeding and care of the crop, which experience at -the station showed to be essential for success. In most cases the land -was imperfectly prepared; in many an insufficient amount of fertilizer -or manure was applied. In many cases, too little seed was used; in -others the date of seeding was contrary to all recommendations, or the -crop was not clipped often, and thus choked out by weeds. In many -instances, where lime had not been used for many years, none was applied -at the time of seeding. In the case of those having more or less -success, the recommendations were not fully observed or soil conditions -were imperfect. - -_D. C. Lewis of Middlesex county_, in the summer of 1903 seeded about -1¹⁄₄ acres with alfalfa, observing closely all of the recommendations of -the experiment station in reference to seeding, but did not inoculate -the soil. The seed germinated well, and the crop grew nicely during the -fall, but entirely disappeared later. In 1904, the same area, after an -oat crop was grown, was seeded again, on August 10. The soil is a clay -loam, with a clay subsoil, and in a good state of fertility. The land -had been previously in grass and corn. The corn was manured and the -alfalfa area well limed previous to seeding in 1903. The seed was at the -rate of about 25 pounds, and at time of seeding 800 pounds of Mapes’ -fertilizer and an extra bag of high-grade sulphate of potash were -applied, and the field was inoculated with about 300 pounds of soil, -taken from the old alfalfa patch at the experiment station. The seed -germinated well, and made a rapid and large fall growth and passed the -winter successfully. The yield per acre was about three tons of hay for -the first cutting. This experiment is strikingly suggestive in showing -the importance of soil inoculation, for while inoculation is not -apparently essential in all cases, it would seem that where soils have -not been heavily manured that this point should be carefully observed. - -_J. P. Nelson of Monmouth county_ has had a very successful experience -in the growth of alfalfa, since he has observed all of the -recommendations made as to methods of seeding and after-treatment. The -following is a description of his method and the results obtained from a -seeding made August 10, 1904. The surface soil is a medium clay loam, -underlaid with a gravelly clay subsoil. The crops preceding were grass -and corn, and the manures used were barnyard manure and 600 pounds per -acre of ground bone. The corn preceding the alfalfa was limed at the -rate of 1,000 pounds per acre, and 1,400 pounds per acre were applied -just previous to the seeding of alfalfa. Thirty pounds of seed were used -per acre, and lightly harrowed in and the land rolled. The germination -and early growth were good, and the first crop was harvested June 1, -1905. The yield was two big, two-horse loads of cured hay per acre. - -_E. T. Gill of Camden county_ has a sandy loam, underlaid by a subsoil -varying from sand to clay. He has an area of 24 acres, ranging from two -to six years in age. The first seeding of about two acres is still -growing profitable crops, though not uniform in stand. The later -seedings show an excellent stand and large and profitable crops are -annually harvested. Usually four cuts are made each year, which are used -both for soiling and for hay, with splendid results. The practice on -this farm is to top-dress with manure during the winter at the rate of -about eight tons per acre. Mr. Gill’s experience leads him to believe -that the stand is often injured, particularly during the first year, by -allowing the crop to reach too great maturity and then cutting when the -plants are just beginning to bloom, and leaving a stubble of at least -three inches. Mr. Gill did not inoculate the seed or soil at his first -seeding, but did follow this practice with recent seedings, and believes -it to be a wise precaution, especially on soils that have not been -previously heavily manured. - - -NEW MEXICO - -_Thomas J. Clark, Grant county._--I have had 15 years’ experience with -alfalfa on first and second bottom land with gravel soil, dry to within -four feet of water, which is reached at a depth of 15 feet. I irrigate -from the Gila river, and my alfalfa, which is 14 years old, is as good -to-day as at any time since it was sown. The seed is sown as turnip seed -is. I plow the land thoroughly, harrow it over smoothly, then sow the -seed in March, and harrow lightly once. Then the water is turned on, and -the ground will remain moist until the seeds sprout. After the alfalfa -is six inches high, I cut it to make it spread and destroy all the large -weeds; and there may be two cuttings of hay that same season. Water will -not injure the plant unless it stands on it in low places. Stagnant -water standing on the plant, or mineral water so near the surface that -the roots reach it, will kill the plant, but it is not liable to injury -from winter frost. After the first season there are three or four crops, -the first being usually chosen for seed and not irrigated. For hay it is -cut when in full bloom, and, if the sun is shining, should cure 24 hours -if in June, or 20 in July or August, before raking, and then 30 hours in -the cock. It must be thoroughly cured before stacking, and then will -not mold. The most convenient bales weigh 90 to 100 pounds, and the -cost of preparing them is $2 a ton. The total cost of hay in the stack -is about $3 a ton, and the average yield about three tons to the acre -each year. When the burs turn brown the seed is harvested, and when well -cured should be stacked in a dry place. An average yield is 500 to 600 -pounds to the acre, and it sells for $4 a bushel. The hay makes -excellent feed for farm animals, keeping them in good condition the year -around without grain. The alfalfa pasturage is better for swine and -cattle than clover, and yields more largely; sheep may be kept on it to -advantage also. A good acre will keep five grown hogs in excellent -condition, but will not make them fat. If they are taken up in October -and fed about 40 days on grain, they will be marketable. Cattle on the -pasture sometimes bloat, but I have had 100 head of cows and calves on -mine for two months, and have had no trouble. The irrigated alfalfa is -better than that grown on land that requires no water. The straw is -about equal to oat straw, but not half so good as the alfalfa hay. To -rid land of the plant requires a strong team and a sharp 10-inch plow. -The roots rot at once after plowing, and the land is well fertilized for -other crops. In my opinion, alfalfa is the best forage plant known in -this western country. It is most easily raised, produces the largest -yield, commands the best price, and can be planted at any time from -March to September. Land seeded to it is the most valuable, and the -farmer who has plenty of it is the most prosperous. Farming here cannot -be a success without it, and I take pleasure in recommending it to my -brother farmers. It will lie dormant all summer if it is dry, and with -fall rains revive and make good pasture. It is the earliest plant up in -the spring, and the last to stay green in the fall. In other words, it -is the best of all. - -_Hartman & Weil, San Miguel county._--We have been dealers in alfalfa -hay for eight years, and have some small fields of our own. This is on -both bottom and upland. In the bottom, the subsoil is sand and bowlders; -on the upland, stiff bluish clay, and in some places blue limestone. -Well water is reached on the bottom land at a depth of 8 to 10 feet, -through soil moist all the way; on the upland, it is necessary to dig 60 -to 100 feet, and, beginning two or four feet from the surface, the -ground is dry. When seed is planted in the spring, the soil should be -well pulverized, moist, and warm, that the seed may germinate quickly. -It should not be put in deeper than 1¹⁄₂ inches, and may be planted in -May or June, or any time in the spring after the soil becomes warm. In -our climate, it is best to sow about 30 pounds of good seed to the acre, -besides just enough oats to shade the ground and protect the young -alfalfa from the hot sun. Once well started, it will kill out all weeds, -and does not winterkill here. We irrigate from streams. Alfalfa should -not be irrigated when quite young, for, if the small plant is covered -with soil, when watered, it will not come up again, but, after it gets a -good start, it is not easily killed. There should be about two -irrigations to each crop harvested, or ordinarily, six in a season. The -heavier the stand the more water is needed. We have three cuttings, -yielding about 3,000 pounds of cured hay per acre per cutting. When the -plant is fairly well in bloom, it is cut, and is best when cured under -large sheds or in the shade. If left until dry where cut, the foliage -will fall off and pulverize. It is best to stack in narrow ricks, as it -is liable to heat if put in large stacks, and it should be salted -liberally when stacked. The last cutting is preferred for seed, which is -mowed when most of the pods are well matured; in this case only two -crops should be cut during the year. The straw makes good feed for stock -in winter, having about half the value of the hay. Each irrigation costs -about 50 cents per acre, and the total cost of hay in the stack is about -$3.50 per ton. Baling costs $1.25 per ton, with 50 cents additional for -wire. The common yield of seed is 6 to 10 bushels from the acre. -“Reeves” clover huller will thresh about 12 bushels per hour. The price -of hay, baled, in New Mexico has averaged about $8 per ton for the past -eight years and seed for the same time about $5 per bushel. Our -experience indicates that alfalfa hay is a more nutritious food for farm -animals than either clover or timothy. We have found nothing better to -feed cattle for market; it makes good, solid beef, and they take on fat -very fast. The pasturage is excellent for swine, horses, and cattle. If -overfed, animals will sometimes bloat on rank alfalfa, especially if -unaccustomed to it. About the third year from seeding, the plant has -acquired its best yield. It is difficult to rid land of it, as plowing -under is sometimes beneficial, making it come up thicker than before. -Success with it on high prairies depends upon the precipitation during -the growing season. We think four inches of rainfall during the time of -its growth would make a fair crop of hay; or 8 to 12 inches from May to -September, for two or three cuttings. - - -NEW YORK - -_Isaac Zoller, Montgomery county_, writes in a recent article in -_American Agriculturist_:--“In the spring of 1889, I sowed my first ten -acres of alfalfa. The field was reseeded for the second time in April, -1905. I now have 25 acres. The land was plowed in the fall after being -manured. In the spring, generally during the last two weeks of April, -the surface for five or six inches is made extra fine and 25 to 30 -pounds of the best seed are sown with three pecks of oats as a nurse -crop. By June 1 the oats are cut three inches above ground and again -every four weeks during the first season. The following June during the -third week the first crop is cut, usually yielding about three tons. The -second cutting generally comes during the last week in July when 1¹⁄₂ -tons is an average. By September, the third cutting is made, but I -generally let sheep browse it, but not very close or after it is frozen. -The season of 1905 it was cut and allowed to wilt, raked with a side -delivery rake, allowed to lie a couple of hours, then rolled over with -the rake and drawn to the barn. Formerly I used to shock it and allow it -to sweat, but this is too much work. I feed it to sheep and find it -equal, if not superior to Red clover. To be at its best it must be cut -when about one-tenth of the blossoms are out. The soil in which my -alfalfa grows is a heavy, clay loam and rolling, but is underdrained. -The soil here is apt to heave three or four inches during winter and -injure clover. But where properly drained, this does not occur on -alfalfa fields. I am certain alfalfa can be more extensively and -economically grown here.” - -_H. B. Fullerton, Long Island._--As an experiment, an acre of scrub-oak, -waste land was cleared and the brush and stumps burned in November, -1905. About 2,000 pounds of wood ashes were applied and turned under at -once. In April about ten tons of manure was applied so that each quarter -acre would have about 2,500 pounds. Three weeks later 400 pounds of -kainit were applied and ten days later 200 pounds of Canada wood ashes. -Since the soil, when tested, still showed acidity, about 400 pounds more -of ashes were spread, chiefly because of its high percentage of -vegetable lime, 40 per cent. The lime of ashes on Long Island soils is -considered superior to that of stone or shells. Early in June the test -acre, being considered ready, was finally prepared and sown to alfalfa -in two directions crosswise over each quarter acre. In less than a week -the plants appeared evenly on all four plots. Showery weather continued -from before seeding until well into June. One of the quarter acre plots -sown with a dressing of 150 pounds of soil from an old alfalfa field at -Fayetteville, N. Y., early took the lead in color and vigor and about -six weeks from sowing could be readily distinguished at a distance by -the richness of its foliage. It was also in flower before the other -plots, one of which was uninoculated, the other two sown with inoculated -seed. Unfavorable weather prevented cutting until mid-August when all -four plots were cut, the few large weeds were removed and the alfalfa -weighed. The plot inoculated with alfalfa soil yielded 1673 green pounds -which cured to 701 dry; the uninoculated plot yielded 726 green and 313 -dry, the other two plots sown with inoculated seed 416 and 377 pounds -green or 189 and 168 pounds dry respectively. These results point -favorably to inoculating the soil from old alfalfa fields. - -[Illustration: =Sweet Clover= (_Melilotus alba_.) - -The seed of Sweet clover is an occasional adulterant of alfalfa. The -plant is much taller than any of the species of Medicago. The flowers -are white and borne in rows on elongated flower stems] - -[Illustration: =Yellow Trefoil= (_Medicago lupulina_.) - -A common adulterant of alfalfa. The leaflets are broader and more -clover-like than alfalfa. The flowers are yellow and sparsely scattered -in small, hop-like clusters at tips of long flower stems] - - -NORTH CAROLINA - -_Dr. B. W. Kilgore, Director North Carolina experiment -station._--Alfalfa has been grown in a small way in this state, -particularly in the section around Hillsboro, for 75 to 100 years. The -soil there has become well inoculated and there are some small areas of -good alfalfa grown there. There has been for a number of years past -considerable interest in the production of this crop, but its -cultivation has not been very successful. On our experiment farms in -different sections of the state it has done reasonably well, and there -have been put out quite a large number of small areas during the last -few years, which give hopes of success with the crop. When some further -details regarding the time and method for seeding and treatment, -especially to prevent crab grass and weeds from getting the upper hand -of the crop during the summer have been worked out, we believe that -alfalfa will be grown to quite a large extent and be a most valuable -addition to our present forage crops. - - -NORTH DAKOTA - -_Prof. J. H. Shepperd, Dean of the North Dakota Agricultural -college._--Alfalfa has not been given a thorough trial by the people of -North Dakota, but the results secured by the experiment station indicate -that it is capable of producing paying crops here. It will yield two or -more tons of hay per acre annually and will, when sown on well drained -land, continue to live from year to year as it does in old alfalfa -districts. A little growth should be allowed to stand through the winter -season to protect the roots by catching a covering of snow over the -entire field. Our people are thoroughly awakened and encouraged by the -results secured at the experiment station, and its growth is likely to -soon be a common practice in the state. - - -OHIO - -_Prof. Charles E. Thorne, Director Ohio experiment station._--Numerous -attempts were made during the latter half of the nineteenth century to -grow alfalfa in Ohio, but so far as the knowledge of the writer goes, -that of Joseph E. Wing of Mechanicsburg was the first that could be -pronounced a decided success. Mr. Wing had seen the plant growing in the -arid region of the West, and was fortunately able to make his initial -experiments on the soil formed from the decomposing limestone gravels of -Champaign county, a soil possessing three of the indispensable -requisites for alfalfa culture. Plenty of lime, plenty of humus and good -drainage. Other farmers during recent years have attempted the culture -of this plant, and where experiments have been conducted upon suitable -soils and carried out with sufficient care and persistence, they have -been successful. Thus far the most promising alfalfa fields in the state -are to be found either in such localities as those of Mr. Wing, namely -upon the soils underlaid with limestone gravel which are found over the -western half of the state, or upon such of the river bottom lands of the -state as are above overflow and are underlaid with gravel, giving -natural drainage. The experience of Ohio growers of alfalfa has -demonstrated the following points: (1) Alfalfa must have lime. If the -soil is naturally deficient in this substance it must be added -artificially. (2) Alfalfa must have humus. It is idle to attempt to grow -it upon a soil which has been worn so thin that it will not grow a good -crop of corn. Such soils must be manured before they will successfully -produce alfalfa. In this respect it is very different from the plant -which it so closely resembles in habit of growth, Sweet clover. (3) -Alfalfa will not grow with wet feet, yet it is a great consumer of -water, and the soil must be of such a character as to hold large stores -of water without being water logged. Hence the value of bottom lands -naturally underdrained by strata of gravel a few feet below the surface. -(4) When lime, humus and drainage are supplied, the bacterial organisms -through which atmospheric nitrogen is assimilated will gradually appear -upon the alfalfa roots, but their growth may be hastened by inoculating -the land with soil from a field in which alfalfa or Sweet clover has -previously grown. The experiment station has been most successful in -getting a stand of alfalfa where the land was thoroughly prepared in the -spring and then harrowed every week or ten days until July or August. -The seed was then sown and harrowed in. By this means the weed seeds -were germinated and destroyed before the alfalfa was sown. - - -OKLAHOMA - -_Agricultural experiment station_: Bul. 71, by Prof. F. C. Burtis and L. -A. Moorhouse.--This crop is being grown in every county in Oklahoma and -in some sections, a fair acreage is present. From many fields as large -yields are obtained as are produced any place else in the United States -without irrigation. On the uplands in Oklahoma, as elsewhere, the -returns vary. Where the subsoil is hard and impervious, the yields are -quite meager under unfavorable climatic conditions and the crop needs -considerable nursing such as disking and harrowing, to keep the crab -grass from taking the field in a few years. On these upland soils with -the hardpan subsoils which grow cowpeas to perfection, the farmer who is -not willing to inform himself about proper methods and to give his -alfalfa fields much attention and care, should grow cowpeas instead. But -as has been indicated before, alfalfa is being grown on such soil -successfully and profitably, but only in small areas. - -The soil of the experiment station farm at Stillwater, on which the -following yields of alfalfa were obtained is a clay loam underlaid by a -very stiff, impervious subsoil of a hardpan nature. - -Yields of Field F, containing about four acres; cured hay for the -season. - -1902--1.76 tons hay per acre in 5 cuttings. - -1903--1.23 tons hay per acre in 5 cuttings. - -1904--3.13 tons hay per acre in 4 cuttings. - -1905--3.13 tons hay per acre in 5 cuttings. - -Average for four years, 2.31 tons of hay per acre. - -In the spring of 1904 the field received an application of barnyard -manure at the rate of 15 tons per acre. Every season, the field was -disked from three to four times and harrowed. During 1903 and 1904, web -worms damaged the crop. - -Yields of Plats 1, 2, 3, and 4, Field E. The plats are on similar soil -to that of Field F and have been handled about the same as that field. -The yield is given for all the plats together. - -1902--2.67 tons hay per acre. - -1903--3.27 tons hay per acre. - -1904--3.31 tons hay per acre. - -Average for three years, 3.08 tons of hay per acre. - -Yield of Field H, containing about five acres: - -1902--4.20 tons hay per acre in 5 cuttings. - -1903--2.88 tons hay per acre in 5 cuttings. - -1904--2.12 tons hay per acre in 5 cuttings. - -1905--2.27 tons hay per acre in 5 cuttings. - -Average for four years 2.69 tons per acre. - -Barnyard manure was applied to this field in 1900-’01, and it was given -the same treatment as was received by the fields previously mentioned. -Other results will be given in a later bulletin, but those cited give a -fair idea of what may be expected on upland where the subsoil is a -hardpan. The hay from all the fields mentioned above, obtained in the -last two or three cuttings, contained varying amounts of crab grass, so -the yields given are not all alfalfa. Since the above results were -obtained, some good bottom land has been acquired by the experiment -station and alfalfa has already been seeded on some of it. In a few -years, yields that will look better when compared with those of our best -alfalfa growers can probably be reported. The following summary will be -helpful. - -1. Alfalfa is a great and valuable crop for Oklahoma, where there are as -good alfalfa soils as are found in the world and as good yields are -produced as anywhere. - -2. The acreage of alfalfa should be greatly increased in Oklahoma. There -are but few farms here that do not contain a few acres at least that -will grow the crop profitably. - -3. Select the best soil on the farm for the first trial, and try only a -few acres at first. - -4. Decide a year or two in advance of seeding time what field is to be -seeded to alfalfa, and follow the best methods of cropping and -preparation known. - -5. Buy only the very best seed. Get a sample and test it before buying -and purchase your seed a year before you expect to sow it unless you are -sure you can get good seed just when you want it. - -6. Twenty pounds of good seed to the acre is plenty and as low as twelve -pounds is all that is used by many. - -7. Seed either with the drill or by broadcasting. Conditions must be -right for either to succeed. - -8. Fall seeding and spring seeding are both followed in Oklahoma with -good success. If the conditions are not right at seeding time, or turn -out unfavorable after seeding, or while the plants are small, either may -fail. - -9. As a rule fall seeding is preferable in Oklahoma, particularly on the -less adapted soils. - -10. Take due care in harvesting the hay that half its value is not lost -at that time. - -11. Don’t give up trying to raise the crop because you fail in your -first attempt or even if the failure continues to the second and third -attempts. Successful alfalfa raisers have stated that in instances they -have failed as many as five times in getting certain fields started to -alfalfa, and after they did get the field seeded, the returns from it -would justify reseeding ten times if necessary. - - -OREGON - -_George W. Dunn, Jackson county._--For eight years I have grown 60 acres -of alfalfa on bottom land with granite loam soil, gravelly and sandy. -The plant does not grow well unless the soil is deep and well drained, -and will not grow where there is a clay subsoil or stagnant water. Well -water is reached at a depth of 10 to 12 feet, and the soil, unless -cultivated or irrigated, becomes dry and hard in the summer. As soon as -the heavy frosts in the spring are over, seed may be put in, after -thorough, deep plowing and pulverizing. I always sow broadcast, 20 to 25 -pounds to the acre, then harrow in and clod-mash or roll. Water for -irrigation is obtained from streams, and it should be applied as quickly -as possible, the best way being to flood the whole field for a few days, -and then take all the water off, as standing water will kill the plant -quicker than anything else. The quantity of water needed the first and -later years does not seem to differ materially. As soon as the young -alfalfa is high enough, it should be mowed. This kills the weeds, and -gives better chance for growth. Then I cut for hay, but it does not pay -much the first year. If land is well drained, the plant lives through -the winter easily, and by the second or third year is at its best. In -ground adapted to its growth, it is almost everlasting, unless killed by -gophers or hogs. After the first season, there are three or four -cuttings, averaging each from one to three tons to the acre. For hay, I -cut as soon as it begins to bloom freely, ordinarily raking the next -day, and cocking the third, in this dry atmosphere. The stack does not -shed water well, and the best plan is to put in a good barn. The hay -bales well, and the size of bale is simply a matter of opinion or -convenience, there being no difference in the keeping quality. The -second crop is the one for seed, as the first always contains more or -less foul stuff, and the third will not mature seed. I dispose of hay at -from $4 to $10 a ton--the same price as other hay in the same -market--and it is in great demand for milch cows. The seed costs me from -10 to 16 cents a pound. The straw makes good feed, but of course is not -so good as the hay. For feeding farm animals, alfalfa is superior to -clover or timothy. We produce as fine beef here, by feeding alfalfa -alone, as can be done in Kansas or elsewhere by feeding ordinary hay and -corn. The pasturage is profitable and satisfactory for horses and sheep, -and for hogs it is unsurpassed--they will grow and fatten on it without -other food. Cattle on the pasture sometimes bloat, but not when they are -used to it, or when it is dry. I keep about 150 head, and in eight years -have lost but two. The roots will grow to, but not into, water, and -thrive in deep gravelly or sandy soil. The plant sends down a large, -straight taproot, which, as it approaches water, branches and spreads -out into numerous small rootlets. - - -PENNSYLVANIA - -_Prof. George C. Watson, Pennsylvania experiment station._--The -experiment station has received many letters requesting information -pertaining to the growth and cultivation of alfalfa. From these -communications it has been learned that many farmers have attempted to -grow alfalfa on land that is not at all well suited for this purpose, -and consequently, many failures have resulted. The first attempts to -grow alfalfa were made wholly by spring seeding, which, in most -instances, has proved quite unsatisfactory. As alfalfa starts slowly and -exists as a small plant for a considerable length of time, the weeds -have an abundant opportunity to germinate and outgrow the more delicate -alfalfa plants. Whatever conditions favor the growth of weeds, -particularly in the early part of the growing season, materially -increase the risk of failure with alfalfa. Largely on account of the -weeds and grass, late in summer or fall seeding has been most -satisfactory. While a drouth at this time may seriously interfere with -germination, yet the injury from insufficient moisture is not likely to -be so great as that from a rank growth of weeds earlier in the season. -Land that has been cultivated for a few weeks during the summer may be -sown to alfalfa in August or September with comparatively little danger -from annual weeds, which are so troublesome in spring seeding. Land that -is infested with noxious perennial weeds and grass would not, of course, -be in suitable condition for seeding after a few weeks of cultivation, -no matter how thorough it may be. The most tenacious grasses and weeds, -like Canada thistles and quack grass, should be given at least a few -months of thorough cultivation before seeding. Experiments indicate that -alfalfa will not survive continued alternate freezing and thawing if the -soil contains very much moisture. Land that is at all inclined to -“heave” is not suited for the growth of this crop. The soil of the -station farm, upon which most of these experiments have been made, is a -porous limestone clay underlaid with limestone rocks which afford -abundant drainage through the fissures. Notwithstanding the fact that -the soil is naturally well drained, in some places it seems to hold too -much water to afford a most congenial home for alfalfa. This crop will -endure severe freezing, provided the soil is sufficiently dry so that it -has no tendency to “heave.” Land upon which clover will “heave” -undoubtedly contains too much moisture for alfalfa. It seems to be able -to endure the rigors of winter better than clover, provided the moisture -conditions are favorable. - - -RHODE ISLAND - -_Dr. H. J. Wheeler, Director Rhode Island experiment station._--Alfalfa -culture in Rhode Island is a very uncertain undertaking. A few persons -have occasionally met with some success, but the majority of experiments -have been failures because: (1) Most of the soil in this state is too -deficient in carbonate of lime to enable alfalfa to succeed even if -other conditions are favorable. (2) It is occasionally almost destroyed -by clover leaf spot. (3) The general culture of alfalfa in this state -cannot be made successful even if all of the conditions aside from the -climate are made favorable. Farther north where the snow falls before -the ground freezes and remains until the opening of spring, this plant -can be grown successfully. Farther south where the changes are less -severe, the same is true. In Colorado and other places where irrigation -is practiced, if it is desired to get rid of a field of alfalfa, the -ground is flooded after it is frozen and the freezing of water over the -surface accomplishes what is desired. In Rhode Island it not -infrequently happens that we have in winter a considerable fall of snow. -A warm southeasterly rain may fall which transforms it very shortly to -slush. In a few hours the temperature may drop to zero or below. -Sometimes rain which falls freezes over the surface, forming a solid -coating. These conditions in this state destroy the alfalfa just as the -flooding does it in the West, and while alfalfa may be carried -successfully through the winter, if the season is favorable, I believe -the chances are too great to make it a promising crop. Last winter we -carried some through successfully and have done so once or twice before, -but my advice to Rhode Island farmers is to grow the clovers, soy beans, -and possibly cowpeas rather than attempt to embark in growing alfalfa -until it has been definitely shown by experiment that the climate and -other conditions can be successfully combated. - - -SOUTH CAROLINA - -_Prof. C. L. Newman, Agriculturist South Carolina experiment -station._--We have, to some extent, had remarkable success with alfalfa. -On the old exposition grounds at Charleston, over six tons of cured hay -were cut last year on one acre. This year one cutting afforded 4.15 -pounds of cured hay. In the upper portion of the state, alfalfa is grown -with considerably greater difficulty. At Anderson, the county seat of -Anderson county, there is an alfalfa field that was sown 65 years ago -and it still affords some return. - - -SOUTH DAKOTA - -_Prof. James W. Wilson, Director South Dakota experiment -station._--Experience shows that a good stand of alfalfa can be secured, -if ordinary care be exercised in preparing the seedbed. It is not a -plant that does well when sowed on the native prairie sod after disking. -On the college farm during the spring of 1904 a small area of native sod -was disked five times; part was sowed to alfalfa and part to clover. The -next spring only a few scattering plants of alfalfa could be found, -while a fair stand of clover was secured. Good results have been -obtained with both the Turkestan and the American varieties. Neither has -winterkilled during the time, and the yield per acre in each case has -been good. A field sowed to Turkestan alfalfa in 1899 at Highmore Forage -testing station still produces good yields. The quantity of seed to sow -per acre depends largely on the way it is sowed, requiring more if -broadcast than when drilled. We suggest 20 pounds when drilled and 25 -pounds when sown broadcast. The time to sow depends upon the condition -of tilth. Contrary to what is sometimes supposed, alfalfa does not -require a wet soil, but one that is well drained, with a loose subsoil. -The plants will stand cutting several times during the first year. This -method should be resorted to when sown on a field badly infested with -weeds, in order to secure a stand of alfalfa. In 1902 a field rented by -the college farm, which had been cropped for several years and become -foul with mustard, was sowed to alfalfa. It was cut three times during -the growing season, and the result was that in 1903 there was -practically no mustard to be seen, but a first class stand of alfalfa -was obtained. - -_George E. McEathron of Beadle county_ writes: “I consider alfalfa and -clover culture practicable in this locality. I do not think it necessary -to inoculate soil for these crops in South Dakota. After the first year -I cut my alfalfa fields three times and secured an average yield of five -tons to the acre. I have never allowed seed to mature, always cutting -for hay. No trouble from winterkilling has been noticed.” - -_O. S. Jones of Lake county_ writes: “I began raising alfalfa on my -place two miles west of Madison five years ago. The soil is a dark loam -with some sand in it, lays level and has a sand and gravel subsoil. -Water is obtained at a depth of eight to ten feet. I have used both the -Turkestan and the common alfalfa, and I consider the latter the better -for my land, as it grows ranker, with more leaf and better color than -the former. I have had the best success in sowing about the first of -May, without a nurse crop. On one four-acre piece seeded three years -ago, I pastured 150 to 175 head of hogs and spring pigs for two months -this year and also cut between 15 and 16 tons of hay in two cuttings. I -sowed 12 acres this year in two six-acre fields, that have been -pastured, continually, with 175 head of hogs and pigs and ten head of -young cattle since early in July, and a great deal of it matured seed. -I could have cut these pieces in August with profit had I so desired, -and then had plenty of growth to have kept the stock in pasture, -changing pastures each week.” - -_N. O. P. Synoground of Brown county_ writes: “I consider alfalfa and -clover culture practicable in this locality. I also consider the -Turkestan variety superior to the home-grown varieties. Cut the field -twice the first year and received four tons per acre. I have never cut -any for seed. These crops have not winterkilled here.” - - -TENNESSEE - -_Prof. H. A. Morgan, Director Tennessee experiment station._--Alfalfa -has been known in Tennessee for many years, but not until the general -failure of Red clover, due to one or more species of _Colletotrichum_, -and the search for substitutes for Red clover, were any serious efforts -made to grow alfalfa in this state. On alluvial land along the -Mississippi river in west Tennessee, in what is known as the Central -Basin section of middle Tennessee, and on the richer lands of east -Tennessee, alfalfa has been grown very successfully, and each year large -areas are being sown to this clover. Mr. L. Donaldson, of Lake county, -gives the following relative to the preparation of soil, etc., for -alfalfa in the alluvial area of west Tennessee: “The land is plowed deep -with large moldboard breaking plows in September or about the first of -March. It is then harrowed until thoroughly pulverized, and either about -October 10 or April 1, two gallons of seed are sown, by machine or by -hand. The harrow is used for covering the seed. We have no more trouble -with the crop after seeding. The plants germinate and take root -rapidly. I have known alfalfa roots to reach a length of two feet from -the last of March to June 25. We frequently cut the crop five times per -year.” George Campbell Brown of Maury county states that he has sown -alfalfa in March using spring barley as nurse crop, and in September -with success. Land sown to alfalfa in 1901 yielded four cuttings per -year in 1902, 1903, and 1904, averaging from 16 to 18 tons per acre in -the three years. Mr. Brown uses soil for inoculating, and believes he -has gotten well-defined results from nitro-culture sent out by United -States department of agriculture. At the experiment station at -Knoxville, alfalfa has been successfully grown for many years. Heavy -applications of farmyard manure and the use of 300 pounds of acid -phosphate and 25 bushels of lime per acre invariably insures large -yields of alfalfa. Crab grass, _Panicum sanguinale_, in summer and -chickweed, _Stellaria media_, in winter are enemies to alfalfa in this -latitude. These pests should be gotten rid of by the use of clean -culture crops preparatory to the sowing of alfalfa. With plenty of -stable manure, lime, and phosphorous, artificial inoculation seems -unnecessary. Any soil of over a few feet deep may be prepared so as to -grow profitable crops of alfalfa. This preparation is much more -expensive on some soils than others. - - -TEXAS - -_Prof. B. C. Pittuck, Agriculturist of the Texas experiment -station._--Alfalfa should receive the attention of farmers in every -section of Texas where conditions are in any way favorable to its -growth. At present prices, after it is once established, a yield of one -ton of hay per acre will afford a good profit, while yields of four and -six tons, which are not unusual on favorable soils, make the investment -exceedingly profitable. The present demand is much greater than the -supply and bids fair to increase in greater proportion during the coming -year. Its increasing popularity with the farmer is based upon sound -business principles, as its value does not consist solely in its market -price, but in its value as food for his stock and food for his soil. It -will furnish green pasturage and hay of the best quality without -materially impoverishing the soil. Many farmers refrain from planting -alfalfa because some neighbor, far or near, planted on land apparently -similar to theirs, and it died of the disease commonly known as cotton -root rot. It would be far better for each farmer to test his own land, -for alfalfa may be affected by this fungus at one place and entirely -unaffected on ground only a few rods away. The value of an alfalfa -meadow is such as to warrant a farmer in giving considerable time, labor -and study to the plant, before deciding that natural conditions prohibit -him from successfully growing it. - - -UTAH - -_Aaron F. Farr, Jr., Cache county._--Fifteen years ago, when I began -raising alfalfa, I had 40 acres, and for the past eight years I have had -about 135 acres, all on heavy clay soil, containing considerable salt, -and underlaid with very stiff, white clay. The soil is dry on top, but -below a depth of 2¹⁄₂ feet is damp, and salty water is found at a depth -of eight feet. Small grain was raised on the new land for one or two -years, after which the ground was plowed in the fall, and again in the -spring, harrowed, and well pulverized. Seed was put in, 12 pounds to the -acre, two inches deep, with a press drill. The time for sowing is about -the same as for corn, in April or May. If there is plenty of water, it -is well to sow the alfalfa with oats, and then cut for hay the first -season. Some of my land is irrigated, by flooding, three times in the -season, by means of a large canal from the river. The more water is -used, the more alfalfa there will be, but the hay from unirrigated land -is less sappy than that which has been watered. The plant is not liable -to winterkill here, and on sandy loam and gravel soils the full yield is -attained the second year, while, on heavy soils, it requires three or -four years. I have some that is 20 years old, and cannot say how long it -will yet continue vigorous. There is difficulty in ridding land of the -plant, unless it is flooded in the winter time. We have usually two -cuttings each season, with an average yield for each of about two tons -to the acre, although some parts of the land yield four tons at each -cutting. I have found it more profitable to raise seed than hay, and for -this purpose I prefer the second cutting, using the self-rake, allowing -the alfalfa to lie in small piles until dry, then hauling, stacking, and -threshing, the same as wheat. The hay lies about 22 hours in the swath, -24 hours in the windrow, and one or two days in the cock, after which it -is stacked in large ricks with a horse fork. If properly cured, it will -not mold or heat, as it will if damp. On land valued at $30 an acre, the -cost of the alfalfa, in the stack, is about $1.50 a ton. The cost of -baling is about $2 a ton, the popular weight for bales being about 100 -pounds. An average yield of seed is from 300 to 500 pounds to the acre. -Threshers take one-sixth toll, and can thresh about 100 bushels in a -day. The common machinery saves only about two-thirds of the seed. A -bushel of seed weighs more than 60 pounds, and we put 175 pounds in a -two-bushel seamless sack. The average selling price of the seed is about -$3.50 a bushel. I have one piece of land, containing 60 acres, not -irrigated, valued at $30 an acre, from which, for ten years, I have cut -one crop of hay, and one of seed, and realized an annual net profit of -$1000 cash. As compared with clover and timothy for feeding farm -animals, my opinion is that alfalfa will fatten quicker, but will not go -so far. The pasturage is profitable and satisfactory for horses and -sheep; for hogs, one acre of it is as good as 2¹⁄₂ of Red clover, and -for cattle, one acre is as good as two of clover, provided the land is -dry. On wet land, the clover is better for cattle, and, as to bloating, -the danger is just the same from the two plants. In my opinion, the -plant will do well on side-hills, where the drainage is good, if the -land is plowed deep, and the seed drilled in two inches deep and rolled -with a heavy roller. Once started, the plant lives almost forever, on -any soil, unless the wrong kind of a winter strikes it. I have an -alfalfa root, taken up in digging a well, that is 21 feet long. The -roots of alfalfa are sure to find the water, if anywhere at all within -reasonable reach. - -_John Jones, Utah county._--I have raised alfalfa 20 years, and now have -250 acres, mostly on sandy loam upland; have some on bottom land, where -it grows too rank for seed. The subsoil is light clay, with water from -15 to 20 feet from the surface. On land with hardpan subsoil, it -declines after a few years, unless irrigated often. In digging for -water, we find the subsoil begins to get dry at about 18 inches, and -continues quite dry for 8 or 10 feet; then moisture increases until -water is reached. We prepare ground by plowing in the fall, drag very -fine in the spring, and sow as early as the season will permit, in order -to catch the spring rains, using 20 to 25 pounds of seed per acre. Our -first cutting is made about June 20, and is a little weedy, but there -are fewer weeds in later cuttings. We get about two tons the first -cutting, if the stand is good, and about the same the other cuttings -that year; have no trouble here about winterkilling; standing water is -injurious to the plant. Here alfalfa on uplands is watered three or four -times each season; some land needs only one or two floodings, while -other lower lands have no irrigation. After getting a good start from -the seed, we begin watering about May 1, from small mountain streams. -The first year requires water about every week; after that, once a month -is sufficient. For hay, we begin cutting with the first bloom, obtaining -2 to 2¹⁄₂ tons from the first cutting, about 2 the second, and from 1 to -1¹⁄₄ the third cutting; let it lie about two days before hauling to -stack, being careful not to stack too green. For seed, begin cutting -when seed is ripe, the second crop being considered best. The -grasshoppers have been troubling the second crop to some extent, and we -have on that account been cutting the first crop for seed, using a -reaper and separating with a threshing machine. On a basis of 7 per cent -interest on $30 per acre with five tons of hay per acre each year, it -has cost about $1.55 per ton to raise alfalfa. We estimate $1 per ton -for cutting and stacking, and 60 cents per acre for water tax. It costs -$2.25 per ton for baling, 100 to 125-pound bale, the size having no -effect as to the keeping of properly cured hay. From 8 to 10 bushels is -a fair average seed yield, the cost of threshing and cleaning being -about 40 cents per bushel. Baled hay is worth (free on board) about -$6.50, and loose, about $4 per ton; seed sells for about 7 cents per -pound. Alfalfa hay is preferable to timothy or clover, ton for ton, for -feeding without grain; with grain, our liverymen prefer timothy. We find -alfalfa with grain equal to timothy for draft horses, but for drivers, -timothy is preferred. Alfalfa is considered better than clover by our -hog raisers; it makes good pasturage for horses, and is better than Red -clover for cattle. If cattle are kept continually on the alfalfa, they -are not very likely to bloat; the trouble arises from turning hungry -animals on it. We use a gag, made of a stick about three inches in -diameter, to force the mouth open, but sometimes have to make an opening -in the paunch with a knife. Irrigation seems to improve the quantity -without increasing the quality. The early cut hay has at least 20 per -cent more value than the straw from the seed crop; we have had very good -results from feeding the straw, as it always contains more or less seed. -Alfalfa sown on clay soil, with hardpan subsoil, gradually dies out -after two or three years; also when water is near the surface; when the -roots reach water too near by, the plant dies. Sown on good sandy loam, -it reaches its best yield about the second year; on heavier soils, -about the third year. We have alfalfa 20 years old, as vigorous and good -to yield as when started. It is preferable to clover for turning under, -as the large roots make more manure, and the tops are much heavier. We -grow alfalfa on our uplands without irrigation, but it requires two or -three years to get a start; the first year, it makes a growth of 8 or 10 -inches, and wilts; second year, it grows a little taller, thickens up -somewhat, and then, apparently, dies; the third year, it gains in height -and strength, and yields a good crop, or even two crops, according to -the subsoil. If the subsoil is hardpan, I would not predict the result -as worth the effort. I do not see how Utah would get along without -alfalfa. I have 100 acres, from which are cut from 2 to 2¹⁄₂ tons of hay -per acre, and from 800 to 1300 bushels of seed each year, and it has not -been irrigated for 15 years. Last year the seed yield was 968 bushels, -and the grasshoppers damaged it considerably; the seed brought 10 cents -per pound on the track here. We make good beef from the hay alone, and -have done so on the threshed straw. - - -VERMONT - -_Prof. J. L. Hill, Director Vermont experiment station_, in Bulletin No. -114 says that popular interest in the question of alfalfa culture was -never so great in Vermont as it is today. The result of 56 trials at as -many Vermont points are summarized: as, permanent successes, 12; -temporary successes, ten; success at outset, eight; seeming success, -five; questionable, seven; failure, 14. Thirty-six per cent of the -trials may fairly be said to have been a success, and 68 per cent of -these were located in the Champlain valley. Only 10 of the 56 alfalfa -growers appear to have sown more than an acre. It should be noted that -success with a fraction of an acre does not of necessity imply that an -equal degree of success would be attained with plantings on larger -areas. The preeminence of the Champlain valley in alfalfa growing seems -to be due to the character of the farming in that section and to the -nature of its soil. Failures may generally be ascribed to one or more of -several unfavorable soil or weather conditions, to weeds, to disease, or -to seed which either is inferior or from an unsuitable source. There -seems to be a sufficient proportion of successes in the state to justify -the encouragement of further trials. It is equally clear, however, that -anyone planting alfalfa for the first time should not only give careful -heed to the needs of the plant and to the methods of culture outlined -later, but should begin by experimenting in a small way. The most -significant thing developed by the analysis of the returns to date is -that the crop seems to succeed best in the Champlain valley. Why is -this? Probably one factor, not apparent on the surface, is that the men -who have succeeded in Addison county are largely sheep breeders who -value the crop so highly in their special industry that they are willing -to give more attention to its culture than are the dairy farmers. It -should be recalled in this connection, however, that the evidence -reviewed indicates practical success with alfalfa at Plattsburgh and in -adjacent Canadian territory. Without pressing the matter to a definite -conclusion, we consider two things to be at least strongly suggested -and worthy to be borne in mind in connection with further experiments -in alfalfa culture: (1) The chances of permanent success with it are -probably better in Vermont than they are farther south and east in New -England. This may be in part attributable to soil conditions and in part -to climate, the latter being associated with greater remoteness from the -seashore. (2) In Vermont the chance of success in its culture seem to be -greater in the Champlain valley than elsewhere. The reasons suggested in -the above may apply in explanation of this. The nature of the geological -formations is also worthy of consideration. It seems not unlikely that -the relative richness of the soil of this region in lime and potash and -its other chemical and physical characters make it especially favorable -to alfalfa growing. - - -VIRGINIA - -_Prof. Andrew M. Soule, Director Virginia experiment station._--In -Bulletin No. 154 from this station we summarize as follows: Alfalfa is -being grown with success in various parts of Virginia and the -indications are that it will do well in humid climates, providing the -soil is brought into suitable condition for its growth. Alfalfa has many -useful qualities. It yields from three to five tons of cured hay in a -year, and remains on the land for a long period of time when once well -established. It grows best on deep, open, porous soils well supplied -with vegetable matter. The roots of alfalfa are from five to 15 feet in -length, enabling it to draw much of its food from the subsoil. It thus -enriches the land for succeeding crops and opens it up to the action of -air and water. Land intended for alfalfa should be made very rich by -plowing under legumes or applying farmyard manure. In addition, from 200 -to 400 pounds of acid phosphate, Thomas slag or bone meal, with 100 -pounds of muriate of potash, should be applied per acre. If the land is -acid, which may be determined by testing with blue litmus paper, an -application of 25 bushels of lime should be made. It is generally best -to use the unslaked lime, which may be applied with a manure spreader, a -grain drill or broadcasted over the land and covered with a harrow. Land -intended for alfalfa should be carefully cultivated in hoed crops or -summer fallowed so as to destroy weeds, the worst enemy of alfalfa -during the early stages of its growth. Alfalfa may be seeded either fall -or spring. When fall sown it can be cut for hay the next summer, -whereas, the spring sown crop should be clipped several times during the -first season and left to mulch the ground. Alfalfa seed is sometimes -infested with dodder, which grows as a parasite on the plant. The -orange-yellow threadlike appearance of dodder gives warning of its -presence, and it can be easily destroyed by cutting and burning if taken -at the outset. Alfalfa is frequently attacked by leaf spot in the -eastern states. The disease is easily recognized as its name indicates, -and persistent clipping will generally eradicate it. The amount of seed -to sow varies, but 20 pounds will answer as a rule. Alfalfa should be -cut for hay when coming into bloom, as it yields more nutrients per acre -at that time, and succeeding crops yield better. Alfalfa is not more -difficult to make into hay than is Red clover. It may also be pastured -to advantage, though there is some danger of bloat, and, owing to the -high feeding value of the hay, it is doubtful whether it would be good -practice to graze it in the East, except with hogs. Alfalfa being a -legume has the power of assimilating atmospheric nitrogen under certain -conditions. It is thus a soil improver. Farmers cannot afford to -purchase nitrogen when they can gather it from the air through the -action of leguminous plants. Alfalfa often fails, even though all the -physical conditions seem favorable, because the bacteria which live in -the nodules on its roots are not present in the soil. This deficiency -may be supplied by getting soil from an old alfalfa field or from fields -where Sweet clover or Bur clover previously grew with success, or by -means of artificial cultures. The Virginia experiment station, realizing -the importance of alfalfa to Virginia farmers and the difficulty of -securing inoculated soil at a reasonable cost, has undertaken the -preparation of pure cultures which it is distributing at a cost of 25 -cents per acre. Soil inoculation through artificial cultures is still in -its experimental stages, but it seems wise that Virginia farmers should -be given an opportunity to test these cultures at a moderate cost and -determine once for all their real value under field conditions. The high -feeding value of alfalfa has long been recognized. It is admirably -adapted to the needs of all classes of live stock. It has been fed with -profit to horses, cattle, sheep and swine. It can be so utilized as to -largely take the place of wheat bran and other expensive concentrates. -The plats of alfalfa seeded in the spring of 1904, both on the station -farm and on Brush mountain, show the importance of soil inoculation and -the advantages of using lime and phosphates on land intended for this -crop. From a general review of the situation it appears that there is no -reason why alfalfa, under good management, should not succeed in many -parts of Virginia. - - -WASHINGTON - -_F. M. Lowden, Walla Walla county._--In 22 years I have had experience -with from 1 to 400 acres of alfalfa, on bottom, second bottom, and -upland, with clay, sand and loam soils, with subsoil of hardpan and -strong alkali from 18 to 20 inches below the surface, and water at depth -of 18 to 20 feet. The soil is seldom moist all the way down, the dry -soil beginning five to eight feet below the surface and ending within -two or three feet of the water. After plowing deep and harrowing well, I -sow in the spring, late enough to miss frost, 25 to 30 pounds to the -acre; then cover, in light soil from one to two inches, and in clay soil -less. During the first season it should be mowed so that the weeds -cannot choke it out, and then there will be about a ton of hay to the -acre to be cut in August. I irrigate with water from streams thoroughly -in the spring and after each cutting, using enough water to soak the -ground for a few days. New land requires more water than old, but the -quantity needed is about the same every year. At three years the plant -attains its best yields, and with proper care will not need reseeding. -There are usually three cuttings each season, with an average of 1¹⁄₂ -tons to the acre, and I have known five cuttings. It is mowed for hay -when it commences to bloom, and for seed any time before the frost -comes, the second crop being best for the latter use. The seed is -mowed, threshed and dried as any other clover is. The hay should lie -before raking until it is thoroughly wilted, then cure in cock two or -three days. We stack in ricks 16 to 18 feet wide and any desired height -or length. The hay will not heat if well cured before stacking. On land -valued at $40 an acre, the cost of hay in the stack is about $1.50, and -to bale this costs $2 a ton. The yield of seed is 5 to 10 bushels to the -acre, and it sells for $4.50 to $7.50 a bushel, while hay brings $4, -formerly $8. For threshing, a clover huller is better than the common -machine. The alfalfa straw is of double the value of any other straw for -feeding. The hay grown without irrigation is not so rank as that which -is watered, and is consequently more valuable as a feed; any is better -than timothy, and equal to clover for cattle, but the seed must form in -it to make it valuable for working horses. After cutting three crops in -a season, I usually use the field in the fall for pasturing cattle, and -it furnishes nearly double the feed that Red clover will, acre for acre. -For hogs the pasturage is much better than clover, and I sow with blue -grass and clover, on rich ground. For horses and sheep the pasturage is -better than clover, but causes bloat in the same way. It is difficult to -plow up alfalfa, but continued cultivation will rid land of it when -desired. - -_Oscar Drumheller, Walla Walla county._--Have grown alfalfa for six -years, and now have 150 acres, part on bottom, some on clay, and a part -on slightly sandy soil; subsoil is a thin layer of hardpan; below that a -sort of gumbo, and underneath that a white clay. Abundant water is found -at 10 to 18 feet, moist soil reaching to the water. Our land requires no -special preparation for alfalfa; manure is spread on weak spots; we sow -20 pounds of seed broadcast, about May 1st, and harrow once to cover. -Some cut it the first year; some years the crop is not worth touching -for either hay or seed; there is no trouble here from winterkilling. We -never irrigate. The first cutting yields about three tons, the second, -about two and one-half tons, the third, about two tons, and the fourth, -one ton. For hay, cutting should begin when in full bloom; we never cut -for seed, but the first crop is best. The season must govern the time -for curing, whether two days or 10; it will heat and mold if not dry -before stacking; no choice in size of stacks. On land worth $40 per -acre, it costs about $1.50 per ton to grow and put alfalfa in the stack; -baling costs $1.50 to $2 per ton, the bales weighing 150 pounds. Alfalfa -hay sold for $12 per ton in 1890, and is now selling for $2.50; seed -sells for 10 to 12 cents per pound. For cattle, alfalfa hay leads all -others; for work animals, it is a little “washy,” but we use nothing -else; for pasturing hogs, one acre of alfalfa is worth two of clover, -and it is found satisfactory for horses and sheep; alfalfa will pasture -more cattle than clover, but is more productive of bloat, especially on -windy days. The best remedy for bloat is to get the foreparts of the -animal on high ground and splash cold water on its back; when all else -fails, apply the knife to the left side. We prefer unirrigated hay, -which seems firmer and less “washy.” Alfalfa reaches its best yields -about the third year, and will last 20 years; it is not difficult to -kill; it is similar to Red clover for turning under for green manure. -All cattle here are fed on alfalfa hay alone. I have fed cattle in open -yards in December, January, and February, and made them gain 160 pounds -per steer in three months. If beef on the Pacific coast would bring 3 -cents, there would be no better investment than alfalfa. In 1892, we -sold hay for $60 per acre; to-day it will not sell for a third of that. - - -WEST VIRGINIA - -_Prof. J. H. Stewart, Director West Virginia experiment station._--Very -little alfalfa is grown in West Virginia. Within the past four or five -years some stimulus has been given it by current publications, etc., but -extensive growth has not obtained as yet. The attempts to grow it on our -small farm at the experiment station have in fact been failures. -However, there are a few small tracts that have done well in portions of -the state. Hon. T. B. Davis of Mineral county and E. W. McNeil of Hardy -county are persons who have been successful. I am frank to say, however, -that the experiences and practice thus far in this state have not proven -it to be a dependable crop. - - -WISCONSIN - -_Prof. R. A. More, Agronomist Wisconsin experiment station._--Alfalfa is -receiving great attention in Wisconsin and dairymen have been quick to -perceive its value. Through the efforts of the experiment station, -alfalfa seed has been disseminated in every county in the state and -crops have been grown which were highly satisfactory. Experiments at the -station show that as much protein can be secured from one acre of -alfalfa as from three acres of clover, nine acres of timothy or 12 of -Brome grass. In this experiment four cuttings of alfalfa were secured, -two cuttings of clover and one cutting each of timothy and Brome grass. -Alfalfa seed should have its viability tested before the seed is -purchased. Seed that does not give a germination test of 90 per cent or -above should be rejected. We advise selecting high, well-drained land -inclined to be rolling. A clay loam on a gravelly subsoil is best suited -for growths of alfalfa. Sow in spring as soon as ground works well, -putting on about twice the cultivation necessary for cereal crops. Where -land is inclined to be weedy, sow three pecks of barley per acre as a -nurse crop. If ground is free from weeds, sow alfalfa seed without nurse -crop, using at least 20 pounds of seed per acre. Several hundred members -of the Wisconsin experiment association have been carrying on tests with -alfalfa since 1903, and practically all have succeeded in getting good -fields started. Bacteria-laden soil has been shipped to members of the -experiment association, who are making tests, with directions for -scattering on a small plot, in order to get the proper bacteria -established in the soil. The sowing of some alfalfa seed with clover for -the purpose of getting a few alfalfa plants established as bacteria -distributers has been followed with good success. These lands when later -sown to alfalfa result in good catches. Alfalfa should be cut when -one-tenth is in blossom, and not later than the first week in September. -We look for greatly increased acreage from year to year as our farmers -learn the value of this great forage plant. - -_W. D. Hoard, Editor Hoard’s Dairyman._--It is now twelve years since -the editor of the Dairyman commenced the practical study of alfalfa. A -good deal of experience as well as observation of the practices of -others has come to him in that time. He does not feel that he has -exhausted the subject by any means, but there are a few things which he -believes to be well settled principles. They may be enumerated as -follows: - -1. The richer the soil the better. - -2. A carefully prepared seed bed. Too much pains cannot be had here. - -3. Good seed; every farmer should test the seed he expects to sow. A -great amount of failure has come from weak, infertile seed. - -4. Side hills where the rain or melted snow in March will readily run -off and thus prevent an ice cap from sudden freezing is much the -preferable location. - -5. Cutting it each time as soon as the first blossoms appear will always -bring a stronger succeeding growth for the next crop. - -6. Never pasture it unless you wish to weaken it so it will break up -more easily the next spring. - -7. Always cure it in the cock with hay caps if possible. The quality of -the hay is greatly superior to that which is cured in the sun or -windrow. - -The nutritive quality and value of alfalfa as well as clover may be -greatly lessened and the owner not be aware of it, by allowing too much -sunshine on the hay. To throw away the feeding value of any food by -unwise methods of handling or curing is very poor economy. For this -reason farmers should make a closer study than they do as to the right -time of cutting alfalfa and clover and the right way of curing it. Too -many farmers look only at the labor involved. They want to do it quick. -Hence they wait before cutting till the stalks are overripe so they will -dry quickly and then they use hay loaders that will take up the hay in -the swath overdried and the goodness evaporated out of it by the action -of the sun. All this time they are never giving a moment’s thought to -the great question: “What kind of food is this going to make for my cows -next winter?” The best of study and care should be given to this matter -of curing alfalfa and clover. Nicely cured clover is worth half as much -as bran as a milk producing food, and alfalfa is worth fully as much. We -have demonstrated in our own stables that with 35 pounds of corn -ensilage and 10 pounds of nice alfalfa hay a day, we can save half of -the grain ration that would be necessary if we fed other hay. - -8. As a renewer and renovator of fertility we know of nothing that will -equal alfalfa. The present year is proving that in Wisconsin most -convincingly. Nearly all of the old alfalfa, as well as clover seeding, -was killed by an ice storm in March. That compelled the farmers to plow -up these old fields and plant them to corn, potatoes or some sowed crop. -The greater growth of crops on these old alfalfa fields is universally -noticed. The farmers of the country have not half begun to know the -wonderful value of the alfalfa plant. For just this reason they should -not be discouraged in trying to grow it. - -_Dr. A. S. Alexander, Wisconsin experiment station._--After all that has -been written and said in favor of the more general cultivation of -alfalfa, it seems strange to find much prejudice and ignorance still -existing among farmers relative to the merits of this magnificent forage -plant. When we ask a farmer why he has not seeded an area of land to -alfalfa he almost invariably answers by another question; viz., “Do you -think I can make it catch?” And it is this doubt so generally existent -that keeps down the area of alfalfa, and hence the profits of many a man -who could make it a wonderful success. - -To our mind there has been too much alleged scientific talk relative to -“nitrification,” “root nodules” and “soil inoculation” for alfalfa; so -much of it, in fact, as a fad, that the average farmer has become -possessed of the erroneous idea that it requires a deeply scientific -knowledge of the subject and much trouble of various sorts to secure a -stand of alfalfa. For this reason many a man has dismissed the subject -from his mind and deemed it best to think most of the simple things -within his ken, but in so doing he has missed some of the greatest boons -and blessings possible in his business. Alfalfa will grow on most any -good land that will produce clover and that is in no way waterlogged. -There is little mystery in its successful cultivation, and the “tricks” -of the business are easily learned from the literature mentioned. We -believe it to be one of the very finest of forage plants and a grand -adjunct in the feeding of hogs; a crop in fact that is bound to become -common and that should at once be given far more general attention than -is now the case. It is neither difficult to obtain a catch nor make the -crop a success if the farmer will but try and in starting follow the -simple instructions now published by many of the agricultural experiment -stations. - - -WYOMING - -_Asil T. Wilson, Fremont county._--For six years I have been raising -alfalfa on first-bench upland, a gravelly loam, with a cement subsoil of -a lime nature. Water is found at 40 feet; moist soil is encountered at a -depth of 12 feet from the surface, and continues until water is reached. -A depth of one inch for seeding is best. Sow in early spring. If alfalfa -and timothy are sown together, sow 20 pounds of the former to 6 of the -latter; if alone, 20 pounds of alfalfa. No weeds will trouble; cut -either crop for hay; the first crop for seed. Watering after the last -cutting will cause alfalfa to winterkill. Irrigate as early as possible, -if dry, and whenever getting dry, also about five days before cutting; -the soil being moist after cutting, the next crop will start up quickly. -The larger the quantity of water used the better if it runs off quickly. -We obtain water from a stream. After the first year I cut twice, -obtaining two tons each cutting. I cut for hay just as it comes into -bloom, as it is not so woody and more leaves are saved. The first -cutting is preferable for seed. When cutting for seed, wait until the -curls get well filled and black; put it into cocks and thresh when dry. -Alfalfa hay should be cut one day and raked the next; then cock, and let -it stand two or three days before stacking; by so doing all the leaves -are saved, and it cures in the cock so there is no danger of molding in -the stack. My alfalfa in stack costs $1 per ton, from land valued at $5 -per acre. Irrigation costs 20 cents per acre. Baling costs $3 per ton, -150 pounds in bale. Seed yields six bushels per acre; threshing costs $1 -per bushel. Prices for hay have ranged from $5 to $10 per ton, and $7 -per bushel for seed. Alfalfa hay is equal to clover or timothy for farm -animals. For swine pasturage it is better than clover; one acre will -pasture 10 head of swine, gaining one pound per head each day. For -horses and sheep it is good, and as good for cattle as clover, but -dangerous, as they bloat and die. The best yields on upland are from -three to five years after seeding; and, if watered at proper intervals, -it will last 20 years. There is no difficulty in ridding land of -alfalfa; plow it late in the fall, level it down and mark it, then -water, and let it freeze up in winter. Alfalfa for green manure is as -good or better than Red clover. Without plenty of rain, I would not -recommend growing alfalfa in any locality. Seed raised from alfalfa thin -on the ground is best. - -_John H. Gordon, Laramie county._--During the past 10 years, I have had -from 10 to 200 acres of alfalfa on second bottom and upland, with sandy -loam from two inches to six feet deep, and below this soft rock, water -being found at depths of 20 to 200 feet. I plow or break the soil the -first year, and raise a crop of wheat or oats; the second year plow -deep, sow about half a crop of oats, and when this is well harrowed, sow -20 pounds of alfalfa seed and cover it about two inches deep. To get the -best results, this seeding is done about April 1st, and there is no -trouble here with weeds. In cutting the grain, the alfalfa is cut off -too, but it does not grow tall enough for hay the first year. The plant -does not winterkill, and reaches its full yields by the third or fourth -year; I have found no necessity for reseeding any of my land. We -irrigate from streams, the quantity of water used depending on the -season. There are generally three applications of water, about six -inches each time. After the first two or three years, only about half -the quantity used at first will be needed. After the first year I cut -twice, and obtain about 1¹⁄₂ tons to the acre each time. The first crop -is best for seed, and is harvested when the top bolls are dead ripe, -raked the day after cutting, bunched for two days and then stacked, to -be threshed with the common threshing machinery, putting through twice. -Five bushels to the acre is a common yield of seed, and the cleaning and -threshing cost 50 to 75 cents a bushel. The hay is cut when the greater -part is in bloom, allowed to lie about a day before raking, cured about -three days, and then stacked, 14 to 16 feet wide, 60 feet long, and 20 -feet high. It does not seem to heat or mold here. The total cost in the -stack is about $1.50 a ton, and baling, in 100-pound bales, costs $2 a -ton. Selling price of loose hay in this section is $5 a ton, and the -seed, 10 to 12 cents per pound in the market. The straw is worth about -as much as the hay for feed. I am well satisfied with the general -results of growing alfalfa here, and am now preparing 200 acres for -seeding. Where it will grow well, it is the best forage plant ever -discovered, being good feed for cattle, hogs, sheep, fowls, and, in -fact, all animals on the farm, while as a fertilizer it cannot be -surpassed. But one cannot do anything with it if there is not sufficient -moisture to raise wheat or oats. - - - - -INDEX. - - - PAGE - Alabama, alfalfa in 16 - Alberta, alfalfa in 15 - Experiments 231 - Acclimation 8, 13, 28 - Acid soil, test for 45 - Unfavorable 44, 201 - Acreage, too great 87 - Address, Professor Spillman’s 9 - Adulterants 32, 35, 36, 37, 39, 40 - Africa, alfalfa introduced 2 - South, alfalfa in 15 - Agricultural Department bulletin 33 - Agriculture, Stover’s; hay-caps 85 - Agrostologist’s opinion 9 - Air shaft in mow 95 - Alaska, hay for 104 - Albuminoids 22 - Alfalfa fields 200 years old 5 - Alfalfa, fails “here” 51 - Description 5 - Below sea level 15 - Improves land values 204 - Origin of name 2 - Objection to 18 - Preparations 182 - Is “queen” 141 - Replaces other legumes 151 - Synonyms 4 - Alfamo 185 - Alfilaria, merits of 227, 228 - Alsike and alfalfa compared 21, 148 - Analyses, corn 22 - Seed 33 - Soil, free 64 - Vary 137 - Animals, keep off field 221 - Annual manuring 70 - Appetizer, alfalfa as an 125 - Apples and alfalfa together 224 - Arabian seed, imported 8 - Arapahoe County, Colorado 243 - Argentine Republic, alfalfa in 15 - Arizona, alfilaria in 227 - Experiments 8, 233 - Army worm 219 - Asiatic seed introduced 7 - Assimilative restrictions 134 - Avery, Prof. S., on alfamo 185 - Bacteria, cowpeas increase 48 - Humus helps 61 - In some soils 61 - In nodules 60, 198 - Introducing 46, 50, 51 - Introducing unnecessary 199 - Lacking, failure result 66 - Need nitrogen 60 - Not fertilizers 201 - On cowpeas 49 - Spread on farm 194 - Bale, hollow 105 - Bales, heating 104 - Loading 105 - Poor prices for 104 - Round 104 - Size 104 - Shipping 104 - Baling 102 - New Mexico 283 - Machine, new 105 - Space saved 105 - Barley as nurse crop 58 - Leaves weeds 59 - Bare spots restored 71 - Barn, storing 95 - Beach, C. W. 248 - Beadle County, South Dakota 300 - Beak on trefoil seed 39 - Beef, balanced ration for 135 - Cheap western 142 - Making 138 - Yield to acre 130, 131 - Bees and alfalfa 12, 175 - Belgium, alfalfa introduced 2 - Berry, J. W., storing 96 - Bindweed 219 - Blackshere, J. R., report 260 - Blake, John, experiments 233 - Bliss, D. S., report 267 - Bloat, lambs do not 172 - Preventing 110, 113, 171 - Preventing, in Kansas 111 - Professor Mayo on 116 - Remedy 115, 121, 316 - Rules to prevent 115 - Tapping for 119 - Not due to food 117 - On alfalfa pasture 109 - Bloom, cutting in 80 - Cut in 88 - Blossoming, cut before 80 - Blue grass or alfalfa for pigs 158 - Blue-grass, yields 21 - With alfalfa 111 - Botany of alfalfa 4 - Bowman, Prof. M. L., report 257 - Bran analysis 127 - And alfalfa compared 10, 79, 85, 144 - And alfalfa meal for cows 184 - Food value 132 - Sown with seed 56 - Brandon, Manitoba, yield 14 - Breaking sod hard work 195 - Breeders’ Gazette on sheep pasture 114 - Brewers’ grains and alfalfa compared 114 - British Columbia, alfalfa in 14 - Broadcast seeding 55 - Brome grass and alfalfa compared 21 - Brooks, Prof. William P., report 266 - Brown, Benjamin, report 261 - Brown County, South Dakota 302 - Brown, George Campbell, report 303 - Bruner, Prof. L., on hopper dozer 216 - Buck-horn in alfalfa seed 41 - Buckwheat bran, food value 132 - Buffum, Prof. B. C., on fertilizing value 192 - Bulletin, Alabama 232 - Farmers’, baled alfalfa 104 - Farmers’, irrigation 77 - Farmers’, alfalfa for hogs 160 - Kansas, hog raising 156 - Nebraska, soiling and pasture 123 - Nebraska, feed test 139 - New Jersey, feed values 132 - New York, fodder crops 126 - Ohio, impure seed 33 - Texas, feedstuffs 127 - Utah, cuttings 128 - Utah, irrigation 74 - Vermont 309 - Virginia 311 - Wyoming, fertilizing value 192 - Bulletins, various hay composition 75 - Buncher 87 - Burnett, Prof. E. A., dimensions of ton 229 - Burning weeds 69 - Bushel weight 31 - Butter fat, cost 150 - Butter, the marketable product 147 - Buyer to blame 41 - Buying soil, necessity of 61 - Dangers of 62 - Not necessary 61 - Cache County, Utah 304 - California, alfalfa introduced 2 - Cutting in 89 - Eleven cuttings 10 - Experiments 8, 238 - Feeding alfalfa alone 148 - Sheep fattening 205 - Camden County, New Jersey 282 - Canada, alfalfa in 14 - Time to sow 47 - Canadian Northwest yield 14 - Cannula for bloat 119 - Cape Colony, alfalfa in 15 - Capons on alfalfa 187 - Carbohydrates and fats interchangeable 135 - Function of 135 - Not replace protein 136 - In excess 136 - In hay 76 - Lacking 125 - Carbonaceous foods needed 125 - Carlyle, Prof. W. L., hay 173 - Cattle, dangers in pasture 109 - Experiences with 110 - Growing, balanced ration 135 - Young, balanced ration 135 - Pasturing 235 - Utah, fed 25 - Chase County, Kansas 260 - Champlain Valley 310 - Characteristics, seed 37 - Chick weed, destroying 303 - City use of alfalfa 187 - Clark County, Kansas 258 - Clark, Thomas J., report 283 - Clay, alfalfa on 15, 19, 17 - Climates adapted to 15 - Affects irrigation 77 - Curing in dry 87 - Arid, effect on hay 76, 88, 94 - Arid, irrigation in 73 - Humid, curing difficulties 88 - Humid, difficulties 81 - Humid, effect on hay 76 - Humid, harvesting 82 - Humid, hay-caps 85, 89 - Humid, haying in 94 - Humid, seed raising 92 - Clipping before bloom 67 - Invigorates 67 - Clothier praises alfalfa 10 - Clover, alfalfa following 50 - And alfalfa compared 20, 21, 127, 143, 146, 148, 149, 222 - Beaten on thin soil 19 - Bur, adulterant 32, 33, 40 - Bur, bacteria on 199 - Bur, everywhere 61 - Bur, seed recognized 39 - Bur, seed in alfalfa 32 - Feed value 126, 132, 145 - Hay making 83 - Hop, an adulterant 35 - Huller for threshing 91 - Pin 227 - Plowed for alfalfa 49 - Protein value 133 - Sweet, adulterants 32, 33, 40 - Sweet, bacteria 60 - Sweet, everywhere 61 - Sweet, stock reject 40 - Sweet, seed described 40 - With alfalfa 51, 112 - Clover soil, Sweet, for inoculating 60, 202 - Cocking at night 84 - Colorado, alfalfa precedes sugar beet 173 - Alfalfa in orchards 223 - Bees in 175 - Corn and alfalfa compared 132 - Cutting in 73 - Experiments 243 - Fall sowing in 53 - Feeding in 141 - Ground alfalfa for pigs 182 - Harvesting in 84 - Hay composition 76 - Hog rations 156 - Lamb feeding 173 - Losses from stacking 98 - Losses in curing 82 - Pasturing sheep 113 - Plowing alfalfa for other crops 193 - Seed 29 - Sheep fattening 205 - Siloing 102 - Value of stubble 191 - Wetted hay 81 - Colusa County, California 241 - Combustion, spontaneous, See Fire - Composition, irrigation influences 74 - Prof. Ten Eyck quoted 75 - Varies 149 - Compression, double 104 - Connecticut, experiments 247 - Cooke, Prof. W. W., corn and alfalfa 132 - Co-operative irrigation experiments 76 - Corn analysis 127 - And alfalfa compared 22, 132, 222 - Before reseeding 72 - Composition 136 - Fails 16, 17, 23 - Fed with alfalfa 125 - Feed value 132 - Fodder and alfalfa compared 148 - Fodder, feed composition 136 - Fodder, feed value 145 - Fodder, analyses 127 - Fodder, protein value 133 - Fodder, value 126 - Following alfalfa 193 - Increasing yield with alfalfa 194 - Lands, Illinois, alfalfa on 16 - Meal sown with seed 56 - Precedes alfalfa 46 - Money from acre 25 - Silage and alfalfa for cows commended 152 - Stover and alfalfa compared 148 - Unprofitable fattening food 126 - Cortes brings alfalfa to America 2 - Cottonseed, analysis 127 - Meal replaced by alfalfa 151 - Hulls, analysis 127 - Analysis 127 - Composition 137 - Cotton soils, depleted, for alfalfa 16 - Cottonwood river bottom lands 260 - Cottrell, Prof. H. M., alfalfa meal 183 - Early cutting 80 - Sowing 30 - Spontaneous combustion 98 - _Country Gentleman_, dodder 207 - Cover crop, winter before alfalfa 48 - Cowpea analysis 127 - Cowpeas, bacteria 49 - Before fall seeding 49 - Feed value 132, 145 - Increase bacteria 48 - Increase fertility 48 - Preceding alfalfa 46 - Prepare soil for alfalfa 46 - Winter cover 48 - Cows, number to acre 205 - Scrub fed in Kansas 143 - Sell farm produce 147 - Crab grass, destroying 303 - In seed 35 - Keeping down 112 - Persistent enemy 68 - Craters in center, preventing 97 - Creep, in pasturing lambs 172 - Cresceus eats alfalfa 167 - Critical time with alfalfa 73 - Crops, small 65 - Comparisons 130 - First season 65 - To introduce bacteria 50 - Crop-worn land improved 16 - Cultivation, perfect, essential 44 - Curing, Arizona 235 - Case in 93 - Difficult after rain 82 - Dry climates 87 - Hay-caps for 84 - Important agent in 93 - Improper 83 - Kansas 259 - Losses in 82, 93 - New Mexico 283 - Pennsylvania bulletin 83 - Poor method 87 - Proper 83 - Rules 89 - Stack 90 - Test 97 - Utah 304 - Washington 314 - Windrow 87 - _Cuscuta arvensis_ 42 - _Cuscuta epithymum_ 42, 207 - Cut for cows 144 - Cutting after rain 82 - Before or after irrigation 73 - Colorado 246 - Dates, Utah 78 - Difficulties in humid climate 81 - Early 21 - Early, objections 89 - Early, Professor Cottrell quoted 80 - Ensilage first 101 - First, not for seed 89 - For silo 101, 102 - Frequent 88 - In bloom 88 - Kansas 261 - Montana 271 - Number of times 89 - Rules 89 - Seed time 89 - Second, for seed 92 - Third, for seed 91 - Time 80, 82, 89 - Utah 304 - Clover and alfalfa compared 20 - Early, most protein in 81 - Nine a year 10 - Number in Alabama 231 - Number in California 242 - Relative values 127 - Six or more under irrigation 72 - Time between 24 - Two preferred 88 - _Dactylis glomerata_ with alfalfa 111 - Damp hay, storing 97 - Dampness in mow 97 - Dangers in irrigation 73 - Dangers from dampness 97 - Dairy cow, balanced ration 135 - Interests enhanced 205 - Products in South 14 - Dairies, alfalfa 26 - Dairying, alfalfa in 143 - Davis, Hon. T. B., alfalfa in West Virginia 317 - Dawley, F. E., dodder 207 - De Jarnette, J. B. experiments 241 - Deer Lodge County, Montana 271 - Defective alfalfa seed 33 - Delaware, experiments 248 - Seed for 29 - Department of Agriculture experiments 8 - Buying soil 62 - Imports Asiatic seed 7 - Hog raising 160 - Depths roots go 6 - Description of alfalfa 5 - Desert, alfalfa in Nevada 16, 17 - Dew on hay, effects 85 - Dextrin losses in hay 81 - Dickson, W. H., experiments 249 - Difficulties in growing in 1793 3 - Reduced by fall sowing 49 - Digestible matter to acre 126 - Digestive restrictions 134 - Dimensions to ton 229 - Diseased soil for inoculation 62 - Disking 70 - After freshets 44 - After turning 69 - Benefits of 71 - Each spring 70 - Fields after cutting 24 - Overcomes failure 71 - Splits crowns 57 - To kill weeds 59 - District of Columbia, yield in 14 - Distribution of alfalfa 13, 14 - Dodder, annoying enemy 206 - Cut with scythe 91 - Destroying, Alabama 232 - Eradicating 210 - Fighting 207 - In alfalfa seed 32, 35 - Virginia 311 - Most dreaded 42 - Objectionable impurity 42 - Seed described 41 - Seed not adulterant 42 - Seed removing 42, 91 - Spreading 209 - To get rid of 42 - Dodson, Prof. W. R., alfalfa for Louisiana 14 - Report 264 - Donaldson, L., report 302 - “Don’ts” 225 - Double compression 104 - Downing, Jacob, experiments 243 - Drainage necessary 18 - Drenching animals 122 - Drill seeding 55 - Favored by Spurrier 67 - Drumheller, Oscar, report 315 - “Dry land” alfalfa 29 - Dry matter in corn 22 - Drying out, danger of soil 50 - Duggar, Prof. J. F., Alabama 231 - Dunn, George W., report 295 - Dyeing with alfalfa seed 32 - Dying out 221 - Earthworms, encouraging 46 - Economy of alfalfa 151 - Of alfalfa in dairying 149 - Of balanced ration 134 - Of labor 21, 25 - Of root growth 6 - Eight cuttings in Louisiana 14 - Eighty feet to water 44 - Elements specially needed 65 - Eleven cuttings a year 10 - Elgin dairyman praises alfalfa 153 - Enemies 200 - Ensiling 270 - Kansas 151 - England, growing in 261 - Alfalfa introduced 2 - Examination of soil 64 - Example of success 17 - Exhibition stalk, large 6 - Experiment stations disfavor nurse 59 - Favor inoculation 60 - Export alfalfa hay 104 - Exports, seeds 31 - Erf, Prof. Oscar, alfalfa for cows 140 - _Erodium citcutarium_ 227 - Essentials of growing 44 - Of preparing soil 46 - Evaporation in curing 83 - In mow 97 - Failures, because not cut 69 - Causes of 220 - Due to weeds 48 - Of seed 30 - Overcome by disking 71 - Redeeming 65 - To be expected 201 - Fairchild, D. G., Arabian seed 8 - Fall sowing 49, 52, 53 - Fanning mill 91 - Fanning removes dodder 42 - Farr, Aaron F. Jr., report 304 - Fat and carbohydrates interchangeable 135 - In corn 21 - In hay 76 - Not replaceable by protein 136 - Fats in excess 136 - Lacking in alfalfa 125 - Fattening with corn unprofitable 126 - Farming, character altered 17 - _Farmers’ Assistant_ mentions alfalfa 3 - Farms, fruit, alfalfa on 17 - Feed, quality 145 - Value, fodder crops 126 - Values, various 145 - Feeding alfalfa alone 148 - Before pasturing 110 - Colorado 141 - Cows economically 152 - Economical western 142 - Experiments for milk 184 - Hogs, Nebraska 159 - Tests 138 - Tests, hog 156 - Tests, Kansas 138, 142 - Tests, Nebraska 139 - Tests, various cuttings 81 - Tests, Utah 138 - Waste in 144 - Value, Arizona 236 - Value, California 241 - Value, Colorado 247 - Value, Idaho 253 - Value, Kansas 259 - Value, Utah 305, 306 - Value, various cuttings 88 - Value, various crops 132 - Feedstuffs, analysis 126 - Fertility, best means of improving 147 - Increased by cowpeas 48 - Robbed by nurse crops 58 - Fertilization by bees 177 - Fertilizers, Alabama 231, 232 - Specially needed 65 - Fertilizing, Georgia 250 - Virginia 312 - Long Island 288 - Fescue, meadow yields 21 - _Festuca elatior_ with alfalfa 111 - Fiber in corn 22 - Fields disked after cutting 24 - Of alfalfa 200 years old 5 - Old, in South Carolina 9 - Old in West 9 - Fire for weeds 69 - Preventing 96 - Fires caused by wet hay 97 - Occur, when 98 - Professor Cottrell discusses 98 - Rare 96 - Flesh forming 11 - Flooding at critical time 73 - Effects 44 - For second crop 72 - Floor, loose preferred for storing 95 - Florida, alfalfa in 15 - Fodder corn, feed value 145 - Crops, feed value of 126 - Fodders, values of various 145 - Fort Collins lambs 173 - Foster, Prof. L., cuttings 128 - Foxtail, keeping down 112 - France, alfalfa introduced 1, 2 - Oldest fields in 5 - Seed from 32 - Fraser, W. J., feed for cows 152 - Fraud in alfalfa seed 36 - Freshet, disking after 44 - Freshets, effect 44 - Freezing effect on soil 195 - Harm from 50 - Soil for seeding 52 - Fruit farms, alfalfa on 17 - Raising, alfalfa in 223 - Fullerton, H. B., report 288 - Furnas County, Nebraska 273 - Garman, Prof. H., report 264 - Gaylord Farm Sanatorium 248 - Georgia, experiments 250 - Germ killed 27 - Germany, seed from 32 - Germinability, storing impairs 30 - Germination, conditions influencing 57 - Test seed for 28 - Gila River irrigation 234, 283 - Ginther, C. M., report 254 - Gill, E. T., report 282 - Gluten meal, feed composition 137 - Replaced 151 - Go-devil 87, 95 - Gophers injure alfalfa 212 - Grades and grading hay 105 - Graham, Thomas C., experiments 235 - Grain and alfalfa compared 161 - Encourages weeds 59 - Grange meeting at Mr. Worker’s 18 - Grant County, New Mexico 283 - Grasses and alfalfa compared 21 - Grass, destroying by fire 69 - Pin 227 - Preceding alfalfa 50 - Protein value 133 - Grasses in pastures 116 - With alfalfa 111, 113 - Grasshoppers 216 - Gravel, alfalfa on 15, 18 - Greece, alfalfa taken to 1 - Grinding, time and power required 184 - Growth after cutting 21 - Delayed by cold water 73 - From imported seed 30 - Gumbo, soil, alfalfa succeeds 17 - Habitat of alfalfa 1 - Influence 28 - Habits altered by locality 28 - Farm, changed by alfalfa 181 - Handling hay 89 - Little advisable 94 - Hanna, S. C., bloat 111 - Hansen, Prof. N. E. in Asia 7 - Harrow, common not disk 70 - Harrowing after cutting 24 - To kill weeds 59 - Harrows 70 - Hartman and Weil, report 285 - Harvest, dates Utah 78 - Early for hogs 160 - Harvester, Acme 262 - Harvesting 79 - By stock 107 - Few and many 88 - Humid climates 82 - Like grain 88 - Loss of leaves 80 - Operations, time between 87 - Seed 89 - Time 80 - Time to begin 82 - Hawaii, hay for 104 - Hay and silage compared 102 - Association, National, grades 106 - Association, Spillman’s address 9 - Baling, California 240 - Composition depends on water 75 - Feed value 145 - First season 65 - Grades 105 - In mow, watch 97 - In windrows 84 - Lying in swath 84 - Making, Arizona 237 - Making, losses in 82 - Meal cheaper than baled 186 - Measuring in stack 228 - Money in 22, 23 - Poorly cured, value 87 - Preserved, color 94 - Prairie and alfalfa compared 140, 141, 148, 150 - Prairie, composition 136 - Prairie, dimensions of ton 229 - Prairie, feed value 145 - Value of 91 - Values, Arizona 235 - Various, and alfalfa compared 148 - Yield to acre, Utah 78 - Hay-caps advantages 85 - Described 86 - Favor baling 103 - Humid regions 84 - Size of 86 - Use of 85, 86, 89 - Haying, time between operations 84 - Hay-loader, belt 88 - Headden, Prof. W. P., stubble value 191 - Long roots 6 - Curing 82 - Seed storing 31 - Heating, prevent in transit 105 - Seed 31 - Seed stack 90 - Stack 90 - Heaving, danger of 50 - Height, normal 6 - Highmore forage testing station 300 - Hill, Prof. J. L., report 309 - Hillman, Prof. F. H., dodder 42 - Hitchcock, A. S., baled alfalfa 104 - Feeding alfalfa alone 148 - Quoted on irrigation 77 - Hoard, Gov., brood sows 155 - Yield 23 - Rotation 194 - _Hoard’s Dairyman_, economical butter 144 - Hogs, alfalfa or blue grass for 158 - Balanced ration for 136 - Cut early for 160 - Food for fattening 46 - Kansas 155 - Like alfalfa 23, 154, 237 - Over stocking with 161 - Pastured on surplus acres 87 - Pasture for 48, 108 - Hollingsworth, J. H. 255 - Honey from alfalfa 12, 178 - Hoove, See Bloat. - Hopper dozer 216 - Kansas 218 - Prof. S. J. Hunter 217 - Hopkins, Prof. C. G., pot cultures 202 - Report 253 - Hog raising, Kansas 161 - Horse raising, Ohio 166 - Raising 165, 166 - Horses, alfalfa for work 166 - Alfalfa for driving 167 - Cheap feed for 188 - Injure pasture 109 - On pasture 170 - Overfed 166 - Thrive on pasture 109 - Humus favors bacteria 61 - Hunter, Prof. S. J., hopper dozer 217 - Bees 176 - Idaho, experiments 251 - Italy, alfalfa introduced 1 - Illinois, alfalfa in 16 - Experiments 253 - Feeding cows in 152 - Pot culture experiments 202 - Seed for 29 - Imported seed 30, 31 - Impurities in seed 32, 33 - Income, alfalfa 22, 23, 25, 26 - Indiana, experiments 254 - Yield in 23 - Infected soil 60 - Injuries from lime 66 - Inoculation, Alabama 232 - Any method helpful 199 - Dangers of 62 - Seed not needed 64 - Failures expected 201 - Illinois 254 - Long Island 288 - Massachusetts 266 - Methods various 63 - Necessary 200 - Not like magic 202 - Old theory 197 - Soil, not needed 64 - Soil, Sweet clover 202 - Unnecessary 200 - Virginia 311 - With diseased soil 62 - Insects carried by soil 63 - In seeds 31 - Introducing on farm 28 - Iowa, experiments 257 - Leaf spot in 211 - Pig raising 158 - Seed for 29 - Spring sowing 54, 55 - Irish, C. W., depth of root growth 6 - Irrigation after cutting 73 - Alfalfa under 72 - Before cutting 73 - California 238 - Colorado 244 - Co-operative experiments 76 - Effect on hay 76 - Excessive 72 - Gila River 234 - Harrow 24 - Idaho 253 - Influence on composition 74 - Influence on seed 28 - Increases protein 75 - Necessary to saturate soil 78 - New Mexico 283 - Oregon 295 - Salt River 236 - Spring 73 - Utah bulletin 74 - Water to acre, Utah 77 - _Irrigation Farming_ quoted 73 - Irrigated land, yield 10, 23 - Irrigations, number of 77 - Italy, seed from 32 - Jefferson, book dedicated to 3 - Jenkins, Dr. E. H., report 247 - Jones, John, report 306 - Jones, O. S., report 301 - Jordan, Dr. W. H., opinion of feed 141 - Kafir corn preceding alfalfa 49 - Fed with alfalfa 125 - Feed composition 136 - Kansas, alfalfa flowers 176 - Alfalfa for dairyman 149 - Alfilaria for 228 - Annual top dressing 70 - Bees 175, 176 - Bulletin, balanced ration 135 - Broadcasting at experiment station 56 - Cows on small area 144 - Curing in 87 - Early cut hay for hogs 160 - Ensiling 151 - Crab grass 68 - Eighty feet to water 45 - Experiments 259 - Fall sowing 53 - Feeding cows 144 - Feeding tests 138, 142 - Grass in alfalfa fields 112 - Gopher injuries 213 - Hay, composition of 76 - Hog raising 155, 161, 163 - Hopper dozer 218 - Horses raised 165 - Lands, values increased 204 - Low cost ration 150 - Prairie dogs 212 - Profit from hogs 162 - Profit in 22, 23, 25 - Preventing bloat 111 - Protein in cuttings 81 - Seed 29 - Seed raising 90 - Self-binder for harvesting 88 - Sheep fattened 171, 287 - Siloing 102 - Soiling and pasturing 123 - Sowing 57 - Spring sowing 55 - Station disfavors salt 100 - Station on baling 103 - Stock feeding 103 - Storing in 96 - Time to sow 47 - Third cutting for seed 91 - Wheat after alfalfa 193 - Wintering horses 167 - Work with scrub cows 143 - Kenilworth Farms, Arizona 235 - Kent County, Delaware 249 - Kentucky experiments 264 - Kiefer, H. W., report 251 - Kilgore, Dr. B. W., report 289 - Kirk, F. S., pasturing 113 - Yield 24 - Labor prices 204 - Saved 25 - Lake County, South Dakota 301 - Lamb-feeding, Nebraska 172 - Lambs, fattening 46 - Fort Collins 173 - On pasture 114 - Never bloat 172 - Pasturage for 48 - Quarter in seed 35 - Land, alfalfa on bottom 24 - Foul, unfit for alfalfa 59 - Values improved 204 - Worthless made valuable 25 - Langston, Alva, yield 24 - Lantz, Prof. D. E., gopher injuries 213 - Large alfalfa roots 18 - Latitude influence on seed 28 - Leaching, winter prevented 48 - Leaf spot 63, 211 - Legumes, bacteria on 60 - Prepare soil 49 - Leaves and stems, feed value compared 82 - Broken by tedder 84 - Lost in curing 80, 82, 183 - Help in curing 83 - Proportion to stems 128 - Saved by slings 94 - Pay for floor 99 - Value 79 - Lewis, D. C., report 281 - Light discolors seed 31 - Liggett, Prof. W. M., report 269 - Lime, air slaked 66 - Injuries 66 - Must be applied 64 - Needed 45, 201 - Prevents mold 100 - Small dressings advisable 66 - Soil for 231 - Liming 249 - Connecticut 248 - Massachusetts 266 - Ohio 290 - Lincoln County, Nebraska 275 - Linseed meal and alfalfa compared 127 - Feed composition 137 - Replaced by alfalfa 151 - Listing waxy ground 52 - Litmus for testing soil 45 - Loader, disadvantages 95 - Loading, slings 94 - Localities influence seed 28 - Logan County, Idaho 252 - Long Island, experiments 288 - Loss from impure seed 32 - Losses due to wetting 81 - In curing 82 - Louisiana, alfalfa in 14 - Cutting in 89 - Experiments 265 - Lowden, F. M., report 314 - Lucerne, book dedicated to Jefferson 3 - Intermediate 76 - Origin of name 4 - Yellow 7 - Lumps, soil, bad 50 - Mangels, feed value 126, 145 - Protein value 133 - Manitoba, alfalfa in 14, 15 - Mammoth clover yields 21 - Manure before seeding 64 - Manuring 46, 70 - Wheat land for alfalfa 48 - Mare, ration for brood 165, 169 - Marketing 137 - Markham, L. W., experiments 245 - Maryland, alfalfa in 16 - Seed for 29 - Massachusetts, analyses, clover 20 - Experiments 266 - Matthies, John 248 - Maximum yield, irrigation 77 - Maury County, Tennessee 303 - Mayo, Prof. N. S., bloat 116 - McEathron, George E., report 301 - McNeil, E. W., succeeds in West Virginia 317 - Meadow fescue and alfalfa compared 21 - Fescue and alfalfa yields 21 - Meal, Prof. Cottrell’s opinion 183 - Superior to hay 184 - Sown with seed 56 - Meat production in South 14 - _Medicago denticulata_, bacteria 60 - „ _foliata_, 7 - „ _media_, 76 - „ _sativa_, 4 - Medicine Hat, yield 14 - Medick, black, an adulterant 35 - Medicks, fifty species 36 - Meeting at Mr. Worker’s 18 - Melilotus, bacteria on 60 - Merrill, Prof. L. A., fed horses 168 - On cuttings 128 - Mexican fields, old 5 - Mexico, alfalfa introduced in 2 - Alfilaria for 228 - Growing 244 - Michigan, experiments 268 - Middlesex County, New Jersey 281 - Middlings, food value 132 - Milk, alfalfa in making 143 - Balanced ration 135 - Cost of gallon 150 - Flow increased 152 - Tests 143 - The marketable product 147 - Value an acre 144 - Yield increased 146 - Yield, pasture and soiling 123 - Miller, Henry, experiments 238 - Miller, Prof. M. F., report 270 - Millet, alfalfa sown with 51 - And alfalfa compared 146, 148 - As preparatory crop 52 - Before reseeding 72 - Best to precede alfalfa 49 - Between potatoes and alfalfa 48 - Fed with alfalfa 125 - Feed value 132, 145 - Good to precede 50 - Protein value 133 - Minimum water to apply 77 - Minnesota, experiments 260 - Field, old 9 - Seed for 29 - Spring sowing 55 - Time to sow 47 - Yield in 14 - Missouri, alfalfa in 16 - Experiments 270 - Fall sowing 53 - Moisture absorbed by straw 97 - Conserve before seeding 47 - Robbed by nurse crop 58 - Molasses, adulterated with 265 - With alfalfa 185 - Mold, prevent in stacks 90 - Moldy seed 27 - Monmouth County, New Jersey 282 - Montana, experiments 271 - Pasturing sheep 114 - Seed 29 - Sheep fattening 205 - Moore, Dr. G. T., breeds bacteria 108 - Moore, Prof. R. A., report 311 - Morgan, Prof. H. A., report 302 - Mortgage lifter 11 - Mow, fires 95 - Storing 95 - Mower not favored for seed harvest 90 - Mowing, early 21 - For yellow leaf 67 - Improves stand 67 - In wet season 68 - May be wrong 68 - Mulch not needed 68 - “Musts” 225 - National Hay Association grades 106 - Neale, Dr. Arthur F., report 248 - Nebraska, alfamo 185 - Alfilaria for 228 - Comparative yields 21 - Curing 87 - Experiments 273 - Fall sowing 53 - Feed tests 139 - Hog feeding test 159 - Hopper dozer 216 - Lamb feeding 172 - Lands, values increased 204 - Profit 22, 23, 25 - Sand hills 15, 17 - Seed 29 - Sheep fattened 171, 205 - Soiling 123 - Spring sowing 54 - Stock feeding 103 - Work horses fed 166 - _Nebraska Farmer_, on cutting 69 - _Nebraska Farmer_, various fields 148 - Nelson, J. P., report 282 - Nematodes in soil 62 - Nevada, alfalfa in 14 - Alfalfa, on sagebrush land 15 - Deserts, alfalfa succeeds in 17 - New Brunswick, alfalfa unknown in 15 - New England, cutting 89 - Seed for 29 - Soiling 124 - Success 311 - New Hampshire, experiments 279 - New Jersey, experiments 280 - Hay composition 76 - Milk test 143 - Feed values 132 - Plant food to acre 192 - Seed for 29 - Yields of clover 20 - New Mexico, alfilaria for 228 - Experiments 283 - New Milford, Connecticut 248 - Seed, new preferred 30 - New York, alfalfa introduced 3 - Alfalfa success 17 - Dairymen claim profits 144 - Experiments 287 - Lands improved 26 - Old field 9 - Seed for 29 - Soiling advisable 124 - New York Station fodder crops 126 - Newman, Prof. C. L., report 299 - Nitro-cultures 249 - Nitrogen from roots 10 - From soil 52 - Gathered 190, 192 - Gathered by cowpeas 49 - Not needed 10 - Old plants need none 60 - Robbed by nurse crop 58 - Specially needed 65 - Sustains bacteria 60 - Nobbe, discovery of bacteria 197 - Nodules formed 59 - North Carolina, experiments 289 - North Dakota, experiments 286 - Turkestan alfalfa 8 - Nova Scotia, alfalfa unknown 15 - Nurse crop, effects of cutting alfalfa 59 - Iowa 257 - Or not? 58 - Nutrient values, various 145 - Oat grass yields 21 - Oat hay, analysis 127 - And alfalfa compared 148 - Feed value 145 - Oat straw feed value 145 - Protein value 133 - Oats, sown with alfalfa 51 - And peas, feed value 126, 132 - As nurse crop 58 - Before reseeding 72 - Following alfalfa 193 - Feed value 132 - Foster weeds 59 - Ohio bulletin, seed 33, 34 - Experiments 290 - Fall sowing 53 - Farmer sows thickly 58 - Horse raising 166 - Pasturing lambs 114 - Preliminary seeding 51 - Requisites in growing 225 - Seed for 29 - Oil meal and alfalfa compared 140 - Oklahoma, cutting 89 - Experiments 292 - Pasturing 113 - Seed 29 - Yield 24 - Olmstead and Olmstead, report 273 - Ontario, lamb feeding 173 - Yield 14 - Orchard, alfalfa in 223 - Orchard-grass, yields 21 - Feed value 145 - Protein value 133 - With alfalfa 111 - Oregon, experiments 295 - Osborne County, Kansas 260 - Otterson, James, report 252 - Otis, Prof. D. H., feeding cows 144 - Pasture for hogs 163 - Overfeeding horses 166 - Over stocking with hogs 161 - _Panicum capillare_, a weed 69 - _Panicum sanguinale_, a weed 68 - Destroying 303 - Parasites in purchased soil 62 - Pasture, alfalfa in grass 51 - And soiling compared 123 - Cattle 263 - Grasses, feed value 145 - Horses 263 - Lamb 48 - Only when established 108 - Pig 48 - Poultry 180 - Sheep 263 - Stock 24 - Uplands 116 - Pasturing 107 - Cattle 113 - Horses 170 - Previous to seeding 47 - Rules for 116 - When to stop 108 - Pennsylvania, alfalfa introduced 3 - Bulletin, curing 83 - Experiments 297 - Seed for 29 - Soiling advisable 124 - Perry, C. D., report 259 - Physical effects, root growth 6 - Effects on soil 21 - Phosphoric acid needed 65 - Pig, See Hog. - Pigs, death rate reduced 155 - Pigweed in seed 35 - Pinal County, Arizona 235 - Pin-clover 227 - Pittuck, Prof. B. C., report 297 - Plantain in seed 41 - Plants smother in wet land 44 - Smothered under windrows 84 - Weak with nurse crops 58 - Pliny praised alfalfa 1 - Plow, character of tool 195 - Plowing, deep, necessary 46 - Difficult 195 - For other crops 193 - Importance of careful 195 - Proper 221 - Recent not good 50 - Sod, rate of 195 - Stand renewed by 72 - Plowings saved 21 - Pods poorly filled 89 - Pork, producing cheap 158 - Potash specially needed 65 - Potatoes following alfalfa 193 - Precede alfalfa 48, 50 - Poultry thrive on 180 - Prairie dogs, destroying 215 - Injure alfalfa 212 - Preparation, proper 220 - Soil 46 - Preparatory crops 49, 50 - Presses for baling 104 - Press drills favored 56 - Prices received 22, 23 - Profit reduced in feeding cows 146 - Profits 22, 23, 25, 144, 147 - Protection, winter 108 - From sun not needed 58 - Protein, abundance in alfalfa 125 - And carbohydrates not interchangeable 136 - Digestible 126 - Excess in ration 137 - Function of 134 - Highest in first cutting 129 - In clover 20, 21 - Increased by irrigation 75 - In early cuttings 81 - In hay 76 - Percentage in leaves 79 - Values, various feeds 145 - Provence, seed from 32 - Prowers County, Colorado 245 - Purgatives for bloat 122 - Quebec, alfalfa in 15 - Quicklime very caustic 66 - Rain, cutting after 82 - Hay-caps 89 - Rain-fall effect on hay 75 - Influence on seed 28 - Raiscot, Alfred, report 271 - Rake, Monarch 262 - Side delivery 87 - Time to start 84 - Range of soils 16, 17 - Rape, analysis 127 - And alfalfa for hogs compared 162 - Ration, balanced 134 - Balanced, explained 135 - Cost of 150, 151 - Money value 138 - Unbalanced 134 - Receipts 22, 23, 25 - Recleaning seed, importance 32 - Recleaning to remove dodder 42 - Redding, Prof. R. J., report 250 - Red-top and alfalfa compared 148 - Yields 21 - Renewing growth 71 - Rentals of land 26 - Reseeding 65, 66, 71, 72 - Rhode Island, experiments 298 - Rib grass in alfalfa seed 41 - Rice meal, food value 132 - Richmond, Indiana 255 - Rick, measuring for tonnage 229 - Preferred 100 - Roberts, Prof. H. F., adulterants 35 - Robinson, J. W., raises horses 165 - Rome, alfalfa taken to 1 - Roofing for hay sheds 99 - Root growth 190 - Growth, physical effect 6 - System 6 - Roots, deep 6 - Nitrogen in soil from 10 - Spindling, with nurse crop 58 - Thumb-sized 18 - Value of 21, 191 - Rot, root 212 - Rotation necessary 194 - Roughness supplied by alfalfa 18 - Various kinds to feed 145 - _Rural New-Yorker_, article quoted 17 - Rutabagas, fodder value 126 - Rye bran, food value 132 - Grass yields 21 - Winter cover 48, 49 - Sacramento River, growth 241 - Sagebrush land for 252 - Land, new alfalfa on 15 - Sales 22, 23 - Salt River, irrigation 236 - Salt in storing hay 100 - San Mateo County, California 238 - San Miguel County, New Mexico 285 - Sand hills, Nebraska, alfalfa succeeds 15, 17 - Scott Bros., yield 22, 23 - Screened alfalfa seed recommended 36 - Scrub-oak land for 288 - Seed, adulterated 33 - Analysis 33 - Bed, securing a fine 48 - Bees insure fertile 175 - Best costly 41 - Best from Provence 32 - Buck-horn in 41 - Bur clover in 39 - Bushel weight 31 - Characteristics 37 - Cheap 27, 41 - Conditions influencing germination 57 - Cutting time 89 - Damp 27 - Dodder described 41 - Dodder in 32 - Exports and imports 31 - Failures, imported 30 - Farmer to blame for poor bought 41 - First cutting not for 89 - For Illinois 29 - For Iowa 29 - For Ohio 29 - For Pennsylvania 29 - Formation, bees help in 176 - Good costly 29 - Good, essential 27 - Harvesting 89 - Importance of pure 35 - Impurities 32 - Imported, Department of Agriculture 7 - Increased by bees 175 - Influences affecting 28 - Injuries by storing 30 - Inoculation not needed 64 - Insects in 31 - Introduced from Europe 3 - Kansas 29 - Kept several years 30 - Kind to buy 29 - Large and small 38 - Losses in stored 30 - Moldy 27 - Nebraska 29 - Necessity of drying 90 - New preferred 30 - Northern grown 28 - Noxious 34 - Oklahoma 29 - Old 27 - Plantain in 41 - Pods, poorly filled 89 - Poor, cause failures 221 - Precautions in buying 29 - Pure 28 - Purest in third cutting 91 - Quality of 27 - Quantity sowed 24, 56 - Raising, dry climate 28 - Raising, humid climates 28, 92 - Raising, Kansas 90 - Removing infertile 91 - Removing weed 91 - Returns 22, 23 - Rib grass in 41 - Roberts on pure 35 - Selection 27, 28 - Sifting to remove dodder 42 - Size of Bur clover 39 - Size of 38 - Storing 31 - Substitution of trefoil 39 - Test before buying 29 - Third crop self sown 72 - Third cutting for 91 - Types of 37 - Utah vs. imported 30 - Value in Arizona 235 - Vitality injured in stack 90 - Weed in alfalfa 34 - Yield 91 - Yield, Arizona 237 - Seeding 44 - After disking unnecessary 71 - Alabama 231 - Arizona 233 - California 238 - Colorado 244 - Drill or broadcast 55 - Fall 49 - Importance of 79 - July 66 - Kansas 258 - Manure before 64 - Pennsylvania 297 - Preliminary 51 - Soaking soil before 73 - Seeder, Cahoon 234 - Gem 242 - Seeders, various 56 - Seeds dead 27 - Fertile few 89 - Seedsmen to blame for bad seed 41 - Selection of seed 27, 28 - Self sowing third crop 72 - Self-binder, harvesting with 88 - In seed harvest 90 - Selling inoculated soil 61 - Separator, J. I. Case 237 - Separators in threshing seed 91 - Shed, hay 99 - Sheep, dangers to, from pasturing 109, 113 - Eat bindweed 219 - Fort Collins 174 - Losses from bloat 113 - Old, kept off pasture 114 - Shepperd, Prof. J. H., report 289 - Sifting out dodder 42 - Silage for cows 152 - Storing as 101 - Superior to hay 151 - Silo, advantages of using 151 - Cost of 152 - For alfalfa 101 - Siloing suggestions 102 - Slings in stacking 94 - Smead, Dr. D. C., horse feeding 168 - Smith, Prof. C. D., report 268 - Smith, Prof. H. R., feed test 139 - Smothering under windrows 84 - In wet land 44 - Snake River irrigation 251 - Soaking soil before seeding 73 - Sod, breaking, for alfalfa 50 - Hard to plow 195 - Soil acid, unfavorable 44 - Acidity determined 45 - Adobe 239 - And seeding 44 - Baked, avoid 46 - Bur clover for inoculating 60 - Buying inoculated 60, 61 - Buying not necessary 61 - Buying infected 60 - Buying, objections to 61 - Character affects irrigation 77 - Conditions demanded 52 - Conditions essential 46 - Depleted, improved 16 - Diseased, for inoculation 62 - For alfalfa 15 - Gumbo 261 - Hardpan 16, 18 - Improved by alfalfa 16, 190 - Improvement due to alfalfa 16 - Inoculated for sale 61 - Inoculated, quantity to acre 61 - Inoculation 59, 197 - Inoculation, dangers of 62 - Inoculation, meal or hay for 63 - Inoculation, not necessary 63, 64 - Listed 52 - Never work wet 46 - Not exhausted by alfalfa 10 - Preparation 46, 297 - Preparing, Arizona 233, 236 - Preparing, Colorado 243 - Preparation, Washington 314 - Restrictions, obsolete 44 - Robbed of lime 44 - Rocky 19 - Sugar tree land 255 - Waxy 52 - Wet makes failures 44 - Soiling 107, 122 - Advised in East 124 - And pasturing compared 123 - Nebraska 123 - Pigs 124 - Sorghum analysis 127 - Bad to precede alfalfa 49 - Consumes moisture 49 - Fails to increase milk flow 148 - Fed with alfalfa 125 - Feed value 145 - Hay, feed composition 136 - Protein value 133 - Soule, Prof. Andrew M., report 311 - South Africa, alfalfa in 15 - South Carolina, experiments in 299 - Old field 9 - South Dakota, experiments 300 - South favors spring sowing 52 - Land values increased 205 - Sowing time 47 - Southern farms, self supplied 14 - Southern seed 28 - Sowing dates 47 - Fall 49, 53 - Foul land 59 - Spring disadvantages 53 - Spring or fall? 52 - Spring, on wheat ground 48 - Points to remember 47 - Time, South 47 - Time, Central States 47 - Sows, brood, Mississippi 155 - Like alfalfa 154 - Soy beans, feed value 145 - Feed composition 137 - Spain, alfalfa introduced 1, 2 - Takes alfalfa to America 2 - Spillman, Prof. W. J., opinion 9 - Spontaneous combustion, See Fire. - Spot, leaf 211 - Spots, bare, in lodged nurse crop 59 - Restoring bare 71 - Spotted leaf, mowing for 67 - Spring or fall sowing? 52 - Spring sowing, disadvantages 53 - Sowing favored 53 - Sowing, importance of early 58 - Spurrier on alfalfa 3 - Favors drills 67 - Stack, curing in 90 - Elevate bottom of 100 - Fires in 95 - Protect top 100 - Sweating in 90 - Stacks, condemned 99 - Covering seed 90 - Preventing mold in 90 - Stacker, Landen 235 - Stacking, conditions 100 - Dry 93 - In ricks 259 - Losses from 98 - Operations in 87 - Precautions 90 - Seed crop 89 - Slings recommended 94 - Stadmueller, F. H. 248 - Stand, ideal 57 - Improving 67 - Increasing 51 - Plowing to renew 72 - Poor 27, 30, 54 - Securing good 220 - Thickening 72 - With nurse crop 58 - Starch in corn 22 - Needed by bacteria 60 - Steers pick up on alfalfa 125 - _Stellaria media_, destroying 297 - Stems and leaves, food value compared 82 - Stewart, Prof. J. H., report 310 - Stock, best way to market alfalfa 137 - Fed, Utah 25 - Injure alfalfa 107 - Keep off field 221 - Stodder, J. F., bloat 112 - Storer, Prof. F. H., hay-caps 85, 86 - Storing 93 - As silage 101 - In barn 95 - In evening 97 - Seed 31 - Stover and alfalfa compared 140, 148 - Fed with alfalfa 125, 144 - Protein value 133 - Straw, feed value 145 - Feeding value, Colorado 245 - For stack feed 91 - Money in 22, 23 - On damp hay 97 - Protein value 133 - Value of 91, 240 - Stubble, value of 21, 191 - Stubbs, Dr. W. C., experiments 265 - Subsoil, tough, roots in 18 - Subsoiling effects of alfalfa 16, 194 - Substitute for alfalfa 36 - Substitutes, recognising 40 - Substitution of trefoil for alfalfa 39 - Success depends on cultivation 44 - Typical in New York 17 - Sugar and alfalfa 185 - Sugar beet dependent on alfalfa 173 - Sugar beets, feed value 126, 145 - Protein value 133 - Sugar, losses in hay 81 - Sun not greatest curing agent 83 - Swath, alfalfa lying in 84 - Sweating before baling 103 - In stack 90 - Sweet clover in alfalfa seed 32 - Clover soil for inoculation 60, 202 - Swine, See Hogs. - Swing seeder 56 - Synoground, N. O. P., report 302 - Syracuse, alfalfa near 17 - Sysonby eats alfalfa 167 - Taliaferro, Prof. W. T. L., opinion 16 - Tapping for bloat 119 - Taproot 6 - Taylor, Prof. Frederick W., report 279 - Tedder, loss from using 84 - Starting 84 - Ten Eyck, Prof. A. M., burning weeds 69 - Dimensions of ton 229 - Hay 76 - Hay composition 75 - Silo 102 - Tennessee, experiments 302 - Testing soil for acidity 45 - Texas, alfalfa cut nine times 10 - Alfilaria for 228 - Bulletin, feed stuffs 127 - Curing 87 - Cutting 89 - Experiments 303 - Yields 9 - Thawing, harm from 50 - Thickening stand 72 - Thompson, W. O., report 275 - Thorne, Prof. Charles E., report 290 - Threshing made easy 90 - Time between cuttings 24 - To cut 89 - To sow 47 - Timothy and alfalfa compared 21, 79, 127, 148, 222 - Alfalfa sown with 51 - Before alfalfa 50 - Fodder value 126, 132, 145 - Protein value 133 - Ton, cubic feet in 229 - Top-dressing annual 70 - Benefit of 74 - Trampling, effects of 59 - Transportation, solving problems 186 - Trefoil seed in alfalfa 32 - Yellow, adulterant 33 - Yellow, in alfalfa 36 - Yellow, beak on seed 39 - Yellow, chief adulterant 35 - Yellow, distinguished 39 - Yellow, size of seed 33 - Yellow, to distinguish seed 37 - Yellow, recognizing seed 39 - Trocar for bloat 119 - Tubercles formed 59 - Office of 197 - Turkestan, alfalfa 7, 29 - Alfalfa, North Dakota 8 - Alfalfa, South Dakota 300 - Turnips, feed value 145 - Utah bulletin, nutrients 131 - Bulletin, various cuttings 128 - Bulletin, irrigation 74 - Bulletin, Utah county, Utah 306 - Co-operative work 76 - Dates of cutting 78 - Experiments 304 - Experiments, early cutting 81 - Fall sowing 53 - Feeding test 138 - Hardy seed 92 - Hay, composition 76 - Horsefeeding 168 - Reports profits 25 - Seed 29 - Seed not favored 92 - Seed sown by Cottrell 30 - Shoat raising 156 - Water applied in 77 - Value, leaves 79 - Straw 91 - Poorly cured hay 87 - Values received 25 - Feed, various 145 - Varieties 6 - Alleged 28 - Ventilation in hay shed 99 - Vermont, experiments 15, 309 - Virginia, experiment 311 - Vitality, injured in stack 90 - Voorhees, Dr. E. B., report 280 - Wallace, Henry, spring sowing 54 - _Wallaces’ Farmer_, spring sowing 54 - Walla Walla County, Washington 307, 314, 315 - Wallingford, Connecticut 248 - Washing, soil, prevented 48 - Washington, yield 10, 23 - Experiments 314 - Waste, feeding cows 144, 146, 152 - Water, effect on hay composition 76 - Cold, delays growth 73 - Too much irrigation 72 - Effects on composition of hay 74, 75 - Quantity to acre, Utah 77 - Eighty feet below surface 44 - Amount required, Arizona 234 - Watrous, Prof. F. L., alfalfa in orchards 223 - Watson, Prof. George C., report 297 - Watson ranch, horses fed alfalfa 166 - Wayne County, Indiana 254 - Weed seeds in alfalfa 32, 27, 34, 41 - Seeds, removing 91 - Weeds, burning 69 - Carried by soil 63 - Chief enemies 206 - Failures due to 48 - Fewer in third cutting 91 - In horse pasture 110 - Keeping down 47 - Kill, before seeding 206 - Not prevented by nurse crop 59 - Poor farming causes 206 - Preventing 47 - Repressed 46 - Retarded by clipping 68 - Subduing in July 66 - Weevils in seed 31 - Weight of bushel 31 - West Virginia, experiments 317 - Wet feet, alfalfa can’t stand 18, 44, 212 - Wetting delays curing 81 - Wheat and alfalfa compared 19, 25 - Following alfalfa 193 - Increasing yield 194 - Straw, protein value 133 - With alfalfa 51 - Wheelbarrow seeder 56 - Wheeler, Dr. H. J., report 208 - Widtsoe, Prof. J. A., nutrients 131 - Wilcox, Lute, quoted 73 - Williams, C. H., pasturing sheep 114 - Wilson, Prof. James W., report 300 - Wing, Joseph E. 290 - Curing 83 - Horse raising 166 - Pasturing lambs 114 - Preliminary seeding 51 - Windrows, curing in 87 - Leaving hay in 84 - Smothering under 84 - Wisconsin, brood sows 155 - Report 317 - Time to sow 47 - Wintering sows 156 - Yield 9, 23 - Witch-grass less bad than crab grass 69 - Woodford, J. E., hog raising 163 - Work animals, alfalfa for 14 - Worker’s, grange meeting at Mr. 18 - Worm, army 219 - Worn-out soils restored 16 - Wyoming, fertilizing value of alfalfa 192 - Experiments 322 - Seed 29 - Xerxes carried alfalfa to Greece 1 - Yield, acre 126 - Affected by irrigation 77 - Alfalfa and grass compared 21 - Arabian alfalfa 8 - Arizona 234 - Below sea level 15 - Best when no nurse crop 59 - Butter, pasture and soiling 123 - Compared with clover 20 - Corn and alfalfa 22 - District of Columbia 14 - 1815 3 - Fodders, various 148 - Increased by irrigation 74 - Indiana 24 - Irrigations affect 77 - Irrigated land 10, 23 - Largest annual 128 - Louisiana 14 - Manitoba 14 - Maximum under irrigation 78 - Medicine Hat 14 - Milk increased 146 - Minnesota 14 - New Jersey 20 - Not impaired by hogs 108 - Oklahoma 24 - Ontario 14 - Reduced by wrong cutting 80 - Seed 91 - South Africa 15 - Turkestan, North Dakota 8 - Twelve tons under irrigation 72 - Washington 10 - Wisconsin 23 - Yields, big, poor land 65 - Irrigation, Utah 78 - Profitable 22, 23 - Texas 9 - Wisconsin 9, 23 - Zoller, Isaac, report 287 - - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - - - The language used is that of the source document, including unusual, - inconsistent and archaic spelling, hyphenation, capitalisation, etc., - unless listed under Changes below. - - Depending on the hard- and software used to read this text and their - settings, not all elements may display as intended. - - Page 187, chart: the lengths of the bars are approximations of those - given in the source document. - - Page ix-xi, List of Illustrations: Full-page illustrations were - (usually) printed on unnumbered pages, and the page numbers given in - the list are therefore often the page numbers opposite which the - illustrations were printed. Figure numbers 44 and 45 are listed in - reverse order. In the text, references to illustrations are - hyperlinked to the illustrations. Descriptions such as "Actual size" - in illustration captions are not necessarily applicable to this text. - - Page 69, In many parts of the country ... that most persistently: In - the source document the first two lines of this paragraph are repeated - from the previous paragraph. In the first edition (1906) of the book, - this paragraph starts: “It is sometimes the case that a field of - alfalfa is left infested in the fall with such a growth of grass and - weeds as to make burning in the spring ....” - - Page 77, table: not all irrigation data add up to the totals given. - - Page 165 and 338, J. W. Robison/Robinson: it is not clear whether the - name is Robison or Robinson. - - Page 166, “There is no one thing so good ...: there is no closing - quote mark. - - Page 207, ... and printed with illustrations ...: the illustrations - are not included explicitly in the source document, but figures 21-23 - may act as such. - - Pages 271 and 338, Alfred Rasicot and Alfred Raiscot probably refer to - the same person. - - Index: the (not consistently alphabetical) order of entries as printed - in the source document has been retained. - - - Changes: - - Illustrations and tables have been moved out of text paragraphs; - footnotes have been moved to directly under the paragraph or table to - which they belong. Fractions (forms 1/2 and 1-2 both occur in the - source document) have been standardised to ¹⁄₂. - - Some (minor) obvious punctuation and typographical errors have been - corrected silently. - - Texts in a dashed box have for legibility’s sake been transcribed from - the accompanying illustration, and do not occur as texts in the source - document. - - Page viii: entry Index added to Table of Contents. - - Page ix-xi: Illustration numbers have been added to the List of - Illustrations. The smaller illustrations have been added to the list, - with a descriptive caption added where that was not present in the - book. - - Page 2: ... it was not introduced into those counties ... changed to - ... it was not introduced into those countries .... - - Page 34: ... to snow the result ... changed to ... to show the result - .... - - Page 62: Numerous animal and plant parasite ... changed to Numerous - animal and plant parasites .... - - Page 98: ... four year prior to writing ... changed to ... four years - prior to writing .... - - Page 132, last table row: buckweat changed to buckwheat. - - Page 153: closing quote mark added after ... corn silage and alfalfa. - and after ... have never before looked quite so well. - - Page 164: closing quote mark added after ... that in value approaches - alfalfa. - - Page 202: ... facing page 231 ... changed to ... facing page 230 .... - - Page 257: Paragraph break inserted before _Farmers Guide_ says: .... - - Page 292: 1904-1.23 tons hay ... changed to 1903-1.23 tons hay .... - - Page 292, 293: short dashes between year and yield changed to long - dashes for clarity. - - Page 300: ... at Highmore Forge testing station ... changed to ... at - Highmore Forage testing station .... - - Page 301: _George E. McEathron_ of Beadle county writes: ... changed - to _George E. McEathron of Beadle county_ writes: .... - - Pages 325, 336: Alfalmo and alfalmo changed to Alfamo and alfamo. - - Page 326, 339: Buckhorn changed to Buck-horn. - - Page 327: Colusca County changed to Colusa County. - - Page 329: Dextrine changed to Dextrin. - - Page 334: Lumps, soll, bad, ... changed to Lumps, soil, bad, .... - - Page 338: Redtop changed to Red-top. - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BOOK OF ALFALFA *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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