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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Thirty Years War, Complete + +Author: Friedrich Schiller + +Release Date: October 25, 2006 [EBook #6775] +Last Updated: August 31, 2016 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE THIRTY YEARS WAR, COMPLETE *** + + + + +Produced by David Widger + + + + + +</pre> + + <p> + <br /> + </p> + + +<p> + <br /> + </p> +<hr /> + <h1> + THE WORKS + </h1> + <h3> + OF + </h3> + <h1> + FRIEDRICH SCHILLER + </h1> + <h4> + Translated from the German + </h4> + <h4> + Illustrated + </h4> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:60%;"> + <img alt="TITLEPAGE" src="images/1titlepage.jpg" style="width:100%;" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:60%;"> + <img alt="FRONTISPIECE" src="images/1frontpiece.jpg" style="width:100%;" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + HISTORY OF THE THIRTY YEARS’ WAR IN GERMANY. + </h2> + <p> + <a name="link2H_PREF" id="link2H_PREF"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + PREFACE TO THE SIXTH EDITION. + </h2> + <p> + The present is the best collected edition of the important works of + Schiller which is accessible to readers in the English language. Detached + poems or dramas have been translated at various times since the first + publication of the original works; and in several instances these versions + have been incorporated into this collection. Schiller was not less + efficiently qualified by nature for an historian than for a dramatist. He + was formed to excel in all departments of literature, and the admirable + lucidity of style and soundness and impartiality of judgment displayed in + his historical writings will not easily be surpassed, and will always + recommend them as popular expositions of the periods of which they treat. + </p> + <p> + Since the publication of the first English edition many corrections and + improvements have been made, with a view to rendering it as acceptable as + possible to English readers; and, notwithstanding the disadvantages of a + translation, the publishers feel sure that Schiller will be heartily + acceptable to English readers, and that the influence of his writings will + continue to increase. + </p> + <p> + THE HISTORY OF THE REVOLT OF THE NETHERLANDS was translated by Lieut. E. + B. Eastwick, and originally published abroad for students’ use. But this + translation was too strictly literal for general readers. It has been + carefully revised, and some portions have been entirely rewritten by the + Rev. A. J. W. Morrison, who also has so ably translated the HISTORY OF THE + THIRTY YEARS WAR. + </p> + <p> + THE CAMP OF WALLENSTEIN was translated by Mr. James Churchill, and first + appeared in “Frazer’s Magazine.” It is an exceedingly happy version of + what has always been deemed the most untranslatable of Schiller’s works. + </p> + <p> + THE PICCOLOMINI and DEATH OF WALLENSTEIN are the admirable version of S. + T. Coleridge, completed by the addition of all those passages which he has + omitted, and by a restoration of Schiller’s own arrangement of the acts + and scenes. It is said, in defence of the variations which exist between + the German original and the version given by Coleridge, that he translated + from a prompter’s copy in manuscript, before the drama had been printed, + and that Schiller himself subsequently altered it, by omitting some + passages, adding others, and even engrafting several of Coleridge’s + adaptations. + </p> + <p> + WILHELM TELL is translated by Theodore Martin, Esq., whose well-known + position as a writer, and whose special acquaintance with German + literature make any recommendation superfluous. + </p> + <p> + DON CARLOS is translated by R. D. Boylan, Esq., and, in the opinion of + competent judges, the version is eminently successful. Mr. Theodore Martin + kindly gave some assistance, and, it is but justice to state, has enhanced + the value of the work by his judicious suggestions. + </p> + <p> + The translation of MARY STUART is that by the late Joseph Mellish, who + appears to have been on terms of intimate friendship with Schiller. His + version was made from the prompter’s copy, before the play was published, + and, like Coleridge’s Wallenstein, contains many passages not found in the + printed edition. These are distinguished by brackets. On the other hand, + Mr. Mellish omitted many passages which now form part of the printed + drama, all of which are now added. The translation, as a whole, stands out + from similar works of the time (1800) in almost as marked a degree as + Coleridge’s Wallenstein, and some passages exhibit powers of a high order; + a few, however, especially in the earlier scenes, seemed capable of + improvement, and these have been revised, but, in deference to the + translator, with a sparing hand. + </p> + <p> + THE MAID OF ORLEANS is contributed by Miss Anna Swanwick, whose + translation of Faust has since become well known. It has been. carefully + revised, and is now, for the first time, published complete. + </p> + <p> + THE BRIDE OF MESSINA, which has been regarded as the poetical masterpiece + of Schiller, and, perhaps of all his works, presents the greatest + difficulties to the translator, is rendered by A. Lodge, Esq., M. A. This + version, on its first publication in England, a few years ago, was + received with deserved eulogy by distinguished critics. To the present + edition has been prefixed Schiller’s Essay on the Use of the Chorus in + Tragedy, in which the author’s favorite theory of the “Ideal of Art” is + enforced with great ingenuity and eloquence. + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <blockquote> + <p class="toc"> + <big><b>CONTENTS</b></big> + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_PREF"> PREFACE TO THE SIXTH EDITION. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0003"> HISTORY OF THE THIRTY YEARS’ WAR IN GERMANY. + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0004"> BOOK I. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0005"> BOOK II. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0006"> BOOK III. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0007"> BOOK IV. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0008"> BOOK V. </a> + </p> + </blockquote> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + Contents: + </h2> + <blockquote> + <p> + <br /><br />Book I. Introduction.—General effects of the + Reformation.—Revolt of Matthias. —The Emperor cedes Austria + and Hungary to him.—Matthias acknowledged King of Bohemia.—The + Elector of Cologne abjures the Catholic Religion. —Consequences.—The + Elector Palatine.—Dispute respecting the Succession of Juliers.—Designs + of Henry IV. of France.—Formation of the Union.—The League.—Death + of the Emperor Rodolph.—Matthias succeeds him.—Troubles in + Bohemia.—Civil War.—Ferdinand extirpates the Protestant + Religion from Styria.—The Elector Palatine, Frederick V., is + chosen King by the Bohemians.—He accepts the Crown of Bohemia.— + Bethlen Gabor, Prince of Transylvania, invades Austria.—The Duke + of Bavaria and the Princes of the League embrace the cause of Ferdinand.— + The Union arm for Frederick.—The Battle of Prague and total + subjection of Bohemia. <br /> <br /><br />Book II. State of the Empire.—Of + Europe.—Mansfeld.—Christian, Duke of Brunswick.—Wallenstein + raises an Imperial Army at his own expense. —The King of Denmark + defeated.—Death of Mansfeld.—Edict of Restitution in 1628.—Diet + at Ratisbon.—Negociations.—Wallenstein deprived of the + Command.—Gustavus Adolphus.—Swedish Army.—Gustavus + Adolphus takes his leave of the States at Stockholm.—Invasion by + the Swedes.—Their progress in Germany.—Count Tilly takes the + Command of the Imperial Troops.—Treaty with France.—Congress + at Leipzig.—Siege and cruel fate of Magdeburg.—Firmness of + the Landgrave of Cassel.— Junction of the Saxons with the Swedes.—Battle + of Leipzig.— Consequences of that Victory. <br /> <br /><br />Book + III. Situation of Gustavus Adolphus after the Battle of Leipzig.—Progress + of Gustavus Adolphus.—The French invade Lorraine.—Frankfort + taken.— Capitulation of Mentz.—Tilly ordered by Maximilian + to protect Bavaria. —Gustavus Adolphus passes the Lech.—Defeat + and Death of Tilly.— Gustavus takes Munich.—The Saxon Army + invades Bohemia, and takes Prague.—Distress of the Emperor.—Secret + Triumph of Wallenstein.— He offers to Join Gustavus Adolphus.—Wallenstein + re-assumes the Command.—Junction of Wallenstein with the + Bavarians.—Gustavus Adolphus defends Nuremberg.—Attacks + Wallenstein’s Intrenchments.—Enters Saxony.—Goes to the + succour of the Elector of Saxony.—Marches against Wallenstein.—Battle + of Lutzen.—Death of Gustavus Adolphus.—Situation of Germany + after the Battle of Lutzen. <br /> <br /><br />Book IV. Closer Alliance + between France and Sweden.—Oxenstiern takes the Direction of + Affairs.—Death of the Elector Palatine.—Revolt of the + Swedish Officers.—Duke Bernhard takes Ratisbon.—Wallenstein + enters Silesia.—Forms Treasonable Designs.—Forsaken by the + Army.—Retires to Egra.—His associates put to death.—Wallenstein’s + death.—His Character. <br /> <br /><br />Book V. Battle of + Nordlingen.—France enters into an Alliance against Austria.— + Treaty of Prague.—Saxony joins the Emperor.—Battle of + Wistock gained by the Swedes.—Battle of Rheinfeld gained by + Bernhard, Duke of Weimar. —He takes Brisach.—His death.—Death + of Ferdinand II.—Ferdinand III. succeeds him.—Celebrated + Retreat of Banner in Pomerania.—His Successes.—Death.—Torstensohn + takes the Command.—Death of Richelieu and Louis XIII.—Swedish + Victory at Jankowitz.—French defeated at Freyburg.—Battle of + Nordlingen gained by Turenne and Conde.—Wrangel takes the Command + of the Swedish Army.—Melander made Commander of the Emperor’s + Army.—The Elector of Bavaria breaks the Armistice.—He adopts + the same Policy towards the Emperor as France towards the Swedes.—The + Weimerian Cavalry go over to the Swedes.—Conquest of New Prague by + Koenigsmark, and Termination of the Thirty Years’ War. + </p> + </blockquote> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0003" id="link2H_4_0003"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + HISTORY OF THE THIRTY YEARS’ WAR IN GERMANY. + </h2> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0004" id="link2H_4_0004"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + BOOK I. + </h2> + <p> + From the beginning of the religious wars in Germany, to the peace of + Munster, scarcely any thing great or remarkable occurred in the political + world of Europe in which the Reformation had not an important share. All + the events of this period, if they did not originate in, soon became mixed + up with, the question of religion, and no state was either too great or + too little to feel directly or indirectly more or less of its influence. + </p> + <p> + Against the reformed doctrine and its adherents, the House of Austria + directed, almost exclusively, the whole of its immense political power. In + France, the Reformation had enkindled a civil war which, under four stormy + reigns, shook the kingdom to its foundations, brought foreign armies into + the heart of the country, and for half a century rendered it the scene of + the most mournful disorders. It was the Reformation, too, that rendered + the Spanish yoke intolerable to the Flemings, and awakened in them both + the desire and the courage to throw off its fetters, while it also + principally furnished them with the means of their emancipation. And as to + England, all the evils with which Philip the Second threatened Elizabeth, + were mainly intended in revenge for her having taken his Protestant + subjects under her protection, and placing herself at the head of a + religious party which it was his aim and endeavour to extirpate. In + Germany, the schisms in the church produced also a lasting political + schism, which made that country for more than a century the theatre of + confusion, but at the same time threw up a firm barrier against political + oppression. It was, too, the Reformation principally that first drew the + northern powers, Denmark and Sweden, into the political system of Europe; + and while on the one hand the Protestant League was strengthened by their + adhesion, it on the other was indispensable to their interests. States + which hitherto scarcely concerned themselves with one another’s existence, + acquired through the Reformation an attractive centre of interest, and + began to be united by new political sympathies. And as through its + influence new relations sprang up between citizen and citizen, and between + rulers and subjects, so also entire states were forced by it into new + relative positions. Thus, by a strange course of events, religious + disputes were the means of cementing a closer union among the nations of + Europe. + </p> + <p> + Fearful indeed, and destructive, was the first movement in which this + general political sympathy announced itself; a desolating war of thirty + years, which, from the interior of Bohemia to the mouth of the Scheldt, + and from the banks of the Po to the coasts of the Baltic, devastated whole + countries, destroyed harvests, and reduced towns and villages to ashes; + which opened a grave for many thousand combatants, and for half a century + smothered the glimmering sparks of civilization in Germany, and threw back + the improving manners of the country into their pristine barbarity and + wildness. Yet out of this fearful war Europe came forth free and + independent. In it she first learned to recognize herself as a community + of nations; and this intercommunion of states, which originated in the + thirty years’ war, may alone be sufficient to reconcile the philosopher to + its horrors. The hand of industry has slowly but gradually effaced the + traces of its ravages, while its beneficent influence still survives; and + this general sympathy among the states of Europe, which grew out of the + troubles in Bohemia, is our guarantee for the continuance of that peace + which was the result of the war. As the sparks of destruction found their + way from the interior of Bohemia, Moravia, and Austria, to kindle Germany, + France, and the half of Europe, so also will the torch of civilization + make a path for itself from the latter to enlighten the former countries. + </p> + <p> + All this was effected by religion. Religion alone could have rendered + possible all that was accomplished, but it was far from being the SOLE + motive of the war. Had not private advantages and state interests been + closely connected with it, vain and powerless would have been the + arguments of theologians; and the cry of the people would never have met + with princes so willing to espouse their cause, nor the new doctrines have + found such numerous, brave, and persevering champions. The Reformation is + undoubtedly owing in a great measure to the invincible power of truth, or + of opinions which were held as such. The abuses in the old church, the + absurdity of many of its dogmas, the extravagance of its requisitions, + necessarily revolted the tempers of men, already half-won with the promise + of a better light, and favourably disposed them towards the new doctrines. + The charm of independence, the rich plunder of monastic institutions, made + the Reformation attractive in the eyes of princes, and tended not a little + to strengthen their inward convictions. Nothing, however, but political + considerations could have driven them to espouse it. Had not Charles the + Fifth, in the intoxication of success, made an attempt on the independence + of the German States, a Protestant league would scarcely have rushed to + arms in defence of freedom of belief; but for the ambition of the Guises, + the Calvinists in France would never have beheld a Conde or a Coligny at + their head. Without the exaction of the tenth and the twentieth penny, the + See of Rome had never lost the United Netherlands. Princes fought in + self-defence or for aggrandizement, while religious enthusiasm recruited + their armies, and opened to them the treasures of their subjects. Of the + multitude who flocked to their standards, such as were not lured by the + hope of plunder imagined they were fighting for the truth, while in fact + they were shedding their blood for the personal objects of their princes. + </p> + <p> + And well was it for the people that, on this occasion, their interests + coincided with those of their princes. To this coincidence alone were they + indebted for their deliverance from popery. Well was it also for the + rulers, that the subject contended too for his own cause, while he was + fighting their battles. Fortunately at this date no European sovereign was + so absolute as to be able, in the pursuit of his political designs, to + dispense with the goodwill of his subjects. Yet how difficult was it to + gain and to set to work this goodwill! The most impressive arguments drawn + from reasons of state fall powerless on the ear of the subject, who seldom + understands, and still more rarely is interested in them. In such + circumstances, the only course open to a prudent prince is to connect the + interests of the cabinet with some one that sits nearer to the people’s + heart, if such exists, or if not, to create it. + </p> + <p> + In such a position stood the greater part of those princes who embraced + the cause of the Reformation. By a strange concatenation of events, the + divisions of the Church were associated with two circumstances, without + which, in all probability, they would have had a very different + conclusion. These were, the increasing power of the House of Austria, + which threatened the liberties of Europe, and its active zeal for the old + religion. The first aroused the princes, while the second armed the + people. + </p> + <p> + The abolition of a foreign jurisdiction within their own territories, the + supremacy in ecclesiastical matters, the stopping of the treasure which + had so long flowed to Rome, the rich plunder of religious foundations, + were tempting advantages to every sovereign. Why, then, it may be asked, + did they not operate with equal force upon the princes of the House of + Austria? What prevented this house, particularly in its German branch, + from yielding to the pressing demands of so many of its subjects, and, + after the example of other princes, enriching itself at the expense of a + defenceless clergy? It is difficult to credit that a belief in the + infallibility of the Romish Church had any greater influence on the pious + adherence of this house, than the opposite conviction had on the revolt of + the Protestant princes. In fact, several circumstances combined to make + the Austrian princes zealous supporters of popery. Spain and Italy, from + which Austria derived its principal strength, were still devoted to the + See of Rome with that blind obedience which, ever since the days of the + Gothic dynasty, had been the peculiar characteristic of the Spaniard. The + slightest approximation, in a Spanish prince, to the obnoxious tenets of + Luther and Calvin, would have alienated for ever the affections of his + subjects, and a defection from the Pope would have cost him the kingdom. A + Spanish prince had no alternative but orthodoxy or abdication. The same + restraint was imposed upon Austria by her Italian dominions, which she was + obliged to treat, if possible, with even greater indulgence; impatient as + they naturally were of a foreign yoke, and possessing also ready means of + shaking it off. In regard to the latter provinces, moreover, the rival + pretensions of France, and the neighbourhood of the Pope, were motives + sufficient to prevent the Emperor from declaring in favour of a party + which strove to annihilate the papal see, and also to induce him to show + the most active zeal in behalf of the old religion. These general + considerations, which must have been equally weighty with every Spanish + monarch, were, in the particular case of Charles V., still further + enforced by peculiar and personal motives. In Italy this monarch had a + formidable rival in the King of France, under whose protection that + country might throw itself the instant that Charles should incur the + slightest suspicion of heresy. Distrust on the part of the Roman + Catholics, and a rupture with the church, would have been fatal also to + many of his most cherished designs. Moreover, when Charles was first + called upon to make his election between the two parties, the new doctrine + had not yet attained to a full and commanding influence, and there still + subsisted a prospect of its reconciliation with the old. In his son and + successor, Philip the Second, a monastic education combined with a gloomy + and despotic disposition to generate an unmitigated hostility to all + innovations in religion; a feeling which the thought that his most + formidable political opponents were also the enemies of his faith was not + calculated to weaken. As his European possessions, scattered as they were + over so many countries, were on all sides exposed to the seductions of + foreign opinions, the progress of the Reformation in other quarters could + not well be a matter of indifference to him. His immediate interests, + therefore, urged him to attach himself devotedly to the old church, in + order to close up the sources of the heretical contagion. Thus, + circumstances naturally placed this prince at the head of the league which + the Roman Catholics formed against the Reformers. The principles which had + actuated the long and active reigns of Charles V. and Philip the Second, + remained a law for their successors; and the more the breach in the church + widened, the firmer became the attachment of the Spaniards to Roman + Catholicism. + </p> + <p> + The German line of the House of Austria was apparently more unfettered; + but, in reality, though free from many of these restraints, it was yet + confined by others. The possession of the imperial throne—a dignity + it was impossible for a Protestant to hold, (for with what consistency + could an apostate from the Romish Church wear the crown of a Roman + emperor?) bound the successors of Ferdinand I. to the See of Rome. + Ferdinand himself was, from conscientious motives, heartily attached to + it. Besides, the German princes of the House of Austria were not powerful + enough to dispense with the support of Spain, which, however, they would + have forfeited by the least show of leaning towards the new doctrines. The + imperial dignity, also, required them to preserve the existing political + system of Germany, with which the maintenance of their own authority was + closely bound up, but which it was the aim of the Protestant League to + destroy. If to these grounds we add the indifference of the Protestants to + the Emperor’s necessities and to the common dangers of the empire, their + encroachments on the temporalities of the church, and their aggressive + violence when they became conscious of their own power, we can easily + conceive how so many concurring motives must have determined the emperors + to the side of popery, and how their own interests came to be intimately + interwoven with those of the Roman Church. As its fate seemed to depend + altogether on the part taken by Austria, the princes of this house came to + be regarded by all Europe as the pillars of popery. The hatred, therefore, + which the Protestants bore against the latter, was turned exclusively upon + Austria; and the cause became gradually confounded with its protector. + </p> + <p> + But this irreconcileable enemy of the Reformation—the House of + Austria —by its ambitious projects and the overwhelming force which + it could bring to their support, endangered, in no small degree, the + freedom of Europe, and more especially of the German States. This + circumstance could not fail to rouse the latter from their security, and + to render them vigilant in self-defence. Their ordinary resources were + quite insufficient to resist so formidable a power. Extraordinary + exertions were required from their subjects; and when even these proved + far from adequate, they had recourse to foreign assistance; and, by means + of a common league, they endeavoured to oppose a power which, singly, they + were unable to withstand. + </p> + <p> + But the strong political inducements which the German princes had to + resist the pretensions of the House of Austria, naturally did not extend + to their subjects. It is only immediate advantages or immediate evils that + set the people in action, and for these a sound policy cannot wait. Ill + then would it have fared with these princes, if by good fortune another + effectual motive had not offered itself, which roused the passions of the + people, and kindled in them an enthusiasm which might be directed against + the political danger, as having with it a common cause of alarm. + </p> + <p> + This motive was their avowed hatred of the religion which Austria + protected, and their enthusiastic attachment to a doctrine which that + House was endeavouring to extirpate by fire and sword. Their attachment + was ardent, their hatred invincible. Religious fanaticism anticipates even + the remotest dangers. Enthusiasm never calculates its sacrifices. What the + most pressing danger of the state could not gain from the citizens, was + effected by religious zeal. For the state, or for the prince, few would + have drawn the sword; but for religion, the merchant, the artist, the + peasant, all cheerfully flew to arms. For the state, or for the prince, + even the smallest additional impost would have been avoided; but for + religion the people readily staked at once life, fortune, and all earthly + hopes. It trebled the contributions which flowed into the exchequer of the + princes, and the armies which marched to the field; and, in the ardent + excitement produced in all minds by the peril to which their faith was + exposed, the subject felt not the pressure of those burdens and privations + under which, in cooler moments, he would have sunk exhausted. The terrors + of the Spanish Inquisition, and the massacre of St. Bartholomew’s, + procured for the Prince of Orange, the Admiral Coligny, the British Queen + Elizabeth, and the Protestant princes of Germany, supplies of men and + money from their subjects, to a degree which at present is inconceivable. + </p> + <p> + But, with all their exertions, they would have effected little against a + power which was an overmatch for any single adversary, however powerful. + At this period of imperfect policy, accidental circumstances alone could + determine distant states to afford one another a mutual support. The + differences of government, of laws, of language, of manners, and of + character, which hitherto had kept whole nations and countries as it were + insulated, and raised a lasting barrier between them, rendered one state + insensible to the distresses of another, save where national jealousy + could indulge a malicious joy at the reverses of a rival. This barrier the + Reformation destroyed. An interest more intense and more immediate than + national aggrandizement or patriotism, and entirely independent of private + utility, began to animate whole states and individual citizens; an + interest capable of uniting numerous and distant nations, even while it + frequently lost its force among the subjects of the same government. With + the inhabitants of Geneva, for instance, of England, of Germany, or of + Holland, the French Calvinist possessed a common point of union which he + had not with his own countrymen. Thus, in one important particular, he + ceased to be the citizen of a single state, and to confine his views and + sympathies to his own country alone. The sphere of his views became + enlarged. He began to calculate his own fate from that of other nations of + the same religious profession, and to make their cause his own. Now for + the first time did princes venture to bring the affairs of other countries + before their own councils; for the first time could they hope for a + willing ear to their own necessities, and prompt assistance from others. + Foreign affairs had now become a matter of domestic policy, and that aid + was readily granted to the religious confederate which would have been + denied to the mere neighbour, and still more to the distant stranger. The + inhabitant of the Palatinate leaves his native fields to fight side by + side with his religious associate of France, against the common enemy of + their faith. The Huguenot draws his sword against the country which + persecutes him, and sheds his blood in defence of the liberties of + Holland. Swiss is arrayed against Swiss; German against German, to + determine, on the banks of the Loire and the Seine, the succession of the + French crown. The Dane crosses the Eider, and the Swede the Baltic, to + break the chains which are forged for Germany. + </p> + <p> + It is difficult to say what would have been the fate of the Reformation, + and the liberties of the Empire, had not the formidable power of Austria + declared against them. This, however, appears certain, that nothing so + completely damped the Austrian hopes of universal monarchy, as the + obstinate war which they had to wage against the new religious opinions. + Under no other circumstances could the weaker princes have roused their + subjects to such extraordinary exertions against the ambition of Austria, + or the States themselves have united so closely against the common enemy. + </p> + <p> + The power of Austria never stood higher than after the victory which + Charles V. gained over the Germans at Muehlberg. With the treaty of + Smalcalde the freedom of Germany lay, as it seemed, prostrate for ever; + but it revived under Maurice of Saxony, once its most formidable enemy. + All the fruits of the victory of Muehlberg were lost again in the congress + of Passau, and the diet of Augsburg; and every scheme for civil and + religious oppression terminated in the concessions of an equitable peace. + </p> + <p> + The diet of Augsburg divided Germany into two religious and two political + parties, by recognizing the independent rights and existence of both. + Hitherto the Protestants had been looked on as rebels; they were + henceforth to be regarded as brethren—not indeed through affection, + but necessity. By the Interim, the Confession of Augsburg was allowed + temporarily to take a sisterly place alongside of the olden religion, + though only as a tolerated neighbour. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + [A system of Theology so called, prepared by order of the Emperor + Charles V. for the use of Germany, to reconcile the differences + between the Roman Catholics and the Lutherans, which, however, was + rejected by both parties—Ed.] +</pre> + <p> + To every secular state was conceded the right of establishing the religion + it acknowledged as supreme and exclusive within its own territories, and + of forbidding the open profession of its rival. Subjects were to be free + to quit a country where their own religion was not tolerated. The + doctrines of Luther for the first time received a positive sanction; and + if they were trampled under foot in Bavaria and Austria, they predominated + in Saxony and Thuringia. But the sovereigns alone were to determine what + form of religion should prevail within their territories; the feelings of + subjects who had no representatives in the diet were little attended to in + the pacification. In the ecclesiastical territories, indeed, where the + unreformed religion enjoyed an undisputed supremacy, the free exercise of + their religion was obtained for all who had previously embraced the + Protestant doctrines; but this indulgence rested only on the personal + guarantee of Ferdinand, King of the Romans, by whose endeavours chiefly + this peace was effected; a guarantee, which, being rejected by the Roman + Catholic members of the Diet, and only inserted in the treaty under their + protest, could not of course have the force of law. + </p> + <p> + If it had been opinions only that thus divided the minds of men, with what + indifference would all have regarded the division! But on these opinions + depended riches, dignities, and rights; and it was this which so deeply + aggravated the evils of division. Of two brothers, as it were, who had + hitherto enjoyed a paternal inheritance in common, one now remained, while + the other was compelled to leave his father’s house, and hence arose the + necessity of dividing the patrimony. For this separation, which he could + not have foreseen, the father had made no provision. By the beneficent + donations of pious ancestors the riches of the church had been + accumulating through a thousand years, and these benefactors were as much + the progenitors of the departing brother as of him who remained. Was the + right of inheritance then to be limited to the paternal house, or to be + extended to blood? The gifts had been made to the church in communion with + Rome, because at that time no other existed,—to the first-born, as + it were, because he was as yet the only son. Was then a right of + primogeniture to be admitted in the church, as in noble families? Were the + pretensions of one party to be favoured by a prescription from times when + the claims of the other could not have come into existence? Could the + Lutherans be justly excluded from these possessions, to which the + benevolence of their forefathers had contributed, merely on the ground + that, at the date of their foundation, the differences between Lutheranism + and Romanism were unknown? Both parties have disputed, and still dispute, + with equal plausibility, on these points. Both alike have found it + difficult to prove their right. Law can be applied only to conceivable + cases, and perhaps spiritual foundations are not among the number of + these, and still less where the conditions of the founders generally + extended to a system of doctrines; for how is it conceivable that a + permanent endowment should be made of opinions left open to change? + </p> + <p> + What law cannot decide, is usually determined by might, and such was the + case here. The one party held firmly all that could no longer be wrested + from it—the other defended what it still possessed. All the + bishoprics and abbeys which had been secularized BEFORE the peace, + remained with the Protestants; but, by an express clause, the unreformed + Catholics provided that none should thereafter be secularized. Every + impropriator of an ecclesiastical foundation, who held immediately of the + Empire, whether elector, bishop, or abbot, forfeited his benefice and + dignity the moment he embraced the Protestant belief; he was obliged in + that event instantly to resign its emoluments, and the chapter was to + proceed to a new election, exactly as if his place had been vacated by + death. By this sacred anchor of the Ecclesiastical Reservation, + (`Reservatum Ecclesiasticum’,) which makes the temporal existence of a + spiritual prince entirely dependent on his fidelity to the olden religion, + the Roman Catholic Church in Germany is still held fast; and precarious, + indeed, would be its situation were this anchor to give way. The principle + of the Ecclesiastical Reservation was strongly opposed by the Protestants; + and though it was at last adopted into the treaty of peace, its insertion + was qualified with the declaration, that parties had come to no final + determination on the point. Could it then be more binding on the + Protestants than Ferdinand’s guarantee in favour of Protestant subjects of + ecclesiastical states was upon the Roman Catholics? Thus were two + important subjects of dispute left unsettled in the treaty of peace, and + by them the war was rekindled. + </p> + <p> + Such was the position of things with regard to religious toleration and + ecclesiastical property: it was the same with regard to rights and + dignities. The existing German system provided only for one church, + because one only was in existence when that system was framed. The church + had now divided; the Diet had broken into two religious parties; was the + whole system of the Empire still exclusively to follow the one? The + emperors had hitherto been members of the Romish Church, because till now + that religion had no rival. But was it his connexion with Rome which + constituted a German emperor, or was it not rather Germany which was to be + represented in its head? The Protestants were now spread over the whole + Empire, and how could they justly still be represented by an unbroken line + of Roman Catholic emperors? In the Imperial Chamber the German States + judge themselves, for they elect the judges; it was the very end of its + institution that they should do so, in order that equal justice should be + dispensed to all; but would this be still possible, if the representatives + of both professions were not equally admissible to a seat in the Chamber? + That one religion only existed in Germany at the time of its + establishment, was accidental; that no one estate should have the means of + legally oppressing another, was the essential purpose of the institution. + Now this object would be entirely frustrated if one religious party were + to have the exclusive power of deciding for the other. Must, then, the + design be sacrificed, because that which was merely accidental had + changed? With great difficulty the Protestants, at last, obtained for the + representatives of their religion a place in the Supreme Council, but + still there was far from being a perfect equality of voices. To this day + no Protestant prince has been raised to the imperial throne. + </p> + <p> + Whatever may be said of the equality which the peace of Augsburg was to + have established between the two German churches, the Roman Catholic had + unquestionably still the advantage. All that the Lutheran Church gained by + it was toleration; all that the Romish Church conceded, was a sacrifice to + necessity, not an offering to justice. Very far was it from being a peace + between two equal powers, but a truce between a sovereign and unconquered + rebels. From this principle all the proceedings of the Roman Catholics + against the Protestants seemed to flow, and still continue to do so. To + join the reformed faith was still a crime, since it was to be visited with + so severe a penalty as that which the Ecclesiastical Reservation held + suspended over the apostacy of the spiritual princes. Even to the last, + the Romish Church preferred to risk to loss of every thing by force, than + voluntarily to yield the smallest matter to justice. The loss was + accidental and might be repaired; but the abandonment of its pretensions, + the concession of a single point to the Protestants, would shake the + foundations of the church itself. Even in the treaty of peace this + principle was not lost sight of. Whatever in this peace was yielded to the + Protestants was always under condition. It was expressly declared, that + affairs were to remain on the stipulated footing only till the next + general council, which was to be called with the view of effecting an + union between the two confessions. Then only, when this last attempt + should have failed, was the religious treaty to become valid and + conclusive. However little hope there might be of such a reconciliation, + however little perhaps the Romanists themselves were in earnest with it, + still it was something to have clogged the peace with these stipulations. + </p> + <p> + Thus this religious treaty, which was to extinguish for ever the flames of + civil war, was, in fact, but a temporary truce, extorted by force and + necessity; not dictated by justice, nor emanating from just notions either + of religion or toleration. A religious treaty of this kind the Roman + Catholics were as incapable of granting, to be candid, as in truth the + Lutherans were unqualified to receive. Far from evincing a tolerant spirit + towards the Roman Catholics, when it was in their power, they even + oppressed the Calvinists; who indeed just as little deserved toleration, + since they were unwilling to practise it. For such a peace the times were + not yet ripe—the minds of men not yet sufficiently enlightened. How + could one party expect from another what itself was incapable of + performing? What each side saved or gained by the treaty of Augsburg, it + owed to the imposing attitude of strength which it maintained at the time + of its negociation. What was won by force was to be maintained also by + force; if the peace was to be permanent, the two parties to it must + preserve the same relative positions. The boundaries of the two churches + had been marked out with the sword; with the sword they must be preserved, + or woe to that party which should be first disarmed! A sad and fearful + prospect for the tranquillity of Germany, when peace itself bore so + threatening an aspect. + </p> + <p> + A momentary lull now pervaded the empire; a transitory bond of concord + appeared to unite its scattered limbs into one body, so that for a time a + feeling also for the common weal returned. But the division had penetrated + its inmost being, and to restore its original harmony was impossible. + Carefully as the treaty of peace appeared to have defined the rights of + both parties, its interpretation was nevertheless the subject of many + disputes. In the heat of conflict it had produced a cessation of + hostilities; it covered, not extinguished, the fire, and unsatisfied + claims remained on either side. The Romanists imagined they had lost too + much, the Protestants that they had gained too little; and the treaty + which neither party could venture to violate, was interpreted by each in + its own favour. + </p> + <p> + The seizure of the ecclesiastical benefices, the motive which had so + strongly tempted the majority of the Protestant princes to embrace the + doctrines of Luther, was not less powerful after than before the peace; of + those whose founders had not held their fiefs immediately of the empire, + such as were not already in their possession would it was evident soon be + so. The whole of Lower Germany was already secularized; and if it were + otherwise in Upper Germany, it was owing to the vehement resistance of the + Catholics, who had there the preponderance. Each party, where it was the + most powerful, oppressed the adherents of the other; the ecclesiastical + princes in particular, as the most defenceless members of the empire, were + incessantly tormented by the ambition of their Protestant neighbours. + Those who were too weak to repel force by force, took refuge under the + wings of justice; and the complaints of spoliation were heaped up against + the Protestants in the Imperial Chamber, which was ready enough to pursue + the accused with judgments, but found too little support to carry them + into effect. The peace which stipulated for complete religious toleration + for the dignitaries of the Empire, had provided also for the subject, by + enabling him, without interruption, to leave the country in which the + exercise of his religion was prohibited. But from the wrongs which the + violence of a sovereign might inflict on an obnoxious subject; from the + nameless oppressions by which he might harass and annoy the emigrant; from + the artful snares in which subtilty combined with power might enmesh him—from + these, the dead letter of the treaty could afford him no protection. The + Catholic subject of Protestant princes complained loudly of violations of + the religious peace—the Lutherans still more loudly of the + oppression they experienced under their Romanist suzerains. The rancour + and animosities of theologians infused a poison into every occurrence, + however inconsiderable, and inflamed the minds of the people. Happy would + it have been had this theological hatred exhausted its zeal upon the + common enemy, instead of venting its virus on the adherents of a kindred + faith! + </p> + <p> + Unanimity amongst the Protestants might, by preserving the balance between + the contending parties, have prolonged the peace; but as if to complete + the confusion, all concord was quickly broken. The doctrines which had + been propagated by Zuingli in Zurich, and by Calvin in Geneva, soon spread + to Germany, and divided the Protestants among themselves, with little in + unison save their common hatred to popery. The Protestants of this date + bore but slight resemblance to those who, fifty years before, drew up the + Confession of Augsburg; and the cause of the change is to be sought in + that Confession itself. It had prescribed a positive boundary to the + Protestant faith, before the newly awakened spirit of inquiry had + satisfied itself as to the limits it ought to set; and the Protestants + seemed unwittingly to have thrown away much of the advantage acquired by + their rejection of popery. Common complaints of the Romish hierarchy, and + of ecclesiastical abuses, and a common disapprobation of its dogmas, + formed a sufficient centre of union for the Protestants; but not content + with this, they sought a rallying point in the promulgation of a new and + positive creed, in which they sought to embody the distinctions, the + privileges, and the essence of the church, and to this they referred the + convention entered into with their opponents. It was as professors of this + creed that they had acceded to the treaty; and in the benefits of this + peace the advocates of the confession were alone entitled to participate. + In any case, therefore, the situation of its adherents was embarrassing. + If a blind obedience were yielded to the dicta of the Confession, a + lasting bound would be set to the spirit of inquiry; if, on the other + hand, they dissented from the formulae agreed upon, the point of union + would be lost. Unfortunately both incidents occurred, and the evil results + of both were quickly felt. One party rigorously adhered to the original + symbol of faith, and the other abandoned it, only to adopt another with + equal exclusiveness. + </p> + <p> + Nothing could have furnished the common enemy a more plausible defence of + his cause than this dissension; no spectacle could have been more + gratifying to him than the rancour with which the Protestants alternately + persecuted each other. Who could condemn the Roman Catholics, if they + laughed at the audacity with which the Reformers had presumed to announce + the only true belief?—if from Protestants they borrowed the weapons + against Protestants?—if, in the midst of this clashing of opinions, + they held fast to the authority of their own church, for which, in part, + there spoke an honourable antiquity, and a yet more honourable plurality + of voices. But this division placed the Protestants in still more serious + embarrassments. As the covenants of the treaty applied only to the + partisans of the Confession, their opponents, with some reason, called + upon them to explain who were to be recognized as the adherents of that + creed. The Lutherans could not, without offending conscience, include the + Calvinists in their communion, except at the risk of converting a useful + friend into a dangerous enemy, could they exclude them. This unfortunate + difference opened a way for the machinations of the Jesuits to sow + distrust between both parties, and to destroy the unity of their measures. + Fettered by the double fear of their direct adversaries, and of their + opponents among themselves, the Protestants lost for ever the opportunity + of placing their church on a perfect equality with the Catholic. All these + difficulties would have been avoided, and the defection of the Calvinists + would not have prejudiced the common cause, if the point of union had been + placed simply in the abandonment of Romanism, instead of in the Confession + of Augsburg. + </p> + <p> + But however divided on other points, they concurred in this—that the + security which had resulted from equality of power could only be + maintained by the preservation of that balance. In the meanwhile, the + continual reforms of one party, and the opposing measures of the other, + kept both upon the watch, while the interpretation of the religious treaty + was a never-ending subject of dispute. Each party maintained that every + step taken by its opponent was an infraction of the peace, while of every + movement of its own it was asserted that it was essential to its + maintenance. Yet all the measures of the Catholics did not, as their + opponents alleged, proceed from a spirit of encroachment—many of + them were the necessary precautions of self-defence. The Protestants had + shown unequivocally enough what the Romanists might expect if they were + unfortunate enough to become the weaker party. The greediness of the + former for the property of the church, gave no reason to expect + indulgence;—their bitter hatred left no hope of magnanimity or + forbearance. + </p> + <p> + But the Protestants, likewise, were excusable if they too placed little + confidence in the sincerity of the Roman Catholics. By the treacherous and + inhuman treatment which their brethren in Spain, France, and the + Netherlands, had suffered; by the disgraceful subterfuge of the Romish + princes, who held that the Pope had power to relieve them from the + obligation of the most solemn oaths; and above all, by the detestable + maxim, that faith was not to be kept with heretics, the Roman Church, in + the eyes of all honest men, had lost its honour. No engagement, no oath, + however sacred, from a Roman Catholic, could satisfy a Protestant. What + security then could the religious peace afford, when, throughout Germany, + the Jesuits represented it as a measure of mere temporary convenience, and + in Rome itself it was solemnly repudiated. + </p> + <p> + The General Council, to which reference had been made in the treaty, had + already been held in the city of Trent; but, as might have been foreseen, + without accommodating the religious differences, or taking a single step + to effect such accommodation, and even without being attended by the + Protestants. The latter, indeed, were now solemnly excommunicated by it in + the name of the church, whose representative the Council gave itself out + to be. Could, then, a secular treaty, extorted moreover by force of arms, + afford them adequate protection against the ban of the church; a treaty, + too, based on a condition which the decision of the Council seemed + entirely to abolish? There was then a show of right for violating the + peace, if only the Romanists possessed the power; and henceforward the + Protestants were protected by nothing but the respect for their formidable + array. + </p> + <p> + Other circumstances combined to augment this distrust. Spain, on whose + support the Romanists in Germany chiefly relied, was engaged in a bloody + conflict with the Flemings. By it, the flower of the Spanish troops were + drawn to the confines of Germany. With what ease might they be introduced + within the empire, if a decisive stroke should render their presence + necessary? Germany was at that time a magazine of war for nearly all the + powers of Europe. The religious war had crowded it with soldiers, whom the + peace left destitute; its many independent princes found it easy to + assemble armies, and afterwards, for the sake of gain, or the interests of + party, hire them out to other powers. With German troops, Philip the + Second waged war against the Netherlands, and with German troops they + defended themselves. Every such levy in Germany was a subject of alarm to + the one party or the other, since it might be intended for their + oppression. The arrival of an ambassador, an extraordinary legate of the + Pope, a conference of princes, every unusual incident, must, it was + thought, be pregnant with destruction to some party. Thus, for nearly half + a century, stood Germany, her hand upon the sword; every rustle of a leaf + alarmed her. + </p> + <p> + Ferdinand the First, King of Hungary, and his excellent son, Maximilian + the Second, held at this memorable epoch the reins of government. With a + heart full of sincerity, with a truly heroic patience, had Ferdinand + brought about the religious peace of Augsburg, and afterwards, in the + Council of Trent, laboured assiduously, though vainly, at the ungrateful + task of reconciling the two religions. Abandoned by his nephew, Philip of + Spain, and hard pressed both in Hungary and Transylvania by the victorious + armies of the Turks, it was not likely that this emperor would entertain + the idea of violating the religious peace, and thereby destroying his own + painful work. The heavy expenses of the perpetually recurring war with + Turkey could not be defrayed by the meagre contributions of his exhausted + hereditary dominions. He stood, therefore, in need of the assistance of + the whole empire; and the religious peace alone preserved in one body the + otherwise divided empire. Financial necessities made the Protestant as + needful to him as the Romanist, and imposed upon him the obligation of + treating both parties with equal justice, which, amidst so many + contradictory claims, was truly a colossal task. Very far, however, was + the result from answering his expectations. His indulgence of the + Protestants served only to bring upon his successors a war, which death + saved himself the mortification of witnessing. Scarcely more fortunate was + his son Maximilian, with whom perhaps the pressure of circumstances was + the only obstacle, and a longer life perhaps the only want, to his + establishing the new religion upon the imperial throne. Necessity had + taught the father forbearance towards the Protestants—necessity and + justice dictated the same course to the son. The grandson had reason to + repent that he neither listened to justice, nor yielded to necessity. + </p> + <p> + Maximilian left six sons, of whom the eldest, the Archduke Rodolph, + inherited his dominions, and ascended the imperial throne. The other + brothers were put off with petty appanages. A few mesne fiefs were held by + a collateral branch, which had their uncle, Charles of Styria, at its + head; and even these were afterwards, under his son, Ferdinand the Second, + incorporated with the rest of the family dominions. With this exception, + the whole of the imposing power of Austria was now wielded by a single, + but unfortunately weak hand. + </p> + <p> + Rodolph the Second was not devoid of those virtues which might have gained + him the esteem of mankind, had the lot of a private station fallen to him. + His character was mild, he loved peace and the sciences, particularly + astronomy, natural history, chemistry, and the study of antiquities. To + these he applied with a passionate zeal, which, at the very time when the + critical posture of affairs demanded all his attention, and his exhausted + finances the most rigid economy, diverted his attention from state + affairs, and involved him in pernicious expenses. His taste for astronomy + soon lost itself in those astrological reveries to which timid and + melancholy temperaments like his are but too disposed. This, together with + a youth passed in Spain, opened his ears to the evil counsels of the + Jesuits, and the influence of the Spanish court, by which at last he was + wholly governed. Ruled by tastes so little in accordance with the dignity + of his station, and alarmed by ridiculous prophecies, he withdrew, after + the Spanish custom, from the eyes of his subjects, to bury himself amidst + his gems and antiques, or to make experiments in his laboratory, while the + most fatal discords loosened all the bands of the empire, and the flames + of rebellion began to burst out at the very footsteps of his throne. All + access to his person was denied, the most urgent matters were neglected. + The prospect of the rich inheritance of Spain was closed against him, + while he was trying to make up his mind to offer his hand to the Infanta + Isabella. A fearful anarchy threatened the Empire, for though without an + heir of his own body, he could not be persuaded to allow the election of a + King of the Romans. The Austrian States renounced their allegiance, + Hungary and Transylvania threw off his supremacy, and Bohemia was not slow + in following their example. The descendant of the once so formidable + Charles the Fifth was in perpetual danger, either of losing one part of + his possessions to the Turks, or another to the Protestants, and of + sinking, beyond redemption, under the formidable coalition which a great + monarch of Europe had formed against him. The events which now took place + in the interior of Germany were such as usually happened when either the + throne was without an emperor, or the Emperor without a sense of his + imperial dignity. Outraged or abandoned by their head, the States of the + Empire were left to help themselves; and alliances among themselves must + supply the defective authority of the Emperor. Germany was divided into + two leagues, which stood in arms arrayed against each other: between both, + Rodolph, the despised opponent of the one, and the impotent protector of + the other, remained irresolute and useless, equally unable to destroy the + former or to command the latter. What had the Empire to look for from a + prince incapable even of defending his hereditary dominions against its + domestic enemies? To prevent the utter ruin of the House of Austria, his + own family combined against him; and a powerful party threw itself into + the arms of his brother. Driven from his hereditary dominions, nothing was + now left him to lose but the imperial dignity; and he was only spared this + last disgrace by a timely death. + </p> + <p> + At this critical moment, when only a supple policy, united with a vigorous + arm, could have maintained the tranquillity of the Empire, its evil genius + gave it a Rodolph for Emperor. At a more peaceful period the Germanic + Union would have managed its own interests, and Rodolph, like so many + others of his rank, might have hidden his deficiencies in a mysterious + obscurity. But the urgent demand for the qualities in which he was most + deficient revealed his incapacity. The position of Germany called for an + emperor who, by his known energies, could give weight to his resolves; and + the hereditary dominions of Rodolph, considerable as they were, were at + present in a situation to occasion the greatest embarrassment to the + governors. + </p> + <p> + The Austrian princes, it is true were Roman Catholics, and in addition to + that, the supporters of Popery, but their countries were far from being + so. The reformed opinions had penetrated even these, and favoured by + Ferdinand’s necessities and Maximilian’s mildness, had met with a rapid + success. The Austrian provinces exhibited in miniature what Germany did on + a larger scale. The great nobles and the ritter class or knights were + chiefly evangelical, and in the cities the Protestants had a decided + preponderance. If they succeeded in bringing a few of their party into the + country, they contrived imperceptibly to fill all places of trust and the + magistracy with their own adherents, and to exclude the Catholics. Against + the numerous order of the nobles and knights, and the deputies from the + towns, the voice of a few prelates was powerless; and the unseemly + ridicule and offensive contempt of the former soon drove them entirely + from the provincial diets. Thus the whole of the Austrian Diet had + imperceptibly become Protestant, and the Reformation was making rapid + strides towards its public recognition. The prince was dependent on the + Estates, who had it in their power to grant or refuse supplies. + Accordingly, they availed themselves of the financial necessities of + Ferdinand and his son to extort one religious concession after another. To + the nobles and knights, Maximilian at last conceded the free exercise of + their religion, but only within their own territories and castles. The + intemperate enthusiasm of the Protestant preachers overstepped the + boundaries which prudence had prescribed. In defiance of the express + prohibition, several of them ventured to preach publicly, not only in the + towns, but in Vienna itself, and the people flocked in crowds to this new + doctrine, the best seasoning of which was personality and abuse. Thus + continued food was supplied to fanaticism, and the hatred of two churches, + that were such near neighbours, was farther envenomed by the sting of an + impure zeal. + </p> + <p> + Among the hereditary dominions of the House of Austria, Hungary and + Transylvania were the most unstable, and the most difficult to retain. The + impossibility of holding these two countries against the neighbouring and + overwhelming power of the Turks, had already driven Ferdinand to the + inglorious expedient of recognizing, by an annual tribute, the Porte’s + supremacy over Transylvania; a shameful confession of weakness, and a + still more dangerous temptation to the turbulent nobility, when they + fancied they had any reason to complain of their master. Not without + conditions had the Hungarians submitted to the House of Austria. They + asserted the elective freedom of their crown, and boldly contended for all + those prerogatives of their order which are inseparable from this freedom + of election. The near neighbourhood of Turkey, the facility of changing + masters with impunity, encouraged the magnates still more in their + presumption; discontented with the Austrian government they threw + themselves into the arms of the Turks; dissatisfied with these, they + returned again to their German sovereigns. The frequency and rapidity of + these transitions from one government to another, had communicated its + influences also to their mode of thinking; and as their country wavered + between the Turkish and Austrian rule, so their minds vacillated between + revolt and submission. The more unfortunate each nation felt itself in + being degraded into a province of a foreign kingdom, the stronger desire + did they feel to obey a monarch chosen from amongst themselves, and thus + it was always easy for an enterprising noble to obtain their support. The + nearest Turkish pasha was always ready to bestow the Hungarian sceptre and + crown on a rebel against Austria; just as ready was Austria to confirm to + any adventurer the possession of provinces which he had wrested from the + Porte, satisfied with preserving thereby the shadow of authority, and with + erecting at the same time a barrier against the Turks. In this way several + of these magnates, Batbori, Boschkai, Ragoczi, and Bethlen succeeded in + establishing themselves, one after another, as tributary sovereigns in + Transylvania and Hungary; and they maintained their ground by no deeper + policy than that of occasionally joining the enemy, in order to render + themselves more formidable to their own prince. + </p> + <p> + Ferdinand, Maximilian, and Rodolph, who were all sovereigns of Hungary and + Transylvania, exhausted their other territories in endeavouring to defend + these from the hostile inroads of the Turks, and to put down intestine + rebellion. In this quarter destructive wars were succeeded but by brief + truces, which were scarcely less hurtful: far and wide the land lay waste, + while the injured serf had to complain equally of his enemy and his + protector. Into these countries also the Reformation had penetrated; and + protected by the freedom of the States, and under the cover of the + internal disorders, had made a noticeable progress. Here too it was + incautiously attacked, and party spirit thus became yet more dangerous + from religious enthusiasm. Headed by a bold rebel, Boschkai, the nobles of + Hungary and Transylvania raised the standard of rebellion. The Hungarian + insurgents were upon the point of making common cause with the + discontented Protestants in Austria, Moravia, and Bohemia, and uniting all + those countries in one fearful revolt. The downfall of popery in these + lands would then have been inevitable. + </p> + <p> + Long had the Austrian archdukes, the brothers of the Emperor, beheld with + silent indignation the impending ruin of their house; this last event + hastened their decision. The Archduke Matthias, Maximilian’s second son, + Viceroy in Hungary, and Rodolph’s presumptive heir, now came forward as + the stay of the falling house of Hapsburg. In his youth, misled by a false + ambition, this prince, disregarding the interests of his family, had + listened to the overtures of the Flemish insurgents, who invited him into + the Netherlands to conduct the defence of their liberties against the + oppression of his own relative, Philip the Second. Mistaking the voice of + an insulated faction for that of the entire nation, Matthias obeyed the + call. But the event answered the expectations of the men of Brabant as + little as his own, and from this imprudent enterprise he retired with + little credit. + </p> + <p> + Far more honourable was his second appearance in the political world. + Perceiving that his repeated remonstrances with the Emperor were + unavailing, he assembled the archdukes, his brothers and cousins, at + Presburg, and consulted with them on the growing perils of their house, + when they unanimously assigned to him, as the oldest, the duty of + defending that patrimony which a feeble brother was endangering. In his + hands they placed all their powers and rights, and vested him with + sovereign authority, to act at his discretion for the common good. + Matthias immediately opened a communication with the Porte and the + Hungarian rebels, and through his skilful management succeeded in saving, + by a peace with the Turks, the remainder of Hungary, and by a treaty with + the rebels, preserved the claims of Austria to the lost provinces. But + Rodolph, as jealous as he had hitherto been careless of his sovereign + authority, refused to ratify this treaty, which he regarded as a criminal + encroachment on his sovereign rights. He accused the Archduke of keeping + up a secret understanding with the enemy, and of cherishing treasonable + designs on the crown of Hungary. + </p> + <p> + The activity of Matthias was, in truth, anything but disinterested; the + conduct of the Emperor only accelerated the execution of his ambitious + views. Secure, from motives of gratitude, of the devotion of the + Hungarians, for whom he had so lately obtained the blessings of peace; + assured by his agents of the favourable disposition of the nobles, and + certain of the support of a large party, even in Austria, he now ventured + to assume a bolder attitude, and, sword in hand, to discuss his grievances + with the Emperor. The Protestants in Austria and Moravia, long ripe for + revolt, and now won over to the Archduke by his promises of toleration, + loudly and openly espoused his cause, and their long-menaced alliance with + the Hungarian rebels was actually effected. Almost at once a formidable + conspiracy was planned and matured against the Emperor. Too late did he + resolve to amend his past errors; in vain did he attempt to break up this + fatal alliance. Already the whole empire was in arms; Hungary, Austria, + and Moravia had done homage to Matthias, who was already on his march to + Bohemia to seize the Emperor in his palace, and to cut at once the sinews + of his power. + </p> + <p> + Bohemia was not a more peaceable possession for Austria than Hungary; with + this difference only, that, in the latter, political considerations, in + the former, religious dissensions, fomented disorders. In Bohemia, a + century before the days of Luther, the first spark of the religious war + had been kindled; a century after Luther, the first flames of the thirty + years’ war burst out in Bohemia. The sect which owed its rise to John + Huss, still existed in that country;—it agreed with the Romish + Church in ceremonies and doctrines, with the single exception of the + administration of the Communion, in which the Hussites communicated in + both kinds. This privilege had been conceded to the followers of Huss by + the Council of Basle, in an express treaty, (the Bohemian Compact); and + though it was afterwards disavowed by the popes, they nevertheless + continued to profit by it under the sanction of the government. As the use + of the cup formed the only important distinction of their body, they were + usually designated by the name of Utraquists; and they readily adopted an + appellation which reminded them of their dearly valued privilege. But + under this title lurked also the far stricter sects of the Bohemian and + Moravian Brethren, who differed from the predominant church in more + important particulars, and bore, in fact, a great resemblance to the + German Protestants. Among them both, the German and Swiss opinions on + religion made rapid progress; while the name of Utraquists, under which + they managed to disguise the change of their principles, shielded them + from persecution. + </p> + <p> + In truth, they had nothing in common with the Utraquists but the name; + essentially, they were altogether Protestant. Confident in the strength of + their party, and the Emperor’s toleration under Maximilian, they had + openly avowed their tenets. After the example of the Germans, they drew up + a Confession of their own, in which Lutherans as well as Calvinists + recognized their own doctrines, and they sought to transfer to the new + Confession the privileges of the original Utraquists. In this they were + opposed by their Roman Catholic countrymen, and forced to rest content + with the Emperor’s verbal assurance of protection. + </p> + <p> + As long as Maximilian lived, they enjoyed complete toleration, even under + the new form they had taken. Under his successor the scene changed. An + imperial edict appeared, which deprived the Bohemian Brethren of their + religious freedom. Now these differed in nothing from the other + Utraquists. The sentence, therefore, of their condemnation, obviously + included all the partisans of the Bohemian Confession. Accordingly, they + all combined to oppose the imperial mandate in the Diet, but without being + able to procure its revocation. The Emperor and the Roman Catholic Estates + took their ground on the Compact and the Bohemian Constitution; in which + nothing appeared in favour of a religion which had not then obtained the + voice of the country. Since that time, how completely had affairs changed! + What then formed but an inconsiderable opinion, had now become the + predominant religion of the country. And what was it then, but a + subterfuge to limit a newly spreading religion by the terms of obsolete + treaties? The Bohemian Protestants appealed to the verbal guarantee of + Maximilian, and the religious freedom of the Germans, with whom they + argued they ought to be on a footing of equality. It was in vain—their + appeal was dismissed. + </p> + <p> + Such was the posture of affairs in Bohemia, when Matthias, already master + of Hungary, Austria, and Moravia, appeared in Kolin, to raise the Bohemian + Estates also against the Emperor. The embarrassment of the latter was now + at its height. Abandoned by all his other subjects, he placed his last + hopes on the Bohemians, who, it might be foreseen, would take advantage of + his necessities to enforce their own demands. After an interval of many + years, he once more appeared publicly in the Diet at Prague; and to + convince the people that he was really still in existence, orders were + given that all the windows should be opened in the streets through which + he was to pass—proof enough how far things had gone with him. The + event justified his fears. The Estates, conscious of their own power, + refused to take a single step until their privileges were confirmed, and + religious toleration fully assured to them. It was in vain to have + recourse now to the old system of evasion. The Emperor’s fate was in their + hands, and he must yield to necessity. At present, however, he only + granted their other demands—religious matters he reserved for + consideration at the next Diet. + </p> + <p> + The Bohemians now took up arms in defence of the Emperor, and a bloody war + between the two brothers was on the point of breaking out. But Rodolph, + who feared nothing so much as remaining in this slavish dependence on the + Estates, waited not for a warlike issue, but hastened to effect a + reconciliation with his brother by more peaceable means. By a formal act + of abdication he resigned to Matthias, what indeed he had no chance of + wresting from him, Austria and the kingdom of Hungary, and acknowledged + him as his successor to the crown of Bohemia. + </p> + <p> + Dearly enough had the Emperor extricated himself from one difficulty, only + to get immediately involved in another. The settlement of the religious + affairs of Bohemia had been referred to the next Diet, which was held in + 1609. The reformed Bohemians demanded the free exercise of their faith, as + under the former emperors; a Consistory of their own; the cession of the + University of Prague; and the right of electing `Defenders’, or + `Protectors’ of `Liberty’, from their own body. The answer was the same as + before; for the timid Emperor was now entirely fettered by the unreformed + party. However often, and in however threatening language the Estates + renewed their remonstrances, the Emperor persisted in his first + declaration of granting nothing beyond the old compact. The Diet broke up + without coming to a decision; and the Estates, exasperated against the + Emperor, arranged a general meeting at Prague, upon their own authority, + to right themselves. + </p> + <p> + They appeared at Prague in great force. In defiance of the imperial + prohibition, they carried on their deliberations almost under the very + eyes of the Emperor. The yielding compliance which he began to show, only + proved how much they were feared, and increased their audacity. Yet on the + main point he remained inflexible. They fulfilled their threats, and at + last resolved to establish, by their own power, the free and universal + exercise of their religion, and to abandon the Emperor to his necessities + until he should confirm this resolution. They even went farther, and + elected for themselves the DEFENDERS which the Emperor had refused them. + Ten were nominated by each of the three Estates; they also determined to + raise, as soon as possible, an armed force, at the head of which Count + Thurn, the chief organizer of the revolt, should be placed as general + defender of the liberties of Bohemia. Their determination brought the + Emperor to submission, to which he was now counselled even by the + Spaniards. Apprehensive lest the exasperated Estates should throw + themselves into the arms of the King of Hungary, he signed the memorable + Letter of Majesty for Bohemia, by which, under the successors of the + Emperor, that people justified their rebellion. + </p> + <p> + The Bohemian Confession, which the States had laid before the Emperor + Maximilian, was, by the Letter of Majesty, placed on a footing of equality + with the olden profession. The Utraquists, for by this title the Bohemian + Protestants continued to designate themselves, were put in possession of + the University of Prague, and allowed a Consistory of their own, entirely + independent of the archiepiscopal see of that city. All the churches in + the cities, villages, and market towns, which they held at the date of the + letter, were secured to them; and if in addition they wished to erect + others, it was permitted to the nobles, and knights, and the free cities + to do so. This last clause in the Letter of Majesty gave rise to the + unfortunate disputes which subsequently rekindled the flames of war in + Europe. + </p> + <p> + The Letter of Majesty erected the Protestant part of Bohemia into a kind + of republic. The Estates had learned to feel the power which they gained + by perseverance, unity, and harmony in their measures. The Emperor now + retained little more than the shadow of his sovereign authority; while by + the new dignity of the so-called defenders of liberty, a dangerous + stimulus was given to the spirit of revolt. The example and success of + Bohemia afforded a tempting seduction to the other hereditary dominions of + Austria, and all attempted by similar means to extort similar privileges. + The spirit of liberty spread from one province to another; and as it was + chiefly the disunion among the Austrian princes that had enabled the + Protestants so materially to improve their advantages, they now hastened + to effect a reconciliation between the Emperor and the King of Hungary. + </p> + <p> + But the reconciliation could not be sincere. The wrong was too great to be + forgiven, and Rodolph continued to nourish at heart an unextinguishable + hatred of Matthias. With grief and indignation he brooded over the + thought, that the Bohemian sceptre was finally to descend into the hands + of his enemy; and the prospect was not more consoling, even if Matthias + should die without issue. In that case, Ferdinand, Archduke of Graetz, + whom he equally disliked, was the head of the family. To exclude the + latter as well as Matthias from the succession to the throne of Bohemia, + he fell upon the project of diverting that inheritance to Ferdinand’s + brother, the Archduke Leopold, Bishop of Passau, who among all his + relatives had ever been the dearest and most deserving. The prejudices of + the Bohemians in favour of the elective freedom of their crown, and their + attachment to Leopold’s person, seemed to favour this scheme, in which + Rodolph consulted rather his own partiality and vindictiveness than the + good of his house. But to carry out this project, a military force was + requisite, and Rodolph actually assembled an army in the bishopric of + Passau. The object of this force was hidden from all. An inroad, however, + which, for want of pay it made suddenly and without the Emperor’s + knowledge into Bohemia, and the outrages which it there committed, stirred + up the whole kingdom against him. In vain he asserted his innocence to the + Bohemian Estates; they would not believe his protestations; vainly did he + attempt to restrain the violence of his soldiery; they disregarded his + orders. Persuaded that the Emperor’s object was to annul the Letter of + Majesty, the Protectors of Liberty armed the whole of Protestant Bohemia, + and invited Matthias into the country. After the dispersion of the force + he had collected at Passau, the Emperor remained helpless at Prague, where + he was kept shut up like a prisoner in his palace, and separated from all + his councillors. In the meantime, Matthias entered Prague amidst universal + rejoicings, where Rodolph was soon afterwards weak enough to acknowledge + him King of Bohemia. So hard a fate befell this Emperor; he was compelled, + during his life, to abdicate in favour of his enemy that very throne, of + which he had been endeavouring to deprive him after his own death. To + complete his degradation, he was obliged, by a personal act of + renunciation, to release his subjects in Bohemia, Silesia, and Lusatia + from their allegiance, and he did it with a broken heart. All, even those + he thought he had most attached to his person, had abandoned him. When he + had signed the instrument, he threw his hat upon the ground, and gnawed + the pen which had rendered so shameful a service. + </p> + <p> + While Rodolph thus lost one hereditary dominion after another, the + imperial dignity was not much better maintained by him. Each of the + religious parties into which Germany was divided, continued its efforts to + advance itself at the expense of the other, or to guard against its + attacks. The weaker the hand that held the sceptre, and the more the + Protestants and Roman Catholics felt they were left to themselves, the + more vigilant necessarily became their watchfulness, and the greater their + distrust of each other. It was enough that the Emperor was ruled by + Jesuits, and was guided by Spanish counsels, to excite the apprehension of + the Protestants, and to afford a pretext for hostility. The rash zeal of + the Jesuits, which in the pulpit and by the press disputed the validity of + the religious peace, increased this distrust, and caused their adversaries + to see a dangerous design in the most indifferent measures of the Roman + Catholics. Every step taken in the hereditary dominions of the Emperor, + for the repression of the reformed religion, was sure to draw the + attention of all the Protestants of Germany; and this powerful support + which the reformed subjects of Austria met, or expected to meet with from + their religious confederates in the rest of Germany, was no small cause of + their confidence, and of the rapid success of Matthias. It was the general + belief of the Empire, that they owed the long enjoyment of the religious + peace merely to the difficulties in which the Emperor was placed by the + internal troubles in his dominions, and consequently they were in no haste + to relieve him from them. + </p> + <p> + Almost all the affairs of the Diet were neglected, either through the + procrastination of the Emperor, or through the fault of the Protestant + Estates, who had determined to make no provision for the common wants of + the Empire till their own grievances were removed. These grievances + related principally to the misgovernment of the Emperor; the violation of + the religious treaty, and the presumptuous usurpations of the Aulic + Council, which in the present reign had begun to extend its jurisdiction + at the expense of the Imperial Chamber. Formerly, in all disputes between + the Estates, which could not be settled by club law, the Emperors had in + the last resort decided of themselves, if the case were trifling, and in + conjunction with the princes, if it were important; or they determined + them by the advice of imperial judges who followed the court. This + superior jurisdiction they had, in the end of the fifteenth century, + assigned to a regular and permanent tribunal, the Imperial Chamber of + Spires, in which the Estates of the Empire, that they might not be + oppressed by the arbitrary appointment of the Emperor, had reserved to + themselves the right of electing the assessors, and of periodically + reviewing its decrees. By the religious peace, these rights of the + Estates, (called the rights of presentation and visitation,) were extended + also to the Lutherans, so that Protestant judges had a voice in Protestant + causes, and a seeming equality obtained for both religions in this supreme + tribunal. + </p> + <p> + But the enemies of the Reformation and of the freedom of the Estates, + vigilant to take advantage of every incident that favoured their views, + soon found means to neutralize the beneficial effects of this institution. + A supreme jurisdiction over the Imperial States was gradually and + skilfully usurped by a private imperial tribunal, the Aulic Council in + Vienna, a court at first intended merely to advise the Emperor in the + exercise of his undoubted, imperial, and personal prerogatives; a court, + whose members being appointed and paid by him, had no law but the interest + of their master, and no standard of equity but the advancement of the + unreformed religion of which they were partisans. Before the Aulic Council + were now brought several suits originating between Estates differing in + religion, and which, therefore, properly belonged to the Imperial Chamber. + It was not surprising if the decrees of this tribunal bore traces of their + origin; if the interests of the Roman Church and of the Emperor were + preferred to justice by Roman Catholic judges, and the creatures of the + Emperor. Although all the Estates of Germany seemed to have equal cause + for resisting so perilous an abuse, the Protestants alone, who most + sensibly felt it, and even these not all at once and in a body, came + forward as the defenders of German liberty, which the establishment of so + arbitrary a tribunal had outraged in its most sacred point, the + administration of justice. In fact, Germany would have had little cause to + congratulate itself upon the abolition of club-law, and in the institution + of the Imperial Chamber, if an arbitrary tribunal of the Emperor was + allowed to interfere with the latter. The Estates of the German Empire + would indeed have improved little upon the days of barbarism, if the + Chamber of Justice in which they sat along with the Emperor as judges, and + for which they had abandoned their original princely prerogative, should + cease to be a court of the last resort. But the strangest contradictions + were at this date to be found in the minds of men. The name of Emperor, a + remnant of Roman despotism, was still associated with an idea of + autocracy, which, though it formed a ridiculous inconsistency with the + privileges of the Estates, was nevertheless argued for by jurists, + diffused by the partisans of despotism, and believed by the ignorant. + </p> + <p> + To these general grievances was gradually added a chain of singular + incidents, which at length converted the anxiety of the Protestants into + utter distrust. During the Spanish persecutions in the Netherlands, + several Protestant families had taken refuge in Aix-la-Chapelle, an + imperial city, and attached to the Roman Catholic faith, where they + settled and insensibly extended their adherents. Having succeeded by + stratagem in introducing some of their members into the municipal council, + they demanded a church and the public exercise of their worship, and the + demand being unfavourably received, they succeeded by violence in + enforcing it, and also in usurping the entire government of the city. To + see so important a city in Protestant hands was too heavy a blow for the + Emperor and the Roman Catholics. After all the Emperor’s requests and + commands for the restoration of the olden government had proved + ineffectual, the Aulic Council proclaimed the city under the ban of the + Empire, which, however, was not put in force till the following reign. + </p> + <p> + Of yet greater importance were two other attempts of the Protestants to + extend their influence and their power. The Elector Gebhard, of Cologne, + (born Truchsess—[Grand-master of the kitchen.]—of Waldburg,) + conceived for the young Countess Agnes, of Mansfield, Canoness of + Gerresheim, a passion which was not unreturned. As the eyes of all Germany + were directed to this intercourse, the brothers of the Countess, two + zealous Calvinists, demanded satisfaction for the injured honour of their + house, which, as long as the elector remained a Roman Catholic prelate, + could not be repaired by marriage. They threatened the elector they would + wash out this stain in his blood and their sister’s, unless he either + abandoned all further connexion with the countess, or consented to + re-establish her reputation at the altar. The elector, indifferent to all + the consequences of this step, listened to nothing but the voice of love. + Whether it was in consequence of his previous inclination to the reformed + doctrines, or that the charms of his mistress alone effected this wonder, + he renounced the Roman Catholic faith, and led the beautiful Agnes to the + altar. + </p> + <p> + This event was of the greatest importance. By the letter of the clause + reserving the ecclesiastical states from the general operation of the + religious peace, the elector had, by his apostacy, forfeited all right to + the temporalities of his bishopric; and if, in any case, it was important + for the Catholics to enforce the clause, it was so especially in the case + of electorates. On the other hand, the relinquishment of so high a dignity + was a severe sacrifice, and peculiarly so in the case of a tender husband, + who had wished to enhance the value of his heart and hand by the gift of a + principality. Moreover, the Reservatum Ecclesiasticum was a disputed + article of the treaty of Augsburg; and all the German Protestants were + aware of the extreme importance of wresting this fourth electorate from + the opponents of their faith.—[Saxony, Brandenburg, and the + Palatinate were already Protestant.]—The example had already been + set in several of the ecclesiastical benefices of Lower Germany, and + attended with success. Several canons of Cologne had also already embraced + the Protestant confession, and were on the elector’s side, while, in the + city itself, he could depend upon the support of a numerous Protestant + party. All these considerations, greatly strengthened by the persuasions + of his friends and relations, and the promises of several German courts, + determined the elector to retain his dominions, while he changed his + religion. + </p> + <p> + But it was soon apparent that he had entered upon a contest which he could + not carry through. Even the free toleration of the Protestant service + within the territories of Cologne, had already occasioned a violent + opposition on the part of the canons and Roman Catholic `Estates’ of that + province. The intervention of the Emperor, and a papal ban from Rome, + which anathematized the elector as an apostate, and deprived him of all + his dignities, temporal and spiritual, armed his own subjects and chapter + against him. The Elector assembled a military force; the chapter did the + same. To ensure also the aid of a strong arm, they proceeded forthwith to + a new election, and chose the Bishop of Liege, a prince of Bavaria. + </p> + <p> + A civil war now commenced, which, from the strong interest which both + religious parties in Germany necessarily felt in the conjuncture, was + likely to terminate in a general breaking up of the religious peace. What + most made the Protestants indignant, was that the Pope should have + presumed, by a pretended apostolic power, to deprive a prince of the + empire of his imperial dignities. Even in the golden days of their + spiritual domination, this prerogative of the Pope had been disputed; how + much more likely was it to be questioned at a period when his authority + was entirely disowned by one party, while even with the other it rested on + a tottering foundation. All the Protestant princes took up the affair + warmly against the Emperor; and Henry IV. of France, then King of Navarre, + left no means of negotiation untried to urge the German princes to the + vigorous assertion of their rights. The issue would decide for ever the + liberties of Germany. Four Protestant against three Roman Catholic voices + in the Electoral College must at once have given the preponderance to the + former, and for ever excluded the House of Austria from the imperial + throne. + </p> + <p> + But the Elector Gebhard had embraced the Calvinist, not the Lutheran + religion; and this circumstance alone was his ruin. The mutual rancour of + these two churches would not permit the Lutheran Estates to regard the + Elector as one of their party, and as such to lend him their effectual + support. All indeed had encouraged, and promised him assistance; but only + one appanaged prince of the Palatine House, the Palsgrave John Casimir, a + zealous Calvinist, kept his word. Despite of the imperial prohibition, he + hastened with his little army into the territories of Cologne; but without + being able to effect any thing, because the Elector, who was destitute + even of the first necessaries, left him totally without help. So much the + more rapid was the progress of the newly-chosen elector, whom his Bavarian + relations and the Spaniards from the Netherlands supported with the utmost + vigour. The troops of Gebhard, left by their master without pay, abandoned + one place after another to the enemy; by whom others were compelled to + surrender. In his Westphalian territories, Gebhard held out for some time + longer, till here, too, he was at last obliged to yield to superior force. + After several vain attempts in Holland and England to obtain means for his + restoration, he retired into the Chapter of Strasburg, and died dean of + that cathedral; the first sacrifice to the Ecclesiastical Reservation, or + rather to the want of harmony among the German Protestants. + </p> + <p> + To this dispute in Cologne was soon added another in Strasburg. Several + Protestant canons of Cologne, who had been included in the same papal ban + with the elector, had taken refuge within this bishopric, where they + likewise held prebends. As the Roman Catholic canons of Strasburg + hesitated to allow them, as being under the ban, the enjoyment of their + prebends, they took violent possession of their benefices, and the support + of a powerful Protestant party among the citizens soon gave them the + preponderance in the chapter. The other canons thereupon retired to + Alsace-Saverne, where, under the protection of the bishop, they + established themselves as the only lawful chapter, and denounced that + which remained in Strasburg as illegal. The latter, in the meantime, had + so strengthened themselves by the reception of several Protestant + colleagues of high rank, that they could venture, upon the death of the + bishop, to nominate a new Protestant bishop in the person of John George + of Brandenburg. The Roman Catholic canons, far from allowing this + election, nominated the Bishop of Metz, a prince of Lorraine, to that + dignity, who announced his promotion by immediately commencing hostilities + against the territories of Strasburg. + </p> + <p> + That city now took up arms in defence of its Protestant chapter and the + Prince of Brandenburg, while the other party, with the assistance of the + troops of Lorraine, endeavoured to possess themselves of the temporalities + of the chapter. A tedious war was the consequence, which, according to the + spirit of the times, was attended with barbarous devastations. In vain did + the Emperor interpose with his supreme authority to terminate the dispute; + the ecclesiastical property remained for a long time divided between the + two parties, till at last the Protestant prince, for a moderate pecuniary + equivalent, renounced his claims; and thus, in this dispute also, the + Roman Church came off victorious. + </p> + <p> + An occurrence which, soon after the adjustment of this dispute, took place + in Donauwerth, a free city of Suabia, was still more critical for the + whole of Protestant Germany. In this once Roman Catholic city, the + Protestants, during the reigns of Ferdinand and his son, had, in the usual + way, become so completely predominant, that the Roman Catholics were + obliged to content themselves with a church in the Monastery of the Holy + Cross, and for fear of offending the Protestants, were even forced to + suppress the greater part of their religious rites. At length a fanatical + abbot of this monastery ventured to defy the popular prejudices, and to + arrange a public procession, preceded by the cross and banners flying; but + he was soon compelled to desist from the attempt. When, a year afterwards, + encouraged by a favourable imperial proclamation, the same abbot attempted + to renew this procession, the citizens proceeded to open violence. The + inhabitants shut the gates against the monks on their return, trampled + their colours under foot, and followed them home with clamour and abuse. + An imperial citation was the consequence of this act of violence; and as + the exasperated populace even threatened to assault the imperial + commissaries, and all attempts at an amicable adjustment were frustrated + by the fanaticism of the multitude, the city was at last formally placed + under the ban of the Empire, the execution of which was intrusted to + Maximilian, Duke of Bavaria. The citizens, formerly so insolent, were + seized with terror at the approach of the Bavarian army; pusillanimity now + possessed them, though once so full of defiance, and they laid down their + arms without striking a blow. The total abolition of the Protestant + religion within the walls of the city was the punishment of their + rebellion; it was deprived of its privileges, and, from a free city of + Suabia, converted into a municipal town of Bavaria. + </p> + <p> + Two circumstances connected with this proceeding must have strongly + excited the attention of the Protestants, even if the interests of + religion had been less powerful on their minds. First of all, the sentence + had been pronounced by the Aulic Council, an arbitrary and exclusively + Roman Catholic tribunal, whose jurisdiction besides had been so warmly + disputed by them; and secondly, its execution had been intrusted to the + Duke of Bavaria, the head of another circle. These unconstitutional steps + seemed to be the harbingers of further violent measures on the Roman + Catholic side, the result, probably, of secret conferences and dangerous + designs, which might perhaps end in the entire subversion of their + religious liberty. + </p> + <p> + In circumstances where the law of force prevails, and security depends + upon power alone, the weakest party is naturally the most busy to place + itself in a posture of defence. This was now the case in Germany. If the + Roman Catholics really meditated any evil against the Protestants in + Germany, the probability was that the blow would fall on the south rather + than the north, because, in Lower Germany, the Protestants were connected + together through a long unbroken tract of country, and could therefore + easily combine for their mutual support; while those in the south, + detached from each other, and surrounded on all sides by Roman Catholic + states, were exposed to every inroad. If, moreover, as was to be expected, + the Catholics availed themselves of the divisions amongst the Protestants, + and levelled their attack against one of the religious parties, it was the + Calvinists who, as the weaker, and as being besides excluded from the + religious treaty, were apparently in the greatest danger, and upon them + would probably fall the first attack. + </p> + <p> + Both these circumstances took place in the dominions of the Elector + Palatine, which possessed, in the Duke of Bavaria, a formidable neighbour, + and which, by reason of their defection to Calvinism, received no + protection from the Religious Peace, and had little hope of succour from + the Lutheran states. No country in Germany had experienced so many + revolutions in religion in so short a time as the Palatinate. In the space + of sixty years this country, an unfortunate toy in the hands of its + rulers, had twice adopted the doctrines of Luther, and twice relinquished + them for Calvinism. The Elector Frederick III. first abandoned the + confession of Augsburg, which his eldest son and successor, Lewis, + immediately re-established. The Calvinists throughout the whole country + were deprived of their churches, their preachers and even their teachers + banished beyond the frontiers; while the prince, in his Lutheran zeal, + persecuted them even in his will, by appointing none but strict and + orthodox Lutherans as the guardians of his son, a minor. But this illegal + testament was disregarded by his brother the Count Palatine, John Casimir, + who, by the regulations of the Golden Bull, assumed the guardianship and + administration of the state. Calvinistic teachers were given to the + Elector Frederick IV., then only nine years of age, who were ordered, if + necessary, to drive the Lutheran heresy out of the soul of their pupil + with blows. If such was the treatment of the sovereign, that of the + subjects may be easily conceived. + </p> + <p> + It was under this Frederick that the Palatine Court exerted itself so + vigorously to unite the Protestant states of Germany in joint measures + against the House of Austria, and, if possible, bring about the formation + of a general confederacy. Besides that this court had always been guided + by the counsels of France, with whom hatred of the House of Austria was + the ruling principle, a regard for his own safety urged him to secure in + time the doubtful assistance of the Lutherans against a near and + overwhelming enemy. Great difficulties, however, opposed this union, + because the Lutherans’ dislike of the Reformed was scarcely less than the + common aversion of both to the Romanists. An attempt was first made to + reconcile the two professions, in order to facilitate a political union; + but all these attempts failed, and generally ended in both parties + adhering the more strongly to their respective opinions. Nothing then + remained but to increase the fear and the distrust of the Evangelicals, + and in this way to impress upon them the necessity of this alliance. The + power of the Roman Catholics and the magnitude of the danger were + exaggerated, accidental incidents were ascribed to deliberate plans, + innocent actions misrepresented by invidious constructions, and the whole + conduct of the professors of the olden religion was interpreted as the + result of a well-weighed and systematic plan, which, in all probability, + they were very far from having concerted. + </p> + <p> + The Diet of Ratisbon, to which the Protestants had looked forward with the + hope of obtaining a renewal of the Religious Peace, had broken up without + coming to a decision, and to the former grievances of the Protestant party + was now added the late oppression of Donauwerth. With incredible speed, + the union, so long attempted, was now brought to bear. A conference took + place at Anhausen, in Franconia, at which were present the Elector + Frederick IV., from the Palatinate, the Palsgrave of Neuburg, two + Margraves of Brandenburg, the Margrave of Baden, and the Duke John + Frederick of Wirtemburg,—Lutherans as well as Calvinists,— who + for themselves and their heirs entered into a close confederacy under the + title of the Evangelical Union. The purport of this union was, that the + allied princes should, in all matters relating to religion and their civil + rights, support each other with arms and counsel against every aggressor, + and should all stand as one man; that in case any member of the alliance + should be attacked, he should be assisted by the rest with an armed force; + that, if necessary, the territories, towns, and castles of the allied + states should be open to his troops; and that, whatever conquests were + made, should be divided among all the confederates, in proportion to the + contingent furnished by each. + </p> + <p> + The direction of the whole confederacy in time of peace was conferred upon + the Elector Palatine, but with a limited power. To meet the necessary + expenses, subsidies were demanded, and a common fund established. + Differences of religion (betwixt the Lutherans and the Calvinists) were to + have no effect on this alliance, which was to subsist for ten years, every + member of the union engaged at the same time to procure new members to it. + The Electorate of Brandenburg adopted the alliance, that of Saxony + rejected it. Hesse-Cashel could not be prevailed upon to declare itself, + the Dukes of Brunswick and Luneburg also hesitated. But the three cities + of the Empire, Strasburg, Nuremburg, and Ulm, were no unimportant + acquisition for the league, which was in great want of their money, while + their example, besides, might be followed by other imperial cities. + </p> + <p> + After the formation of this alliance, the confederate states, dispirited, + and singly, little feared, adopted a bolder language. Through Prince + Christian of Anhalt, they laid their common grievances and demands before + the Emperor; among which the principal were the restoration of Donauwerth, + the abolition of the Imperial Court, the reformation of the Emperor’s own + administration and that of his counsellors. For these remonstrances, they + chose the moment when the Emperor had scarcely recovered breath from the + troubles in his hereditary dominions,—when he had lost Hungary and + Austria to Matthias, and had barely preserved his Bohemian throne by the + concession of the Letter of Majesty, and finally, when through the + succession of Juliers he was already threatened with the distant prospect + of a new war. No wonder, then, that this dilatory prince was more + irresolute than ever in his decision, and that the confederates took up + arms before he could bethink himself. + </p> + <p> + The Roman Catholics regarded this confederacy with a jealous eye; the + Union viewed them and the Emperor with the like distrust; the Emperor was + equally suspicious of both; and thus, on all sides, alarm and animosity + had reached their climax. And, as if to crown the whole, at this critical + conjuncture by the death of the Duke John William of Juliers, a highly + disputable succession became vacant in the territories of Juliers and + Cleves. + </p> + <p> + Eight competitors laid claim to this territory, the indivisibility of + which had been guaranteed by solemn treaties; and the Emperor, who seemed + disposed to enter upon it as a vacant fief, might be considered as the + ninth. Four of these, the Elector of Brandenburg, the Count Palatine of + Neuburg, the Count Palatine of Deux Ponts, and the Margrave of Burgau, an + Austrian prince, claimed it as a female fief in name of four princesses, + sisters of the late duke. Two others, the Elector of Saxony, of the line + of Albert, and the Duke of Saxony, of the line of Ernest, laid claim to it + under a prior right of reversion granted to them by the Emperor Frederick + III., and confirmed to both Saxon houses by Maximilian I. The pretensions + of some foreign princes were little regarded. The best right was perhaps + on the side of Brandenburg and Neuburg, and between the claims of these + two it was not easy to decide. Both courts, as soon as the succession was + vacant, proceeded to take possession; Brandenburg beginning, and Neuburg + following the example. Both commenced their dispute with the pen, and + would probably have ended it with the sword; but the interference of the + Emperor, by proceeding to bring the cause before his own cognizance, and, + during the progress of the suit, sequestrating the disputed countries, + soon brought the contending parties to an agreement, in order to avert the + common danger. They agreed to govern the duchy conjointly. In vain did the + Emperor prohibit the Estates from doing homage to their new masters; in + vain did he send his own relation, the Archduke Leopold, Bishop of Passau + and Strasburg, into the territory of Juliers, in order, by his presence, + to strengthen the imperial party. The whole country, with the exception of + Juliers itself, had submitted to the Protestant princes, and in that + capital the imperialists were besieged. + </p> + <p> + The dispute about the succession of Juliers was an important one to the + whole German empire, and also attracted the attention of several European + courts. It was not so much the question, who was or was not to possess the + Duchy of Juliers;—the real question was, which of the two religious + parties in Germany, the Roman Catholic or the Protestant, was to be + strengthened by so important an accession—for which of the two + RELIGIONS this territory was to be lost or won. The question in short was, + whether Austria was to be allowed to persevere in her usurpations, and to + gratify her lust of dominion by another robbery; or whether the liberties + of Germany, and the balance of power, were to be maintained against her + encroachments. The disputed succession of Juliers, therefore, was matter + which interested all who were favourable to liberty, and hostile to + Austria. The Evangelical Union, Holland, England, and particularly Henry + IV. of France, were drawn into the strife. + </p> + <p> + This monarch, the flower of whose life had been spent in opposing the + House of Austria and Spain, and by persevering heroism alone had + surmounted the obstacles which this house had thrown between him and the + French throne, had been no idle spectator of the troubles in Germany. This + contest of the Estates with the Emperor was the means of giving and + securing peace to France. The Protestants and the Turks were the two + salutary weights which kept down the Austrian power in the East and West; + but it would rise again in all its terrors, if once it were allowed to + remove this pressure. Henry the Fourth had before his eyes for half a + lifetime, the uninterrupted spectacle of Austrian ambition and Austrian + lust of dominion, which neither adversity nor poverty of talents, though + generally they check all human passions, could extinguish in a bosom + wherein flowed one drop of the blood of Ferdinand of Arragon. Austrian + ambition had destroyed for a century the peace of Europe, and effected the + most violent changes in the heart of its most considerable states. It had + deprived the fields of husbandmen, the workshops of artisans, to fill the + land with enormous armies, and to cover the commercial sea with hostile + fleets. It had imposed upon the princes of Europe the necessity of + fettering the industry of their subjects by unheard-of imposts; and of + wasting in self-defence the best strength of their states, which was thus + lost to the prosperity of their inhabitants. For Europe there was no + peace, for its states no welfare, for the people’s happiness no security + or permanence, so long as this dangerous house was permitted to disturb at + pleasure the repose of the world. + </p> + <p> + Such considerations clouded the mind of Henry at the close of his glorious + career. What had it not cost him to reduce to order the troubled chaos + into which France had been plunged by the tumult of civil war, fomented + and supported by this very Austria! Every great mind labours for eternity; + and what security had Henry for the endurance of that prosperity which he + had gained for France, so long as Austria and Spain formed a single power, + which did indeed lie exhausted for the present, but which required only + one lucky chance to be speedily re-united, and to spring up again as + formidable as ever. If he would bequeath to his successors a firmly + established throne, and a durable prosperity to his subjects, this + dangerous power must be for ever disarmed. This was the source of that + irreconcileable enmity which Henry had sworn to the House of Austria, a + hatred unextinguishable, ardent, and well-founded as that of Hannibal + against the people of Romulus, but ennobled by a purer origin. + </p> + <p> + The other European powers had the same inducements to action as Henry, but + all of them had not that enlightened policy, nor that disinterested + courage to act upon the impulse. All men, without distinction, are allured + by immediate advantages; great minds alone are excited by distant good. So + long as wisdom in its projects calculates upon wisdom, or relies upon its + own strength, it forms none but chimerical schemes, and runs a risk of + making itself the laughter of the world; but it is certain of success, and + may reckon upon aid and admiration when it finds a place in its + intellectual plans for barbarism, rapacity, and superstition, and can + render the selfish passions of mankind the executors of its purposes. + </p> + <p> + In the first point of view, Henry’s well-known project of expelling the + House of Austria from all its possessions, and dividing the spoil among + the European powers, deserves the title of a chimera, which men have so + liberally bestowed upon it; but did it merit that appellation in the + second? It had never entered into the head of that excellent monarch, in + the choice of those who must be the instruments of his designs, to reckon + on the sufficiency of such motives as animated himself and Sully to the + enterprise. All the states whose co-operation was necessary, were to be + persuaded to the work by the strongest motives that can set a political + power in action. From the Protestants in Germany nothing more was required + than that which, on other grounds, had been long their object,—their + throwing off the Austrian yoke; from the Flemings, a similar revolt from + the Spaniards. To the Pope and all the Italian republics no inducement + could be more powerful than the hope of driving the Spaniards for ever + from their peninsula; for England, nothing more desirable than a + revolution which should free it from its bitterest enemy. By this division + of the Austrian conquests, every power gained either land or freedom, new + possessions or security for the old; and as all gained, the balance of + power remained undisturbed. France might magnanimously decline a share in + the spoil, because by the ruin of Austria it doubly profited, and was most + powerful if it did not become more powerful. Finally, upon condition of + ridding Europe of their presence, the posterity of Hapsburg were to be + allowed the liberty of augmenting her territories in all the other known + or yet undiscovered portions of the globe. But the dagger of Ravaillac + delivered Austria from her danger, to postpone for some centuries longer + the tranquillity of Europe. + </p> + <p> + With his view directed to this project, Henry felt the necessity of taking + a prompt and active part in the important events of the Evangelical Union, + and the disputed succession of Juliers. His emissaries were busy in all + the courts of Germany, and the little which they published or allowed to + escape of the great political secrets of their master, was sufficient to + win over minds inflamed by so ardent a hatred to Austria, and by so strong + a desire of aggrandizement. The prudent policy of Henry cemented the Union + still more closely, and the powerful aid which he bound himself to + furnish, raised the courage of the confederates into the firmest + confidence. A numerous French army, led by the king in person, was to meet + the troops of the Union on the banks of the Rhine, and to assist in + effecting the conquest of Juliers and Cleves; then, in conjunction with + the Germans, it was to march into Italy, (where Savoy, Venice, and the + Pope were even now ready with a powerful reinforcement,) and to overthrow + the Spanish dominion in that quarter. This victorious army was then to + penetrate by Lombardy into the hereditary dominions of Hapsburg; and + there, favoured by a general insurrection of the Protestants, destroy the + power of Austria in all its German territories, in Bohemia, Hungary, and + Transylvania. The Brabanters and Hollanders, supported by French + auxiliaries, would in the meantime shake off the Spanish tyranny in the + Netherlands; and thus the mighty stream which, only a short time before, + had so fearfully overflowed its banks, threatening to overwhelm in its + troubled waters the liberties of Europe, would then roll silent and + forgotten behind the Pyrenean mountains. + </p> + <p> + At other times, the French had boasted of their rapidity of action, but + upon this occasion they were outstripped by the Germans. An army of the + confederates entered Alsace before Henry made his appearance there, and an + Austrian army, which the Bishop of Strasburg and Passau had assembled in + that quarter for an expedition against Juliers, was dispersed. Henry IV. + had formed his plan as a statesman and a king, but he had intrusted its + execution to plunderers. According to his design, no Roman Catholic state + was to have cause to think this preparation aimed against itself, or to + make the quarrel of Austria its own. Religion was in nowise to be mixed up + with the matter. But how could the German princes forget their own + purposes in furthering the plans of Henry? Actuated as they were by the + desire of aggrandizement and by religious hatred, was it to be supposed + that they would not gratify, in every passing opportunity, their ruling + passions to the utmost? Like vultures, they stooped upon the territories + of the ecclesiastical princes, and always chose those rich countries for + their quarters, though to reach them they must make ever so wide a detour + from their direct route. They levied contributions as in an enemy’s + country, seized upon the revenues, and exacted, by violence, what they + could not obtain of free-will. Not to leave the Roman Catholics in doubt + as to the true objects of their expedition, they announced, openly and + intelligibly enough, the fate that awaited the property of the church. So + little had Henry IV. and the German princes understood each other in their + plan of operations, so much had the excellent king been mistaken in his + instruments. It is an unfailing maxim, that, if policy enjoins an act of + violence, its execution ought never to be entrusted to the violent; and + that he only ought to be trusted with the violation of order by whom order + is held sacred. + </p> + <p> + Both the past conduct of the Union, which was condemned even by several of + the evangelical states, and the apprehension of even worse treatment, + aroused the Roman Catholics to something beyond mere inactive indignation. + As to the Emperor, his authority had sunk too low to afford them any + security against such an enemy. It was their Union that rendered the + confederates so formidable and so insolent; and another union must now be + opposed to them. + </p> + <p> + The Bishop of Wurtzburg formed the plan of the Catholic union, which was + distinguished from the evangelical by the title of the League. The objects + agreed upon were nearly the same as those which constituted the groundwork + of the Union. Bishops formed its principal members, and at its head was + placed Maximilian, Duke of Bavaria. As the only influential secular member + of the confederacy, he was entrusted with far more extensive powers than + the Protestants had committed to their chief. In addition to the duke’s + being the sole head of the League’s military power, whereby their + operations acquired a speed and weight unattainable by the Union, they had + also the advantage that supplies flowed in much more regularly from the + rich prelates, than the latter could obtain them from the poor evangelical + states. Without offering to the Emperor, as the sovereign of a Roman + Catholic state, any share in their confederacy, without even communicating + its existence to him as emperor, the League arose at once formidable and + threatening; with strength sufficient to crush the Protestant Union and to + maintain itself under three emperors. It contended, indeed, for Austria, + in so far as it fought against the Protestant princes; but Austria herself + had soon cause to tremble before it. + </p> + <p> + The arms of the Union had, in the meantime, been tolerably successful in + Juliers and in Alsace; Juliers was closely blockaded, and the whole + bishopric of Strasburg was in their power. But here their splendid + achievements came to an end. No French army appeared upon the Rhine; for + he who was to be its leader, he who was the animating soul of the whole + enterprize, Henry IV., was no more! Their supplies were on the wane; the + Estates refused to grant new subsidies; and the confederate free cities + were offended that their money should be liberally, but their advice so + sparingly called for. Especially were they displeased at being put to + expense for the expedition against Juliers, which had been expressly + excluded from the affairs of the Union—at the united princes + appropriating to themselves large pensions out of the common treasure—and, + above all, at their refusing to give any account of its expenditure. + </p> + <p> + The Union was thus verging to its fall, at the moment when the League + started to oppose it in the vigour of its strength. Want of supplies + disabled the confederates from any longer keeping the field. And yet it + was dangerous to lay down their weapons in the sight of an armed enemy. To + secure themselves at least on one side, they hastened to conclude a peace + with their old enemy, the Archduke Leopold; and both parties agreed to + withdraw their troops from Alsace, to exchange prisoners, and to bury all + that had been done in oblivion. Thus ended in nothing all these promising + preparations. + </p> + <p> + The same imperious tone with which the Union, in the confidence of its + strength, had menaced the Roman Catholics of Germany, was now retorted by + the League upon themselves and their troops. The traces of their march + were pointed out to them, and plainly branded with the hard epithets they + had deserved. The chapters of Wurtzburg, Bamberg, Strasburg, Mentz, + Treves, Cologne, and several others, had experienced their destructive + presence; to all these the damage done was to be made good, the free + passage by land and by water restored, (for the Protestants had even + seized on the navigation of the Rhine,) and everything replaced on its + former footing. Above all, the parties to the Union were called on to + declare expressly and unequivocally its intentions. It was now their turn + to yield to superior strength. They had not calculated on so formidable an + opponent; but they themselves had taught the Roman Catholics the secret of + their strength. It was humiliating to their pride to sue for peace, but + they might think themselves fortunate in obtaining it. The one party + promised restitution, the other forgiveness. All laid down their arms. The + storm of war once more rolled by, and a temporary calm succeeded. The + insurrection in Bohemia then broke out, which deprived the Emperor of the + last of his hereditary dominions, but in this dispute neither the Union + nor the League took any share. + </p> + <p> + At length the Emperor died in 1612, as little regretted in his coffin as + noticed on the throne. Long afterwards, when the miseries of succeeding + reigns had made the misfortunes of his reign forgotten, a halo spread + about his memory, and so fearful a night set in upon Germany, that, with + tears of blood, people prayed for the return of such an emperor. + </p> + <p> + Rodolph never could be prevailed upon to choose a successor in the empire, + and all awaited with anxiety the approaching vacancy of the throne; but, + beyond all hope, Matthias at once ascended it, and without opposition. The + Roman Catholics gave him their voices, because they hoped the best from + his vigour and activity; the Protestants gave him theirs, because they + hoped every thing from his weakness. It is not difficult to reconcile this + contradiction. The one relied on what he had once appeared; the other + judged him by what he seemed at present. + </p> + <p> + The moment of a new accession is always a day of hope; and the first Diet + of a king in elective monarchies is usually his severest trial. Every old + grievance is brought forward, and new ones are sought out, that they may + be included in the expected reform; quite a new world is expected to + commence with the new reign. The important services which, in his + insurrection, their religious confederates in Austria had rendered to + Matthias, were still fresh in the minds of the Protestant free cities, + and, above all, the price which they had exacted for their services seemed + now to serve them also as a model. + </p> + <p> + It was by the favour of the Protestant Estates in Austria and Moravia that + Matthias had sought and really found the way to his brother’s throne; but, + hurried on by his ambitious views, he never reflected that a way was thus + opened for the States to give laws to their sovereign. This discovery soon + awoke him from the intoxication of success. Scarcely had he shown himself + in triumph to his Austrian subjects, after his victorious expedition to + Bohemia, when a humble petition awaited him which was quite sufficient to + poison his whole triumph. They required, before doing homage, unlimited + religious toleration in the cities and market towns, perfect equality of + rights between Roman Catholics and Protestants, and a full and equal + admissibility of the latter to all offices of state. In several places, + they of themselves assumed these privileges, and, reckoning on a change of + administration, restored the Protestant religion where the late Emperor + had suppressed it. Matthias, it is true, had not scrupled to make use of + the grievances of the Protestants for his own ends against the Emperor; + but it was far from being his intention to relieve them. By a firm and + resolute tone he hoped to check, at once, these presumptuous demands. He + spoke of his hereditary title to these territories, and would hear of no + stipulations before the act of homage. A like unconditional submission had + been rendered by their neighbours, the inhabitants of Styria, to the + Archduke Ferdinand, who, however, had soon reason to repent of it. Warned + by this example, the Austrian States persisted in their refusal; and, to + avoid being compelled by force to do homage, their deputies (after urging + their Roman Catholic colleagues to a similar resistance) immediately left + the capital, and began to levy troops. + </p> + <p> + They took steps to renew their old alliance with Hungary, drew the + Protestant princes into their interests, and set themselves seriously to + work to accomplish their object by force of arms. + </p> + <p> + With the more exorbitant demands of the Hungarians Matthias had not + hesitated to comply. For Hungary was an elective monarchy, and the + republican constitution of the country justified to himself their demands, + and to the Roman Catholic world his concessions. In Austria, on the + contrary, his predecessors had exercised far higher prerogatives, which he + could not relinquish at the demand of the Estates without incurring the + scorn of Roman Catholic Europe, the enmity of Spain and Rome, and the + contempt of his own Roman Catholic subjects. His exclusively Romish + council, among which the Bishop of Vienna, Melchio Kiesel, had the chief + influence, exhorted him to see all the churches extorted from him by the + Protestants, rather than to concede one to them as a matter of right. + </p> + <p> + But by ill luck this difficulty occurred at a time when the Emperor + Rodolph was yet alive, and a spectator of this scene, and who might easily + have been tempted to employ against his brother the same weapons which the + latter had successfully directed against him—namely, an + understanding with his rebellious subjects. To avoid this blow, Matthias + willingly availed himself of the offer made by Moravia, to act as mediator + between him and the Estates of Austria. Representatives of both parties + met in Vienna, when the Austrian deputies held language which would have + excited surprise even in the English Parliament. “The Protestants,” they + said, “are determined to be not worse treated in their native country than + the handful of Romanists. By the help of his Protestant nobles had + Matthias reduced the Emperor to submission; where 80 Papists were to be + found, 300 Protestant barons might be counted. The example of Rodolph + should be a warning to Matthias. He should take care that he did not lose + the terrestrial, in attempting to make conquests for the celestial.” As + the Moravian States, instead of using their powers as mediators for the + Emperor’s advantage, finally adopted the cause of their co-religionists of + Austria; as the Union in Germany came forward to afford them its most + active support, and as Matthias dreaded reprisals on the part of the + Emperor, he was at length compelled to make the desired declaration in + favour of the Evangelical Church. + </p> + <p> + This behaviour of the Austrian Estates towards their Archduke was now + imitated by the Protestant Estates of the Empire towards their Emperor, + and they promised themselves the same favourable results. At his first + Diet at Ratisbon in 1613, when the most pressing affairs were waiting for + decision—when a general contribution was indispensable for a war + against Turkey, and against Bethlem Gabor in Transylvania, who by Turkish + aid had forcibly usurped the sovereignty of that land, and even threatened + Hungary—they surprised him with an entirely new demand. The Roman + Catholic votes were still the most numerous in the Diet; and as every + thing was decided by a plurality of voices, the Protestant party, however + closely united, were entirely without consideration. The advantage of this + majority the Roman Catholics were now called on to relinquish; + henceforward no one religious party was to be permitted to dictate to the + other by means of its invariable superiority. And in truth, if the + evangelical religion was really to be represented in the Diet, it was + self-evident that it must not be shut out from the possibility of making + use of that privilege, merely from the constitution of the Diet itself. + Complaints of the judicial usurpations of the Aulic Council, and of the + oppression of the Protestants, accompanied this demand, and the deputies + of the Estates were instructed to take no part in any general + deliberations till a favourable answer should be given on this preliminary + point. + </p> + <p> + The Diet was torn asunder by this dangerous division, which threatened to + destroy for ever the unity of its deliberations. Sincerely as the Emperor + might have wished, after the example of his father Maximilian, to preserve + a prudent balance between the two religions, the present conduct of the + Protestants seemed to leave him nothing but a critical choice between the + two. In his present necessities a general contribution from the Estates + was indispensable to him; and yet he could not conciliate the one party + without sacrificing the support of the other. Insecure as he felt his + situation to be in his own hereditary dominions, he could not but tremble + at the idea, however remote, of an open war with the Protestants. But the + eyes of the whole Roman Catholic world, which were attentively regarding + his conduct, the remonstrances of the Roman Catholic Estates, and of the + Courts of Rome and Spain, as little permitted him to favour the Protestant + at the expense of the Romish religion. + </p> + <p> + So critical a situation would have paralysed a greater mind than Matthias; + and his own prudence would scarcely have extricated him from his dilemma. + But the interests of the Roman Catholics were closely interwoven with the + imperial authority; if they suffered this to fall, the ecclesiastical + princes in particular would be without a bulwark against the attacks of + the Protestants. Now, then, that they saw the Emperor wavering, they + thought it high time to reassure his sinking courage. They imparted to him + the secret of their League, and acquainted him with its whole + constitution, resources and power. Little comforting as such a revelation + must have been to the Emperor, the prospect of so powerful a support gave + him greater boldness to oppose the Protestants. Their demands were + rejected, and the Diet broke up without coming to a decision. But Matthias + was the victim of this dispute. The Protestants refused him their + supplies, and made him alone suffer for the inflexibility of the Roman + Catholics. + </p> + <p> + The Turks, however, appeared willing to prolong the cessation of + hostilities, and Bethlem Gabor was left in peaceable possession of + Transylvania. The empire was now free from foreign enemies; and even at + home, in the midst of all these fearful disputes, peace still reigned. An + unexpected accident had given a singular turn to the dispute as to the + succession of Juliers. This duchy was still ruled conjointly by the + Electoral House of Brandenburg and the Palatine of Neuburg; and a marriage + between the Prince of Neuburg and a Princess of Brandenburg was to have + inseparably united the interests of the two houses. But the whole scheme + was upset by a box on the ear, which, in a drunken brawl, the Elector of + Brandenburg unfortunately inflicted upon his intended son-in-law. From + this moment the good understanding between the two houses was at an end. + The Prince of Neuburg embraced popery. The hand of a princess of Bavaria + rewarded his apostacy, and the strong support of Bavaria and Spain was the + natural result of both. To secure to the Palatine the exclusive possession + of Juliers, the Spanish troops from the Netherlands were marched into the + Palatinate. To rid himself of these guests, the Elector of Brandenburg + called the Flemings to his assistance, whom he sought to propitiate by + embracing the Calvinist religion. Both Spanish and Dutch armies appeared, + but, as it seemed, only to make conquests for themselves. + </p> + <p> + The neighbouring war of the Netherlands seemed now about to be decided on + German ground; and what an inexhaustible mine of combustibles lay here + ready for it! The Protestants saw with consternation the Spaniards + establishing themselves upon the Lower Rhine; with still greater anxiety + did the Roman Catholics see the Hollanders bursting through the frontiers + of the empire. It was in the west that the mine was expected to explode + which had long been dug under the whole of Germany. To the west, + apprehension and anxiety turned; but the spark which kindled the flame + came unexpectedly from the east. + </p> + <p> + The tranquillity which Rodolph II.‘s ‘Letter of Majesty’ had established + in Bohemia lasted for some time, under the administration of Matthias, + till the nomination of a new heir to this kingdom in the person of + Ferdinand of Gratz. + </p> + <p> + This prince, whom we shall afterwards become better acquainted with under + the title of Ferdinand II., Emperor of Germany, had, by the violent + extirpation of the Protestant religion within his hereditary dominions, + announced himself as an inexorable zealot for popery, and was consequently + looked upon by the Roman Catholic part of Bohemia as the future pillar of + their church. The declining health of the Emperor brought on this hour + rapidly; and, relying on so powerful a supporter, the Bohemian Papists + began to treat the Protestants with little moderation. The Protestant + vassals of Roman Catholic nobles, in particular, experienced the harshest + treatment. At length several of the former were incautious enough to speak + somewhat loudly of their hopes, and by threatening hints to awaken among + the Protestants a suspicion of their future sovereign. But this mistrust + would never have broken out into actual violence, had the Roman Catholics + confined themselves to general expressions, and not by attacks on + individuals furnished the discontent of the people with enterprising + leaders. + </p> + <p> + Henry Matthias, Count Thurn, not a native of Bohemia, but proprietor of + some estates in that kingdom, had, by his zeal for the Protestant cause, + and an enthusiastic attachment to his newly adopted country, gained the + entire confidence of the Utraquists, which opened him the way to the most + important posts. He had fought with great glory against the Turks, and won + by a flattering address the hearts of the multitude. Of a hot and + impetuous disposition, which loved tumult because his talents shone in it—rash + and thoughtless enough to undertake things which cold prudence and a + calmer temper would not have ventured upon—unscrupulous enough, + where the gratification of his passions was concerned, to sport with the + fate of thousands, and at the same time politic enough to hold in + leading-strings such a people as the Bohemians then were. He had already + taken an active part in the troubles under Rodolph’s administration; and + the Letter of Majesty which the States had extorted from that Emperor, was + chiefly to be laid to his merit. The court had intrusted to him, as + burgrave or castellan of Calstein, the custody of the Bohemian crown, and + of the national charter. But the nation had placed in his hands something + far more important—ITSELF—with the office of defender or + protector of the faith. The aristocracy by which the Emperor was ruled, + imprudently deprived him of this harmless guardianship of the dead, to + leave him his full influence over the living. They took from him his + office of burgrave, or constable of the castle, which had rendered him + dependent on the court, thereby opening his eyes to the importance of the + other which remained, and wounded his vanity, which yet was the thing that + made his ambition harmless. From this moment he was actuated solely by a + desire of revenge; and the opportunity of gratifying it was not long + wanting. + </p> + <p> + In the Royal Letter which the Bohemians had extorted from Rodolph II., as + well as in the German religious treaty, one material article remained + undetermined. All the privileges granted by the latter to the Protestants, + were conceived in favour of the Estates or governing bodies, not of the + subjects; for only to those of the ecclesiastical states had a toleration, + and that precarious, been conceded. The Bohemian Letter of Majesty, in the + same manner, spoke only of the Estates and imperial towns, the magistrates + of which had contrived to obtain equal privileges with the former. These + alone were free to erect churches and schools, and openly to celebrate + their Protestant worship; in all other towns, it was left entirely to the + government to which they belonged, to determine the religion of the + inhabitants. The Estates of the Empire had availed themselves of this + privilege in its fullest extent; the secular indeed without opposition; + while the ecclesiastical, in whose case the declaration of Ferdinand had + limited this privilege, disputed, not without reason, the validity of that + limitation. What was a disputed point in the religious treaty, was left + still more doubtful in the Letter of Majesty; in the former, the + construction was not doubtful, but it was a question how far obedience + might be compulsory; in the latter, the interpretation was left to the + states. The subjects of the ecclesiastical Estates in Bohemia thought + themselves entitled to the same rights which the declaration of Ferdinand + secured to the subjects of German bishops, they considered themselves on + an equality with the subjects of imperial towns, because they looked upon + the ecclesiastical property as part of the royal demesnes. In the little + town of Klostergrab, subject to the Archbishop of Prague; and in Braunau, + which belonged to the abbot of that monastery, churches were founded by + the Protestants, and completed notwithstanding the opposition of their + superiors, and the disapprobation of the Emperor. + </p> + <p> + In the meantime, the vigilance of the defenders had somewhat relaxed, and + the court thought it might venture on a decisive step. By the Emperor’s + orders, the church at Klostergrab was pulled down; that at Braunau + forcibly shut up, and the most turbulent of the citizens thrown into + prison. A general commotion among the Protestants was the consequence of + this measure; a loud outcry was everywhere raised at this violation of the + Letter of Majesty; and Count Thurn, animated by revenge, and particularly + called upon by his office of defender, showed himself not a little busy in + inflaming the minds of the people. At his instigation deputies were + summoned to Prague from every circle in the empire, to concert the + necessary measures against the common danger. It was resolved to petition + the Emperor to press for the liberation of the prisoners. The answer of + the Emperor, already offensive to the states, from its being addressed, + not to them, but to his viceroy, denounced their conduct as illegal and + rebellious, justified what had been done at Klostergrab and Braunau as the + result of an imperial mandate, and contained some passages that might be + construed into threats. + </p> + <p> + Count Thurn did not fail to augment the unfavourable impression which this + imperial edict made upon the assembled Estates. He pointed out to them the + danger in which all who had signed the petition were involved, and sought + by working on their resentment and fears to hurry them into violent + resolutions. To have caused their immediate revolt against the Emperor, + would have been, as yet, too bold a measure. It was only step by step that + he would lead them on to this unavoidable result. He held it, therefore, + advisable first to direct their indignation against the Emperor’s + counsellors; and for that purpose circulated a report, that the imperial + proclamation had been drawn up by the government at Prague, and only + signed in Vienna. Among the imperial delegates, the chief objects of the + popular hatred, were the President of the Chamber, Slawata, and Baron + Martinitz, who had been elected in place of Count Thurn, Burgrave of + Calstein. Both had long before evinced pretty openly their hostile + feelings towards the Protestants, by alone refusing to be present at the + sitting at which the Letter of Majesty had been inserted in the Bohemian + constitution. A threat was made at the time to make them responsible for + every violation of the Letter of Majesty; and from this moment, whatever + evil befell the Protestants was set down, and not without reason, to their + account. Of all the Roman Catholic nobles, these two had treated their + Protestant vassals with the greatest harshness. They were accused of + hunting them with dogs to the mass, and of endeavouring to drive them to + popery by a denial of the rites of baptism, marriage, and burial. Against + two characters so unpopular the public indignation was easily excited, and + they were marked out for a sacrifice to the general indignation. + </p> + <p> + On the 23rd of May, 1618, the deputies appeared armed, and in great + numbers, at the royal palace, and forced their way into the hall where the + Commissioners Sternberg, Martinitz, Lobkowitz, and Slawata were assembled. + In a threatening tone they demanded to know from each of them, whether he + had taken any part, or had consented to, the imperial proclamation. + Sternberg received them with composure, Martinitz and Slawata with + defiance. This decided their fate; Sternberg and Lobkowitz, less hated, + and more feared, were led by the arm out of the room; Martinitz and + Slawata were seized, dragged to a window, and precipitated from a height + of eighty feet, into the castle trench. Their creature, the secretary + Fabricius, was thrown after them. This singular mode of execution + naturally excited the surprise of civilized nations. The Bohemians + justified it as a national custom, and saw nothing remarkable in the whole + affair, excepting that any one should have got up again safe and sound + after such a fall. A dunghill, on which the imperial commissioners chanced + to be deposited, had saved them from injury. + </p> + <p> + It was not to be expected that this summary mode of proceeding would much + increase the favour of the parties with the Emperor, but this was the very + position to which Count Thurn wished to bring them. If, from the fear of + uncertain danger, they had permitted themselves such an act of violence, + the certain expectation of punishment, and the now urgent necessity of + making themselves secure, would plunge them still deeper into guilt. By + this brutal act of self-redress, no room was left for irresolution or + repentance, and it seemed as if a single crime could be absolved only by a + series of violences. As the deed itself could not be undone, nothing was + left but to disarm the hand of punishment. Thirty directors were appointed + to organise a regular insurrection. They seized upon all the offices of + state, and all the imperial revenues, took into their own service the + royal functionaries and the soldiers, and summoned the whole Bohemian + nation to avenge the common cause. The Jesuits, whom the common hatred + accused as the instigators of every previous oppression, were banished the + kingdom, and this harsh measure the Estates found it necessary to justify + in a formal manifesto. These various steps were taken for the preservation + of the royal authority and the laws—the language of all rebels till + fortune has decided in their favour. + </p> + <p> + The emotion which the news of the Bohemian insurrection excited at the + imperial court, was much less lively than such intelligence deserved. The + Emperor Matthias was no longer the resolute spirit that formerly sought + out his king and master in the very bosom of his people, and hurled him + from three thrones. The confidence and courage which had animated him in + an usurpation, deserted him in a legitimate self-defence. The Bohemian + rebels had first taken up arms, and the nature of circumstances drove him + to join them. But he could not hope to confine such a war to Bohemia. In + all the territories under his dominion, the Protestants were united by a + dangerous sympathy—the common danger of their religion might + suddenly combine them all into a formidable republic. What could he oppose + to such an enemy, if the Protestant portion of his subjects deserted him? + And would not both parties exhaust themselves in so ruinous a civil war? + How much was at stake if he lost; and if he won, whom else would he + destroy but his own subjects? + </p> + <p> + Considerations such as these inclined the Emperor and his council to + concessions and pacific measures, but it was in this very spirit of + concession that, as others would have it, lay the origin of the evil. The + Archduke Ferdinand of Gratz congratulated the Emperor upon an event, which + would justify in the eyes of all Europe the severest measures against the + Bohemian Protestants. “Disobedience, lawlessness, and insurrection,” he + said, “went always hand-in-hand with Protestantism. Every privilege which + had been conceded to the Estates by himself and his predecessor, had had + no other effect than to raise their demands. All the measures of the + heretics were aimed against the imperial authority. Step by step had they + advanced from defiance to defiance up to this last aggression; in a short + time they would assail all that remained to be assailed, in the person of + the Emperor. In arms alone was there any safety against such an enemy—peace + and subordination could be only established upon the ruins of their + dangerous privileges; security for the Catholic belief was to be found + only in the total destruction of this sect. Uncertain, it was true, might + be the event of the war, but inevitable was the ruin if it were + pretermitted. The confiscation of the lands of the rebels would richly + indemnify them for its expenses, while the terror of punishment would + teach the other states the wisdom of a prompt obedience in future.” Were + the Bohemian Protestants to blame, if they armed themselves in time + against the enforcement of such maxims? The insurrection in Bohemia, + besides, was directed only against the successor of the Emperor, not + against himself, who had done nothing to justify the alarm of the + Protestants. To exclude this prince from the Bohemian throne, arms had + before been taken up under Matthias, though as long as this Emperor lived, + his subjects had kept within the bounds of an apparent submission. + </p> + <p> + But Bohemia was in arms, and unarmed, the Emperor dared not even offer + them peace. For this purpose, Spain supplied gold, and promised to send + troops from Italy and the Netherlands. Count Bucquoi, a native of the + Netherlands, was named generalissimo, because no native could be trusted, + and Count Dampierre, another foreigner, commanded under him. Before the + army took the field, the Emperor endeavoured to bring about an amicable + arrangement, by the publication of a manifesto. In this he assured the + Bohemians, “that he held sacred the Letter of Majesty—that he had + not formed any resolutions inimical to their religion or their privileges, + and that his present preparations were forced upon him by their own. As + soon as the nation laid down their arms, he also would disband his army.” + But this gracious letter failed of its effect, because the leaders of the + insurrection contrived to hide from the people the Emperor’s good + intentions. Instead of this, they circulated the most alarming reports + from the pulpit, and by pamphlets, and terrified the deluded populace with + threatened horrors of another Saint Bartholomew’s that existed only in + their own imagination. All Bohemia, with the exception of three towns, + Budweiss, Krummau, and Pilsen, took part in this insurrection. These three + towns, inhabited principally by Roman Catholics, alone had the courage, in + this general revolt, to hold out for the Emperor, who promised them + assistance. But it could not escape Count Thurn, how dangerous it was to + leave in hostile hands three places of such importance, which would at all + times keep open for the imperial troops an entrance into the kingdom. With + prompt determination he appeared before Budweiss and Krummau, in the hope + of terrifying them into a surrender. Krummau surrendered, but all his + attacks were steadfastly repulsed by Budweiss. + </p> + <p> + And now, too, the Emperor began to show more earnestness and energy. + Bucquoi and Dampierre, with two armies, fell upon the Bohemian + territories, which they treated as a hostile country. But the imperial + generals found the march to Prague more difficult than they had expected. + Every pass, every position that was the least tenable, must be opened by + the sword, and resistance increased at each fresh step they took, for the + outrages of their troops, chiefly consisting of Hungarians and Walloons, + drove their friends to revolt and their enemies to despair. But even now + that his troops had penetrated into Bohemia, the Emperor continued to + offer the Estates peace, and to show himself ready for an amicable + adjustment. But the new prospects which opened upon them, raised the + courage of the revolters. Moravia espoused their party; and from Germany + appeared to them a defender equally intrepid and unexpected, in the person + of Count Mansfeld. + </p> + <p> + The heads of the Evangelic Union had been silent but not inactive + spectators of the movements in Bohemia. Both were contending for the same + cause, and against the same enemy. In the fate of the Bohemians, their + confederates in the faith might read their own; and the cause of this + people was represented as of solemn concern to the whole German union. + True to these principles, the Unionists supported the courage of the + insurgents by promises of assistance; and a fortunate accident now enabled + them, beyond their hopes, to fulfil them. + </p> + <p> + The instrument by which the House of Austria was humbled in Germany, was + Peter Ernest, Count Mansfeld, the son of a distinguished Austrian officer, + Ernest von Mansfeld, who for some time had commanded with repute the + Spanish army in the Netherlands. His first campaigns in Juliers and Alsace + had been made in the service of this house, and under the banner of the + Archduke Leopold, against the Protestant religion and the liberties of + Germany. But insensibly won by the principles of this religion, he + abandoned a leader whose selfishness denied him the reimbursement of the + monies expended in his cause, and he transferred his zeal and a victorious + sword to the Evangelic Union. It happened just then that the Duke of + Savoy, an ally of the Union, demanded assistance in a war against Spain. + They assigned to him their newly acquired servant, and Mansfeld received + instructions to raise an army of 4000 men in Germany, in the cause and in + the pay of the duke. The army was ready to march at the very moment when + the flames of war burst out in Bohemia, and the duke, who at the time did + not stand in need of its services, placed it at the disposal of the Union. + Nothing could be more welcome to these troops than the prospect of aiding + their confederates in Bohemia, at the cost of a third party. Mansfeld + received orders forthwith to march with these 4000 men into that kingdom; + and a pretended Bohemian commission was given to blind the public as to + the true author of this levy. + </p> + <p> + This Mansfeld now appeared in Bohemia, and, by the occupation of Pilsen, + strongly fortified and favourable to the Emperor, obtained a firm footing + in the country. The courage of the rebels was farther increased by + succours which the Silesian States despatched to their assistance. Between + these and the Imperialists, several battles were fought, far indeed from + decisive, but only on that account the more destructive, which served as + the prelude to a more serious war. To check the vigour of his military + operations, a negotiation was entered into with the Emperor, and a + disposition was shown to accept the proffered mediation of Saxony. But + before the event could prove how little sincerity there was in these + proposals, the Emperor was removed from the scene by death. + </p> + <p> + What now had Matthias done to justify the expectations which he had + excited by the overthrow of his predecessor? Was it worth while to ascend + a brother’s throne through guilt, and then maintain it with so little + dignity, and leave it with so little renown? As long as Matthias sat on + the throne, he had to atone for the imprudence by which he had gained it. + To enjoy the regal dignity a few years sooner, he had shackled the free + exercise of its prerogatives. The slender portion of independence left him + by the growing power of the Estates, was still farther lessened by the + encroachments of his relations. Sickly and childless he saw the attention + of the world turned to an ambitious heir who was impatiently anticipating + his fate; and who, by his interference with the closing administration, + was already opening his own. + </p> + <p> + With Matthias, the reigning line of the German House of Austria was in a + manner extinct; for of all the sons of Maximilian, one only was now alive, + the weak and childless Archduke Albert, in the Netherlands, who had + already renounced his claims to the inheritance in favour of the line of + Gratz. The Spanish House had also, in a secret bond, resigned its + pretensions to the Austrian possessions in behalf of the Archduke + Ferdinand of Styria, in whom the branch of Hapsburg was about to put forth + new shoots, and the former greatness of Austria to experience a revival. + </p> + <p> + The father of Ferdinand was the Archduke Charles of Carniola, Carinthia, + and Styria, the youngest brother of the Emperor Maximilian II.; his mother + a princess of Bavaria. Having lost his father at twelve years of age, he + was intrusted by the archduchess to the guardianship of her brother + William, Duke of Bavaria, under whose eyes he was instructed and educated + by Jesuits at the Academy of Ingolstadt. What principles he was likely to + imbibe by his intercourse with a prince, who from motives of devotion had + abdicated his government, may be easily conceived. Care was taken to point + out to him, on the one hand, the weak indulgence of Maximilian’s house + towards the adherents of the new doctrines, and the consequent troubles of + their dominions; on the other, the blessings of Bavaria, and the + inflexible religious zeal of its rulers; between these two examples he was + left to choose for himself. + </p> + <p> + Formed in this school to be a stout champion of the faith, and a prompt + instrument of the church, he left Bavaria, after a residence of five + years, to assume the government of his hereditary dominions. The Estates + of Carniola, Carinthia, and Styria, who, before doing homage, demanded a + guarantee for freedom of religion, were told that religious liberty has + nothing to do with their allegiance. The oath was put to them without + conditions, and unconditionally taken. Many years, however, elapsed, ere + the designs which had been planned at Ingolstadt were ripe for execution. + Before attempting to carry them into effect, he sought in person at + Loretto the favour of the Virgin, and received the apostolic benediction + in Rome at the feet of Clement VIII. + </p> + <p> + These designs were nothing less than the expulsion of Protestantism from a + country where it had the advantage of numbers, and had been legally + recognized by a formal act of toleration, granted by his father to the + noble and knightly estates of the land. A grant so formally ratified could + not be revoked without danger; but no difficulties could deter the pious + pupil of the Jesuits. The example of other states, both Roman Catholic and + Protestant, which within their own territories had exercised unquestioned + a right of reformation, and the abuse which the Estates of Styria made of + their religious liberties, would serve as a justification of this violent + procedure. Under the shelter of an absurd positive law, those of equity + and prudence might, it was thought, be safely despised. In the execution + of these unrighteous designs, Ferdinand did, it must be owned, display no + common courage and perseverance. Without tumult, and we may add, without + cruelty, he suppressed the Protestant service in one town after another, + and in a few years, to the astonishment of Germany, this dangerous work + was brought to a successful end. + </p> + <p> + But, while the Roman Catholics admired him as a hero, and the champion of + the church, the Protestants began to combine against him as against their + most dangerous enemy. And yet Matthias’s intention to bequeath to him the + succession, met with little or no opposition in the elective states of + Austria. Even the Bohemians agreed to receive him as their future king, on + very favourable conditions. It was not until afterwards, when they had + experienced the pernicious influence of his councils on the administration + of the Emperor, that their anxiety was first excited; and then several + projects, in his handwriting, which an unlucky chance threw into their + hands, as they plainly evinced his disposition towards them, carried their + apprehension to the utmost pitch. In particular, they were alarmed by a + secret family compact with Spain, by which, in default of heirs-male of + his own body, Ferdinand bequeathed to that crown the kingdom of Bohemia, + without first consulting the wishes of that nation, and without regard to + its right of free election. The many enemies, too, which by his reforms in + Styria that prince had provoked among the Protestants, were very + prejudicial to his interests in Bohemia; and some Styrian emigrants, who + had taken refuge there, bringing with them into their adopted country + hearts overflowing with a desire of revenge, were particularly active in + exciting the flame of revolt. Thus ill-affected did Ferdinand find the + Bohemians, when he succeeded Matthias. + </p> + <p> + So bad an understanding between the nation and the candidate for the + throne, would have raised a storm even in the most peaceable succession; + how much more so at the present moment, before the ardour of insurrection + had cooled; when the nation had just recovered its dignity, and reasserted + its rights; when they still held arms in their hands, and the + consciousness of unity had awakened an enthusiastic reliance on their own + strength; when by past success, by the promises of foreign assistance, and + by visionary expectations of the future, their courage had been raised to + an undoubting confidence. Disregarding the rights already conferred on + Ferdinand, the Estates declared the throne vacant, and their right of + election entirely unfettered. All hopes of their peaceful submission were + at an end, and if Ferdinand wished still to wear the crown of Bohemia, he + must choose between purchasing it at the sacrifice of all that would make + a crown desirable, or winning it sword in hand. + </p> + <p> + But with what means was it to be won? Turn his eyes where he would, the + fire of revolt was burning. Silesia had already joined the insurgents in + Bohemia; Moravia was on the point of following its example. In Upper and + Lower Austria the spirit of liberty was awake, as it had been under + Rodolph, and the Estates refused to do homage. Hungary was menaced with an + inroad by Prince Bethlen Gabor, on the side of Transylvania; a secret + arming among the Turks spread consternation among the provinces to the + eastward; and, to complete his perplexities, the Protestants also, in his + hereditary dominions, stimulated by the general example, were again + raising their heads. In that quarter, their numbers were overwhelming; in + most places they had possession of the revenues which Ferdinand would need + for the maintenance of the war. The neutral began to waver, the faithful + to be discouraged, the turbulent alone to be animated and confident. One + half of Germany encouraged the rebels, the other inactively awaited the + issue; Spanish assistance was still very remote. The moment which had + brought him every thing, threatened also to deprive him of all. + </p> + <p> + And when he now, yielding to the stern law of necessity, made overtures to + the Bohemian rebels, all his proposals for peace were insolently rejected. + Count Thurn, at the head of an army, entered Moravia to bring this + province, which alone continued to waver, to a decision. The appearance of + their friends is the signal of revolt for the Moravian Protestants. Bruenn + is taken, the remainder of the country yields with free will, throughout + the province government and religion are changed. Swelling as it flows, + the torrent of rebellion pours down upon Austria, where a party, holding + similar sentiments, receives it with a joyful concurrence. Henceforth, + there should be no more distinctions of religion; equality of rights + should be guaranteed to all Christian churches. They hear that a foreign + force has been invited into the country to oppress the Bohemians. Let them + be sought out, and the enemies of liberty pursued to the ends of the + earth. Not an arm is raised in defence of the Archduke, and the rebels, at + length, encamp before Vienna to besiege their sovereign. + </p> + <p> + Ferdinand had sent his children from Gratz, where they were no longer + safe, to the Tyrol; he himself awaited the insurgents in his capital. A + handful of soldiers was all he could oppose to the enraged multitude; + these few were without pay or provisions, and therefore little to be + depended on. Vienna was unprepared for a long siege. The party of the + Protestants, ready at any moment to join the Bohemians, had the + preponderance in the city; those in the country had already begun to levy + troops against him. Already, in imagination, the Protestant populace saw + the Emperor shut up in a monastery, his territories divided, and his + children educated as Protestants. Confiding in secret, and surrounded by + public enemies, he saw the chasm every moment widening to engulf his hopes + and even himself. The Bohemian bullets were already falling upon the + imperial palace, when sixteen Austrian barons forcibly entered his + chamber, and inveighing against him with loud and bitter reproaches, + endeavoured to force him into a confederation with the Bohemians. One of + them, seizing him by the button of his doublet, demanded, in a tone of + menace, “Ferdinand, wilt thou sign it?” + </p> + <p> + Who would not be pardoned had he wavered in this frightful situation? Yet + Ferdinand still remembered the dignity of a Roman emperor. No alternative + seemed left to him but an immediate flight or submission; laymen urged him + to the one, priests to the other. If he abandoned the city, it would fall + into the enemy’s hands; with Vienna, Austria was lost; with Austria, the + imperial throne. Ferdinand abandoned not his capital, and as little would + he hear of conditions. + </p> + <p> + The Archduke is still engaged in altercation with the deputed barons, when + all at once a sound of trumpets is heard in the palace square. Terror and + astonishment take possession of all present; a fearful report pervades the + palace; one deputy after another disappears. Many of the nobility and the + citizens hastily take refuge in the camp of Thurn. This sudden change is + effected by a regiment of Dampierre’s cuirassiers, who at that moment + marched into the city to defend the Archduke. A body of infantry soon + followed; reassured by their appearance, several of the Roman Catholic + citizens, and even the students themselves, take up arms. A report which + arrived just at the same time from Bohemia made his deliverance complete. + The Flemish general, Bucquoi, had totally defeated Count Mansfeld at + Budweiss, and was marching upon Prague. The Bohemians hastily broke up + their camp before Vienna to protect their own capital. + </p> + <p> + And now also the passes were free which the enemy had taken possession of, + in order to obstruct Ferdinand’s progress to his coronation at Frankfort. + If the accession to the imperial throne was important for the plans of the + King of Hungary, it was of still greater consequence at the present + moment, when his nomination as Emperor would afford the most unsuspicious + and decisive proof of the dignity of his person, and of the justice of his + cause, while, at the same time, it would give him a hope of support from + the Empire. But the same cabal which opposed him in his hereditary + dominions, laboured also to counteract him in his canvass for the imperial + dignity. No Austrian prince, they maintained, ought to ascend the throne; + least of all Ferdinand, the bigoted persecutor of their religion, the + slave of Spain and of the Jesuits. To prevent this, the crown had been + offered, even during the lifetime of Matthias, to the Duke of Bavaria, and + on his refusal, to the Duke of Savoy. As some difficulty was experienced + in settling with the latter the conditions of acceptance, it was sought, + at all events, to delay the election till some decisive blow in Austria or + Bohemia should annihilate all the hopes of Ferdinand, and incapacitate him + from any competition for this dignity. The members of the Union left no + stone unturned to gain over from Ferdinand the Electorate of Saxony, which + was bound to Austrian interests; they represented to this court the + dangers with which the Protestant religion, and even the constitution of + the empire, were threatened by the principles of this prince and his + Spanish alliance. By the elevation of Ferdinand to the imperial throne, + Germany, they further asserted, would be involved in the private quarrels + of this prince, and bring upon itself the arms of Bohemia. But in spite of + all opposing influences, the day of election was fixed, Ferdinand summoned + to it as lawful king of Bohemia, and his electoral vote, after a fruitless + resistance on the part of the Bohemian Estates, acknowledged to be good. + The votes of the three ecclesiastical electorates were for him, Saxony was + favourable to him, Brandenburg made no opposition, and a decided majority + declared him Emperor in 1619. Thus he saw the most doubtful of his crowns + placed first of all on his head; but a few days after he lost that which + he had reckoned among the most certain of his possessions. While he was + thus elected Emperor in Frankfort, he was in Prague deprived of the + Bohemian throne. + </p> + <p> + Almost all of his German hereditary dominions had in the meantime entered + into a formidable league with the Bohemians, whose insolence now exceeded + all bounds. In a general Diet, the latter, on the 17th of August, 1619, + proclaimed the Emperor an enemy to the Bohemian religion and liberties, + who by his pernicious counsels had alienated from them the affections of + the late Emperor, had furnished troops to oppress them, had given their + country as a prey to foreigners, and finally, in contravention of the + national rights, had bequeathed the crown, by a secret compact, to Spain: + they therefore declared that he had forfeited whatever title he might + otherwise have had to the crown, and immediately proceeded to a new + election. As this sentence was pronounced by Protestants, their choice + could not well fall upon a Roman Catholic prince, though, to save + appearances, some voices were raised for Bavaria and Savoy. But the + violent religious animosities which divided the evangelical and the + reformed parties among the Protestants, impeded for some time the election + even of a Protestant king; till at last the address and activity of the + Calvinists carried the day from the numerical superiority of the + Lutherans. + </p> + <p> + Among all the princes who were competitors for this dignity, the Elector + Palatine Frederick V. had the best grounded claims on the confidence and + gratitude of the Bohemians; and among them all, there was no one in whose + case the private interests of particular Estates, and the attachment of + the people, seemed to be justified by so many considerations of state. + Frederick V. was of a free and lively spirit, of great goodness of heart, + and regal liberality. He was the head of the Calvinistic party in Germany, + the leader of the Union, whose resources were at his disposal, a near + relation of the Duke of Bavaria, and a son-in-law of the King of Great + Britain, who might lend him his powerful support. All these considerations + were prominently and successfully brought forward by the Calvinists, and + Frederick V. was chosen king by the Assembly at Prague, amidst prayers and + tears of joy. + </p> + <p> + The whole proceedings of the Diet at Prague had been premeditated, and + Frederick himself had taken too active a share in the matter to feel at + all surprised at the offer made to him by the Bohemians. But now the + immediate glitter of this throne dazzled him, and the magnitude both of + his elevation and his delinquency made his weak mind to tremble. After the + usual manner of pusillanimous spirits, he sought to confirm himself in his + purpose by the opinions of others; but these opinions had no weight with + him when they ran counter to his own cherished wishes. Saxony and Bavaria, + of whom he sought advice, all his brother electors, all who compared the + magnitude of the design with his capacities and resources, warned him of + the danger into which he was about to rush. Even King James of England + preferred to see his son-in-law deprived of this crown, than that the + sacred majesty of kings should be outraged by so dangerous a precedent. + But of what avail was the voice of prudence against the seductive glitter + of a crown? In the moment of boldest determination, when they are + indignantly rejecting the consecrated branch of a race which had governed + them for two centuries, a free people throws itself into his arms. + Confiding in his courage, they choose him as their leader in the dangerous + career of glory and liberty. To him, as to its born champion, an oppressed + religion looks for shelter and support against its persecutors. Could he + have the weakness to listen to his fears, and to betray the cause of + religion and liberty? This religion proclaims to him its own + preponderance, and the weakness of its rival,—two-thirds of the + power of Austria are now in arms against Austria itself, while a + formidable confederacy, already formed in Transylvania, would, by a + hostile attack, further distract even the weak remnant of its power. Could + inducements such as these fail to awaken his ambition, or such hopes to + animate and inflame his resolution? + </p> + <p> + A few moments of calm consideration would have sufficed to show the danger + of the undertaking, and the comparative worthlessness of the prize. But + the temptation spoke to his feelings; the warning only to his reason. It + was his misfortune that his nearest and most influential counsellors + espoused the side of his passions. The aggrandizement of their master’s + power opened to the ambition and avarice of his Palatine servants an + unlimited field for their gratification; this anticipated triumph of their + church kindled the ardour of the Calvinistic fanatic. Could a mind so weak + as that of Ferdinand resist the delusions of his counsellors, who + exaggerated his resources and his strength, as much as they underrated + those of his enemies; or the exhortations of his preachers, who announced + the effusions of their fanatical zeal as the immediate inspiration of + heaven? The dreams of astrology filled his mind with visionary hopes; even + love conspired, with its irresistible fascination, to complete the + seduction. “Had you,” demanded the Electress, “confidence enough in + yourself to accept the hand of a king’s daughter, and have you misgivings + about taking a crown which is voluntarily offered you? I would rather eat + bread at thy kingly table, than feast at thy electoral board.” + </p> + <p> + Frederick accepted the Bohemian crown. The coronation was celebrated with + unexampled pomp at Prague, for the nation displayed all its riches in + honour of its own work. Silesia and Moravia, the adjoining provinces to + Bohemia, followed their example, and did homage to Frederick. The reformed + faith was enthroned in all the churches of the kingdom; the rejoicings + were unbounded, their attachment to their new king bordered on adoration. + Denmark and Sweden, Holland and Venice, and several of the Dutch states, + acknowledged him as lawful sovereign, and Frederick now prepared to + maintain his new acquisition. + </p> + <p> + His principal hopes rested on Prince Bethlen Gabor of Transylvania. This + formidable enemy of Austria, and of the Roman Catholic church, not content + with the principality which, with the assistance of the Turks, he had + wrested from his legitimate prince, Gabriel Bathori, gladly seized this + opportunity of aggrandizing himself at the expense of Austria, which had + hesitated to acknowledge him as sovereign of Transylvania. An attack upon + Hungary and Austria was concerted with the Bohemian rebels, and both + armies were to unite before the capital. Meantime, Bethlen Gabor, under + the mask of friendship, disguised the true object of his warlike + preparations, artfully promising the Emperor to lure the Bohemians into + the toils, by a pretended offer of assistance, and to deliver up to him + alive the leaders of the insurrection. All at once, however, he appeared + in a hostile attitude in Upper Hungary. Before him went terror, and + devastation behind; all opposition yielded, and at Presburg he received + the Hungarian crown. The Emperor’s brother, who governed in Vienna, + trembled for the capital. He hastily summoned General Bucquoi to his + assistance, and the retreat of the Imperialists drew the Bohemians, a + second time, before the walls of Vienna. Reinforced by twelve thousand + Transylvanians, and soon after joined by the victorious army of Bethlen + Gabor, they again menaced the capital with assault; all the country round + Vienna was laid waste, the navigation of the Danube closed, all supplies + cut off, and the horrors of famine were threatened. Ferdinand, hastily + recalled to his capital by this urgent danger, saw himself a second time + on the brink of ruin. But want of provisions, and the inclement weather, + finally compelled the Bohemians to go into quarters, a defeat in Hungary + recalled Bethlen Gabor, and thus once more had fortune rescued the + Emperor. + </p> + <p> + In a few weeks the scene was changed, and by his prudence and activity + Ferdinand improved his position as rapidly as Frederick, by indolence and + impolicy, ruined his. The Estates of Lower Austria were regained to their + allegiance by a confirmation of their privileges; and the few who still + held out were declared guilty of `lese-majeste’ and high treason. During + the election of Frankfort, he had contrived, by personal representations, + to win over to his cause the ecclesiastical electors, and also Maximilian, + Duke of Bavaria, at Munich. The whole issue of the war, the fate of + Frederick and the Emperor, were now dependent on the part which the Union + and the League should take in the troubles of Bohemia. It was evidently of + importance to all the Protestants of Germany that the King of Bohemia + should be supported, while it was equally the interest of the Roman + Catholics to prevent the ruin of the Emperor. If the Protestants succeeded + in Bohemia, all the Roman Catholic princes in Germany might tremble for + their possessions; if they failed, the Emperor would give laws to + Protestant Germany. Thus Ferdinand put the League, Frederick the Union, in + motion. The ties of relationship and a personal attachment to the Emperor, + his brother-in-law, with whom he had been educated at Ingolstadt, zeal for + the Roman Catholic religion, which seemed to be in the most imminent + peril, and the suggestions of the Jesuits, combined with the suspicious + movements of the Union, moved the Duke of Bavaria, and all the princes of + the League, to make the cause of Ferdinand their own. + </p> + <p> + According to the terms of a treaty with the Emperor, which assured to the + Duke of Bavaria compensation for all the expenses of the war, or the + losses he might sustain, Maximilian took, with full powers, the command of + the troops of the League, which were ordered to march to the assistance of + the Emperor against the Bohemian rebels. The leaders of the Union, instead + of delaying by every means this dangerous coalition of the League with the + Emperor, did every thing in their power to accelerate it. Could they, they + thought, but once drive the Roman Catholic League to take an open part in + the Bohemian war, they might reckon on similar measures from all the + members and allies of the Union. Without some open step taken by the Roman + Catholics against the Union, no effectual confederacy of the Protestant + powers was to be looked for. They seized, therefore, the present emergency + of the troubles in Bohemia to demand from the Roman Catholics the + abolition of their past grievances, and full security for the future + exercise of their religion. They addressed this demand, which was moreover + couched in threatening language, to the Duke of Bavaria, as the head of + the Roman Catholics, and they insisted on an immediate and categorical + answer. Maximilian might decide for or against them, still their point was + gained; his concession, if he yielded, would deprive the Roman Catholic + party of its most powerful protector; his refusal would arm the whole + Protestant party, and render inevitable a war in which they hoped to be + the conquerors. Maximilian, firmly attached to the opposite party from so + many other considerations, took the demands of the Union as a formal + declaration of hostilities, and quickened his preparations. While Bavaria + and the League were thus arming in the Emperor’s cause, negotiations for a + subsidy were opened with the Spanish court. All the difficulties with + which the indolent policy of that ministry met this demand were happily + surmounted by the imperial ambassador at Madrid, Count Khevenhuller. In + addition to a subsidy of a million of florins, which from time to time + were doled out by this court, an attack upon the Lower Palatinate, from + the side of the Spanish Netherlands, was at the same time agreed upon. + </p> + <p> + During these attempts to draw all the Roman Catholic powers into the + League, every exertion was made against the counter-league of the + Protestants. To this end, it was important to alarm the Elector of Saxony + and the other Evangelical powers, and accordingly the Union were diligent + in propagating a rumour that the preparations of the League had for their + object to deprive them of the ecclesiastical foundations they had + secularized. A written assurance to the contrary calmed the fears of the + Duke of Saxony, whom moreover private jealousy of the Palatine, and the + insinuations of his chaplain, who was in the pay of Austria, and + mortification at having been passed over by the Bohemians in the election + to the throne, strongly inclined to the side of Austria. The fanaticism of + the Lutherans could never forgive the reformed party for having drawn, as + they expressed it, so many fair provinces into the gulf of Calvinism, and + rejecting the Roman Antichrist only to make way for an Helvetian one. + </p> + <p> + While Ferdinand used every effort to improve the unfavourable situation of + his affairs, Frederick was daily injuring his good cause. By his close and + questionable connexion with the Prince of Transylvania, the open ally of + the Porte, he gave offence to weak minds; and a general rumour accused him + of furthering his own ambition at the expense of Christendom, and arming + the Turks against Germany. His inconsiderate zeal for the Calvinistic + scheme irritated the Lutherans of Bohemia, his attacks on image-worship + incensed the Papists of this kingdom against him. New and oppressive + imposts alienated the affections of all his subjects. The disappointed + hopes of the Bohemian nobles cooled their zeal; the absence of foreign + succours abated their confidence. Instead of devoting himself with + untiring energies to the affairs of his kingdom, Frederick wasted his time + in amusements; instead of filling his treasury by a wise economy, he + squandered his revenues by a needless theatrical pomp, and a misplaced + munificence. With a light-minded carelessness, he did but gaze at himself + in his new dignity, and in the ill-timed desire to enjoy his crown, he + forgot the more pressing duty of securing it on his head. + </p> + <p> + But greatly as men had erred in their opinion of him, Frederick himself + had not less miscalculated his foreign resources. Most of the members of + the Union considered the affairs of Bohemia as foreign to the real object + of their confederacy; others, who were devoted to him, were overawed by + fear of the Emperor. Saxony and Hesse Darmstadt had already been gained + over by Ferdinand; Lower Austria, on which side a powerful diversion had + been looked for, had made its submission to the Emperor; and Bethlen Gabor + had concluded a truce with him. By its embassies, the court of Vienna had + induced Denmark to remain inactive, and to occupy Sweden in a war with the + Poles. The republic of Holland had enough to do to defend itself against + the arms of the Spaniards; Venice and Saxony remained inactive; King James + of England was overreached by the artifice of Spain. One friend after + another withdrew; one hope vanished after another—so rapidly in a + few months was every thing changed. + </p> + <p> + In the mean time, the leaders of the Union assembled an army;—the + Emperor and the League did the same. The troops of the latter were + assembled under the banners of Maximilian at Donauwerth, those of the + Union at Ulm, under the Margrave of Anspach. The decisive moment seemed at + length to have arrived which was to end these long dissensions by a + vigorous blow, and irrevocably to settle the relation of the two churches + in Germany. Anxiously on the stretch was the expectation of both parties. + How great then was their astonishment when suddenly the intelligence of + peace arrived, and both armies separated without striking a blow! + </p> + <p> + The intervention of France effected this peace, which was equally + acceptable to both parties. The French cabinet, no longer swayed by the + counsels of Henry the Great, and whose maxims of state were perhaps not + applicable to the present condition of that kingdom, was now far less + alarmed at the preponderance of Austria, than of the increase which would + accrue to the strength of the Calvinists, if the Palatine house should be + able to retain the throne of Bohemia. Involved at the time in a dangerous + conflict with its own Calvinistic subjects, it was of the utmost + importance to France that the Protestant faction in Bohemia should be + suppressed before the Huguenots could copy their dangerous example. In + order therefore to facilitate the Emperor’s operations against the + Bohemians, she offered her mediation to the Union and the League, and + effected this unexpected treaty, of which the main article was, “That the + Union should abandon all interference in the affairs of Bohemia, and + confine the aid which they might afford to Frederick the Fifth, to his + Palatine territories.” To this disgraceful treaty, the Union were moved by + the firmness of Maximilian, and the fear of being pressed at once by the + troops of the League, and a new Imperial army which was on its march from + the Netherlands. + </p> + <p> + The whole force of Bavaria and the League was now at the disposal of the + Emperor to be employed against the Bohemians, who by the pacification of + Ulm were abandoned to their fate. With a rapid movement, and before a + rumour of the proceedings at Ulm could reach there, Maximilian appeared in + Upper Austria, when the Estates, surprised and unprepared for an enemy, + purchased the Emperor’s pardon by an immediate and unconditional + submission. In Lower Austria, the duke formed a junction with the troops + from the Low Countries under Bucquoi, and without loss of time the united + Imperial and Bavarian forces, amounting to 50,000 men, entered Bohemia. + All the Bohemian troops, which were dispersed over Lower Austria and + Moravia, were driven before them; every town which attempted resistance + was quickly taken by storm; others, terrified by the report of the + punishment inflicted on these, voluntarily opened their gates; nothing in + short interrupted the impetuous career of Maximilian. The Bohemian army, + commanded by the brave Prince Christian of Anhalt, retreated to the + neighbourhood of Prague; where, under the walls of the city, Maximilian + offered him battle. + </p> + <p> + The wretched condition in which he hoped to surprise the insurgents, + justified the rapidity of the duke’s movements, and secured him the + victory. Frederick’s army did not amount to 30,000 men. Eight thousand of + these were furnished by the Prince of Anhalt; 10,000 were Hungarians, whom + Bethlen Gabor had despatched to his assistance. An inroad of the Elector + of Saxony upon Lusatia, had cut off all succours from that country, and + from Silesia; the pacification of Austria put an end to all his + expectations from that quarter; Bethlen Gabor, his most powerful ally, + remained inactive in Transylvania; the Union had betrayed his cause to the + Emperor. Nothing remained to him but his Bohemians; and they were without + goodwill to his cause, and without unity and courage. The Bohemian + magnates were indignant that German generals should be put over their + heads; Count Mansfeld remained in Pilsen, at a distance from the camp, to + avoid the mortification of serving under Anhalt and Hohenlohe. The + soldiers, in want of necessaries, became dispirited; and the little + discipline that was observed, gave occasion to bitter complaints from the + peasantry. It was in vain that Frederick made his appearance in the camp, + in the hope of reviving the courage of the soldiers by his presence, and + of kindling the emulation of the nobles by his example. + </p> + <p> + The Bohemians had begun to entrench themselves on the White Mountain near + Prague, when they were attacked by the Imperial and Bavarian armies, on + the 8th November, 1620. In the beginning of the action, some advantages + were gained by the cavalry of the Prince of Anhalt; but the superior + numbers of the enemy soon neutralized them. The charge of the Bavarians + and Walloons was irresistible. The Hungarian cavalry was the first to + retreat. The Bohemian infantry soon followed their example; and the + Germans were at last carried along with them in the general flight. Ten + cannons, composing the whole of Frederick’s artillery, were taken by the + enemy; four thousand Bohemians fell in the flight and on the field; while + of the Imperialists and soldiers of the League only a few hundred were + killed. In less than an hour this decisive action was over. + </p> + <p> + Frederick was seated at table in Prague, while his army was thus cut to + pieces. It is probable that he had not expected the attack on this day, + since he had ordered an entertainment for it. A messenger summoned him + from table, to show him from the walls the whole frightful scene. He + requested a cessation of hostilities for twenty-four hours for + deliberation; but eight was all the Duke of Bavaria would allow him. + Frederick availed himself of these to fly by night from the capital, with + his wife, and the chief officers of his army. This flight was so hurried, + that the Prince of Anhalt left behind him his most private papers, and + Frederick his crown. “I know now what I am,” said this unfortunate prince + to those who endeavoured to comfort him; “there are virtues which + misfortune only can teach us, and it is in adversity alone that princes + learn to know themselves.” + </p> + <p> + Prague was not irretrievably lost when Frederick’s pusillanimity abandoned + it. The light troops of Mansfeld were still in Pilsen, and were not + engaged in the action. Bethlen Gabor might at any moment have assumed an + offensive attitude, and drawn off the Emperor’s army to the Hungarian + frontier. The defeated Bohemians might rally. Sickness, famine, and the + inclement weather, might wear out the enemy; but all these hopes + disappeared before the immediate alarm. Frederick dreaded the fickleness + of the Bohemians, who might probably yield to the temptation to purchase, + by the surrender of his person, the pardon of the Emperor. + </p> + <p> + Thurn, and those of this party who were in the same condemnation with him, + found it equally inexpedient to await their destiny within the walls of + Prague. They retired towards Moravia, with a view of seeking refuge in + Transylvania. Frederick fled to Breslau, where, however, he only remained + a short time. He removed from thence to the court of the Elector of + Brandenburg, and finally took shelter in Holland. + </p> + <p> + The battle of Prague had decided the fate of Bohemia. Prague surrendered + the next day to the victors; the other towns followed the example of the + capital. The Estates did homage without conditions, and the same was done + by those of Silesia and Moravia. The Emperor allowed three months to + elapse, before instituting any inquiry into the past. Reassured by this + apparent clemency, many who, at first, had fled in terror appeared again + in the capital. All at once, however, the storm burst forth; forty-eight + of the most active among the insurgents were arrested on the same day and + hour, and tried by an extraordinary commission, composed of native + Bohemians and Austrians. Of these, twenty-seven, and of the common people + an immense number, expired on the scaffold. The absenting offenders were + summoned to appear to their trial, and failing to do so, condemned to + death, as traitors and offenders against his Catholic Majesty, their + estates confiscated, and their names affixed to the gallows. The property + also of the rebels who had fallen in the field was seized. This tyranny + might have been borne, as it affected individuals only, and while the ruin + of one enriched another; but more intolerable was the oppression which + extended to the whole kingdom, without exception. All the Protestant + preachers were banished from the country; the Bohemians first, and + afterwards those of Germany. The `Letter of Majesty’, Ferdinand tore with + his own hand, and burnt the seal. Seven years after the battle of Prague, + the toleration of the Protestant religion within the kingdom was entirely + revoked. But whatever violence the Emperor allowed himself against the + religious privileges of his subjects, he carefully abstained from + interfering with their political constitution; and while he deprived them + of the liberty of thought, he magnanimously left them the prerogative of + taxing themselves. + </p> + <p> + The victory of the White Mountain put Ferdinand in possession of all his + dominions. It even invested him with greater authority over them than his + predecessors enjoyed, since their allegiance had been unconditionally + pledged to him, and no Letter of Majesty now existed to limit his + sovereignty. All his wishes were now gratified, to a degree surpassing his + most sanguine expectations. + </p> + <p> + It was now in his power to dismiss his allies, and disband his army. If he + was just, there was an end of the war—if he was both magnanimous and + just, punishment was also at an end. The fate of Germany was in his hands; + the happiness and misery of millions depended on the resolution he should + take. Never was so great a decision resting on a single mind; never did + the blindness of one man produce so much ruin. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0005" id="link2H_4_0005"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + BOOK II. + </h2> + <p> + The resolution which Ferdinand now adopted, gave to the war a new + direction, a new scene, and new actors. From a rebellion in Bohemia, and + the chastisement of rebels, a war extended first to Germany, and + afterwards to Europe. It is, therefore, necessary to take a general survey + of the state of affairs both in Germany and the rest of Europe. + </p> + <p> + Unequally as the territory of Germany and the privileges of its members + were divided among the Roman Catholics and the Protestants, neither party + could hope to maintain itself against the encroachments of its adversary + otherwise than by a prudent use of its peculiar advantages, and by a + politic union among themselves. If the Roman Catholics were the more + numerous party, and more favoured by the constitution of the empire, the + Protestants, on the other hand, had the advantage of possessing a more + compact and populous line of territories, valiant princes, a warlike + nobility, numerous armies, flourishing free towns, the command of the sea, + and even at the worst, certainty of support from Roman Catholic states. If + the Catholics could arm Spain and Italy in their favour, the republics of + Venice, Holland, and England, opened their treasures to the Protestants, + while the states of the North and the formidable power of Turkey, stood + ready to afford them prompt assistance. Brandenburg, Saxony, and the + Palatinate, opposed three Protestant to three Ecclesiastical votes in the + Electoral College; while to the Elector of Bohemia, as to the Archduke of + Austria, the possession of the Imperial dignity was an important check, if + the Protestants properly availed themselves of it. The sword of the Union + might keep within its sheath the sword of the League; or if matters + actually came to a war, might make the issue of it doubtful. But, + unfortunately, private interests dissolved the band of union which should + have held together the Protestant members of the empire. This critical + conjuncture found none but second-rate actors on the political stage, and + the decisive moment was neglected because the courageous were deficient in + power, and the powerful in sagacity, courage, and resolution. + </p> + <p> + The Elector of Saxony was placed at the head of the German Protestants, by + the services of his ancestor Maurice, by the extent of his territories, + and by the influence of his electoral vote. Upon the resolution he might + adopt, the fate of the contending parties seemed to depend; and John + George was not insensible to the advantages which this important situation + procured him. Equally valuable as an ally, both to the Emperor and to the + Protestant Union, he cautiously avoided committing himself to either + party; neither trusting himself by any irrevocable declaration entirely to + the gratitude of the Emperor, nor renouncing the advantages which were to + be gained from his fears. Uninfected by the contagion of religious and + romantic enthusiasm which hurried sovereign after sovereign to risk both + crown and life on the hazard of war, John George aspired to the more solid + renown of improving and advancing the interests of his territories. His + cotemporaries accused him of forsaking the Protestant cause in the very + midst of the storm; of preferring the aggrandizement of his house to the + emancipation of his country; of exposing the whole Evangelical or Lutheran + church of Germany to ruin, rather than raise an arm in defence of the + Reformed or Calvinists; of injuring the common cause by his suspicious + friendship more seriously than the open enmity of its avowed opponents. + But it would have been well if his accusers had imitated the wise policy + of the Elector. If, despite of the prudent policy, the Saxons, like all + others, groaned at the cruelties which marked the Emperor’s progress; if + all Germany was a witness how Ferdinand deceived his confederates and + trifled with his engagements; if even the Elector himself at last + perceived this—the more shame to the Emperor who could so basely + betray such implicit confidence. + </p> + <p> + If an excessive reliance on the Emperor, and the hope of enlarging his + territories, tied the hands of the Elector of Saxony, the weak George + William, Elector of Brandenburg, was still more shamefully fettered by + fear of Austria, and of the loss of his dominions. What was made a + reproach against these princes would have preserved to the Elector + Palatine his fame and his kingdom. A rash confidence in his untried + strength, the influence of French counsels, and the temptation of a crown, + had seduced that unfortunate prince into an enterprise for which he had + neither adequate genius nor political capacity. The partition of his + territories among discordant princes, enfeebled the Palatinate, which, + united, might have made a longer resistance. + </p> + <p> + This partition of territory was equally injurious to the House of Hesse, + in which, between Darmstadt and Cassel, religious dissensions had + occasioned a fatal division. The line of Darmstadt, adhering to the + Confession of Augsburg, had placed itself under the Emperor’s protection, + who favoured it at the expense of the Calvinists of Cassel. While his + religious confederates were shedding their blood for their faith and their + liberties, the Landgrave of Darmstadt was won over by the Emperor’s gold. + But William of Cassel, every way worthy of his ancestor who, a century + before, had defended the freedom of Germany against the formidable Charles + V., espoused the cause of danger and of honour. Superior to that + pusillanimity which made far more powerful princes bow before Ferdinand’s + might, the Landgrave William was the first to join the hero of Sweden, and + to set an example to the princes of Germany which all had hesitated to + begin. The boldness of his resolve was equalled by the steadfastness of + his perseverance and the valour of his exploits. He placed himself with + unshrinking resolution before his bleeding country, and boldly confronted + the fearful enemy, whose hands were still reeking from the carnage of + Magdeburg. + </p> + <p> + The Landgrave William deserves to descend to immortality with the heroic + race of Ernest. Thy day of vengeance was long delayed, unfortunate John + Frederick! Noble! never-to-be-forgotten prince! Slowly but brightly it + broke. Thy times returned, and thy heroic spirit descended on thy + grandson. An intrepid race of princes issues from the Thuringian forests, + to shame, by immortal deeds, the unjust sentence which robbed thee of the + electoral crown—to avenge thy offended shade by heaps of bloody + sacrifice. The sentence of the conqueror could deprive thee of thy + territories, but not that spirit of patriotism which staked them, nor that + chivalrous courage which, a century afterwards, was destined to shake the + throne of his descendant. Thy vengeance and that of Germany whetted the + sacred sword, and one heroic hand after the other wielded the irresistible + steel. As men, they achieved what as sovereigns they dared not undertake; + they met in a glorious cause as the valiant soldiers of liberty. Too weak + in territory to attack the enemy with their own forces, they directed + foreign artillery against them, and led foreign banners to victory. + </p> + <p> + The liberties of Germany, abandoned by the more powerful states, who, + however, enjoyed most of the prosperity accruing from them, were defended + by a few princes for whom they were almost without value. The possession + of territories and dignities deadened courage; the want of both made + heroes. While Saxony, Brandenburg, and the rest drew back in terror, + Anhalt, Mansfeld, the Prince of Weimar and others were shedding their + blood in the field. The Dukes of Pomerania, Mecklenburg, Luneburg, and + Wirtemberg, and the free cities of Upper Germany, to whom the name of + EMPEROR was of course a formidable one, anxiously avoided a contest with + such an opponent, and crouched murmuring beneath his mighty arm. + </p> + <p> + Austria and Roman Catholic Germany possessed in Maximilian of Bavaria a + champion as prudent as he was powerful. Adhering throughout the war to one + fixed plan, never divided between his religion and his political + interests; not the slavish dependent of Austria, who was labouring for HIS + advancement, and trembled before her powerful protector, Maximilian earned + the territories and dignities that rewarded his exertions. The other Roman + Catholic states, which were chiefly Ecclesiastical, too unwarlike to + resist the multitudes whom the prosperity of their territories allured, + became the victims of the war one after another, and were contented to + persecute in the cabinet and in the pulpit, the enemy whom they could not + openly oppose in the field. All of them, slaves either to Austria or + Bavaria, sunk into insignificance by the side of Maximilian; in his hand + alone their united power could be rendered available. + </p> + <p> + The formidable monarchy which Charles V. and his son had unnaturally + constructed of the Netherlands, Milan, and the two Sicilies, and their + distant possessions in the East and West Indies, was under Philip III. and + Philip IV. fast verging to decay. Swollen to a sudden greatness by + unfruitful gold, this power was now sinking under a visible decline, + neglecting, as it did, agriculture, the natural support of states. The + conquests in the West Indies had reduced Spain itself to poverty, while + they enriched the markets of Europe; the bankers of Antwerp, Venice, and + Genoa, were making profit on the gold which was still buried in the mines + of Peru. For the sake of India, Spain had been depopulated, while the + treasures drawn from thence were wasted in the re-conquest of Holland, in + the chimerical project of changing the succession to the crown of France, + and in an unfortunate attack upon England. But the pride of this court had + survived its greatness, as the hate of its enemies had outlived its power. + Distrust of the Protestants suggested to the ministry of Philip III. the + dangerous policy of his father; and the reliance of the Roman Catholics in + Germany on Spanish assistance, was as firm as their belief in the + wonder-working bones of the martyrs. External splendour concealed the + inward wounds at which the life-blood of this monarchy was oozing; and the + belief of its strength survived, because it still maintained the lofty + tone of its golden days. Slaves in their palaces, and strangers even upon + their own thrones, the Spanish nominal kings still gave laws to their + German relations; though it is very doubtful if the support they afforded + was worth the dependence by which the emperors purchased it. The fate of + Europe was decided behind the Pyrenees by ignorant monks or vindictive + favourites. Yet, even in its debasement, a power must always be + formidable, which yields to none in extent; which, from custom, if not + from the steadfastness of its views, adhered faithfully to one system of + policy; which possessed well-disciplined armies and consummate generals; + which, where the sword failed, did not scruple to employ the dagger; and + converted even its ambassadors into incendiaries and assassins. What it + had lost in three quarters of the globe, it now sought to regain to the + eastward, and all Europe was at its mercy, if it could succeed in its long + cherished design of uniting with the hereditary dominions of Austria all + that lay between the Alps and the Adriatic. + </p> + <p> + To the great alarm of the native states, this formidable power had gained + a footing in Italy, where its continual encroachments made the + neighbouring sovereigns to tremble for their own possessions. The Pope + himself was in the most dangerous situation; hemmed in on both sides by + the Spanish Viceroys of Naples on the one side, and that of Milan upon the + other. Venice was confined between the Austrian Tyrol and the Spanish + territories in Milan. Savoy was surrounded by the latter and France. Hence + the wavering and equivocal policy, which from the time of Charles V. had + been pursued by the Italian States. The double character which pertained + to the Popes made them perpetually vacillate between two contradictory + systems of policy. If the successors of St. Peter found in the Spanish + princes their most obedient disciples, and the most steadfast supporters + of the Papal See, yet the princes of the States of the Church had in these + monarchs their most dangerous neighbours, and most formidable opponents. + If, in the one capacity, their dearest wish was the destruction of the + Protestants, and the triumph of Austria, in the other, they had reason to + bless the arms of the Protestants, which disabled a dangerous enemy. The + one or the other sentiment prevailed, according as the love of temporal + dominion, or zeal for spiritual supremacy, predominated in the mind of the + Pope. But the policy of Rome was, on the whole, directed to immediate + dangers; and it is well known how far more powerful is the apprehension of + losing a present good, than anxiety to recover a long lost possession. And + thus it becomes intelligible how the Pope should first combine with + Austria for the destruction of heresy, and then conspire with these very + heretics for the destruction of Austria. Strangely blended are the threads + of human affairs! What would have become of the Reformation, and of the + liberties of Germany, if the Bishop of Rome and the Prince of Rome had had + but one interest? + </p> + <p> + France had lost with its great Henry all its importance and all its weight + in the political balance of Europe. A turbulent minority had destroyed all + the benefits of the able administration of Henry. Incapable ministers, the + creatures of court intrigue, squandered in a few years the treasures which + Sully’s economy and Henry’s frugality had amassed. Scarce able to maintain + their ground against internal factions, they were compelled to resign to + other hands the helm of European affairs. The same civil war which armed + Germany against itself, excited a similar commotion in France; and Louis + XIII. attained majority only to wage a war with his own mother and his + Protestant subjects. This party, which had been kept quiet by Henry’s + enlightened policy, now seized the opportunity to take up arms, and, under + the command of some adventurous leaders, began to form themselves into a + party within the state, and to fix on the strong and powerful town of + Rochelle as the capital of their intended kingdom. Too little of a + statesman to suppress, by a prudent toleration, this civil commotion in + its birth, and too little master of the resources of his kingdom to direct + them with energy, Louis XIII. was reduced to the degradation of purchasing + the submission of the rebels by large sums of money. Though policy might + incline him, in one point of view, to assist the Bohemian insurgents + against Austria, the son of Henry the Fourth was now compelled to be an + inactive spectator of their destruction, happy enough if the Calvinists in + his own dominions did not unseasonably bethink them of their confederates + beyond the Rhine. A great mind at the helm of state would have reduced the + Protestants in France to obedience, while it employed them to fight for + the independence of their German brethren. But Henry IV. was no more, and + Richelieu had not yet revived his system of policy. + </p> + <p> + While the glory of France was thus upon the wane, the emancipated republic + of Holland was completing the fabric of its greatness. The enthusiastic + courage had not yet died away which, enkindled by the House of Orange, had + converted this mercantile people into a nation of heroes, and had enabled + them to maintain their independence in a bloody war against the Spanish + monarchy. Aware how much they owed their own liberty to foreign support, + these republicans were ready to assist their German brethren in a similar + cause, and the more so, as both were opposed to the same enemy, and the + liberty of Germany was the best warrant for that of Holland. But a + republic which had still to battle for its very existence, which, with all + its wonderful exertions, was scarce a match for the formidable enemy + within its own territories, could not be expected to withdraw its troops + from the necessary work of self-defence to employ them with a magnanimous + policy in protecting foreign states. + </p> + <p> + England too, though now united with Scotland, no longer possessed, under + the weak James, that influence in the affairs of Europe which the + governing mind of Elizabeth had procured for it. Convinced that the + welfare of her dominions depended on the security of the Protestants, this + politic princess had never swerved from the principle of promoting every + enterprise which had for its object the diminution of the Austrian power. + Her successor was no less devoid of capacity to comprehend, than of vigour + to execute, her views. While the economical Elizabeth spared not her + treasures to support the Flemings against Spain, and Henry IV. against the + League, James abandoned his daughter, his son-in-law, and his grandchild, + to the fury of their enemies. While he exhausted his learning to establish + the divine right of kings, he allowed his own dignity to sink into the + dust; while he exerted his rhetoric to prove the absolute authority of + kings, he reminded the people of theirs; and by a useless profusion, + sacrificed the chief of his sovereign rights— that of dispensing + with his parliament, and thus depriving liberty of its organ. An innate + horror at the sight of a naked sword averted him from the most just of + wars; while his favourite Buckingham practised on his weakness, and his + own complacent vanity rendered him an easy dupe of Spanish artifice. While + his son-in-law was ruined, and the inheritance of his grandson given to + others, this weak prince was imbibing, with satisfaction, the incense + which was offered to him by Austria and Spain. To divert his attention + from the German war, he was amused with the proposal of a Spanish marriage + for his son, and the ridiculous parent encouraged the romantic youth in + the foolish project of paying his addresses in person to the Spanish + princess. But his son lost his bride, as his son-in-law lost the crown of + Bohemia and the Palatine Electorate; and death alone saved him from the + danger of closing his pacific reign by a war at home, which he never had + courage to maintain, even at a distance. + </p> + <p> + The domestic disturbances which his misgovernment had gradually excited + burst forth under his unfortunate son, and forced him, after some + unimportant attempts, to renounce all further participation in the German + war, in order to stem within his own kingdom the rage of faction. + </p> + <p> + Two illustrious monarchs, far unequal in personal reputation, but equal in + power and desire of fame, made the North at this time to be respected. + Under the long and active reign of Christian IV., Denmark had risen into + importance. The personal qualifications of this prince, an excellent navy, + a formidable army, well-ordered finances, and prudent alliances, had + combined to give her prosperity at home and influence abroad. Gustavus + Vasa had rescued Sweden from vassalage, reformed it by wise laws, and had + introduced, for the first time, this newly-organized state into the field + of European politics. What this great prince had merely sketched in rude + outline, was filled up by Gustavus Adolphus, his still greater grandson. + </p> + <p> + These two kingdoms, once unnaturally united and enfeebled by their union, + had been violently separated at the time of the Reformation, and this + separation was the epoch of their prosperity. Injurious as this compulsory + union had proved to both kingdoms, equally necessary to each apart were + neighbourly friendship and harmony. On both the evangelical church leaned; + both had the same seas to protect; a common interest ought to unite them + against the same enemy. But the hatred which had dissolved the union of + these monarchies continued long after their separation to divide the two + nations. The Danish kings could not abandon their pretensions to the + Swedish crown, nor the Swedes banish the remembrance of Danish oppression. + The contiguous boundaries of the two kingdoms constantly furnished + materials for international quarrels, while the watchful jealousy of both + kings, and the unavoidable collision of their commercial interests in the + North Seas, were inexhaustible sources of dispute. + </p> + <p> + Among the means of which Gustavus Vasa, the founder of the Swedish + monarchy, availed himself to strengthen his new edifice, the Reformation + had been one of the principal. A fundamental law of the kingdom excluded + the adherents of popery from all offices of the state, and prohibited + every future sovereign of Sweden from altering the religious constitution + of the kingdom. But the second son and second successor of Gustavus had + relapsed into popery, and his son Sigismund, also king of Poland, had been + guilty of measures which menaced both the constitution and the established + church. Headed by Charles, Duke of Sudermania, the third son of Gustavus, + the Estates made a courageous resistance, which terminated, at last, in an + open civil war between the uncle and nephew, and between the King and the + people. Duke Charles, administrator of the kingdom during the absence of + the king, had availed himself of Sigismund’s long residence in Poland, and + the just displeasure of the states, to ingratiate himself with the nation, + and gradually to prepare his way to the throne. His views were not a + little forwarded by Sigismund’s imprudence. A general Diet ventured to + abolish, in favour of the Protector, the rule of primogeniture which + Gustavus had established in the succession, and placed the Duke of + Sudermania on the throne, from which Sigismund, with his whole posterity, + were solemnly excluded. The son of the new king (who reigned under the + name of Charles IX.) was Gustavus Adolphus, whom, as the son of a usurper, + the adherents of Sigismund refused to recognize. But if the obligations + between monarchy and subjects are reciprocal, and states are not to be + transmitted, like a lifeless heirloom, from hand to hand, a nation acting + with unanimity must have the power of renouncing their allegiance to a + sovereign who has violated his obligations to them, and of filling his + place by a worthier object. + </p> + <p> + Gustavus Adolphus had not completed his seventeenth year, when the Swedish + throne became vacant by the death of his father. But the early maturity of + his genius enabled the Estates to abridge in his favour the legal period + of minority. With a glorious conquest over himself he commenced a reign + which was to have victory for its constant attendant, a career which was + to begin and end in success. The young Countess of Brahe, the daughter of + a subject, had gained his early affections, and he had resolved to share + with her the Swedish throne. But, constrained by time and circumstances, + he made his attachment yield to the higher duties of a king, and heroism + again took exclusive possession of a heart which was not destined by + nature to confine itself within the limits of quiet domestic happiness. + </p> + <p> + Christian IV. of Denmark, who had ascended the throne before the birth of + Gustavus, in an inroad upon Sweden, had gained some considerable + advantages over the father of that hero. Gustavus Adolphus hastened to put + an end to this destructive war, and by prudent sacrifices obtained a + peace, in order to turn his arms against the Czar of Muscovy. The + questionable fame of a conqueror never tempted him to spend the blood of + his subjects in unjust wars; but he never shrunk from a just one. His arms + were successful against Russia, and Sweden was augmented by several + important provinces on the east. + </p> + <p> + In the meantime, Sigismund of Poland retained against the son the same + sentiments of hostility which the father had provoked, and left no + artifice untried to shake the allegiance of his subjects, to cool the + ardour of his friends, and to embitter his enemies. Neither the great + qualities of his rival, nor the repeated proofs of devotion which Sweden + gave to her loved monarch, could extinguish in this infatuated prince the + foolish hope of regaining his lost throne. All Gustavus’s overtures were + haughtily rejected. Unwillingly was this really peaceful king involved in + a tedious war with Poland, in which the whole of Livonia and Polish + Prussia were successively conquered. Though constantly victorious, + Gustavus Adolphus was always the first to hold out the hand of peace. + </p> + <p> + This contest between Sweden and Poland falls somewhere about the beginning + of the Thirty Years’ War in Germany, with which it is in some measure + connected. It was enough that Sigismund, himself a Roman Catholic, was + disputing the Swedish crown with a Protestant prince, to assure him the + active support of Spain and Austria; while a double relationship to the + Emperor gave him a still stronger claim to his protection. It was his + reliance on this powerful assistance that chiefly encouraged the King of + Poland to continue the war, which had hitherto turned out so unfavourably + for him, and the courts of Madrid and Vienna failed not to encourage him + by high-sounding promises. While Sigismund lost one place after another in + Livonia, Courland, and Prussia, he saw his ally in Germany advancing from + conquest after conquest to unlimited power. No wonder then if his aversion + to peace kept pace with his losses. The vehemence with which he nourished + his chimerical hopes blinded him to the artful policy of his confederates, + who at his expense were keeping the Swedish hero employed, in order to + overturn, without opposition, the liberties of Germany, and then to seize + on the exhausted North as an easy conquest. One circumstance which had not + been calculated on—the magnanimity of Gustavus— overthrew this + deceitful policy. An eight years’ war in Poland, so far from exhausting + the power of Sweden, had only served to mature the military genius of + Gustavus, to inure the Swedish army to warfare, and insensibly to perfect + that system of tactics by which they were afterwards to perform such + wonders in Germany. + </p> + <p> + After this necessary digression on the existing circumstances of Europe, I + now resume the thread of my history. + </p> + <p> + Ferdinand had regained his dominions, but had not indemnified himself for + the expenses of recovering them. A sum of forty millions of florins, which + the confiscations in Bohemia and Moravia had produced, would have sufficed + to reimburse both himself and his allies; but the Jesuits and his + favourites soon squandered this sum, large as it was. Maximilian, Duke of + Bavaria, to whose victorious arm, principally, the Emperor owed the + recovery of his dominions; who, in the service of religion and the + Emperor, had sacrificed his near relation, had the strongest claims on his + gratitude; and moreover, in a treaty which, before the war, the duke had + concluded with the Emperor, he had expressly stipulated for the + reimbursement of all expenses. Ferdinand felt the full weight of the + obligation imposed upon him by this treaty and by these services, but he + was not disposed to discharge it at his own cost. His purpose was to + bestow a brilliant reward upon the duke, but without detriment to himself. + How could this be done better than at the expense of the unfortunate + prince who, by his revolt, had given the Emperor a right to punish him, + and whose offences might be painted in colours strong enough to justify + the most violent measures under the appearance of law. That, then, + Maximilian may be rewarded, Frederick must be further persecuted and + totally ruined; and to defray the expenses of the old war, a new one must + be commenced. + </p> + <p> + But a still stronger motive combined to enforce the first. Hitherto + Ferdinand had been contending for existence alone; he had been fulfilling + no other duty than that of self-defence. But now, when victory gave him + freedom to act, a higher duty occurred to him, and he remembered the vow + which he had made at Loretto and at Rome, to his generalissima, the Holy + Virgin, to extend her worship even at the risk of his crown and life. With + this object, the oppression of the Protestants was inseparably connected. + More favourable circumstances for its accomplishment could not offer than + those which presented themselves at the close of the Bohemian war. Neither + the power, nor a pretext of right, were now wanting to enable him to place + the Palatinate in the hands of the Catholics, and the importance of this + change to the Catholic interests in Germany would be incalculable. Thus, + in rewarding the Duke of Bavaria with the spoils of his relation, he at + once gratified his meanest passions and fulfilled his most exalted duties; + he crushed an enemy whom he hated, and spared his avarice a painful + sacrifice, while he believed he was winning a heavenly crown. + </p> + <p> + In the Emperor’s cabinet, the ruin of Frederick had been resolved upon + long before fortune had decided against him; but it was only after this + event that they ventured to direct against him the thunders of arbitrary + power. A decree of the Emperor, destitute of all the formalities required + on such occasions by the laws of the Empire, pronounced the Elector, and + three other princes who had borne arms for him at Silesia and Bohemia, as + offenders against the imperial majesty, and disturbers of the public + peace, under the ban of the empire, and deprived them of their titles and + territories. The execution of this sentence against Frederick, namely the + seizure of his lands, was, in further contempt of law, committed to Spain + as Sovereign of the circle of Burgundy, to the Duke of Bavaria, and the + League. Had the Evangelic Union been worthy of the name it bore, and of + the cause which it pretended to defend, insuperable obstacles might have + prevented the execution of the sentence; but it was hopeless for a power + which was far from a match even for the Spanish troops in the Lower + Palatinate, to contend against the united strength of the Emperor, + Bavaria, and the League. The sentence of proscription pronounced upon the + Elector soon detached the free cities from the Union; and the princes + quickly followed their example. Fortunate in preserving their own + dominions, they abandoned the Elector, their former chief, to the + Emperor’s mercy, renounced the Union, and vowed never to revive it again. + </p> + <p> + But while thus ingloriously the German princes deserted the unfortunate + Frederick, and while Bohemia, Silesia, and Moravia submitted to the + Emperor, a single man, a soldier of fortune, whose only treasure was his + sword, Ernest Count Mansfeld, dared, in the Bohemian town of Pilsen, to + defy the whole power of Austria. Left without assistance after the battle + of Prague by the Elector, to whose service he had devoted himself, and + even uncertain whether Frederick would thank him for his perseverance, he + alone for some time held out against the imperialists, till the garrison, + mutinying for want of pay, sold the town to the Emperor. Undismayed by + this reverse, he immediately commenced new levies in the Upper Palatinate, + and enlisted the disbanded troops of the Union. A new army of 20,000 men + was soon assembled under his banners, the more formidable to the provinces + which might be the object of its attack, because it must subsist by + plunder. Uncertain where this swarm might light, the neighbouring bishops + trembled for their rich possessions, which offered a tempting prey to its + ravages. But, pressed by the Duke of Bavaria, who now entered the Upper + Palatinate, Mansfeld was compelled to retire. Eluding, by a successful + stratagem, the Bavarian general, Tilly, who was in pursuit of him, he + suddenly appeared in the Lower Palatinate, and there wreaked upon the + bishoprics of the Rhine the severities he had designed for those of + Franconia. While the imperial and Bavarian allies thus overran Bohemia, + the Spanish general, Spinola, had penetrated with a numerous army from the + Netherlands into the Lower Palatinate, which, however, the pacification of + Ulm permitted the Union to defend. But their measures were so badly + concerted, that one place after another fell into the hands of the + Spaniards; and at last, when the Union broke up, the greater part of the + country was in the possession of Spain. The Spanish general, Corduba, who + commanded these troops after the recall of Spinola, hastily raised the + siege of Frankenthal, when Mansfeld entered the Lower Palatinate. But + instead of driving the Spaniards out of this province, he hastened across + the Rhine to secure for his needy troops shelter and subsistence in + Alsace. The open countries on which this swarm of maurauders threw + themselves were converted into frightful deserts, and only by enormous + contributions could the cities purchase an exemption from plunder. + Reinforced by this expedition, Mansfeld again appeared on the Rhine to + cover the Lower Palatinate. + </p> + <p> + So long as such an arm fought for him, the cause of the Elector Frederick + was not irretrievably lost. New prospects began to open, and misfortune + raised up friends who had been silent during his prosperity. King James of + England, who had looked on with indifference while his son-in-law lost the + Bohemian crown, was aroused from his insensibility when the very existence + of his daughter and grandson was at stake, and the victorious enemy + ventured an attack upon the Electorate. Late enough, he at last opened his + treasures, and hastened to afford supplies of money and troops, first to + the Union, which at that time was defending the Lower Palatinate, and + afterwards, when they retired, to Count Mansfeld. By his means his near + relation, Christian, King of Denmark, was induced to afford his active + support. At the same time, the approaching expiration of the truce between + Spain and Holland deprived the Emperor of all the supplies which otherwise + he might expect from the side of the Netherlands. More important still was + the assistance which the Palatinate received from Transylvania and + Hungary. The cessation of hostilities between Gabor and the Emperor was + scarcely at an end, when this old and formidable enemy of Austria overran + Hungary anew, and caused himself to be crowned king in Presburg. So rapid + was his progress that, to protect Austria and Hungary, Boucquoi was + obliged to evacuate Bohemia. This brave general met his death at the siege + of Neuhausel, as, shortly before, the no less valiant Dampierre had fallen + before Presburg. Gabor’s march into the Austrian territory was + irresistible; the old Count Thurn, and several other distinguished + Bohemians, had united their hatred and their strength with this + irreconcileable enemy of Austria. A vigorous attack on the side of + Germany, while Gabor pressed the Emperor on that of Hungary, might have + retrieved the fortunes of Frederick; but, unfortunately, the Bohemians and + Germans had always laid down their arms when Gabor took the field; and the + latter was always exhausted at the very moment that the former began to + recover their vigour. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile Frederick had not delayed to join his protector Mansfeld. In + disguise he entered the Lower Palatinate, of which the possession was at + that time disputed between Mansfeld and the Bavarian general, Tilly, the + Upper Palatinate having been long conquered. A ray of hope shone upon him + as, from the wreck of the Union, new friends came forward. A former member + of the Union, George Frederick, Margrave of Baden, had for some time been + engaged in assembling a military force, which soon amounted to a + considerable army. Its destination was kept a secret till he suddenly took + the field and joined Mansfeld. Before commencing the war, he resigned his + Margraviate to his son, in the hope of eluding, by this precaution, the + Emperor’s revenge, if his enterprize should be unsuccessful. His + neighbour, the Duke of Wirtemberg, likewise began to augment his military + force. The courage of the Palatine revived, and he laboured assiduously to + renew the Protestant Union. It was now time for Tilly to consult for his + own safety, and he hastily summoned the Spanish troops, under Corduba, to + his assistance. But while the enemy was uniting his strength, Mansfeld and + the Margrave separated, and the latter was defeated by the Bavarian + general near Wimpfen (1622). + </p> + <p> + To defend a king whom his nearest relation persecuted, and who was + deserted even by his own father-in-law, there had come forward an + adventurer without money, and whose very legitimacy was questioned. A + sovereign had resigned possessions over which he reigned in peace, to + hazard the uncertain fortune of war in behalf of a stranger. And now + another soldier of fortune, poor in territorial possessions, but rich in + illustrious ancestry, undertook the defence of a cause which the former + despaired of. Christian, Duke of Brunswick, administrator of Halberstadt, + seemed to have learnt from Count Mansfeld the secret of keeping in the + field an army of 20,000 men without money. Impelled by youthful + presumption, and influenced partly by the wish of establishing his + reputation at the expense of the Roman Catholic priesthood, whom he + cordially detested, and partly by a thirst for plunder, he assembled a + considerable army in Lower Saxony, under the pretext of espousing the + defence of Frederick, and of the liberties of Germany. “God’s Friend, + Priest’s Foe”, was the motto he chose for his coinage, which was struck + out of church plate; and his conduct belied one half at least of the + device. + </p> + <p> + The progress of these banditti was, as usual, marked by the most frightful + devastation. Enriched by the spoils of the chapters of Lower Saxony and + Westphalia, they gathered strength to plunder the bishoprics upon the + Upper Rhine. Driven from thence, both by friends and foes, the + Administrator approached the town of Hoechst on the Maine, which he + crossed after a murderous action with Tilly, who disputed with him the + passage of the river. With the loss of half his army he reached the + opposite bank, where he quickly collected his shattered troops, and formed + a junction with Mansfeld. Pursued by Tilly, this united host threw itself + again into Alsace, to repeat their former ravages. While the Elector + Frederick followed, almost like a fugitive mendicant, this swarm of + plunderers which acknowledged him as its lord, and dignified itself with + his name, his friends were busily endeavouring to effect a reconciliation + between him and the Emperor. Ferdinand took care not to deprive them of + all hope of seeing the Palatine restored to his dominion. Full of artifice + and dissimulation, he pretended to be willing to enter into a negotiation, + hoping thereby to cool their ardour in the field, and to prevent them from + driving matters to extremity. James I., ever the dupe of Spanish cunning, + contributed not a little, by his foolish intermeddling, to promote the + Emperor’s schemes. Ferdinand insisted that Frederick, if he would appeal + to his clemency, should, first of all, lay down his arms, and James + considered this demand extremely reasonable. At his instigation, the + Elector dismissed his only real defenders, Count Mansfeld and the + Administrator, and in Holland awaited his own fate from the mercy of the + Emperor. + </p> + <p> + Mansfeld and Duke Christian were now at a loss for some new name; the + cause of the Elector had not set them in motion, so his dismissal could + not disarm them. War was their object; it was all the same to them in + whose cause or name it was waged. After some vain attempts on the part of + Mansfeld to be received into the Emperor’s service, both marched into + Lorraine, where the excesses of their troops spread terror even to the + heart of France. Here they long waited in vain for a master willing to + purchase their services; till the Dutch, pressed by the Spanish General + Spinola, offered to take them into pay. After a bloody fight at Fleurus + with the Spaniards, who attempted to intercept them, they reached Holland, + where their appearance compelled the Spanish general forthwith to raise + the siege of Bergen-op-Zoom. But even Holland was soon weary of these + dangerous guests, and availed herself of the first moment to get rid of + their unwelcome assistance. Mansfeld allowed his troops to recruit + themselves for new enterprises in the fertile province of East Friezeland. + Duke Christian, passionately enamoured of the Electress Palatine, with + whom he had become acquainted in Holland, and more disposed for war than + ever, led back his army into Lower Saxony, bearing that princess’s glove + in his hat, and on his standards the motto “All for God and Her”. Neither + of these adventurers had as yet run their career in this war. + </p> + <p> + All the imperial territories were now free from the enemy; the Union was + dissolved; the Margrave of Baden, Duke Christian, and Mansfeld, driven + from the field, and the Palatinate overrun by the executive troops of the + empire. Manheim and Heidelberg were in possession of Bavaria, and + Frankenthal was shortly afterwards ceded to the Spaniards. The Palatine, + in a distant corner of Holland, awaited the disgraceful permission to + appease, by abject submission, the vengeance of the Emperor; and an + Electoral Diet was at last summoned to decide his fate. That fate, + however, had been long before decided at the court of the Emperor; though + now, for the first time, were circumstances favourable for giving + publicity to the decision. After his past measures towards the Elector, + Ferdinand believed that a sincere reconciliation was not to be hoped for. + The violent course he had once begun, must be completed successfully, or + recoil upon himself. What was already lost was irrecoverable; Frederick + could never hope to regain his dominions; and a prince without territory + and without subjects had little chance of retaining the electoral crown. + Deeply as the Palatine had offended against the House of Austria, the + services of the Duke of Bavaria were no less meritorious. If the House of + Austria and the Roman Catholic church had much to dread from the + resentment and religious rancour of the Palatine family, they had as much + to hope from the gratitude and religious zeal of the Bavarian. Lastly, by + the cession of the Palatine Electorate to Bavaria, the Roman Catholic + religion would obtain a decisive preponderance in the Electoral College, + and secure a permanent triumph in Germany. + </p> + <p> + The last circumstance was sufficient to win the support of the three + Ecclesiastical Electors to this innovation; and among the Protestants the + vote of Saxony was alone of any importance. But could John George be + expected to dispute with the Emperor a right, without which he would + expose to question his own title to the electoral dignity? To a prince + whom descent, dignity, and political power placed at the head of the + Protestant church in Germany, nothing, it is true, ought to be more sacred + than the defence of the rights of that church against all the + encroachments of the Roman Catholics. But the question here was not + whether the interests of the Protestants were to be supported against the + Roman Catholics, but which of two religions equally detested, the + Calvinistic and the Popish, was to triumph over the other; to which of the + two enemies, equally dangerous, the Palatinate was to be assigned; and in + this clashing of opposite duties, it was natural that private hate and + private gain should determine the event. The born protector of the + liberties of Germany, and of the Protestant religion, encouraged the + Emperor to dispose of the Palatinate by his imperial prerogative; and to + apprehend no resistance on the part of Saxony to his measures on the mere + ground of form. If the Elector was afterwards disposed to retract this + consent, Ferdinand himself, by driving the Evangelical preachers from + Bohemia, was the cause of this change of opinion; and, in the eyes of the + Elector, the transference of the Palatine Electorate to Bavaria ceased to + be illegal, as soon as Ferdinand was prevailed upon to cede Lusatia to + Saxony, in consideration of six millions of dollars, as the expenses of + the war. + </p> + <p> + Thus, in defiance of all Protestant Germany, and in mockery of the + fundamental laws of the empire, which, as his election, he had sworn to + maintain, Ferdinand at Ratisbon solemnly invested the Duke of Bavaria with + the Palatinate, without prejudice, as the form ran, to the rights which + the relations or descendants of Frederick might afterwards establish. That + unfortunate prince thus saw himself irrevocably driven from his + possessions, without having been even heard before the tribunal which + condemned him—a privilege which the law allows to the meanest + subject, and even to the most atrocious criminal. + </p> + <p> + This violent step at last opened the eyes of the King of England; and as + the negociations for the marriage of his son with the Infanta of Spain + were now broken off, James began seriously to espouse the cause of his + son-in-law. A change in the French ministry had placed Cardinal Richelieu + at the head of affairs, and this fallen kingdom soon began to feel that a + great mind was at the helm of state. The attempts of the Spanish Viceroy + in Milan to gain possession of the Valtelline, and thus to form a junction + with the Austrian hereditary dominions, revived the olden dread of this + power, and with it the policy of Henry the Great. The marriage of the + Prince of Wales with Henrietta of France, established a close union + between the two crowns; and to this alliance, Holland, Denmark, and some + of the Italian states presently acceded. Its object was to expel, by force + of arms, Spain from the Valtelline, and to compel Austria to reinstate + Frederick; but only the first of these designs was prosecuted with vigour. + James I. died, and Charles I., involved in disputes with his Parliament, + could not bestow attention on the affairs of Germany. Savoy and Venice + withheld their assistance; and the French minister thought it necessary to + subdue the Huguenots at home, before he supported the German Protestants + against the Emperor. Great as were the hopes which had been formed from + this alliance, they were yet equalled by the disappointment of the event. + </p> + <p> + Mansfeld, deprived of all support, remained inactive on the Lower Rhine; + and Duke Christian of Brunswick, after an unsuccessful campaign, was a + second time driven out of Germany. A fresh irruption of Bethlen Gabor into + Moravia, frustrated by the want of support from the Germans, terminated, + like all the rest, in a formal peace with the Emperor. The Union was no + more; no Protestant prince was in arms; and on the frontiers of Lower + Germany, the Bavarian General Tilly, at the head of a victorious army, + encamped in the Protestant territory. The movements of the Duke of + Brunswick had drawn him into this quarter, and even into the circle of + Lower Saxony, when he made himself master of the Administrator’s magazines + at Lippstadt. The necessity of observing this enemy, and preventing him + from new inroads, was the pretext assigned for continuing Tilly’s stay in + the country. But, in truth, both Mansfeld and Duke Christian had, from + want of money, disbanded their armies, and Count Tilly had no enemy to + dread. Why, then, still burden the country with his presence? + </p> + <p> + It is difficult, amidst the uproar of contending parties, to distinguish + the voice of truth; but certainly it was matter for alarm that the League + did not lay down its arms. The premature rejoicings of the Roman + Catholics, too, were calculated to increase apprehension. The Emperor and + the League stood armed and victorious in Germany without a power to oppose + them, should they venture to attack the Protestant states and to annul the + religious treaty. Had Ferdinand been in reality far from disposed to abuse + his conquests, still the defenceless position of the Protestants was most + likely to suggest the temptation. Obsolete conventions could not bind a + prince who thought that he owed all to religion, and believed that a + religious creed would sanctify any deed, however violent. Upper Germany + was already overpowered. Lower Germany alone could check his despotic + authority. Here the Protestants still predominated; the church had been + forcibly deprived of most of its endowments; and the present appeared a + favourable moment for recovering these lost possessions. A great part of + the strength of the Lower German princes consisted in these Chapters, and + the plea of restoring its own to the church, afforded an excellent pretext + for weakening these princes. + </p> + <p> + Unpardonable would have been their negligence, had they remained inactive + in this danger. The remembrance of the ravages which Tilly’s army had + committed in Lower Saxony was too recent not to arouse the Estates to + measures of defence. With all haste, the circle of Lower Saxony began to + arm itself. Extraordinary contributions were levied, troops collected, and + magazines filled. Negociations for subsidies were set on foot with Venice, + Holland, and England. They deliberated, too, what power should be placed + at the head of the confederacy. The kings of the Sound and the Baltic, the + natural allies of this circle, would not see with indifference the Emperor + treating it as a conqueror, and establishing himself as their neighbour on + the shores of the North Sea. The twofold interests of religion and policy + urged them to put a stop to his progress in Lower Germany. Christian IV. + of Denmark, as Duke of Holstein, was himself a prince of this circle, and + by considerations equally powerful, Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden was + induced to join the confederacy. + </p> + <p> + These two kings vied with each other for the honour of defending Lower + Saxony, and of opposing the formidable power of Austria. Each offered to + raise a well-disciplined army, and to lead it in person. His victorious + campaigns against Moscow and Poland gave weight to the promises of the + King of Sweden. The shores of the Baltic were full of the name of + Gustavus. But the fame of his rival excited the envy of the Danish + monarch; and the more success he promised himself in this campaign, the + less disposed was he to show any favour to his envied neighbour. Both laid + their conditions and plans before the English ministry, and Christian IV. + finally succeeded in outbidding his rival. Gustavus Adolphus, for his own + security, had demanded the cession of some places of strength in Germany, + where he himself had no territories, to afford, in case of need, a place + of refuge for his troops. Christian IV. possessed Holstein and Jutland, + through which, in the event of a defeat, he could always secure a retreat. + </p> + <p> + Eager to get the start of his competitor, the King of Denmark hastened to + take the field. Appointed generalissimo of the circle of Lower Saxony, he + soon had an army of 60,000 men in motion; the administrator of Magdeburg, + and the Dukes of Brunswick and Mecklenburgh, entered into an alliance with + him. Encouraged by the hope of assistance from England, and the possession + of so large a force, he flattered himself he should be able to terminate + the war in a single campaign. + </p> + <p> + At Vienna, it was officially notified that the only object of these + preparations was the protection of the circle, and the maintenance of + peace. But the negociations with Holland, England, and even France, the + extraordinary exertions of the circle, and the raising of so formidable an + army, seemed to have something more in view than defensive operations, and + to contemplate nothing less than the complete restoration of the Elector + Palatine, and the humiliation of the dreaded power of Austria. + </p> + <p> + After negociations, exhortations, commands, and threats had in vain been + employed by the Emperor in order to induce the King of Denmark and the + circle of Lower Saxony to lay down their arms, hostilities commenced, and + Lower Germany became the theatre of war. Count Tilly, marching along the + left bank of the Weser, made himself master of all the passes as far as + Minden. After an unsuccessful attack on Nieuburg, he crossed the river and + overran the principality of Calemberg, in which he quartered his troops. + The king conducted his operations on the right bank of the river, and + spread his forces over the territories of Brunswick, but having weakened + his main body by too powerful detachments, he could not engage in any + enterprise of importance. Aware of his opponent’s superiority, he avoided + a decisive action as anxiously as the general of the League sought it. + </p> + <p> + With the exception of the troops from the Spanish Netherlands, which had + poured into the Lower Palatinate, the Emperor had hitherto made use only + of the arms of Bavaria and the League in Germany. Maximilian conducted the + war as executor of the ban of the empire, and Tilly, who commanded the + army of execution, was in the Bavarian service. The Emperor owed + superiority in the field to Bavaria and the League, and his fortunes were + in their hands. This dependence on their goodwill, but ill accorded with + the grand schemes, which the brilliant commencement of the war had led the + imperial cabinet to form. + </p> + <p> + However active the League had shown itself in the Emperor’s defence, while + thereby it secured its own welfare, it could not be expected that it would + enter as readily into his views of conquest. Or, if they still continued + to lend their armies for that purpose, it was too much to be feared that + they would share with the Emperor nothing but general odium, while they + appropriated to themselves all advantages. A strong army under his own + orders could alone free him from this debasing dependence upon Bavaria, + and restore to him his former pre-eminence in Germany. But the war had + already exhausted the imperial dominions, and they were unequal to the + expense of such an armament. In these circumstances, nothing could be more + welcome to the Emperor than the proposal with which one of his officers + surprised him. + </p> + <p> + This was Count Wallenstein, an experienced officer, and the richest + nobleman in Bohemia. From his earliest youth he had been in the service of + the House of Austria, and several campaigns against the Turks, Venetians, + Bohemians, Hungarians, and Transylvanians had established his reputation. + He was present as colonel at the battle of Prague, and afterwards, as + major-general, had defeated a Hungarian force in Moravia. The Emperor’s + gratitude was equal to his services, and a large share of the confiscated + estates of the Bohemian insurgents was their reward. Possessed of immense + property, excited by ambitious views, confident in his own good fortune, + and still more encouraged by the existing state of circumstances, he + offered, at his own expense and that of his friends, to raise and clothe + an army for the Emperor, and even undertook the cost of maintaining it, if + he were allowed to augment it to 50,000 men. The project was universally + ridiculed as the chimerical offspring of a visionary brain; but the offer + was highly valuable, if its promises should be but partially fulfilled. + Certain circles in Bohemia were assigned to him as depots, with authority + to appoint his own officers. In a few months he had 20,000 men under arms, + with which, quitting the Austrian territories, he soon afterwards appeared + on the frontiers of Lower Saxony with 30,000. The Emperor had lent this + armament nothing but his name. The reputation of the general, the prospect + of rapid promotion, and the hope of plunder, attracted to his standard + adventurers from all quarters of Germany; and even sovereign princes, + stimulated by the desire of glory or of gain, offered to raise regiments + for the service of Austria. + </p> + <p> + Now, therefore, for the first time in this war, an imperial army appeared + in Germany;—an event which if it was menacing to the Protestants, + was scarcely more acceptable to the Catholics. Wallenstein had orders to + unite his army with the troops of the League, and in conjunction with the + Bavarian general to attack the King of Denmark. But long jealous of + Tilly’s fame, he showed no disposition to share with him the laurels of + the campaign, or in the splendour of his rival’s achievements to dim the + lustre of his own. His plan of operations was to support the latter, but + to act entirely independent of him. As he had not resources, like Tilly, + for supplying the wants of his army, he was obliged to march his troops + into fertile countries which had not as yet suffered from war. Disobeying, + therefore, the order to form a junction with the general of the League, he + marched into the territories of Halberstadt and Magdeburg, and at Dessau + made himself master of the Elbe. All the lands on either bank of this + river were at his command, and from them he could either attack the King + of Denmark in the rear, or, if prudent, enter the territories of that + prince. + </p> + <p> + Christian IV. was fully aware of the danger of his situation between two + such powerful armies. He had already been joined by the administrator of + Halberstadt, who had lately returned from Holland; he now also + acknowledged Mansfeld, whom previously he had refused to recognise, and + supported him to the best of his ability. Mansfeld amply requited this + service. He alone kept at bay the army of Wallenstein upon the Elbe, and + prevented its junction with that of Tilly, and a combined attack on the + King of Denmark. Notwithstanding the enemy’s superiority, this intrepid + general even approached the bridge of Dessau, and ventured to entrench + himself in presence of the imperial lines. But attacked in the rear by the + whole force of the Imperialists, he was obliged to yield to superior + numbers, and to abandon his post with the loss of 3,000 killed. After this + defeat, Mansfeld withdrew into Brandenburg, where he soon recruited and + reinforced his army; and suddenly turned into Silesia, with the view of + marching from thence into Hungary; and, in conjunction with Bethlen Gabor, + carrying the war into the heart of Austria. As the Austrian dominions in + that quarter were entirely defenceless, Wallenstein received immediate + orders to leave the King of Denmark, and if possible to intercept + Mansfeld’s progress through Silesia. + </p> + <p> + The diversion which this movement of Mansfeld had made in the plans of + Wallenstein, enabled the king to detach a part of his force into + Westphalia, to seize the bishoprics of Munster and Osnaburg. To check this + movement, Tilly suddenly moved from the Weser; but the operations of Duke + Christian, who threatened the territories of the League with an inroad in + the direction of Hesse, and to remove thither the seat of war, recalled + him as rapidly from Westphalia. In order to keep open his communication + with these provinces, and to prevent the junction of the enemy with the + Landgrave of Hesse, Tilly hastily seized all the tenable posts on the + Werha and Fulda, and took up a strong position in Minden, at the foot of + the Hessian Mountains, and at the confluence of these rivers with the + Weser. He soon made himself master of Goettingen, the key of Brunswick and + Hesse, and was meditating a similar attack upon Nordheim, when the king + advanced upon him with his whole army. After throwing into this place the + necessary supplies for a long siege, the latter attempted to open a new + passage through Eichsfeld and Thuringia, into the territories of the + League. He had already reached Duderstadt, when Tilly, by forced marches, + came up with him. As the army of Tilly, which had been reinforced by some + of Wallenstein’s regiments, was superior in numbers to his own, the king, + to avoid a battle, retreated towards Brunswick. But Tilly incessantly + harassed his retreat, and after three days’ skirmishing, he was at length + obliged to await the enemy near the village of Lutter in Barenberg. The + Danes began the attack with great bravery, and thrice did their intrepid + monarch lead them in person against the enemy; but at length the superior + numbers and discipline of the Imperialists prevailed, and the general of + the League obtained a complete victory. The Danes lost sixty standards, + and their whole artillery, baggage, and ammunition. Several officers of + distinction and about 4,000 men were killed in the field of battle; and + several companies of foot, in the flight, who had thrown themselves into + the town-house of Lutter, laid down their arms and surrendered to the + conqueror. + </p> + <p> + The king fled with his cavalry, and soon collected the wreck of his army + which had survived this serious defeat. Tilly pursued his victory, made + himself master of the Weser and Brunswick, and forced the king to retire + into Bremen. Rendered more cautious by defeat, the latter now stood upon + the defensive; and determined at all events to prevent the enemy from + crossing the Elbe. But while he threw garrisons into every tenable place, + he reduced his own diminished army to inactivity; and one after another + his scattered troops were either defeated or dispersed. The forces of the + League, in command of the Weser, spread themselves along the Elbe and + Havel, and everywhere drove the Danes before them. Tilly himself crossing + the Elbe penetrated with his victorious army into Brandenburg, while + Wallenstein entered Holstein to remove the seat of war to the king’s own + dominions. + </p> + <p> + This general had just returned from Hungary whither he had pursued + Mansfeld, without being able to obstruct his march, or prevent his + junction with Bethlen Gabor. Constantly persecuted by fortune, but always + superior to his fate, Mansfeld had made his way against countless + difficulties, through Silesia and Hungary to Transylvania, where, after + all, he was not very welcome. Relying upon the assistance of England, and + a powerful diversion in Lower Saxony, Gabor had again broken the truce + with the Emperor. But in place of the expected diversion in his favour, + Mansfeld had drawn upon himself the whole strength of Wallenstein, and + instead of bringing, required, pecuniary assistance. The want of concert + in the Protestant counsels cooled Gabor’s ardour; and he hastened, as + usual, to avert the coming storm by a speedy peace. Firmly determined, + however, to break it, with the first ray of hope, he directed Mansfeld in + the mean time to apply for assistance to Venice. + </p> + <p> + Cut off from Germany, and unable to support the weak remnant of his troops + in Hungary, Mansfeld sold his artillery and baggage train, and disbanded + his soldiers. With a few followers, he proceeded through Bosnia and + Dalmatia, towards Venice. New schemes swelled his bosom; but his career + was ended. Fate, which had so restlessly sported with him throughout, now + prepared for him a peaceful grave in Dalmatia. Death overtook him in the + vicinity of Zara in 1626, and a short time before him died the faithful + companion of his fortunes, Christian, Duke of Brunswick—two men + worthy of immortality, had they but been as superior to their times as + they were to their adversities. + </p> + <p> + The King of Denmark, with his whole army, was unable to cope with Tilly + alone; much less, therefore, with a shattered force could he hold his + ground against the two imperial generals. The Danes retired from all their + posts on the Weser, the Elbe, and the Havel, and the army of Wallenstein + poured like a torrent into Brandenburg, Mecklenburg, Holstein and + Sleswick. That general, too proud to act in conjunction with another, had + dispatched Tilly across the Elbe, to watch, as he gave out, the motions of + the Dutch in that quarter; but in reality that he might terminate the war + against the king, and reap for himself the fruits of Tilly’s conquests. + Christian had now lost all his fortresses in the German States, with the + exception of Gluckstadt; his armies were defeated or dispersed; no + assistance came from Germany; from England, little consolation; while his + confederates in Lower Saxony were at the mercy of the conqueror. The + Landgrave of Hesse Cassel had been forced by Tilly, soon after the battle + of Lutter, to renounce the Danish alliance. Wallenstein’s formidable + appearance before Berlin reduced the Elector of Brandenburgh to + submission, and compelled him to recognise, as legitimate, Maximilian’s + title to the Palatine Electorate. The greater part of Mecklenburgh was now + overrun by imperial troops; and both dukes, as adherents of the King of + Denmark, placed under the ban of the empire, and driven from their + dominions. The defence of the German liberties against illegal + encroachments, was punished as a crime deserving the loss of all dignities + and territories; and yet this was but the prelude to the still more crying + enormities which shortly followed. + </p> + <p> + The secret how Wallenstein had purposed to fulfil his extravagant designs + was now manifest. He had learned the lesson from Count Mansfeld; but the + scholar surpassed his master. On the principle that war must support war, + Mansfeld and the Duke of Brunswick had subsisted their troops by + contributions levied indiscriminately on friend and enemy; but this + predatory life was attended with all the inconvenience and insecurity + which accompany robbery. Like a fugitive banditti, they were obliged to + steal through exasperated and vigilant enemies; to roam from one end of + Germany to another; to watch their opportunity with anxiety; and to + abandon the most fertile territories whenever they were defended by a + superior army. If Mansfeld and Duke Christian had done such great things + in the face of these difficulties, what might not be expected if the + obstacles were removed; when the army raised was numerous enough to + overawe in itself the most powerful states of the empire; when the name of + the Emperor insured impunity to every outrage; and when, under the highest + authority, and at the head of an overwhelming force, the same system of + warfare was pursued, which these two adventurers had hitherto adopted at + their own risk, and with only an untrained multitude? + </p> + <p> + Wallenstein had all this in view when he made his bold offer to the + Emperor, which now seemed extravagant to no one. The more his army was + augmented, the less cause was there to fear for its subsistence, because + it could irresistibly bear down upon the refractory states; the more + violent its outrages, the more probable was impunity. Towards hostile + states it had the plea of right; towards the favourably disposed it could + allege necessity. The inequality, too, with which it dealt out its + oppressions, prevented any dangerous union among the states; while the + exhaustion of their territories deprived them of the power of vengeance. + Thus the whole of Germany became a kind of magazine for the imperial army, + and the Emperor was enabled to deal with the other states as absolutely as + with his own hereditary dominions. Universal was the clamour for redress + before the imperial throne; but there was nothing to fear from the revenge + of the injured princes, so long as they appealed for justice. The general + discontent was directed equally against the Emperor, who had lent his name + to these barbarities, and the general who exceeded his power, and openly + abused the authority of his master. They applied to the Emperor for + protection against the outrages of his general; but Wallenstein had no + sooner felt himself absolute in the army, than he threw off his obedience + to his sovereign. + </p> + <p> + The exhaustion of the enemy made a speedy peace probable; yet Wallenstein + continued to augment the imperial armies until they were at least 100,000 + men strong. Numberless commissions to colonelcies and inferior commands, + the regal pomp of the commander-in-chief, immoderate largesses to his + favourites, (for he never gave less than a thousand florins,) enormous + sums lavished in corrupting the court at Vienna—all this had been + effected without burdening the Emperor. These immense sums were raised by + the contributions levied from the lower German provinces, where no + distinction was made between friend and foe; and the territories of all + princes were subjected to the same system of marching and quartering, of + extortion and outrage. If credit is to be given to an extravagant + contemporary statement, Wallenstein, during his seven years command, had + exacted not less than sixty thousand millions of dollars from one half of + Germany. The greater his extortions, the greater the rewards of his + soldiers, and the greater the concourse to his standard, for the world + always follows fortune. His armies flourished while all the states through + which they passed withered. What cared he for the detestation of the + people, and the complaints of princes? His army adored him, and the very + enormity of his guilt enabled him to bid defiance to its consequences. + </p> + <p> + It would be unjust to Ferdinand, were we to lay all these irregularities + to his charge. Had he foreseen that he was abandoning the German States to + the mercy of his officer, he would have been sensible how dangerous to + himself so absolute a general would prove. The closer the connexion became + between the army, and the leader from whom flowed favour and fortune, the + more the ties which united both to the Emperor were relaxed. Every thing, + it is true, was done in the name of the latter; but Wallenstein only + availed himself of the supreme majesty of the Emperor to crush the + authority of other states. His object was to depress the princes of the + empire, to destroy all gradation of rank between them and the Emperor, and + to elevate the power of the latter above all competition. If the Emperor + were absolute in Germany, who then would be equal to the man intrusted + with the execution of his will? The height to which Wallenstein had raised + the imperial authority astonished even the Emperor himself; but as the + greatness of the master was entirely the work of the servant, the creation + of Wallenstein would necessarily sink again into nothing upon the + withdrawal of its creative hand. Not without an object, therefore, did + Wallenstein labour to poison the minds of the German princes against the + Emperor. The more violent their hatred of Ferdinand, the more + indispensable to the Emperor would become the man who alone could render + their ill-will powerless. His design unquestionably was, that his + sovereign should stand in fear of no one in all Germany—besides + himself, the source and engine of this despotic power. + </p> + <p> + As a step towards this end, Wallenstein now demanded the cession of + Mecklenburg, to be held in pledge till the repayment of his advances for + the war. Ferdinand had already created him Duke of Friedland, apparently + with the view of exalting his own general over Bavaria; but an ordinary + recompense would not satisfy Wallenstein’s ambition. In vain was this new + demand, which could be granted only at the expense of two princes of the + empire, actively resisted in the Imperial Council; in vain did the + Spaniards, who had long been offended by his pride, oppose his elevation. + The powerful support which Wallenstein had purchased from the imperial + councillors prevailed, and Ferdinand was determined, at whatever cost, to + secure the devotion of so indispensable a minister. For a slight offence, + one of the oldest German houses was expelled from their hereditary + dominions, that a creature of the Emperor might be enriched by their + spoils (1628). + </p> + <p> + Wallenstein now began to assume the title of generalissimo of the Emperor + by sea and land. Wismar was taken, and a firm footing gained on the + Baltic. Ships were required from Poland and the Hanse towns to carry the + war to the other side of the Baltic; to pursue the Danes into the heart of + their own country, and to compel them to a peace which might prepare the + way to more important conquests. The communication between the Lower + German States and the Northern powers would be broken, could the Emperor + place himself between them, and encompass Germany, from the Adriatic to + the Sound, (the intervening kingdom of Poland being already dependent on + him,) with an unbroken line of territory. If such was the Emperor’s plan, + Wallenstein had a peculiar interest in its execution. These possessions on + the Baltic should, he intended, form the first foundation of a power, + which had long been the object of his ambition, and which should enable + him to throw off his dependence on the Emperor. + </p> + <p> + To effect this object, it was of extreme importance to gain possession of + Stralsund, a town on the Baltic. Its excellent harbour, and the short + passage from it to the Swedish and Danish coasts, peculiarly fitted it for + a naval station in a war with these powers. This town, the sixth of the + Hanseatic League, enjoyed great privileges under the Duke of Pomerania, + and totally independent of Denmark, had taken no share in the war. But + neither its neutrality, nor its privileges, could protect it against the + encroachments of Wallenstein, when he had once cast a longing look upon + it. + </p> + <p> + The request he made, that Stralsund should receive an imperial garrison, + had been firmly and honourably rejected by the magistracy, who also + refused his cunningly demanded permission to march his troops through the + town, Wallenstein, therefore, now proposed to besiege it. + </p> + <p> + The independence of Stralsund, as securing the free navigation of the + Baltic, was equally important to the two Northern kings. A common danger + overcame at last the private jealousies which had long divided these + princes. In a treaty concluded at Copenhagen in 1628, they bound + themselves to assist Stralsund with their combined force, and to oppose in + common every foreign power which should appear in the Baltic with hostile + views. Christian IV. also threw a sufficient garrison into Stralsund, and + by his personal presence animated the courage of the citizens. Some ships + of war which Sigismund, King of Poland, had sent to the assistance of the + imperial general, were sunk by the Danish fleet; and as Lubeck refused him + the use of its shipping, this imperial generalissimo of the sea had not + even ships enough to blockade this single harbour. + </p> + <p> + Nothing could appear more adventurous than to attempt the conquest of a + strongly fortified seaport without first blockading its harbour. + Wallenstein, however, who as yet had never experienced a check, wished to + conquer nature itself, and to perform impossibilities. Stralsund, open to + the sea, continued to be supplied with provisions and reinforcements; yet + Wallenstein maintained his blockade on the land side, and endeavoured, by + boasting menaces, to supply his want of real strength. “I will take this + town,” said he, “though it were fastened by a chain to the heavens.” The + Emperor himself, who might have cause to regret an enterprise which + promised no very glorious result, joyfully availed himself of the apparent + submission and acceptable propositions of the inhabitants, to order the + general to retire from the town. Wallenstein despised the command, and + continued to harass the besieged by incessant assaults. As the Danish + garrison, already much reduced, was unequal to the fatigues of this + prolonged defence, and the king was unable to detach any further troops to + their support, Stralsund, with Christian’s consent, threw itself under the + protection of the King of Sweden. The Danish commander left the town to + make way for a Swedish governor, who gloriously defended it. Here + Wallenstein’s good fortune forsook him; and, for the first time, his pride + experienced the humiliation of relinquishing his prey, after the loss of + many months and of 12,000 men. The necessity to which he reduced the town + of applying for protection to Sweden, laid the foundation of a close + alliance between Gustavus Adolphus and Stralsund, which greatly + facilitated the entrance of the Swedes into Germany. + </p> + <p> + Hitherto invariable success had attended the arms of the Emperor and the + League, and Christian IV., defeated in Germany, had sought refuge in his + own islands; but the Baltic checked the further progress of the + conquerors. The want of ships not only stopped the pursuit of the king, + but endangered their previous acquisitions. The union of the two northern + monarchs was most to be dreaded, because, so long as it lasted, it + effectually prevented the Emperor and his general from acquiring a footing + on the Baltic, or effecting a landing in Sweden. But if they could succeed + in dissolving this union, and especially securing the friendship of the + Danish king, they might hope to overpower the insulated force of Sweden. + The dread of the interference of foreign powers, the insubordination of + the Protestants in his own states, and still more the storm which was + gradually darkening along the whole of Protestant Germany, inclined the + Emperor to peace, which his general, from opposite motives, was equally + desirous to effect. Far from wishing for a state of things which would + reduce him from the meridian of greatness and glory to the obscurity of + private life, he only wished to change the theatre of war, and by a + partial peace to prolong the general confusion. The friendship of Denmark, + whose neighbour he had become as Duke of Mecklenburgh, was most important + for the success of his ambitious views; and he resolved, even at the + sacrifice of his sovereign’s interests, to secure its alliance. + </p> + <p> + By the treaty of Copenhagen, Christian IV. had expressly engaged not to + conclude a separate peace with the Emperor, without the consent of Sweden. + Notwithstanding, Wallenstein’s proposition was readily received by him. In + a conference at Lubeck in 1629, from which Wallenstein, with studied + contempt, excluded the Swedish ambassadors who came to intercede for + Mecklenburgh, all the conquests taken by the imperialists were restored to + the Danes. The conditions imposed upon the king were, that he should + interfere no farther with the affairs of Germany than was called for by + his character of Duke of Holstein; that he should on no pretext harass the + Chapters of Lower Germany, and should leave the Dukes of Mecklenburgh to + their fate. By Christian himself had these princes been involved in the + war with the Emperor; he now sacrificed them, to gain the favour of the + usurper of their territories. Among the motives which had engaged him in a + war with the Emperor, not the least was the restoration of his relation, + the Elector Palatine—yet the name of that unfortunate prince was not + even mentioned in the treaty; while in one of its articles the legitimacy + of the Bavarian election was expressly recognised. Thus meanly and + ingloriously did Christian IV. retire from the field. + </p> + <p> + Ferdinand had it now in his power, for the second time, to secure the + tranquillity of Germany; and it depended solely on his will whether the + treaty with Denmark should or should not be the basis of a general peace. + From every quarter arose the cry of the unfortunate, petitioning for an + end of their sufferings; the cruelties of his soldiers, and the rapacity + of his generals, had exceeded all bounds. Germany, laid waste by the + desolating bands of Mansfeld and the Duke of Brunswick, and by the still + more terrible hordes of Tilly and Wallenstein, lay exhausted, bleeding, + wasted, and sighing for repose. An anxious desire for peace was felt by + all conditions, and by the Emperor himself; involved as he was in a war + with France in Upper Italy, exhausted by his past warfare in Germany, and + apprehensive of the day of reckoning which was approaching. But, + unfortunately, the conditions on which alone the two religious parties + were willing respectively to sheath the sword, were irreconcileable. The + Roman Catholics wished to terminate the war to their own advantage; the + Protestants advanced equal pretensions. The Emperor, instead of uniting + both parties by a prudent moderation, sided with one; and thus Germany was + again plunged in the horrors of a bloody war. + </p> + <p> + From the very close of the Bohemian troubles, Ferdinand had carried on a + counter reformation in his hereditary dominions, in which, however, from + regard to some of the Protestant Estates, he proceeded, at first, with + moderation. But the victories of his generals in Lower Germany encouraged + him to throw off all reserve. Accordingly he had it intimated to all the + Protestants in these dominions, that they must either abandon their + religion, or their native country,—a bitter and dreadful + alternative, which excited the most violent commotions among his Austrian + subjects. In the Palatinate, immediately after the expulsion of Frederick, + the Protestant religion had been suppressed, and its professors expelled + from the University of Heidelberg. + </p> + <p> + All this was but the prelude to greater changes. In the Electoral Congress + held at Muehlhausen, the Roman Catholics had demanded of the Emperor that + all the archbishoprics, bishoprics, mediate and immediate, abbacies and + monasteries, which, since the Diet of Augsburg, had been secularized by + the Protestants, should be restored to the church, in order to indemnify + them for the losses and sufferings in the war. To a Roman Catholic prince + so zealous as Ferdinand was, such a hint was not likely to be neglected; + but he still thought it would be premature to arouse the whole Protestants + of Germany by so decisive a step. Not a single Protestant prince but would + be deprived, by this revocation of the religious foundations, of a part of + his lands; for where these revenues had not actually been diverted to + secular purposes they had been made over to the Protestant church. To this + source, many princes owed the chief part of their revenues and importance. + All, without exception, would be irritated by this demand for restoration. + The religious treaty did not expressly deny their right to these chapters, + although it did not allow it. But a possession which had now been held for + nearly a century, the silence of four preceding emperors, and the law of + equity, which gave them an equal right with the Roman Catholics to the + foundations of their common ancestors, might be strongly pleaded by them + as a valid title. Besides the actual loss of power and authority, which + the surrender of these foundations would occasion, besides the inevitable + confusion which would necessarily attend it, one important disadvantage to + which it would lead, was, that the restoration of the Roman Catholic + bishops would increase the strength of that party in the Diet by so many + additional votes. Such grievous sacrifices likely to fall on the + Protestants, made the Emperor apprehensive of a formidable opposition; and + until the military ardour should have cooled in Germany, he had no wish to + provoke a party formidable by its union, and which in the Elector of + Saxony had a powerful leader. He resolved, therefore, to try the + experiment at first on a small scale, in order to ascertain how it was + likely to succeed on a larger one. Accordingly, some of the free cities in + Upper Germany, and the Duke of Wirtemberg, received orders to surrender to + the Roman Catholics several of the confiscated chapters. + </p> + <p> + The state of affairs in Saxony enabled the Emperor to make some bolder + experiments in that quarter. In the bishoprics of Magdeburg and + Halberstadt, the Protestant canons had not hesitated to elect bishops of + their own religion. Both bishoprics, with the exception of the town of + Magdeburg itself, were overrun by the troops of Wallenstein. It happened, + moreover, that by the death of the Administrator Duke Christian of + Brunswick, Halberstadt was vacant, as was also the Archbishopric of + Magdeburg by the deposition of Christian William, a prince of the House of + Brandenburgh. Ferdinand took advantage of the circumstance to restore the + see of Halberstadt to a Roman Catholic bishop, and a prince of his own + house. To avoid a similar coercion, the Chapter of Magdeburg hastened to + elect a son of the Elector of Saxony as archbishop. But the pope, who with + his arrogated authority interfered in this matter, conferred the + Archbishopric of Magdeburg also on the Austrian prince. Thus, with all his + pious zeal for religion, Ferdinand never lost sight of the interests of + his family. + </p> + <p> + At length, when the peace of Lubeck had delivered the Emperor from all + apprehensions on the side of Denmark, and the German Protestants seemed + entirely powerless, the League becoming louder and more urgent in its + demands, Ferdinand, in 1629, signed the Edict of Restitution, (so famous + by its disastrous consequences,) which he had previously laid before the + four Roman Catholic electors for their approbation. In the preamble, he + claimed the prerogative, in right of his imperial authority, to interpret + the meaning of the religious treaty, the ambiguities of which had already + caused so many disputes, and to decide as supreme arbiter and judge + between the contending parties. This prerogative he founded upon the + practice of his ancestors, and its previous recognition even by Protestant + states. Saxony had actually acknowledged this right of the Emperor; and it + now became evident how deeply this court had injured the Protestant cause + by its dependence on the House of Austria. But though the meaning of the + religious treaty was really ambiguous, as a century of religious disputes + sufficiently proved, yet for the Emperor, who must be either a Protestant + or a Roman Catholic, and therefore an interested party, to assume the + right of deciding between the disputants, was clearly a violation of an + essential article of the pacification. He could not be judge in his own + cause, without reducing the liberties of the empire to an empty sound. + </p> + <p> + And now, in virtue of this usurpation, Ferdinand decided, “That every + secularization of a religious foundation, mediate or immediate, by the + Protestants, subsequent to the date of the treaty, was contrary to its + spirit, and must be revoked as a breach of it.” He further decided, “That, + by the religious peace, Catholic proprietors of estates were no further + bound to their Protestant subjects than to allow them full liberty to quit + their territories.” In obedience to this decision, all unlawful possessors + of benefices—the Protestant states in short without exception—were + ordered, under pain of the ban of the empire, immediately to surrender + their usurped possessions to the imperial commissioners. + </p> + <p> + This sentence applied to no less than two archbishoprics and twelve + bishoprics, besides innumerable abbacies. The edict came like a + thunderbolt on the whole of Protestant Germany; dreadful even in its + immediate consequences; but yet more so from the further calamities it + seemed to threaten. The Protestants were now convinced that the + suppression of their religion had been resolved on by the Emperor and the + League, and that the overthrow of German liberty would soon follow. Their + remonstrances were unheeded; the commissioners were named, and an army + assembled to enforce obedience. The edict was first put in force in + Augsburg, where the treaty was concluded; the city was again placed under + the government of its bishop, and six Protestant churches in the town were + closed. The Duke of Wirtemberg was, in like manner, compelled to surrender + his abbacies. These severe measures, though they alarmed the Protestant + states, were yet insufficient to rouse them to an active resistance. Their + fear of the Emperor was too strong, and many were disposed to quiet + submission. The hope of attaining their end by gentle measures, induced + the Roman Catholics likewise to delay for a year the execution of the + edict, and this saved the Protestants; before the end of that period, the + success of the Swedish arms had totally changed the state of affairs. + </p> + <p> + In a Diet held at Ratisbon, at which Ferdinand was present in person (in + 1630), the necessity of taking some measures for the immediate restoration + of a general peace to Germany, and for the removal of all grievances, was + debated. The complaints of the Roman Catholics were scarcely less numerous + than those of the Protestants, although Ferdinand had flattered himself + that by the Edict of Restitution he had secured the members of the League, + and its leader by the gift of the electoral dignity, and the cession of + great part of the Palatinate. But the good understanding between the + Emperor and the princes of the League had rapidly declined since the + employment of Wallenstein. Accustomed to give law to Germany, and even to + sway the Emperor’s own destiny, the haughty Elector of Bavaria now at once + saw himself supplanted by the imperial general, and with that of the + League, his own importance completely undermined. Another had now stepped + in to reap the fruits of his victories, and to bury his past services in + oblivion. Wallenstein’s imperious character, whose dearest triumph was in + degrading the authority of the princes, and giving an odious latitude to + that of the Emperor, tended not a little to augment the irritation of the + Elector. Discontented with the Emperor, and distrustful of his intentions, + he had entered into an alliance with France, which the other members of + the League were suspected of favouring. A fear of the Emperor’s plans of + aggrandizement, and discontent with existing evils, had extinguished among + them all feelings of gratitude. Wallenstein’s exactions had become + altogether intolerable. Brandenburg estimated its losses at twenty, + Pomerania at ten, Hesse Cassel at seven millions of dollars, and the rest + in proportion. The cry for redress was loud, urgent, and universal; all + prejudices were hushed; Roman Catholics and Protestants were united on + this point. The terrified Emperor was assailed on all sides by petitions + against Wallenstein, and his ear filled with the most fearful descriptions + of his outrages. Ferdinand was not naturally cruel. If not totally + innocent of the atrocities which were practised in Germany under the + shelter of his name, he was ignorant of their extent; and he was not long + in yielding to the representation of the princes, and reduced his standing + army by eighteen thousand cavalry. While this reduction took place, the + Swedes were actively preparing an expedition into Germany, and the greater + part of the disbanded Imperialists enlisted under their banners. + </p> + <p> + The Emperor’s concessions only encouraged the Elector of Bavaria to bolder + demands. So long as the Duke of Friedland retained the supreme command, + his triumph over the Emperor was incomplete. The princes of the League + were meditating a severe revenge on Wallenstein for that haughtiness with + which he had treated them all alike. His dismissal was demanded by the + whole college of electors, and even by Spain, with a degree of unanimity + and urgency which astonished the Emperor. The anxiety with which + Wallenstein’s enemies pressed for his dismissal, ought to have convinced + the Emperor of the importance of his services. Wallenstein, informed of + the cabals which were forming against him in Ratisbon, lost no time in + opening the eyes of the Emperor to the real views of the Elector of + Bavaria. He himself appeared in Ratisbon, with a pomp which threw his + master into the shade, and increased the hatred of his opponents. + </p> + <p> + Long was the Emperor undecided. The sacrifice demanded was a painful one. + To the Duke of Friedland alone he owed his preponderance; he felt how much + he would lose in yielding him to the indignation of the princes. But at + this moment, unfortunately, he was under the necessity of conciliating the + Electors. His son Ferdinand had already been chosen King of Hungary, and + he was endeavouring to procure his election as his successor in the + empire. For this purpose, the support of Maximilian was indispensable. + This consideration was the weightiest, and to oblige the Elector of + Bavaria he scrupled not to sacrifice his most valuable servant. + </p> + <p> + At the Diet at Ratisbon, there were present ambassadors from France, + empowered to adjust the differences which seemed to menace a war in Italy + between the Emperor and their sovereign. Vincent, Duke of Mantua and + Montferrat, dying without issue, his next relation, Charles, Duke of + Nevers, had taken possession of this inheritance, without doing homage to + the Emperor as liege lord of the principality. Encouraged by the support + of France and Venice, he refused to surrender these territories into the + hands of the imperial commissioners, until his title to them should be + decided. On the other hand, Ferdinand had taken up arms at the instigation + of the Spaniards, to whom, as possessors of Milan, the near neighbourhood + of a vassal of France was peculiarly alarming, and who welcomed this + prospect of making, with the assistance of the Emperor, additional + conquests in Italy. In spite of all the exertions of Pope Urban VIII. to + avert a war in that country, Ferdinand marched a German army across the + Alps, and threw the Italian states into a general consternation. His arms + had been successful throughout Germany, and exaggerated fears revived the + olden apprehension of Austria’s projects of universal monarchy. All the + horrors of the German war now spread like a deluge over those favoured + countries which the Po waters; Mantua was taken by storm, and the + surrounding districts given up to the ravages of a lawless soldiery. The + curse of Italy was thus added to the maledictions upon the Emperor which + resounded through Germany; and even in the Roman Conclave, silent prayers + were offered for the success of the Protestant arms. + </p> + <p> + Alarmed by the universal hatred which this Italian campaign had drawn upon + him, and wearied out by the urgent remonstrances of the Electors, who + zealously supported the application of the French ambassador, the Emperor + promised the investiture to the new Duke of Mantua. + </p> + <p> + This important service on the part of Bavaria, of course, required an + equivalent from France. The adjustment of the treaty gave the envoys of + Richelieu, during their residence in Ratisbon, the desired opportunity of + entangling the Emperor in dangerous intrigues, of inflaming the + discontented princes of the League still more strongly against him, and of + turning to his disadvantage all the transactions of the Diet. For this + purpose Richelieu had chosen an admirable instrument in Father Joseph, a + Capuchin friar, who accompanied the ambassadors without exciting the least + suspicion. One of his principal instructions was assiduously to bring + about the dismissal of Wallenstein. With the general who had led it to + victory, the army of Austria would lose its principal strength; many + armies could not compensate for the loss of this individual. It would + therefore be a masterstroke of policy, at the very moment when a + victorious monarch, the absolute master of his operations, was arming + against the Emperor, to remove from the head of the imperial armies the + only general who, by ability and military experience, was able to cope + with the French king. Father Joseph, in the interests of Bavaria, + undertook to overcome the irresolution of the Emperor, who was now in a + manner besieged by the Spaniards and the Electoral Council. “It would be + expedient,” he thought, “to gratify the Electors on this occasion, and + thereby facilitate his son’s election to the Roman Crown. This object once + gained, Wallenstein could at any time resume his former station.” The + artful Capuchin was too sure of his man to touch upon this ground of + consolation. + </p> + <p> + The voice of a monk was to Ferdinand II. the voice of God. “Nothing on + earth,” writes his own confessor, “was more sacred in his eyes than a + priest. If it could happen, he used to say, that an angel and a Regular + were to meet him at the same time and place, the Regular should receive + his first, and the angel his second obeisance.” Wallenstein’s dismissal + was determined upon. + </p> + <p> + In return for this pious concession, the Capuchin dexterously counteracted + the Emperor’s scheme to procure for the King of Hungary the further + dignity of King of the Romans. In an express clause of the treaty just + concluded, the French ministers engaged in the name of their sovereign to + observe a complete neutrality between the Emperor and his enemies; while, + at the same time, Richelieu was actually negociating with the King of + Sweden to declare war, and pressing upon him the alliance of his master. + The latter, indeed, disavowed the lie as soon as it had served its + purpose, and Father Joseph, confined to a convent, must atone for the + alleged offence of exceeding his instructions. Ferdinand perceived, when + too late, that he had been imposed upon. “A wicked Capuchin,” he was heard + to say, “has disarmed me with his rosary, and thrust nothing less than six + electoral crowns into his cowl.” + </p> + <p> + Artifice and trickery thus triumphed over the Emperor, at the moment when + he was believed to be omnipotent in Germany, and actually was so in the + field. With the loss of 18,000 men, and of a general who alone was worth + whole armies, he left Ratisbon without gaining the end for which he had + made such sacrifices. Before the Swedes had vanquished him in the field, + Maximilian of Bavaria and Father Joseph had given him a mortal blow. At + this memorable Diet at Ratisbon the war with Sweden was resolved upon, and + that of Mantua terminated. Vainly had the princes present at it interceded + for the Dukes of Mecklenburgh; and equally fruitless had been an + application by the English ambassadors for a pension to the Palatine + Frederick. + </p> + <p> + Wallenstein was at the head of an army of nearly a hundred thousand men + who adored him, when the sentence of his dismissal arrived. Most of the + officers were his creatures:—with the common soldiers his hint was + law. His ambition was boundless, his pride indomitable, his imperious + spirit could not brook an injury unavenged. One moment would now + precipitate him from the height of grandeur into the obscurity of a + private station. To execute such a sentence upon such a delinquent seemed + to require more address than it cost to obtain it from the judge. + Accordingly, two of Wallenstein’s most intimate friends were selected as + heralds of these evil tidings, and instructed to soften them as much as + possible, by flattering assurances of the continuance of the Emperor’s + favour. + </p> + <p> + Wallenstein had ascertained the purport of their message before the + imperial ambassadors arrived. He had time to collect himself, and his + countenance exhibited an external calmness, while grief and rage were + storming in his bosom. He had made up his mind to obey. The Emperor’s + decision had taken him by surprise before circumstances were ripe, or his + preparations complete, for the bold measures he had contemplated. His + extensive estates were scattered over Bohemia and Moravia; and by their + confiscation, the Emperor might at once destroy the sinews of his power. + He looked, therefore, to the future for revenge; and in this hope he was + encouraged by the predictions of an Italian astrologer, who led his + imperious spirit like a child in leading strings. Seni had read in the + stars, that his master’s brilliant career was not yet ended; and that + bright and glorious prospects still awaited him. It was, indeed, + unnecessary to consult the stars to foretell that an enemy, Gustavus + Adolphus, would ere long render indispensable the services of such a + general as Wallenstein. + </p> + <p> + “The Emperor is betrayed,” said Wallenstein to the messengers; “I pity but + forgive him. It is plain that the grasping spirit of the Bavarian dictates + to him. I grieve that, with so much weakness, he has sacrificed me, but I + will obey.” He dismissed the emissaries with princely presents; and in a + humble letter besought the continuance of the Emperor’s favour, and of the + dignities he had bestowed upon him. + </p> + <p> + The murmurs of the army were universal, on hearing of the dismissal of + their general; and the greater part of his officers immediately quitted + the imperial service. Many followed him to his estates in Bohemia and + Moravia; others he attached to his interests by pensions, in order to + command their services when the opportunity should offer. + </p> + <p> + But repose was the last thing that Wallenstein contemplated when he + returned to private life. In his retreat, he surrounded himself with a + regal pomp, which seemed to mock the sentence of degradation. Six gates + led to the palace he inhabited in Prague, and a hundred houses were pulled + down to make way for his courtyard. Similar palaces were built on his + other numerous estates. Gentlemen of the noblest houses contended for the + honour of serving him, and even imperial chamberlains resigned the golden + key to the Emperor, to fill a similar office under Wallenstein. He + maintained sixty pages, who were instructed by the ablest masters. His + antichamber was protected by fifty life guards. His table never consisted + of less than 100 covers, and his seneschal was a person of distinction. + When he travelled, his baggage and suite accompanied him in a hundred + wagons, drawn by six or four horses; his court followed in sixty + carriages, attended by fifty led horses. The pomp of his liveries, the + splendour of his equipages, and the decorations of his apartments, were in + keeping with all the rest. Six barons and as many knights, were in + constant attendance about his person, and ready to execute his slightest + order. Twelve patrols went their rounds about his palace, to prevent any + disturbance. His busy genius required silence. The noise of coaches was to + be kept away from his residence, and the streets leading to it were + frequently blocked up with chains. His own circle was as silent as the + approaches to his palace; dark, reserved, and impenetrable, he was more + sparing of his words than of his gifts; while the little that he spoke was + harsh and imperious. He never smiled, and the coldness of his temperament + was proof against sensual seductions. Ever occupied with grand schemes, he + despised all those idle amusements in which so many waste their lives. The + correspondence he kept up with the whole of Europe was chiefly managed by + himself, and, that as little as possible might be trusted to the silence + of others, most of the letters were written by his own hand. He was a man + of large stature, thin, of a sallow complexion, with short red hair, and + small sparkling eyes. A gloomy and forbidding seriousness sat upon his + brow; and his magnificent presents alone retained the trembling crowd of + his dependents. + </p> + <p> + In this stately obscurity did Wallenstein silently, but not inactively, + await the hour of revenge. The victorious career of Gustavus Adolphus soon + gave him a presentiment of its approach. Not one of his lofty schemes had + been abandoned; and the Emperor’s ingratitude had loosened the curb of his + ambition. The dazzling splendour of his private life bespoke high soaring + projects; and, lavish as a king, he seemed already to reckon among his + certain possessions those which he contemplated with hope. + </p> + <p> + After Wallenstein’s dismissal, and the invasion of Gustavus Adolphus, a + new generalissimo was to be appointed; and it now appeared advisable to + unite both the imperial army and that of the League under one general. + Maximilian of Bavaria sought this appointment, which would have enabled + him to dictate to the Emperor, who, from a conviction of this, wished to + procure the command for his eldest son, the King of Hungary. At last, in + order to avoid offence to either of the competitors, the appointment was + given to Tilly, who now exchanged the Bavarian for the Austrian service. + The imperial army in Germany, after the retirement of Wallenstein, + amounted to about 40,000 men; that of the League to nearly the same + number, both commanded by excellent officers, trained by the experience of + several campaigns, and proud of a long series of victories. With such a + force, little apprehension was felt at the invasion of the King of Sweden, + and the less so as it commanded both Pomerania and Mecklenburg, the only + countries through which he could enter Germany. + </p> + <p> + After the unsuccessful attempt of the King of Denmark to check the + Emperor’s progress, Gustavus Adolphus was the only prince in Europe from + whom oppressed liberty could look for protection—the only one who, + while he was personally qualified to conduct such an enterprise, had both + political motives to recommend and wrongs to justify it. Before the + commencement of the war in Lower Saxony, important political interests + induced him, as well as the King of Denmark, to offer his services and his + army for the defence of Germany; but the offer of the latter had, to his + own misfortune, been preferred. Since that time, Wallenstein and the + Emperor had adopted measures which must have been equally offensive to him + as a man and as a king. Imperial troops had been despatched to the aid of + the Polish king, Sigismund, to defend Prussia against the Swedes. When the + king complained to Wallenstein of this act of hostility, he received for + answer, “The Emperor has more soldiers than he wants for himself, he must + help his friends.” The Swedish ambassadors had been insolently ordered by + Wallenstein to withdraw from the conference at Lubeck; and when, unawed by + this command, they were courageous enough to remain, contrary to the law + of nations, he had threatened them with violence. Ferdinand had also + insulted the Swedish flag, and intercepted the king’s despatches to + Transylvania. He also threw every obstacle in the way of a peace betwixt + Poland and Sweden, supported the pretensions of Sigismund to the Swedish + throne, and denied the right of Gustavus to the title of king. Deigning no + regard to the repeated remonstrances of Gustavus, he rather aggravated the + offence by new grievances, than acceded the required satisfaction. + </p> + <p> + So many personal motives, supported by important considerations, both of + policy and religion, and seconded by pressing invitations from Germany, + had their full weight with a prince, who was naturally the more jealous of + his royal prerogative the more it was questioned, who was flattered by the + glory he hoped to gain as Protector of the Oppressed, and passionately + loved war as the element of his genius. But, until a truce or peace with + Poland should set his hands free, a new and dangerous war was not to be + thought of. + </p> + <p> + Cardinal Richelieu had the merit of effecting this truce with Poland. This + great statesman, who guided the helm of Europe, while in France he + repressed the rage of faction and the insolence of the nobles, pursued + steadily, amidst the cares of a stormy administration, his plan of + lowering the ascendancy of the House of Austria. But circumstances opposed + considerable obstacles to the execution of his designs; and even the + greatest minds cannot, with impunity, defy the prejudices of the age. The + minister of a Roman Catholic king, and a Cardinal, he was prevented by the + purple he bore from joining the enemies of that church in an open attack + on a power which had the address to sanctify its ambitious encroachments + under the name of religion. The external deference which Richelieu was + obliged to pay to the narrow views of his contemporaries limited his + exertions to secret negociations, by which he endeavoured to gain the hand + of others to accomplish the enlightened projects of his own mind. After a + fruitless attempt to prevent the peace between Denmark and the Emperor, he + had recourse to Gustavus Adolphus, the hero of his age. No exertion was + spared to bring this monarch to a favourable decision, and at the same + time to facilitate the execution of it. Charnasse, an unsuspected agent of + the Cardinal, proceeded to Polish Prussia, where Gustavus Adolphus was + conducting the war against Sigismund, and alternately visited these + princes, in order to persuade them to a truce or peace. Gustavus had been + long inclined to it, and the French minister succeeded at last in opening + the eyes of Sigismund to his true interests, and to the deceitful policy + of the Emperor. A truce for six years was agreed on, Gustavus being + allowed to retain all his conquests. This treaty gave him also what he had + so long desired, the liberty of directing his arms against the Emperor. + For this the French ambassador offered him the alliance of his sovereign + and considerable subsidies. But Gustavus Adolphus was justly apprehensive + lest the acceptance of the assistance should make him dependent upon + France, and fetter him in his career of conquest, while an alliance with a + Roman Catholic power might excite distrust among the Protestants. + </p> + <p> + If the war was just and necessary, the circumstances under which it was + undertaken were not less promising. The name of the Emperor, it is true, + was formidable, his resources inexhaustible, his power hitherto + invincible. So dangerous a contest would have dismayed any other than + Gustavus. He saw all the obstacles and dangers which opposed his + undertaking, but he knew also the means by which, as he hoped, they might + be conquered. His army, though not numerous, was well disciplined, inured + to hardship by a severe climate and campaigns, and trained to victory in + the war with Poland. Sweden, though poor in men and money, and overtaxed + by an eight years’ war, was devoted to its monarch with an enthusiasm + which assured him of the ready support of his subjects. In Germany, the + name of the Emperor was at least as much hated as feared. The Protestant + princes only awaited the arrival of a deliverer to throw off his + intolerable yoke, and openly declare for the Swedes. Even the Roman + Catholic states would welcome an antagonist to the Emperor, whose + opposition might control his overwhelming influence. The first victory + gained on German ground would be decisive. It would encourage those + princes who still hesitated to declare themselves, strengthen the cause of + his adherents, augment his troops, and open resources for the maintenance + of the campaign. If the greater part of the German states were + impoverished by oppression, the flourishing Hanse towns had escaped, and + they could not hesitate, by a small voluntary sacrifice, to avert the + general ruin. As the imperialists should be driven from the different + provinces, their armies would diminish, since they were subsisting on the + countries in which they were encamped. The strength, too, of the Emperor + had been lessened by ill-timed detachments to Italy and the Netherlands; + while Spain, weakened by the loss of the Manilla galleons, and engaged in + a serious war in the Netherlands, could afford him little support. Great + Britain, on the other hand, gave the King of Sweden hope of considerable + subsidies; and France, now at peace with itself, came forward with the + most favourable offers. + </p> + <p> + But the strongest pledge for the success of his undertaking Gustavus found—in + himself. Prudence demanded that he should embrace all the foreign + assistance he could, in order to guard his enterprise from the imputation + of rashness; but all his confidence and courage were entirely derived from + himself. He was indisputably the greatest general of his age, and the + bravest soldier in the army which he had formed. Familiar with the tactics + of Greece and Rome, he had discovered a more effective system of warfare, + which was adopted as a model by the most eminent commanders of subsequent + times. He reduced the unwieldy squadrons of cavalry, and rendered their + movements more light and rapid; and, with the same view, he widened the + intervals between his battalions. Instead of the usual array in a single + line, he disposed his forces in two lines, that the second might advance + in the event of the first giving way. + </p> + <p> + He made up for his want of cavalry, by placing infantry among the horse; a + practice which frequently decided the victory. Europe first learned from + him the importance of infantry. All Germany was astonished at the strict + discipline which, at the first, so creditably distinguished the Swedish + army within their territories; all disorders were punished with the utmost + severity, particularly impiety, theft, gambling, and duelling. The Swedish + articles of war enforced frugality. In the camp, the King’s tent not + excepted, neither silver nor gold was to be seen. The general’s eye looked + as vigilantly to the morals as to the martial bravery of his soldiers; + every regiment was ordered to form round its chaplain for morning and + evening prayers. In all these points the lawgiver was also an example. A + sincere and ardent piety exalted his courage. Equally free from the coarse + infidelity which leaves the passions of the barbarian without a control,—and + from the grovelling superstition of Ferdinand, who humbled himself to the + dust before the Supreme Being, while he haughtily trampled on his + fellow-creature—in the height of his success he was ever a man and a + Christian—in the height of his devotion, a king and a hero. The + hardships of war he shared with the meanest soldier in his army; + maintained a calm serenity amidst the hottest fury of battle; his glance + was omnipresent, and he intrepidly forgot the danger while he exposed + himself to the greatest peril. His natural courage, indeed, too often made + him forget the duty of a general; and the life of a king ended in the + death of a common soldier. But such a leader was followed to victory alike + by the coward and the brave, and his eagle glance marked every heroic deed + which his example had inspired. The fame of their sovereign excited in the + nation an enthusiastic sense of their own importance; proud of their king, + the peasant in Finland and Gothland joyfully contributed his pittance; the + soldier willingly shed his blood; and the lofty energy which his single + mind had imparted to the nation long survived its creator. + </p> + <p> + The necessity of the war was acknowledged, but the best plan of conducting + it was a matter of much question. Even to the bold Chancellor Oxenstiern, + an offensive war appeared too daring a measure; the resources of his poor + and conscientious master, appeared to him too slender to compete with + those of a despotic sovereign, who held all Germany at his command. But + the minister’s timid scruples were overruled by the hero’s penetrating + prudence. “If we await the enemy in Sweden,” said Gustavus, “in the event + of a defeat every thing would be lost, by a fortunate commencement in + Germany everything would be gained. The sea is wide, and we have a long + line of coast in Sweden to defend. If the enemy’s fleet should escape us, + or our own be defeated, it would, in either case, be impossible to prevent + the enemy’s landing. Every thing depends on the retention of Stralsund. So + long as this harbour is open to us, we shall both command the Baltic, and + secure a retreat from Germany. But to protect this port, we must not + remain in Sweden, but advance at once into Pomerania. Let us talk no more, + then, of a defensive war, by which we should sacrifice our greatest + advantages. Sweden must not be doomed to behold a hostile banner; if we + are vanquished in Germany, it will be time enough to follow your plan.” + </p> + <p> + Gustavus resolved to cross the Baltic and attack the Emperor. His + preparations were made with the utmost expedition, and his precautionary + measures were not less prudent than the resolution itself was bold and + magnanimous. Before engaging in so distant a war, it was necessary to + secure Sweden against its neighbours. At a personal interview with the + King of Denmark at Markaroed, Gustavus assured himself of the friendship + of that monarch; his frontier on the side of Moscow was well guarded; + Poland might be held in check from Germany, if it betrayed any design of + infringing the truce. Falkenberg, a Swedish ambassador, who visited the + courts of Holland and Germany, obtained the most flattering promises from + several Protestant princes, though none of them yet possessed courage or + self-devotion enough to enter into a formal alliance with him. Lubeck and + Hamburg engaged to advance him money, and to accept Swedish copper in + return. Emissaries were also despatched to the Prince of Transylvania, to + excite that implacable enemy of Austria to arms. + </p> + <p> + In the mean time, Swedish levies were made in Germany and the Netherlands, + the regiments increased to their full complement, new ones raised, + transports provided, a fleet fitted out, provisions, military stores, and + money collected. Thirty ships of war were in a short time prepared, 15,000 + men equipped, and 200 transports were ready to convey them across the + Baltic. A greater force Gustavus Adolphus was unwilling to carry into + Germany, and even the maintenance of this exceeded the revenues of his + kingdom. But however small his army, it was admirable in all points of + discipline, courage, and experience, and might serve as the nucleus of a + more powerful armament, if it once gained the German frontier, and its + first attempts were attended with success. Oxenstiern, at once general and + chancellor, was posted with 10,000 men in Prussia, to protect that + province against Poland. Some regular troops, and a considerable body of + militia, which served as a nursery for the main body, remained in Sweden, + as a defence against a sudden invasion by any treacherous neighbour. + </p> + <p> + These were the measures taken for the external defence of the kingdom. Its + internal administration was provided for with equal care. The government + was intrusted to the Council of State, and the finances to the Palatine + John Casimir, the brother-in-law of the King, while his wife, tenderly as + he was attached to her, was excluded from all share in the government, for + which her limited talents incapacitated her. He set his house in order + like a dying man. On the 20th May, 1630, when all his measures were + arranged, and all was ready for his departure, the King appeared in the + Diet at Stockholm, to bid the States a solemn farewell. Taking in his arms + his daughter Christina, then only four years old, who, in the cradle, had + been acknowledged as his successor, he presented her to the States as the + future sovereign, exacted from them a renewal of the oath of allegiance to + her, in case he should never more return; and then read the ordinances for + the government of the kingdom during his absence, or the minority of his + daughter. The whole assembly was dissolved in tears, and the King himself + was some time before he could attain sufficient composure to deliver his + farewell address to the States. + </p> + <p> + “Not lightly or wantonly,” said he, “am I about to involve myself and you + in this new and dangerous war; God is my witness that <i>I</i> do not + fight to gratify my own ambition. But the Emperor has wronged me most + shamefully in the person of my ambassadors. He has supported my enemies, + persecuted my friends and brethren, trampled my religion in the dust, and + even stretched his revengeful arm against my crown. The oppressed states + of Germany call loudly for aid, which, by God’s help, we will give them. + </p> + <p> + “I am fully sensible of the dangers to which my life will be exposed. I + have never yet shrunk from them, nor is it likely that I shall escape them + all. Hitherto, Providence has wonderfully protected me, but I shall at + last fall in defence of my country. I commend you to the protection of + Heaven. Be just, be conscientious, act uprightly, and we shall meet again + in eternity. + </p> + <p> + “To you, my Counsellors of State, I address myself first. May God + enlighten you, and fill you with wisdom, to promote the welfare of my + people. You, too, my brave nobles, I commend to the divine protection. + Continue to prove yourselves the worthy successors of those Gothic heroes, + whose bravery humbled to the dust the pride of ancient Rome. To you, + ministers of religion, I recommend moderation and unity; be yourselves + examples of the virtues which you preach, and abuse not your influence + over the minds of my people. On you, deputies of the burgesses, and the + peasantry, I entreat the blessing of heaven; may your industry be rewarded + by a prosperous harvest; your stores plenteously filled, and may you be + crowned abundantly with all the blessings of this life. For the prosperity + of all my subjects, absent and present, I offer my warmest prayers to + Heaven. I bid you all a sincere—it may be —an eternal + farewell.” + </p> + <p> + The embarkation of the troops took place at Elfsknaben, where the fleet + lay at anchor. An immense concourse flocked thither to witness this + magnificent spectacle. The hearts of the spectators were agitated by + varied emotions, as they alternately considered the vastness of the + enterprise, and the greatness of the leader. Among the superior officers + who commanded in this army were Gustavus Horn, the Rhinegrave Otto Lewis, + Henry Matthias, Count Thurn, Ottenberg, Baudissen, Banner, Teufel, Tott, + Mutsenfahl, Falkenberg, Kniphausen, and other distinguished names. + Detained by contrary winds, the fleet did not sail till June, and on the + 24th of that month reached the Island of Rugen in Pomerania. + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:60%;"> + <img alt="1p140 (149K)" src="images/1p140.jpg" style="width:100%;" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <p> + Gustavus Adolphus was the first who landed. In the presence of his suite, + he knelt on the shore of Germany to return thanks to the Almighty for the + safe arrival of his fleet and his army. He landed his troops on the + Islands of Wollin and Usedom; upon his approach, the imperial garrisons + abandoned their entrenchments and fled. He advanced rapidly on Stettin, to + secure this important place before the appearance of the Imperialists. + Bogislaus XIV., Duke of Pomerania, a feeble and superannuated prince, had + been long tired out by the outrages committed by the latter within his + territories; but too weak to resist, he had contented himself with + murmurs. The appearance of his deliverer, instead of animating his + courage, increased his fear and anxiety. Severely as his country had + suffered from the Imperialists, the risk of incurring the Emperor’s + vengeance prevented him from declaring openly for the Swedes. Gustavus + Adolphus, who was encamped under the walls of the town, summoned the city + to receive a Swedish garrison. Bogislaus appeared in person in the camp of + Gustavus, to deprecate this condition. “I come to you,” said Gustavus, + “not as an enemy but a friend. I wage no war against Pomerania, nor + against the German empire, but against the enemies of both. In my hands + this duchy shall be sacred; and it shall be restored to you at the + conclusion of the campaign, by me, with more certainty, than by any other. + Look to the traces of the imperial force within your territories, and to + mine in Usedom; and decide whether you will have the Emperor or me as your + friend. What have you to expect, if the Emperor should make himself master + of your capital? Will he deal with you more leniently than I? Or is it + your intention to stop my progress? The case is pressing: decide at once, + and do not compel me to have recourse to more violent measures.” + </p> + <p> + The alternative was a painful one. On the one side, the King of Sweden was + before his gates with a formidable army; on the other, he saw the + inevitable vengeance of the Emperor, and the fearful example of so many + German princes, who were now wandering in misery, the victims of that + revenge. The more immediate danger decided his resolution. The gates of + Stettin were opened to the king; the Swedish troops entered; and the + Austrians, who were advancing by rapid marches, anticipated. The capture + of this place procured for the king a firm footing in Pomerania, the + command of the Oder, and a magazine for his troops. To prevent a charge of + treachery, Bogislaus was careful to excuse this step to the Emperor on the + plea of necessity; but aware of Ferdinand’s implacable disposition, he + entered into a close alliance with his new protector. By this league with + Pomerania, Gustavus secured a powerful friend in Germany, who covered his + rear, and maintained his communication with Sweden. + </p> + <p> + As Ferdinand was already the aggressor in Prussia, Gustavus Adolphus + thought himself absolved from the usual formalities, and commenced + hostilities without any declaration of war. To the other European powers, + he justified his conduct in a manifesto, in which he detailed the grounds + which had led him to take up arms. Meanwhile he continued his progress in + Pomerania, while he saw his army daily increasing. The troops which had + fought under Mansfeld, Duke Christian of Brunswick, the King of Denmark, + and Wallenstein, came in crowds, both officers and soldiers, to join his + victorious standard. + </p> + <p> + At the Imperial court, the invasion of the king of Sweden at first excited + far less attention than it merited. The pride of Austria, extravagantly + elated by its unheard-of successes, looked down with contempt upon a + prince, who, with a handful of men, came from an obscure corner of Europe, + and who owed his past successes, as they imagined, entirely to the + incapacity of a weak opponent. The depreciatory representation which + Wallenstein had artfully given of the Swedish power, increased the + Emperor’s security; for what had he to fear from an enemy, whom his + general undertook to drive with such ease from Germany? Even the rapid + progress of Gustavus Adolphus in Pomerania, could not entirely dispel this + prejudice, which the mockeries of the courtiers continued to feed. He was + called in Vienna the Snow King, whom the cold of the north kept together, + but who would infallibly melt as he advanced southward. Even the electors, + assembled in Ratisbon, disregarded his representations; and, influenced by + an abject complaisance to Ferdinand, refused him even the title of king. + But while they mocked him in Ratisbon and Vienna, in Mecklenburg and + Pomerania, one strong town after another fell into his hands. + </p> + <p> + Notwithstanding this contempt, the Emperor thought it proper to offer to + adjust his differences with Sweden by negociation, and for that purpose + sent plenipotentiaries to Denmark. But their instructions showed how + little he was in earnest in these proposals, for he still continued to + refuse to Gustavus the title of king. He hoped by this means to throw on + the king of Sweden the odium of being the aggressor, and thereby to ensure + the support of the States of the empire. The conference at Dantzic proved, + as might be expected, fruitless, and the animosity of both parties was + increased to its utmost by an intemperate correspondence. + </p> + <p> + An imperial general, Torquato Conti, who commanded in Pomerania, had, in + the mean time, made a vain attempt to wrest Stettin from the Swedes. The + Imperialists were driven out from one place after another; Damm, Stargard, + Camin, and Wolgast, soon fell into the hands of Gustavus. To revenge + himself upon the Duke of Pomerania, the imperial general permitted his + troops, upon his retreat, to exercise every barbarity on the unfortunate + inhabitants of Pomerania, who had already suffered but too severely from + his avarice. On pretence of cutting off the resources of the Swedes, the + whole country was laid waste and plundered; and often when the + Imperialists were unable any longer to maintain a place, it was laid in + ashes, in order to leave the enemy nothing but ruins. But these + barbarities only served to place in a more favourable light the opposite + conduct of the Swedes, and to win all hearts to their humane monarch. The + Swedish soldier paid for all he required; no private property was injured + on his march. The Swedes consequently were received with open arms both in + town and country, whilst every Imperialist that fell into the hands of the + Pomeranian peasantry was ruthlessly murdered. Many Pomeranians entered + into the service of Sweden, and the estates of this exhausted country + willingly voted the king a contribution of 100,000 florins. + </p> + <p> + Torquato Conti, who, with all his severity of character, was a consummate + general, endeavoured to render Stettin useless to the king of Sweden, as + he could not deprive him of it. He entrenched himself upon the Oder, at + Gartz, above Stettin, in order, by commanding that river, to cut off the + water communication of the town with the rest of Germany. Nothing could + induce him to attack the King of Sweden, who was his superior in numbers, + while the latter was equally cautious not to storm the strong + entrenchments of the Imperialists. Torquato, too deficient in troops and + money to act upon the offensive against the king, hoped by this plan of + operations to give time for Tilly to hasten to the defence of Pomerania, + and then, in conjunction with that general, to attack the Swedes. Seizing + the opportunity of the temporary absence of Gustavus, he made a sudden + attempt upon Stettin, but the Swedes were not unprepared for him. A + vigorous attack of the Imperialists was firmly repulsed, and Torquato was + forced to retire with great loss. For this auspicious commencement of the + war, however, Gustavus was, it must be owned, as much indebted to his good + fortune as to his military talents. The imperial troops in Pomerania had + been greatly reduced since Wallenstein’s dismissal; moreover, the outrages + they had committed were now severely revenged upon them; wasted and + exhausted, the country no longer afforded them a subsistence. All + discipline was at an end; the orders of the officers were disregarded, + while their numbers daily decreased by desertion, and by a general + mortality, which the piercing cold of a strange climate had produced among + them. + </p> + <p> + Under these circumstances, the imperial general was anxious to allow his + troops the repose of winter quarters, but he had to do with an enemy to + whom the climate of Germany had no winter. Gustavus had taken the + precaution of providing his soldiers with dresses of sheep-skin, to enable + them to keep the field even in the most inclement season. The imperial + plenipotentiaries, who came to treat with him for a cessation of + hostilities, received this discouraging answer: “The Swedes are soldiers + in winter as well as in summer, and not disposed to oppress the + unfortunate peasantry. The Imperialists may act as they think proper, but + they need not expect to remain undisturbed.” Torquato Conti soon after + resigned a command, in which neither riches nor reputation were to be + gained. + </p> + <p> + In this inequality of the two armies, the advantage was necessarily on the + side of the Swedes. The Imperialists were incessantly harassed in their + winter quarters; Greifenhagan, an important place upon the Oder, taken by + storm, and the towns of Gartz and Piritz were at last abandoned by the + enemy. In the whole of Pomerania, Greifswald, Demmin, and Colberg alone + remained in their hands, and these the king made great preparations to + besiege. The enemy directed their retreat towards Brandenburg, in which + much of their artillery and baggage, and many prisoners fell into the + hands of the pursuers. + </p> + <p> + By seizing the passes of Riebnitz and Damgarden, Gustavus had opened a + passage into Mecklenburg, whose inhabitants were invited to return to + their allegiance under their legitimate sovereigns, and to expel the + adherents of Wallenstein. The Imperialists, however, gained the important + town of Rostock by stratagem, and thus prevented the farther advance of + the king, who was unwilling to divide his forces. The exiled dukes of + Mecklenburg had ineffectually employed the princes assembled at Ratisbon + to intercede with the Emperor: in vain they had endeavoured to soften + Ferdinand, by renouncing the alliance of the king, and every idea of + resistance. But, driven to despair by the Emperor’s inflexibility, they + openly espoused the side of Sweden, and raising troops, gave the command + of them to Francis Charles Duke of Saxe-Lauenburg. That general made + himself master of several strong places on the Elbe, but lost them + afterwards to the Imperial General Pappenheim, who was despatched to + oppose him. Soon afterwards, besieged by the latter in the town of + Ratzeburg, he was compelled to surrender with all his troops. Thus ended + the attempt which these unfortunate princes made to recover their + territories; and it was reserved for the victorious arm of Gustavus + Adolphus to render them that brilliant service. + </p> + <p> + The Imperialists had thrown themselves into Brandenburg, which now became + the theatre of the most barbarous atrocities. These outrages were + inflicted upon the subjects of a prince who had never injured the Emperor, + and whom, moreover, he was at the very time inciting to take up arms + against the King of Sweden. The sight of the disorders of their soldiers, + which want of money compelled them to wink at, and of authority over their + troops, excited the disgust even of the imperial generals; and, from very + shame, their commander-in-chief, Count Schaumburg, wished to resign. + </p> + <p> + Without a sufficient force to protect his territories, and left by the + Emperor, in spite of the most pressing remonstrances, without assistance, + the Elector of Brandenburg at last issued an edict, ordering his subjects + to repel force by force, and to put to death without mercy every Imperial + soldier who should henceforth be detected in plundering. To such a height + had the violence of outrage and the misery of the government risen, that + nothing was left to the sovereign, but the desperate extremity of + sanctioning private vengeance by a formal law. + </p> + <p> + The Swedes had pursued the Imperialists into Brandenburg; and only the + Elector’s refusal to open to him the fortress of Custrin for his march, + obliged the king to lay aside his design of besieging Frankfort on the + Oder. He therefore returned to complete the conquest of Pomerania, by the + capture of Demmin and Colberg. In the mean time, Field-Marshal Tilly was + advancing to the defence of Brandenburg. + </p> + <p> + This general, who could boast as yet of never having suffered a defeat, + the conqueror of Mansfeld, of Duke Christian of Brunswick, of the Margrave + of Baden, and the King of Denmark, was now in the Swedish monarch to meet + an opponent worthy of his fame. Descended of a noble family in Liege, + Tilly had formed his military talents in the wars of the Netherlands, + which was then the great school for generals. He soon found an opportunity + of distinguishing himself under Rodolph II. in Hungary, where he rapidly + rose from one step to another. After the peace, he entered into the + service of Maximilian of Bavaria, who made him commander-in-chief with + absolute powers. Here, by his excellent regulations, he was the founder of + the Bavarian army; and to him, chiefly, Maximilian was indebted for his + superiority in the field. Upon the termination of the Bohemian war, he was + appointed commander of the troops of the League; and, after Wallenstein’s + dismissal, generalissimo of the imperial armies. Equally stern towards his + soldiers and implacable towards his enemies, and as gloomy and + impenetrable as Wallenstein, he was greatly his superior in probity and + disinterestedness. A bigoted zeal for religion, and a bloody spirit of + persecution, co-operated, with the natural ferocity of his character, to + make him the terror of the Protestants. A strange and terrific aspect + bespoke his character: of low stature, thin, with hollow cheeks, a long + nose, a broad and wrinkled forehead, large whiskers, and a pointed chin; + he was generally attired in a Spanish doublet of green satin, with slashed + sleeves, with a small high peaked hat upon his head, surmounted by a red + feather which hung down to his back. His whole aspect recalled to + recollection the Duke of Alva, the scourge of the Flemings, and his + actions were far from effacing the impression. Such was the general who + was now to be opposed to the hero of the north. + </p> + <p> + Tilly was far from undervaluing his antagonist, “The King of Sweden,” said + he in the Diet at Ratisbon, “is an enemy both prudent and brave, inured to + war, and in the flower of his age. His plans are excellent, his resources + considerable; his subjects enthusiastically attached to him. His army, + composed of Swedes, Germans, Livonians, Finlanders, Scots and English, by + its devoted obedience to their leader, is blended into one nation: he is a + gamester in playing with whom not to have lost is to have won a great + deal.” + </p> + <p> + The progress of the King of Sweden in Brandenburg and Pomerania, left the + new generalissimo no time to lose; and his presence was now urgently + called for by those who commanded in that quarter. With all expedition, he + collected the imperial troops which were dispersed over the empire; but it + required time to obtain from the exhausted and impoverished provinces the + necessary supplies. At last, about the middle of winter, he appeared at + the head of 20,000 men, before Frankfort on the Oder, where he was joined + by Schaumburg. Leaving to this general the defence of Frankfort, with a + sufficient garrison, he hastened to Pomerania, with a view of saving + Demmin, and relieving Colberg, which was already hard pressed by the + Swedes. But even before he had left Brandenburg, Demmin, which was but + poorly defended by the Duke of Savelli, had surrendered to the king, and + Colberg, after a five months’ siege, was starved into a capitulation. As + the passes in Upper Pomerania were well guarded, and the king’s camp near + Schwedt defied attack, Tilly abandoned his offensive plan of operations, + and retreated towards the Elbe to besiege Magdeburg. + </p> + <p> + The capture of Demmin opened to the king a free passage into Mecklenburg; + but a more important enterprise drew his arms into another quarter. + Scarcely had Tilly commenced his retrograde movement, when suddenly + breaking up his camp at Schwedt, the king marched his whole force against + Frankfort on the Oder. This town, badly fortified, was defended by a + garrison of 8,000 men, mostly composed of those ferocious bands who had so + cruelly ravaged Pomerania and Brandenburg. It was now attacked with such + impetuosity, that on the third day it was taken by storm. The Swedes, + assured of victory, rejected every offer of capitulation, as they were + resolved to exercise the dreadful right of retaliation. For Tilly, soon + after his arrival, had surrounded a Swedish detachment, and, irritated by + their obstinate resistance, had cut them in pieces to a man. This cruelty + was not forgotten by the Swedes. “New Brandenburg Quarter”, they replied + to the Imperialists who begged their lives, and slaughtered them without + mercy. Several thousands were either killed or taken, and many were + drowned in the Oder, the rest fled to Silesia. All their artillery fell + into the hands of the Swedes. To satisfy the rage of his troops, Gustavus + Adolphus was under the necessity of giving up the town for three hours to + plunder. + </p> + <p> + While the king was thus advancing from one conquest to another, and, by + his success, encouraging the Protestants to active resistance, the Emperor + proceeded to enforce the Edict of Restitution, and, by his exorbitant + pretensions, to exhaust the patience of the states. Compelled by + necessity, he continued the violent course which he had begun with such + arrogant confidence; the difficulties into which his arbitrary conduct had + plunged him, he could only extricate himself from by measures still more + arbitrary. But in so complicated a body as the German empire, despotism + must always create the most dangerous convulsions. With astonishment, the + princes beheld the constitution of the empire overthrown, and the state of + nature to which matters were again verging, suggested to them the idea of + self-defence, the only means of protection in such a state of things. The + steps openly taken by the Emperor against the Lutheran church, had at last + removed the veil from the eyes of John George, who had been so long the + dupe of his artful policy. Ferdinand, too, had personally offended him by + the exclusion of his son from the archbishopric of Magdeburg; and + field-marshal Arnheim, his new favourite and minister, spared no pains to + increase the resentment of his master. Arnheim had formerly been an + imperial general under Wallenstein, and being still zealously attached to + him, he was eager to avenge his old benefactor and himself on the Emperor, + by detaching Saxony from the Austrian interests. Gustavus Adolphus, + supported by the Protestant states, would be invincible; a consideration + which already filled the Emperor with alarm. The example of Saxony would + probably influence others, and the Emperor’s fate seemed now in a manner + to depend upon the Elector’s decision. The artful favourite impressed upon + his master this idea of his own importance, and advised him to terrify the + Emperor, by threatening an alliance with Sweden, and thus to extort from + his fears, what he had sought in vain from his gratitude. The favourite, + however, was far from wishing him actually to enter into the Swedish + alliance, but, by holding aloof from both parties, to maintain his own + importance and independence. Accordingly, he laid before him a plan, which + only wanted a more able hand to carry it into execution, and recommended + him, by heading the Protestant party, to erect a third power in Germany, + and thereby maintain the balance between Sweden and Austria. + </p> + <p> + This project was peculiarly flattering to the Saxon Elector, to whom the + idea of being dependent upon Sweden, or of longer submitting to the + tyranny of the Emperor, was equally hateful. He could not, with + indifference, see the control of German affairs wrested from him by a + foreign prince; and incapable as he was of taking a principal part, his + vanity would not condescend to act a subordinate one. He resolved, + therefore, to draw every possible advantage from the progress of Gustavus, + but to pursue, independently, his own separate plans. With this view, he + consulted with the Elector of Brandenburg, who, from similar causes, was + ready to act against the Emperor, but, at the same time, was jealous of + Sweden. In a Diet at Torgau, having assured himself of the support of his + Estates, he invited the Protestant States of the empire to a general + convention, which took place at Leipzig, on the 6th February 1631. + Brandenburg, Hesse Cassel, with several princes, counts, estates of the + empire, and Protestant bishops were present, either personally or by + deputy, at this assembly, which the chaplain to the Saxon Court, Dr. Hoe + von Hohenegg, opened with a vehement discourse from the pulpit. The + Emperor had, in vain, endeavoured to prevent this self-appointed + convention, whose object was evidently to provide for its own defence, and + which the presence of the Swedes in the empire, rendered more than usually + alarming. Emboldened by the progress of Gustavus Adolphus, the assembled + princes asserted their rights, and after a session of two months broke up, + with adopting a resolution which placed the Emperor in no slight + embarrassment. Its import was to demand of the Emperor, in a general + address, the revocation of the Edict of Restitution, the withdrawal of his + troops from their capitals and fortresses, the suspension of all existing + proceedings, and the abolition of abuses; and, in the mean time, to raise + an army of 40,000 men, to enable them to redress their own grievances, if + the Emperor should still refuse satisfaction. + </p> + <p> + A further incident contributed not a little to increase the firmness of + the Protestant princes. The King of Sweden had, at last, overcome the + scruples which had deterred him from a closer alliance with France, and, + on the 13th January 1631, concluded a formal treaty with this crown. After + a serious dispute respecting the treatment of the Roman Catholic princes + of the empire, whom France took under her protection, and against whom + Gustavus claimed the right of retaliation, and after some less important + differences with regard to the title of majesty, which the pride of France + was loth to concede to the King of Sweden, Richelieu yielded the second, + and Gustavus Adolphus the first point, and the treaty was signed at + Beerwald in Neumark. The contracting parties mutually covenanted to defend + each other with a military force, to protect their common friends, to + restore to their dominions the deposed princes of the empire, and to + replace every thing, both on the frontier and in the interior of Germany, + on the same footing on which it stood before the commencement of the war. + For this end, Sweden engaged to maintain an army of 30,000 men in Germany, + and France agreed to furnish the Swedes with an annual subsidy of 400,000 + dollars. If the arms of Gustavus were successful, he was to respect the + Roman Catholic religion and the constitution of the empire in all the + conquered places, and to make no attempt against either. All Estates and + princes whether Protestant or Roman Catholic, either in Germany or in + other countries, were to be invited to become parties to the treaty; + neither France nor Sweden was to conclude a separate peace without the + knowledge and consent of the other; and the treaty itself was to continue + in force for five years. + </p> + <p> + Great as was the struggle to the King of Sweden to receive subsidies from + France, and sacrifice his independence in the conduct of the war, this + alliance with France decided his cause in Germany. Protected, as he now + was, by the greatest power in Europe, the German states began to feel + confidence in his undertaking, for the issue of which they had hitherto + good reason to tremble. He became truly formidable to the Emperor. The + Roman Catholic princes too, who, though they were anxious to humble + Austria, had witnessed his progress with distrust, were less alarmed now + that an alliance with a Roman Catholic power ensured his respect for their + religion. And thus, while Gustavus Adolphus protected the Protestant + religion and the liberties of Germany against the aggression of Ferdinand, + France secured those liberties, and the Roman Catholic religion, against + Gustavus himself, if the intoxication of success should hurry him beyond + the bounds of moderation. + </p> + <p> + The King of Sweden lost no time in apprizing the members of the + confederacy of Leipzig of the treaty concluded with France, and inviting + them to a closer union with himself. The application was seconded by + France, who spared no pains to win over the Elector of Saxony. Gustavus + was willing to be content with secret support, if the princes should deem + it too bold a step as yet to declare openly in his favour. Several princes + gave him hopes of his proposals being accepted on the first favourable + opportunity; but the Saxon Elector, full of jealousy and distrust towards + the King of Sweden, and true to the selfish policy he had pursued, could + not be prevailed upon to give a decisive answer. + </p> + <p> + The resolution of the confederacy of Leipzig, and the alliance betwixt + France and Sweden, were news equally disagreeable to the Emperor. Against + them he employed the thunder of imperial ordinances, and the want of an + army saved France from the full weight of his displeasure. Remonstrances + were addressed to all the members of the confederacy, strongly prohibiting + them from enlisting troops. They retorted with explanations equally + vehement, justified their conduct upon the principles of natural right, + and continued their preparations. + </p> + <p> + Meantime, the imperial generals, deficient both in troops and money, found + themselves reduced to the disagreeable alternative of losing sight either + of the King of Sweden, or of the Estates of the empire, since with a + divided force they were not a match for either. The movements of the + Protestants called their attention to the interior of the empire, while + the progress of the king in Brandenburg, by threatening the hereditary + possessions of Austria, required them to turn their arms to that quarter. + After the conquest of Frankfort, the king had advanced upon Landsberg on + the Warta, and Tilly, after a fruitless attempt to relieve it, had again + returned to Magdeburg, to prosecute with vigour the siege of that town. + </p> + <p> + The rich archbishopric, of which Magdeburg was the capital, had long been + in the possession of princes of the house of Brandenburg, who introduced + the Protestant religion into the province. Christian William, the last + administrator, had, by his alliance with Denmark, incurred the ban of the + empire, on which account the chapter, to avoid the Emperor’s displeasure, + had formally deposed him. In his place they had elected Prince John + Augustus, the second son of the Elector of Saxony, whom the Emperor + rejected, in order to confer the archbishopric on his son Leopold. The + Elector of Saxony complained ineffectually to the imperial court; but + Christian William of Brandenburg took more active measures. Relying on the + attachment of the magistracy and inhabitants of Brandenburg, and excited + by chimerical hopes, he thought himself able to surmount all the obstacles + which the vote of the chapter, the competition of two powerful rivals, and + the Edict of Restitution opposed to his restoration. He went to Sweden, + and, by the promise of a diversion in Germany, sought to obtain assistance + from Gustavus. He was dismissed by that monarch not without hopes of + effectual protection, but with the advice to act with caution. + </p> + <p> + Scarcely had Christian William been informed of the landing of his + protector in Pomerania, than he entered Magdeburg in disguise. Appearing + suddenly in the town council, he reminded the magistrates of the ravages + which both town and country had suffered from the imperial troops, of the + pernicious designs of Ferdinand, and the danger of the Protestant church. + He then informed them that the moment of deliverance was at hand, and that + Gustavus Adolphus offered them his alliance and assistance. Magdeburg, one + of the most flourishing towns in Germany, enjoyed under the government of + its magistrates a republican freedom, which inspired its citizens with a + brave heroism. Of this they had already given proofs, in the bold defence + of their rights against Wallenstein, who, tempted by their wealth, made on + them the most extravagant demands. Their territory had been given up to + the fury of his troops, though Magdeburg itself had escaped his vengeance. + It was not difficult, therefore, for the Administrator to gain the + concurrence of men in whose minds the rememberance of these outrages was + still recent. An alliance was formed between the city and the Swedish + king, by which Magdeburg granted to the king a free passage through its + gates and territories, with liberty of enlisting soldiers within its + boundaries, and on the other hand, obtained promises of effectual + protection for its religion and its privileges. + </p> + <p> + The Administrator immediately collected troops and commenced hostilities, + before Gustavus Adolphus was near enough to co-operate with him. He + defeated some imperial detachments in the neighbourhood, made a few + conquests, and even surprised Halle. But the approach of an imperial army + obliged him to retreat hastily, and not without loss, to Magdeburg. + Gustavus Adolphus, though displeased with his premature measures, sent + Dietrich Falkenberg, an experienced officer, to direct the Administrator’s + military operations, and to assist him with his counsel. Falkenberg was + named by the magistrates governor of the town during the war. The Prince’s + army was daily augmented by recruits from the neighbouring towns; and he + was able for some months to maintain a petty warfare with success. + </p> + <p> + At length Count Pappenheim, having brought his expedition against the Duke + of Saxe-Lauenburg to a close, approached the town. Driving the troops of + the Administrator from their entrenchments, he cut off his communication + with Saxony, and closely invested the place. He was soon followed by + Tilly, who haughtily summoned the Elector forthwith to comply with the + Edict of Restitution, to submit to the Emperor’s orders, and surrender + Magdeburg. The Prince’s answer was spirited and resolute, and obliged + Tilly at once to have recourse to arms. + </p> + <p> + In the meanwhile, the siege was prolonged, by the progress of the King of + Sweden, which called the Austrian general from before the place; and the + jealousy of the officers, who conducted the operations in his absence, + delayed, for some months, the fall of Magdeburg. On the 30th March 1631, + Tilly returned, to push the siege with vigour. + </p> + <p> + The outworks were soon carried, and Falkenberg, after withdrawing the + garrisons from the points which he could no longer hold, destroyed the + bridge over the Elbe. As his troops were barely sufficient to defend the + extensive fortifications, the suburbs of Sudenburg and Neustadt were + abandoned to the enemy, who immediately laid them in ashes. Pappenheim, + now separated from Tilly, crossed the Elbe at Schonenbeck, and attacked + the town from the opposite side. + </p> + <p> + The garrison, reduced by the defence of the outworks, scarcely exceeded + 2000 infantry and a few hundred horse; a small number for so extensive and + irregular a fortress. To supply this deficiency, the citizens were armed—a + desperate expedient, which produced more evils than those it prevented. + The citizens, at best but indifferent soldiers, by their disunion threw + the town into confusion. The poor complained that they were exposed to + every hardship and danger, while the rich, by hiring substitutes, remained + at home in safety. These rumours broke out at last in an open mutiny; + indifference succeeded to zeal; weariness and negligence took the place of + vigilance and foresight. Dissension, combined with growing scarcity, + gradually produced a feeling of despondence, many began to tremble at the + desperate nature of their undertaking, and the magnitude of the power to + which they were opposed. But religious zeal, an ardent love of liberty, an + invincible hatred to the Austrian yoke, and the expectation of speedy + relief, banished as yet the idea of a surrender; and divided as they were + in every thing else, they were united in the resolve to defend themselves + to the last extremity. + </p> + <p> + Their hopes of succour were apparently well founded. They knew that the + confederacy of Leipzig was arming; they were aware of the near approach of + Gustavus Adolphus. Both were alike interested in the preservation of + Magdeburg; and a few days might bring the King of Sweden before its walls. + All this was also known to Tilly, who, therefore, was anxious to make + himself speedily master of the place. With this view, he had despatched a + trumpeter with letters to the Administrator, the commandant, and the + magistrates, offering terms of capitulation; but he received for answer, + that they would rather die than surrender. A spirited sally of the + citizens, also convinced him that their courage was as earnest as their + words, while the king’s arrival at Potsdam, with the incursions of the + Swedes as far as Zerbst, filled him with uneasiness, but raised the hopes + of the garrison. A second trumpeter was now despatched; but the more + moderate tone of his demands increased the confidence of the besieged, and + unfortunately their negligence also. + </p> + <p> + The besiegers had now pushed their approaches as far as the ditch, and + vigorously cannonaded the fortifications from the abandoned batteries. One + tower was entirely overthrown, but this did not facilitate an assault, as + it fell sidewise upon the wall, and not into the ditch. Notwithstanding + the continual bombardment, the walls had not suffered much; and the fire + balls, which were intended to set the town in flames, were deprived of + their effect by the excellent precautions adopted against them. But the + ammunition of the besieged was nearly expended, and the cannon of the town + gradually ceased to answer the fire of the Imperialists. Before a new + supply could be obtained, Magdeburg would be either relieved, or taken. + The hopes of the besieged were on the stretch, and all eyes anxiously + directed towards the quarter in which the Swedish banners were expected to + appear. Gustavus Adolphus was near enough to reach Magdeburg within three + days; security grew with hope, which all things contributed to augment. On + the 9th of May, the fire of the Imperialists was suddenly stopped, and the + cannon withdrawn from several of the batteries. A deathlike stillness + reigned in the Imperial camp. The besieged were convinced that deliverance + was at hand. Both citizens and soldiers left their posts upon the ramparts + early in the morning, to indulge themselves, after their long toils, with + the refreshment of sleep, but it was indeed a dear sleep, and a frightful + awakening. + </p> + <p> + Tilly had abandoned the hope of taking the town, before the arrival of the + Swedes, by the means which he had hitherto adopted; he therefore + determined to raise the siege, but first to hazard a general assault. This + plan, however, was attended with great difficulties, as no breach had been + effected, and the works were scarcely injured. But the council of war + assembled on this occasion, declared for an assault, citing the example of + Maestricht, which had been taken early in the morning, while the citizens + and soldiers were reposing themselves. The attack was to be made + simultaneously on four points; the night betwixt the 9th and 10th of May, + was employed in the necessary preparations. Every thing was ready and + awaiting the signal, which was to be given by cannon at five o’clock in + the morning. The signal, however, was not given for two hours later, + during which Tilly, who was still doubtful of success, again consulted the + council of war. Pappenheim was ordered to attack the works of the new + town, where the attempt was favoured by a sloping rampart, and a dry ditch + of moderate depth. The citizens and soldiers had mostly left the walls, + and the few who remained were overcome with sleep. This general, + therefore, found little difficulty in mounting the wall at the head of his + troops. + </p> + <p> + Falkenberg, roused by the report of musketry, hastened from the + town-house, where he was employed in despatching Tilly’s second trumpeter, + and hurried with all the force he could hastily assemble towards the gate + of the new town, which was already in the possession of the enemy. Beaten + back, this intrepid general flew to another quarter, where a second party + of the enemy were preparing to scale the walls. After an ineffectual + resistance he fell in the commencement of the action. The roaring of + musketry, the pealing of the alarm-bells, and the growing tumult apprised + the awakening citizens of their danger. Hastily arming themselves, they + rushed in blind confusion against the enemy. Still some hope of repulsing + the besiegers remained; but the governor being killed, their efforts were + without plan and co-operation, and at last their ammunition began to fail + them. In the meanwhile, two other gates, hitherto unattacked, were + stripped of their defenders, to meet the urgent danger within the town. + The enemy quickly availed themselves of this confusion to attack these + posts. The resistance was nevertheless spirited and obstinate, until four + imperial regiments, at length, masters of the ramparts, fell upon the + garrison in the rear, and completed their rout. Amidst the general tumult, + a brave captain, named Schmidt, who still headed a few of the more + resolute against the enemy, succeeded in driving them to the gates; here + he fell mortally wounded, and with him expired the hopes of Magdeburg. + Before noon, all the works were carried, and the town was in the enemy’s + hands. + </p> + <p> + Two gates were now opened by the storming party for the main body, and + Tilly marched in with part of his infantry. Immediately occupying the + principal streets, he drove the citizens with pointed cannon into their + dwellings, there to await their destiny. They were not long held in + suspense; a word from Tilly decided the fate of Magdeburg. + </p> + <p> + Even a more humane general would in vain have recommended mercy to such + soldiers; but Tilly never made the attempt. Left by their general’s + silence masters of the lives of all the citizens, the soldiery broke into + the houses to satiate their most brutal appetites. The prayers of + innocence excited some compassion in the hearts of the Germans, but none + in the rude breasts of Pappenheim’s Walloons. Scarcely had the savage + cruelty commenced, when the other gates were thrown open, and the cavalry, + with the fearful hordes of the Croats, poured in upon the devoted + inhabitants. + </p> + <p> + Here commenced a scene of horrors for which history has no language— + poetry no pencil. Neither innocent childhood, nor helpless old age; + neither youth, sex, rank, nor beauty, could disarm the fury of the + conquerors. Wives were abused in the arms of their husbands, daughters at + the feet of their parents; and the defenceless sex exposed to the double + sacrifice of virtue and life. No situation, however obscure, or however + sacred, escaped the rapacity of the enemy. In a single church fifty-three + women were found beheaded. The Croats amused themselves with throwing + children into the flames; Pappenheim’s Walloons with stabbing infants at + the mother’s breast. Some officers of the League, horror-struck at this + dreadful scene, ventured to remind Tilly that he had it in his power to + stop the carnage. “Return in an hour,” was his answer; “I will see what I + can do; the soldier must have some reward for his danger and toils.” These + horrors lasted with unabated fury, till at last the smoke and flames + proved a check to the plunderers. To augment the confusion and to divert + the resistance of the inhabitants, the Imperialists had, in the + commencement of the assault, fired the town in several places. The wind + rising rapidly, spread the flames, till the blaze became universal. + Fearful, indeed, was the tumult amid clouds of smoke, heaps of dead + bodies, the clash of swords, the crash of falling ruins, and streams of + blood. The atmosphere glowed; and the intolerable heat forced at last even + the murderers to take refuge in their camp. In less than twelve hours, + this strong, populous, and flourishing city, one of the finest in Germany, + was reduced to ashes, with the exception of two churches and a few houses. + The Administrator, Christian William, after receiving several wounds, was + taken prisoner, with three of the burgomasters; most of the officers and + magistrates had already met an enviable death. The avarice of the officers + had saved 400 of the richest citizens, in the hope of extorting from them + an exorbitant ransom. But this humanity was confined to the officers of + the League, whom the ruthless barbarity of the Imperialists caused to be + regarded as guardian angels. + </p> + <p> + Scarcely had the fury of the flames abated, when the Imperialists returned + to renew the pillage amid the ruins and ashes of the town. Many were + suffocated by the smoke; many found rich booty in the cellars, where the + citizens had concealed their more valuable effects. On the 13th of May, + Tilly himself appeared in the town, after the streets had been cleared of + ashes and dead bodies. Horrible and revolting to humanity was the scene + that presented itself. The living crawling from under the dead, children + wandering about with heart-rending cries, calling for their parents; and + infants still sucking the breasts of their lifeless mothers. More than + 6,000 bodies were thrown into the Elbe to clear the streets; a much + greater number had been consumed by the flames. The whole number of the + slain was reckoned at not less than 30,000. + </p> + <p> + The entrance of the general, which took place on the 14th, put a stop to + the plunder, and saved the few who had hitherto contrived to escape. About + a thousand people were taken out of the cathedral, where they had remained + three days and two nights, without food, and in momentary fear of death. + Tilly promised them quarter, and commanded bread to be distributed among + them. The next day, a solemn mass was performed in the cathedral, and ‘Te + Deum’ sung amidst the discharge of artillery. The imperial general rode + through the streets, that he might be able, as an eyewitness, to inform + his master that no such conquest had been made since the destruction of + Troy and Jerusalem. Nor was this an exaggeration, whether we consider the + greatness, importance, and prosperity of the city razed, or the fury of + its ravagers. + </p> + <p> + In Germany, the tidings of the dreadful fate of Magdeburg caused + triumphant joy to the Roman Catholics, while it spread terror and + consternation among the Protestants. Loudly and generally they complained + against the king of Sweden, who, with so strong a force, and in the very + neighbourhood, had left an allied city to its fate. Even the most + reasonable deemed his inaction inexplicable; and lest he should lose + irretrievably the good will of the people, for whose deliverance he had + engaged in this war, Gustavus was under the necessity of publishing to the + world a justification of his own conduct. + </p> + <p> + He had attacked, and on the 16th April, carried Landsberg, when he was + apprised of the danger of Magdeburg. He resolved immediately to march to + the relief of that town; and he moved with all his cavalry, and ten + regiments of infantry towards the Spree. But the position which he held in + Germany, made it necessary that he should not move forward without + securing his rear. In traversing a country where he was surrounded by + suspicious friends and dangerous enemies, and where a single premature + movement might cut off his communication with his own kingdom, the utmost + vigilance and caution were necessary. The Elector of Brandenburg had + already opened the fortress of Custrin to the flying Imperialists, and + closed the gates against their pursuers. If now Gustavus should fail in + his attack upon Tilly, the Elector might again open his fortresses to the + Imperialists, and the king, with an enemy both in front and rear, would be + irrecoverably lost. In order to prevent this contingency, he demanded that + the Elector should allow him to hold the fortresses of Custrin and + Spandau, till the siege of Magdeburg should be raised. + </p> + <p> + Nothing could be more reasonable than this demand. The services which + Gustavus had lately rendered the Elector, by expelling the Imperialists + from Brandenburg, claimed his gratitude, while the past conduct of the + Swedes in Germany entitled them to confidence. But by the surrender of his + fortresses, the Elector would in some measure make the King of Sweden + master of his country; besides that, by such a step, he must at once break + with the Emperor, and expose his States to his future vengeance. The + Elector’s struggle with himself was long and violent, but pusillanimity + and self-interest for awhile prevailed. Unmoved by the fate of Magdeburg, + cold in the cause of religion and the liberties of Germany, he saw nothing + but his own danger; and this anxiety was greatly stimulated by his + minister Von Schwartzenburgh, who was secretly in the pay of Austria. In + the mean time, the Swedish troops approached Berlin, and the king took up + his residence with the Elector. When he witnessed the timorous hesitation + of that prince, he could not restrain his indignation: “My road is to + Magdeburg,” said he; “not for my own advantage, but for that of the + Protestant religion. If no one will stand by me, I shall immediately + retreat, conclude a peace with the Emperor, and return to Stockholm. I am + convinced that Ferdinand will readily grant me whatever conditions I may + require. But if Magdeburg is once lost, and the Emperor relieved from all + fear of me, then it is for you to look to yourselves and the + consequences.” This timely threat, and perhaps, too, the aspect of the + Swedish army, which was strong enough to obtain by force what was refused + to entreaty, brought at last the Elector to his senses, and Spandau was + delivered into the hands of the Swedes. + </p> + <p> + The king had now two routes to Magdeburg; one westward led through an + exhausted country, and filled with the enemy’s troops, who might dispute + with him the passage of the Elbe; the other more to the southward, by + Dessau and Wittenberg, where bridges were to be found for crossing the + Elbe, and where supplies could easily be drawn from Saxony. But he could + not avail himself of the latter without the consent of the Elector, whom + Gustavus had good reason to distrust. Before setting out on his march, + therefore, he demanded from that prince a free passage and liberty for + purchasing provisions for his troops. His application was refused, and no + remonstrances could prevail on the Elector to abandon his system of + neutrality. While the point was still in dispute, the news of the dreadful + fate of Magdeburg arrived. + </p> + <p> + Tilly announced its fall to the Protestant princes in the tone of a + conqueror, and lost no time in making the most of the general + consternation. The influence of the Emperor, which had sensibly declined + during the rapid progress of Gustavus, after this decisive blow rose + higher than ever; and the change was speedily visible in the imperious + tone he adopted towards the Protestant states. The decrees of the + Confederation of Leipzig were annulled by a proclamation, the Convention + itself suppressed by an imperial decree, and all the refractory states + threatened with the fate of Magdeburg. As the executor of this imperial + mandate, Tilly immediately ordered troops to march against the Bishop of + Bremen, who was a member of the Confederacy, and had himself enlisted + soldiers. The terrified bishop immediately gave up his forces to Tilly, + and signed the revocation of the acts of the Confederation. An imperial + army, which had lately returned from Italy, under the command of Count + Furstenberg, acted in the same manner towards the Administrator of + Wirtemberg. The duke was compelled to submit to the Edict of Restitution, + and all the decrees of the Emperor, and even to pay a monthly subsidy of + 100,000 dollars, for the maintenance of the imperial troops. Similar + burdens were inflicted upon Ulm and Nuremberg, and the entire circles of + Franconia and Swabia. The hand of the Emperor was stretched in terror over + all Germany. The sudden preponderance, more in appearance, perhaps, than + in reality, which he had obtained by this blow, carried him beyond the + bounds even of the moderation which he had hitherto observed, and misled + him into hasty and violent measures, which at last turned the wavering + resolution of the German princes in favour of Gustavus Adolphus. Injurious + as the immediate consequences of the fall of Magdeburg were to the + Protestant cause, its remoter effects were most advantageous. The past + surprise made way for active resentment, despair inspired courage, and the + German freedom rose, like a phoenix, from the ashes of Magdeburg. + </p> + <p> + Among the princes of the Leipzig Confederation, the Elector of Saxony and + the Landgrave of Hesse were the most powerful; and, until they were + disarmed, the universal authority of the Emperor was unconfirmed. Against + the Landgrave, therefore, Tilly first directed his attack, and marched + straight from Magdeburg into Thuringia. During this march, the territories + of Saxe Ernest and Schwartzburg were laid waste, and Frankenhausen + plundered before the very eyes of Tilly, and laid in ashes with impunity. + The unfortunate peasant paid dear for his master’s attachment to the + interests of Sweden. Erfurt, the key of Saxony and Franconia, was + threatened with a siege, but redeemed itself by a voluntary contribution + of money and provisions. From thence, Tilly despatched his emissaries to + the Landgrave, demanding of him the immediate disbanding of his army, a + renunciation of the league of Leipzig, the reception of imperial garrisons + into his territories and fortresses, with the necessary contributions, and + the declaration of friendship or hostility. Such was the treatment which a + prince of the Empire was compelled to submit to from a servant of the + Emperor. But these extravagant demands acquired a formidable weight from + the power which supported them; and the dreadful fate of Magdeburg, still + fresh in the memory of the Landgrave, tended still farther to enforce + them. Admirable, therefore, was the intrepidity of the Landgrave’s answer: + “To admit foreign troops into his capital and fortresses, the Landgrave is + not disposed; his troops he requires for his own purposes; as for an + attack, he can defend himself. If General Tilly wants money or provisions, + let him go to Munich, where there is plenty of both.” The irruption of two + bodies of imperial troops into Hesse Cassel was the immediate result of + this spirited reply, but the Landgrave gave them so warm a reception that + they could effect nothing; and just as Tilly was preparing to follow with + his whole army, to punish the unfortunate country for the firmness of its + sovereign, the movements of the King of Sweden recalled him to another + quarter. + </p> + <p> + Gustavus Adolphus had learned the fall of Magdeburg with deep regret; and + the demand now made by the Elector, George William, in terms of their + agreement, for the restoration of Spandau, greatly increased this feeling. + The loss of Magdeburg had rather augmented than lessened the reasons which + made the possession of this fortress so desirable; and the nearer became + the necessity of a decisive battle between himself and Tilly, the more + unwilling he felt to abandon the only place which, in the event of a + defeat, could ensure him a refuge. After a vain endeavour, by entreaties + and representations, to bring over the Elector to his views, whose + coldness and lukewarmness daily increased, he gave orders to his general + to evacuate Spandau, but at the same time declared to the Elector that he + would henceforth regard him as an enemy. + </p> + <p> + To give weight to this declaration, he appeared with his whole force + before Berlin. “I will not be worse treated than the imperial generals,” + was his reply to the ambassadors whom the bewildered Elector despatched to + his camp. “Your master has received them into his territories, furnished + them with all necessary supplies, ceded to them every place which they + required, and yet, by all these concessions, he could not prevail upon + them to treat his subjects with common humanity. All that I require of him + is security, a moderate sum of money, and provisions for my troops; in + return, I promise to protect his country, and to keep the war at a + distance from him. On these points, however, I must insist; and my + brother, the Elector, must instantly determine to have me as a friend, or + to see his capital plundered.” This decisive tone produced a due + impression; and the cannon pointed against the town put an end to the + doubts of George William. In a few days, a treaty was signed, by which the + Elector engaged to furnish a monthly subsidy of 30,000 dollars, to leave + Spandau in the king’s hands, and to open Custrin at all times to the + Swedish troops. This now open alliance of the Elector of Brandenburg with + the Swedes, excited no less displeasure at Vienna, than did formerly the + similar procedure of the Duke of Pomerania; but the changed fortune which + now attended his arms, obliged the Emperor to confine his resentment to + words. + </p> + <p> + The king’s satisfaction, on this favourable event, was increased by the + agreeable intelligence that Griefswald, the only fortress which the + Imperialists still held in Pomerania, had surrendered, and that the whole + country was now free of the enemy. He appeared once more in this duchy, + and was gratified at the sight of the general joy which he had caused to + the people. A year had elapsed since Gustavus first entered Germany, and + this event was now celebrated by all Pomerania as a national festival. + Shortly before, the Czar of Moscow had sent ambassadors to congratulate + him, to renew his alliance, and even to offer him troops. He had great + reason to rejoice at the friendly disposition of Russia, as it was + indispensable to his interests that Sweden itself should remain + undisturbed by any dangerous neighbour during the war in which he himself + was engaged. Soon after, his queen, Maria Eleonora, landed in Pomerania, + with a reinforcement of 8000 Swedes; and the arrival of 6000 English, + under the Marquis of Hamilton, requires more particular notice because + this is all that history mentions of the English during the Thirty Years’ + War. + </p> + <p> + During Tilly’s expedition into Thuringia, Pappenheim commanded in + Magdeburg; but was unable to prevent the Swedes from crossing the Elbe at + various points, routing some imperial detachments, and seizing several + posts. He himself, alarmed at the approach of the King of Sweden, + anxiously recalled Tilly, and prevailed upon him to return by rapid + marches to Magdeburg. Tilly encamped on this side of the river at + Wolmerstadt; Gustavus on the same side, near Werben, not far from the + confluence of the Havel and the Elbe. His very arrival portended no good + to Tilly. The Swedes routed three of his regiments, which were posted in + villages at some distance from the main body, carried off half their + baggage, and burned the remainder. Tilly in vain advanced within cannon + shot of the king’s camp, and offered him battle. Gustavus, weaker by + one-half than his adversary, prudently declined it; and his position was + too strong for an attack. Nothing more ensued but a distant cannonade, and + a few skirmishes, in which the Swedes had invariably the advantage. In his + retreat to Wolmerstadt, Tilly’s army was weakened by numerous desertions. + Fortune seemed to have forsaken him since the carnage of Magdeburg. + </p> + <p> + The King of Sweden, on the contrary, was followed by uninterrupted + success. While he himself was encamped in Werben, the whole of + Mecklenburg, with the exception of a few towns, was conquered by his + General Tott and the Duke Adolphus Frederick; and he enjoyed the + satisfaction of reinstating both dukes in their dominions. He proceeded in + person to Gustrow, where the reinstatement was solemnly to take place, to + give additional dignity to the ceremony by his presence. The two dukes, + with their deliverer between them, and attended by a splendid train of + princes, made a public entry into the city, which the joy of their + subjects converted into an affecting solemnity. Soon after his return to + Werben, the Landgrave of Hesse Cassel appeared in his camp, to conclude an + offensive and defensive alliance; the first sovereign prince in Germany, + who voluntarily and openly declared against the Emperor, though not wholly + uninfluenced by strong motives. The Landgrave bound himself to act against + the king’s enemies as his own, to open to him his towns and territory, and + to furnish his army with provisions and necessaries. The king, on the + other hand, declared himself his ally and protector; and engaged to + conclude no peace with the Emperor without first obtaining for the + Landgrave a full redress of grievances. Both parties honourably performed + their agreement. Hesse Cassel adhered to the Swedish alliance during the + whole of this tedious war; and at the peace of Westphalia had no reason to + regret the friendship of Sweden. + </p> + <p> + Tilly, from whom this bold step on the part of the Landgrave was not long + concealed, despatched Count Fugger with several regiments against him; and + at the same time endeavoured to excite his subjects to rebellion by + inflammatory letters. But these made as little impression as his troops, + which subsequently failed him so decidedly at the battle of Breitenfield. + The Estates of Hesse could not for a moment hesitate between their + oppressor and their protector. + </p> + <p> + But the imperial general was far more disturbed by the equivocal conduct + of the Elector of Saxony, who, in defiance of the imperial prohibition, + continued his preparations, and adhered to the confederation of Leipzig. + At this conjuncture, when the proximity of the King of Sweden made a + decisive battle ere long inevitable, it appeared extremely dangerous to + leave Saxony in arms, and ready in a moment to declare for the enemy. + Tilly had just received a reinforcement of 25,000 veteran troops under + Furstenberg, and, confident in his strength, he hoped either to disarm the + Elector by the mere terror of his arrival, or at least to conquer him with + little difficulty. Before quitting his camp at Wolmerstadt, he commanded + the Elector, by a special messenger, to open his territories to the + imperial troops; either to disband his own, or to join them to the + imperial army; and to assist, in conjunction with himself, in driving the + King of Sweden out of Germany. While he reminded him that, of all the + German states, Saxony had hitherto been most respected, he threatened it, + in case of refusal, with the most destructive ravages. + </p> + <p> + But Tilly had chosen an unfavourable moment for so imperious a + requisition. The ill-treatment of his religious and political + confederates, the destruction of Magdeburg, the excesses of the + Imperialists in Lusatia, all combined to incense the Elector against the + Emperor. The approach, too, of Gustavus Adolphus, (however slender his + claims were to the protection of that prince,) tended to fortify his + resolution. He accordingly forbade the quartering of the imperial soldiers + in his territories, and announced his firm determination to persist in his + warlike preparations. However surprised he should be, he added, “to see an + imperial army on its march against his territories, when that army had + enough to do in watching the operations of the King of Sweden, + nevertheless he did not expect, instead of the promised and well merited + rewards, to be repaid with ingratitude and the ruin of his country.” To + Tilly’s deputies, who were entertained in a princely style, he gave a + still plainer answer on the occasion. “Gentlemen,” said he, “I perceive + that the Saxon confectionery, which has been so long kept back, is at + length to be set upon the table. But as it is usual to mix with it nuts + and garnish of all kinds, take care of your teeth.” + </p> + <p> + Tilly instantly broke up his camp, and, with the most frightful + devastation, advanced upon Halle; from this place he renewed his demands + on the Elector, in a tone still more urgent and threatening. The previous + policy of this prince, both from his own inclination, and the persuasions + of his corrupt ministers had been to promote the interests of the Emperor, + even at the expense of his own sacred obligations, and but very little + tact had hitherto kept him inactive. All this but renders more astonishing + the infatuation of the Emperor or his ministers in abandoning, at so + critical a moment, the policy they had hitherto adopted, and by extreme + measures, incensing a prince so easily led. Was this the very object which + Tilly had in view? Was it his purpose to convert an equivocal friend into + an open enemy, and thus to relieve himself from the necessity of that + indulgence in the treatment of this prince, which the secret instructions + of the Emperor had hitherto imposed upon him? Or was it the Emperor’s + wish, by driving the Elector to open hostilities, to get quit of his + obligations to him, and so cleverly to break off at once the difficulty of + a reckoning? In either case, we must be equally surprised at the daring + presumption of Tilly, who hesitated not, in presence of one formidable + enemy, to provoke another; and at his negligence in permitting, without + opposition, the union of the two. + </p> + <p> + The Saxon Elector, rendered desperate by the entrance of Tilly into his + territories, threw himself, though not without a violent struggle, under + the protection of Sweden. + </p> + <p> + Immediately after dismissing Tilly’s first embassy, he had despatched his + field-marshal Arnheim in all haste to the camp of Gustavus, to solicit the + prompt assistance of that monarch whom he had so long neglected. The king + concealed the inward satisfaction he felt at this long wished for result. + “I am sorry for the Elector,” said he, with dissembled coldness, to the + ambassador; “had he heeded my repeated remonstrances, his country would + never have seen the face of an enemy, and Magdeburg would not have fallen. + Now, when necessity leaves him no alternative, he has recourse to my + assistance. But tell him, that I cannot, for the sake of the Elector of + Saxony, ruin my own cause, and that of my confederates. What pledge have I + for the sincerity of a prince whose minister is in the pay of Austria, and + who will abandon me as soon as the Emperor flatters him, and withdraws his + troops from his frontiers? Tilly, it is true, has received a strong + reinforcement; but this shall not prevent me from meeting him with + confidence, as soon as I have covered my rear.” + </p> + <p> + The Saxon minister could make no other reply to these reproaches, than + that it was best to bury the past in oblivion. + </p> + <p> + He pressed the king to name the conditions, on which he would afford + assistance to Saxony, and offered to guarantee their acceptance. “I + require,” said Gustavus, “that the Elector shall cede to me the fortress + of Wittenberg, deliver to me his eldest sons as hostages, furnish my + troops with three months’ pay, and deliver up to me the traitors among his + ministry.” + </p> + <p> + “Not Wittenberg alone,” said the Elector, when he received this answer, + and hurried back his minister to the Swedish camp, “not Wittenberg alone, + but Torgau, and all Saxony, shall be open to him; my whole family shall be + his hostages, and if that is insufficient, I will place myself in his + hands. Return and inform him I am ready to deliver to him any traitors he + shall name, to furnish his army with the money he requires, and to venture + my life and fortune in the good cause.” + </p> + <p> + The king had only desired to test the sincerity of the Elector’s new + sentiments. Convinced of it, he now retracted these harsh demands. “The + distrust,” said he, “which was shown to myself when advancing to the + relief of Magdeburg, had naturally excited mine; the Elector’s present + confidence demands a return. I am satisfied, provided he grants my army + one month’s pay, and even for this advance I hope to indemnify him.” + </p> + <p> + Immediately upon the conclusion of the treaty, the king crossed the Elbe, + and next day joined the Saxons. Instead of preventing this junction, Tilly + had advanced against Leipzig, which he summoned to receive an imperial + garrison. In hopes of speedy relief, Hans Von der Pforta, the commandant, + made preparations for his defence, and laid the suburb towards Halle in + ashes. But the ill condition of the fortifications made resistance vain, + and on the second day the gates were opened. Tilly had fixed his head + quarters in the house of a grave-digger, the only one still standing in + the suburb of Halle: here he signed the capitulation, and here, too, he + arranged his attack on the King of Sweden. Tilly grew pale at the + representation of the death’s head and cross bones, with which the + proprietor had decorated his house; and, contrary to all expectation, + Leipzig experienced moderate treatment. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile, a council of war was held at Torgau, between the King of Sweden + and the Elector of Saxony, at which the Elector of Brandenburg was also + present. The resolution which should now be adopted, was to decide + irrevocably the fate of Germany and the Protestant religion, the happiness + of nations and the destiny of their princes. The anxiety of suspense + which, before every decisive resolve, oppresses even the hearts of heroes, + appeared now for a moment to overshadow the great mind of Gustavus + Adolphus. “If we decide upon battle,” said he, “the stake will be nothing + less than a crown and two electorates. Fortune is changeable, and the + inscrutable decrees of Heaven may, for our sins, give the victory to our + enemies. My kingdom, it is true, even after the loss of my life and my + army, would still have a hope left. Far removed from the scene of action, + defended by a powerful fleet, a well-guarded frontier, and a warlike + population, it would at least be safe from the worst consequences of a + defeat. But what chances of escape are there for you, with an enemy so + close at hand?” Gustavus Adolphus displayed the modest diffidence of a + hero, whom an overweening belief of his own strength did not blind to the + greatness of his danger; John George, the confidence of a weak man, who + knows that he has a hero by his side. Impatient to rid his territories as + soon as possible of the oppressive presence of two armies, he burned for a + battle, in which he had no former laurels to lose. He was ready to march + with his Saxons alone against Leipzig, and attack Tilly. At last Gustavus + acceded to his opinion; and it was resolved that the attack should be made + without delay, before the arrival of the reinforcements, which were on + their way, under Altringer and Tiefenbach. The united Swedish and Saxon + armies now crossed the Mulda, while the Elector returned homeward. + </p> + <p> + Early on the morning of the 7th September, 1631, the hostile armies came + in sight of each other. Tilly, who, since he had neglected the opportunity + of overpowering the Saxons before their union with the Swedes, was + disposed to await the arrival of the reinforcements, had taken up a strong + and advantageous position not far from Leipzig, where he expected he + should be able to avoid the battle. But the impetuosity of Pappenheim + obliged him, as soon as the enemy were in motion, to alter his plans, and + to move to the left, in the direction of the hills which run from the + village of Wahren towards Lindenthal. At the foot of these heights, his + army was drawn up in a single line, and his artillery placed upon the + heights behind, from which it could sweep the whole extensive plain of + Breitenfeld. The Swedish and Saxon army advanced in two columns, having to + pass the Lober near Podelwitz, in Tilly’s front. + </p> + <p> + To defend the passage of this rivulet, Pappenheim advanced at the head of + 2000 cuirassiers, though after great reluctance on the part of Tilly, and + with express orders not to commence a battle. But, in disobedience to this + command, Pappenheim attacked the vanguard of the Swedes, and after a brief + struggle was driven to retreat. To check the progress of the enemy, he set + fire to Podelwitz, which, however, did not prevent the two columns from + advancing and forming in order of battle. + </p> + <p> + On the right, the Swedes drew up in a double line, the infantry in the + centre, divided into such small battalions as could be easily and rapidly + manoeuvred without breaking their order; the cavalry upon their wings, + divided in the same manner into small squadrons, interspersed with bodies + of musqueteers, so as both to give an appearance of greater numerical + force, and to annoy the enemy’s horse. Colonel Teufel commanded the + centre, Gustavus Horn the left, while the right was led by the king in + person, opposed to Count Pappenheim. + </p> + <p> + On the left, the Saxons formed at a considerable distance from the Swedes,—by + the advice of Gustavus, which was justified by the event. The order of + battle had been arranged between the Elector and his field-marshal, and + the king was content with merely signifying his approval. He was anxious + apparently to separate the Swedish prowess from that of the Saxons, and + fortune did not confound them. + </p> + <p> + The enemy was drawn up under the heights towards the west, in one immense + line, long enough to outflank the Swedish army,—the infantry being + divided in large battalions, the cavalry in equally unwieldy squadrons. + The artillery being on the heights behind, the range of its fire was over + the heads of his men. From this position of his artillery, it was evident + that Tilly’s purpose was to await rather than to attack the enemy; since + this arrangement rendered it impossible for him to do so without exposing + his men to the fire of his own cannons. Tilly himself commanded the + centre, Count Furstenberg the right wing, and Pappenheim the left. The + united troops of the Emperor and the League on this day did not amount to + 34,000 or 35,000 men; the Swedes and Saxons were about the same number. + But had a million been confronted with a million it could only have + rendered the action more bloody, certainly not more important and + decisive. For this day Gustavus had crossed the Baltic, to court danger in + a distant country, and expose his crown and life to the caprice of + fortune. The two greatest generals of the time, both hitherto invincible, + were now to be matched against each other in a contest which both had long + avoided; and on this field of battle the hitherto untarnished laurels of + one leader must droop for ever. The two parties in Germany had beheld the + approach of this day with fear and trembling; and the whole age awaited + with deep anxiety its issue, and posterity was either to bless or deplore + it for ever. + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:60%;"> + <img alt="1p172 (147K)" src="images/1p172.jpg" style="width:100%;" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <p> + Tilly’s usual intrepidity and resolution seemed to forsake him on this + eventful day. He had formed no regular plan for giving battle to the King, + and he displayed as little firmness in avoiding it. Contrary to his own + judgment, Pappenheim had forced him to action. Doubts which he had never + before felt, struggled in his bosom; gloomy forebodings clouded his + ever-open brow; the shade of Magdeburg seemed to hover over him. + </p> + <p> + A cannonade of two hours commenced the battle; the wind, which was from + the west, blew thick clouds of smoke and dust from the newly-ploughed and + parched fields into the faces of the Swedes. This compelled the king + insensibly to wheel northwards, and the rapidity with which this movement + was executed left no time to the enemy to prevent it. + </p> + <p> + Tilly at last left his heights, and began the first attack upon the + Swedes; but to avoid their hot fire, he filed off towards the right, and + fell upon the Saxons with such impetuosity that their line was broken, and + the whole army thrown into confusion. The Elector himself retired to + Eilenburg, though a few regiments still maintained their ground upon the + field, and by a bold stand saved the honour of Saxony. Scarcely had the + confusion began ere the Croats commenced plundering, and messengers were + despatched to Munich and Vienna with the news of the victory. + </p> + <p> + Pappenheim had thrown himself with the whole force of his cavalry upon the + right wing of the Swedes, but without being able to make it waver. The + king commanded here in person, and under him General Banner. Seven times + did Pappenheim renew the attack, and seven times was he repulsed. He fled + at last with great loss, and abandoned the field to his conqueror. + </p> + <p> + In the mean time, Tilly, having routed the remainder of the Saxons, + attacked with his victorious troops the left wing of the Swedes. To this + wing the king, as soon as he perceived that the Saxons were thrown into + disorder, had, with a ready foresight, detached a reinforcement of three + regiments to cover its flank, which the flight of the Saxons had left + exposed. Gustavus Horn, who commanded here, showed the enemy’s cuirassiers + a spirited resistance, which the infantry, interspersed among the + squadrons of horse, materially assisted. The enemy were already beginning + to relax the vigour of their attack, when Gustavus Adolphus appeared to + terminate the contest. The left wing of the Imperialists had been routed; + and the king’s division, having no longer any enemy to oppose, could now + turn their arms wherever it would be to the most advantage. Wheeling, + therefore, with his right wing and main body to the left, he attacked the + heights on which the enemy’s artillery was planted. Gaining possession of + them in a short time, he turned upon the enemy the full fire of their own + cannon. + </p> + <p> + The play of artillery upon their flank, and the terrible onslaught of the + Swedes in front, threw this hitherto invincible army into confusion. A + sudden retreat was the only course left to Tilly, but even this was to be + made through the midst of the enemy. The whole army was in disorder, with + the exception of four regiments of veteran soldiers, who never as yet had + fled from the field, and were resolved not to do so now. Closing their + ranks, they broke through the thickest of the victorious army, and gained + a small thicket, where they opposed a new front to the Swedes, and + maintained their resistance till night, when their number was reduced to + six hundred men. With them fled the wreck of Tilly’s army, and the battle + was decided. + </p> + <p> + Amid the dead and the wounded, Gustavus Adolphus threw himself on his + knees; and the first joy of his victory gushed forth in fervent prayer. He + ordered his cavalry to pursue the enemy as long as the darkness of the + night would permit. The pealing of the alarm-bells set the inhabitants of + all the neighbouring villages in motion, and utterly lost was the unhappy + fugitive who fell into their hands. The king encamped with the rest of his + army between the field of battle and Leipzig, as it was impossible to + attack the town the same night. Seven thousand of the enemy were killed in + the field, and more than 5,000 either wounded or taken prisoners. Their + whole artillery and camp fell into the hands of the Swedes, and more than + a hundred standards and colours were taken. Of the Saxons about 2,000 had + fallen, while the loss of the Swedes did not exceed 700. The rout of the + Imperialists was so complete, that Tilly, on his retreat to Halle and + Halberstadt, could not rally above 600 men, or Pappenheim more than 1,400—so + rapidly was this formidable army dispersed, which so lately was the terror + of Italy and Germany. + </p> + <p> + Tilly himself owed his escape merely to chance. Exhausted by his wounds, + he still refused to surrender to a Swedish captain of horse, who summoned + him to yield; but who, when he was on the point of putting him to death, + was himself stretched on the ground by a timely pistol-shot. But more + grievous than danger or wounds was the pain of surviving his reputation, + and of losing in a single day the fruits of a long life. All former + victories were as nothing, since he had failed in gaining the one that + should have crowned them all. Nothing remained of all his past exploits, + but the general execration which had followed them. From this period, he + never recovered his cheerfulness or his good fortune. Even his last + consolation, the hope of revenge, was denied to him, by the express + command of the Emperor not to risk a decisive battle. + </p> + <p> + The disgrace of this day is to be ascribed principally to three mistakes; + his planting the cannon on the hills behind him, his afterwards abandoning + these heights, and his allowing the enemy, without opposition, to form in + order of battle. But how easily might those mistakes have been rectified, + had it not been for the cool presence of mind and superior genius of his + adversary! + </p> + <p> + Tilly fled from Halle to Halberstadt, where he scarcely allowed time for + the cure of his wounds, before he hurried towards the Weser to recruit his + force by the imperial garrisons in Lower Saxony. + </p> + <p> + The Elector of Saxony had not failed, after the danger was over, to appear + in Gustavus’s camp. The king thanked him for having advised a battle; and + the Elector, charmed at his friendly reception, promised him, in the first + transports of joy, the Roman crown. Gustavus set out next day for + Merseburg, leaving the Elector to recover Leipzig. Five thousand + Imperialists, who had collected together after the defeat, and whom he met + on his march, were either cut in pieces or taken prisoners, of whom again + the greater part entered into his service. Merseburg quickly surrendered; + Halle was soon after taken, whither the Elector of Saxony, after making + himself master of Leipzig, repaired to meet the king, and to concert their + future plan of operations. + </p> + <p> + The victory was gained, but only a prudent use of it could render it + decisive. The imperial armies were totally routed, Saxony free from the + enemy, and Tilly had retired into Brunswick. To have followed him thither + would have been to renew the war in Lower Saxony, which had scarcely + recovered from the ravages of the last. It was therefore determined to + carry the war into the enemy’s country, which, open and defenceless as far + as Vienna, invited attack. On their right, they might fall upon the + territories of the Roman Catholic princes, or penetrate, on the left, into + the hereditary dominions of Austria, and make the Emperor tremble in his + palace. Both plans were resolved on; and the question that now remained + was to assign its respective parts. Gustavus Adolphus, at the head of a + victorious army, had little resistance to apprehend in his progress from + Leipzig to Prague, Vienna, and Presburg. As to Bohemia, Moravia, Austria, + and Hungary, they had been stripped of their defenders, while the + oppressed Protestants in these countries were ripe for a revolt. Ferdinand + was no longer secure in his capital: Vienna, on the first terror of + surprise, would at once open its gates. The loss of his territories would + deprive the enemy of the resources by which alone the war could be + maintained; and Ferdinand would, in all probability, gladly accede, on the + hardest conditions, to a peace which would remove a formidable enemy from + the heart of his dominions. This bold plan of operations was flattering to + a conqueror, and success perhaps might have justified it. But Gustavus + Adolphus, as prudent as he was brave, and more a statesman than a + conqueror, rejected it, because he had a higher end in view, and would not + trust the issue either to bravery or good fortune alone. + </p> + <p> + By marching towards Bohemia, Franconia and the Upper Rhine would be left + to the Elector of Saxony. But Tilly had already begun to recruit his + shattered army from the garrisons in Lower Saxony, and was likely to be at + the head of a formidable force upon the Weser, and to lose no time in + marching against the enemy. To so experienced a general, it would not do + to oppose an Arnheim, of whose military skill the battle of Leipzig had + afforded but equivocal proof; and of what avail would be the rapid and + brilliant career of the king in Bohemia and Austria, if Tilly should + recover his superiority in the Empire, animating the courage of the Roman + Catholics, and disarming, by a new series of victories, the allies and + confederates of the king? What would he gain by expelling the Emperor from + his hereditary dominions, if Tilly succeeded in conquering for that + Emperor the rest of Germany? Could he hope to reduce the Emperor more than + had been done, twelve years before, by the insurrection of Bohemia, which + had failed to shake the firmness or exhaust the resources of that prince, + and from which he had risen more formidable than ever? + </p> + <p> + Less brilliant, but more solid, were the advantages which he had to expect + from an incursion into the territories of the League. In this quarter, his + appearance in arms would be decisive. At this very conjuncture, the + princes were assembled in a Diet at Frankfort, to deliberate upon the + Edict of Restitution, where Ferdinand employed all his artful policy to + persuade the intimidated Protestants to accede to a speedy and + disadvantageous arrangement. The advance of their protector could alone + encourage them to a bold resistance, and disappoint the Emperor’s designs. + Gustavus Adolphus hoped, by his presence, to unite the discontented + princes, or by the terror of his arms to detach them from the Emperor’s + party. Here, in the centre of Germany, he could paralyse the nerves of the + imperial power, which, without the aid of the League, must soon fall—here, + in the neighbourhood of France, he could watch the movements of a + suspicious ally; and however important to his secret views it was to + cultivate the friendship of the Roman Catholic electors, he saw the + necessity of making himself first of all master of their fate, in order to + establish, by his magnanimous forbearance, a claim to their gratitude. + </p> + <p> + He accordingly chose the route to Franconia and the Rhine; and left the + conquest of Bohemia to the Elector of Saxony. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0006" id="link2H_4_0006"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + BOOK III. + </h2> + <p> + The glorious battle of Leipzig effected a great change in the conduct of + Gustavus Adolphus, as well as in the opinion which both friends and foes + entertained of him. Successfully had he confronted the greatest general of + the age, and had matched the strength of his tactics and the courage of + his Swedes against the elite of the imperial army, the most experienced + troops in Europe. From this moment he felt a firm confidence in his own + powers—self-confidence has always been the parent of great actions. + In all his subsequent operations more boldness and decision are + observable; greater determination, even amidst the most unfavourable + circumstances, a more lofty tone towards his adversaries, a more dignified + bearing towards his allies, and even in his clemency, something of the + forbearance of a conqueror. His natural courage was farther heightened by + the pious ardour of his imagination. He saw in his own cause that of + heaven, and in the defeat of Tilly beheld the decisive interference of + Providence against his enemies, and in himself the instrument of divine + vengeance. Leaving his crown and his country far behind, he advanced on + the wings of victory into the heart of Germany, which for centuries had + seen no foreign conqueror within its bosom. The warlike spirit of its + inhabitants, the vigilance of its numerous princes, the artful + confederation of its states, the number of its strong castles, its many + and broad rivers, had long restrained the ambition of its neighbours; and + frequently as its extensive frontier had been attacked, its interior had + been free from hostile invasion. The Empire had hitherto enjoyed the + equivocal privilege of being its own enemy, though invincible from + without. Even now, it was merely the disunion of its members, and the + intolerance of religious zeal, that paved the way for the Swedish invader. + The bond of union between the states, which alone had rendered the Empire + invincible, was now dissolved; and Gustavus derived from Germany itself + the power by which he subdued it. With as much courage as prudence, he + availed himself of all that the favourable moment afforded; and equally at + home in the cabinet and the field, he tore asunder the web of the artful + policy, with as much ease, as he shattered walls with the thunder of his + cannon. Uninterruptedly he pursued his conquests from one end of Germany + to the other, without breaking the line of posts which commanded a secure + retreat at any moment; and whether on the banks of the Rhine, or at the + mouth of the Lech, alike maintaining his communication with his hereditary + dominions. + </p> + <p> + The consternation of the Emperor and the League at Tilly’s defeat at + Leipzig, was scarcely greater than the surprise and embarrassment of the + allies of the King of Sweden at his unexpected success. It was beyond both + their expectations and their wishes. Annihilated in a moment was that + formidable army which, while it checked his progress and set bounds to his + ambition, rendered him in some measure dependent on themselves. He now + stood in the heart of Germany, alone, without a rival or without an + adversary who was a match for him. Nothing could stop his progress, or + check his pretensions, if the intoxication of success should tempt him to + abuse his victory. If formerly they had dreaded the Emperor’s irresistible + power, there was no less cause now to fear every thing for the Empire, + from the violence of a foreign conqueror, and for the Catholic Church, + from the religious zeal of a Protestant king. The distrust and jealousy of + some of the combined powers, which a stronger fear of the Emperor had for + a time repressed, now revived; and scarcely had Gustavus Adolphus merited, + by his courage and success, their confidence, when they began covertly to + circumvent all his plans. Through a continual struggle with the arts of + enemies, and the distrust of his own allies, must his victories henceforth + be won; yet resolution, penetration, and prudence made their way through + all impediments. But while his success excited the jealousy of his more + powerful allies, France and Saxony, it gave courage to the weaker, and + emboldened them openly to declare their sentiments and join his party. + Those who could neither vie with Gustavus Adolphus in importance, nor + suffer from his ambition, expected the more from the magnanimity of their + powerful ally, who enriched them with the spoils of their enemies, and + protected them against the oppression of their stronger neighbours. His + strength covered their weakness, and, inconsiderable in themselves, they + acquired weight and influence from their union with the Swedish hero. This + was the case with most of the free cities, and particularly with the + weaker Protestant states. It was these that introduced the king into the + heart of Germany; these covered his rear, supplied his troops with + necessaries, received them into their fortresses, while they exposed their + own lives in his battles. His prudent regard to their national pride, his + popular deportment, some brilliant acts of justice, and his respect for + the laws, were so many ties by which he bound the German Protestants to + his cause; while the crying atrocities of the Imperialists, the Spaniards, + and the troops of Lorraine, powerfully contributed to set his own conduct + and that of his army in a favourable light. + </p> + <p> + If Gustavus Adolphus owed his success chiefly to his own genius, at the + same time, it must be owned, he was greatly favoured by fortune and by + circumstances. Two great advantages gave him a decided superiority over + the enemy. While he removed the scene of war into the lands of the League, + drew their youth as recruits, enriched himself with booty, and used the + revenues of their fugitive princes as his own, he at once took from the + enemy the means of effectual resistance, and maintained an expensive war + with little cost to himself. And, moreover, while his opponents, the + princes of the League, divided among themselves, and governed by different + and often conflicting interests, acted without unanimity, and therefore + without energy; while their generals were deficient in authority, their + troops in obedience, the operations of their scattered armies without + concert; while the general was separated from the lawgiver and the + statesman; these several functions were united in Gustavus Adolphus, the + only source from which authority flowed, the sole object to which the eye + of the warrior turned; the soul of his party, the inventor as well as the + executor of his plans. In him, therefore, the Protestants had a centre of + unity and harmony, which was altogether wanting to their opponents. No + wonder, then, if favoured by such advantages, at the head of such an army, + with such a genius to direct it, and guided by such political prudence, + Gustavus Adolphus was irresistible. + </p> + <p> + With the sword in one hand, and mercy in the other, he traversed Germany + as a conqueror, a lawgiver, and a judge, in as short a time almost as the + tourist of pleasure. The keys of towns and fortresses were delivered to + him, as if to the native sovereign. No fortress was inaccessible; no river + checked his victorious career. He conquered by the very terror of his + name. The Swedish standards were planted along the whole stream of the + Maine: the Lower Palatinate was free, the troops of Spain and Lorraine had + fled across the Rhine and the Moselle. The Swedes and Hessians poured like + a torrent into the territories of Mentz, of Wurtzburg, and Bamberg, and + three fugitive bishops, at a distance from their sees, suffered dearly for + their unfortunate attachment to the Emperor. It was now the turn for + Maximilian, the leader of the League, to feel in his own dominions the + miseries he had inflicted upon others. Neither the terrible fate of his + allies, nor the peaceful overtures of Gustavus, who, in the midst of + conquest, ever held out the hand of friendship, could conquer the + obstinacy of this prince. The torrent of war now poured into Bavaria. Like + the banks of the Rhine, those of the Lecke and the Donau were crowded with + Swedish troops. Creeping into his fortresses, the defeated Elector + abandoned to the ravages of the foe his dominions, hitherto unscathed by + war, and on which the bigoted violence of the Bavarians seemed to invite + retaliation. Munich itself opened its gates to the invincible monarch, and + the fugitive Palatine, Frederick V., in the forsaken residence of his + rival, consoled himself for a time for the loss of his dominions. + </p> + <p> + While Gustavus Adolphus was extending his conquests in the south, his + generals and allies were gaining similar triumphs in the other provinces. + Lower Saxony shook off the yoke of Austria, the enemy abandoned + Mecklenburg, and the imperial garrisons retired from the banks of the + Weser and the Elbe. In Westphalia and the Upper Rhine, William, Landgrave + of Hesse, rendered himself formidable; the Duke of Weimar in Thuringia, + and the French in the Electorate of Treves; while to the eastward the + whole kingdom of Bohemia was conquered by the Saxons. The Turks were + preparing to attack Hungary, and in the heart of Austria a dangerous + insurrection was threatened. In vain did the Emperor look around to the + courts of Europe for support; in vain did he summon the Spaniards to his + assistance, for the bravery of the Flemings afforded them ample employment + beyond the Rhine; in vain did he call upon the Roman court and the whole + church to come to his rescue. The offended Pope sported, in pompous + processions and idle anathemas, with the embarrassments of Ferdinand, and + instead of the desired subsidy he was shown the devastation of Mantua. + </p> + <p> + On all sides of his extensive monarchy hostile arms surrounded him. With + the states of the League, now overrun by the enemy, those ramparts were + thrown down, behind which Austria had so long defended herself, and the + embers of war were now smouldering upon her unguarded frontiers. His most + zealous allies were disarmed; Maximilian of Bavaria, his firmest support, + was scarce able to defend himself. His armies, weakened by desertion and + repeated defeat, and dispirited by continued misfortunes had unlearnt, + under beaten generals, that warlike impetuosity which, as it is the + consequence, so it is the guarantee of success. The danger was extreme, + and extraordinary means alone could raise the imperial power from the + degradation into which it was fallen. + </p> + <p> + The most urgent want was that of a general; and the only one from whom he + could hope for the revival of his former splendour, had been removed from + his command by an envious cabal. So low had the Emperor now fallen, that + he was forced to make the most humiliating proposals to his injured + subject and servant, and meanly to press upon the imperious Duke of + Friedland the acceptance of the powers which no less meanly had been taken + from him. A new spirit began from this moment to animate the expiring body + of Austria; and a sudden change in the aspect of affairs bespoke the firm + hand which guided them. To the absolute King of Sweden, a general equally + absolute was now opposed; and one victorious hero was confronted with + another. Both armies were again to engage in the doubtful struggle; and + the prize of victory, already almost secured in the hands of Gustavus + Adolphus, was to be the object of another and a severer trial. The storm + of war gathered around Nuremberg; before its walls the hostile armies + encamped; gazing on each other with dread and respect, longing for, and + yet shrinking from, the moment that was to close them together in the + shock of battle. The eyes of Europe turned to the scene in curiosity and + alarm, while Nuremberg, in dismay, expected soon to lend its name to a + more decisive battle than that of Leipzig. Suddenly the clouds broke, and + the storm rolled away from Franconia, to burst upon the plains of Saxony. + Near Lutzen fell the thunder that had menaced Nuremberg; the victory, half + lost, was purchased by the death of the king. Fortune, which had never + forsaken him in his lifetime, favoured the King of Sweden even in his + death, with the rare privilege of falling in the fulness of his glory and + an untarnished fame. By a timely death, his protecting genius rescued him + from the inevitable fate of man—that of forgetting moderation in the + intoxication of success, and justice in the plenitude of power. It may be + doubted whether, had he lived longer, he would still have deserved the + tears which Germany shed over his grave, or maintained his title to the + admiration with which posterity regards him, as the first and only JUST + conqueror that the world has produced. The untimely fall of their great + leader seemed to threaten the ruin of his party; but to the Power which + rules the world, no loss of a single man is irreparable. As the helm of + war dropped from the hand of the falling hero, it was seized by two great + statesmen, Oxenstiern and Richelieu. Destiny still pursued its relentless + course, and for full sixteen years longer the flames of war blazed over + the ashes of the long-forgotten king and soldier. + </p> + <p> + I may now be permitted to take a cursory retrospect of Gustavus Adolphus + in his victorious career; glance at the scene in which he alone was the + great actor; and then, when Austria becomes reduced to extremity by the + successes of the Swedes, and by a series of disasters is driven to the + most humiliating and desperate expedients, to return to the history of the + Emperor. + </p> + <p> + As soon as the plan of operations had been concerted at Halle, between the + King of Sweden and the Elector of Saxony; as soon as the alliance had been + concluded with the neighbouring princes of Weimar and Anhalt, and + preparations made for the recovery of the bishopric of Magdeburg, the king + began his march into the empire. He had here no despicable foe to contend + with. Within the empire, the Emperor was still powerful; throughout + Franconia, Swabia, and the Palatinate, imperial garrisons were posted, + with whom the possession of every place of importance must be disputed + sword in hand. On the Rhine he was opposed by the Spaniards, who had + overrun the territory of the banished Elector Palatine, seized all its + strong places, and would everywhere dispute with him the passage over that + river. On his rear was Tilly, who was fast recruiting his force, and would + soon be joined by the auxiliaries from Lorraine. Every Papist presented an + inveterate foe, while his connexion with France did not leave him at + liberty to act with freedom against the Roman Catholics. Gustavus had + foreseen all these obstacles, but at the same time the means by which they + were to be overcome. The strength of the Imperialists was broken and + divided among different garrisons, while he would bring against them one + by one his whole united force. If he was to be opposed by the fanaticism + of the Roman Catholics, and the awe in which the lesser states regarded + the Emperor’s power, he might depend on the active support of the + Protestants, and their hatred to Austrian oppression. The ravages of the + Imperialist and Spanish troops also powerfully aided him in these + quarters; where the ill-treated husbandman and citizen sighed alike for a + deliverer, and where the mere change of yoke seemed to promise a relief. + Emissaries were despatched to gain over to the Swedish side the principal + free cities, particularly Nuremberg and Frankfort. The first that lay in + the king’s march, and which he could not leave unoccupied in his rear, was + Erfurt. Here the Protestant party among the citizens opened to him, + without a blow, the gates of the town and the citadel. From the + inhabitants of this, as of every important place which afterwards + submitted, he exacted an oath of allegiance, while he secured its + possession by a sufficient garrison. To his ally, Duke William of Weimar, + he intrusted the command of an army to be raised in Thuringia. He also + left his queen in Erfurt, and promised to increase its privileges. The + Swedish army now crossed the Thuringian forest in two columns, by Gotha + and Arnstadt, and having delivered, in its march, the county of Henneberg + from the Imperialists, formed a junction on the third day near + Koenigshofen, on the frontiers of Franconia. + </p> + <p> + Francis, Bishop of Wurtzburg, the bitter enemy of the Protestants, and the + most zealous member of the League, was the first to feel the indignation + of Gustavus Adolphus. A few threats gained for the Swedes possession of + his fortress of Koenigshofen, and with it the key of the whole province. + At the news of this rapid conquest, dismay seized all the Roman Catholic + towns of the circle. The Bishops of Wurtzburg and Bamberg trembled in + their castles; they already saw their sees tottering, their churches + profaned, and their religion degraded. The malice of his enemies had + circulated the most frightful representations of the persecuting spirit + and the mode of warfare pursued by the Swedish king and his soldiers, + which neither the repeated assurances of the king, nor the most splendid + examples of humanity and toleration, ever entirely effaced. Many feared to + suffer at the hands of another what in similar circumstances they were + conscious of inflicting themselves. Many of the richest Roman Catholics + hastened to secure by flight their property, their religion, and their + persons, from the sanguinary fanaticism of the Swedes. The bishop himself + set the example. In the midst of the alarm, which his bigoted zeal had + caused, he abandoned his dominions, and fled to Paris, to excite, if + possible, the French ministry against the common enemy of religion. + </p> + <p> + The further progress of Gustavus Adolphus in the ecclesiastical + territories agreed with this brilliant commencement. Schweinfurt, and soon + afterwards Wurtzburg, abandoned by their Imperial garrisons, surrendered; + but Marienberg he was obliged to carry by storm. In this place, which was + believed to be impregnable, the enemy had collected a large store of + provisions and ammunition, all of which fell into the hands of the Swedes. + The king found a valuable prize in the library of the Jesuits, which he + sent to Upsal, while his soldiers found a still more agreeable one in the + prelate’s well-filled cellars; his treasures the bishop had in good time + removed. The whole bishopric followed the example of the capital, and + submitted to the Swedes. The king compelled all the bishop’s subjects to + swear allegiance to himself; and, in the absence of the lawful sovereign, + appointed a regency, one half of whose members were Protestants. In every + Roman Catholic town which Gustavus took, he opened the churches to the + Protestant people, but without retaliating on the Papists the cruelties + which they had practised on the former. On such only as sword in hand + refused to submit, were the fearful rights of war enforced; and for the + occasional acts of violence committed by a few of the more lawless + soldiers, in the blind rage of the first attack, their humane leader is + not justly responsible. Those who were peaceably disposed, or defenceless, + were treated with mildness. It was a sacred principle of Gustavus to spare + the blood of his enemies, as well as that of his own troops. + </p> + <p> + On the first news of the Swedish irruption, the Bishop of Wurtzburg, + without regarding the treaty which he had entered into with the King of + Sweden, had earnestly pressed the general of the League to hasten to the + assistance of the bishopric. That defeated commander had, in the mean + time, collected on the Weser the shattered remnant of his army, reinforced + himself from the garrisons of Lower Saxony, and effected a junction in + Hesse with Altringer and Fugger, who commanded under him. Again at the + head of a considerable force, Tilly burned with impatience to wipe out the + stain of his first defeat by a splendid victory. From his camp at Fulda, + whither he had marched with his army, he earnestly requested permission + from the Duke of Bavaria to give battle to Gustavus Adolphus. But, in the + event of Tilly’s defeat, the League had no second army to fall back upon, + and Maximilian was too cautious to risk again the fate of his party on a + single battle. With tears in his eyes, Tilly read the commands of his + superior, which compelled him to inactivity. Thus his march to Franconia + was delayed, and Gustavus Adolphus gained time to overrun the whole + bishopric. It was in vain that Tilly, reinforced at Aschaffenburg by a + body of 12,000 men from Lorraine, marched with an overwhelming force to + the relief of Wurtzburg. The town and citadel were already in the hands of + the Swedes, and Maximilian of Bavaria was generally blamed (and not + without cause, perhaps) for having, by his scruples, occasioned the loss + of the bishopric. Commanded to avoid a battle, Tilly contented himself + with checking the farther advance of the enemy; but he could save only a + few of the towns from the impetuosity of the Swedes. Baffled in an attempt + to reinforce the weak garrison of Hanau, which it was highly important to + the Swedes to gain, he crossed the Maine, near Seligenstadt, and took the + direction of the Bergstrasse, to protect the Palatinate from the + conqueror. + </p> + <p> + Tilly, however, was not the sole enemy whom Gustavus Adolphus met in + Franconia, and drove before him. Charles, Duke of Lorraine, celebrated in + the annals of the time for his unsteadiness of character, his vain + projects, and his misfortunes, ventured to raise a weak arm against the + Swedish hero, in the hope of obtaining from the Emperor the electoral + dignity. Deaf to the suggestions of a rational policy, he listened only to + the dictates of heated ambition; by supporting the Emperor, he exasperated + France, his formidable neighbour; and in the pursuit of a visionary + phantom in another country, left undefended his own dominions, which were + instantly overrun by a French army. Austria willingly conceded to him, as + well as to the other princes of the League, the honour of being ruined in + her cause. Intoxicated with vain hopes, this prince collected a force of + 17,000 men, which he proposed to lead in person against the Swedes. If + these troops were deficient in discipline and courage, they were at least + attractive by the splendour of their accoutrements; and however sparing + they were of their prowess against the foe, they were liberal enough with + it against the defenceless citizens and peasantry, whom they were summoned + to defend. Against the bravery, and the formidable discipline of the + Swedes this splendidly attired army, however, made no long stand. On the + first advance of the Swedish cavalry a panic seized them, and they were + driven without difficulty from their cantonments in Wurtzburg; the defeat + of a few regiments occasioned a general rout, and the scattered remnant + sought a covert from the Swedish valour in the towns beyond the Rhine. + Loaded with shame and ridicule, the duke hurried home by Strasburg, too + fortunate in escaping, by a submissive written apology, the indignation of + his conqueror, who had first beaten him out of the field, and then called + upon him to account for his hostilities. It is related upon this occasion + that, in a village on the Rhine a peasant struck the horse of the duke as + he rode past, exclaiming, “Haste, Sir, you must go quicker to escape the + great King of Sweden!” + </p> + <p> + The example of his neighbours’ misfortunes had taught the Bishop of + Bamberg prudence. To avert the plundering of his territories, he made + offers of peace, though these were intended only to delay the king’s + course till the arrival of assistance. Gustavus Adolphus, too honourable + himself to suspect dishonesty in another, readily accepted the bishop’s + proposals, and named the conditions on which he was willing to save his + territories from hostile treatment. He was the more inclined to peace, as + he had no time to lose in the conquest of Bamberg, and his other designs + called him to the Rhine. The rapidity with which he followed up these + plans, cost him the loss of those pecuniary supplies which, by a longer + residence in Franconia, he might easily have extorted from the weak and + terrified bishop. This artful prelate broke off the negotiation the + instant the storm of war passed away from his own territories. No sooner + had Gustavus marched onwards than he threw himself under the protection of + Tilly, and received the troops of the Emperor into the very towns and + fortresses, which shortly before he had shown himself ready to open to the + Swedes. By this stratagem, however, he only delayed for a brief interval + the ruin of his bishopric. A Swedish general who had been left in + Franconia, undertook to punish the perfidy of the bishop; and the + ecclesiastical territory became the seat of war, and was ravaged alike by + friends and foes. + </p> + <p> + The formidable presence of the Imperialists had hitherto been a check upon + the Franconian States; but their retreat, and the humane conduct of the + Swedish king, emboldened the nobility and other inhabitants of this circle + to declare in his favour. Nuremberg joyfully committed itself to his + protection; and the Franconian nobles were won to his cause by flattering + proclamations, in which he condescended to apologize for his hostile + appearance in the dominions. The fertility of Franconia, and the rigorous + honesty of the Swedish soldiers in their dealings with the inhabitants, + brought abundance to the camp of the king. The high esteem which the + nobility of the circle felt for Gustavus, the respect and admiration with + which they regarded his brilliant exploits, the promises of rich booty + which the service of this monarch held out, greatly facilitated the + recruiting of his troops; a step which was made necessary by detaching so + many garrisons from the main body. At the sound of his drums, recruits + flocked to his standard from all quarters. + </p> + <p> + The king had scarcely spent more time in conquering Franconia, than he + would have required to cross it. He now left behind him Gustavus Horn, one + of his best generals, with a force of 8,000 men, to complete and retain + his conquest. He himself with his main army, reinforced by the late + recruits, hastened towards the Rhine in order to secure this frontier of + the empire from the Spaniards; to disarm the ecclesiastical electors, and + to obtain from their fertile territories new resources for the prosecution + of the war. Following the course of the Maine, he subjected, in the course + of his march, Seligenstadt, Aschaffenburg, Steinheim, the whole territory + on both sides of the river. The imperial garrisons seldom awaited his + approach, and never attempted resistance. In the meanwhile one of his + colonels had been fortunate enough to take by surprise the town and + citadel of Hanau, for whose preservation Tilly had shown such anxiety. + Eager to be free of the oppressive burden of the Imperialists, the Count + of Hanau gladly placed himself under the milder yoke of the King of + Sweden. + </p> + <p> + Gustavus Adolphus now turned his whole attention to Frankfort, for it was + his constant maxim to cover his rear by the friendship and possession of + the more important towns. Frankfort was among the free cities which, even + from Saxony, he had endeavoured to prepare for his reception; and he now + called upon it, by a summons from Offenbach, to allow him a free passage, + and to admit a Swedish garrison. Willingly would this city have dispensed + with the necessity of choosing between the King of Sweden and the Emperor; + for, whatever party they might embrace, the inhabitants had a like reason + to fear for their privileges and trade. The Emperor’s vengeance would + certainly fall heavily upon them, if they were in a hurry to submit to the + King of Sweden, and afterwards he should prove unable to protect his + adherents in Germany. But still more ruinous for them would be the + displeasure of an irresistible conqueror, who, with a formidable army, was + already before their gates, and who might punish their opposition by the + ruin of their commerce and prosperity. In vain did their deputies plead + the danger which menaced their fairs, their privileges, perhaps their + constitution itself, if, by espousing the party of the Swedes, they were + to incur the Emperor’s displeasure. Gustavus Adolphus expressed to them + his astonishment that, when the liberties of Germany and the Protestant + religion were at stake, the citizens of Frankfort should talk of their + annual fairs, and postpone for temporal interests the great cause of their + country and their conscience. He had, he continued, in a menacing tone, + found the keys of every town and fortress, from the Isle of Rugen to the + Maine, and knew also where to find a key to Frankfort; the safety of + Germany, and the freedom of the Protestant Church, were, he assured them, + the sole objects of his invasion; conscious of the justice of his cause, + he was determined not to allow any obstacle to impede his progress. “The + inhabitants of Frankfort, he was well aware, wished to stretch out only a + finger to him, but he must have the whole hand in order to have something + to grasp.” At the head of the army, he closely followed the deputies as + they carried back his answer, and in order of battle awaited, near + Saxenhausen, the decision of the council. + </p> + <p> + If Frankfort hesitated to submit to the Swedes, it was solely from fear of + the Emperor; their own inclinations did not allow them a moment to doubt + between the oppressor of Germany and its protector. The menacing + preparations amidst which Gustavus Adolphus now compelled them to decide, + would lessen the guilt of their revolt in the eyes of the Emperor, and by + an appearance of compulsion justify the step which they willingly took. + The gates were therefore opened to the King of Sweden, who marched his + army through this imperial town in magnificent procession, and in + admirable order. A garrison of 600 men was left in Saxenhausen; while the + king himself advanced the same evening, with the rest of his army, against + the town of Hoechst in Mentz, which surrendered to him before night. + </p> + <p> + While Gustavus was thus extending his conquests along the Maine, fortune + crowned also the efforts of his generals and allies in the north of + Germany. Rostock, Wismar, and Doemitz, the only strong places in the Duchy + of Mecklenburg which still sighed under the yoke of the Imperialists, were + recovered by their legitimate sovereign, the Duke John Albert, under the + Swedish general, Achatius Tott. In vain did the imperial general, Wolf + Count von Mansfeld, endeavour to recover from the Swedes the territories + of Halberstadt, of which they had taken possession immediately upon the + victory of Leipzig; he was even compelled to leave Magdeburg itself in + their hands. The Swedish general, Banner, who with 8,000 men remained upon + the Elbe, closely blockaded that city, and had defeated several imperial + regiments which had been sent to its relief. Count Mansfeld defended it in + person with great resolution; but his garrison being too weak to oppose + for any length of time the numerous force of the besiegers, he was already + about to surrender on conditions, when Pappenheim advanced to his + assistance, and gave employment elsewhere to the Swedish arms. Magdeburg, + however, or rather the wretched huts that peeped out miserably from among + the ruins of that once great town, was afterwards voluntarily abandoned by + the Imperialists, and immediately taken possession of by the Swedes. + </p> + <p> + Even Lower Saxony, encouraged by the progress of the king, ventured to + raise its head from the disasters of the unfortunate Danish war. They held + a congress at Hamburg, and resolved upon raising three regiments, which + they hoped would be sufficient to free them from the oppressive garrisons + of the Imperialists. The Bishop of Bremen, a relation of Gustavus + Adolphus, was not content even with this; but assembled troops of his own, + and terrified the unfortunate monks and priests of the neighbourhood, but + was quickly compelled by the imperial general, Count Gronsfeld, to lay + down his arms. Even George, Duke of Lunenburg, formerly a colonel in the + Emperor’s service, embraced the party of Gustavus, for whom he raised + several regiments, and by occupying the attention of the Imperialists in + Lower Saxony, materially assisted him. + </p> + <p> + But more important service was rendered to the king by the Landgrave + William of Hesse Cassel, whose victorious arms struck with terror the + greater part of Westphalia and Lower Saxony, the bishopric of Fulda, and + even the Electorate of Cologne. It has been already stated that + immediately after the conclusion of the alliance between the Landgrave and + Gustavus Adolphus at Werben, two imperial generals, Fugger and Altringer, + were ordered by Tilly to march into Hesse, to punish the Landgrave for his + revolt from the Emperor. But this prince had as firmly withstood the arms + of his enemies, as his subjects had the proclamations of Tilly inciting + them to rebellion, and the battle of Leipzig presently relieved him of + their presence. He availed himself of their absence with courage and + resolution; in a short time, Vach, Muenden and Hoexter surrendered to him, + while his rapid advance alarmed the bishoprics of Fulda, Paderborn, and + the ecclesiastical territories which bordered on Hesse. The terrified + states hastened by a speedy submission to set limits to his progress, and + by considerable contributions to purchase exemption from plunder. After + these successful enterprises, the Landgrave united his victorious army + with that of Gustavus Adolphus, and concerted with him at Frankfort their + future plan of operations. + </p> + <p> + In this city, a number of princes and ambassadors were assembled to + congratulate Gustavus on his success, and either to conciliate his favour + or to appease his indignation. Among them was the fugitive King of + Bohemia, the Palatine Frederick V., who had hastened from Holland to throw + himself into the arms of his avenger and protector. Gustavus gave him the + unprofitable honour of greeting him as a crowned head, and endeavoured, by + a respectful sympathy, to soften his sense of his misfortunes. But great + as the advantages were, which Frederick had promised himself from the + power and good fortune of his protector; and high as were the expectations + he had built on his justice and magnanimity, the chance of this + unfortunate prince’s reinstatement in his kingdom was as distant as ever. + The inactivity and contradictory politics of the English court had abated + the zeal of Gustavus Adolphus, and an irritability which he could not + always repress, made him on this occasion forget the glorious vocation of + protector of the oppressed, in which, on his invasion of Germany, he had + so loudly announced himself. + </p> + <p> + The terrors of the king’s irresistible strength, and the near prospect of + his vengeance, had also compelled George, Landgrave of Hesse Darmstadt, to + a timely submission. His connection with the Emperor, and his indifference + to the Protestant cause, were no secret to the king, but he was satisfied + with laughing at so impotent an enemy. As the Landgrave knew his own + strength and the political situation of Germany so little, as to offer + himself as mediator between the contending parties, Gustavus used + jestingly to call him the peacemaker. He was frequently heard to say, when + at play he was winning from the Landgrave, “that the money afforded double + satisfaction, as it was Imperial coin.” To his affinity with the Elector + of Saxony, whom Gustavus had cause to treat with forbearance, the + Landgrave was indebted for the favourable terms he obtained from the king, + who contented himself with the surrender of his fortress of Russelheim, + and his promise of observing a strict neutrality during the war. The + Counts of Westerwald and Wetteran also visited the King in Frankfort, to + offer him their assistance against the Spaniards, and to conclude an + alliance, which was afterwards of great service to him. The town of + Frankfort itself had reason to rejoice at the presence of this monarch, + who took their commerce under his protection, and by the most effectual + measures restored the fairs, which had been greatly interrupted by the + war. + </p> + <p> + The Swedish army was now reinforced by ten thousand Hessians, which the + Landgrave of Casse commanded. Gustavus Adolphus had already invested + Koenigstein; Kostheim and Floersheim surrendered after a short siege; he + was in command of the Maine; and transports were preparing with all speed + at Hoechst to carry his troops across the Rhine. These preparations filled + the Elector of Mentz, Anselm Casimir, with consternation; and he no longer + doubted but that the storm of war would next fall upon him. As a partisan + of the Emperor, and one of the most active members of the League, he could + expect no better treatment than his confederates, the Bishops of Wurtzburg + and Bamberg, had already experienced. The situation of his territories + upon the Rhine made it necessary for the enemy to secure them, while the + fertility afforded an irresistible temptation to a necessitous army. + Miscalculating his own strength and that of his adversaries, the Elector + flattered himself that he was able to repel force by force, and weary out + the valour of the Swedes by the strength of his fortresses. He ordered the + fortifications of his capital to be repaired with all diligence, provided + it with every necessary for sustaining a long siege, and received into the + town a garrison of 2,000 Spaniards, under Don Philip de Sylva. To prevent + the approach of the Swedish transports, he endeavoured to close the mouth + of the Maine by driving piles, and sinking large heaps of stones and + vessels. He himself, however, accompanied by the Bishop of Worms, and + carrying with him his most precious effects, took refuge in Cologne, and + abandoned his capital and territories to the rapacity of a tyrannical + garrison. But these preparations, which bespoke less of true courage than + of weak and overweening confidence, did not prevent the Swedes from + marching against Mentz, and making serious preparations for an attack upon + the city. While one body of their troops poured into the Rheingau, routed + the Spaniards who remained there, and levied contributions on the + inhabitants, another laid the Roman Catholic towns in Westerwald and + Wetterau under similar contributions. The main army had encamped at + Cassel, opposite Mentz; and Bernhard, Duke of Weimar, made himself master + of the Maeusethurm and the Castle of Ehrenfels, on the other side of the + Rhine. Gustavus was now actively preparing to cross the river, and to + blockade the town on the land side, when the movements of Tilly in + Franconia suddenly called him from the siege, and obtained for the Elector + a short repose. + </p> + <p> + The danger of Nuremberg, which, during the absence of Gustavus Adolphus on + the Rhine, Tilly had made a show of besieging, and, in the event of + resistance, threatened with the cruel fate of Magdeburg, occasioned the + king suddenly to retire from before Mentz. Lest he should expose himself a + second time to the reproaches of Germany, and the disgrace of abandoning a + confederate city to a ferocious enemy, he hastened to its relief by forced + marches. On his arrival at Frankfort, however, he heard of its spirited + resistance, and of the retreat of Tilly, and lost not a moment in + prosecuting his designs against Mentz. Failing in an attempt to cross the + Rhine at Cassel, under the cannon of the besieged, he directed his march + towards the Bergstrasse, with a view of approaching the town from an + opposite quarter. Here he quickly made himself master of all the places of + importance, and at Stockstadt, between Gernsheim and Oppenheim, appeared a + second time upon the banks of the Rhine. The whole of the Bergstrasse was + abandoned by the Spaniards, who endeavoured obstinately to defend the + other bank of the river. For this purpose, they had burned or sunk all the + vessels in the neighbourhood, and arranged a formidable force on the + banks, in case the king should attempt the passage at that place. + </p> + <p> + On this occasion, the king’s impetuosity exposed him to great danger of + falling into the hands of the enemy. In order to reconnoitre the opposite + bank, he crossed the river in a small boat; he had scarcely landed when he + was attacked by a party of Spanish horse, from whose hands he only saved + himself by a precipitate retreat. Having at last, with the assistance of + the neighbouring fishermen, succeeded in procuring a few transports, he + despatched two of them across the river, bearing Count Brahe and 300 + Swedes. Scarcely had this officer time to entrench himself on the opposite + bank, when he was attacked by 14 squadrons of Spanish dragoons and + cuirassiers. Superior as the enemy was in number, Count Brahe, with his + small force, bravely defended himself, and gained time for the king to + support him with fresh troops. The Spaniards at last retired with the loss + of 600 men, some taking refuge in Oppenheim, and others in Mentz. A lion + of marble on a high pillar, holding a naked sword in his paw, and a helmet + on his head, was erected seventy years after the event, to point out to + the traveller the spot where the immortal monarch crossed the great river + of Germany. + </p> + <p> + Gustavus Adolphus now conveyed his artillery and the greater part of his + troops over the river, and laid siege to Oppenheim, which, after a brave + resistance, was, on the 8th December, 1631, carried by storm. Five hundred + Spaniards, who had so courageously defended the place, fell + indiscriminately a sacrifice to the fury of the Swedes. The crossing of + the Rhine by Gustavus struck terror into the Spaniards and Lorrainers, who + had thought themselves protected by the river from the vengeance of the + Swedes. Rapid flight was now their only security; every place incapable of + an effectual defence was immediately abandoned. After a long train of + outrages on the defenceless citizens, the troops of Lorraine evacuated + Worms, which, before their departure, they treated with wanton cruelty. + The Spaniards hastened to shut themselves up in Frankenthal, where they + hoped to defy the victorious arms of Gustavus Adolphus. + </p> + <p> + The king lost no time in prosecuting his designs against Mentz, into which + the flower of the Spanish troops had thrown themselves. While he advanced + on the left bank of the Rhine, the Landgrave of Hesse Cassel moved forward + on the other, reducing several strong places on his march. The besieged + Spaniards, though hemmed in on both sides, displayed at first a bold + determination, and threw, for several days, a shower of bombs into the + Swedish camp, which cost the king many of his bravest soldiers. But + notwithstanding, the Swedes continually gained ground, and had at last + advanced so close to the ditch that they prepared seriously for storming + the place. The courage of the besieged now began to droop. They trembled + before the furious impetuosity of the Swedish soldiers, of which + Marienberg, in Wurtzburg, had afforded so fearful an example. The same + dreadful fate awaited Mentz, if taken by storm; and the enemy might even + be easily tempted to revenge the carnage of Magdeburg on this rich and + magnificent residence of a Roman Catholic prince. To save the town, rather + than their own lives, the Spanish garrison capitulated on the fourth day, + and obtained from the magnanimity of Gustavus a safe conduct to + Luxembourg; the greater part of them, however, following the example of + many others, enlisted in the service of Sweden. + </p> + <p> + On the 13th December, 1631, the king made his entry into the conquered + town, and fixed his quarters in the palace of the Elector. Eighty pieces + of cannon fell into his hands, and the citizens were obliged to redeem + their property from pillage, by a payment of 80,000 florins. The benefits + of this redemption did not extend to the Jews and the clergy, who were + obliged to make large and separate contributions for themselves. The + library of the Elector was seized by the king as his share, and presented + by him to his chancellor, Oxenstiern, who intended it for the Academy of + Westerrah, but the vessel in which it was shipped to Sweden foundered at + sea. + </p> + <p> + After the loss of Mentz, misfortune still pursued the Spaniards on the + Rhine. Shortly before the capture of that city, the Landgrave of Hesse + Cassel had taken Falkenstein and Reifenberg, and the fortress of + Koningstein surrendered to the Hessians. The Rhinegrave, Otto Louis, one + of the king’s generals, defeated nine Spanish squadrons who were on their + march for Frankenthal, and made himself master of the most important towns + upon the Rhine, from Boppart to Bacharach. After the capture of the + fortress of Braunfels, which was effected by the Count of Wetterau, with + the co-operation of the Swedes, the Spaniards quickly lost every place in + Wetterau, while in the Palatinate they retained few places besides + Frankenthal. Landau and Kronweisenberg openly declared for the Swedes; + Spires offered troops for the king’s service; Manheim was gained through + the prudence of the Duke Bernard of Weimar, and the negligence of its + governor, who, for this misconduct, was tried before the council of war, + at Heidelberg, and beheaded. + </p> + <p> + The king had protracted the campaign into the depth of winter, and the + severity of the season was perhaps one cause of the advantage his soldiers + gained over those of the enemy. But the exhausted troops now stood in need + of the repose of winter quarters, which, after the surrender of Mentz, + Gustavus assigned to them, in its neighbourhood. He himself employed the + interval of inactivity in the field, which the season of the year + enjoined, in arranging, with his chancellor, the affairs of his cabinet, + in treating for a neutrality with some of his enemies, and adjusting some + political disputes which had sprung up with a neighbouring ally. He chose + the city of Mentz for his winter quarters, and the settlement of these + state affairs, and showed a greater partiality for this town, than seemed + consistent with the interests of the German princes, or the shortness of + his visit to the Empire. Not content with strongly fortifying it, he + erected at the opposite angle which the Maine forms with the Rhine, a new + citadel, which was named Gustavusburg from its founder, but which is + better known under the title of Pfaffenraub or Pfaffenzwang.—[Priests’ + plunder; alluding to the means by which the expense of its erection had + been defrayed.] + </p> + <p> + While Gustavus Adolphus made himself master of the Rhine, and threatened + the three neighbouring electorates with his victorious arms, his vigilant + enemies in Paris and St. Germain’s made use of every artifice to deprive + him of the support of France, and, if possible, to involve him in a war + with that power. By his sudden and equivocal march to the Rhine, he had + surprised his friends, and furnished his enemies with the means of + exciting a distrust of his intentions. After the conquest of Wurtzburg, + and of the greater part of Franconia, the road into Bavaria and Austria + lay open to him through Bamberg and the Upper Palatinate; and the + expectation was as general, as it was natural, that he would not delay to + attack the Emperor and the Duke of Bavaria in the very centre of their + power, and, by the reduction of his two principal enemies, bring the war + immediately to an end. But to the surprise of both parties, Gustavus left + the path which general expectation had thus marked out for him; and + instead of advancing to the right, turned to the left, to make the less + important and more innocent princes of the Rhine feel his power, while he + gave time to his more formidable opponents to recruit their strength. + Nothing but the paramount design of reinstating the unfortunate Palatine, + Frederick V., in the possession of his territories, by the expulsion of + the Spaniards, could seem to account for this strange step; and the belief + that Gustavus was about to effect that restoration, silenced for a while + the suspicions of his friends and the calumnies of his enemies. But the + Lower Palatinate was now almost entirely cleared of the enemy; and yet + Gustavus continued to form new schemes of conquest on the Rhine, and to + withhold the reconquered country from the Palatine, its rightful owner. In + vain did the English ambassador remind him of what justice demanded, and + what his own solemn engagement made a duty of honour; Gustavus replied to + these demands with bitter complaints of the inactivity of the English + court, and prepared to carry his victorious standard into Alsace, and even + into Lorraine. + </p> + <p> + A distrust of the Swedish monarch was now loud and open, while the malice + of his enemies busily circulated the most injurious reports as to his + intentions. Richelieu, the minister of Louis XIII., had long witnessed + with anxiety the king’s progress towards the French frontier, and the + suspicious temper of Louis rendered him but too accessible to the evil + surmises which the occasion gave rise to. France was at this time involved + in a civil war with her Protestant subjects, and the fear was not + altogether groundless, that the approach of a victorious monarch of their + party might revive their drooping spirit, and encourage them to a more + desperate resistance. This might be the case, even if Gustavus Adolphus + was far from showing a disposition to encourage them, or to act + unfaithfully towards his ally, the King of France. But the vindictive + Bishop of Wurtzburg, who was anxious to avenge the loss of his dominions, + the envenomed rhetoric of the Jesuits and the active zeal of the Bavarian + minister, represented this dreaded alliance between the Huguenots and the + Swedes as an undoubted fact, and filled the timid mind of Louis with the + most alarming fears. Not merely chimerical politicians, but many of the + best informed Roman Catholics, fully believed that the king was on the + point of breaking into the heart of France, to make common cause with the + Huguenots, and to overturn the Catholic religion within the kingdom. + Fanatical zealots already saw him, with his army, crossing the Alps, and + dethroning the Viceregent of Christ in Italy. Such reports no doubt soon + refute themselves; yet it cannot be denied that Gustavus, by his + manoeuvres on the Rhine, gave a dangerous handle to the malice of his + enemies, and in some measure justified the suspicion that he directed his + arms, not so much against the Emperor and the Duke of Bavaria, as against + the Roman Catholic religion itself. + </p> + <p> + The general clamour of discontent which the Jesuits raised in all the + Catholic courts, against the alliance between France and the enemy of the + church, at last compelled Cardinal Richelieu to take a decisive step for + the security of his religion, and at once to convince the Roman Catholic + world of the zeal of France, and of the selfish policy of the + ecclesiastical states of Germany. Convinced that the views of the King of + Sweden, like his own, aimed solely at the humiliation of the power of + Austria, he hesitated not to promise to the princes of the League, on the + part of Sweden, a complete neutrality, immediately they abandoned their + alliance with the Emperor and withdrew their troops. Whatever the + resolution these princes should adopt, Richelieu would equally attain his + object. By their separation from the Austrian interest, Ferdinand would be + exposed to the combined attack of France and Sweden; and Gustavus + Adolphus, freed from his other enemies in Germany, would be able to direct + his undivided force against the hereditary dominions of Austria. In that + event, the fall of Austria was inevitable, and this great object of + Richelieu’s policy would be gained without injury to the church. If, on + the other hand, the princes of the League persisted in their opposition, + and adhered to the Austrian alliance, the result would indeed be more + doubtful, but still France would have sufficiently proved to all Europe + the sincerity of her attachment to the Catholic cause, and performed her + duty as a member of the Roman Church. The princes of the League would then + appear the sole authors of those evils, which the continuance of the war + would unavoidably bring upon the Roman Catholics of Germany; they alone, + by their wilful and obstinate adherence to the Emperor, would frustrate + the measures employed for their protection, involve the church in danger, + and themselves in ruin. + </p> + <p> + Richelieu pursued this plan with greater zeal, the more he was embarrassed + by the repeated demands of the Elector of Bavaria for assistance from + France; for this prince, as already stated, when he first began to + entertain suspicions of the Emperor, entered immediately into a secret + alliance with France, by which, in the event of any change in the + Emperor’s sentiments, he hoped to secure the possession of the Palatinate. + But though the origin of the treaty clearly showed against what enemy it + was directed, Maximilian now thought proper to make use of it against the + King of Sweden, and did not hesitate to demand from France that assistance + against her ally, which she had simply promised against Austria. + Richelieu, embarrassed by this conflicting alliance with two hostile + powers, had no resource left but to endeavour to put a speedy termination + to their hostilities; and as little inclined to sacrifice Bavaria, as he + was disabled, by his treaty with Sweden, from assisting it, he set + himself, with all diligence, to bring about a neutrality, as the only + means of fulfilling his obligations to both. For this purpose, the Marquis + of Breze was sent, as his plenipotentiary, to the King of Sweden at Mentz, + to learn his sentiments on this point, and to procure from him favourable + conditions for the allied princes. But if Louis XIII. had powerful motives + for wishing for this neutrality, Gustavus Adolphus had as grave reasons + for desiring the contrary. Convinced by numerous proofs that the hatred of + the princes of the League to the Protestant religion was invincible, their + aversion to the foreign power of the Swedes inextinguishable, and their + attachment to the House of Austria irrevocable, he apprehended less danger + from their open hostility, than from a neutrality which was so little in + unison with their real inclinations; and, moreover, as he was constrained + to carry on the war in Germany at the expense of the enemy, he manifestly + sustained great loss if he diminished their number without increasing that + of his friends. It was not surprising, therefore, if Gustavus evinced + little inclination to purchase the neutrality of the League, by which he + was likely to gain so little, at the expense of the advantages he had + already obtained. + </p> + <p> + The conditions, accordingly, upon which he offered to adopt the neutrality + towards Bavaria were severe, and suited to these views. He required of the + whole League a full and entire cessation from all hostilities; the recall + of their troops from the imperial army, from the conquered towns, and from + all the Protestant countries; the reduction of their military force; the + exclusion of the imperial armies from their territories, and from supplies + either of men, provisions, or ammunition. Hard as the conditions were, + which the victor thus imposed upon the vanquished, the French mediator + flattered himself he should be able to induce the Elector of Bavaria to + accept them. In order to give time for an accommodation, Gustavus had + agreed to a cessation of hostilities for a fortnight. But at the very time + when this monarch was receiving from the French agents repeated assurances + of the favourable progress of the negociation, an intercepted letter from + the Elector to Pappenheim, the imperial general in Westphalia, revealed + the perfidy of that prince, as having no other object in view by the whole + negociation, than to gain time for his measures of defence. Far from + intending to fetter his military operations by a truce with Sweden, the + artful prince hastened his preparations, and employed the leisure which + his enemy afforded him, in making the most active dispositions for + resistance. The negociation accordingly failed, and served only to + increase the animosity of the Bavarians and the Swedes. + </p> + <p> + Tilly’s augmented force, with which he threatened to overrun Franconia, + urgently required the king’s presence in that circle; but it was necessary + to expel previously the Spaniards from the Rhine, and to cut off their + means of invading Germany from the Netherlands. With this view, Gustavus + Adolphus had made an offer of neutrality to the Elector of Treves, Philip + von Zeltern, on condition that the fortress of Hermanstein should be + delivered up to him, and a free passage granted to his troops through + Coblentz. But unwillingly as the Elector had beheld the Spaniards within + his territories, he was still less disposed to commit his estates to the + suspicious protection of a heretic, and to make the Swedish conqueror + master of his destinies. Too weak to maintain his independence between two + such powerful competitors, he took refuge in the protection of France. + With his usual prudence, Richelieu profited by the embarrassments of this + prince to augment the power of France, and to gain for her an important + ally on the German frontier. A numerous French army was despatched to + protect the territory of Treves, and a French garrison was received into + Ehrenbreitstein. But the object which had moved the Elector to this bold + step was not completely gained, for the offended pride of Gustavus + Adolphus was not appeased till he had obtained a free passage for his + troops through Treves. + </p> + <p> + Pending these negociations with Treves and France, the king’s generals had + entirely cleared the territory of Mentz of the Spanish garrisons, and + Gustavus himself completed the conquest of this district by the capture of + Kreutznach. To protect these conquests, the chancellor Oxenstiern was left + with a division of the army upon the Middle Rhine, while the main body, + under the king himself, began its march against the enemy in Franconia. + </p> + <p> + The possession of this circle had, in the mean time, been disputed with + variable success, between Count Tilly and the Swedish General Horn, whom + Gustavus had left there with 8,000 men; and the Bishopric of Bamberg, in + particular, was at once the prize and the scene of their struggle. Called + away to the Rhine by his other projects, the king had left to his general + the chastisement of the bishop, whose perfidy had excited his indignation, + and the activity of Horn justified the choice. In a short time, he subdued + the greater part of the bishopric; and the capital itself, abandoned by + its imperial garrison, was carried by storm. The banished bishop urgently + demanded assistance from the Elector of Bavaria, who was at length + persuaded to put an end to Tilly’s inactivity. Fully empowered by his + master’s order to restore the bishop to his possessions, this general + collected his troops, who were scattered over the Upper Palatinate, and + with an army of 20,000 men advanced upon Bamberg. Firmly resolved to + maintain his conquest even against this overwhelming force, Horn awaited + the enemy within the walls of Bamberg; but was obliged to yield to the + vanguard of Tilly what he had thought to be able to dispute with his whole + army. A panic which suddenly seized his troops, and which no presence of + mind of their general could check, opened the gates to the enemy, and it + was with difficulty that the troops, baggage, and artillery, were saved. + The reconquest of Bamberg was the fruit of this victory; but Tilly, with + all his activity, was unable to overtake the Swedish general, who retired + in good order behind the Maine. The king’s appearance in Franconia, and + his junction with Gustavus Horn at Kitzingen, put a stop to Tilly’s + conquests, and compelled him to provide for his own safety by a rapid + retreat. + </p> + <p> + The king made a general review of his troops at Aschaffenburg. After his + junction with Gustavus Horn, Banner, and Duke William of Weimar, they + amounted to nearly 40,000 men. His progress through Franconia was + uninterrupted; for Tilly, far too weak to encounter an enemy so superior + in numbers, had retreated, by rapid marches, towards the Danube. Bohemia + and Bavaria were now equally near to the king, and, uncertain whither his + victorious course might be directed, Maximilian could form no immediate + resolution. The choice of the king, and the fate of both provinces, now + depended on the road that should be left open to Count Tilly. It was + dangerous, during the approach of so formidable an enemy, to leave Bavaria + undefended, in order to protect Austria; still more dangerous, by + receiving Tilly into Bavaria, to draw thither the enemy also, and to + render it the seat of a destructive war. The cares of the sovereign + finally overcame the scruples of the statesman, and Tilly received orders, + at all hazards, to cover the frontiers of Bavaria with his army. + </p> + <p> + Nuremberg received with triumphant joy the protector of the Protestant + religion and German freedom, and the enthusiasm of the citizens expressed + itself on his arrival in loud transports of admiration and joy. Even + Gustavus could not contain his astonishment, to see himself in this city, + which was the very centre of Germany, where he had never expected to be + able to penetrate. The noble appearance of his person, completed the + impression produced by his glorious exploits, and the condescension with + which he received the congratulations of this free city won all hearts. He + now confirmed the alliance he had concluded with it on the shores of the + Baltic, and excited the citizens to zealous activity and fraternal unity + against the common enemy. After a short stay in Nuremberg, he followed his + army to the Danube, and appeared unexpectedly before the frontier town of + Donauwerth. A numerous Bavarian garrison defended the place; and their + commander, Rodolph Maximilian, Duke of Saxe Lauenburg, showed at first a + resolute determination to defend it till the arrival of Tilly. But the + vigour with which Gustavus Adolphus prosecuted the siege, soon compelled + him to take measures for a speedy and secure retreat, which amidst a + tremendous fire from the Swedish artillery he successfully executed. + </p> + <p> + The conquest of Donauwerth opened to the king the further side of the + Danube, and now the small river Lech alone separated him from Bavaria. The + immediate danger of his dominions aroused all Maximilian’s activity; and + however little he had hitherto disturbed the enemy’s progress to his + frontier, he now determined to dispute as resolutely the remainder of + their course. On the opposite bank of the Lech, near the small town of + Rain, Tilly occupied a strongly fortified camp, which, surrounded by three + rivers, bade defiance to all attack. All the bridges over the Lech were + destroyed; the whole course of the stream protected by strong garrisons as + far as Augsburg; and that town itself, which had long betrayed its + impatience to follow the example of Nuremberg and Frankfort, secured by a + Bavarian garrison, and the disarming of its inhabitants. The Elector + himself, with all the troops he could collect, threw himself into Tilly’s + camp, as if all his hopes centred on this single point, and here the good + fortune of the Swedes was to suffer shipwreck for ever. + </p> + <p> + Gustavus Adolphus, after subduing the whole territory of Augsburg, on his + own side of the river, and opening to his troops a rich supply of + necessaries from that quarter, soon appeared on the bank opposite the + Bavarian entrenchments. It was now the month of March, when the river, + swollen by frequent rains, and the melting of the snow from the mountains + of the Tyrol, flowed full and rapid between its steep banks. Its boiling + current threatened the rash assailants with certain destruction, while + from the opposite side the enemy’s cannon showed their murderous mouths. + If, in despite of the fury both of fire and water, they should accomplish + this almost impossible passage, a fresh and vigorous enemy awaited the + exhausted troops in an impregnable camp; and when they needed repose and + refreshment they must prepare for battle. With exhausted powers they must + ascend the hostile entrenchments, whose strength seemed to bid defiance to + every assault. A defeat sustained upon this shore would be attended with + inevitable destruction, since the same stream which impeded their advance + would also cut off their retreat, if fortune should abandon them. + </p> + <p> + The Swedish council of war, which the king now assembled, strongly urged + upon him all these considerations, in order to deter him from this + dangerous undertaking. The most intrepid were appalled, and a troop of + honourable warriors, who had grown gray in the field, did not hesitate to + express their alarm. But the king’s resolution was fixed. “What!” said he + to Gustavus Horn, who spoke for the rest, “have we crossed the Baltic, and + so many great rivers of Germany, and shall we now be checked by a brook + like the Lech?” Gustavus had already, at great personal risk, reconnoitred + the whole country, and discovered that his own side of the river was + higher than the other, and consequently gave a considerable advantage to + the fire of the Swedish artillery over that of the enemy. With great + presence of mind he determined to profit by this circumstance. At the + point where the left bank of the Lech forms an angle with the right, he + immediately caused three batteries to be erected, from which 72 + field-pieces maintained a cross fire upon the enemy. While this tremendous + cannonade drove the Bavarians from the opposite bank, he caused to be + erected a bridge over the river with all possible rapidity. A thick smoke, + kept up by burning wood and wet straw, concealed for some time the + progress of the work from the enemy, while the continued thunder of the + cannon overpowered the noise of the axes. He kept alive by his own example + the courage of his troops, and discharged more than 60 cannon with his own + hand. The cannonade was returned by the Bavarians with equal vivacity for + two hours, though with less effect, as the Swedish batteries swept the + lower opposite bank, while their height served as a breast-work to their + own troops. In vain, therefore, did the Bavarians attempt to destroy these + works; the superior fire of the Swedes threw them into disorder, and the + bridge was completed under their very eyes. On this dreadful day, Tilly + did every thing in his power to encourage his troops; and no danger could + drive him from the bank. At length he found the death which he sought, a + cannon ball shattered his leg; and Altringer, his brave companion-in-arms, + was, soon after, dangerously wounded in the head. Deprived of the + animating presence of their two generals, the Bavarians gave way at last, + and Maximilian, in spite of his own judgment, was driven to adopt a + pusillanimous resolve. Overcome by the persuasions of the dying Tilly, + whose wonted firmness was overpowered by the near approach of death, he + gave up his impregnable position for lost; and the discovery by the Swedes + of a ford, by which their cavalry were on the point of passing, + accelerated his inglorious retreat. The same night, before a single + soldier of the enemy had crossed the Lech, he broke up his camp, and, + without giving time for the King to harass him in his march, retreated in + good order to Neuburgh and Ingolstadt. With astonishment did Gustavus + Adolphus, who completed the passage of the river on the following day + behold the hostile camp abandoned; and the Elector’s flight surprised him + still more, when he saw the strength of the position he had quitted. “Had + I been the Bavarian,” said he, “though a cannon ball had carried away my + beard and chin, never would I have abandoned a position like this, and + laid open my territory to my enemies.” + </p> + <p> + Bavaria now lay exposed to the conqueror; and, for the first time, the + tide of war, which had hitherto only beat against its frontier, now flowed + over its long spared and fertile fields. Before, however, the King + proceeded to the conquest of these provinces, he delivered the town of + Augsburg from the yoke of Bavaria; exacted an oath of allegiance from the + citizens; and to secure its observance, left a garrison in the town. He + then advanced, by rapid marches, against Ingolstadt, in order, by the + capture of this important fortress, which the Elector covered with the + greater part of his army, to secure his conquests in Bavaria, and obtain a + firm footing on the Danube. + </p> + <p> + Shortly after the appearance of the Swedish King before Ingolstadt, the + wounded Tilly, after experiencing the caprice of unstable fortune, + terminated his career within the walls of that town. Conquered by the + superior generalship of Gustavus Adolphus, he lost, at the close of his + days, all the laurels of his earlier victories, and appeased, by a series + of misfortunes, the demands of justice, and the avenging manes of + Magdeburg. In his death, the Imperial army and that of the League + sustained an irreparable loss; the Roman Catholic religion was deprived of + its most zealous defender, and Maximilian of Bavaria of the most faithful + of his servants, who sealed his fidelity by his death, and even in his + dying moments fulfilled the duties of a general. His last message to the + Elector was an urgent advice to take possession of Ratisbon, in order to + maintain the command of the Danube, and to keep open the communication + with Bohemia. + </p> + <p> + With the confidence which was the natural fruit of so many victories, + Gustavus Adolphus commenced the siege of Ingolstadt, hoping to gain the + town by the fury of his first assault. But the strength of its + fortifications, and the bravery of its garrison, presented obstacles + greater than any he had had to encounter since the battle of Breitenfeld, + and the walls of Ingolstadt were near putting an end to his career. While + reconnoitring the works, a 24-pounder killed his horse under him, and he + fell to the ground, while almost immediately afterwards another ball + struck his favourite, the young Margrave of Baden, by his side. With + perfect self-possession the king rose, and quieted the fears of his troops + by immediately mounting another horse. + </p> + <p> + The occupation of Ratisbon by the Bavarians, who, by the advice of Tilly, + had surprised this town by stratagem, and placed in it a strong garrison, + quickly changed the king’s plan of operations. He had flattered himself + with the hope of gaining this town, which favoured the Protestant cause, + and to find in it an ally as devoted to him as Nuremberg, Augsburg, and + Frankfort. Its seizure by the Bavarians seemed to postpone for a long time + the fulfilment of his favourite project of making himself master of the + Danube, and cutting off his adversaries’ supplies from Bohemia. He + suddenly raised the siege of Ingolstadt, before which he had wasted both + his time and his troops, and penetrated into the interior of Bavaria, in + order to draw the Elector into that quarter for the defence of his + territories, and thus to strip the Danube of its defenders. + </p> + <p> + The whole country, as far as Munich, now lay open to the conqueror. + Mosburg, Landshut, and the whole territory of Freysingen, submitted; + nothing could resist his arms. But if he met with no regular force to + oppose his progress, he had to contend against a still more implacable + enemy in the heart of every Bavarian—religious fanaticism. Soldiers + who did not believe in the Pope were, in this country, a new and + unheard-of phenomenon; the blind zeal of the priests represented them to + the peasantry as monsters, the children of hell, and their leader as + Antichrist. No wonder, then, if they thought themselves released from all + the ties of nature and humanity towards this brood of Satan, and justified + in committing the most savage atrocities upon them. Woe to the Swedish + soldier who fell into their hands! All the torments which inventive malice + could devise were exercised upon these unhappy victims; and the sight of + their mangled bodies exasperated the army to a fearful retaliation. + Gustavus Adolphus, alone, sullied the lustre of his heroic character by no + act of revenge; and the aversion which the Bavarians felt towards his + religion, far from making him depart from the obligations of humanity + towards that unfortunate people, seemed to impose upon him the stricter + duty to honour his religion by a more constant clemency. + </p> + <p> + The approach of the king spread terror and consternation in the capital, + which, stripped of its defenders, and abandoned by its principal + inhabitants, placed all its hopes in the magnanimity of the conqueror. By + an unconditional and voluntary surrender, it hoped to disarm his + vengeance; and sent deputies even to Freysingen to lay at his feet the + keys of the city. Strongly as the king might have been tempted by the + inhumanity of the Bavarians, and the hostility of their sovereign, to make + a dreadful use of the rights of victory; pressed as he was by Germans to + avenge the fate of Magdeburg on the capital of its destroyer, this great + prince scorned this mean revenge; and the very helplessness of his enemies + disarmed his severity. Contented with the more noble triumph of conducting + the Palatine Frederick with the pomp of a victor into the very palace of + the prince who had been the chief instrument of his ruin, and the usurper + of his territories, he heightened the brilliancy of his triumphal entry by + the brighter splendour of moderation and clemency. + </p> + <p> + The King found in Munich only a forsaken palace, for the Elector’s + treasures had been transported to Werfen. The magnificence of the building + astonished him; and he asked the guide who showed the apartments who was + the architect. “No other,” replied he, “than the Elector himself.”—“I + wish,” said the King, “I had this architect to send to Stockholm.” “That,” + he was answered, “the architect will take care to prevent.” When the + arsenal was examined, they found nothing but carriages, stripped of their + cannon. The latter had been so artfully concealed under the floor, that no + traces of them remained; and but for the treachery of a workman, the + deceit would not have been detected. “Rise up from the dead,” said the + King, “and come to judgment.” The floor was pulled up, and 140 pieces of + cannon discovered, some of extraordinary calibre, which had been + principally taken in the Palatinate and Bohemia. A treasure of 30,000 gold + ducats, concealed in one of the largest, completed the pleasure which the + King received from this valuable acquisition. + </p> + <p> + A far more welcome spectacle still would have been the Bavarian army + itself; for his march into the heart of Bavaria had been undertaken + chiefly with the view of luring them from their entrenchments. In this + expectation he was disappointed. No enemy appeared; no entreaties, however + urgent, on the part of his subjects, could induce the Elector to risk the + remainder of his army to the chances of a battle. Shut up in Ratisbon, he + awaited the reinforcements which Wallenstein was bringing from Bohemia; + and endeavoured, in the mean time, to amuse his enemy and keep him + inactive, by reviving the negociation for a neutrality. But the King’s + distrust, too often and too justly excited by his previous conduct, + frustrated this design; and the intentional delay of Wallenstein abandoned + Bavaria to the Swedes. + </p> + <p> + Thus far had Gustavus advanced from victory to victory, without meeting + with an enemy able to cope with him. A part of Bavaria and Swabia, the + Bishoprics of Franconia, the Lower Palatinate, and the Archbishopric of + Mentz, lay conquered in his rear. An uninterrupted career of conquest had + conducted him to the threshold of Austria; and the most brilliant success + had fully justified the plan of operations which he had formed after the + battle of Breitenfeld. If he had not succeeded to his wish in promoting a + confederacy among the Protestant States, he had at least disarmed or + weakened the League, carried on the war chiefly at its expense, lessened + the Emperor’s resources, emboldened the weaker States, and while he laid + under contribution the allies of the Emperor, forced a way through their + territories into Austria itself. Where arms were unavailing, the greatest + service was rendered by the friendship of the free cities, whose + affections he had gained, by the double ties of policy and religion; and, + as long as he should maintain his superiority in the field, he might + reckon on every thing from their zeal. By his conquests on the Rhine, the + Spaniards were cut off from the Lower Palatinate, even if the state of the + war in the Netherlands left them at liberty to interfere in the affairs of + Germany. The Duke of Lorraine, too, after his unfortunate campaign, had + been glad to adopt a neutrality. Even the numerous garrisons he had left + behind him, in his progress through Germany, had not diminished his army; + and, fresh and vigorous as when he first began his march, he now stood in + the centre of Bavaria, determined and prepared to carry the war into the + heart of Austria. + </p> + <p> + While Gustavus Adolphus thus maintained his superiority within the empire, + fortune, in another quarter, had been no less favourable to his ally, the + Elector of Saxony. By the arrangement concerted between these princes at + Halle, after the battle of Leipzig, the conquest of Bohemia was intrusted + to the Elector of Saxony, while the King reserved for himself the attack + upon the territories of the League. The first fruits which the Elector + reaped from the battle of Breitenfeld, was the reconquest of Leipzig, + which was shortly followed by the expulsion of the Austrian garrisons from + the entire circle. Reinforced by the troops who deserted to him from the + hostile garrisons, the Saxon General, Arnheim, marched towards Lusatia, + which had been overrun by an Imperial General, Rudolph von Tiefenbach, in + order to chastise the Elector for embracing the cause of the enemy. He had + already commenced in this weakly defended province the usual course of + devastation, taken several towns, and terrified Dresden itself by his + approach, when his destructive progress was suddenly stopped, by an + express mandate from the Emperor to spare the possessions of the King of + Saxony. + </p> + <p> + Ferdinand had perceived too late the errors of that policy, which reduced + the Elector of Saxony to extremities, and forcibly driven this powerful + monarch into an alliance with Sweden. By moderation, equally ill-timed, he + now wished to repair if possible the consequences of his haughtiness; and + thus committed a second error in endeavouring to repair the first. To + deprive his enemy of so powerful an ally, he had opened, through the + intervention of Spain, a negociation with the Elector; and in order to + facilitate an accommodation, Tiefenbach was ordered immediately to retire + from Saxony. But these concessions of the Emperor, far from producing the + desired effect, only revealed to the Elector the embarrassment of his + adversary and his own importance, and emboldened him the more to prosecute + the advantages he had already obtained. How could he, moreover, without + becoming chargeable with the most shameful ingratitude, abandon an ally to + whom he had given the most solemn assurances of fidelity, and to whom he + was indebted for the preservation of his dominions, and even of his + Electoral dignity? + </p> + <p> + The Saxon army, now relieved from the necessity of marching into Lusatia, + advanced towards Bohemia, where a combination of favourable circumstances + seemed to ensure them an easy victory. In this kingdom, the first scene of + this fatal war, the flames of dissension still smouldered beneath the + ashes, while the discontent of the inhabitants was fomented by daily acts + of oppression and tyranny. On every side, this unfortunate country showed + signs of a mournful change. Whole districts had changed their proprietors, + and groaned under the hated yoke of Roman Catholic masters, whom the + favour of the Emperor and the Jesuits had enriched with the plunder and + possessions of the exiled Protestants. Others, taking advantage themselves + of the general distress, had purchased, at a low rate, the confiscated + estates. The blood of the most eminent champions of liberty had been shed + upon the scaffold; and such as by a timely flight avoided that fate, were + wandering in misery far from their native land, while the obsequious + slaves of despotism enjoyed their patrimony. Still more insupportable than + the oppression of these petty tyrants, was the restraint of conscience + which was imposed without distinction on all the Protestants of that + kingdom. No external danger, no opposition on the part of the nation, + however steadfast, not even the fearful lessons of past experience could + check in the Jesuits the rage of proselytism; where fair means were + ineffectual, recourse was had to military force to bring the deluded + wanderers within the pale of the church. The inhabitants of Joachimsthal, + on the frontiers between Bohemia and Meissen, were the chief sufferers + from this violence. Two imperial commissaries, accompanied by as many + Jesuits, and supported by fifteen musketeers, made their appearance in + this peaceful valley to preach the gospel to the heretics. Where the + rhetoric of the former was ineffectual, the forcibly quartering the latter + upon the houses, and threats of banishment and fines were tried. But on + this occasion, the good cause prevailed, and the bold resistance of this + small district compelled the Emperor disgracefully to recall his mandate + of conversion. The example of the court had, however, afforded a precedent + to the Roman Catholics of the empire, and seemed to justify every act of + oppression which their insolence tempted them to wreak upon the + Protestants. It is not surprising, then, if this persecuted party was + favourable to a revolution, and saw with pleasure their deliverers on the + frontiers. + </p> + <p> + The Saxon army was already on its march towards Prague, the imperial + garrisons everywhere retired before them. Schloeckenau, Tetschen, Aussig, + Leutmeritz, soon fell into the enemy’s hands, and every Roman Catholic + place was abandoned to plunder. Consternation seized all the Papists of + the Empire; and conscious of the outrages which they themselves had + committed on the Protestants, they did not venture to abide the vengeful + arrival of a Protestant army. All the Roman Catholics, who had anything to + lose, fled hastily from the country to the capital, which again they + presently abandoned. Prague was unprepared for an attack, and was too + weakly garrisoned to sustain a long siege. Too late had the Emperor + resolved to despatch Field-Marshal Tiefenbach to the defence of this + capital. Before the imperial orders could reach the head-quarters of that + general, in Silesia, the Saxons were already close to Prague, the + Protestant inhabitants of which showed little zeal, while the weakness of + the garrison left no room to hope a long resistance. In this fearful state + of embarrassment, the Roman Catholics of Prague looked for security to + Wallenstein, who now lived in that city as a private individual. But far + from lending his military experience, and the weight of his name, towards + its defence, he seized the favourable opportunity to satiate his thirst + for revenge. If he did not actually invite the Saxons to Prague, at least + his conduct facilitated its capture. Though unprepared, the town might + still hold out until succours could arrive; and an imperial colonel, Count + Maradas, showed serious intentions of undertaking its defence. But without + command and authority, and having no support but his own zeal and courage, + he did not dare to venture upon such a step without the advice of a + superior. He therefore consulted the Duke of Friedland, whose approbation + might supply the want of authority from the Emperor, and to whom the + Bohemian generals were referred by an express edict of the court in the + last extremity. He, however, artfully excused himself, on the plea of + holding no official appointment, and his long retirement from the + political world; while he weakened the resolution of the subalterns by the + scruples which he suggested, and painted in the strongest colours. At + last, to render the consternation general and complete, he quitted the + capital with his whole court, however little he had to fear from its + capture; and the city was lost, because, by his departure, he showed that + he despaired of its safety. His example was followed by all the Roman + Catholic nobility, the generals with their troops, the clergy, and all the + officers of the crown. All night the people were employed in saving their + persons and effects. The roads to Vienna were crowded with fugitives, who + scarcely recovered from their consternation till they reached the imperial + city. Maradas himself, despairing of the safety of Prague, followed the + rest, and led his small detachment to Tabor, where he awaited the event. + </p> + <p> + Profound silence reigned in Prague, when the Saxons next morning appeared + before it; no preparations were made for defence; not a single shot from + the walls announced an intention of resistance. On the contrary, a crowd + of spectators from the town, allured by curiosity, came flocking round, to + behold the foreign army; and the peaceful confidence with which they + advanced, resembled a friendly salutation, more than a hostile reception. + From the concurrent reports of these people, the Saxons learned that the + town had been deserted by the troops, and that the government had fled to + Budweiss. This unexpected and inexplicable absence of resistance excited + Arnheim’s distrust the more, as the speedy approach of the Silesian + succours was no secret to him, and as he knew that the Saxon army was too + indifferently provided with materials for undertaking a siege, and by far + too weak in numbers to attempt to take the place by storm. Apprehensive of + stratagem, he redoubled his vigilance; and he continued in this conviction + until Wallenstein’s house-steward, whom he discovered among the crowd, + confirmed to him this intelligence. “The town is ours without a blow!” + exclaimed he in astonishment to his officers, and immediately summoned it + by a trumpeter. + </p> + <p> + The citizens of Prague, thus shamefully abandoned by their defenders, had + long taken their resolution; all that they had to do was to secure their + properties and liberties by an advantageous capitulation. No sooner was + the treaty signed by the Saxon general, in his master’s name, than the + gates were opened, without farther opposition; and upon the 11th of + November, 1631, the army made their triumphal entry. The Elector soon + after followed in person, to receive the homage of those whom he had newly + taken under his protection; for it was only in the character of protector + that the three towns of Prague had surrendered to him. Their allegiance to + the Austrian monarchy was not to be dissolved by the step they had taken. + In proportion as the Papists’ apprehensions of reprisals on the part of + the Protestants had been exaggerated, so was their surprise great at the + moderation of the Elector, and the discipline of his troops. Field-Marshal + Arnheim plainly evinced, on this occasion, his respect for Wallenstein. + Not content with sparing his estates on his march, he now placed guards + over his palace, in Prague, to prevent the plunder of any of his effects. + The Roman Catholics of the town were allowed the fullest liberty of + conscience; and of all the churches they had wrested from the Protestants, + four only were now taken back from them. From this general indulgence, + none were excluded but the Jesuits, who were generally considered as the + authors of all past grievances, and thus banished the kingdom. + </p> + <p> + John George belied not the submission and dependence with which the terror + of the imperial name inspired him; nor did he indulge at Prague, in a + course of conduct which would assuredly have been pursued against himself + in Dresden, by imperial generals, such as Tilly or Wallenstein. He + carefully distinguished between the enemy with whom he was at war, and the + head of the Empire, to whom he owed obedience. He did not venture to touch + the household furniture of the latter, while, without scruple, he appropriated + and transported to Dresden the cannon of the former. He did not take up + his residence in the imperial palace, but the house of Lichtenstein; too + modest to use the apartments of one whom he had deprived of a kingdom. Had + this trait been related of a great man and a hero, it would irresistibly + excite our admiration; but the character of this prince leaves us in doubt + whether this moderation ought to be ascribed to a noble self-command, or + to the littleness of a weak mind, which even good fortune could not + embolden, and liberty itself could not strip of its habituated fetters. + </p> + <p> + The surrender of Prague, which was quickly followed by that of most of the + other towns, effected a great and sudden change in Bohemia. Many of the + Protestant nobility, who had hitherto been wandering about in misery, now + returned to their native country; and Count Thurn, the famous author of + the Bohemian insurrection, enjoyed the triumph of returning as a conqueror + to the scene of his crime and his condemnation. Over the very bridge where + the heads of his adherents, exposed to view, held out a fearful picture of + the fate which had threatened himself, he now made his triumphal entry; + and to remove these ghastly objects was his first care. The exiles again + took possession of their properties, without thinking of recompensing for + the purchase money the present possessors, who had mostly taken to flight. + Even though they had received a price for their estates, they seized on + every thing which had once been their own; and many had reason to rejoice + at the economy of the late possessors. The lands and cattle had greatly + improved in their hands; the apartments were now decorated with the most + costly furniture; the cellars, which had been left empty, were richly + filled; the stables supplied; the magazines stored with provisions. But + distrusting the constancy of that good fortune, which had so unexpectedly + smiled upon them, they hastened to get quit of these insecure possessions, + and to convert their immoveable into transferable property. + </p> + <p> + The presence of the Saxons inspired all the Protestants of the kingdom + with courage; and, both in the country and the capital, crowds flocked to + the newly opened Protestant churches. Many, whom fear alone had retained + in their adherence to Popery, now openly professed the new doctrine; and + many of the late converts to Roman Catholicism gladly renounced a + compulsory persuasion, to follow the earlier conviction of their + conscience. All the moderation of the new regency, could not restrain the + manifestation of that just displeasure, which this persecuted people felt + against their oppressors. They made a fearful and cruel use of their newly + recovered rights; and, in many parts of the kingdom, their hatred of the + religion which they had been compelled to profess, could be satiated only + by the blood of its adherents. + </p> + <p> + Meantime the succours which the imperial generals, Goetz and Tiefenbach, + were conducting from Silesia, had entered Bohemia, where they were joined + by some of Tilly’s regiments, from the Upper Palatinate. In order to + disperse them before they should receive any further reinforcement, + Arnheim advanced with part of his army from Prague, and made a vigorous + attack on their entrenchments near Limburg, on the Elbe. After a severe + action, not without great loss, he drove the enemy from their fortified + camp, and forced them, by his heavy fire, to recross the Elbe, and to + destroy the bridge which they had built over that river. Nevertheless, the + Imperialists obtained the advantage in several skirmishes, and the Croats + pushed their incursions to the very gates of Prague. Brilliant and + promising as the opening of the Bohemian campaign had been, the issue by + no means satisfied the expectations of Gustavus Adolphus. Instead of + vigorously following up their advantages, by forcing a passage to the + Swedish army through the conquered country, and then, with it, attacking + the imperial power in its centre, the Saxons weakened themselves in a war + of skirmishes, in which they were not always successful, while they lost + the time which should have been devoted to greater undertakings. But the + Elector’s subsequent conduct betrayed the motives which had prevented him + from pushing his advantage over the Emperor, and by consistent measures + promoting the plans of the King of Sweden. + </p> + <p> + The Emperor had now lost the greater part of Bohemia, and the Saxons were + advancing against Austria, while the Swedish monarch was rapidly moving to + the same point through Franconia, Swabia, and Bavaria. A long war had + exhausted the strength of the Austrian monarchy, wasted the country, and + diminished its armies. The renown of its victories was no more, as well as + the confidence inspired by constant success; its troops had lost the + obedience and discipline to which those of the Swedish monarch owed all + their superiority in the field. The confederates of the Emperor were + disarmed, or their fidelity shaken by the danger which threatened + themselves. Even Maximilian of Bavaria, Austria’s most powerful ally, + seemed disposed to yield to the seductive proposition of neutrality; while + his suspicious alliance with France had long been a subject of + apprehension to the Emperor. The bishops of Wurtzburg and Bamberg, the + Elector of Mentz, and the Duke of Lorraine, were either expelled from + their territories, or threatened with immediate attack; Treves had placed + itself under the protection of France. The bravery of the Hollanders gave + full employment to the Spanish arms in the Netherlands; while Gustavus had + driven them from the Rhine. Poland was still fettered by the truce which + subsisted between that country and Sweden. The Hungarian frontier was + threatened by the Transylvanian Prince, Ragotsky, a successor of Bethlen + Gabor, and the inheritor of his restless mind; while the Porte was making + great preparation to profit by the favourable conjuncture for aggression. + Most of the Protestant states, encouraged by their protector’s success, + were openly and actively declaring against the Emperor. All the resources + which had been obtained by the violent and oppressive extortions of Tilly + and Wallenstein were exhausted; all these depots, magazines, and + rallying-points, were now lost to the Emperor; and the war could no longer + be carried on as before at the cost of others. To complete his + embarrassment, a dangerous insurrection broke out in the territory of the + Ens, where the ill-timed religious zeal of the government had provoked the + Protestants to resistance; and thus fanaticism lit its torch within the + empire, while a foreign enemy was already on its frontier. After so long a + continuance of good fortune, such brilliant victories and extensive + conquests, such fruitless effusion of blood, the Emperor saw himself a + second time on the brink of that abyss, into which he was so near falling + at the commencement of his reign. If Bavaria should embrace the + neutrality; if Saxony should resist the tempting offers he had held out; + and France resolve to attack the Spanish power at the same time in the + Netherlands, in Italy and in Catalonia, the ruin of Austria would be + complete; the allied powers would divide its spoils, and the political + system of Germany would undergo a total change. + </p> + <p> + The chain of these disasters began with the battle of Breitenfeld, the + unfortunate issue of which plainly revealed the long decided decline of + the Austrian power, whose weakness had hitherto been concealed under the + dazzling glitter of a grand name. The chief cause of the Swedes’ + superiority in the field, was evidently to be ascribed to the unlimited + power of their leader, who concentrated in himself the whole strength of + his party; and, unfettered in his enterprises by any higher authority, was + complete master of every favourable opportunity, could control all his + means to the accomplishment of his ends, and was responsible to none but + himself. But since Wallenstein’s dismissal, and Tilly’s defeat, the very + reverse of this course was pursued by the Emperor and the League. The + generals wanted authority over their troops, and liberty of acting at + their discretion; the soldiers were deficient in discipline and obedience; + the scattered corps in combined operation; the states in attachment to the + cause; the leaders in harmony among themselves, in quickness to resolve, + and firmness to execute. What gave the Emperor’s enemy so decided an + advantage over him, was not so much their superior power, as their manner + of using it. The League and the Emperor did not want means, but a mind + capable of directing them with energy and effect. Even had Count Tilly not + lost his old renown, distrust of Bavaria would not allow the Emperor to + place the fate of Austria in the hands of one who had never concealed his + attachment to the Bavarian Elector. The urgent want which Ferdinand felt, + was for a general possessed of sufficient experience to form and to + command an army, and willing at the same time to dedicate his services, + with blind devotion, to the Austrian monarchy. + </p> + <p> + This choice now occupied the attention of the Emperor’s privy council, and + divided the opinions of its members. In order to oppose one monarch to + another, and by the presence of their sovereign to animate the courage of + the troops, Ferdinand, in the ardour of the moment, had offered himself to + be the leader of his army; but little trouble was required to overturn a + resolution which was the offspring of despair alone, and which yielded at + once to calm reflection. But the situation which his dignity, and the + duties of administration, prevented the Emperor from holding, might be + filled by his son, a youth of talents and bravery, and of whom the + subjects of Austria had already formed great expectations. Called by his + birth to the defence of a monarchy, of whose crowns he wore two already, + Ferdinand III., King of Hungary and Bohemia, united, with the natural + dignity of heir to the throne, the respect of the army, and the attachment + of the people, whose co-operation was indispensable to him in the conduct + of the war. None but the beloved heir to the crown could venture to impose + new burdens on a people already severely oppressed; his personal presence + with the army could alone suppress the pernicious jealousies of the + several leaders, and by the influence of his name, restore the neglected + discipline of the troops to its former rigour. If so young a leader was + devoid of the maturity of judgment, prudence, and military experience + which practice alone could impart, this deficiency might be supplied by a + judicious choice of counsellors and assistants, who, under the cover of + his name, might be vested with supreme authority. + </p> + <p> + But plausible as were the arguments with which a part of the ministry + supported this plan, it was met by difficulties not less serious, arising + from the distrust, perhaps even the jealousy, of the Emperor, and also + from the desperate state of affairs. How dangerous was it to entrust the + fate of the monarchy to a youth, who was himself in need of counsel and + support! How hazardous to oppose to the greatest general of his age, a + tyro, whose fitness for so important a post had never yet been tested by + experience; whose name, as yet unknown to fame, was far too powerless to + inspire a dispirited army with the assurance of future victory! What a new + burden on the country, to support the state a royal leader was required to + maintain, and which the prejudices of the age considered as inseparable + from his presence with the army! How serious a consideration for the + prince himself, to commence his political career, with an office which + must make him the scourge of his people, and the oppressor of the + territories which he was hereafter to rule. + </p> + <p> + But not only was a general to be found for the army; an army must also be + found for the general. Since the compulsory resignation of Wallenstein, + the Emperor had defended himself more by the assistance of Bavaria and the + League, than by his own armies; and it was this dependence on equivocal + allies, which he was endeavouring to escape, by the appointment of a + general of his own. But what possibility was there of raising an army out + of nothing, without the all-powerful aid of gold, and the inspiriting name + of a victorious commander; above all, an army which, by its discipline, + warlike spirit, and activity, should be fit to cope with the experienced + troops of the northern conqueror? In all Europe, there was but one man + equal to this, and that one had been mortally affronted. + </p> + <p> + The moment had at last arrived, when more than ordinary satisfaction was + to be done to the wounded pride of the Duke of Friedland. Fate itself had + been his avenger, and an unbroken chain of disasters, which had assailed + Austria from the day of his dismissal, had wrung from the Emperor the + humiliating confession, that with this general he had lost his right arm. + Every defeat of his troops opened afresh this wound; every town which he + lost, revived in the mind of the deceived monarch the memory of his own + weakness and ingratitude. It would have been well for him, if, in the + offended general, he had only lost a leader of his troops, and a defender + of his dominions; but he was destined to find in him an enemy, and the + most dangerous of all, since he was least armed against the stroke of + treason. + </p> + <p> + Removed from the theatre of war, and condemned to irksome inaction, while + his rivals gathered laurels on the field of glory, the haughty duke had + beheld these changes of fortune with affected composure, and concealed, + under a glittering and theatrical pomp, the dark designs of his restless + genius. Torn by burning passions within, while all without bespoke + calmness and indifference, he brooded over projects of ambition and + revenge, and slowly, but surely, advanced towards his end. All that he + owed to the Emperor was effaced from his mind; what he himself had done + for the Emperor was imprinted in burning characters on his memory. To his + insatiable thirst for power, the Emperor’s ingratitude was welcome, as it + seemed to tear in pieces the record of past favours, to absolve him from + every obligation towards his former benefactor. In the disguise of a + righteous retaliation, the projects dictated by his ambition now appeared + to him just and pure. In proportion as the external circle of his + operations was narrowed, the world of hope expanded before him, and his + dreamy imagination revelled in boundless projects, which, in any mind but + such as his, madness alone could have given birth to. His services had + raised him to the proudest height which it was possible for a man, by his + own efforts, to attain. Fortune had denied him nothing which the subject + and the citizen could lawfully enjoy. Till the moment of his dismissal, + his demands had met with no refusal, his ambition had met with no check; + but the blow which, at the diet of Ratisbon, humbled him, showed him the + difference between ORIGINAL and DEPUTED power, the distance between the + subject and his sovereign. Roused from the intoxication of his own + greatness by this sudden reverse of fortune, he compared the authority + which he had possessed, with that which had deprived him of it; and his + ambition marked the steps which it had yet to surmount upon the ladder of + fortune. From the moment he had so bitterly experienced the weight of + sovereign power, his efforts were directed to attain it for himself; the + wrong which he himself had suffered made him a robber. Had he not been + outraged by injustice, he might have obediently moved in his orbit round + the majesty of the throne, satisfied with the glory of being the brightest + of its satellites. It was only when violently forced from its sphere, that + his wandering star threw in disorder the system to which it belonged, and + came in destructive collision with its sun. + </p> + <p> + Gustavus Adolphus had overrun the north of Germany; one place after + another was lost; and at Leipzig, the flower of the Austrian army had + fallen. The intelligence of this defeat soon reached the ears of + Wallenstein, who, in the retired obscurity of a private station in Prague, + contemplated from a calm distance the tumult of war. The news, which + filled the breasts of the Roman Catholics with dismay, announced to him + the return of greatness and good fortune. For him was Gustavus Adolphus + labouring. Scarce had the king begun to gain reputation by his exploits, + when Wallenstein lost not a moment to court his friendship, and to make + common cause with this successful enemy of Austria. The banished Count + Thurn, who had long entered the service of Sweden, undertook to convey + Wallenstein’s congratulations to the king, and to invite him to a close + alliance with the duke. Wallenstein required 15,000 men from the king; and + with these, and the troops he himself engaged to raise, he undertook to + conquer Bohemia and Moravia, to surprise Vienna, and drive his master, the + Emperor, before him into Italy. Welcome as was this unexpected + proposition, its extravagant promises were naturally calculated to excite + suspicion. Gustavus Adolphus was too good a judge of merit to reject with + coldness the offers of one who might be so important a friend. But when + Wallenstein, encouraged by the favourable reception of his first message, + renewed it after the battle of Breitenfeld, and pressed for a decisive + answer, the prudent monarch hesitated to trust his reputation to the + chimerical projects of so daring an adventurer, and to commit so large a + force to the honesty of a man who felt no shame in openly avowing himself + a traitor. He excused himself, therefore, on the plea of the weakness of + his army which, if diminished by so large a detachment, would certainly + suffer in its march through the empire; and thus, perhaps, by excess of + caution, lost an opportunity of putting an immediate end to the war. He + afterwards endeavoured to renew the negociation; but the favourable moment + was past, and Wallenstein’s offended pride never forgave the first + neglect. + </p> + <p> + But the king’s hesitation, perhaps, only accelerated the breach, which + their characters made inevitable sooner or later. Both framed by nature to + give laws, not to receive them, they could not long have co-operated in an + enterprise, which eminently demanded mutual submission and sacrifices. + Wallenstein was NOTHING where he was not EVERYTHING; he must either act + with unlimited power, or not at all. So cordially, too, did Gustavus + dislike control, that he had almost renounced his advantageous alliance + with France, because it threatened to fetter his own independent judgment. + Wallenstein was lost to a party, if he could not lead; the latter was, if + possible, still less disposed to obey the instructions of another. If the + pretensions of a rival would be so irksome to the Duke of Friedland, in + the conduct of combined operations, in the division of the spoil they + would be insupportable. The proud monarch might condescend to accept the + assistance of a rebellious subject against the Emperor, and to reward his + valuable services with regal munificence; but he never could so far lose + sight of his own dignity, and the majesty of royalty, as to bestow the + recompense which the extravagant ambition of Wallenstein demanded; and + requite an act of treason, however useful, with a crown. In him, + therefore, even if all Europe should tacitly acquiesce, Wallenstein had + reason to expect the most decided and formidable opponent to his views on + the Bohemian crown; and in all Europe he was the only one who could + enforce his opposition. Constituted Dictator in Germany by Wallenstein + himself, he might turn his arms against him, and consider himself bound by + no obligations to one who was himself a traitor. There was no room for a + Wallenstein under such an ally; and it was, apparently, this conviction, + and not any supposed designs upon the imperial throne, that he alluded to, + when, after the death of the King of Sweden, he exclaimed, “It is well for + him and me that he is gone. The German Empire does not require two such + leaders.” + </p> + <p> + His first scheme of revenge on the house of Austria had indeed failed; but + the purpose itself remained unalterable; the choice of means alone was + changed. What he had failed in effecting with the King of Sweden, he hoped + to obtain with less difficulty and more advantage from the Elector of + Saxony. Him he was as certain of being able to bend to his views, as he + had always been doubtful of Gustavus Adolphus. Having always maintained a + good understanding with his old friend Arnheim, he now made use of him to + bring about an alliance with Saxony, by which he hoped to render himself + equally formidable to the Emperor and the King of Sweden. He had reason to + expect that a scheme, which, if successful, would deprive the Swedish + monarch of his influence in Germany, would be welcomed by the Elector of + Saxony, who he knew was jealous of the power and offended at the lofty + pretensions of Gustavus Adolphus. If he succeeded in separating Saxony + from the Swedish alliance, and in establishing, conjointly with that + power, a third party in the Empire, the fate of the war would be placed in + his hand; and by this single step he would succeed in gratifying his + revenge against the Emperor, revenging the neglect of the Swedish monarch, + and on the ruin of both, raising the edifice of his own greatness. + </p> + <p> + But whatever course he might follow in the prosecution of his designs, he + could not carry them into effect without an army entirely devoted to him. + Such a force could not be secretly raised without its coming to the + knowledge of the imperial court, where it would naturally excite + suspicion, and thus frustrate his design in the very outset. From the + army, too, the rebellious purposes for which it was destined, must be + concealed till the very moment of execution, since it could scarcely be + expected that they would at once be prepared to listen to the voice of a + traitor, and serve against their legitimate sovereign. Wallenstein, + therefore, must raise it publicly and in name of the Emperor, and be + placed at its head, with unlimited authority, by the Emperor himself. But + how could this be accomplished, otherwise than by his being appointed to + the command of the army, and entrusted with full powers to conduct the + war. Yet neither his pride, nor his interest, permitted him to sue in + person for this post, and as a suppliant to accept from the favour of the + Emperor a limited power, when an unlimited authority might be extorted + from his fears. In order to make himself the master of the terms on which + he would resume the command of the army, his course was to wait until the + post should be forced upon him. This was the advice he received from + Arnheim, and this the end for which he laboured with profound policy and + restless activity. + </p> + <p> + Convinced that extreme necessity would alone conquer the Emperor’s + irresolution, and render powerless the opposition of his bitter enemies, + Bavaria and Spain, he henceforth occupied himself in promoting the success + of the enemy, and in increasing the embarrassments of his master. It was + apparently by his instigation and advice, that the Saxons, when on the + route to Lusatia and Silesia, had turned their march towards Bohemia, and + overrun that defenceless kingdom, where their rapid conquests was partly + the result of his measures. By the fears which he affected to entertain, + he paralyzed every effort at resistance; and his precipitate retreat + caused the delivery of the capital to the enemy. At a conference with the + Saxon general, which was held at Kaunitz under the pretext of negociating + for a peace, the seal was put to the conspiracy, and the conquest of + Bohemia was the first fruits of this mutual understanding. While + Wallenstein was thus personally endeavouring to heighten the perplexities + of Austria, and while the rapid movements of the Swedes upon the Rhine + effectually promoted his designs, his friends and bribed adherents in + Vienna uttered loud complaints of the public calamities, and represented + the dismissal of the general as the sole cause of all these misfortunes. + “Had Wallenstein commanded, matters would never have come to this,” + exclaimed a thousand voices; while their opinions found supporters, even + in the Emperor’s privy council. + </p> + <p> + Their repeated remonstrances were not needed to convince the embarrassed + Emperor of his general’s merits, and of his own error. His dependence on + Bavaria and the League had soon become insupportable; but hitherto this + dependence permitted him not to show his distrust, or irritate the Elector + by the recall of Wallenstein. But now when his necessities grew every day + more pressing, and the weakness of Bavaria more apparent, he could no + longer hesitate to listen to the friends of the duke, and to consider + their overtures for his restoration to command. The immense riches + Wallenstein possessed, the universal reputation he enjoyed, the rapidity + with which six years before he had assembled an army of 40,000 men, the + little expense at which he had maintained this formidable force, the + actions he had performed at its head, and lastly, the zeal and fidelity he + had displayed for his master’s honour, still lived in the Emperor’s + recollection, and made Wallenstein seem to him the ablest instrument to + restore the balance between the belligerent powers, to save Austria, and + preserve the Catholic religion. However sensibly the imperial pride might + feel the humiliation, in being forced to make so unequivocal an admission + of past errors and present necessity; however painful it was to descend to + humble entreaties, from the height of imperial command; however doubtful + the fidelity of so deeply injured and implacable a character; however + loudly and urgently the Spanish minister and the Elector of Bavaria + protested against this step, the immediate pressure of necessity finally + overcame every other consideration, and the friends of the duke were + empowered to consult him on the subject, and to hold out the prospect of + his restoration. + </p> + <p> + Informed of all that was transacted in the Emperor’s cabinet to his + advantage, Wallenstein possessed sufficient self-command to conceal his + inward triumph and to assume the mask of indifference. The moment of + vengeance was at last come, and his proud heart exulted in the prospect of + repaying with interest the injuries of the Emperor. With artful eloquence, + he expatiated upon the happy tranquillity of a private station, which had + blessed him since his retirement from a political stage. Too long, he + said, had he tasted the pleasures of ease and independence, to sacrifice + to the vain phantom of glory, the uncertain favour of princes. All his + desire of power and distinction were extinct: tranquillity and repose were + now the sole object of his wishes. The better to conceal his real + impatience, he declined the Emperor’s invitation to the court, but at the + same time, to facilitate the negociations, came to Znaim in Moravia. + </p> + <p> + At first, it was proposed to limit the authority to be intrusted to him, + by the presence of a superior, in order, by this expedient, to silence the + objections of the Elector of Bavaria. The imperial deputies, Questenberg + and Werdenberg, who, as old friends of the duke, had been employed in this + delicate mission, were instructed to propose that the King of Hungary + should remain with the army, and learn the art of war under Wallenstein. + But the very mention of his name threatened to put a period to the whole + negociation. “No! never,” exclaimed Wallenstein, “will I submit to a + colleague in my office. No—not even if it were God himself, with + whom I should have to share my command.” But even when this obnoxious + point was given up, Prince Eggenberg, the Emperor’s minister and + favourite, who had always been the steady friend and zealous champion of + Wallenstein, and was therefore expressly sent to him, exhausted his + eloquence in vain to overcome the pretended reluctance of the duke. “The + Emperor,” he admitted, “had, in Wallenstein, thrown away the most costly + jewel in his crown: but unwillingly and compulsorily only had he taken + this step, which he had since deeply repented of; while his esteem for the + duke had remained unaltered, his favour for him undiminished. Of these + sentiments he now gave the most decisive proof, by reposing unlimited + confidence in his fidelity and capacity to repair the mistakes of his + predecessors, and to change the whole aspect of affairs. It would be great + and noble to sacrifice his just indignation to the good of his country; + dignified and worthy of him to refute the evil calumny of his enemies by + the double warmth of his zeal. This victory over himself,” concluded the + prince, “would crown his other unparalleled services to the empire, and + render him the greatest man of his age.” + </p> + <p> + These humiliating confessions, and flattering assurances, seemed at last + to disarm the anger of the duke; but not before he had disburdened his + heart of his reproaches against the Emperor, pompously dwelt upon his own + services, and humbled to the utmost the monarch who solicited his + assistance, did he condescend to listen to the attractive proposals of the + minister. As if he yielded entirely to the force of their arguments, he + condescended with a haughty reluctance to that which was the most ardent + wish of his heart; and deigned to favour the ambassadors with a ray of + hope. But far from putting an end to the Emperor’s embarrassments, by + giving at once a full and unconditional consent, he only acceded to a part + of his demands, that he might exalt the value of that which still + remained, and was of most importance. He accepted the command, but only + for three months; merely for the purpose of raising, but not of leading, + an army. He wished only to show his power and ability in its organization, + and to display before the eyes of the Emperor, the greatness of that + assistance, which he still retained in his hands. Convinced that an army + raised by his name alone, would, if deprived of its creator, soon sink + again into nothing, he intended it to serve only as a decoy to draw more + important concessions from his master. And yet Ferdinand congratulated + himself, even in having gained so much as he had. + </p> + <p> + Wallenstein did not long delay to fulfil those promises which all Germany + regarded as chimerical, and which Gustavus Adolphus had considered as + extravagant. But the foundation for the present enterprise had been long + laid, and he now only put in motion the machinery, which many years had + been prepared for the purpose. Scarcely had the news spread of + Wallenstein’s levies, when, from every quarter of the Austrian monarchy, + crowds of soldiers repaired to try their fortunes under this experienced + general. Many, who had before fought under his standards, had been + admiring eye-witnesses of his great actions, and experienced his + magnanimity, came forward from their retirement, to share with him a + second time both booty and glory. The greatness of the pay he promised + attracted thousands, and the plentiful supplies the soldier was likely to + enjoy at the cost of the peasant, was to the latter an irresistible + inducement to embrace the military life at once, rather than be the victim + of its oppression. All the Austrian provinces were compelled to assist in + the equipment. No class was exempt from taxation—no dignity or + privilege from capitation. The Spanish court, as well as the King of + Hungary, agreed to contribute a considerable sum. The ministers made large + presents, while Wallenstein himself advanced 200,000 dollars from his own + income to hasten the armament. The poorer officers he supported out of his + own revenues; and, by his own example, by brilliant promotions, and still + more brilliant promises, he induced all, who were able, to raise troops at + their own expense. Whoever raised a corps at his own cost was to be its + commander. In the appointment of officers, religion made no difference. + Riches, bravery and experience were more regarded than creed. By this + uniform treatment of different religious sects, and still more by his + express declaration, that his present levy had nothing to do with + religion, the Protestant subjects of the empire were tranquillized, and + reconciled to bear their share of the public burdens. The duke, at the + same time, did not omit to treat, in his own name, with foreign states for + men and money. He prevailed on the Duke of Lorraine, a second time, to + espouse the cause of the Emperor. Poland was urged to supply him with + Cossacks, and Italy with warlike necessaries. Before the three months were + expired, the army which was assembled in Moravia, amounted to no less than + 40,000 men, chiefly drawn from the unconquered parts of Bohemia, from + Moravia, Silesia, and the German provinces of the House of Austria. What + to every one had appeared impracticable, Wallenstein, to the astonishment + of all Europe, had in a short time effected. The charm of his name, his + treasures, and his genius, had assembled thousands in arms, where before + Austria had only looked for hundreds. Furnished, even to superfluity, with + all necessaries, commanded by experienced officers, and inflamed by + enthusiasm which assured itself of victory, this newly created army only + awaited the signal of their leader to show themselves, by the bravery of + their deeds, worthy of his choice. + </p> + <p> + The duke had fulfilled his promise, and the troops were ready to take the + field; he then retired, and left to the Emperor to choose a commander. But + it would have been as easy to raise a second army like the first, as to + find any other commander for it than Wallenstein. This promising army, the + last hope of the Emperor, was nothing but an illusion, as soon as the + charm was dissolved which had called it into existence; by Wallenstein it + had been raised, and, without him, it sank like a creation of magic into + its original nothingness. Its officers were either bound to him as his + debtors, or, as his creditors, closely connected with his interests, and + the preservation of his power. The regiments he had entrusted to his own + relations, creatures, and favourites. He, and he alone, could discharge to + the troops the extravagant promises by which they had been lured into his + service. His pledged word was the only security on which their bold + expectations rested; a blind reliance on his omnipotence, the only tie + which linked together in one common life and soul the various impulses of + their zeal. There was an end of the good fortune of each individual, if he + retired, who alone was the voucher of its fulfilment. + </p> + <p> + However little Wallenstein was serious in his refusal, he successfully + employed this means to terrify the Emperor into consenting to his + extravagant conditions. The progress of the enemy every day increased the + pressure of the Emperor’s difficulties, while the remedy was also close at + hand; a word from him might terminate the general embarrassment. Prince + Eggenberg at length received orders, for the third and last time, at any + cost and sacrifice, to induce his friend, Wallenstein, to accept the + command. + </p> + <p> + He found him at Znaim in Moravia, pompously surrounded by the troops, the + possession of which he made the Emperor so earnestly to long for. As a + suppliant did the haughty subject receive the deputy of his sovereign. “He + never could trust,” he said, “to a restoration to command, which he owed + to the Emperor’s necessities, and not to his sense of justice. He was now + courted, because the danger had reached its height, and safety was hoped + for from his arm only; but his successful services would soon cause the + servant to be forgotten, and the return of security would bring back + renewed ingratitude. If he deceived the expectations formed of him, his + long earned renown would be forfeited; even if he fulfilled them, his + repose and happiness must be sacrificed. Soon would envy be excited anew, + and the dependent monarch would not hesitate, a second time, to make an + offering of convenience to a servant whom he could now dispense with. + Better for him at once, and voluntarily, to resign a post from which + sooner or later the intrigues of his enemies would expel him. Security and + content were to be found in the bosom of private life; and nothing but the + wish to oblige the Emperor had induced him, reluctantly enough, to + relinquish for a time his blissful repose.” + </p> + <p> + Tired of this long farce, the minister at last assumed a serious tone, and + threatened the obstinate duke with the Emperor’s resentment, if he + persisted in his refusal. “Low enough had the imperial dignity,” he added, + “stooped already; and yet, instead of exciting his magnanimity by its + condescension, had only flattered his pride and increased his obstinacy. + If this sacrifice had been made in vain, he would not answer, but that the + suppliant might be converted into the sovereign, and that the monarch + might not avenge his injured dignity on his rebellious subject. However + greatly Ferdinand may have erred, the Emperor at least had a claim to + obedience; the man might be mistaken, but the monarch could not confess + his error. If the Duke of Friedland had suffered by an unjust decree, he + might yet be recompensed for all his losses; the wound which it had itself + inflicted, the hand of Majesty might heal. If he asked security for his + person and his dignities, the Emperor’s equity would refuse him no + reasonable demand. Majesty contemned, admitted not of any atonement; + disobedience to its commands cancelled the most brilliant services. The + Emperor required his services, and as emperor he demanded them. Whatever + price Wallenstein might set upon them, the Emperor would readily agree to; + but he demanded obedience, or the weight of his indignation should crush + the refractory servant.” + </p> + <p> + Wallenstein, whose extensive possessions within the Austrian monarchy were + momentarily exposed to the power of the Emperor, was keenly sensible that + this was no idle threat; yet it was not fear that at last overcame his + affected reluctance. This imperious tone of itself, was to his mind a + plain proof of the weakness and despair which dictated it, while the + Emperor’s readiness to yield all his demands, convinced him that he had + attained the summit of his wishes. He now made a show of yielding to the + persuasions of Eggenberg; and left him, in order to write down the + conditions on which he accepted the command. + </p> + <p> + Not without apprehension, did the minister receive the writing, in which + the proudest of subjects had prescribed laws to the proudest of + sovereigns. But however little confidence he had in the moderation of his + friend, the extravagant contents of his writing surpassed even his worst + expectations. Wallenstein required the uncontrolled command over all the + German armies of Austria and Spain, with unlimited powers to reward and + punish. Neither the King of Hungary, nor the Emperor himself, were to + appear in the army, still less to exercise any act of authority over it. + No commission in the army, no pension or letter of grace, was to be + granted by the Emperor without Wallenstein’s approval. All the conquests + and confiscations that should take place, were to be placed entirely at + Wallenstein’s disposal, to the exclusion of every other tribunal. For his + ordinary pay, an imperial hereditary estate was to be assigned him, with + another of the conquered estates within the empire for his extraordinary + expenses. Every Austrian province was to be opened to him if he required + it in case of retreat. He farther demanded the assurance of the possession + of the Duchy of Mecklenburg, in the event of a future peace; and a formal + and timely intimation, if it should be deemed necessary a second time to + deprive him of the command. + </p> + <p> + In vain the minister entreated him to moderate his demands, which, if + granted, would deprive the Emperor of all authority over his own troops, + and make him absolutely dependent on his general. The value placed on his + services had been too plainly manifested to prevent him dictating the + price at which they were to be purchased. If the pressure of circumstances + compelled the Emperor to grant these demands, it was more than a mere + feeling of haughtiness and desire of revenge which induced the duke to + make them. His plans of rebellion were formed, to their success, every one + of the conditions for which Wallenstein stipulated in this treaty with the + court, was indispensable. Those plans required that the Emperor should be + deprived of all authority in Germany, and be placed at the mercy of his + general; and this object would be attained, the moment Ferdinand + subscribed the required conditions. The use which Wallenstein intended to + make of his army, (widely different indeed from that for which it was + entrusted to him,) brooked not of a divided power, and still less of an + authority superior to his own. To be the sole master of the will of his + troops, he must also be the sole master of their destinies; insensibly to + supplant his sovereign, and to transfer permanently to his own person the + rights of sovereignty, which were only lent to him for a time by a higher + authority, he must cautiously keep the latter out of the view of the army. + Hence his obstinate refusal to allow any prince of the house of Austria to + be present with the army. The liberty of free disposal of all the + conquered and confiscated estates in the empire, would also afford him + fearful means of purchasing dependents and instruments of his plans, and + of acting the dictator in Germany more absolutely than ever any Emperor + did in time of peace. By the right to use any of the Austrian provinces as + a place of refuge, in case of need, he had full power to hold the Emperor + a prisoner by means of his own forces, and within his own dominions; to + exhaust the strength and resources of these countries, and to undermine + the power of Austria in its very foundation. + </p> + <p> + Whatever might be the issue, he had equally secured his own advantage, by + the conditions he had extorted from the Emperor. If circumstances proved + favourable to his daring project, this treaty with the Emperor facilitated + its execution; if on the contrary, the course of things ran counter to it, + it would at least afford him a brilliant compensation for the failure of + his plans. But how could he consider an agreement valid, which was + extorted from his sovereign, and based upon treason? How could he hope to + bind the Emperor by a written agreement, in the face of a law which + condemned to death every one who should have the presumption to impose + conditions upon him? But this criminal was the most indispensable man in + the empire, and Ferdinand, well practised in dissimulation, granted him + for the present all he required. + </p> + <p> + At last, then, the imperial army had found a commander-in-chief worthy of + the name. Every other authority in the army, even that of the Emperor + himself, ceased from the moment Wallenstein assumed the commander’s baton, + and every act was invalid which did not proceed from him. From the banks + of the Danube, to those of the Weser and the Oder, was felt the + life-giving dawning of this new star; a new spirit seemed to inspire the + troops of the emperor, a new epoch of the war began. The Papists form + fresh hopes, the Protestant beholds with anxiety the changed course of + affairs. + </p> + <p> + The greater the price at which the services of the new general had been + purchased, the greater justly were the expectations from those which the + court of the Emperor entertained. But the duke was in no hurry to fulfil + these expectations. Already in the vicinity of Bohemia, and at the head of + a formidable force, he had but to show himself there, in order to + overpower the exhausted force of the Saxons, and brilliantly to commence + his new career by the reconquest of that kingdom. But, contented with + harassing the enemy with indecisive skirmishes of his Croats, he abandoned + the best part of that kingdom to be plundered, and moved calmly forward in + pursuit of his own selfish plans. His design was, not to conquer the + Saxons, but to unite with them. Exclusively occupied with this important + object, he remained inactive in the hope of conquering more surely by + means of negociation. He left no expedient untried, to detach this prince + from the Swedish alliance; and Ferdinand himself, ever inclined to an + accommodation with this prince, approved of this proceeding. But the great + debt which Saxony owed to Sweden, was as yet too freshly remembered to + allow of such an act of perfidy; and even had the Elector been disposed to + yield to the temptation, the equivocal character of Wallenstein, and the + bad character of Austrian policy, precluded any reliance in the integrity + of its promises. Notorious already as a treacherous statesman, he met not + with faith upon the very occasion when perhaps he intended to act + honestly; and, moreover, was denied, by circumstances, the opportunity of + proving the sincerity of his intentions, by the disclosure of his real + motives. + </p> + <p> + He, therefore, unwillingly resolved to extort, by force of arms, what he + could not obtain by negociation. Suddenly assembling his troops, he + appeared before Prague ere the Saxons had time to advance to its relief. + After a short resistance, the treachery of some Capuchins opens the gates + to one of his regiments; and the garrison, who had taken refuge in the + citadel, soon laid down their arms upon disgraceful conditions. Master of + the capital, he hoped to carry on more successfully his negociations at + the Saxon court; but even while he was renewing his proposals to Arnheim, + he did not hesitate to give them weight by striking a decisive blow. He + hastened to seize the narrow passes between Aussig and Pirna, with a view + of cutting off the retreat of the Saxons into their own country; but the + rapidity of Arnheim’s operations fortunately extricated them from the + danger. After the retreat of this general, Egra and Leutmeritz, the last + strongholds of the Saxons, surrendered to the conqueror: and the whole + kingdom was restored to its legitimate sovereign, in less time than it had + been lost. + </p> + <p> + Wallenstein, less occupied with the interests of his master, than with the + furtherance of his own plans, now purposed to carry the war into Saxony, + and by ravaging his territories, compel the Elector to enter into a + private treaty with the Emperor, or rather with himself. But, however + little accustomed he was to make his will bend to circumstances, he now + perceived the necessity of postponing his favourite scheme for a time, to + a more pressing emergency. While he was driving the Saxons from Bohemia, + Gustavus Adolphus had been gaining the victories, already detailed, on the + Rhine and the Danube, and carried the war through Franconia and Swabia, to + the frontiers of Bavaria. Maximilian, defeated on the Lech, and deprived + by death of Count Tilly, his best support, urgently solicited the Emperor + to send with all speed the Duke of Friedland to his assistance, from + Bohemia, and by the defence of Bavaria, to avert the danger from Austria + itself. He also made the same request to Wallenstein, and entreated him, + till he could himself come with the main force, to despatch in the mean + time a few regiments to his aid. Ferdinand seconded the request with all + his influence, and one messenger after another was sent to Wallenstein, + urging him to move towards the Danube. + </p> + <p> + It now appeared how completely the Emperor had sacrificed his authority, + in surrendering to another the supreme command of his troops. Indifferent + to Maximilian’s entreaties, and deaf to the Emperor’s repeated commands, + Wallenstein remained inactive in Bohemia, and abandoned the Elector to his + fate. The remembrance of the evil service which Maximilian had rendered + him with the Emperor, at the Diet at Ratisbon, was deeply engraved on the + implacable mind of the duke, and the Elector’s late attempts to prevent + his reinstatement, were no secret to him. The moment of revenging this + affront had now arrived, and Maximilian was doomed to pay dearly for his + folly, in provoking the most revengeful of men. Wallenstein maintained, + that Bohemia ought not to be left exposed, and that Austria could not be + better protected, than by allowing the Swedish army to waste its strength + before the Bavarian fortress. Thus, by the arm of the Swedes, he chastised + his enemy; and while one place after another fell into their hands, he + allowed the Elector vainly to await his arrival in Ratisbon. It was only + when the complete subjugation of Bohemia left him without excuse, and the + conquests of Gustavus Adolphus in Bavaria threatened Austria itself, that + he yielded to the pressing entreaties of the Elector and the Emperor, and + determined to effect the long-expected union with the former; an event, + which, according to the general anticipation of the Roman Catholics, would + decide the fate of the campaign. + </p> + <p> + Gustavus Adolphus, too weak in numbers to cope even with Wallenstein’s + force alone, naturally dreaded the junction of such powerful armies, and + the little energy he used to prevent it, was the occasion of great + surprise. Apparently he reckoned too much on the hatred which alienated + the leaders, and seemed to render their effectual co-operation improbable; + when the event contradicted his views, it was too late to repair his + error. On the first certain intelligence he received of their designs, he + hastened to the Upper Palatinate, for the purpose of intercepting the + Elector: but the latter had already arrived there, and the junction had + been effected at Egra. + </p> + <p> + This frontier town had been chosen by Wallenstein, for the scene of his + triumph over his proud rival. Not content with having seen him, as it + were, a suppliant at his feet, he imposed upon him the hard condition of + leaving his territories in his rear exposed to the enemy, and declaring by + this long march to meet him, the necessity and distress to which he was + reduced. Even to this humiliation, the haughty prince patiently submitted. + It had cost him a severe struggle to ask for protection of the man who, if + his own wishes had been consulted, would never have had the power of + granting it: but having once made up his mind to it, he was ready to bear + all the annoyances which were inseparable from that resolve, and + sufficiently master of himself to put up with petty grievances, when an + important end was in view. + </p> + <p> + But whatever pains it had cost to effect this junction, it was equally + difficult to settle the conditions on which it was to be maintained. The + united army must be placed under the command of one individual, if any + object was to be gained by the union, and each general was equally averse + to yield to the superior authority of the other. If Maximilian rested his + claim on his electoral dignity, the nobleness of his descent, and his + influence in the empire, Wallenstein’s military renown, and the unlimited + command conferred on him by the Emperor, gave an equally strong title to + it. If it was deeply humiliating to the pride of the former to serve under + an imperial subject, the idea of imposing laws on so imperious a spirit, + flattered in the same degree the haughtiness of Wallenstein. An obstinate + dispute ensued, which, however, terminated in a mutual compromise to + Wallenstein’s advantage. To him was assigned the unlimited command of both + armies, particularly in battle, while the Elector was deprived of all + power of altering the order of battle, or even the route of the army. He + retained only the bare right of punishing and rewarding his own troops, + and the free use of these, when not acting in conjunction with the + Imperialists. + </p> + <p> + After these preliminaries were settled, the two generals at last ventured + upon an interview; but not until they had mutually promised to bury the + past in oblivion, and all the outward formalities of a reconciliation had + been settled. According to agreement, they publicly embraced in the sight + of their troops, and made mutual professions of friendship, while in + reality the hearts of both were overflowing with malice. Maximilian, well + versed in dissimulation, had sufficient command over himself, not to + betray in a single feature his real feelings; but a malicious triumph + sparkled in the eyes of Wallenstein, and the constraint which was visible + in all his movements, betrayed the violence of the emotion which + overpowered his proud soul. + </p> + <p> + The combined Imperial and Bavarian armies amounted to nearly 60,000 men, + chiefly veterans. Before this force, the King of Sweden was not in a + condition to keep the field. As his attempt to prevent their junction had + failed, he commenced a rapid retreat into Franconia, and awaited there for + some decisive movement on the part of the enemy, in order to form his own + plans. The position of the combined armies between the frontiers of Saxony + and Bavaria, left it for some time doubtful whether they would remove the + war into the former, or endeavour to drive the Swedes from the Danube, and + deliver Bavaria. Saxony had been stripped of troops by Arnheim, who was + pursuing his conquests in Silesia; not without a secret design, it was + generally supposed, of favouring the entrance of the Duke of Friedland + into that electorate, and of thus driving the irresolute John George into + peace with the Emperor. Gustavus Adolphus himself, fully persuaded that + Wallenstein’s views were directed against Saxony, hastily despatched a + strong reinforcement to the assistance of his confederate, with the + intention, as soon as circumstances would allow, of following with the + main body. But the movements of Wallenstein’s army soon led him to suspect + that he himself was the object of attack; and the Duke’s march through the + Upper Palatinate, placed the matter beyond a doubt. The question now was, + how to provide for his own security, and the prize was no longer his + supremacy, but his very existence. His fertile genius must now supply the + means, not of conquest, but of preservation. The approach of the enemy had + surprised him before he had time to concentrate his troops, which were + scattered all over Germany, or to summon his allies to his aid. Too weak + to meet the enemy in the field, he had no choice left, but either to throw + himself into Nuremberg, and run the risk of being shut up in its walls, or + to sacrifice that city, and await a reinforcement under the cannon of + Donauwerth. Indifferent to danger or difficulty, while he obeyed the call + of humanity or honour, he chose the first without hesitation, firmly + resolved to bury himself with his whole army under the ruins of Nuremberg, + rather than to purchase his own safety by the sacrifice of his + confederates. + </p> + <p> + Measures were immediately taken to surround the city and suburbs with + redoubts, and to form an entrenched camp. Several thousand workmen + immediately commenced this extensive work, and an heroic determination to + hazard life and property in the common cause, animated the inhabitants of + Nuremberg. A trench, eight feet deep and twelve broad, surrounded the + whole fortification; the lines were defended by redoubts and batteries, + the gates by half moons. The river Pegnitz, which flows through Nuremberg, + divided the whole camp into two semicircles, whose communication was + secured by several bridges. About three hundred pieces of cannon defended + the town-walls and the intrenchments. The peasantry from the neighbouring + villages, and the inhabitants of Nuremberg, assisted the Swedish soldiers + so zealously, that on the seventh day the army was able to enter the camp, + and, in a fortnight, this great work was completed. + </p> + <p> + While these operations were carried on without the walls, the magistrates + of Nuremberg were busily occupied in filling the magazines with provisions + and ammunition for a long siege. Measures were taken, at the same time, to + secure the health of the inhabitants, which was likely to be endangered by + the conflux of so many people; cleanliness was enforced by the strictest + regulations. In order, if necessary, to support the King, the youth of the + city were embodied and trained to arms, the militia of the town + considerably reinforced, and a new regiment raised, consisting of + four-and-twenty names, according to the letters of the alphabet. Gustavus + had, in the mean time, called to his assistance his allies, Duke William + of Weimar, and the Landgrave of Hesse Cassel; and ordered his generals on + the Rhine, in Thuringia and Lower Saxony, to commence their march + immediately, and join him with their troops in Nuremberg. His army, which + was encamped within the lines, did not amount to more than 16,000 men, + scarcely a third of the enemy. + </p> + <p> + The Imperialists had, in the mean time, by slow marches, advanced to + Neumark, where Wallenstein made a general review. At the sight of this + formidable force, he could not refrain from indulging in a childish boast: + “In four days,” said he, “it will be shown whether I or the King of Sweden + is to be master of the world.” Yet, notwithstanding his superiority, he + did nothing to fulfil his promise; and even let slip the opportunity of + crushing his enemy, when the latter had the hardihood to leave his lines + to meet him. “Battles enough have been fought,” was his answer to those + who advised him to attack the King, “it is now time to try another + method.” Wallenstein’s well-founded reputation required not any of those + rash enterprises on which younger soldiers rush, in the hope of gaining a + name. Satisfied that the enemy’s despair would dearly sell a victory, + while a defeat would irretrievably ruin the Emperor’s affairs, he resolved + to wear out the ardour of his opponent by a tedious blockade, and by thus + depriving him of every opportunity of availing himself of his impetuous + bravery, take from him the very advantage which had hitherto rendered him + invincible. Without making any attack, therefore, he erected a strong + fortified camp on the other side of the Pegnitz, and opposite Nuremberg; + and, by this well chosen position, cut off from the city and the camp of + Gustavus all supplies from Franconia, Swabia, and Thuringia. Thus he held + in siege at once the city and the King, and flattered himself with the + hope of slowly, but surely, wearing out by famine and pestilence the + courage of his opponent whom he had no wish to encounter in the field. + </p> + <p> + Little aware, however, of the resources and the strength of his adversary, + Wallenstein had not taken sufficient precautions to avert from himself the + fate he was designing for others. From the whole of the neighbouring + country, the peasantry had fled with their property; and what little + provision remained, must be obstinately contested with the Swedes. The + King spared the magazines within the town, as long as it was possible to + provision his army from without; and these forays produced constant + skirmishes between the Croats and the Swedish cavalry, of which the + surrounding country exhibited the most melancholy traces. The necessaries + of life must be obtained sword in hand; and the foraging parties could not + venture out without a numerous escort. And when this supply failed, the + town opened its magazines to the King, but Wallenstein had to support his + troops from a distance. A large convoy from Bavaria was on its way to him, + with an escort of a thousand men. Gustavus Adolphus having received + intelligence of its approach, immediately sent out a regiment of cavalry + to intercept it; and the darkness of the night favoured the enterprise. + The whole convoy, with the town in which it was, fell into the hands of + the Swedes; the Imperial escort was cut to pieces; about 1,200 cattle + carried off; and a thousand waggons, loaded with bread, which could not be + brought away, were set on fire. Seven regiments, which Wallenstein had + sent forward to Altdorp to cover the entrance of the long and anxiously + expected convoy, were attacked by the King, who had, in like manner, + advanced to cover the retreat of his cavalry, and routed after an + obstinate action, being driven back into the Imperial camp, with the loss + of 400 men. So many checks and difficulties, and so firm and unexpected a + resistance on the part of the King, made the Duke of Friedland repent that + he had declined to hazard a battle. The strength of the Swedish camp + rendered an attack impracticable; and the armed youth of Nuremberg served + the King as a nursery from which he could supply his loss of troops. The + want of provisions, which began to be felt in the Imperial camp as + strongly as in the Swedish, rendered it uncertain which party would be + first compelled to give way. + </p> + <p> + Fifteen days had the two armies now remained in view of each other, + equally defended by inaccessible entrenchments, without attempting + anything more than slight attacks and unimportant skirmishes. On both + sides, infectious diseases, the natural consequence of bad food, and a + crowded population, had occasioned a greater loss than the sword. And this + evil daily increased. But at length, the long expected succours arrived in + the Swedish camp; and by this strong reinforcement, the King was now + enabled to obey the dictates of his native courage, and to break the + chains which had hitherto fettered him. + </p> + <p> + In obedience to his requisitions, the Duke of Weimar had hastily drawn + together a corps from the garrisons in Lower Saxony and Thuringia, which, + at Schweinfurt in Franconia, was joined by four Saxon regiments, and at + Kitzingen by the corps of the Rhine, which the Landgrave of Hesse, and the + Palatine of Birkenfeld, despatched to the relief of the King. The + Chancellor, Oxenstiern, undertook to lead this force to its destination. + After being joined at Windsheim by the Duke of Weimar himself, and the + Swedish General Banner, he advanced by rapid marches to Bruck and + Eltersdorf, where he passed the Rednitz, and reached the Swedish camp in + safety. This reinforcement amounted to nearly 50,000 men, and was attended + by a train of 60 pieces of cannon, and 4,000 baggage waggons. Gustavus now + saw himself at the head of an army of nearly 70,000 strong, without + reckoning the militia of Nuremberg, which, in case of necessity, could + bring into the field about 30,000 fighting men; a formidable force, + opposed to another not less formidable. The war seemed at length + compressed to the point of a single battle, which was to decide its + fearful issue. With divided sympathies, Europe looked with anxiety to this + scene, where the whole strength of the two contending parties was + fearfully drawn, as it were, to a focus. + </p> + <p> + If, before the arrival of the Swedish succours, a want of provisions had + been felt, the evil was now fearfully increased to a dreadful height in + both camps, for Wallenstein had also received reinforcements from Bavaria. + Besides the 120,000 men confronted to each other, and more than 50,000 + horses, in the two armies, and besides the inhabitants of Nuremberg, whose + number far exceeded the Swedish army, there were in the camp of + Wallenstein about 15,000 women, with as many drivers, and nearly the same + number in that of the Swedes. The custom of the time permitted the soldier + to carry his family with him to the field. A number of prostitutes + followed the Imperialists; while, with the view of preventing such + excesses, Gustavus’s care for the morals of his soldiers promoted + marriages. For the rising generation, who had this camp for their home and + country, regular military schools were established, which educated a race + of excellent warriors, by which means the army might in a manner recruit + itself in the course of a long campaign. No wonder, then, if these + wandering nations exhausted every territory in which they encamped, and by + their immense consumption raised the necessaries of life to an exorbitant + price. All the mills of Nuremberg were insufficient to grind the corn + required for each day; and 15,000 pounds of bread, which were daily + delivered, by the town into the Swedish camp, excited, without allaying, + the hunger of the soldiers. The laudable exertions of the magistrates of + Nuremberg could not prevent the greater part of the horses from dying for + want of forage, while the increasing mortality in the camp consigned more + than a hundred men daily to the grave. + </p> + <p> + To put an end to these distresses, Gustavus Adolphus, relying on his + numerical superiority, left his lines on the 25th day, forming before the + enemy in order of battle, while he cannonaded the duke’s camp from three + batteries erected on the side of the Rednitz. But the duke remained + immoveable in his entrenchments, and contented himself with answering this + challenge by a distant fire of cannon and musketry. His plan was to wear + out the king by his inactivity, and by the force of famine to overcome his + resolute determination; and neither the remonstrances of Maximilian, and + the impatience of his army, nor the ridicule of his opponent, could shake + his purpose. Gustavus, deceived in his hope of forcing a battle, and + compelled by his increasing necessities, now attempted impossibilities, + and resolved to storm a position which art and nature had combined to + render impregnable. + </p> + <p> + Intrusting his own camp to the militia of Nuremberg, on the fifty-eighth + day of his encampment, (the festival of St. Bartholomew,) he advanced in + full order of battle, and passing the Rednitz at Furth, easily drove the + enemy’s outposts before him. The main army of the Imperialists was posted + on the steep heights between the Biber and the Rednitz, called the Old + Fortress and Altenberg; while the camp itself, commanded by these + eminences, spread out immeasurably along the plain. On these heights, the + whole of the artillery was placed. Deep trenches surrounded inaccessible + redoubts, while thick barricadoes, with pointed palisades, defended the + approaches to the heights, from the summits of which, Wallenstein calmly + and securely discharged the lightnings of his artillery from amid the dark + thunder-clouds of smoke. A destructive fire of musketry was maintained + behind the breastworks, and a hundred pieces of cannon threatened the + desperate assailant with certain destruction. Against this dangerous post + Gustavus now directed his attack; five hundred musketeers, supported by a + few infantry, (for a greater number could not act in the narrow space,) + enjoyed the unenvied privilege of first throwing themselves into the open + jaws of death. The assault was furious, the resistance obstinate. Exposed + to the whole fire of the enemy’s artillery, and infuriate by the prospect + of inevitable death, these determined warriors rushed forward to storm the + heights; which, in an instant, converted into a flaming volcano, + discharged on them a shower of shot. At the same moment, the heavy cavalry + rushed forward into the openings which the artillery had made in the close + ranks of the assailants, and divided them; till the intrepid band, + conquered by the strength of nature and of man, took to flight, leaving a + hundred dead upon the field. To Germans had Gustavus yielded this post of + honour. Exasperated at their retreat, he now led on his Finlanders to the + attack, thinking, by their northern courage, to shame the cowardice of the + Germans. But they, also, after a similar hot reception, yielded to the + superiority of the enemy; and a third regiment succeeded them to + experience the same fate. This was replaced by a fourth, a fifth, and a + sixth; so that, during a ten hours’ action, every regiment was brought to + the attack to retire with bloody loss from the contest. A thousand mangled + bodies covered the field; yet Gustavus undauntedly maintained the attack, + and Wallenstein held his position unshaken. + </p> + <p> + In the mean time, a sharp contest had taken place between the imperial + cavalry and the left wing of the Swedes, which was posted in a thicket on + the Rednitz, with varying success, but with equal intrepidity and loss on + both sides. The Duke of Friedland and Prince Bernard of Weimar had each a + horse shot under them; the king himself had the sole of his boot carried + off by a cannon ball. The combat was maintained with undiminished + obstinacy, till the approach of night separated the combatants. But the + Swedes had advanced too far to retreat without hazard. While the king was + seeking an officer to convey to the regiments the order to retreat, he met + Colonel Hepburn, a brave Scotchman, whose native courage alone had drawn + him from the camp to share in the dangers of the day. Offended with the + king for having not long before preferred a younger officer for some post + of danger, he had rashly vowed never again to draw his sword for the king. + To him Gustavus now addressed himself, praising his courage, and + requesting him to order the regiments to retreat. “Sire,” replied the + brave soldier, “it is the only service I cannot refuse to your Majesty; + for it is a hazardous one,”—and immediately hastened to carry the + command. One of the heights above the old fortress had, in the heat of the + action, been carried by the Duke of Weimar. It commanded the hills and the + whole camp. But the heavy rain which fell during the night, rendered it + impossible to draw up the cannon; and this post, which had been gained + with so much bloodshed, was also voluntarily abandoned. Diffident of + fortune, which forsook him on this decisive day, the king did not venture + the following morning to renew the attack with his exhausted troops; and + vanquished for the first time, even because he was not victor, he led back + his troops over the Rednitz. Two thousand dead which he left behind him on + the field, testified to the extent of his loss; and the Duke of Friedland + remained unconquered within his lines. + </p> + <p> + For fourteen days after this action, the two armies still continued in + front of each other, each in the hope that the other would be the first to + give way. Every day reduced their provisions, and as scarcity became + greater, the excesses of the soldiers rendered furious, exercised the + wildest outrages on the peasantry. The increasing distress broke up all + discipline and order in the Swedish camp; and the German regiments, in + particular, distinguished themselves for the ravages they practised + indiscriminately on friend and foe. The weak hand of a single individual + could not check excesses, encouraged by the silence, if not the actual + example, of the inferior officers. These shameful breaches of discipline, + on the maintenance of which he had hitherto justly prided himself, + severely pained the king; and the vehemence with which he reproached the + German officers for their negligence, bespoke the liveliness of his + emotion. “It is you yourselves, Germans,” said he, “that rob your native + country, and ruin your own confederates in the faith. As God is my judge, + I abhor you, I loathe you; my heart sinks within me whenever I look upon + you. Ye break my orders; ye are the cause that the world curses me, that + the tears of poverty follow me, that complaints ring in my ear—‘The + king, our friend, does us more harm than even our worst enemies.’ On your + account I have stripped my own kingdom of its treasures, and spent upon + you more than 40 tons of gold; —[A ton of gold in Sweden amounts to + 100,000 rix dollars.]—while from your German empire I have not + received the least aid. I gave you a share of all that God had given to + me; and had ye regarded my orders, I would have gladly shared with you all + my future acquisitions. Your want of discipline convinces me of your evil + intentions, whatever cause I might otherwise have to applaud your + bravery.” + </p> + <p> + Nuremberg had exerted itself, almost beyond its power, to subsist for + eleven weeks the vast crowd which was compressed within its boundaries; + but its means were at length exhausted, and the king’s more numerous party + was obliged to determine on a retreat. By the casualties of war and + sickness, Nuremberg had lost more than 10,000 of its inhabitants, and + Gustavus Adolphus nearly 20,000 of his soldiers. The fields around the + city were trampled down, the villages lay in ashes, the plundered + peasantry lay faint and dying on the highways; foul odours infected the + air, and bad food, the exhalations from so dense a population, and so many + putrifying carcasses, together with the heat of the dog-days, produced a + desolating pestilence which raged among men and beasts, and long after the + retreat of both armies, continued to load the country with misery and + distress. Affected by the general distress, and despairing of conquering + the steady determination of the Duke of Friedland, the king broke up his + camp on the 8th September, leaving in Nuremberg a sufficient garrison. He + advanced in full order of battle before the enemy, who remained + motionless, and did not attempt in the least to harass his retreat. His + route lay by the Aisch and Windsheim towards Neustadt, where he halted + five days to refresh his troops, and also to be near to Nuremberg, in case + the enemy should make an attempt upon the town. But Wallenstein, as + exhausted as himself, had only awaited the retreat of the Swedes to + commence his own. Five days afterwards, he broke up his camp at Zirndorf, + and set it on fire. A hundred columns of smoke, rising from all the + burning villages in the neighbourhood, announced his retreat, and showed + the city the fate it had escaped. His march, which was directed on + Forchheim, was marked by the most frightful ravages; but he was too far + advanced to be overtaken by the king. The latter now divided his army, + which the exhausted country was unable to support, and leaving one + division to protect Franconia, with the other he prosecuted in person his + conquests in Bavaria. + </p> + <p> + In the mean time, the imperial Bavarian army had marched into the + Bishopric of Bamberg, where the Duke of Friedland a second time mustered + his troops. He found this force, which so lately had amounted to 60,000 + men, diminished by the sword, desertion, and disease, to about 24,000, and + of these a fourth were Bavarians. Thus had the encampments before + Nuremberg weakened both parties more than two great battles would have + done, apparently without advancing the termination of the war, or + satisfying, by any decisive result, the expectations of Europe. The king’s + conquests in Bavaria, were, it is true, checked for a time by this + diversion before Nuremberg, and Austria itself secured against the danger + of immediate invasion; but by the retreat of the king from that city, he + was again left at full liberty to make Bavaria the seat of war. + Indifferent towards the fate of that country, and weary of the restraint + which his union with the Elector imposed upon him, the Duke of Friedland + eagerly seized the opportunity of separating from this burdensome + associate, and prosecuting, with renewed earnestness, his favourite plans. + Still adhering to his purpose of detaching Saxony from its Swedish + alliance, he selected that country for his winter quarters, hoping by his + destructive presence to force the Elector the more readily into his views. + </p> + <p> + No conjuncture could be more favourable for his designs. The Saxons had + invaded Silesia, where, reinforced by troops from Brandenburgh and Sweden, + they had gained several advantages over the Emperor’s troops. Silesia + would be saved by a diversion against the Elector in his own territories, + and the attempt was the more easy, as Saxony, left undefended during the + war in Silesia, lay open on every side to attack. The pretext of rescuing + from the enemy an hereditary dominion of Austria, would silence the + remonstrances of the Elector of Bavaria, and, under the mask of a + patriotic zeal for the Emperor’s interests, Maximilian might be sacrificed + without much difficulty. By giving up the rich country of Bavaria to the + Swedes, he hoped to be left unmolested by them in his enterprise against + Saxony, while the increasing coldness between Gustavus and the Saxon + Court, gave him little reason to apprehend any extraordinary zeal for the + deliverance of John George. Thus a second time abandoned by his artful + protector, the Elector separated from Wallenstein at Bamberg, to protect + his defenceless territory with the small remains of his troops, while the + imperial army, under Wallenstein, directed its march through Bayreuth and + Coburg towards the Thuringian Forest. + </p> + <p> + An imperial general, Holk, had previously been sent into Vogtland with + 6,000 men, to waste this defenceless province with fire and sword, he was + soon followed by Gallas, another of the Duke’s generals, and an equally + faithful instrument of his inhuman orders. Finally, Pappenheim, too, was + recalled from Lower Saxony, to reinforce the diminished army of the duke, + and to complete the miseries of the devoted country. Ruined churches, + villages in ashes, harvests wilfully destroyed, families plundered, and + murdered peasants, marked the progress of these barbarians, under whose + scourge the whole of Thuringia, Vogtland, and Meissen, lay defenceless. + Yet this was but the prelude to greater sufferings, with which Wallenstein + himself, at the head of the main army, threatened Saxony. After having + left behind him fearful monuments of his fury, in his march through + Franconia and Thuringia, he arrived with his whole army in the Circle of + Leipzig, and compelled the city, after a short resistance, to surrender. + His design was to push on to Dresden, and by the conquest of the whole + country, to prescribe laws to the Elector. He had already approached the + Mulda, threatening to overpower the Saxon army which had advanced as far + as Torgau to meet him, when the King of Sweden’s arrival at Erfurt gave an + unexpected check to his operations. Placed between the Saxon and Swedish + armies, which were likely to be farther reinforced by the troops of + George, Duke of Luneburg, from Lower Saxony, he hastily retired upon + Meresberg, to form a junction there with Count Pappenheim, and to repel + the further advance of the Swedes. + </p> + <p> + Gustavus Adolphus had witnessed, with great uneasiness, the arts employed + by Spain and Austria to detach his allies from him. The more important his + alliance with Saxony, the more anxiety the inconstant temper of John + George caused him. Between himself and the Elector, a sincere friendship + could never subsist. A prince, proud of his political importance, and + accustomed to consider himself as the head of his party, could not see + without annoyance the interference of a foreign power in the affairs of + the Empire; and nothing, but the extreme danger of his dominions, could + overcome the aversion with which he had long witnessed the progress of + this unwelcome intruder. The increasing influence of the king in Germany, + his authority with the Protestant states, the unambiguous proofs which he + gave of his ambitious views, which were of a character calculated to + excite the jealousies of all the states of the Empire, awakened in the + Elector’s breast a thousand anxieties, which the imperial emissaries did + not fail skilfully to keep alive and cherish. Every arbitrary step on the + part of the King, every demand, however reasonable, which he addressed to + the princes of the Empire, was followed by bitter complaints from the + Elector, which seemed to announce an approaching rupture. Even the + generals of the two powers, whenever they were called upon to act in + common, manifested the same jealousy as divided their leaders. John + George’s natural aversion to war, and a lingering attachment to Austria, + favoured the efforts of Arnheim; who, maintaining a constant + correspondence with Wallenstein, laboured incessantly to effect a private + treaty between his master and the Emperor; and if his representations were + long disregarded, still the event proved that they were not altogether + without effect. + </p> + <p> + Gustavus Adolphus, naturally apprehensive of the consequences which the + defection of so powerful an ally would produce on his future prospects in + Germany, spared no pains to avert so pernicious an event; and his + remonstrances had hitherto had some effect upon the Elector. But the + formidable power with which the Emperor seconded his seductive proposals, + and the miseries which, in the case of hesitation, he threatened to + accumulate upon Saxony, might at length overcome the resolution of the + Elector, should he be left exposed to the vengeance of his enemies; while + an indifference to the fate of so powerful a confederate, would + irreparably destroy the confidence of the other allies in their protector. + This consideration induced the king a second time to yield to the pressing + entreaties of the Elector, and to sacrifice his own brilliant prospects to + the safety of this ally. He had already resolved upon a second attack on + Ingoldstadt; and the weakness of the Elector of Bavaria gave him hopes of + soon forcing this exhausted enemy to accede to a neutrality. An + insurrection of the peasantry in Upper Austria, opened to him a passage + into that country, and the capital might be in his possession, before + Wallenstein could have time to advance to its defence. All these views he + now gave up for the sake of an ally, who, neither by his services nor his + fidelity, was worthy of the sacrifice; who, on the pressing occasions of + common good, had steadily adhered to his own selfish projects; and who was + important, not for the services he was expected to render, but merely for + the injuries he had it in his power to inflict. Is it possible, then, to + refrain from indignation, when we know that, in this expedition, + undertaken for the benefit of such an ally, the great king was destined to + terminate his career? + </p> + <p> + Rapidly assembling his troops in Franconia, he followed the route of + Wallenstein through Thuringia. Duke Bernard of Weimar, who had been + despatched to act against Pappenheim, joined the king at Armstadt, who now + saw himself at the head of 20,000 veterans. At Erfurt he took leave of his + queen, who was not to behold him, save in his coffin, at Weissenfels. + Their anxious adieus seemed to forbode an eternal separation. + </p> + <p> + He reached Naumburg on the 1st November, 1632, before the corps, which the + Duke of Friedland had despatched for that purpose, could make itself + master of that place. The inhabitants of the surrounding country flocked + in crowds to look upon the hero, the avenger, the great king, who, a year + before, had first appeared in that quarter, like a guardian angel. Shouts + of joy everywhere attended his progress; the people knelt before him, and + struggled for the honour of touching the sheath of his sword, or the hem + of his garment. The modest hero disliked this innocent tribute which a + sincerely grateful and admiring multitude paid him. “Is it not,” said he, + “as if this people would make a God of me? Our affairs prosper, indeed; + but I fear the vengeance of Heaven will punish me for this presumption, + and soon enough reveal to this deluded multitude my human weakness and + mortality!” How amiable does Gustavus appear before us at this moment, + when about to leave us for ever! Even in the plenitude of success, he + honours an avenging Nemesis, declines that homage which is due only to the + Immortal, and strengthens his title to our tears, the nearer the moment + approaches that is to call them forth! + </p> + <p> + In the mean time, the Duke of Friedland had determined to advance to meet + the king, as far as Weissenfels, and even at the hazard of a battle, to + secure his winter-quarters in Saxony. His inactivity before Nuremberg had + occasioned a suspicion that he was unwilling to measure his powers with + those of the Hero of the North, and his hard-earned reputation would be at + stake, if, a second time, he should decline a battle. His present + superiority in numbers, though much less than what it was at the beginning + of the siege of Nuremberg, was still enough to give him hopes of victory, + if he could compel the king to give battle before his junction with the + Saxons. But his present reliance was not so much in his numerical + superiority, as in the predictions of his astrologer Seni, who had read in + the stars that the good fortune of the Swedish monarch would decline in + the month of November. Besides, between Naumburg and Weissenfels there was + also a range of narrow defiles, formed by a long mountainous ridge, and + the river Saal, which ran at their foot, along which the Swedes could not + advance without difficulty, and which might, with the assistance of a few + troops, be rendered almost impassable. If attacked there, the king would + have no choice but either to penetrate with great danger through the + defiles, or commence a laborious retreat through Thuringia, and to expose + the greater part of his army to a march through a desert country, + deficient in every necessary for their support. But the rapidity with + which Gustavus Adolphus had taken possession of Naumburg, disappointed + this plan, and it was now Wallenstein himself who awaited the attack. + </p> + <p> + But in this expectation he was disappointed; for the king, instead of + advancing to meet him at Weissenfels, made preparations for entrenching + himself near Naumburg, with the intention of awaiting there the + reinforcements which the Duke of Lunenburg was bringing up. Undecided + whether to advance against the king through the narrow passes between + Weissenfels and Naumburg, or to remain inactive in his camp, he called a + council of war, in order to have the opinion of his most experienced + generals. None of these thought it prudent to attack the king in his + advantageous position. On the other hand, the preparations which the + latter made to fortify his camp, plainly showed that it was not his + intention soon to abandon it. But the approach of winter rendered it + impossible to prolong the campaign, and by a continued encampment to + exhaust the strength of the army, already so much in need of repose. All + voices were in favour of immediately terminating the campaign: and, the + more so, as the important city of Cologne upon the Rhine was threatened by + the Dutch, while the progress of the enemy in Westphalia and the Lower + Rhine called for effective reinforcements in that quarter. Wallenstein + yielded to the weight of these arguments, and almost convinced that, at + this season, he had no reason to apprehend an attack from the King, he put + his troops into winter-quarters, but so that, if necessary, they might be + rapidly assembled. Count Pappenheim was despatched, with great part of the + army, to the assistance of Cologne, with orders to take possession, on his + march, of the fortress of Moritzburg, in the territory of Halle. Different + corps took up their winter-quarters in the neighbouring towns, to watch, + on all sides, the motions of the enemy. Count Colloredo guarded the castle + of Weissenfels, and Wallenstein himself encamped with the remainder not + far from Merseburg, between Flotzgaben and the Saal, from whence he + purposed to march to Leipzig, and to cut off the communication between the + Saxons and the Swedish army. + </p> + <p> + Scarcely had Gustavus Adolphus been informed of Pappenheim’s departure, + when suddenly breaking up his camp at Naumburg, he hastened with his whole + force to attack the enemy, now weakened to one half. He advanced, by rapid + marches, towards Weissenfels, from whence the news of his arrival quickly + reached the enemy, and greatly astonished the Duke of Friedland. But a + speedy resolution was now necessary; and the measures of Wallenstein were + soon taken. Though he had little more than 12,000 men to oppose to the + 20,000 of the enemy, he might hope to maintain his ground until the return + of Pappenheim, who could not have advanced farther than Halle, five miles + distant. Messengers were hastily despatched to recall him, while + Wallenstein moved forward into the wide plain between the Canal and + Lutzen, where he awaited the King in full order of battle, and, by this + position, cut off his communication with Leipzig and the Saxon + auxiliaries. + </p> + <p> + Three cannon shots, fired by Count Colloredo from the castle of + Weissenfels, announced the king’s approach; and at this concerted signal, + the light troops of the Duke of Friedland, under the command of the + Croatian General Isolani, moved forward to possess themselves of the + villages lying upon the Rippach. Their weak resistance did not impede the + advance of the enemy, who crossed the Rippach, near the village of that + name, and formed in line below Lutzen, opposite the Imperialists. The high + road which goes from Weissenfels to Leipzig, is intersected between Lutzen + and Markranstadt by the canal which extends from Zeitz to Merseburg, and + unites the Elster with the Saal. On this canal, rested the left wing of + the Imperialists, and the right of the King of Sweden; but so that the + cavalry of both extended themselves along the opposite side. To the + northward, behind Lutzen, was Wallenstein’s right wing, and to the south + of that town was posted the left wing of the Swedes; both armies fronted + the high road, which ran between them, and divided their order of battle; + but the evening before the battle, Wallenstein, to the great disadvantage + of his opponent, had possessed himself of this highway, deepened the + trenches which ran along its sides, and planted them with musketeers, so + as to make the crossing of it both difficult and dangerous. Behind these, + again, was erected a battery of seven large pieces of cannon, to support + the fire from the trenches; and at the windmills, close behind Lutzen, + fourteen smaller field pieces were ranged on an eminence, from which they + could sweep the greater part of the plain. The infantry, divided into no + more than five unwieldy brigades, was drawn up at the distance of 300 + paces from the road, and the cavalry covered the flanks. All the baggage + was sent to Leipzig, that it might not impede the movements of the army; + and the ammunition-waggons alone remained, which were placed in rear of + the line. To conceal the weakness of the Imperialists, all the + camp-followers and sutlers were mounted, and posted on the left wing, but + only until Pappenheim’s troops arrived. These arrangements were made + during the darkness of the night; and when the morning dawned, all was + ready for the reception of the enemy. + </p> + <p> + On the evening of the same day, Gustavus Adolphus appeared on the opposite + plain, and formed his troops in the order of attack. His disposition was + the same as that which had been so successful the year before at Leipzig. + Small squadrons of horse were interspersed among the divisions of the + infantry, and troops of musketeers placed here and there among the + cavalry. The army was arranged in two lines, the canal on the right and in + its rear, the high road in front, and the town on the left. In the centre, + the infantry was formed, under the command of Count Brahe; the cavalry on + the wings; the artillery in front. To the German hero, Bernard, Duke of + Weimar, was intrusted the command of the German cavalry of the left wing; + while, on the right, the king led on the Swedes in person, in order to + excite the emulation of the two nations to a noble competition. The second + line was formed in the same manner; and behind these was placed the + reserve, commanded by Henderson, a Scotchman. + </p> + <p> + In this position, they awaited the eventful dawn of morning, to begin a + contest, which long delay, rather than the probability of decisive + consequences, and the picked body, rather than the number of the + combatants, was to render so terrible and remarkable. The strained + expectation of Europe, so disappointed before Nuremberg, was now to be + gratified on the plains of Lutzen. During the whole course of the war, two + such generals, so equally matched in renown and ability, had not before + been pitted against each other. Never, as yet, had daring been cooled by + so awful a hazard, or hope animated by so glorious a prize. Europe was + next day to learn who was her greatest general:—to-morrow, the + leader, who had hitherto been invincible, must acknowledge a victor. This + morning was to place it beyond a doubt, whether the victories of Gustavus + at Leipzig and on the Lech, were owing to his own military genius, or to + the incompetency of his opponent; whether the services of Wallenstein were + to vindicate the Emperor’s choice, and justify the high price at which + they had been purchased. The victory was as yet doubtful, but certain were + the labour and the bloodshed by which it must be earned. Every private in + both armies, felt a jealous share in their leader’s reputation, and under + every corslet beat the same emotions that inflamed the bosoms of the + generals. Each army knew the enemy to which it was to be opposed: and the + anxiety which each in vain attempted to repress, was a convincing proof of + their opponent’s strength. + </p> + <p> + At last the fateful morning dawned; but an impenetrable fog, which spread + over the plain, delayed the attack till noon. Kneeling in front of his + lines, the king offered up his devotions; and the whole army, at the same + moment dropping on their knees, burst into a moving hymn, accompanied by + the military music. The king then mounted his horse, and clad only in a + leathern doublet and surtout, (for a wound he had formerly received + prevented his wearing armour,) rode along the ranks, to animate the + courage of his troops with a joyful confidence, which, however, the + forboding presentiment of his own bosom contradicted. “God with us!” was + the war-cry of the Swedes; “Jesus Maria!” that of the Imperialists. About + eleven the fog began to disperse, and the enemy became visible. At the + same moment Lutzen was seen in flames, having been set on fire by command + of the duke, to prevent his being outflanked on that side. The charge was + now sounded; the cavalry rushed upon the enemy, and the infantry advanced + against the trenches. + </p> + <p> + Received by a tremendous fire of musketry and heavy artillery, these + intrepid battalions maintained the attack with undaunted courage, till the + enemy’s musketeers abandoned their posts, the trenches were passed, the + battery carried and turned against the enemy. They pressed forward with + irresistible impetuosity; the first of the five imperial brigades was + immediately routed, the second soon after, and the third put to flight. + But here the genius of Wallenstein opposed itself to their progress. With + the rapidity of lightning he was on the spot to rally his discomfited + troops; and his powerful word was itself sufficient to stop the flight of + the fugitives. Supported by three regiments of cavalry, the vanquished + brigades, forming anew, faced the enemy, and pressed vigorously into the + broken ranks of the Swedes. A murderous conflict ensued. The nearness of + the enemy left no room for fire-arms, the fury of the attack no time for + loading; man was matched to man, the useless musket exchanged for the + sword and pike, and science gave way to desperation. Overpowered by + numbers, the wearied Swedes at last retire beyond the trenches; and the + captured battery is again lost by the retreat. A thousand mangled bodies + already strewed the plain, and as yet not a single step of ground had been + won. + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:60%;"> + <img alt="1p260 (146K)" src="images/1p260.jpg" style="width:100%;" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <p> + In the mean time, the king’s right wing, led by himself, had fallen upon + the enemy’s left. The first impetuous shock of the heavy Finland + cuirassiers dispersed the lightly-mounted Poles and Croats, who were + posted here, and their disorderly flight spread terror and confusion among + the rest of the cavalry. At this moment notice was brought the king, that + his infantry were retreating over the trenches, and also that his left + wing, exposed to a severe fire from the enemy’s cannon posted at the + windmills was beginning to give way. With rapid decision he committed to + General Horn the pursuit of the enemy’s left, while he flew, at the head + of the regiment of Steinbock, to repair the disorder of his right wing. + His noble charger bore him with the velocity of lightning across the + trenches, but the squadrons that followed could not come on with the same + speed, and only a few horsemen, among whom was Francis Albert, Duke of + Saxe Lauenburg, were able to keep up with the king. He rode directly to + the place where his infantry were most closely pressed, and while he was + reconnoitring the enemy’s line for an exposed point of attack, the + shortness of his sight unfortunately led him too close to their ranks. An + imperial Gefreyter,—[A person exempt from watching duty, nearly + corresponding to the corporal.]—remarking that every one + respectfully made way for him as he rode along, immediately ordered a + musketeer to take aim at him. “Fire at him yonder,” said he, “that must be + a man of consequence.” The soldier fired, and the king’s left arm was + shattered. At that moment his squadron came hurrying up, and a confused + cry of “the king bleeds! the king is shot!” spread terror and + consternation through all the ranks. “It is nothing—follow me,” + cried the king, collecting his whole strength; but overcome by pain, and + nearly fainting, he requested the Duke of Lauenburg, in French, to lead + him unobserved out of the tumult. While the duke proceeded towards the + right wing with the king, making a long circuit to keep this discouraging + sight from the disordered infantry, his majesty received a second shot + through the back, which deprived him of his remaining strength. “Brother,” + said he, with a dying voice, “I have enough! look only to your own life.” + At the same moment he fell from his horse pierced by several more shots; + and abandoned by all his attendants, he breathed his last amidst the + plundering hands of the Croats. His charger, flying without its rider, and + covered with blood, soon made known to the Swedish cavalry the fall of + their king. They rushed madly forward to rescue his sacred remains from + the hands of the enemy. A murderous conflict ensued over the body, till + his mangled remains were buried beneath a heap of slain. + </p> + <p> + The mournful tidings soon ran through the Swedish army; but instead of + destroying the courage of these brave troops, it but excited it into a + new, a wild, and consuming flame. Life had lessened in value, now that the + most sacred life of all was gone; death had no terrors for the lowly since + the anointed head was not spared. With the fury of lions the Upland, + Smaeland, Finland, East and West Gothland regiments rushed a second time + upon the left wing of the enemy, which, already making but feeble + resistance to General Horn, was now entirely beaten from the field. + Bernard, Duke of Saxe-Weimar, gave to the bereaved Swedes a noble leader + in his own person; and the spirit of Gustavus led his victorious squadrons + anew. The left wing quickly formed again, and vigorously pressed the right + of the Imperialists. The artillery at the windmills, which had maintained + so murderous a fire upon the Swedes, was captured and turned against the + enemy. The centre, also, of the Swedish infantry, commanded by the duke + and Knyphausen, advanced a second time against the trenches, which they + successfully passed, and retook the battery of seven cannons. The attack + was now renewed with redoubled fury upon the heavy battalions of the + enemy’s centre; their resistance became gradually less, and chance + conspired with Swedish valour to complete the defeat. The imperial + powder-waggons took fire, and, with a tremendous explosion, grenades and + bombs filled the air. The enemy, now in confusion, thought they were + attacked in the rear, while the Swedish brigades pressed them in front. + Their courage began to fail them. Their left wing was already beaten, + their right wavering, and their artillery in the enemy’s hands. The battle + seemed to be almost decided; another moment would decide the fate of the + day, when Pappenheim appeared on the field, with his cuirassiers and + dragoons; all the advantages already gained were lost, and the battle was + to be fought anew. + </p> + <p> + The order which recalled that general to Lutzen had reached him in Halle, + while his troops were still plundering the town. It was impossible to + collect the scattered infantry with that rapidity, which the urgency of + the order, and Pappenheim’s impatience required. Without waiting for it, + therefore, he ordered eight regiments of cavalry to mount; and at their + head he galloped at full speed for Lutzen, to share in the battle. He + arrived in time to witness the flight of the imperial right wing, which + Gustavus Horn was driving from the field, and to be at first involved in + their rout. But with rapid presence of mind he rallied the flying troops, + and led them once more against the enemy. Carried away by his wild + bravery, and impatient to encounter the king, who he supposed was at the + head of this wing, he burst furiously upon the Swedish ranks, which, + exhausted by victory, and inferior in numbers, were, after a noble + resistance, overpowered by this fresh body of enemies. Pappenheim’s + unexpected appearance revived the drooping courage of the Imperialists, + and the Duke of Friedland quickly availed himself of the favourable moment + to re-form his line. The closely serried battalions of the Swedes were, + after a tremendous conflict, again driven across the trenches; and the + battery, which had been twice lost, again rescued from their hands. The + whole yellow regiment, the finest of all that distinguished themselves in + this dreadful day, lay dead on the field, covering the ground almost in + the same excellent order which, when alive, they maintained with such + unyielding courage. The same fate befel another regiment of Blues, which + Count Piccolomini attacked with the imperial cavalry, and cut down after a + desperate contest. Seven times did this intrepid general renew the attack; + seven horses were shot under him, and he himself was pierced with six + musket balls; yet he would not leave the field, until he was carried along + in the general rout of the whole army. Wallenstein himself was seen riding + through his ranks with cool intrepidity, amidst a shower of balls, + assisting the distressed, encouraging the valiant with praise, and the + wavering by his fearful glance. Around and close by him his men were + falling thick, and his own mantle was perforated by several shots. But + avenging destiny this day protected that breast, for which another weapon + was reserved; on the same field where the noble Gustavus expired, + Wallenstein was not allowed to terminate his guilty career. + </p> + <p> + Less fortunate was Pappenheim, the Telamon of the army, the bravest + soldier of Austria and the church. An ardent desire to encounter the king + in person, carried this daring leader into the thickest of the fight, + where he thought his noble opponent was most surely to be met. Gustavus + had also expressed a wish to meet his brave antagonist, but these hostile + wishes remained ungratified; death first brought together these two great + heroes. Two musket-balls pierced the breast of Pappenheim; and his men + forcibly carried him from the field. While they were conveying him to the + rear, a murmur reached him, that he whom he had sought, lay dead upon the + plain. When the truth of the report was confirmed to him, his look became + brighter, his dying eye sparkled with a last gleam of joy. “Tell the Duke + of Friedland,” said he, “that I lie without hope of life, but that I die + happy, since I know that the implacable enemy of my religion has fallen on + the same day.” + </p> + <p> + With Pappenheim, the good fortune of the Imperialists departed. The + cavalry of the left wing, already beaten, and only rallied by his + exertions, no sooner missed their victorious leader, than they gave up + everything for lost, and abandoned the field of battle in spiritless + despair. The right wing fell into the same confusion, with the exception + of a few regiments, which the bravery of their colonels Gotz, Terzky, + Colloredo, and Piccolomini, compelled to keep their ground. The Swedish + infantry, with prompt determination, profited by the enemy’s confusion. To + fill up the gaps which death had made in the front line, they formed both + lines into one, and with it made the final and decisive charge. A third + time they crossed the trenches, and a third time they captured the + battery. The sun was setting when the two lines closed. The strife grew + hotter as it drew to an end; the last efforts of strength were mutually + exerted, and skill and courage did their utmost to repair in these + precious moments the fortune of the day. It was in vain; despair endows + every one with superhuman strength; no one can conquer, no one will give + way. The art of war seemed to exhaust its powers on one side, only to + unfold some new and untried masterpiece of skill on the other. Night and + darkness at last put an end to the fight, before the fury of the + combatants was exhausted; and the contest only ceased, when no one could + any longer find an antagonist. Both armies separated, as if by tacit + agreement; the trumpets sounded, and each party claiming the victory, + quitted the field. + </p> + <p> + The artillery on both sides, as the horses could not be found, remained + all night upon the field, at once the reward and the evidence of victory + to him who should hold it. Wallenstein, in his haste to leave Leipzig and + Saxony, forgot to remove his part. Not long after the battle was ended, + Pappenheim’s infantry, who had been unable to follow the rapid movements + of their general, and who amounted to six regiments, marched on the field, + but the work was done. A few hours earlier, so considerable a + reinforcement would perhaps have decided the day in favour of the + Imperialists; and, even now, by remaining on the field, they might have + saved the duke’s artillery, and made a prize of that of the Swedes. But + they had received no orders to act; and, uncertain as to the issue of the + battle, they retired to Leipzig, where they hoped to join the main body. + </p> + <p> + The Duke of Friedland had retreated thither, and was followed on the + morrow by the scattered remains of his army, without artillery, without + colours, and almost without arms. The Duke of Weimar, it appears, after + the toils of this bloody day, allowed the Swedish army some repose, + between Lutzen and Weissenfels, near enough to the field of battle to + oppose any attempt the enemy might make to recover it. Of the two armies, + more than 9,000 men lay dead; a still greater number were wounded, and + among the Imperialists, scarcely a man escaped from the field uninjured. + The entire plain from Lutzen to the Canal was strewed with the wounded, + the dying, and the dead. Many of the principal nobility had fallen on both + sides. Even the Abbot of Fulda, who had mingled in the combat as a + spectator, paid for his curiosity and his ill-timed zeal with his life. + History says nothing of prisoners; a further proof of the animosity of the + combatants, who neither gave nor took quarter. + </p> + <p> + Pappenheim died the next day of his wounds at Leipzig; an irreparable loss + to the imperial army, which this brave warrior had so often led on to + victory. The battle of Prague, where, together with Wallenstein, he was + present as colonel, was the beginning of his heroic career. Dangerously + wounded, with a few troops, he made an impetuous attack on a regiment of + the enemy, and lay for several hours mixed with the dead upon the field, + beneath the weight of his horse, till he was discovered by some of his own + men in plundering. With a small force he defeated, in three different + engagements, the rebels in Upper Austria, though 40,000 strong. At the + battle of Leipzig, he for a long time delayed the defeat of Tilly by his + bravery, and led the arms of the Emperor on the Elbe and the Weser to + victory. The wild impetuous fire of his temperament, which no danger, + however apparent, could cool, or impossibilities check, made him the most + powerful arm of the imperial force, but unfitted him for acting at its + head. The battle of Leipzig, if Tilly may be believed, was lost through + his rash ardour. At the destruction of Magdeburg, his hands were deeply + steeped in blood; war rendered savage and ferocious his disposition, which + had been cultivated by youthful studies and various travels. On his + forehead, two red streaks, like swords, were perceptible, with which + nature had marked him at his very birth. Even in his later years, these + became visible, as often as his blood was stirred by passion; and + superstition easily persuaded itself, that the future destiny of the man + was thus impressed upon the forehead of the child. As a faithful servant + of the House of Austria, he had the strongest claims on the gratitude of + both its lines, but he did not survive to enjoy the most brilliant proof + of their regard. A messenger was already on his way from Madrid, bearing + to him the order of the Golden Fleece, when death overtook him at Leipzig. + </p> + <p> + Though Te Deum, in all Spanish and Austrian lands, was sung in honour of a + victory, Wallenstein himself, by the haste with which he quitted Leipzig, + and soon after all Saxony, and by renouncing his original design of fixing + there his winter quarters, openly confessed his defeat. It is true he made + one more feeble attempt to dispute, even in his flight, the honour of + victory, by sending out his Croats next morning to the field; but the + sight of the Swedish army drawn up in order of battle, immediately + dispersed these flying bands, and Duke Bernard, by keeping possession of + the field, and soon after by the capture of Leipzig, maintained + indisputably his claim to the title of victor. + </p> + <p> + But it was a dear conquest, a dearer triumph! It was not till the fury of + the contest was over, that the full weight of the loss sustained was felt, + and the shout of triumph died away into a silent gloom of despair. He, who + had led them to the charge, returned not with them; there he lay upon the + field which he had won, mingled with the dead bodies of the common crowd. + After a long and almost fruitless search, the corpse of the king was + discovered, not far from the great stone, which, for a hundred years + before, had stood between Lutzen and the Canal, and which, from the + memorable disaster of that day, still bears the name of the Stone of the + Swede. Covered with blood and wounds, so as scarcely to be recognised, + trampled beneath the horses’ hoofs, stripped by the rude hands of + plunderers of its ornaments and clothes, his body was drawn from beneath a + heap of dead, conveyed to Weissenfels, and there delivered up to the + lamentations of his soldiers, and the last embraces of his queen. The + first tribute had been paid to revenge, and blood had atoned for the blood + of the monarch; but now affection assumes its rights, and tears of grief + must flow for the man. The universal sorrow absorbs all individual woes. + The generals, still stupefied by the unexpected blow, stood speechless and + motionless around his bier, and no one trusted himself enough to + contemplate the full extent of their loss. + </p> + <p> + The Emperor, we are told by Khevenhuller, showed symptoms of deep, and + apparently sincere feeling, at the sight of the king’s doublet stained + with blood, which had been stripped from him during the battle, and + carried to Vienna. “Willingly,” said he, “would I have granted to the + unfortunate prince a longer life, and a safe return to his kingdom, had + Germany been at peace.” But when a trait, which is nothing more than a + proof of a yet lingering humanity, and which a mere regard to appearances + and even self-love, would have extorted from the most insensible, and the + absence of which could exist only in the most inhuman heart, has, by a + Roman Catholic writer of modern times and acknowledged merit, been made + the subject of the highest eulogium, and compared with the magnanimous + tears of Alexander, for the fall of Darius, our distrust is excited of the + other virtues of the writer’s hero, and what is still worse, of his own + ideas of moral dignity. But even such praise, whatever its amount, is much + for one, whose memory his biographer has to clear from the suspicion of + being privy to the assassination of a king. + </p> + <p> + It was scarcely to be expected, that the strong leaning of mankind to the + marvellous, would leave to the common course of nature the glory of ending + the career of Gustavus Adolphus. The death of so formidable a rival was + too important an event for the Emperor, not to excite in his bitter + opponent a ready suspicion, that what was so much to his interests, was + also the result of his instigation. For the execution, however, of this + dark deed, the Emperor would require the aid of a foreign arm, and this it + was generally believed he had found in Francis Albert, Duke of Saxe + Lauenburg. The rank of the latter permitted him a free access to the + king’s person, while it at the same time seemed to place him above the + suspicion of so foul a deed. This prince, however, was in fact not + incapable of this atrocity, and he had moreover sufficient motives for its + commission. + </p> + <p> + Francis Albert, the youngest of four sons of Francis II, Duke of + Lauenburg, and related by the mother’s side to the race of Vasa, had, in + his early years, found a most friendly reception at the Swedish court. + Some offence which he had committed against Gustavus Adolphus, in the + queen’s chamber, was, it is said, repaid by this fiery youth with a box on + the ear; which, though immediately repented of, and amply apologized for, + laid the foundation of an irreconcileable hate in the vindictive heart of + the duke. Francis Albert subsequently entered the imperial service, where + he rose to the command of a regiment, and formed a close intimacy with + Wallenstein, and condescended to be the instrument of a secret negociation + with the Saxon court, which did little honour to his rank. Without any + sufficient cause being assigned, he suddenly quitted the Austrian service, + and appeared in the king’s camp at Nuremberg, to offer his services as a + volunteer. By his show of zeal for the Protestant cause, and prepossessing + and flattering deportment, he gained the heart of the king, who, warned in + vain by Oxenstiern, continued to lavish his favour and friendship on this + suspicious new comer. The battle of Lutzen soon followed, in which Francis + Albert, like an evil genius, kept close to the king’s side and did not + leave him till he fell. He owed, it was thought, his own safety amidst the + fire of the enemy, to a green sash which he wore, the colour of the + Imperialists. He was at any rate the first to convey to his friend + Wallenstein the intelligence of the king’s death. After the battle, he + exchanged the Swedish service for the Saxon; and, after the murder of + Wallenstein, being charged with being an accomplice of that general, he + only escaped the sword of justice by abjuring his faith. His last + appearance in life was as commander of an imperial army in Silesia, where + he died of the wounds he had received before Schweidnitz. It requires some + effort to believe in the innocence of a man, who had run through a career + like this, of the act charged against him; but, however great may be the + moral and physical possibility of his committing such a crime, it must + still be allowed that there are no certain grounds for imputing it to him. + Gustavus Adolphus, it is well known, exposed himself to danger, like the + meanest soldier in his army, and where thousands fell, he, too, might + naturally meet his death. How it reached him, remains indeed buried in + mystery; but here, more than anywhere, does the maxim apply, that where + the ordinary course of things is fully sufficient to account for the fact, + the honour of human nature ought not to be stained by any suspicion of + moral atrocity. + </p> + <p> + But by whatever hand he fell, his extraordinary destiny must appear a + great interposition of Providence. History, too often confined to the + ungrateful task of analyzing the uniform play of human passions, is + occasionally rewarded by the appearance of events, which strike like a + hand from heaven, into the nicely adjusted machinery of human plans, and + carry the contemplative mind to a higher order of things. Of this kind, is + the sudden retirement of Gustavus Adolphus from the scene;—stopping + for a time the whole movement of the political machine, and disappointing + all the calculations of human prudence. Yesterday, the very soul, the + great and animating principle of his own creation; to-day, struck + unpitiably to the ground in the very midst of his eagle flight; untimely + torn from a whole world of great designs, and from the ripening harvest of + his expectations, he left his bereaved party disconsolate; and the proud + edifice of his past greatness sunk into ruins. The Protestant party had + identified its hopes with its invincible leader, and scarcely can it now + separate them from him; with him, they now fear all good fortune is + buried. But it was no longer the benefactor of Germany who fell at Lutzen: + the beneficent part of his career, Gustavus Adolphus had already + terminated; and now the greatest service which he could render to the + liberties of Germany was—to die. The all-engrossing power of an + individual was at an end, but many came forward to essay their strength; + the equivocal assistance of an over-powerful protector, gave place to a + more noble self-exertion on the part of the Estates; and those who were + formerly the mere instruments of his aggrandizement, now began to work for + themselves. They now looked to their own exertions for the emancipation, + which could not be received without danger from the hand of the mighty; + and the Swedish power, now incapable of sinking into the oppressor, was + henceforth restricted to the more modest part of an ally. + </p> + <p> + The ambition of the Swedish monarch aspired unquestionably to establish a + power within Germany, and to attain a firm footing in the centre of the + empire, which was inconsistent with the liberties of the Estates. His aim + was the imperial crown; and this dignity, supported by his power, and + maintained by his energy and activity, would in his hands be liable to + more abuse than had ever been feared from the House of Austria. Born in a + foreign country, educated in the maxims of arbitrary power, and by + principles and enthusiasm a determined enemy to Popery, he was ill + qualified to maintain inviolate the constitution of the German States, or + to respect their liberties. The coercive homage which Augsburg, with many + other cities, was forced to pay to the Swedish crown, bespoke the + conqueror, rather than the protector of the empire; and this town, prouder + of the title of a royal city, than of the higher dignity of the freedom of + the empire, flattered itself with the anticipation of becoming the capital + of his future kingdom. His ill-disguised attempts upon the Electorate of + Mentz, which he first intended to bestow upon the Elector of Brandenburg, + as the dower of his daughter Christina, and afterwards destined for his + chancellor and friend Oxenstiern, evinced plainly what liberties he was + disposed to take with the constitution of the empire. His allies, the + Protestant princes, had claims on his gratitude, which could be satisfied + only at the expense of their Roman Catholic neighbours, and particularly + of the immediate Ecclesiastical Chapters; and it seems probable a plan was + early formed for dividing the conquered provinces, (after the precedent of + the barbarian hordes who overran the German empire,) as a common spoil, + among the German and Swedish confederates. In his treatment of the Elector + Palatine, he entirely belied the magnanimity of the hero, and forgot the + sacred character of a protector. The Palatinate was in his hands, and the + obligations both of justice and honour demanded its full and immediate + restoration to the legitimate sovereign. But, by a subtlety unworthy of a + great mind, and disgraceful to the honourable title of protector of the + oppressed, he eluded that obligation. He treated the Palatinate as a + conquest wrested from the enemy, and thought that this circumstance gave + him a right to deal with it as he pleased. He surrendered it to the + Elector as a favour, not as a debt; and that, too, as a Swedish fief, + fettered by conditions which diminished half its value, and degraded this + unfortunate prince into a humble vassal of Sweden. One of these conditions + obliged the Elector, after the conclusion of the war, to furnish, along + with the other princes, his contribution towards the maintenance of the + Swedish army, a condition which plainly indicates the fate which, in the + event of the ultimate success of the king, awaited Germany. His sudden + disappearance secured the liberties of Germany, and saved his reputation, + while it probably spared him the mortification of seeing his own allies in + arms against him, and all the fruits of his victories torn from him by a + disadvantageous peace. Saxony was already disposed to abandon him, Denmark + viewed his success with alarm and jealousy; and even France, the firmest + and most potent of his allies, terrified at the rapid growth of his power + and the imperious tone which he assumed, looked around at the very moment + he past the Lech, for foreign alliances, in order to check the progress of + the Goths, and restore to Europe the balance of power. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0007" id="link2H_4_0007"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + BOOK IV. + </h2> + <p> + The weak bond of union, by which Gustavus Adolphus contrived to hold + together the Protestant members of the empire, was dissolved by his death: + the allies were now again at liberty, and their alliance, to last, must be + formed anew. By the former event, if unremedied, they would lose all the + advantages they had gained at the cost of so much bloodshed, and expose + themselves to the inevitable danger of becoming one after the other the + prey of an enemy, whom, by their union alone, they had been able to oppose + and to master. Neither Sweden, nor any of the states of the empire, was + singly a match with the Emperor and the League; and, by seeking a peace + under the present state of things, they would necessarily be obliged to + receive laws from the enemy. Union was, therefore, equally indispensable, + either for concluding a peace or continuing the war. But a peace, sought + under the present circumstances, could not fail to be disadvantageous to + the allied powers. With the death of Gustavus Adolphus, the enemy had + formed new hopes; and however gloomy might be the situation of his affairs + after the battle of Lutzen, still the death of his dreaded rival was an + event too disastrous to the allies, and too favourable for the Emperor, + not to justify him in entertaining the most brilliant expectations, and + not to encourage him to the prosecution of the war. Its inevitable + consequence, for the moment at least, must be want of union among the + allies, and what might not the Emperor and the League gain from such a + division of their enemies? He was not likely to sacrifice such prospects, + as the present turn of affairs held out to him, for any peace, not highly + beneficial to himself; and such a peace the allies would not be disposed + to accept. They naturally determined, therefore, to continue the war, and + for this purpose, the maintenance of the existing union was acknowledged + to be indispensable. + </p> + <p> + But how was this union to be renewed? and whence were to be derived the + necessary means for continuing the war? It was not the power of Sweden, + but the talents and personal influence of its late king, which had given + him so overwhelming an influence in Germany, so great a command over the + minds of men; and even he had innumerable difficulties to overcome, before + he could establish among the states even a weak and wavering alliance. + With his death vanished all, which his personal qualities alone had + rendered practicable; and the mutual obligation of the states seemed to + cease with the hopes on which it had been founded. Several impatiently + threw off the yoke which had always been irksome; others hastened to seize + the helm which they had unwillingly seen in the hands of Gustavus, but + which, during his lifetime, they did not dare to dispute with him. Some + were tempted, by the seductive promises of the Emperor, to abandon the + alliance; others, oppressed by the heavy burdens of a fourteen years’ war, + longed for the repose of peace, upon any conditions, however ruinous. The + generals of the army, partly German princes, acknowledged no common head, + and no one would stoop to receive orders from another. Unanimity vanished + alike from the cabinet and the field, and their common weal was threatened + with ruin, by the spirit of disunion. + </p> + <p> + Gustavus had left no male heir to the crown of Sweden: his daughter + Christina, then six years old, was the natural heir. The unavoidable + weakness of a regency, suited ill with that energy and resolution, which + Sweden would be called upon to display in this trying conjuncture. The + wide reaching mind of Gustavus Adolphus had raised this unimportant, and + hitherto unknown kingdom, to a rank among the powers of Europe, which it + could not retain without the fortune and genius of its author, and from + which it could not recede, without a humiliating confession of weakness. + Though the German war had been conducted chiefly on the resources of + Germany, yet even the small contribution of men and money, which Sweden + furnished, had sufficed to exhaust the finances of that poor kingdom, and + the peasantry groaned beneath the imposts necessarily laid upon them. The + plunder gained in Germany enriched only a few individuals, among the + nobles and the soldiers, while Sweden itself remained poor as before. For + a time, it is true, the national glory reconciled the subject to these + burdens, and the sums exacted, seemed but as a loan placed at interest, in + the fortunate hand of Gustavus Adolphus, to be richly repaid by the + grateful monarch at the conclusion of a glorious peace. But with the + king’s death this hope vanished, and the deluded people now loudly + demanded relief from their burdens. + </p> + <p> + But the spirit of Gustavus Adolphus still lived in the men to whom he had + confided the administration of the kingdom. However dreadful to them, and + unexpected, was the intelligence of his death, it did not deprive them of + their manly courage; and the spirit of ancient Rome, under the invasion of + Brennus and Hannibal, animated this noble assembly. The greater the price, + at which these hard-gained advantages had been purchased, the less readily + could they reconcile themselves to renounce them: not unrevenged was a + king to be sacrificed. Called on to choose between a doubtful and + exhausting war, and a profitable but disgraceful peace, the Swedish + council of state boldly espoused the side of danger and honour; and with + agreeable surprise, men beheld this venerable senate acting with all the + energy and enthusiasm of youth. Surrounded with watchful enemies, both + within and without, and threatened on every side with danger, they armed + themselves against them all, with equal prudence and heroism, and laboured + to extend their kingdom, even at the moment when they had to struggle for + its existence. + </p> + <p> + The decease of the king, and the minority of his daughter Christina, + renewed the claims of Poland to the Swedish throne; and King Ladislaus, + the son of Sigismund, spared no intrigues to gain a party in Sweden. On + this ground, the regency lost no time in proclaiming the young queen, and + arranging the administration of the regency. All the officers of the + kingdom were summoned to do homage to their new princess; all + correspondence with Poland prohibited, and the edicts of previous monarchs + against the heirs of Sigismund, confirmed by a solemn act of the nation. + The alliance with the Czar of Muscovy was carefully renewed, in order, by + the arms of this prince, to keep the hostile Poles in check. The death of + Gustavus Adolphus had put an end to the jealousy of Denmark, and removed + the grounds of alarm which had stood in the way of a good understanding + between the two states. The representations by which the enemy sought to + stir up Christian IV. against Sweden were no longer listened to; and the + strong wish the Danish monarch entertained for the marriage of his son + Ulrick with the young princess, combined, with the dictates of a sounder + policy, to incline him to a neutrality. At the same time, England, + Holland, and France came forward with the gratifying assurances to the + regency of continued friendship and support, and encouraged them, with one + voice, to prosecute with activity the war, which hitherto had been + conducted with so much glory. Whatever reason France might have to + congratulate itself on the death of the Swedish conqueror, it was as fully + sensible of the expediency of maintaining the alliance with Sweden. + Without exposing itself to great danger, it could not allow the power of + Sweden to sink in Germany. Want of resources of its own, would either + drive Sweden to conclude a hasty and disadvantageous peace with Austria, + and then all the past efforts to lower the ascendancy of this dangerous + power would be thrown away; or necessity and despair would drive the + armies to extort from the Roman Catholic states the means of support, and + France would then be regarded as the betrayer of those very states, who + had placed themselves under her powerful protection. The death of + Gustavus, far from breaking up the alliance between France and Sweden, had + only rendered it more necessary for both, and more profitable for France. + Now, for the first time, since he was dead who had stretched his + protecting arm over Germany, and guarded its frontiers against the + encroaching designs of France, could the latter safely pursue its designs + upon Alsace, and thus be enabled to sell its aid to the German Protestants + at a dearer rate. + </p> + <p> + Strengthened by these alliances, secured in its interior, and defended + from without by strong frontier garrisons and fleets, the regency did not + delay an instant to continue a war, by which Sweden had little of its own + to lose, while, if success attended its arms, one or more of the German + provinces might be won, either as a conquest, or indemnification of its + expenses. Secure amidst its seas, Sweden, even if driven out of Germany, + would scarcely be exposed to greater peril, than if it voluntarily retired + from the contest, while the former measure was as honourable, as the + latter was disgraceful. The more boldness the regency displayed, the more + confidence would they inspire among their confederates, the more respect + among their enemies, and the more favourable conditions might they + anticipate in the event of peace. If they found themselves too weak to + execute the wide-ranging projects of Gustavus, they at least owed it to + this lofty model to do their utmost, and to yield to no difficulty short + of absolute necessity. Alas, that motives of self-interest had too great a + share in this noble determination, to demand our unqualified admiration! + For those who had nothing themselves to suffer from the calamities of war, + but were rather to be enriched by it, it was an easy matter to resolve + upon its continuation; for the German empire was, in the end, to defray + the expenses; and the provinces on which they reckoned, would be cheaply + purchased with the few troops they sacrificed to them, and with the + generals who were placed at the head of armies, composed for the most part + of Germans, and with the honourable superintendence of all the operations, + both military and political. + </p> + <p> + But this superintendence was irreconcileable with the distance of the + Swedish regency from the scene of action, and with the slowness which + necessarily accompanies all the movements of a council. + </p> + <p> + To one comprehensive mind must be intrusted the management of Swedish + interests in Germany, and with full powers to determine at discretion all + questions of war and peace, the necessary alliances, or the acquisitions + made. With dictatorial power, and with the whole influence of the crown + which he was to represent, must this important magistrate be invested, in + order to maintain its dignity, to enforce united and combined operations, + to give effect to his orders, and to supply the place of the monarch whom + he succeeded. Such a man was found in the Chancellor Oxenstiern, the first + minister, and what is more, the friend of the deceased king, who, + acquainted with all the secrets of his master, versed in the politics of + Germany, and in the relations of all the states of Europe, was + unquestionably the fittest instrument to carry out the plans of Gustavus + Adolphus in their full extent. + </p> + <p> + Oxenstiern was on his way to Upper Germany, in order to assemble the four + Upper Circles, when the news of the king’s death reached him at Hanau. + This was a heavy blow, both to the friend and the statesman. Sweden, + indeed, had lost but a king, Germany a protector; but Oxenstiern, the + author of his fortunes, the friend of his soul, and the object of his + admiration. Though the greatest sufferer in the general loss, he was the + first who by his energy rose from the blow, and the only one qualified to + repair it. His penetrating glance foresaw all the obstacles which would + oppose the execution of his plans, the discouragement of the estates, the + intrigues of hostile courts, the breaking up of the confederacy, the + jealousy of the leaders, and the dislike of princes of the empire to + submit to foreign authority. But even this deep insight into the existing + state of things, which revealed the whole extent of the evil, showed him + also the means by which it might be overcome. It was essential to revive + the drooping courage of the weaker states, to meet the secret machinations + of the enemy, to allay the jealousy of the more powerful allies, to rouse + the friendly powers, and France in particular, to active assistance; but + above all, to repair the ruined edifice of the German alliance, and to + reunite the scattered strength of the party by a close and permanent bond + of union. The dismay which the loss of their leader occasioned the German + Protestants, might as readily dispose them to a closer alliance with + Sweden, as to a hasty peace with the Emperor; and it depended entirely + upon the course pursued, which of these alternatives they would adopt. + Every thing might be lost by the slightest sign of despondency; nothing, + but the confidence which Sweden showed in herself, could kindle among the + Germans a noble feeling of self-confidence. All the attempts of Austria, + to detach these princes from the Swedish alliance, would be unavailing, + the moment their eyes became opened to their true interests, and they were + instigated to a public and formal breach with the Emperor. + </p> + <p> + Before these measures could be taken, and the necessary points settled + between the regency and their minister, a precious opportunity of action + would, it is true, be lost to the Swedish army, of which the enemy would + be sure to take the utmost advantage. It was, in short, in the power of + the Emperor totally to ruin the Swedish interest in Germany, and to this + he was actually invited by the prudent councils of the Duke of Friedland. + Wallenstein advised him to proclaim a universal amnesty, and to meet the + Protestant states with favourable conditions. In the first consternation + produced by the fall of Gustavus Adolphus, such a declaration would have + had the most powerful effects, and probably would have brought the + wavering states back to their allegiance. But blinded by this unexpected + turn of fortune, and infatuated by Spanish counsels, he anticipated a more + brilliant issue from war, and, instead of listening to these propositions + of an accommodation, he hastened to augment his forces. Spain, enriched by + the grant of the tenth of the ecclesiastical possessions, which the pope + confirmed, sent him considerable supplies, negociated for him at the Saxon + court, and hastily levied troops for him in Italy to be employed in + Germany. The Elector of Bavaria also considerably increased his military + force; and the restless disposition of the Duke of Lorraine did not permit + him to remain inactive in this favourable change of fortune. But while the + enemy were thus busy to profit by the disaster of Sweden, Oxenstiern was + diligent to avert its most fatal consequences. + </p> + <p> + Less apprehensive of open enemies, than of the jealousy of the friendly + powers, he left Upper Germany, which he had secured by conquests and + alliances, and set out in person to prevent a total defection of the Lower + German states, or, what would have been almost equally ruinous to Sweden, + a private alliance among themselves. Offended at the boldness with which + the chancellor assumed the direction of affairs, and inwardly exasperated + at the thought of being dictated to by a Swedish nobleman, the Elector of + Saxony again meditated a dangerous separation from Sweden; and the only + question in his mind was, whether he should make full terms with the + Emperor, or place himself at the head of the Protestants and form a third + party in Germany. Similar ideas were cherished by Duke Ulric of Brunswick, + who, indeed, showed them openly enough by forbidding the Swedes from + recruiting within his dominions, and inviting the Lower Saxon states to + Luneburg, for the purpose of forming a confederacy among themselves. The + Elector of Brandenburg, jealous of the influence which Saxony was likely + to attain in Lower Germany, alone manifested any zeal for the interests of + the Swedish throne, which, in thought, he already destined for his son. At + the court of Saxony, Oxenstiern was no doubt honourably received; but, + notwithstanding the personal efforts of the Elector of Brandenburg, empty + promises of continued friendship were all which he could obtain. With the + Duke of Brunswick he was more successful, for with him he ventured to + assume a bolder tone. Sweden was at the time in possession of the See of + Magdeburg, the bishop of which had the power of assembling the Lower Saxon + circle. The chancellor now asserted the rights of the crown, and by this + spirited proceeding, put a stop for the present to this dangerous assembly + designed by the duke. The main object, however, of his present journey and + of his future endeavours, a general confederacy of the Protestants, + miscarried entirely, and he was obliged to content himself with some + unsteady alliances in the Saxon circles, and with the weaker assistance of + Upper Germany. + </p> + <p> + As the Bavarians were too powerful on the Danube, the assembly of the four + Upper Circles, which should have been held at Ulm, was removed to + Heilbronn, where deputies of more than twelve cities of the empire, with a + brilliant crowd of doctors, counts, and princes, attended. The ambassadors + of foreign powers likewise, France, England, and Holland, attended this + Congress, at which Oxenstiern appeared in person, with all the splendour + of the crown whose representative he was. He himself opened the + proceedings, and conducted the deliberations. After receiving from all the + assembled estates assurances of unshaken fidelity, perseverance, and + unity, he required of them solemnly and formally to declare the Emperor + and the league as enemies. But desirable as it was for Sweden to + exasperate the ill-feeling between the emperor and the estates into a + formal rupture, the latter, on the other hand, were equally indisposed to + shut out the possibility of reconciliation, by so decided a step, and to + place themselves entirely in the hands of the Swedes. They maintained, + that any formal declaration of war was useless and superfluous, where the + act would speak for itself, and their firmness on this point silenced at + last the chancellor. Warmer disputes arose on the third and principal + article of the treaty, concerning the means of prosecuting the war, and + the quota which the several states ought to furnish for the support of the + army. Oxenstiern’s maxim, to throw as much as possible of the common + burden on the states, did not suit very well with their determination to + give as little as possible. The Swedish chancellor now experienced, what + had been felt by thirty emperors before him, to their cost, that of all + difficult undertakings, the most difficult was to extort money from the + Germans. Instead of granting the necessary sums for the new armies to be + raised, they eloquently dwelt upon the calamities occasioned by the + former, and demanded relief from the old burdens, when they were required + to submit to new. The irritation which the chancellor’s demand for money + raised among the states, gave rise to a thousand complaints; and the + outrages committed by the troops, in their marches and quarters, were + dwelt upon with a startling minuteness and truth. + </p> + <p> + In the service of two absolute monarchs, Oxenstiern had but little + opportunity to become accustomed to the formalities and cautious + proceedings of republican deliberations, or to bear opposition with + patience. Ready to act, the instant the necessity of action was apparent, + and inflexible in his resolution, when he had once taken it, he was at a + loss to comprehend the inconsistency of most men, who, while they desire + the end, are yet averse to the means. Prompt and impetuous by nature, he + was so on this occasion from principle; for every thing depended on + concealing the weakness of Sweden, under a firm and confident speech, and + by assuming the tone of a lawgiver, really to become so. It was nothing + wonderful, therefore, if, amidst these interminable discussions with + German doctors and deputies, he was entirely out of his sphere, and if the + deliberateness which distinguishes the character of the Germans in their + public deliberations, had driven him almost to despair. Without respecting + a custom, to which even the most powerful of the emperors had been obliged + to conform, he rejected all written deliberations which suited so well + with the national slowness of resolve. He could not conceive how ten days + could be spent in debating a measure, which with himself was decided upon + its bare suggestion. Harshly, however, as he treated the States, he found + them ready enough to assent to his fourth motion, which concerned himself. + When he pointed out the necessity of giving a head and a director to the + new confederation, that honour was unanimously assigned to Sweden, and he + himself was humbly requested to give to the common cause the benefit of + his enlightened experience, and to take upon himself the burden of the + supreme command. But in order to prevent his abusing the great powers thus + conferred upon him, it was proposed, not without French influence, to + appoint a number of overseers, in fact, under the name of assistants, to + control the expenditure of the common treasure, and to consult with him as + to the levies, marches, and quarterings of the troops. Oxenstiern long and + strenuously resisted this limitation of his authority, which could not + fail to trammel him in the execution of every enterprise requiring + promptitude or secrecy, and at last succeeded, with difficulty, in + obtaining so far a modification of it, that his management in affairs of + war was to be uncontrolled. The chancellor finally approached the delicate + point of the indemnification which Sweden was to expect at the conclusion + of the war, from the gratitude of the allies, and flattered himself with + the hope that Pomerania, the main object of Sweden, would be assigned to + her, and that he would obtain from the provinces, assurances of effectual + cooperation in its acquisition. But he could obtain nothing more than a + vague assurance, that in a general peace the interests of all parties + would be attended to. That on this point, the caution of the estates was + not owing to any regard for the constitution of the empire, became + manifest from the liberality they evinced towards the chancellor, at the + expense of the most sacred laws of the empire. They were ready to grant + him the archbishopric of Mentz, (which he already held as a conquest,) and + only with difficulty did the French ambassador succeed in preventing a + step, which was as impolitic as it was disgraceful. Though on the whole, + the result of the congress had fallen far short of Oxenstiern’s + expectations, he had at least gained for himself and his crown his main + object, namely, the direction of the whole confederacy; he had also + succeeded in strengthening the bond of union between the four upper + circles, and obtained from the states a yearly contribution of two + millions and a half of dollars, for the maintenance of the army. + </p> + <p> + These concessions on the part of the States, demanded some return from + Sweden. A few weeks after the death of Gustavus Adolphus, sorrow ended the + days of the unfortunate Elector Palatine. For eight months he had swelled + the pomp of his protector’s court, and expended on it the small remainder + of his patrimony. He was, at last, approaching the goal of his wishes, and + the prospect of a brighter future was opening, when death deprived him of + his protector. But what he regarded as the greatest calamity, was highly + favourable to his heirs. Gustavus might venture to delay the restoration + of his dominions, or to load the gift with hard conditions; but + Oxenstiern, to whom the friendship of England, Holland, and Brandenburg, + and the good opinion of the Reformed States were indispensable, felt the + necessity of immediately fulfilling the obligations of justice. At this + assembly, at Heilbronn, therefore, he engaged to surrender to Frederick’s + heirs the whole Palatinate, both the part already conquered, and that + which remained to be conquered, with the exception of Manheim, which the + Swedes were to hold, until they should be indemnified for their expenses. + The Chancellor did not confine his liberality to the family of the + Palatine alone; the other allied princes received proofs, though at a + later period, of the gratitude of Sweden, which, however, she dispensed at + little cost to herself. + </p> + <p> + Impartiality, the most sacred obligation of the historian, here compels us + to an admission, not much to the honour of the champions of German + liberty. However the Protestant Princes might boast of the justice of + their cause, and the sincerity of their conviction, still the motives from + which they acted were selfish enough; and the desire of stripping others + of their possessions, had at least as great a share in the commencement of + hostilities, as the fear of being deprived of their own. Gustavus soon + found that he might reckon much more on these selfish motives, than on + their patriotic zeal, and did not fail to avail himself of them. Each of + his confederates received from him the promise of some possession, either + already wrested, or to be afterwards taken from the enemy; and death alone + prevented him from fulfilling these engagements. What prudence had + suggested to the king, necessity now prescribed to his successor. If it + was his object to continue the war, he must be ready to divide the spoil + among the allies, and promise them advantages from the confusion which it + was his object to continue. Thus he promised to the Landgrave of Hesse, + the abbacies of Paderborn, Corvey, Munster, and Fulda; to Duke Bernard of + Weimar, the Franconian Bishoprics; to the Duke of Wirtemberg, the + Ecclesiastical domains, and the Austrian counties lying within his + territories, all under the title of fiefs of Sweden. This spectacle, so + strange and so dishonourable to the German character, surprised the + Chancellor, who found it difficult to repress his contempt, and on one + occasion exclaimed, “Let it be writ in our records, for an everlasting + memorial, that a German prince made such a request of a Swedish nobleman, + and that the Swedish nobleman granted it to the German upon German + ground!” + </p> + <p> + After these successful measures, he was in a condition to take the field, + and prosecute the war with fresh vigour. Soon after the victory at Lutzen, + the troops of Saxony and Lunenburg united with the Swedish main body; and + the Imperialists were, in a short time, totally driven from Saxony. The + united army again divided: the Saxons marched towards Lusatia and Silesia, + to act in conjunction with Count Thurn against the Austrians in that + quarter; a part of the Swedish army was led by the Duke of Weimar into + Franconia, and the other by George, Duke of Brunswick, into Westphalia and + Lower Saxony. + </p> + <p> + The conquests on the Lech and the Danube, during Gustavus’s expedition + into Saxony, had been maintained by the Palatine of Birkenfeld, and the + Swedish General Banner, against the Bavarians; but unable to hold their + ground against the victorious progress of the latter, supported as they + were by the bravery and military experience of the Imperial General + Altringer, they were under the necessity of summoning the Swedish General + Horn to their assistance, from Alsace. This experienced general having + captured the towns of Benfeld, Schlettstadt, Colmar, and Hagenau, + committed the defence of them to the Rhinegrave Otto Louis, and hastily + crossed the Rhine to form a junction with Banner’s army. But although the + combined force amounted to more than 16,000, they could not prevent the + enemy from obtaining a strong position on the Swabian frontier, taking + Kempten, and being joined by seven regiments from Bohemia. In order to + retain the command of the important banks of the Lech and the Danube, they + were under the necessity of recalling the Rhinegrave Otto Louis from + Alsace, where he had, after the departure of Horn, found it difficult to + defend himself against the exasperated peasantry. With his army, he was + now summoned to strengthen the army on the Danube; and as even this + reinforcement was insufficient, Duke Bernard of Weimar was earnestly + pressed to turn his arms into this quarter. + </p> + <p> + Duke Bernard, soon after the opening of the campaign of 1633, had made + himself master of the town and territory of Bamberg, and was now + threatening Wurtzburg. But on receiving the summons of General Horn, + without delay he began his march towards the Danube, defeated on his way a + Bavarian army under John de Werth, and joined the Swedes near Donauwerth. + This numerous force, commanded by excellent generals, now threatened + Bavaria with a fearful inroad. The bishopric of Eichstadt was completely + overrun, and Ingoldstadt was on the point of being delivered up by + treachery to the Swedes. Altringer, fettered in his movements by the + express order of the Duke of Friedland, and left without assistance from + Bohemia, was unable to check the progress of the enemy. The most + favourable circumstances combined to further the progress of the Swedish + arms in this quarter, when the operations of the army were at once stopped + by a mutiny among the officers. + </p> + <p> + All the previous successes in Germany were owing altogether to arms; the + greatness of Gustavus himself was the work of the army, the fruit of their + discipline, their bravery, and their persevering courage under numberless + dangers and privations. However wisely his plans were laid in the cabinet, + it was to the army ultimately that he was indebted for their execution; + and the expanding designs of the general did but continually impose new + burdens on the soldiers. All the decisive advantages of the war, had been + violently gained by a barbarous sacrifice of the soldiers’ lives in winter + campaigns, forced marches, stormings, and pitched battles; for it was + Gustavus’s maxim never to decline a battle, so long as it cost him nothing + but men. The soldiers could not long be kept ignorant of their own + importance, and they justly demanded a share in the spoil which had been + won by their own blood. Yet, frequently, they hardly received their pay; + and the rapacity of individual generals, or the wants of the state, + generally swallowed up the greater part of the sums raised by + contributions, or levied upon the conquered provinces. For all the + privations he endured, the soldier had no other recompense than the + doubtful chance either of plunder or promotion, in both of which he was + often disappointed. During the lifetime of Gustavus Adolphus, the combined + influence of fear and hope had suppressed any open complaint, but after + his death, the murmurs were loud and universal; and the soldiery seized + the most dangerous moment to impress their superiors with a sense of their + importance. Two officers, Pfuhl and Mitschefal, notorious as restless + characters, even during the King’s life, set the example in the camp on + the Danube, which in a few days was imitated by almost all the officers of + the army. They solemnly bound themselves to obey no orders, till these + arrears, now outstanding for months, and even years, should be paid up, + and a gratuity, either in money or lands, made to each man, according to + his services. “Immense sums,” they said, “were daily raised by + contributions, and all dissipated by a few. They were called out to serve + amidst frost and snow, and no reward requited their incessant labours. The + soldiers’ excesses at Heilbronn had been blamed, but no one ever talked of + their services. The world rung with the tidings of conquests and + victories, but it was by their hands that they had been fought and won.” + </p> + <p> + The number of the malcontents daily increased; and they even attempted by + letters, (which were fortunately intercepted,) to seduce the armies on the + Rhine and in Saxony. Neither the representations of Bernard of Weimar, nor + the stern reproaches of his harsher associate in command, could suppress + this mutiny, while the vehemence of Horn seemed only to increase the + insolence of the insurgents. The conditions they insisted on, were that + certain towns should be assigned to each regiment for the payment of + arrears. Four weeks were allowed to the Swedish Chancellor to comply with + these demands; and in case of refusal, they announced that they would pay + themselves, and never more draw a sword for Sweden. + </p> + <p> + These pressing demands, made at the very time when the military chest was + exhausted, and credit at a low ebb, greatly embarrassed the chancellor. + The remedy, he saw, must be found quickly, before the contagion should + spread to the other troops, and he should be deserted by all his armies at + once. Among all the Swedish generals, there was only one of sufficient + authority and influence with the soldiers to put an end to this dispute. + The Duke of Weimar was the favourite of the army, and his prudent + moderation had won the good-will of the soldiers, while his military + experience had excited their admiration. He now undertook the task of + appeasing the discontented troops; but, aware of his importance, he + embraced the opportunity to make advantageous stipulations for himself, + and to make the embarrassment of the chancellor subservient to his own + views. + </p> + <p> + Gustavus Adolphus had flattered him with the promise of the Duchy of + Franconia, to be formed out of the Bishoprics of Wurtzburg and Bamberg, + and he now insisted on the performance of this pledge. He at the same time + demanded the chief command, as generalissimo of Sweden. The abuse which + the Duke of Weimar thus made of his influence, so irritated Oxenstiern, + that, in the first moment of his displeasure, he gave him his dismissal + from the Swedish service. But he soon thought better of it, and + determined, instead of sacrificing so important a leader, to attach him to + the Swedish interests at any cost. He therefore granted to him the + Franconian bishoprics, as a fief of the Swedish crown, reserving, however, + the two fortresses of Wurtzburg and Koenigshofen, which were to be + garrisoned by the Swedes; and also engaged, in name of the Swedish crown, + to secure these territories to the duke. His demand of the supreme + authority was evaded on some specious pretext. The duke did not delay to + display his gratitude for this valuable grant, and by his influence and + activity soon restored tranquillity to the army. Large sums of money, and + still more extensive estates, were divided among the officers, amounting + in value to about five millions of dollars, and to which they had no other + right but that of conquest. In the mean time, however, the opportunity for + a great undertaking had been lost, and the united generals divided their + forces to oppose the enemy in other quarters. + </p> + <p> + Gustavus Horn, after a short inroad into the Upper Palatinate, and the + capture of Neumark, directed his march towards the Swabian frontier, where + the Imperialists, strongly reinforced, threatened Wuertemberg. At his + approach, the enemy retired to the Lake of Constance, but only to show the + Swedes the road into a district hitherto unvisited by war. A post on the + entrance to Switzerland, would be highly serviceable to the Swedes, and + the town of Kostnitz seemed peculiarly well fitted to be a point of + communication between him and the confederated cantons. Accordingly, + Gustavus Horn immediately commenced the siege of it; but destitute of + artillery, for which he was obliged to send to Wirtemberg, he could not + press the attack with sufficient vigour, to prevent the enemy from + throwing supplies into the town, which the lake afforded them convenient + opportunity of doing. He, therefore, after an ineffectual attempt, quitted + the place and its neighbourhood, and hastened to meet a more threatening + danger upon the Danube. + </p> + <p> + At the Emperor’s instigation, the Cardinal Infante, the brother of Philip + IV. of Spain, and the Viceroy of Milan, had raised an army of 14,000 men, + intended to act upon the Rhine, independently of Wallenstein, and to + protect Alsace. This force now appeared in Bavaria, under the command of + the Duke of Feria, a Spaniard; and, that they might be directly employed + against the Swedes, Altringer was ordered to join them with his corps. + Upon the first intelligence of their approach, Horn had summoned to his + assistance the Palsgrave of Birkenfeld, from the Rhine; and being joined + by him at Stockach, boldly advanced to meet the enemy’s army of 30,000 + men. + </p> + <p> + The latter had taken the route across the Danube into Swabia, where + Gustavus Horn came so close upon them, that the two armies were only + separated from each other by half a German mile. But, instead of accepting + the offer of battle, the Imperialists moved by the Forest towns towards + Briesgau and Alsace, where they arrived in time to relieve Breysack, and + to arrest the victorious progress of the Rhinegrave, Otto Louis. The + latter had, shortly before, taken the Forest towns, and, supported by the + Palatine of Birkenfeld, who had liberated the Lower Palatinate and beaten + the Duke of Lorraine out of the field, had once more given the superiority + to the Swedish arms in that quarter. He was now forced to retire before + the superior numbers of the enemy; but Horn and Birkenfeld quickly + advanced to his support, and the Imperialists, after a brief triumph, were + again expelled from Alsace. The severity of the autumn, in which this + hapless retreat had to be conducted, proved fatal to most of the Italians; + and their leader, the Duke of Feria, died of grief at the failure of his + enterprise. + </p> + <p> + In the mean time, Duke Bernard of Weimar had taken up his position on the + Danube, with eighteen regiments of infantry and 140 squadrons of horse, to + cover Franconia, and to watch the movements of the Imperial-Bavarian army + upon that river. No sooner had Altringer departed, to join the Italians + under Feria, than Bernard, profiting by his absence, hastened across the + Danube, and with the rapidity of lightning appeared before Ratisbon. The + possession of this town would ensure the success of the Swedish designs + upon Bavaria and Austria; it would establish them firmly on the Danube, + and provide a safe refuge in case of defeat, while it alone could give + permanence to their conquests in that quarter. To defend Ratisbon, was the + urgent advice which the dying Tilly left to the Elector; and Gustavus + Adolphus had lamented it as an irreparable loss, that the Bavarians had + anticipated him in taking possession of this place. Indescribable, + therefore, was the consternation of Maximilian, when Duke Bernard suddenly + appeared before the town, and prepared in earnest to besiege it. + </p> + <p> + The garrison consisted of not more than fifteen companies, mostly + newly-raised soldiers; although that number was more than sufficient to + weary out an enemy of far superior force, if supported by well-disposed + and warlike inhabitants. But this was not the greatest danger which the + Bavarian garrison had to contend against. The Protestant inhabitants of + Ratisbon, equally jealous of their civil and religious freedom, had + unwillingly submitted to the yoke of Bavaria, and had long looked with + impatience for the appearance of a deliverer. Bernard’s arrival before the + walls filled them with lively joy; and there was much reason to fear that + they would support the attempts of the besiegers without, by exciting a + tumult within. In this perplexity, the Elector addressed the most pressing + entreaties to the Emperor and the Duke of Friedland to assist him, were it + only with 5,000 men. Seven messengers in succession were despatched by + Ferdinand to Wallenstein, who promised immediate succours, and even + announced to the Elector the near advance of 12,000 men under Gallas; but + at the same time forbade that general, under pain of death, to march. + Meanwhile the Bavarian commandant of Ratisbon, in the hope of speedy + assistance, made the best preparations for defence, armed the Roman + Catholic peasants, disarmed and carefully watched the Protestant citizens, + lest they should attempt any hostile design against the garrison. But as + no relief arrived, and the enemy’s artillery incessantly battered the + walls, he consulted his own safety, and that of the garrison, by an + honourable capitulation, and abandoned the Bavarian officials and + ecclesiastics to the conqueror’s mercy. + </p> + <p> + The possession of Ratisbon, enlarged the projects of the duke, and Bavaria + itself now appeared too narrow a field for his bold designs. He determined + to penetrate to the frontiers of Austria, to arm the Protestant peasantry + against the Emperor, and restore to them their religious liberty. He had + already taken Straubingen, while another Swedish army was advancing + successfully along the northern bank of the Danube. At the head of his + Swedes, bidding defiance to the severity of the weather, he reached the + mouth of the Iser, which he passed in the presence of the Bavarian General + Werth, who was encamped on that river. Passau and Lintz trembled for their + fate; the terrified Emperor redoubled his entreaties and commands to + Wallenstein, to hasten with all speed to the relief of the hard-pressed + Bavarians. But here the victorious Bernard, of his own accord, checked his + career of conquest. Having in front of him the river Inn, guarded by a + number of strong fortresses, and behind him two hostile armies, a + disaffected country, and the river Iser, while his rear was covered by no + tenable position, and no entrenchment could be made in the frozen ground, + and threatened by the whole force of Wallenstein, who had at last resolved + to march to the Danube, by a timely retreat he escaped the danger of being + cut off from Ratisbon, and surrounded by the enemy. He hastened across the + Iser to the Danube, to defend the conquests he had made in the Upper + Palatinate against Wallenstein, and fully resolved not to decline a + battle, if necessary, with that general. But Wallenstein, who was not + disposed for any great exploits on the Danube, did not wait for his + approach; and before the Bavarians could congratulate themselves on his + arrival, he suddenly withdrew again into Bohemia. The duke thus ended his + victorious campaign, and allowed his troops their well-earned repose in + winter quarters upon an enemy’s country. + </p> + <p> + While in Swabia the war was thus successfully conducted by Gustavus Horn, + and on the Upper and Lower Rhine by the Palatine of Birkenfeld, General + Baudissen, and the Rhinegrave Otto Louis, and by Duke Bernard on the + Danube; the reputation of the Swedish arms was as gloriously sustained in + Lower Saxony and Westphalia by the Duke of Lunenburg and the Landgrave of + Hesse Cassel. The fortress of Hamel was taken by Duke George, after a + brave defence, and a brilliant victory obtained over the imperial General + Gronsfeld, by the united Swedish and Hessian armies, near Oldendorf. Count + Wasaburg, a natural son of Gustavus Adolphus, showed himself in this + battle worthy of his descent. Sixteen pieces of cannon, the whole baggage + of the Imperialists, together with 74 colours, fell into the hands of the + Swedes; 3,000 of the enemy perished on the field, and nearly the same + number were taken prisoners. The town of Osnaburg surrendered to the + Swedish Colonel Knyphausen, and Paderborn to the Landgrave of Hesse; + while, on the other hand, Bueckeburg, a very important place for the + Swedes, fell into the hands of the Imperialists. The Swedish banners were + victorious in almost every quarter of Germany; and the year after the + death of Gustavus, left no trace of the loss which had been sustained in + the person of that great leader. + </p> + <p> + In a review of the important events which signalized the campaign of 1633, + the inactivity of a man, of whom the highest expectations had been formed, + justly excites astonishment. Among all the generals who distinguished + themselves in this campaign, none could be compared with Wallenstein, in + experience, talents, and reputation; and yet, after the battle of Lutzen, + we lose sight of him entirely. The fall of his great rival had left the + whole theatre of glory open to him; all Europe was now attentively + awaiting those exploits, which should efface the remembrance of his + defeat, and still prove to the world his military superiority. + Nevertheless, he continued inactive in Bohemia, while the Emperor’s losses + in Bavaria, Lower Saxony, and the Rhine, pressingly called for his + presence—a conduct equally unintelligible to friend and foe—the + terror, and, at the same time, the last hope of the Emperor. After the + defeat of Lutzen he had hastened into Bohemia, where he instituted the + strictest inquiry into the conduct of his officers in that battle. Those + whom the council of war declared guilty of misconduct, were put to death + without mercy, those who had behaved with bravery, rewarded with princely + munificence, and the memory of the dead honoured by splendid monuments. + During the winter, he oppressed the imperial provinces by enormous + contributions, and exhausted the Austrian territories by his winter + quarters, which he purposely avoided taking up in an enemy’s country. And + in the spring of 1633, instead of being the first to open the campaign, + with this well-chosen and well-appointed army, and to make a worthy + display of his great abilities, he was the last who appeared in the field; + and even then, it was an hereditary province of Austria, which he selected + as the seat of war. + </p> + <p> + Of all the Austrian provinces, Silesia was most exposed to danger. Three + different armies, a Swedish under Count Thurn, a Saxon under Arnheim and + the Duke of Lauenburg, and one of Brandenburg under Borgsdorf, had at the + same time carried the war into this country; they had already taken + possession of the most important places, and even Breslau had embraced the + cause of the allies. But this crowd of commanders and armies was the very + means of saving this province to the Emperor; for the jealousy of the + generals, and the mutual hatred of the Saxons and the Swedes, never + allowed them to act with unanimity. Arnheim and Thurn contended for the + chief command; the troops of Brandenburg and Saxony combined against the + Swedes, whom they looked upon as troublesome strangers who ought to be got + rid of as soon as possible. The Saxons, on the contrary, lived on a very + intimate footing with the Imperialists, and the officers of both these + hostile armies often visited and entertained each other. The Imperialists + were allowed to remove their property without hindrance, and many did not + affect to conceal that they had received large sums from Vienna. Among + such equivocal allies, the Swedes saw themselves sold and betrayed; and + any great enterprise was out of the question, while so bad an + understanding prevailed between the troops. General Arnheim, too, was + absent the greater part of the time; and when he at last returned, + Wallenstein was fast approaching the frontiers with a formidable force. + </p> + <p> + His army amounted to 40,000 men, while to oppose him the allies had only + 24,000. They nevertheless resolved to give him battle, and marched to + Munsterberg, where he had formed an intrenched camp. But Wallenstein + remained inactive for eight days; he then left his intrenchments, and + marched slowly and with composure to the enemy’s camp. But even after + quitting his position, and when the enemy, emboldened by his past delay, + manfully prepared to receive him, he declined the opportunity of fighting. + The caution with which he avoided a battle was imputed to fear; but the + well-established reputation of Wallenstein enabled him to despise this + suspicion. The vanity of the allies allowed them not to see that he + purposely saved them a defeat, because a victory at that time would not + have served his own ends. To convince them of his superior power, and that + his inactivity proceeded not from any fear of them, he put to death the + commander of a castle that fell into his hands, because he had refused at + once to surrender an untenable place. + </p> + <p> + For nine days, did the two armies remain within musket-shot of each other, + when Count Terzky, from the camp of the Imperialists, appeared with a + trumpeter in that of the allies, inviting General Arnheim to a conference. + The purport was, that Wallenstein, notwithstanding his superiority, was + willing to agree to a cessation of arms for six weeks. “He was come,” he + said, “to conclude a lasting peace with the Swedes, and with the princes + of the empire, to pay the soldiers, and to satisfy every one. All this was + in his power; and if the Austrian court hesitated to confirm his + agreement, he would unite with the allies, and (as he privately whispered + to Arnheim) hunt the Emperor to the devil.” At the second conference, he + expressed himself still more plainly to Count Thurn. “All the privileges + of the Bohemians,” he engaged, “should be confirmed anew, the exiles + recalled and restored to their estates, and he himself would be the first + to resign his share of them. The Jesuits, as the authors of all past + grievances, should be banished, the Swedish crown indemnified by stated + payments, and all the superfluous troops on both sides employed against + the Turks.” The last article explained the whole mystery. “If,” he + continued, “HE should obtain the crown of Bohemia, all the exiles would + have reason to applaud his generosity; perfect toleration of religions + should be established within the kingdom, the Palatine family be + reinstated in its rights, and he would accept the Margraviate of Moravia + as a compensation for Mecklenburg. The allied armies would then, under his + command, advance upon Vienna, and sword in hand, compel the Emperor to + ratify the treaty.” + </p> + <p> + Thus was the veil at last removed from the schemes, over which he had + brooded for years in mysterious silence. Every circumstance now convinced + him that not a moment was to be lost in its execution. Nothing but a blind + confidence in the good fortune and military genius of the Duke of + Friedland, had induced the Emperor, in the face of the remonstrances of + Bavaria and Spain, and at the expense of his own reputation, to confer + upon this imperious leader such an unlimited command. But this belief in + Wallenstein’s being invincible, had been much weakened by his inaction, + and almost entirely overthrown by the defeat at Lutzen. His enemies at the + imperial court now renewed their intrigues; and the Emperor’s + disappointment at the failure of his hopes, procured for their + remonstrances a favourable reception. Wallenstein’s whole conduct was now + reviewed with the most malicious criticism; his ambitious haughtiness, his + disobedience to the Emperor’s orders, were recalled to the recollection of + that jealous prince, as well as the complaints of the Austrian subjects + against his boundless oppression; his fidelity was questioned, and + alarming hints thrown out as to his secret views. These insinuations, + which the conduct of the duke seemed but too well to justify, failed not + to make a deep impression on Ferdinand; but the step had been taken, and + the great power with which Wallenstein had been invested, could not be + taken from him without danger. Insensibly to diminish that power, was the + only course that now remained, and, to effect this, it must in the first + place be divided; but, above all, the Emperor’s present dependence on the + good will of his general put an end to. But even this right had been + resigned in his engagement with Wallenstein, and the Emperor’s own + handwriting secured him against every attempt to unite another general + with him in the command, or to exercise any immediate act of authority + over the troops. As this disadvantageous contract could neither be kept + nor broken, recourse was had to artifice. Wallenstein was Imperial + Generalissimo in Germany, but his command extended no further, and he + could not presume to exercise any authority over a foreign army. A Spanish + army was accordingly raised in Milan, and marched into Germany under a + Spanish general. Wallenstein now ceased to be indispensable because he was + no longer supreme, and in case of necessity, the Emperor was now provided + with the means of support even against him. + </p> + <p> + The duke quickly and deeply felt whence this blow came, and whither it was + aimed. In vain did he protest against this violation of the compact, to + the Cardinal Infante; the Italian army continued its march, and he was + forced to detach General Altringer to join it with a reinforcement. He + took care, indeed, so closely to fetter the latter, as to prevent the + Italian army from acquiring any great reputation in Alsace and Swabia; but + this bold step of the court awakened him from his security, and warned him + of the approach of danger. That he might not a second time be deprived of + his command, and lose the fruit of all his labours, he must accelerate the + accomplishment of his long meditated designs. He secured the attachment of + his troops by removing the doubtful officers, and by his liberality to the + rest. He had sacrificed to the welfare of the army every other order in + the state, every consideration of justice and humanity, and therefore he + reckoned upon their gratitude. At the very moment when he meditated an + unparalleled act of ingratitude against the author of his own good + fortune, he founded all his hopes upon the gratitude which was due to + himself. + </p> + <p> + The leaders of the Silesian armies had no authority from their principals + to consent, on their own discretion, to such important proposals as those + of Wallenstein, and they did not even feel themselves warranted in + granting, for more than a fortnight, the cessation of hostilities which he + demanded. Before the duke disclosed his designs to Sweden and Saxony, he + had deemed it advisable to secure the sanction of France to his bold + undertaking. For this purpose, a secret negociation had been carried on + with the greatest possible caution and distrust, by Count Kinsky with + Feuquieres, the French ambassador at Dresden, and had terminated according + to his wishes. Feuquieres received orders from his court to promise every + assistance on the part of France, and to offer the duke a considerable + pecuniary aid in case of need. + </p> + <p> + But it was this excessive caution to secure himself on all sides, that led + to his ruin. The French ambassador with astonishment discovered that a + plan, which, more than any other, required secrecy, had been communicated + to the Swedes and the Saxons. And yet it was generally known that the + Saxon ministry was in the interests of the Emperor, and on the other hand, + the conditions offered to the Swedes fell too far short of their + expectations to be likely to be accepted. Feuquieres, therefore, could not + believe that the duke could be serious in calculating upon the aid of the + latter, and the silence of the former. He communicated accordingly his + doubts and anxieties to the Swedish chancellor, who equally distrusted the + views of Wallenstein, and disliked his plans. Although it was no secret to + Oxenstiern, that the duke had formerly entered into a similar negociation + with Gustavus Adolphus, he could not credit the possibility of inducing a + whole army to revolt, and of his extravagant promises. So daring a design, + and such imprudent conduct, seemed not to be consistent with the duke’s + reserved and suspicious temper, and he was the more inclined to consider + the whole as the result of dissimulation and treachery, because he had + less reason to doubt his prudence than his honesty. + </p> + <p> + Oxenstiern’s doubts at last affected Arnheim himself, who, in full + confidence in Wallenstein’s sincerity, had repaired to the chancellor at + Gelnhausen, to persuade him to lend some of his best regiments to the + duke, to aid him in the execution of the plan. They began to suspect that + the whole proposal was only a snare to disarm the allies, and to betray + the flower of their troops into the hands of the Emperor. Wallenstein’s + well-known character did not contradict the suspicion, and the + inconsistencies in which he afterwards involved himself, entirely + destroyed all confidence in his sincerity. While he was endeavouring to + draw the Swedes into this alliance, and requiring the help of their best + troops, he declared to Arnheim that they must begin with expelling the + Swedes from the empire; and while the Saxon officers, relying upon the + security of the truce, repaired in great numbers to his camp, he made an + unsuccessful attempt to seize them. He was the first to break the truce, + which some months afterwards he renewed, though not without great + difficulty. All confidence in his sincerity was lost; his whole conduct + was regarded as a tissue of deceit and low cunning, devised to weaken the + allies and repair his own strength. This indeed he actually did effect, as + his own army daily augmented, while that of the allies was reduced nearly + one half by desertion and bad provisions. But he did not make that use of + his superiority which Vienna expected. When all men were looking for a + decisive blow to be struck, he suddenly renewed the negociations; and when + the truce lulled the allies into security, he as suddenly recommenced + hostilities. All these contradictions arose out of the double and + irreconcileable designs to ruin at once the Emperor and the Swedes, and to + conclude a separate peace with the Saxons. + </p> + <p> + Impatient at the ill success of his negociations, he at last determined to + display his strength; the more so, as the pressing distress within the + empire, and the growing dissatisfaction of the Imperial court, admitted + not of his making any longer delay. Before the last cessation of + hostilities, General Holk, from Bohemia, had attacked the circle of + Meissen, laid waste every thing on his route with fire and sword, driven + the Elector into his fortresses, and taken the town of Leipzig. But the + truce in Silesia put a period to his ravages, and the consequences of his + excesses brought him to the grave at Adorf. As soon as hostilities were + recommenced, Wallenstein made a movement, as if he designed to penetrate + through Lusatia into Saxony, and circulated the report that Piccolomini + had already invaded that country. Arnheim immediately broke up his camp in + Silesia, to follow him, and hastened to the assistance of the Electorate. + By this means the Swedes were left exposed, who were encamped in small + force under Count Thurn, at Steinau, on the Oder, and this was exactly + what Wallenstein desired. He allowed the Saxon general to advance sixteen + miles towards Meissen, and then suddenly turning towards the Oder, + surprised the Swedish army in the most complete security. Their cavalry + were first beaten by General Schafgotsch, who was sent against them, and + the infantry completely surrounded at Steinau by the duke’s army which + followed. Wallenstein gave Count Thurn half an hour to deliberate whether + he would defend himself with 2,500 men, against more than 20,000, or + surrender at discretion. But there was no room for deliberation. The army + surrendered, and the most complete victory was obtained without bloodshed. + Colours, baggage, and artillery all fell into the hands of the victors, + the officers were taken into custody, the privates drafted into the army + of Wallenstein. And now at last, after a banishment of fourteen years, + after numberless changes of fortune, the author of the Bohemian + insurrection, and the remote origin of this destructive war, the notorious + Count Thurn, was in the power of his enemies. With blood-thirsty + impatience, the arrival of this great criminal was looked for in Vienna, + where they already anticipated the malicious triumph of sacrificing so + distinguished a victim to public justice. But to deprive the Jesuits of + this pleasure, was a still sweeter triumph to Wallenstein, and Thurn was + set at liberty. Fortunately for him, he knew more than it was prudent to + have divulged in Vienna, and his enemies were also those of Wallenstein. A + defeat might have been forgiven in Vienna, but this disappointment of + their hopes they could not pardon. “What should I have done with this + madman?” he writes, with a malicious sneer, to the minister who called him + to account for this unseasonable magnanimity. “Would to Heaven the enemy + had no generals but such as he. At the head of the Swedish army, he will + render us much better service than in prison.” + </p> + <p> + The victory of Steinau was followed by the capture of Liegnitz, + Grossglogau, and even of Frankfort on the Oder. Schafgotsch, who remained + in Silesia to complete the subjugation of that province, blockaded Brieg, + and threatened Breslau, though in vain, as that free town was jealous of + its privileges, and devoted to the Swedes. Colonels Illo and Goetz were + ordered by Wallenstein to the Warta, to push forwards into Pomerania, and + to the coasts of the Baltic, and actually obtained possession of + Landsberg, the key of Pomerania. While thus the Elector of Brandenburg and + the Duke of Pomerania were made to tremble for their dominions, + Wallenstein himself, with the remainder of his army, burst suddenly into + Lusatia, where he took Goerlitz by storm, and forced Bautzen to surrender. + But his object was merely to alarm the Elector of Saxony, not to follow up + the advantages already obtained; and therefore, even with the sword in his + hand, he continued his negociations for peace with Brandenburg and Saxony, + but with no better success than before, as the inconsistencies of his + conduct had destroyed all confidence in his sincerity. He was therefore on + the point of turning his whole force in earnest against the unfortunate + Saxons, and effecting his object by force of arms, when circumstances + compelled him to leave these territories. The conquests of Duke Bernard + upon the Danube, which threatened Austria itself with immediate danger, + urgently demanded his presence in Bavaria; and the expulsion of the Saxons + and Swedes from Silesia, deprived him of every pretext for longer + resisting the Imperial orders, and leaving the Elector of Bavaria without + assistance. With his main body, therefore, he immediately set out for the + Upper Palatinate, and his retreat freed Upper Saxony for ever of this + formidable enemy. + </p> + <p> + So long as was possible, he had delayed to move to the rescue of Bavaria, + and on every pretext evaded the commands of the Emperor. He had, indeed, + after reiterated remonstrances, despatched from Bohemia a reinforcement of + some regiments to Count Altringer, who was defending the Lech and the + Danube against Horn and Bernard, but under the express condition of his + acting merely on the defensive. He referred the Emperor and the Elector, + whenever they applied to him for aid, to Altringer, who, as he publicly + gave out, had received unlimited powers; secretly, however, he tied up his + hands by the strictest injunctions, and even threatened him with death, if + he exceeded his orders. When Duke Bernard had appeared before Ratisbon, + and the Emperor as well as the Elector repeated still more urgently their + demand for succour, he pretended he was about to despatch General Gallas + with a considerable army to the Danube; but this movement also was + delayed, and Ratisbon, Straubing, and Cham, as well as the bishopric of + Eichstaedt, fell into the hands of the Swedes. When at last he could no + longer neglect the orders of the Court, he marched slowly toward the + Bavarian frontier, where he invested the town of Cham, which had been + taken by the Swedes. But no sooner did he learn that on the Swedish side a + diversion was contemplated, by an inroad of the Saxons into Bohemia, than + he availed himself of the report, as a pretext for immediately retreating + into that kingdom. Every consideration, he urged, must be postponed to the + defence and preservation of the hereditary dominions of the Emperor; and + on this plea, he remained firmly fixed in Bohemia, which he guarded as if + it had been his own property. And when the Emperor laid upon him his + commands to move towards the Danube, and prevent the Duke of Weimar from + establishing himself in so dangerous a position on the frontiers of + Austria, Wallenstein thought proper to conclude the campaign a second + time, and quartered his troops for the winter in this exhausted kingdom. + </p> + <p> + Such continued insolence and unexampled contempt of the Imperial orders, + as well as obvious neglect of the common cause, joined to his equivocal + behaviour towards the enemy, tended at last to convince the Emperor of the + truth of those unfavourable reports with regard to the Duke, which were + current through Germany. The latter had, for a long time, succeeded in + glozing over his criminal correspondence with the enemy, and persuading + the Emperor, still prepossessed in his favour, that the sole object of his + secret conferences was to obtain peace for Germany. But impenetrable as he + himself believed his proceedings to be, in the course of his conduct, + enough transpired to justify the insinuations with which his rivals + incessantly loaded the ear of the Emperor. In order to satisfy himself of + the truth or falsehood of these rumours, Ferdinand had already, at + different times, sent spies into Wallenstein’s camp; but as the Duke took + the precaution never to commit anything to writing, they returned with + nothing but conjectures. But when, at last, those ministers who formerly + had been his champions at the court, in consequence of their estates not + being exempted by Wallenstein from the general exactions, joined his + enemies; when the Elector of Bavaria threatened, in case of Wallenstein + being any longer retained in the supreme command, to unite with the + Swedes; when the Spanish ambassador insisted on his dismissal, and + threatened, in case of refusal, to withdraw the subsidies furnished by his + Crown, the Emperor found himself a second time compelled to deprive him of + the command. + </p> + <p> + The Emperor’s authoritative and direct interference with the army, soon + convinced the Duke that the compact with himself was regarded as at an + end, and that his dismissal was inevitable. One of his inferior generals + in Austria, whom he had forbidden, under pain of death, to obey the orders + of the court, received the positive commands of the Emperor to join the + Elector of Bavaria; and Wallenstein himself was imperiously ordered to + send some regiments to reinforce the army of the Cardinal Infante, who was + on his march from Italy. All these measures convinced him that the plan + was finally arranged to disarm him by degrees, and at once, when he was + weak and defenceless, to complete his ruin. + </p> + <p> + In self-defence, must he now hasten to carry into execution the plans + which he had originally formed only with the view to aggrandizement. He + had delayed too long, either because the favourable configuration of the + stars had not yet presented itself, or, as he used to say, to check the + impatience of his friends, because THE TIME WAS NOT YET COME. The time, + even now, was not come: but the pressure of circumstances no longer + allowed him to await the favour of the stars. The first step was to assure + himself of the sentiments of his principal officers, and then to try the + attachment of the army, which he had so long confidently reckoned on. + Three of them, Colonels Kinsky, Terzky, and Illo, had long been in his + secrets, and the two first were further united to his interests by the + ties of relationship. The same wild ambition, the same bitter hatred of + the government, and the hope of enormous rewards, bound them in the + closest manner to Wallenstein, who, to increase the number of his + adherents, could stoop to the lowest means. He had once advised Colonel + Illo to solicit, in Vienna, the title of Count, and had promised to back + his application with his powerful mediation. But he secretly wrote to the + ministry, advising them to refuse his request, as to grant it would give + rise to similar demands from others, whose services and claims were equal + to his. On Illo’s return to the camp, Wallenstein immediately demanded to + know the success of his mission; and when informed by Illo of its failure, + he broke out into the bitterest complaints against the court. “Thus,” said + he, “are our faithful services rewarded. My recommendation is disregarded, + and your merit denied so trifling a reward! Who would any longer devote + his services to so ungrateful a master? No, for my part, I am henceforth + the determined foe of Austria.” Illo agreed with him, and a close alliance + was cemented between them. + </p> + <p> + But what was known to these three confidants of the duke, was long an + impenetrable secret to the rest; and the confidence with which Wallenstein + spoke of the devotion of his officers, was founded merely on the favours + he had lavished on them, and on their known dissatisfaction with the + Court. But this vague presumption must be converted into certainty, before + he could venture to lay aside the mask, or take any open step against the + Emperor. Count Piccolomini, who had distinguished himself by his + unparalleled bravery at Lutzen, was the first whose fidelity he put to the + proof. He had, he thought, gained the attachment of this general by large + presents, and preferred him to all others, because born under the same + constellations with himself. He disclosed to him, that, in consequence of + the Emperor’s ingratitude, and the near approach of his own danger, he had + irrevocably determined entirely to abandon the party of Austria, to join + the enemy with the best part of his army, and to make war upon the House + of Austria, on all sides of its dominions, till he had wholly extirpated + it. In the execution of this plan, he principally reckoned on the services + of Piccolomini, and had beforehand promised him the greatest rewards. When + the latter, to conceal his amazement at this extraordinary communication, + spoke of the dangers and obstacles which would oppose so hazardous an + enterprise, Wallenstein ridiculed his fears. “In such enterprises,” he + maintained, “nothing was difficult but the commencement. The stars were + propitious to him, the opportunity the best that could be wished for, and + something must always be trusted to fortune. His resolution was taken, and + if it could not be otherwise, he would encounter the hazard at the head of + a thousand horse.” Piccolomini was careful not to excite Wallenstein’s + suspicions by longer opposition, and yielded apparently to the force of + his reasoning. Such was the infatuation of the Duke, that notwithstanding + the warnings of Count Terzky, he never doubted the sincerity of this man, + who lost not a moment in communicating to the court at Vienna this + important conversation. + </p> + <p> + Preparatory to taking the last decisive step, he, in January 1634, called + a meeting of all the commanders of the army at Pilsen, whither he had + marched after his retreat from Bavaria. The Emperor’s recent orders to + spare his hereditary dominions from winter quarterings, to recover + Ratisbon in the middle of winter, and to reduce the army by a detachment + of six thousand horse to the Cardinal Infante, were matters sufficiently + grave to be laid before a council of war; and this plausible pretext + served to conceal from the curious the real object of the meeting. Sweden + and Saxony received invitations to be present, in order to treat with the + Duke of Friedland for a peace; to the leaders of more distant armies, + written communications were made. Of the commanders thus summoned, twenty + appeared; but three most influential, Gallas, Colloredo, and Altringer, + were absent. The Duke reiterated his summons to them, and in the mean + time, in expectation of their speedy arrival, proceeded to execute his + designs. + </p> + <p> + It was no light task that he had to perform: a nobleman, proud, brave, and + jealous of his honour, was to declare himself capable of the basest + treachery, in the very presence of those who had been accustomed to regard + him as the representative of majesty, the judge of their actions, and the + supporter of their laws, and to show himself suddenly as a traitor, a + cheat, and a rebel. It was no easy task, either, to shake to its + foundations a legitimate sovereignty, strengthened by time and consecrated + by laws and religion; to dissolve all the charms of the senses and the + imagination, those formidable guardians of an established throne, and to + attempt forcibly to uproot those invincible feelings of duty, which plead + so loudly and so powerfully in the breast of the subject, in favour of his + sovereign. But, blinded by the splendour of a crown, Wallenstein observed + not the precipice that yawned beneath his feet; and in full reliance on + his own strength, the common case with energetic and daring minds, he + stopped not to consider the magnitude and the number of the difficulties + that opposed him. Wallenstein saw nothing but an army, partly indifferent + and partly exasperated against the court, accustomed, with a blind + submission, to do homage to his great name, to bow to him as their + legislator and judge, and with trembling reverence to follow his orders as + the decrees of fate. In the extravagant flatteries which were paid to his + omnipotence, in the bold abuse of the court government, in which a lawless + soldiery indulged, and which the wild licence of the camp excused, he + thought he read the sentiments of the army; and the boldness with which + they were ready to censure the monarch’s measures, passed with him for a + readiness to renounce their allegiance to a sovereign so little respected. + But that which he had regarded as the lightest matter, proved the most + formidable obstacle with which he had to contend; the soldiers’ feelings + of allegiance were the rock on which his hopes were wrecked. Deceived by + the profound respect in which he was held by these lawless bands, he + ascribed the whole to his own personal greatness, without distinguishing + how much he owed to himself, and how much to the dignity with which he was + invested. All trembled before him, while he exercised a legitimate + authority, while obedience to him was a duty, and while his consequence + was supported by the majesty of the sovereign. Greatness, in and of + itself, may excite terror and admiration; but legitimate greatness alone + can inspire reverence and submission; and of this decisive advantage he + deprived himself, the instant he avowed himself a traitor. + </p> + <p> + Field-Marshal Illo undertook to learn the sentiments of the officers, and + to prepare them for the step which was expected of them. He began by + laying before them the new orders of the court to the general and the + army; and by the obnoxious turn he skilfully gave to them, he found it + easy to excite the indignation of the assembly. After this well chosen + introduction, he expatiated with much eloquence upon the merits of the + army and the general, and the ingratitude with which the Emperor was + accustomed to requite them. “Spanish influence,” he maintained, “governed + the court; the ministry were in the pay of Spain; the Duke of Friedland + alone had hitherto opposed this tyranny, and had thus drawn down upon + himself the deadly enmity of the Spaniards. To remove him from the + command, or to make away with him entirely,” he continued, “had long been + the end of their desires; and, until they could succeed in one or other, + they endeavoured to abridge his power in the field. The command was to be + placed in the hands of the King of Hungary, for no other reason than the + better to promote the Spanish power in Germany; because this prince, as + the ready instrument of foreign counsels, might be led at pleasure. It was + merely with the view of weakening the army, that the six thousand troops + were required for the Cardinal Infante; it was solely for the purpose of + harassing it by a winter campaign, that they were now called on, in this + inhospitable season, to undertake the recovery of Ratisbon. The means of + subsistence were everywhere rendered difficult, while the Jesuits and the + ministry enriched themselves with the sweat of the provinces, and + squandered the money intended for the pay of the troops. The general, + abandoned by the court, acknowledges his inability to keep his engagements + to the army. For all the services which, for two and twenty years, he had + rendered the House of Austria; for all the difficulties with which he had + struggled; for all the treasures of his own, which he had expended in the + imperial service, a second disgraceful dismissal awaited him. But he was + resolved the matter should not come to this; he was determined voluntarily + to resign the command, before it should be wrested from his hands; and + this,” continued the orator, “is what, through me, he now makes known to + his officers. It was now for them to say whether it would be advisable to + lose such a general. Let each consider who was to refund him the sums he + had expended in the Emperor’s service, and where he was now to reap the + reward of their bravery, when he who was their evidence removed from the + scene.” + </p> + <p> + A universal cry, that they would not allow their general to be taken from + them, interrupted the speaker. Four of the principal officers were deputed + to lay before him the wish of the assembly, and earnestly to request that + he would not leave the army. The duke made a show of resistance, and only + yielded after the second deputation. This concession on his side, seemed + to demand a return on theirs; as he engaged not to quit the service + without the knowledge and consent of the generals, he required of them, on + the other hand, a written promise to truly and firmly adhere to him, + neither to separate nor to allow themselves to be separated from him, and + to shed their last drop of blood in his defence. Whoever should break this + covenant, was to be regarded as a perfidious traitor, and treated by the + rest as a common enemy. The express condition which was added, “AS LONG AS + WALLENSTEIN SHALL EMPLOY THE ARMY IN THE EMPEROR’S SERVICE,” seemed to + exclude all misconception, and none of the assembled generals hesitated at + once to accede to a demand, apparently so innocent and so reasonable. + </p> + <p> + This document was publicly read before an entertainment, which + Field-Marshal Illo had expressly prepared for the purpose; it was to be + signed, after they rose from table. The host did his utmost to stupify his + guests by strong potations; and it was not until he saw them affected with + the wine, that he produced the paper for signature. Most of them wrote + their names, without knowing what they were subscribing; a few only, more + curious or more distrustful, read the paper over again, and discovered + with astonishment that the clause “as long as Wallenstein shall employ the + army for the Emperor’s service” was omitted. Illo had, in fact, artfully + contrived to substitute for the first another copy, in which these words + were wanting. The trick was manifest, and many refused now to sign. + Piccolomini, who had seen through the whole cheat, and had been present at + this scene merely with the view of giving information of the whole to the + court, forgot himself so far in his cups as to drink the Emperor’s health. + But Count Terzky now rose, and declared that all were perjured villains + who should recede from their engagement. His menaces, the idea of the + inevitable danger to which they who resisted any longer would be exposed, + the example of the rest, and Illo’s rhetoric, at last overcame their + scruples; and the paper was signed by all without exception. + </p> + <p> + Wallenstein had now effected his purpose; but the unexpected resistance he + had met with from the commanders roused him at last from the fond + illusions in which he had hitherto indulged. Besides, most of the names + were scrawled so illegibly, that some deceit was evidently intended. But + instead of being recalled to his discretion by this warning, he gave vent + to his injured pride in undignified complaints and reproaches. He + assembled the generals the next day, and undertook personally to confirm + the whole tenor of the agreement which Illo had submitted to them the day + before. After pouring out the bitterest reproaches and abuse against the + court, he reminded them of their opposition to the proposition of the + previous day, and declared that this circumstance had induced him to + retract his own promise. The generals withdrew in silence and confusion; + but after a short consultation in the antichamber, they returned to + apologize for their late conduct, and offered to sign the paper anew. + </p> + <p> + Nothing now remained, but to obtain a similar assurance from the absent + generals, or, on their refusal, to seize their persons. Wallenstein + renewed his invitation to them, and earnestly urged them to hasten their + arrival. But a rumour of the doings at Pilsen reached them on their + journey, and suddenly stopped their further progress. Altringer, on + pretence of sickness, remained in the strong fortress of Frauenberg. + Gallas made his appearance, but merely with the design of better + qualifying himself as an eyewitness, to keep the Emperor informed of all + Wallenstein’s proceedings. The intelligence which he and Piccolomini gave, + at once converted the suspicions of the court into an alarming certainty. + Similar disclosures, which were at the same time made from other quarters, + left no room for farther doubt; and the sudden change of the commanders in + Austria and Silesia, appeared to be the prelude to some important + enterprise. The danger was pressing, and the remedy must be speedy, but + the court was unwilling to proceed at once to the execution of the + sentence, till the regular forms of justice were complied with. Secret + instructions were therefore issued to the principal officers, on whose + fidelity reliance could be placed, to seize the persons of the Duke of + Friedland and of his two associates, Illo and Terzky, and keep them in + close confinement, till they should have an opportunity of being heard, + and of answering for their conduct; but if this could not be accomplished + quietly, the public danger required that they should be taken dead or + live. At the same time, General Gallas received a patent commission, by + which these orders of the Emperor were made known to the colonels and + officers, and the army was released from its obedience to the traitor, and + placed under Lieutenant-General Gallas, till a new generalissimo could be + appointed. In order to bring back the seduced and deluded to their duty, + and not to drive the guilty to despair, a general amnesty was proclaimed, + in regard to all offences against the imperial majesty committed at + Pilsen. + </p> + <p> + General Gallas was not pleased with the honour which was done him. He was + at Pilsen, under the eye of the person whose fate he was to dispose of; in + the power of an enemy, who had a hundred eyes to watch his motions. If + Wallenstein once discovered the secret of his commission, nothing could + save him from the effects of his vengeance and despair. But if it was thus + dangerous to be the secret depositary of such a commission, how much more + so to execute it? The sentiments of the generals were uncertain; and it + was at least doubtful whether, after the step they had taken, they would + be ready to trust the Emperor’s promises, and at once to abandon the + brilliant expectations they had built upon Wallenstein’s enterprise. It + was also hazardous to attempt to lay hands on the person of a man who, + till now, had been considered inviolable; who from long exercise of + supreme power, and from habitual obedience, had become the object of + deepest respect; who was invested with every attribute of outward majesty + and inward greatness; whose very aspect inspired terror, and who by a nod + disposed of life and death! To seize such a man, like a common criminal, + in the midst of the guards by whom he was surrounded, and in a city + apparently devoted to him; to convert the object of this deep and habitual + veneration into a subject of compassion, or of contempt, was a commission + calculated to make even the boldest hesitate. So deeply was fear and + veneration for their general engraven in the breasts of the soldiers, that + even the atrocious crime of high treason could not wholly eradicate these + sentiments. + </p> + <p> + Gallas perceived the impossibility of executing his commission under the + eyes of the duke; and his most anxious wish was, before venturing on any + steps, to have an interview with Altringer. As the long absence of the + latter had already begun to excite the duke’s suspicions, Gallas offered + to repair in person to Frauenberg, and to prevail on Altringer, his + relation, to return with him. Wallenstein was so pleased with this proof + of his zeal, that he even lent him his own equipage for the journey. + Rejoicing at the success of his stratagem, he left Pilsen without delay, + leaving to Count Piccolomini the task of watching Wallenstein’s further + movements. He did not fail, as he went along, to make use of the imperial + patent, and the sentiments of the troops proved more favourable than he + had expected. Instead of taking back his friend to Pilsen, he despatched + him to Vienna, to warn the Emperor against the intended attack, while he + himself repaired to Upper Austria, of which the safety was threatened by + the near approach of Duke Bernard. In Bohemia, the towns of Budweiss and + Tabor were again garrisoned for the Emperor, and every precaution taken to + oppose with energy the designs of the traitor. + </p> + <p> + As Gallas did not appear disposed to return, Piccolomini determined to put + Wallenstein’s credulity once more to the test. He begged to be sent to + bring back Gallas, and Wallenstein suffered himself a second time to be + overreached. This inconceivable blindness can only be accounted for as the + result of his pride, which never retracted the opinion it had once formed + of any person, and would not acknowledge, even to itself, the possibility + of being deceived. He conveyed Count Piccolomini in his own carriage to + Lintz, where the latter immediately followed the example of Gallas, and + even went a step farther. He had promised the duke to return. He did so, + but it was at the head of an army, intending to surprise the duke in + Pilsen. Another army under General Suys hastened to Prague, to secure that + capital in its allegiance, and to defend it against the rebels. Gallas, at + the same time, announced himself to the different imperial armies as the + commander-in-chief, from whom they were henceforth to receive orders. + Placards were circulated through all the imperial camps, denouncing the + duke and his four confidants, and absolving the soldiers from all + obedience to him. + </p> + <p> + The example which had been set at Lintz, was universally followed; + imprecations were showered on the traitor, and he was forsaken by all the + armies. At last, when even Piccolomini returned no more, the mist fell + from Wallenstein’s eyes, and in consternation he awoke from his dream. Yet + his faith in the truth of astrology, and in the fidelity of the army was + unshaken. Immediately after the intelligence of Piccolomini’s defection, + he issued orders, that in future no commands were to be obeyed, which did + not proceed directly from himself, or from Terzky, or Illo. He prepared, + in all haste, to advance upon Prague, where he intended to throw off the + mask, and openly to declare against the Emperor. All the troops were to + assemble before that city, and from thence to pour down with rapidity upon + Austria. Duke Bernard, who had joined the conspiracy, was to support the + operations of the duke, with the Swedish troops, and to effect a diversion + upon the Danube. + </p> + <p> + Terzky was already upon his march towards Prague; and nothing, but the + want of horses, prevented the duke from following him with the regiments + who still adhered faithfully to him. But when, with the most anxious + expectation, he awaited the intelligence from Prague, he suddenly received + information of the loss of that town, the defection of his generals, the + desertion of his troops, the discovery of his whole plot, and the rapid + advance of Piccolomini, who was sworn to his destruction. Suddenly and + fearfully had all his projects been ruined—all his hopes + annihilated. He stood alone, abandoned by all to whom he had been a + benefactor, betrayed by all on whom he had depended. But it is under such + circumstances that great minds reveal themselves. Though deceived in all + his expectations, he refused to abandon one of his designs; he despaired + of nothing, so long as life remained. The time was now come, when he + absolutely required that assistance, which he had so often solicited from + the Swedes and the Saxons, and when all doubts of the sincerity of his + purposes must be dispelled. And now, when Oxenstiern and Arnheim were + convinced of the sincerity of his intentions, and were aware of his + necessities, they no longer hesitated to embrace the favourable + opportunity, and to offer him their protection. On the part of Saxony, the + Duke Francis Albert of Saxe Lauenberg was to join him with 4,000 men; and + Duke Bernard, and the Palatine Christian of Birkenfeld, with 6,000 from + Sweden, all chosen troops. + </p> + <p> + Wallenstein left Pilsen, with Terzky’s regiment, and the few who either + were, or pretended to be, faithful to him, and hastened to Egra, on the + frontiers of the kingdom, in order to be near the Upper Palatinate, and to + facilitate his junction with Duke Bernard. He was not yet informed of the + decree by which he was proclaimed a public enemy and traitor; this + thunder-stroke awaited him at Egra. He still reckoned on the army, which + General Schafgotsch was preparing for him in Silesia, and flattered + himself with the hope that many even of those who had forsaken him, would + return with the first dawning of success. Even during his flight to Egra + (so little humility had he learned from melancholy experience) he was + still occupied with the colossal scheme of dethroning the Emperor. It was + under these circumstances, that one of his suite asked leave to offer him + his advice. “Under the Emperor,” said he, “your highness is certain of + being a great and respected noble; with the enemy, you are at best but a + precarious king. It is unwise to risk certainty for uncertainty. The enemy + will avail themselves of your personal influence, while the opportunity + lasts; but you will ever be regarded with suspicion, and they will always + be fearful lest you should treat them as you have done the Emperor. + Return, then, to your allegiance, while there is yet time.”—“And how + is that to be done?” said Wallenstein, interrupting him: “You have 40,000 + men-at-arms,” rejoined he, (meaning ducats, which were stamped with the + figure of an armed man,) “take them with you, and go straight to the + Imperial Court; then declare that the steps you have hitherto taken were + merely designed to test the fidelity of the Emperor’s servants, and of + distinguishing the loyal from the doubtful; and since most have shown a + disposition to revolt, say you are come to warn his Imperial Majesty + against those dangerous men. Thus you will make those appear as traitors, + who are labouring to represent you as a false villain. At the Imperial + Court, a man is sure to be welcome with 40,000 ducats, and Friedland will + be again as he was at the first.”—“The advice is good,” said + Wallenstein, after a pause, “but let the devil trust to it.” + </p> + <p> + While the duke, in his retirement in Egra, was energetically pushing his + negociations with the enemy, consulting the stars, and indulging in new + hopes, the dagger which was to put an end to his existence was unsheathed + almost under his very eyes. The imperial decree which proclaimed him an + outlaw, had not failed of its effect; and an avenging Nemesis ordained + that the ungrateful should fall beneath the blow of ingratitude. Among his + officers, Wallenstein had particularly distinguished one Leslie, an + Irishman, and had made his fortune. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + [Schiller is mistaken as to this point. Leslie was a Scotchman, + and Buttler an Irishman and a papist. He died a general in the + Emperor’s service, and founded, at Prague, a convent of Irish + Franciscans which still exists.—Ed.] +</pre> + <p> + This was the man who now felt himself called on to execute the sentence + against him, and to earn the price of blood. No sooner had he reached + Egra, in the suite of the duke, than he disclosed to the commandant of the + town, Colonel Buttler, and to Lieutenant-Colonel Gordon, two Protestant + Scotchmen, the treasonable designs of the duke, which the latter had + imprudently enough communicated to him during the journey. In these two + individuals, he had found men capable of a determined resolution. They + were now called on to choose between treason and duty, between their + legitimate sovereign and a fugitive abandoned rebel; and though the latter + was their common benefactor, the choice could not remain for a moment + doubtful. They were solemnly pledged to the allegiance of the Emperor, and + this duty required them to take the most rapid measures against the public + enemy. The opportunity was favourable; his evil genius seemed to have + delivered him into the hands of vengeance. But not to encroach on the + province of justice, they resolved to deliver up their victim alive; and + they parted with the bold resolve to take their general prisoner. This + dark plot was buried in the deepest silence; and Wallenstein, far from + suspecting his impending ruin, flattered himself that in the garrison of + Egra he possessed his bravest and most faithful champions. + </p> + <p> + At this time, he became acquainted with the Imperial proclamations + containing his sentence, and which had been published in all the camps. He + now became aware of the full extent of the danger which encompassed him, + the utter impossibility of retracing his steps, his fearfully forlorn + condition, and the absolute necessity of at once trusting himself to the + faith and honour of the Emperor’s enemies. To Leslie he poured forth all + the anguish of his wounded spirit, and the vehemence of his agitation + extracted from him his last remaining secret. He disclosed to this officer + his intention to deliver up Egra and Ellenbogen, the passes of the + kingdom, to the Palatine of Birkenfeld, and at the same time, informed him + of the near approach of Duke Bernard, of whose arrival he hoped to receive + tidings that very night. These disclosures, which Leslie immediately + communicated to the conspirators, made them change their original plan. + The urgency of the danger admitted not of half measures. Egra might in a + moment be in the enemy’s hands, and a sudden revolution set their prisoner + at liberty. To anticipate this mischance, they resolved to assassinate him + and his associates the following night. + </p> + <p> + In order to execute this design with less noise, it was arranged that the + fearful deed should be perpetrated at an entertainment which Colonel + Buttler should give in the Castle of Egra. All the guests, except + Wallenstein, made their appearance, who being in too great anxiety of mind + to enjoy company excused himself. With regard to him, therefore, their + plan must be again changed; but they resolved to execute their design + against the others. The three Colonels, Illo, Terzky, and William Kinsky, + came in with careless confidence, and with them Captain Neumann, an + officer of ability, whose advice Terzky sought in every intricate affair. + Previous to their arrival, trusty soldiers of the garrison, to whom the + plot had been communicated, were admitted into the Castle, all the avenues + leading from it guarded, and six of Buttler’s dragoons concealed in an + apartment close to the banqueting-room, who, on a concerted signal, were + to rush in and kill the traitors. Without suspecting the danger that hung + over them, the guests gaily abandoned themselves to the pleasures of the + table, and Wallenstein’s health was drunk in full bumpers, not as a + servant of the Emperor, but as a sovereign prince. The wine opened their + hearts, and Illo, with exultation, boasted that in three days an army + would arrive, such as Wallenstein had never before been at the head of. + “Yes,” cried Neumann, “and then he hopes to bathe his hands in Austrian + blood.” During this conversation, the dessert was brought in, and Leslie + gave the concerted signal to raise the drawbridges, while he himself + received the keys of the gates. In an instant, the hall was filled with + armed men, who, with the unexpected greeting of “Long live Ferdinand!” + placed themselves behind the chairs of the marked guests. Surprised, and + with a presentiment of their fate, they sprang from the table. Kinsky and + Terzky were killed upon the spot, and before they could put themselves + upon their guard. Neumann, during the confusion in the hall, escaped into + the court, where, however, he was instantly recognised and cut down. Illo + alone had the presence of mind to defend himself. He placed his back + against a window, from whence he poured the bitterest reproaches upon + Gordon, and challenged him to fight him fairly and honourably. After a + gallant resistance, in which he slew two of his assailants, he fell to the + ground overpowered by numbers, and pierced with ten wounds. The deed was + no sooner accomplished, than Leslie hastened into the town to prevent a + tumult. The sentinels at the castle gate, seeing him running and out of + breath, and believing he belonged to the rebels, fired their muskets after + him, but without effect. The firing, however, aroused the town-guard, and + all Leslie’s presence of mind was requisite to allay the tumult. He + hastily detailed to them all the circumstances of Wallenstein’s + conspiracy, the measures which had been already taken to counteract it, + the fate of the four rebels, as well as that which awaited their chief. + Finding the troops well disposed, he exacted from them a new oath of + fidelity to the Emperor, and to live and die for the good cause. A hundred + of Buttler’s dragoons were sent from the Castle into the town to patrol + the streets, to overawe the partisans of the Duke, and to prevent tumult. + All the gates of Egra were at the same time seized, and every avenue to + Wallenstein’s residence, which adjoined the market-place, guarded by a + numerous and trusty body of troops, sufficient to prevent either his + escape or his receiving any assistance from without. + </p> + <p> + But before they proceeded finally to execute the deed, a long conference + was held among the conspirators in the Castle, whether they should kill + him, or content themselves with making him prisoner. Besprinkled as they + were with the blood, and deliberating almost over the very corpses of his + murdered associates, even these furious men yet shuddered at the horror of + taking away so illustrious a life. They saw before their mind’s eye him + their leader in battle, in the days of his good fortune, surrounded by his + victorious army, clothed with all the pomp of military greatness, and + long-accustomed awe again seized their minds. But this transitory emotion + was soon effaced by the thought of the immediate danger. They remembered + the hints which Neumann and Illo had thrown out at table, the near + approach of a formidable army of Swedes and Saxons, and they clearly saw + that the death of the traitor was their only chance of safety. They + adhered, therefore, to their first resolution, and Captain Deveroux, an + Irishman, who had already been retained for the murderous purpose, + received decisive orders to act. + </p> + <p> + While these three officers were thus deciding upon his fate in the castle + of Egra, Wallenstein was occupied in reading the stars with Seni. “The + danger is not yet over,” said the astrologer with prophetic spirit. “IT + IS,” replied the Duke, who would give the law even to heaven. “But,” he + continued with equally prophetic spirit, “that thou friend Seni thyself + shall soon be thrown into prison, that also is written in the stars.” The + astrologer had taken his leave, and Wallenstein had retired to bed, when + Captain Deveroux appeared before his residence with six halberdiers, and + was immediately admitted by the guard, who were accustomed to see him + visit the general at all hours. A page who met him upon the stairs, and + attempted to raise an alarm, was run through the body with a pike. In the + antichamber, the assassins met a servant, who had just come out of the + sleeping-room of his master, and had taken with him the key. Putting his + finger upon his mouth, the terrified domestic made a sign to them to make + no noise, as the Duke was asleep. “Friend,” cried Deveroux, “it is time to + awake him;” and with these words he rushed against the door, which was + also bolted from within, and burst it open. + </p> + <p> + Wallenstein had been roused from his first sleep, by the report of a + musket which had accidentally gone off, and had sprung to the window to + call the guard. At the same moment, he heard, from the adjoining building, + the shrieks of the Countesses Terzky and Kinsky, who had just learnt the + violent fate of their husbands. Ere he had time to reflect on these + terrible events, Deveroux, with the other murderers, was in his chamber. + The Duke was in his shirt, as he had leaped out of bed, and leaning on a + table near the window. “Art thou the villain,” cried Deveroux to him, “who + intends to deliver up the Emperor’s troops to the enemy, and to tear the + crown from the head of his Majesty? Now thou must die!” He paused for a + few moments, as if expecting an answer; but scorn and astonishment kept + Wallenstein silent. Throwing his arms wide open, he received in his + breast, the deadly blow of the halberds, and without uttering a groan, + fell weltering in his blood. + </p> + <p> + The next day, an express arrived from the Duke of Lauenburg, announcing + his approach. The messenger was secured, and another in Wallenstein’s + livery despatched to the Duke, to decoy him into Egra. The stratagem + succeeded, and Francis Albert fell into the hands of the enemy. Duke + Bernard of Weimar, who was on his march towards Egra, was nearly sharing + the same fate. Fortunately, he heard of Wallenstein’s death in time to + save himself by a retreat. Ferdinand shed a tear over the fate of his + general, and ordered three thousand masses to be said for his soul at + Vienna; but, at the same time, he did not forget to reward his assassins + with gold chains, chamberlains’ keys, dignities, and estates. + </p> + <p> + Thus did Wallenstein, at the age of fifty, terminate his active and + extraordinary life. To ambition, he owed both his greatness and his ruin; + with all his failings, he possessed great and admirable qualities, and had + he kept himself within due bounds, he would have lived and died without an + equal. The virtues of the ruler and of the hero, prudence, justice, + firmness, and courage, are strikingly prominent features in his character; + but he wanted the gentler virtues of the man, which adorn the hero, and + make the ruler beloved. Terror was the talisman with which he worked; + extreme in his punishments as in his rewards, he knew how to keep alive + the zeal of his followers, while no general of ancient or modern times + could boast of being obeyed with equal alacrity. Submission to his will + was more prized by him than bravery; for, if the soldiers work by the + latter, it is on the former that the general depends. He continually kept + up the obedience of his troops by capricious orders, and profusely + rewarded the readiness to obey even in trifles; because he looked rather + to the act itself, than its object. He once issued a decree, with the + penalty of death on disobedience, that none but red sashes should be worn + in the army. A captain of horse no sooner heard the order, than pulling + off his gold-embroidered sash, he trampled it under foot; Wallenstein, on + being informed of the circumstance, promoted him on the spot to the rank + of Colonel. His comprehensive glance was always directed to the whole, and + in all his apparent caprice, he steadily kept in view some general scope + or bearing. The robberies committed by the soldiers in a friendly country, + had led to the severest orders against marauders; and all who should be + caught thieving, were threatened with the halter. Wallenstein himself + having met a straggler in the open country upon the field, commanded him + to be seized without trial, as a transgressor of the law, and in his usual + voice of thunder, exclaimed, “Hang the fellow,” against which no + opposition ever availed. The soldier pleaded and proved his innocence, but + the irrevocable sentence had gone forth. “Hang then innocent,” cried the + inexorable Wallenstein, “the guilty will have then more reason to + tremble.” Preparations were already making to execute the sentence, when + the soldier, who gave himself up for lost, formed the desperate resolution + of not dying without revenge. He fell furiously upon his judge, but was + overpowered by numbers, and disarmed before he could fulfil his design. + “Now let him go,” said the Duke, “it will excite sufficient terror.” + </p> + <p> + His munificence was supported by an immense income, which was estimated at + three millions of florins yearly, without reckoning the enormous sums + which he raised under the name of contributions. His liberality and + clearness of understanding, raised him above the religious prejudices of + his age; and the Jesuits never forgave him for having seen through their + system, and for regarding the pope as nothing more than a bishop of Rome. + </p> + <p> + But as no one ever yet came to a fortunate end who quarrelled with the + Church, Wallenstein also must augment the number of its victims. Through + the intrigues of monks, he lost at Ratisbon the command of the army, and + at Egra his life; by the same arts, perhaps, he lost what was of more + consequence, his honourable name and good repute with posterity. + </p> + <p> + For in justice it must be admitted, that the pens which have traced the + history of this extraordinary man are not untinged with partiality, and + that the treachery of the duke, and his designs upon the throne of + Bohemia, rest not so much upon proven facts, as upon probable conjecture. + No documents have yet been brought to light, which disclose with + historical certainty the secret motives of his conduct; and among all his + public and well attested actions, there is, perhaps, not one which could + not have had an innocent end. Many of his most obnoxious measures proved + nothing but the earnest wish he entertained for peace; most of the others + are explained and justified by the well-founded distrust he entertained of + the Emperor, and the excusable wish of maintaining his own importance. It + is true, that his conduct towards the Elector of Bavaria looks too like an + unworthy revenge, and the dictates of an implacable spirit; but still, + none of his actions perhaps warrant us in holding his treason to be + proved. If necessity and despair at last forced him to deserve the + sentence which had been pronounced against him while innocent, still this, + if true, will not justify that sentence. Thus Wallenstein fell, not + because he was a rebel, but he became a rebel because he fell. Unfortunate + in life that he made a victorious party his enemy, and still more + unfortunate in death, that the same party survived him and wrote his + history. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0008" id="link2H_4_0008"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + BOOK V. + </h2> + <p> + Wallenstein’s death rendered necessary the appointment of a new + generalissimo; and the Emperor yielded at last to the advice of the + Spaniards, to raise his son Ferdinand, King of Hungary, to that dignity. + Under him, Count Gallas commanded, who performed the functions of + commander-in-chief, while the prince brought to this post nothing but his + name and dignity. A considerable force was soon assembled under Ferdinand; + the Duke of Lorraine brought up a considerable body of auxiliaries in + person, and the Cardinal Infante joined him from Italy with 10,000 men. In + order to drive the enemy from the Danube, the new general undertook the + enterprise in which his predecessor had failed, the siege of Ratisbon. In + vain did Duke Bernard of Weimar penetrate into the interior of Bavaria, + with a view to draw the enemy from the town; Ferdinand continued to press + the siege with vigour, and the city, after a most obstinate resistance, + was obliged to open its gates to him. Donauwerth soon shared the same + fate, and Nordlingen in Swabia was now invested. The loss of so many of + the imperial cities was severely felt by the Swedish party; as the + friendship of these towns had so largely contributed to the success of + their arms, indifference to their fate would have been inexcusable. It + would have been an indelible disgrace, had they deserted their + confederates in their need, and abandoned them to the revenge of an + implacable conqueror. Moved by these considerations, the Swedish army, + under the command of Horn, and Bernard of Weimar, advanced upon + Nordlingen, determined to relieve it even at the expense of a battle. + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:60%;"> + <img alt="1p320 (139K)" src="images/1p320.jpg" style="width:100%;" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <p> + The undertaking was a dangerous one, for in numbers the enemy was greatly + superior to that of the Swedes. There was also a further reason for + avoiding a battle at present; the enemy’s force was likely soon to divide, + the Italian troops being destined for the Netherlands. In the mean time, + such a position might be taken up, as to cover Nordlingen, and cut off + their supplies. All these grounds were strongly urged by Gustavus Horn, in + the Swedish council of war; but his remonstrances were disregarded by men + who, intoxicated by a long career of success, mistook the suggestions of + prudence for the voice of timidity. Overborne by the superior influence of + Duke Bernard, Gustavus Horn was compelled to risk a contest, whose + unfavourable issue, a dark foreboding seemed already to announce. The fate + of the battle depended upon the possession of a height which commanded the + imperial camp. An attempt to occupy it during the night failed, as the + tedious transport of the artillery through woods and hollow ways delayed + the arrival of the troops. When the Swedes arrived about midnight, they + found the heights in possession of the enemy, strongly entrenched. They + waited, therefore, for daybreak, to carry them by storm. Their impetuous + courage surmounted every obstacle; the entrenchments, which were in the + form of a crescent, were successfully scaled by each of the two brigades + appointed to the service; but as they entered at the same moment from + opposite sides, they met and threw each other into confusion. At this + unfortunate moment, a barrel of powder blew up, and created the greatest + disorder among the Swedes. The imperial cavalry charged upon their broken + ranks, and the flight became universal. No persuasion on the part of their + general could induce the fugitives to renew the assault. + </p> + <p> + He resolved, therefore, in order to carry this important post, to lead + fresh troops to the attack. But in the interim, some Spanish regiments had + marched in, and every attempt to gain it was repulsed by their heroic + intrepidity. One of the duke’s own regiments advanced seven times, and was + as often driven back. The disadvantage of not occupying this post in time, + was quickly and sensibly felt. The fire of the enemy’s artillery from the + heights, caused such slaughter in the adjacent wing of the Swedes, that + Horn, who commanded there, was forced to give orders to retire. Instead of + being able to cover the retreat of his colleague, and to check the pursuit + of the enemy, Duke Bernard, overpowered by numbers, was himself driven + into the plain, where his routed cavalry spread confusion among Horn’s + brigade, and rendered the defeat complete. Almost the entire infantry were + killed or taken prisoners. More than 12,000 men remained dead upon the + field of battle; 80 field pieces, about 4,000 waggons, and 300 standards + and colours fell into the hands of the Imperialists. Horn himself, with + three other generals, were taken prisoners. Duke Bernard with difficulty + saved a feeble remnant of his army, which joined him at Frankfort. + </p> + <p> + The defeat at Nordlingen, cost the Swedish Chancellor the second sleepless + night he had passed in Germany.—[The first was occasioned by the + death of Gustavus Adolphus.]—The consequences of this disaster were + terrible. The Swedes had lost by it at once their superiority in the + field, and with it the confidence of their confederates, which they had + gained solely by their previous military success. A dangerous division + threatened the Protestant Confederation with ruin. Consternation and + terror seized upon the whole party; while the Papists arose with exulting + triumph from the deep humiliation into which they had sunk. Swabia and the + adjacent circles first felt the consequences of the defeat of Nordlingen; + and Wirtemberg, in particular, was overrun by the conquering army. All the + members of the League of Heilbronn trembled at the prospect of the + Emperor’s revenge; those who could, fled to Strasburg, while the helpless + free cities awaited their fate with alarm. A little more of moderation + towards the conquered, would have quickly reduced all the weaker states + under the Emperor’s authority; but the severity which was practised, even + against those who voluntarily surrendered, drove the rest to despair, and + roused them to a vigorous resistance. + </p> + <p> + In this perplexity, all looked to Oxenstiern for counsel and assistance; + Oxenstiern applied for both to the German States. Troops were wanted; + money likewise, to raise new levies, and to pay to the old the arrears + which the men were clamorously demanding. Oxenstiern addressed himself to + the Elector of Saxony; but he shamefully abandoned the Swedish cause, to + negociate for a separate peace with the Emperor at Pirna. He solicited aid + from the Lower Saxon States; but they, long wearied of the Swedish + pretensions and demands for money, now thought only of themselves; and + George, Duke of Lunenburg, in place of flying to the assistance of Upper + Germany, laid siege to Minden, with the intention of keeping possession of + it for himself. Abandoned by his German allies, the chancellor exerted + himself to obtain the assistance of foreign powers. England, Holland, and + Venice were applied to for troops and money; and, driven to the last + extremity, the chancellor reluctantly resolved to take the disagreeable + step which he had so long avoided, and to throw himself under the + protection of France. + </p> + <p> + The moment had at last arrived which Richelieu had long waited for with + impatience. Nothing, he was aware, but the impossibility of saving + themselves by any other means, could induce the Protestant States in + Germany to support the pretensions of France upon Alsace. This extreme + necessity had now arrived; the assistance of that power was indispensable, + and she was resolved to be well paid for the active part which she was + about to take in the German war. Full of lustre and dignity, it now came + upon the political stage. Oxenstiern, who felt little reluctance in + bestowing the rights and possessions of the empire, had already ceded the + fortress of Philipsburg, and the other long coveted places. The + Protestants of Upper Germany now, in their own names, sent a special + embassy to Richelieu, requesting him to take Alsace, the fortress of + Breyssach, which was still to be recovered from the enemy, and all the + places upon the Upper Rhine, which were the keys of Germany, under the + protection of France. What was implied by French protection had been seen + in the conduct of France towards the bishoprics of Metz, Toul, and Verdun, + which it had held for centuries against the rightful owners. Treves was + already in the possession of French garrisons; Lorraine was in a manner + conquered, as it might at any time be overrun by an army, and could not, + alone, and with its own strength, withstand its formidable neighbour. + France now entertained the hope of adding Alsace to its large and numerous + possessions, and,—since a treaty was soon to be concluded with the + Dutch for the partition of the Spanish Netherlands—the prospect of + making the Rhine its natural boundary towards Germany. Thus shamefully + were the rights of Germany sacrificed by the German States to this + treacherous and grasping power, which, under the mask of a disinterested + friendship, aimed only at its own aggrandizement; and while it boldly + claimed the honourable title of a Protectress, was solely occupied with + promoting its own schemes, and advancing its own interests amid the + general confusion. + </p> + <p> + In return for these important cessions, France engaged to effect a + diversion in favour of the Swedes, by commencing hostilities against the + Spaniards; and if this should lead to an open breach with the Emperor, to + maintain an army upon the German side of the Rhine, which was to act in + conjunction with the Swedes and Germans against Austria. For a war with + Spain, the Spaniards themselves soon afforded the desired pretext. Making + an inroad from the Netherlands, upon the city of Treves, they cut in + pieces the French garrison; and, in open violation of the law of nations, + made prisoner the Elector, who had placed himself under the protection of + France, and carried him into Flanders. When the Cardinal Infante, as + Viceroy of the Spanish Netherlands, refused satisfaction for these + injuries, and delayed to restore the prince to liberty, Richelieu, after + the old custom, formally proclaimed war at Brussels by a herald, and the + war was at once opened by three different armies in Milan, in the + Valteline, and in Flanders. The French minister was less anxious to + commence hostilities with the Emperor, which promised fewer advantages, + and threatened greater difficulties. A fourth army, however, was detached + across the Rhine into Germany, under the command of Cardinal Lavalette, + which was to act in conjunction with Duke Bernard, against the Emperor, + without a previous declaration of war. + </p> + <p> + A heavier blow for the Swedes, than even the defeat of Nordlingen, was the + reconciliation of the Elector of Saxony with the Emperor. After many + fruitless attempts both to bring about and to prevent it, it was at last + effected in 1634, at Pirna, and, the following year, reduced into a formal + treaty of peace, at Prague. The Elector of Saxony had always viewed with + jealousy the pretensions of the Swedes in Germany; and his aversion to + this foreign power, which now gave laws within the Empire, had grown with + every fresh requisition that Oxenstiern was obliged to make upon the + German states. This ill feeling was kept alive by the Spanish court, who + laboured earnestly to effect a peace between Saxony and the Emperor. + Wearied with the calamities of a long and destructive contest, which had + selected Saxony above all others for its theatre; grieved by the miseries + which both friend and foe inflicted upon his subjects, and seduced by the + tempting propositions of the House of Austria, the Elector at last + abandoned the common cause, and, caring little for the fate of his + confederates, or the liberties of Germany, thought only of securing his + own advantages, even at the expense of the whole body. + </p> + <p> + In fact, the misery of Germany had risen to such a height, that all + clamorously vociferated for peace; and even the most disadvantageous + pacification would have been hailed as a blessing from heaven. The plains, + which formerly had been thronged with a happy and industrious population, + where nature had lavished her choicest gifts, and plenty and prosperity + had reigned, were now a wild and desolate wilderness. The fields, + abandoned by the industrious husbandman, lay waste and uncultivated; and + no sooner had the young crops given the promise of a smiling harvest, than + a single march destroyed the labours of a year, and blasted the last hope + of an afflicted peasantry. Burnt castles, wasted fields, villages in + ashes, were to be seen extending far and wide on all sides, while the + ruined peasantry had no resource left but to swell the horde of + incendiaries, and fearfully to retaliate upon their fellows, who had + hitherto been spared the miseries which they themselves had suffered. The + only safeguard against oppression was to become an oppressor. The towns + groaned under the licentiousness of undisciplined and plundering + garrisons, who seized and wasted the property of the citizens, and, under + the license of their position, committed the most remorseless devastation + and cruelty. If the march of an army converted whole provinces into + deserts, if others were impoverished by winter quarters, or exhausted by + contributions, these still were but passing evils, and the industry of a + year might efface the miseries of a few months. But there was no relief + for those who had a garrison within their walls, or in the neighbourhood; + even the change of fortune could not improve their unfortunate fate, since + the victor trod in the steps of the vanquished, and friends were not more + merciful than enemies. The neglected farms, the destruction of the crops, + and the numerous armies which overran the exhausted country, were + inevitably followed by scarcity and the high price of provisions, which in + the later years was still further increased by a general failure in the + crops. The crowding together of men in camps and quarters—want upon + one side, and excess on the other, occasioned contagious distempers, which + were more fatal than even the sword. In this long and general confusion, + all the bonds of social life were broken up;—respect for the rights + of their fellow men, the fear of the laws, purity of morals, honour, and + religion, were laid aside, where might ruled supreme with iron sceptre. + Under the shelter of anarchy and impunity, every vice flourished, and men + became as wild as the country. No station was too dignified for outrage, + no property too holy for rapine and avarice. In a word, the soldier + reigned supreme; and that most brutal of despots often made his own + officer feel his power. The leader of an army was a far more important + person within any country where he appeared, than its lawful governor, who + was frequently obliged to fly before him into his own castles for safety. + Germany swarmed with these petty tyrants, and the country suffered equally + from its enemies and its protectors. These wounds rankled the deeper, when + the unhappy victims recollected that Germany was sacrificed to the + ambition of foreign powers, who, for their own ends, prolonged the + miseries of war. Germany bled under the scourge, to extend the conquests + and influence of Sweden; and the torch of discord was kept alive within + the Empire, that the services of Richelieu might be rendered indispensable + in France. + </p> + <p> + But, in truth, it was not merely interested voices which opposed a peace; + and if both Sweden and the German states were anxious, from corrupt + motives, to prolong the conflict, they were seconded in their views by + sound policy. After the defeat of Nordlingen, an equitable peace was not + to be expected from the Emperor; and, this being the case, was it not too + great a sacrifice, after seventeen years of war, with all its miseries, to + abandon the contest, not only without advantage, but even with loss? What + would avail so much bloodshed, if all was to remain as it had been; if + their rights and pretensions were neither larger nor safer; if all that + had been won with so much difficulty was to be surrendered for a peace at + any cost? Would it not be better to endure, for two or three years more, + the burdens they had borne so long, and to reap at last some recompense + for twenty years of suffering? Neither was it doubtful, that peace might + at last be obtained on favourable terms, if only the Swedes and the German + Protestants should continue united in the cabinet and in the field, and + pursued their common interests with a reciprocal sympathy and zeal. Their + divisions alone, had rendered the enemy formidable, and protracted the + acquisition of a lasting and general peace. And this great evil the + Elector of Saxony had brought upon the Protestant cause by concluding a + separate treaty with Austria. + </p> + <p> + He, indeed, had commenced his negociations with the Emperor, even before + the battle of Nordlingen; and the unfortunate issue of that battle only + accelerated their conclusion. By it, all his confidence in the Swedes was + lost; and it was even doubted whether they would ever recover from the + blow. The jealousies among their generals, the insubordination of the + army, and the exhaustion of the Swedish kingdom, shut out any reasonable + prospect of effective assistance on their part. The Elector hastened, + therefore, to profit by the Emperor’s magnanimity, who, even after the + battle of Nordlingen, did not recall the conditions previously offered. + While Oxenstiern, who had assembled the estates in Frankfort, made further + demands upon them and him, the Emperor, on the contrary, made concessions; + and therefore it required no long consideration to decide between them. + </p> + <p> + In the mean time, however, he was anxious to escape the charge of + sacrificing the common cause and attending only to his own interests. All + the German states, and even the Swedes, were publicly invited to become + parties to this peace, although Saxony and the Emperor were the only + powers who deliberated upon it, and who assumed the right to give law to + Germany. By this self-appointed tribunal, the grievances of the + Protestants were discussed, their rights and privileges decided, and even + the fate of religions determined, without the presence of those who were + most deeply interested in it. Between them, a general peace was resolved + on, and it was to be enforced by an imperial army of execution, as a + formal decree of the Empire. Whoever opposed it, was to be treated as a + public enemy; and thus, contrary to their rights, the states were to be + compelled to acknowledge a law, in the passing of which they had no share. + Thus, even in form, the pacification at Prague was an arbitrary measure; + nor was it less so in its contents. The Edict of Restitution had been the + chief cause of dispute between the Elector and the Emperor; and therefore + it was first considered in their deliberations. Without formally annulling + it, it was determined by the treaty of Prague, that all the ecclesiastical + domains holding immediately of the Empire, and, among the mediate ones, + those which had been seized by the Protestants subsequently to the treaty + at Passau, should, for forty years, remain in the same position as they + had been in before the Edict of Restitution, but without any formal + decision of the diet to that effect. Before the expiration of this term a + commission, composed of equal numbers of both religions, should proceed to + settle the matter peaceably and according to law; and if this commission + should be unable to come to a decision, each party should remain in + possession of the rights which it had exercised before the Edict of + Restitution. This arrangement, therefore, far from removing the grounds of + dissension, only suspended the dispute for a time; and this article of the + treaty of Prague only covered the embers of a future war. + </p> + <p> + The archbishopric of Magdeburg remained in possession of Prince Augustus + of Saxony, and Halberstadt in that of the Archduke Leopold William. Four + estates were taken from the territory of Magdeburg, and given to Saxony, + for which the Administrator of Magdeburg, Christian William of + Brandenburg, was otherwise to be indemnified. The Dukes of Mecklenburg, + upon acceding to this treaty, were to be acknowledged as rightful + possessors of their territories, in which the magnanimity of Gustavus + Adolphus had long ago reinstated them. Donauwerth recovered its liberties. + The important claims of the heirs of the Palatine, however important it + might be for the Protestant cause not to lose this electorate vote in the + diet, were passed over in consequence of the animosity subsisting between + the Lutherans and the Calvinists. All the conquests which, in the course + of the war, had been made by the German states, or by the League and the + Emperor, were to be mutually restored; all which had been appropriated by + the foreign powers of France and Sweden, was to be forcibly wrested from + them by the united powers. The troops of the contracting parties were to + be formed into one imperial army, which, supported and paid by the Empire, + was, by force of arms, to carry into execution the covenants of the + treaty. + </p> + <p> + As the peace of Prague was intended to serve as a general law of the + Empire, those points, which did not immediately affect the latter, formed + the subject of a separate treaty. By it, Lusatia was ceded to the Elector + of Saxony as a fief of Bohemia, and special articles guaranteed the + freedom of religion of this country and of Silesia. + </p> + <p> + All the Protestant states were invited to accede to the treaty of Prague, + and on that condition were to benefit by the amnesty. The princes of + Wurtemberg and Baden, whose territories the Emperor was already in + possession of, and which he was not disposed to restore unconditionally; + and such vassals of Austria as had borne arms against their sovereign; and + those states which, under the direction of Oxenstiern, composed the + council of the Upper German Circle, were excluded from the treaty,—not + so much with the view of continuing the war against them, as of compelling + them to purchase peace at a dearer rate. Their territories were to be + retained in pledge, till every thing should be restored to its former + footing. Such was the treaty of Prague. Equal justice, however, towards + all, might perhaps have restored confidence between the head of the Empire + and its members— between the Protestants and the Roman Catholics—between + the Reformed and the Lutheran party; and the Swedes, abandoned by all + their allies, would in all probability have been driven from Germany with + disgrace. But this inequality strengthened, in those who were more + severely treated, the spirit of mistrust and opposition, and made it an + easier task for the Swedes to keep alive the flame of war, and to maintain + a party in Germany. + </p> + <p> + The peace of Prague, as might have been expected, was received with very + various feelings throughout Germany. The attempt to conciliate both + parties, had rendered it obnoxious to both. The Protestants complained of + the restraints imposed upon them; the Roman Catholics thought that these + hated sectaries had been favoured at the expense of the true church. In + the opinion of the latter, the church had been deprived of its inalienable + rights, by the concession to the Protestants of forty years’ undisturbed + possession of the ecclesiastical benefices; while the former murmured that + the interests of the Protestant church had been betrayed, because + toleration had not been granted to their co-religionists in the Austrian + dominions. But no one was so bitterly reproached as the Elector of Saxony, + who was publicly denounced as a deserter, a traitor to religion and the + liberties of the Empire, and a confederate of the Emperor. + </p> + <p> + In the mean time, he consoled himself with the triumph of seeing most of + the Protestant states compelled by necessity to embrace this peace. The + Elector of Brandenburg, Duke William of Weimar, the princes of Anhalt, the + dukes of Mecklenburg, the dukes of Brunswick Lunenburg, the Hanse towns, + and most of the imperial cities, acceded to it. The Landgrave William of + Hesse long wavered, or affected to do so, in order to gain time, and to + regulate his measures by the course of events. He had conquered several + fertile provinces of Westphalia, and derived from them principally the + means of continuing the war; these, by the terms of the treaty, he was + bound to restore. Bernard, Duke of Weimar, whose states, as yet, existed + only on paper, as a belligerent power was not affected by the treaty, but + as a general was so materially; and, in either view, he must equally be + disposed to reject it. His whole riches consisted in his bravery, his + possessions in his sword. War alone gave him greatness and importance, and + war alone could realize the projects which his ambition suggested. + </p> + <p> + But of all who declaimed against the treaty of Prague, none were so loud + in their clamours as the Swedes, and none had so much reason for their + opposition. Invited to Germany by the Germans themselves, the champions of + the Protestant Church, and the freedom of the States, which they had + defended with so much bloodshed, and with the sacred life of their king, + they now saw themselves suddenly and shamefully abandoned, disappointed in + all their hopes, without reward and without gratitude driven from the + empire for which they had toiled and bled, and exposed to the ridicule of + the enemy by the very princes who owed every thing to them. No + satisfaction, no indemnification for the expenses which they had incurred, + no equivalent for the conquests which they were to leave behind them, was + provided by the treaty of Prague. They were to be dismissed poorer than + they came, or, if they resisted, to be expelled by the very powers who had + invited them. The Elector of Saxony at last spoke of a pecuniary + indemnification, and mentioned the small sum of two millions five hundred + thousand florins; but the Swedes had already expended considerably more, + and this disgraceful equivalent in money was both contrary to their true + interests, and injurious to their pride. “The Electors of Bavaria and + Saxony,” replied Oxenstiern, “have been paid for their services, which, as + vassals, they were bound to render the Emperor, with the possession of + important provinces; and shall we, who have sacrificed our king for + Germany, be dismissed with the miserable sum of 2,500,000 florins?” The + disappointment of their expectations was the more severe, because the + Swedes had calculated upon being recompensed with the Duchy of Pomerania, + the present possessor of which was old and without heirs. But the + succession of this territory was confirmed by the treaty of Prague to the + Elector of Brandenburg; and all the neighbouring powers declared against + allowing the Swedes to obtain a footing within the empire. + </p> + <p> + Never, in the whole course of the war, had the prospects of the Swedes + looked more gloomy, than in the year 1635, immediately after the + conclusion of the treaty of Prague. Many of their allies, particularly + among the free cities, abandoned them to benefit by the peace; others were + compelled to accede to it by the victorious arms of the Emperor. Augsburg, + subdued by famine, surrendered under the severest conditions; Wurtzburg + and Coburg were lost to the Austrians. The League of Heilbronn was + formally dissolved. Nearly the whole of Upper Germany, the chief seat of + the Swedish power, was reduced under the Emperor. Saxony, on the strength + of the treaty of Prague, demanded the evacuation of Thuringia, + Halberstadt, and Magdeburg. Philipsburg, the military depot of France, was + surprised by the Austrians, with all the stores it contained; and this + severe loss checked the activity of France. To complete the embarrassments + of Sweden, the truce with Poland was drawing to a close. To support a war + at the same time with Poland and in Germany, was far beyond the power of + Sweden; and all that remained was to choose between them. Pride and + ambition declared in favour of continuing the German war, at whatever + sacrifice on the side of Poland. An army, however, was necessary to + command the respect of Poland, and to give weight to Sweden in any + negotiations for a truce or a peace. + </p> + <p> + The mind of Oxenstiern, firm, and inexhaustible in expedients, set itself + manfully to meet these calamities, which all combined to overwhelm Sweden; + and his shrewd understanding taught him how to turn even misfortunes to + his advantage. The defection of so many German cities of the empire + deprived him, it is true, of a great part of his former allies, but at the + same time it freed him from the necessity of paying any regard to their + interests. The more the number of his enemies increased, the more + provinces and magazines were opened to his troops. The gross ingratitude + of the States, and the haughty contempt with which the Emperor behaved, + (who did not even condescend to treat directly with him about a peace,) + excited in him the courage of despair, and a noble determination to + maintain the struggle to the last. The continuance of war, however + unfortunate it might prove, could not render the situation of Sweden worse + than it now was; and if Germany was to be evacuated, it was at least + better and nobler to do so sword in hand, and to yield to force rather + than to fear. + </p> + <p> + In the extremity in which the Swedes were now placed by the desertion of + their allies, they addressed themselves to France, who met them with the + greatest encouragement. The interests of the two crowns were closely + united, and France would have injured herself by allowing the Swedish + power in Germany to decline. The helpless situation of the Swedes, was + rather an additional motive with France to cement more closely their + alliance, and to take a more active part in the German war. Since the + alliance with Sweden, at Beerwald, in 1632, France had maintained the war + against the Emperor, by the arms of Gustavus Adolphus, without any open or + formal breach, by furnishing subsidies and increasing the number of his + enemies. But alarmed at the unexpected rapidity and success of the Swedish + arms, France, in anxiety to restore the balance of power, which was + disturbed by the preponderance of the Swedes, seemed, for a time, to have + lost sight of her original designs. She endeavoured to protect the Roman + Catholic princes of the empire against the Swedish conqueror, by the + treaties of neutrality, and when this plan failed, she even meditated + herself to declare war against him. But no sooner had the death of + Gustavus Adolphus, and the desperate situation of the Swedish affairs, + dispelled this apprehension, than she returned with fresh zeal to her + first design, and readily afforded in this misfortune the aid which in the + hour of success she had refused. Freed from the checks which the ambition + and vigilance of Gustavus Adolphus placed upon her plans of + aggrandizement, France availed herself of the favourable opportunity + afforded by the defeat of Nordlingen, to obtain the entire direction of + the war, and to prescribe laws to those who sued for her powerful + protection. The moment seemed to smile upon her boldest plans, and those + which had formerly seemed chimerical, now appeared to be justified by + circumstances. She now turned her whole attention to the war in Germany; + and, as soon as she had secured her own private ends by a treaty with the + Germans, she suddenly entered the political arena as an active and a + commanding power. While the other belligerent states had been exhausting + themselves in a tedious contest, France had been reserving her strength, + and maintained the contest by money alone; but now, when the state of + things called for more active measures, she seized the sword, and + astonished Europe by the boldness and magnitude of her undertakings. At + the same moment, she fitted out two fleets, and sent six different armies + into the field, while she subsidized a foreign crown and several of the + German princes. Animated by this powerful co-operation, the Swedes and + Germans awoke from the consternation, and hoped, sword in hand, to obtain + a more honourable peace than that of Prague. Abandoned by their + confederates, who had been reconciled to the Emperor, they formed a still + closer alliance with France, which increased her support with their + growing necessities, at the same time taking a more active, although + secret share in the German war, until at last, she threw off the mask + altogether, and in her own name made an unequivocal declaration of war + against the Emperor. + </p> + <p> + To leave Sweden at full liberty to act against Austria, France commenced + her operations by liberating it from all fear of a Polish war. By means of + the Count d’Avaux, its minister, an agreement was concluded between the + two powers at Stummsdorf in Prussia, by which the truce was prolonged for + twenty-six years, though not without a great sacrifice on the part of the + Swedes, who ceded by a single stroke of the pen almost the whole of Polish + Prussia, the dear-bought conquest of Gustavus Adolphus. The treaty of + Beerwald was, with certain modifications, which circumstances rendered + necessary, renewed at different times at Compiegne, and afterwards at + Wismar and Hamburg. France had already come to a rupture with Spain, in + May, 1635, and the vigorous attack which it made upon that power, deprived + the Emperor of his most valuable auxiliaries from the Netherlands. By + supporting the Landgrave William of Cassel, and Duke Bernard of Weimar, + the Swedes were enabled to act with more vigour upon the Elbe and the + Danube, and a diversion upon the Rhine compelled the Emperor to divide his + force. + </p> + <p> + The war was now prosecuted with increasing activity. By the treaty of + Prague, the Emperor had lessened the number of his adversaries within the + Empire; though, at the same time, the zeal and activity of his foreign + enemies had been augmented by it. In Germany, his influence was almost + unlimited, for, with the exception of a few states, he had rendered + himself absolute master of the German body and its resources, and was + again enabled to act in the character of emperor and sovereign. The first + fruit of his power was the elevation of his son, Ferdinand III., to the + dignity of King of the Romans, to which he was elected by a decided + majority of votes, notwithstanding the opposition of Treves, and of the + heirs of the Elector Palatine. But, on the other hand, he had exasperated + the Swedes to desperation, had armed the power of France against him, and + drawn its troops into the heart of the kingdom. France and Sweden, with + their German allies, formed, from this moment, one firm and compactly + united power; the Emperor, with the German states which adhered to him, + were equally firm and united. The Swedes, who no longer fought for + Germany, but for their own lives, showed no more indulgence; relieved from + the necessity of consulting their German allies, or accounting to them for + the plans which they adopted, they acted with more precipitation, + rapidity, and boldness. Battles, though less decisive, became more + obstinate and bloody; greater achievements, both in bravery and military + skill, were performed; but they were but insulated efforts; and being + neither dictated by any consistent plan, nor improved by any commanding + spirit, had comparatively little influence upon the course of the war. + </p> + <p> + Saxony had bound herself, by the treaty of Prague, to expel the Swedes + from Germany. From this moment, the banners of the Saxons and Imperialists + were united: the former confederates were converted into implacable + enemies. The archbishopric of Magdeburg which, by the treaty, was ceded to + the prince of Saxony, was still held by the Swedes, and every attempt to + acquire it by negociation had proved ineffectual. Hostilities commenced, + by the Elector of Saxony recalling all his subjects from the army of + Banner, which was encamped upon the Elbe. The officers, long irritated by + the accumulation of their arrears, obeyed the summons, and evacuated one + quarter after another. As the Saxons, at the same time, made a movement + towards Mecklenburg, to take Doemitz, and to drive the Swedes from + Pomerania and the Baltic, Banner suddenly marched thither, relieved + Doemitz, and totally defeated the Saxon General Baudissin, with 7000 men, + of whom 1000 were slain, and about the same number taken prisoners. + Reinforced by the troops and artillery, which had hitherto been employed + in Polish Prussia, but which the treaty of Stummsdorf rendered + unnecessary, this brave and impetuous general made, the following year + (1636), a sudden inroad into the Electorate of Saxony, where he gratified + his inveterate hatred of the Saxons by the most destructive ravages. + Irritated by the memory of old grievances which, during their common + campaigns, he and the Swedes had suffered from the haughtiness of the + Saxons, and now exasperated to the utmost by the late defection of the + Elector, they wreaked upon the unfortunate inhabitants all their rancour. + Against Austria and Bavaria, the Swedish soldier had fought from a sense, + as it were, of duty; but against the Saxons, they contended with all the + energy of private animosity and personal revenge, detesting them as + deserters and traitors; for the hatred of former friends is of all the + most fierce and irreconcileable. The powerful diversion made by the Duke + of Weimar, and the Landgrave of Hesse, upon the Rhine and in Westphalia, + prevented the Emperor from affording the necessary assistance to Saxony, + and left the whole Electorate exposed to the destructive ravages of + Banner’s army. + </p> + <p> + At length, the Elector, having formed a junction with the Imperial General + Hatzfeld, advanced against Magdeburg, which Banner in vain hastened to + relieve. The united army of the Imperialists and the Saxons now spread + itself over Brandenburg, wrested several places from the Swedes, and + almost drove them to the Baltic. But, contrary to all expectation, Banner, + who had been given up as lost, attacked the allies, on the 24th of + September, 1636, at Wittstock, where a bloody battle took place. The onset + was terrific; and the whole force of the enemy was directed against the + right wing of the Swedes, which was led by Banner in person. The contest + was long maintained with equal animosity and obstinacy on both sides. + There was not a squadron among the Swedes, which did not return ten times + to the charge, to be as often repulsed; when at last, Banner was obliged + to retire before the superior numbers of the enemy. His left wing + sustained the combat until night, and the second line of the Swedes, which + had not as yet been engaged, was prepared to renew it the next morning. + But the Elector did not wait for a second attack. His army was exhausted + by the efforts of the preceding day; and, as the drivers had fled with the + horses, his artillery was unserviceable. He accordingly retreated in the + night, with Count Hatzfeld, and relinquished the ground to the Swedes. + About 5000 of the allies fell upon the field, exclusive of those who were + killed in the pursuit, or who fell into the hands of the exasperated + peasantry. One hundred and fifty standards and colours, twenty-three + pieces of cannon, the whole baggage and silver plate of the Elector, were + captured, and more than 2000 men taken prisoners. This brilliant victory, + achieved over an enemy far superior in numbers, and in a very advantageous + position, restored the Swedes at once to their former reputation; their + enemies were discouraged, and their friends inspired with new hopes. + Banner instantly followed up this decisive success, and hastily crossing + the Elbe, drove the Imperialists before him, through Thuringia and Hesse, + into Westphalia. He then returned, and took up his winter quarters in + Saxony. + </p> + <p> + But, without the material aid furnished by the diversion upon the Rhine, + and the activity there of Duke Bernard and the French, these important + successes would have been unattainable. Duke Bernard, after the defeat of + Nordlingen, reorganized his broken army at Wetterau; but, abandoned by the + confederates of the League of Heilbronn, which had been dissolved by the + peace of Prague, and receiving little support from the Swedes, he found + himself unable to maintain an army, or to perform any enterprise of + importance. The defeat at Nordlingen had terminated all his hopes on the + Duchy of Franconia, while the weakness of the Swedes, destroyed the chance + of retrieving his fortunes through their assistance. Tired, too, of the + constraint imposed upon him by the imperious chancellor, he turned his + attention to France, who could easily supply him with money, the only aid + which he required, and France readily acceded to his proposals. Richelieu + desired nothing so much as to diminish the influence of the Swedes in the + German war, and to obtain the direction of it for himself. To secure this + end, nothing appeared more effectual than to detach from the Swedes their + bravest general, to win him to the interests of France, and to secure for + the execution of its projects the services of his arm. From a prince like + Bernard, who could not maintain himself without foreign support, France + had nothing to fear, since no success, however brilliant, could render him + independent of that crown. Bernard himself came into France, and in + October, 1635, concluded a treaty at St. Germaine en Laye, not as a + Swedish general, but in his own name, by which it was stipulated that he + should receive for himself a yearly pension of one million five hundred + thousand livres, and four millions for the support of his army, which he + was to command under the orders of the French king. To inflame his zeal, + and to accelerate the conquest of Alsace, France did not hesitate, by a + secret article, to promise him that province for his services; a promise + which Richelieu had little intention of performing, and which the duke + also estimated at its real worth. But Bernard confided in his good + fortune, and in his arms, and met artifice with dissimulation. If he could + once succeed in wresting Alsace from the enemy, he did not despair of + being able, in case of need, to maintain it also against a friend. He now + raised an army at the expense of France, which he commanded nominally + under the orders of that power, but in reality without any limitation + whatever, and without having wholly abandoned his engagements with Sweden. + He began his operations upon the Rhine, where another French army, under + Cardinal Lavalette, had already, in 1635, commenced hostilities against + the Emperor. + </p> + <p> + Against this force, the main body of the Imperialists, after the great + victory of Nordlingen, and the reduction of Swabia and Franconia had + advanced under the command of Gallas, had driven them as far as Metz, + cleared the Rhine, and took from the Swedes the towns of Metz and + Frankenthal, of which they were in possession. But frustrated by the + vigorous resistance of the French, in his main object, of taking up his + winter quarters in France, he led back his exhausted troops into Alsace + and Swabia. At the opening of the next campaign, he passed the Rhine at + Breysach, and prepared to carry the war into the interior of France. He + actually entered Burgundy, while the Spaniards from the Netherlands made + progress in Picardy; and John De Werth, a formidable general of the + League, and a celebrated partisan, pushed his march into Champagne, and + spread consternation even to the gates of Paris. But an insignificant + fortress in Franche Comte completely checked the Imperialists, and they + were obliged, a second time, to abandon their enterprise. + </p> + <p> + The activity of Duke Bernard had hitherto been impeded by his dependence + on a French general, more suited to the priestly robe, than to the baton + of command; and although, in conjunction with him, he conquered Alsace + Saverne, he found himself unable, in the years 1636 and 1637, to maintain + his position upon the Rhine. The ill success of the French arms in the + Netherlands had cheated the activity of operations in Alsace and Breisgau; + but in 1638, the war in that quarter took a more brilliant turn. Relieved + from his former restraint, and with unlimited command of his troops, Duke + Bernard, in the beginning of February, left his winter quarters in the + bishopric of Basle, and unexpectedly appeared upon the Rhine, where, at + this rude season of the year, an attack was little anticipated. The forest + towns of Laufenburg, Waldshut, and Seckingen, were surprised, and + Rhinefeldt besieged. The Duke of Savelli, the Imperial general who + commanded in that quarter, hastened by forced marches to the relief of + this important place, succeeded in raising the siege, and compelled the + Duke of Weimar, with great loss to retire. But, contrary to all human + expectation, he appeared on the third day after, (21st February, 1638,) + before the Imperialists, in order of battle, and defeated them in a bloody + engagement, in which the four Imperial generals, Savelli, John De Werth, + Enkeford, and Sperreuter, with 2000 men, were taken prisoners. Two of + these, De Werth and Enkeford, were afterwards sent by Richelieu’s orders + into France, in order to flatter the vanity of the French by the sight of + such distinguished prisoners, and by the pomp of military trophies, to + withdraw the attention of the populace from the public distress. The + captured standards and colours were, with the same view, carried in solemn + procession to the church of Notre Dame, thrice exhibited before the altar, + and committed to sacred custody. + </p> + <p> + The taking of Rhinefeldt, Roeteln, and Fribourg, was the immediate + consequence of the duke’s victory. His army now increased by considerable + recruits, and his projects expanded in proportion as fortune favoured him. + The fortress of Breysach upon the Rhine was looked upon as holding the + command of that river, and as the key of Alsace. No place in this quarter + was of more importance to the Emperor, and upon none had more care been + bestowed. To protect Breysach, was the principal destination of the + Italian army, under the Duke of Feria; the strength of its works, and its + natural defences, bade defiance to assault, while the Imperial generals + who commanded in that quarter had orders to retain it at any cost. But the + duke, trusting to his good fortune, resolved to attempt the siege. Its + strength rendered it impregnable; it could, therefore, only be starved + into a surrender; and this was facilitated by the carelessness of the + commandant, who, expecting no attack, had been selling off his stores. As + under these circumstances the town could not long hold out, it must be + immediately relieved or victualled. Accordingly, the Imperial General + Goetz rapidly advanced at the head of 12,000 men, accompanied by 3000 + waggons loaded with provisions, which he intended to throw into the place. + But he was attacked with such vigour by Duke Bernard at Witteweyer, that + he lost his whole force, except 3000 men, together with the entire + transport. A similar fate at Ochsenfeld, near Thann, overtook the Duke of + Lorraine, who, with 5000 or 6000 men, advanced to relieve the fortress. + After a third attempt of general Goetz for the relief of Breysach had + proved ineffectual, the fortress, reduced to the greatest extremity by + famine, surrendered, after a blockade of four months, on the 17th December + 1638, to its equally persevering and humane conqueror. + </p> + <p> + The capture of Breysach opened a boundless field to the ambition of the + Duke of Weimar, and the romance of his hopes was fast approaching to + reality. Far from intending to surrender his conquests to France, he + destined Breysach for himself, and revealed this intention, by exacting + allegiance from the vanquished, in his own name, and not in that of any + other power. Intoxicated by his past success, and excited by the boldest + hopes, he believed that he should be able to maintain his conquests, even + against France herself. At a time when everything depended upon bravery, + when even personal strength was of importance, when troops and generals + were of more value than territories, it was natural for a hero like + Bernard to place confidence in his own powers, and, at the head of an + excellent army, who under his command had proved invincible, to believe + himself capable of accomplishing the boldest and largest designs. In order + to secure himself one friend among the crowd of enemies whom he was about + to provoke, he turned his eyes upon the Landgravine Amelia of Hesse, the + widow of the lately deceased Landgrave William, a princess whose talents + were equal to her courage, and who, along with her hand, would bestow + valuable conquests, an extensive principality, and a well disciplined + army. By the union of the conquests of Hesse, with his own upon the Rhine, + and the junction of their forces, a power of some importance, and perhaps + a third party, might be formed in Germany, which might decide the fate of + the war. But a premature death put a period to these extensive schemes. + </p> + <p> + “Courage, Father Joseph, Breysach is ours!” whispered Richelieu in the ear + of the Capuchin, who had long held himself in readiness to be despatched + into that quarter; so delighted was he with this joyful intelligence. + Already in imagination he held Alsace, Breisgau, and all the frontiers of + Austria in that quarter, without regard to his promise to Duke Bernard. + But the firm determination which the latter had unequivocally shown, to + keep Breysach for himself, greatly embarrassed the cardinal, and no + efforts were spared to retain the victorious Bernard in the interests of + France. He was invited to court, to witness the honours by which his + triumph was to be commemorated; but he perceived and shunned the seductive + snare. The cardinal even went so far as to offer him the hand of his niece + in marriage; but the proud German prince declined the offer, and refused + to sully the blood of Saxony by a misalliance. He was now considered as a + dangerous enemy, and treated as such. His subsidies were withdrawn; and + the Governor of Breysach and his principal officers were bribed, at least + upon the event of the duke’s death, to take possession of his conquests, + and to secure his troops. These intrigues were no secret to the duke, and + the precautions he took in the conquered places, clearly bespoke the + distrust of France. But this misunderstanding with the French court had + the most prejudicial influence upon his future operations. The + preparations he was obliged to make, in order to secure his conquests + against an attack on the side of France, compelled him to divide his + military strength, while the stoppage of his subsidies delayed his + appearance in the field. It had been his intention to cross the Rhine, to + support the Swedes, and to act against the Emperor and Bavaria on the + banks of the Danube. He had already communicated his plan of operations to + Banner, who was about to carry the war into the Austrian territories, and + had promised to relieve him so, when a sudden death cut short his heroic + career, in the 36th year of his age, at Neuburgh upon the Rhine (in July, + 1639). + </p> + <p> + He died of a pestilential disorder, which, in the course of two days, had + carried off nearly 400 men in his camp. The black spots which appeared + upon his body, his own dying expressions, and the advantages which France + was likely to reap from his sudden decease, gave rise to a suspicion that + he had been removed by poison—a suspicion sufficiently refuted by + the symptoms of his disorder. In him, the allies lost their greatest + general after Gustavus Adolphus, France a formidable competitor for + Alsace, and the Emperor his most dangerous enemy. Trained to the duties of + a soldier and a general in the school of Gustavus Adolphus, he + successfully imitated his eminent model, and wanted only a longer life to + equal, if not to surpass it. With the bravery of the soldier, he united + the calm and cool penetration of the general and the persevering fortitude + of the man, with the daring resolution of youth; with the wild ardour of + the warrior, the sober dignity of the prince, the moderation of the sage, + and the conscientiousness of the man of honour. Discouraged by no + misfortune, he quickly rose again in full vigour from the severest + defeats; no obstacles could check his enterprise, no disappointments + conquer his indomitable perseverance. His genius, perhaps, soared after + unattainable objects; but the prudence of such men, is to be measured by a + different standard from that of ordinary people. Capable of accomplishing + more, he might venture to form more daring plans. Bernard affords, in + modern history, a splendid example of those days of chivalry, when + personal greatness had its full weight and influence, when individual + bravery could conquer provinces, and the heroic exploits of a German + knight raised him even to the Imperial throne. + </p> + <p> + The best part of the duke’s possessions were his army, which, together + with Alsace, he bequeathed to his brother William. But to this army, both + France and Sweden thought that they had well-grounded claims; the latter, + because it had been raised in name of that crown, and had done homage to + it; the former, because it had been supported by its subsidies. The + Electoral Prince of the Palatinate also negociated for its services, and + attempted, first by his agents, and latterly in his own person, to win it + over to his interests, with the view of employing it in the reconquest of + his territories. Even the Emperor endeavoured to secure it, a circumstance + the less surprising, when we reflect that at this time the justice of the + cause was comparatively unimportant, and the extent of the recompense the + main object to which the soldier looked; and when bravery, like every + other commodity, was disposed of to the highest bidder. But France, richer + and more determined, outbade all competitors: it bought over General + Erlach, the commander of Breysach, and the other officers, who soon placed + that fortress, with the whole army, in their hands. + </p> + <p> + The young Palatine, Prince Charles Louis, who had already made an + unsuccessful campaign against the Emperor, saw his hopes again deceived. + Although intending to do France so ill a service, as to compete with her + for Bernard’s army, he had the imprudence to travel through that kingdom. + The cardinal, who dreaded the justice of the Palatine’s cause, was glad to + seize any opportunity to frustrate his views. He accordingly caused him to + be seized at Moulin, in violation of the law of nations, and did not set + him at liberty, until he learned that the army of the Duke of Weimar had + been secured. France was now in possession of a numerous and well + disciplined army in Germany, and from this moment began to make open war + upon the Emperor. + </p> + <p> + But it was no longer against Ferdinand II. that its hostilities were to be + conducted; for that prince had died in February, 1637, in the 59th year of + his age. The war which his ambition had kindled, however, survived him. + During a reign of eighteen years he had never once laid aside the sword, + nor tasted the blessings of peace as long as his hand swayed the imperial + sceptre. Endowed with the qualities of a good sovereign, adorned with many + of those virtues which ensure the happiness of a people, and by nature + gentle and humane, we see him, from erroneous ideas of the monarch’s duty, + become at once the instrument and the victim of the evil passions of + others; his benevolent intentions frustrated, and the friend of justice + converted into the oppressor of mankind, the enemy of peace, and the + scourge of his people. Amiable in domestic life, and respectable as a + sovereign, but in his policy ill advised, while he gained the love of his + Roman Catholic subjects, he incurred the execration of the Protestants. + History exhibits many and greater despots than Ferdinand II., yet he alone + has had the unfortunate celebrity of kindling a thirty years’ war; but to + produce its lamentable consequences, his ambition must have been seconded + by a kindred spirit of the age, a congenial state of previous + circumstances, and existing seeds of discord. At a less turbulent period, + the spark would have found no fuel; and the peacefulness of the age would + have choked the voice of individual ambition; but now the flash fell upon + a pile of accumulated combustibles, and Europe was in flames. + </p> + <p> + His son, Ferdinand III., who, a few months before his father’s death, had + been raised to the dignity of King of the Romans, inherited his throne, + his principles, and the war which he had caused. But Ferdinand III. had + been a closer witness of the sufferings of the people, and the devastation + of the country, and felt more keenly and ardently the necessity of peace. + Less influenced by the Jesuits and the Spaniards, and more moderate + towards the religious views of others, he was more likely than his father + to listen to the voice of reason. He did so, and ultimately restored to + Europe the blessing of peace, but not till after a contest of eleven years + waged with sword and pen; not till after he had experienced the + impossibility of resistance, and necessity had laid upon him its stern + laws. + </p> + <p> + Fortune favoured him at the commencement of his reign, and his arms were + victorious against the Swedes. The latter, under the command of the + victorious Banner, had, after their success at Wittstock, taken up their + winter quarters in Saxony; and the campaign of 1637 opened with the siege + of Leipzig. The vigorous resistance of the garrison, and the approach of + the Electoral and Imperial armies, saved the town, and Banner, to prevent + his communication with the Elbe being cut off, was compelled to retreat + into Torgau. But the superior number of the Imperialists drove him even + from that quarter; and, surrounded by the enemy, hemmed in by rivers, and + suffering from famine, he had no course open to him but to attempt a + highly dangerous retreat into Pomerania, of which, the boldness and + successful issue border upon romance. The whole army crossed the Oder, at + a ford near Furstenberg; and the soldiers, wading up to the neck in water, + dragged the artillery across, when the horses refused to draw. Banner had + expected to be joined by General Wrangel, on the farther side of the Oder + in Pomerania; and, in conjunction with him, to be able to make head + against the enemy. But Wrangel did not appear; and in his stead, he found + an Imperial army posted at Landsberg, with a view to cut off the retreat + of the Swedes. Banner now saw that he had fallen into a dangerous snare, + from which escape appeared impossible. In his rear lay an exhausted + country, the Imperialists, and the Oder on his left; the Oder, too, + guarded by the Imperial General Bucheim, offered no retreat; in front, + Landsberg, Custrin, the Warta, and a hostile army; and on the right, + Poland, in which, notwithstanding the truce, little confidence could be + placed. In these circumstances, his position seemed hopeless, and the + Imperialists were already triumphing in the certainty of his fall. Banner, + with just indignation, accused the French as the authors of this + misfortune. They had neglected to make, according to their promise, a + diversion upon the Rhine; and, by their inaction, allowed the Emperor to + combine his whole force upon the Swedes. “When the day comes,” cried the + incensed General to the French Commissioner, who followed the camp, “that + the Swedes and Germans join their arms against France, we shall cross the + Rhine with less ceremony.” But reproaches were now useless; what the + emergency demanded was energy and resolution. In the hope of drawing the + enemy by stratagem from the Oder, Banner pretended to march towards + Poland, and despatched the greater part of his baggage in this direction, + with his own wife, and those of the other officers. The Imperialists + immediately broke up their camp, and hurried towards the Polish frontier + to block up the route; Bucheim left his station, and the Oder was stripped + of its defenders. On a sudden, and under cloud of night, Banner turned + towards that river, and crossed it about a mile above Custrin, with his + troops, baggage, and artillery, without bridges or vessels, as he had done + before at Furstenberg. He reached Pomerania without loss, and prepared to + share with Wrangel the defence of that province. + </p> + <p> + But the Imperialists, under the command of Gallas, entered that duchy at + Ribses, and overran it by their superior strength. Usedom and Wolgast were + taken by storm, Demmin capitulated, and the Swedes were driven far into + Lower Pomerania. It was, too, more important for them at this moment than + ever, to maintain a footing in that country, for Bogislaus XIV. had died + that year, and Sweden must prepare to establish its title to Pomerania. To + prevent the Elector of Brandenburg from making good the title to that + duchy, which the treaty of Prague had given him, Sweden exerted her utmost + energies, and supported its generals to the extent of her ability, both + with troops and money. In other quarters of the kingdom, the affairs of + the Swedes began to wear a more favourable aspect, and to recover from the + humiliation into which they had been thrown by the inaction of France, and + the desertion of their allies. For, after their hasty retreat into + Pomerania, they had lost one place after another in Upper Saxony; the + princes of Mecklenburg, closely pressed by the troops of the Emperor, + began to lean to the side of Austria, and even George, Duke of Lunenburg, + declared against them. Ehrenbreitstein was starved into a surrender by the + Bavarian General de Werth, and the Austrians possessed themselves of all + the works which had been thrown up on the Rhine. France had been the + sufferer in the contest with Spain; and the event had by no means + justified the pompous expectations which had accompanied the opening of + the campaign. Every place which the Swedes had held in the interior of + Germany was lost; and only the principal towns in Pomerania still remained + in their hands. But a single campaign raised them from this state of + humiliation; and the vigorous diversion, which the victorious Bernard had + effected upon the Rhine, gave quite a new turn to affairs. + </p> + <p> + The misunderstandings between France and Sweden were now at last adjusted, + and the old treaty between these powers confirmed at Hamburg, with fresh + advantages for Sweden. In Hesse, the politic Landgravine Amelia had, with + the approbation of the Estates, assumed the government after the death of + her husband, and resolutely maintained her rights against the Emperor and + the House of Darmstadt. Already zealously attached to the Swedish + Protestant party, on religious grounds, she only awaited a favourable + opportunity openly to declare herself. By artful delays, and by prolonging + the negociations with the Emperor, she had succeeded in keeping him + inactive, till she had concluded a secret compact with France, and the + victories of Duke Bernard had given a favourable turn to the affairs of + the Protestants. She now at once threw off the mask, and renewed her + former alliance with the Swedish crown. The Electoral Prince of the + Palatinate was also stimulated, by the success of Bernard, to try his + fortune against the common enemy. Raising troops in Holland with English + money, he formed a magazine at Meppen, and joined the Swedes in + Westphalia. His magazine was, however, quickly lost; his army defeated + near Flotha, by Count Hatzfeld; but his attempt served to occupy for some + time the attention of the enemy, and thereby facilitated the operations of + the Swedes in other quarters. Other friends began to appear, as fortune + declared in their favour, and the circumstance, that the States of Lower + Saxony embraced a neutrality, was of itself no inconsiderable advantage. + </p> + <p> + Under these advantages, and reinforced by 14,000 fresh troops from Sweden + and Livonia. Banner opened, with the most favourable prospects, the + campaign of 1638. The Imperialists who were in possession of Upper + Pomerania and Mecklenburg, either abandoned their positions, or deserted + in crowds to the Swedes, to avoid the horrors of famine, the most + formidable enemy in this exhausted country. The whole country betwixt the + Elbe and the Oder was so desolated by the past marchings and quarterings + of the troops, that, in order to support his army on its march into Saxony + and Bohemia, Banner was obliged to take a circuitous route from Lower + Pomerania into Lower Saxony, and then into the Electorate of Saxony + through the territory of Halberstadt. The impatience of the Lower Saxon + States to get rid of such troublesome guests, procured him so plentiful a + supply of provisions, that he was provided with bread in Magdeburg itself, + where famine had even overcome the natural antipathy of men to human + flesh. His approach spread consternation among the Saxons; but his views + were directed not against this exhausted country, but against the + hereditary dominions of the Emperor. The victories of Bernard encouraged + him, while the prosperity of the Austrian provinces excited his hopes of + booty. After defeating the Imperial General Salis, at Elsterberg, totally + routing the Saxon army at Chemnitz, and taking Pirna, he penetrated with + irresistible impetuosity into Bohemia, crossed the Elbe, threatened + Prague, took Brandeis and Leutmeritz, defeated General Hofkirchen with ten + regiments, and spread terror and devastation through that defenceless + kingdom. Booty was his sole object, and whatever he could not carry off he + destroyed. In order to remove more of the corn, the ears were cut from the + stalks, and the latter burnt. Above a thousand castles, hamlets, and + villages were laid in ashes; sometimes more than a hundred were seen + burning in one night. From Bohemia he crossed into Silesia, and it was his + intention to carry his ravages even into Moravia and Austria. But to + prevent this, Count Hatzfeld was summoned from Westphalia, and Piccolomini + from the Netherlands, to hasten with all speed to this quarter. The + Archduke Leopold, brother to the Emperor, assumed the command, in order to + repair the errors of his predecessor Gallas, and to raise the army from + the low ebb to which it had fallen. + </p> + <p> + The result justified the change, and the campaign of 1640 appeared to take + a most unfortunate turn for the Swedes. They were successively driven out + of all their posts in Bohemia, and anxious only to secure their plunder, + they precipitately crossed the heights of Meissen. But being followed into + Saxony by the pursuing enemy, and defeated at Plauen, they were obliged to + take refuge in Thuringia. Made masters of the field in a single summer, + they were as rapidly dispossessed; but only to acquire it a second time, + and to hurry from one extreme to another. The army of Banner, weakened and + on the brink of destruction in its camp at Erfurt, suddenly recovered + itself. The Duke of Lunenburg abandoned the treaty of Prague, and joined + Banner with the very troops which, the year before, had fought against + him. Hesse Cassel sent reinforcements, and the Duke of Longueville came to + his support with the army of the late Duke Bernard. Once more numerically + superior to the Imperialists, Banner offered them battle near Saalfeld; + but their leader, Piccolomini, prudently declined an engagement, having + chosen too strong a position to be forced. When the Bavarians at length + separated from the Imperialists, and marched towards Franconia, Banner + attempted an attack upon this divided corps, but the attempt was + frustrated by the skill of the Bavarian General Von Mercy, and the near + approach of the main body of the Imperialists. Both armies now moved into + the exhausted territory of Hesse, where they formed intrenched camps near + each other, till at last famine and the severity of the winter compelled + them both to retire. Piccolomini chose the fertile banks of the Weser for + his winter quarters; but being outflanked by Banner, he was obliged to + give way to the Swedes, and to impose on the Franconian sees the burden of + maintaining his army. + </p> + <p> + At this period, a diet was held in Ratisbon, where the complaints of the + States were to be heard, measures taken for securing the repose of the + Empire, and the question of peace or war finally settled. The presence of + the Emperor, the majority of the Roman Catholic voices in the Electoral + College, the great number of bishops, and the withdrawal of several of the + Protestant votes, gave the Emperor a complete command of the deliberations + of the assembly, and rendered this diet any thing but a fair + representative of the opinions of the German Empire. The Protestants, with + reason, considered it as a mere combination of Austria and its creatures + against their party; and it seemed to them a laudable effort to interrupt + its deliberations, and to dissolve the diet itself. + </p> + <p> + Banner undertook this bold enterprise. His military reputation had + suffered by his last retreat from Bohemia, and it stood in need of some + great exploit to restore its former lustre. Without communicating his + designs to any one, in the depth of the winter of 1641, as soon as the + roads and rivers were frozen, he broke up from his quarters in Lunenburg. + Accompanied by Marshal Guebriant, who commanded the armies of France and + Weimar, he took the route towards the Danube, through Thuringia and + Vogtland, and appeared before Ratisbon, ere the Diet could be apprised of + his approach. The consternation of the assembly was indescribable; and, in + the first alarm, the deputies prepared for flight. The Emperor alone + declared that he would not leave the town, and encouraged the rest by his + example. Unfortunately for the Swedes, a thaw came on, which broke up the + ice upon the Danube, so that it was no longer passable on foot, while no + boats could cross it, on account of the quantities of ice which were swept + down by the current. In order to perform something, and to humble the + pride of the Emperor, Banner discourteously fired 500 cannon shots into + the town, which, however, did little mischief. Baffled in his designs, he + resolved to penetrate farther into Bavaria, and the defenceless province + of Moravia, where a rich booty and comfortable quarters awaited his + troops. Guebriant, however, began to fear that the purpose of the Swedes + was to draw the army of Bernard away from the Rhine, and to cut off its + communication with France, till it should be either entirely won over, or + incapacitated from acting independently. He therefore separated from + Banner to return to the Maine; and the latter was exposed to the whole + force of the Imperialists, which had been secretly drawn together between + Ratisbon and Ingoldstadt, and was on its march against him. It was now + time to think of a rapid retreat, which, having to be effected in the face + of an army superior in cavalry, and betwixt woods and rivers, through a + country entirely hostile, appeared almost impracticable. He hastily + retired towards the Forest, intending to penetrate through Bohemia into + Saxony; but he was obliged to sacrifice three regiments at Neuburg. These + with a truly Spartan courage, defended themselves for four days behind an + old wall, and gained time for Banner to escape. He retreated by Egra to + Annaberg; Piccolomini took a shorter route in pursuit, by Schlakenwald; + and Banner succeeded, only by a single half hour, in clearing the Pass of + Prisnitz, and saving his whole army from the Imperialists. At Zwickau he + was again joined by Guebriant; and both generals directed their march + towards Halberstadt, after in vain attempting to defend the Saal, and to + prevent the passage of the Imperialists. + </p> + <p> + Banner, at length, terminated his career at Halberstadt, in May 1641, a + victim to vexation and disappointment. He sustained with great renown, + though with varying success, the reputation of the Swedish arms in + Germany, and by a train of victories showed himself worthy of his great + master in the art of war. He was fertile in expedients, which he planned + with secrecy, and executed with boldness; cautious in the midst of + dangers, greater in adversity than in prosperity, and never more + formidable than when upon the brink of destruction. But the virtues of the + hero were united with all the railings and vices which a military life + creates, or at least fosters. As imperious in private life as he was at + the head of his army, rude as his profession, and proud as a conqueror; he + oppressed the German princes no less by his haughtiness, than their + country by his contributions. He consoled himself for the toils of war in + voluptuousness and the pleasures of the table, in which he indulged to + excess, and was thus brought to an early grave. But though as much + addicted to pleasure as Alexander or Mahomet the Second, he hurried from + the arms of luxury into the hardest fatigues, and placed himself in all + his vigour at the head of his army, at the very moment his soldiers were + murmuring at his luxurious excesses. Nearly 80,000 men fell in the + numerous battles which he fought, and about 600 hostile standards and + colours, which he sent to Stockholm, were the trophies of his victories. + The want of this great general was soon severely felt by the Swedes, who + feared, with justice, that the loss would not readily be replaced. The + spirit of rebellion and insubordination, which had been overawed by the + imperious demeanour of this dreaded commander, awoke upon his death. The + officers, with an alarming unanimity, demanded payment of their arrears; + and none of the four generals who shared the command, possessed influence + enough to satisfy these demands, or to silence the malcontents. All + discipline was at an end, increasing want, and the imperial citations were + daily diminishing the number of the army; the troops of France and Weimar + showed little zeal; those of Lunenburg forsook the Swedish colours; the + Princes also of the House of Brunswick, after the death of Duke George, + had formed a separate treaty with the Emperor; and at last even those of + Hesse quitted them, to seek better quarters in Westphalia. The enemy + profited by these calamitous divisions; and although defeated with loss in + two pitched battles, succeeded in making considerable progress in Lower + Saxony. + </p> + <p> + At length appeared the new Swedish generalissimo, with fresh troops and + money. This was Bernard Torstensohn, a pupil of Gustavus Adolphus, and his + most successful imitator, who had been his page during the Polish war. + Though a martyr to the gout, and confined to a litter, he surpassed all + his opponents in activity; and his enterprises had wings, while his body + was held by the most frightful of fetters. Under him, the scene of war was + changed, and new maxims adopted, which necessity dictated, and the issue + justified. All the countries in which the contest had hitherto raged were + exhausted; while the House of Austria, safe in its more distant + territories, felt not the miseries of the war under which the rest of + Germany groaned. Torstensohn first furnished them with this bitter + experience, glutted his Swedes on the fertile produce of Austria, and + carried the torch of war to the very footsteps of the imperial throne. + </p> + <p> + In Silesia, the enemy had gained considerable advantages over the Swedish + general Stalhantsch, and driven him as far as Neumark. Torstensohn, who + had joined the main body of the Swedes in Lunenburg, summoned him to unite + with his force, and in the year 1642 hastily marched into Silesia through + Brandenburg, which, under its great Elector, had begun to maintain an + armed neutrality. Glogau was carried, sword in hand, without a breach, or + formal approaches; the Duke Francis Albert of Lauenburg defeated and + killed at Schweidnitz; and Schweidnitz itself with almost all the towns on + that side of the Oder, taken. He now penetrated with irresistible violence + into the interior of Moravia, where no enemy of Austria had hitherto + appeared, took Olmutz, and threw Vienna itself into consternation. + </p> + <p> + But, in the mean time, Piccolomini and the Archduke Leopold had collected + a superior force, which speedily drove the Swedish conquerors from + Moravia, and after a fruitless attempt upon Brieg, from Silesia. + Reinforced by Wrangel, the Swedes again attempted to make head against the + enemy, and relieved Grossglogau; but could neither bring the Imperialists + to an engagement, nor carry into effect their own views upon Bohemia. + Overrunning Lusatia, they took Zittau, in presence of the enemy, and after + a short stay in that country, directed their march towards the Elbe, which + they passed at Torgau. Torstensohn now threatened Leipzig with a siege, + and hoped to raise a large supply of provisions and contributions from + that prosperous town, which for ten years had been unvisited with the + scourge of war. + </p> + <p> + The Imperialists, under Leopold and Piccolomini, immediately hastened by + Dresden to its relief, and Torstensohn, to avoid being inclosed between + this army and the town, boldly advanced to meet them in order of battle. + By a strange coincidence, the two armies met upon the very spot which, + eleven years before, Gustavus Adolphus had rendered remarkable by a + decisive victory; and the heroism of their predecessors, now kindled in + the Swedes a noble emulation on this consecrated ground. The Swedish + generals, Stahlhantsch and Wellenberg, led their divisions with such + impetuosity upon the left wing of the Imperialists, before it was + completely formed, that the whole cavalry that covered it were dispersed + and rendered unserviceable. But the left of the Swedes was threatened with + a similar fate, when the victorious right advanced to its assistance, took + the enemy in flank and rear, and divided the Austrian line. The infantry + on both sides stood firm as a wall, and when their ammunition was + exhausted, maintained the combat with the butt-ends of their muskets, till + at last the Imperialists, completely surrounded, after a contest of three + hours, were compelled to abandon the field. The generals on both sides had + more than once to rally their flying troops; and the Archduke Leopold, + with his regiment, was the first in the attack and last in flight. But + this bloody victory cost the Swedes more than 3000 men, and two of their + best generals, Schlangen and Lilienhoeck. More than 5000 of the + Imperialists were left upon the field, and nearly as many taken prisoners. + Their whole artillery, consisting of 46 field-pieces, the silver plate and + portfolio of the archduke, with the whole baggage of the army, fell into + the hands of the victors. Torstensohn, too greatly disabled by his victory + to pursue the enemy, moved upon Leipzig. The defeated army retired into + Bohemia, where its shattered regiments reassembled. The Archduke Leopold + could not recover from the vexation caused by this defeat; and the + regiment of cavalry which, by its premature flight, had occasioned the + disaster, experienced the effects of his indignation. At Raconitz in + Bohemia, in presence of the whole army, he publicly declared it infamous, + deprived it of its horses, arms, and ensigns, ordered its standards to be + torn, condemned to death several of the officers, and decimated the + privates. + </p> + <p> + The surrender of Leipzig, three weeks after the battle, was its brilliant + result. The city was obliged to clothe the Swedish troops anew, and to + purchase an exemption from plunder, by a contribution of 300,000 + rix-dollars, to which all the foreign merchants, who had warehouses in the + city, were to furnish their quota. In the middle of winter, Torstensohn + advanced against Freyberg, and for several weeks defied the inclemency of + the season, hoping by his perseverance to weary out the obstinacy of the + besieged. But he found that he was merely sacrificing the lives of his + soldiers; and at last, the approach of the imperial general, Piccolomini, + compelled him, with his weakened army, to retire. He considered it, + however, as equivalent to a victory, to have disturbed the repose of the + enemy in their winter quarters, who, by the severity of the weather, + sustained a loss of 3000 horses. He now made a movement towards the Oder, + as if with the view of reinforcing himself with the garrisons of Pomerania + and Silesia; but, with the rapidity of lightning, he again appeared upon + the Bohemian frontier, penetrated through that kingdom, and relieved + Olmutz in Moravia, which was hard pressed by the Imperialists. His camp at + Dobitschau, two miles from Olmutz, commanded the whole of Moravia, on + which he levied heavy contributions, and carried his ravages almost to the + gates of Vienna. In vain did the Emperor attempt to arm the Hungarian + nobility in defence of this province; they appealed to their privileges, + and refused to serve beyond the limits of their own country. Thus, the + time that should have been spent in active resistance, was lost in + fruitless negociation, and the entire province was abandoned to the + ravages of the Swedes. + </p> + <p> + While Torstensohn, by his marches and his victories, astonished friend and + foe, the armies of the allies had not been inactive in other parts of the + empire. The troops of Hesse, under Count Eberstein, and those of Weimar, + under Mareschal de Guebriant, had fallen into the Electorate of Cologne, + in order to take up their winter quarters there. To get rid of these + troublesome guests, the Elector called to his assistance the imperial + general Hatzfeldt, and assembled his own troops under General Lamboy. The + latter was attacked by the allies in January, 1642, and in a decisive + action near Kempen, defeated, with the loss of about 2000 men killed, and + about twice as many prisoners. This important victory opened to them the + whole Electorate and neighbouring territories, so that the allies were not + only enabled to maintain their winter quarters there, but drew from the + country large supplies of men and horses. + </p> + <p> + Guebriant left the Hessians to defend their conquests on the Lower Rhine + against Hatzfeldt, and advanced towards Thuringia, as if to second the + operations of Torstensohn in Saxony. But instead of joining the Swedes, he + soon hurried back to the Rhine and the Maine, from which he seemed to + think he had removed farther than was expedient. But being anticipated in + the Margraviate of Baden, by the Bavarians under Mercy and John de Werth, + he was obliged to wander about for several weeks, exposed, without + shelter, to the inclemency of the winter, and generally encamping upon the + snow, till he found a miserable refuge in Breisgau. He at last took the + field; and, in the next summer, by keeping the Bavarian army employed in + Suabia, prevented it from relieving Thionville, which was besieged by + Conde. But the superiority of the enemy soon drove him back to Alsace, + where he awaited a reinforcement. + </p> + <p> + The death of Cardinal Richelieu took place in November, 1642, and the + subsequent change in the throne and in the ministry, occasioned by the + death of Louis XIII., had for some time withdrawn the attention of France + from the German war, and was the cause of the inaction of its troops in + the field. But Mazarin, the inheritor, not only of Richelieu’s power, but + also of his principles and his projects, followed out with renewed zeal + the plans of his predecessor, though the French subject was destined to + pay dearly enough for the political greatness of his country. The main + strength of its armies, which Richelieu had employed against the + Spaniards, was by Mazarin directed against the Emperor; and the anxiety + with which he carried on the war in Germany, proved the sincerity of his + opinion, that the German army was the right arm of his king, and a wall of + safety around France. Immediately upon the surrender of Thionville, he + sent a considerable reinforcement to Field-Marshal Guebriant in Alsace; + and to encourage the troops to bear the fatigues of the German war, the + celebrated victor of Rocroi, the Duke of Enghien, afterwards Prince of + Conde, was placed at their head. Guebriant now felt himself strong enough + to appear again in Germany with repute. He hastened across the Rhine with + the view of procuring better winter quarters in Suabia, and actually made + himself master of Rothweil, where a Bavarian magazine fell into his hands. + But the place was too dearly purchased for its worth, and was again lost + even more speedily than it had been taken. Guebriant received a wound in + the arm, which the surgeon’s unskilfulness rendered mortal, and the extent + of his loss was felt on the very day of his death. + </p> + <p> + The French army, sensibly weakened by an expedition undertaken at so + severe a season of the year, had, after the taking of Rothweil, withdrawn + into the neighbourhood of Duttlingen, where it lay in complete security, + without expectation of a hostile attack. In the mean time, the enemy + collected a considerable force, with a view to prevent the French from + establishing themselves beyond the Rhine and so near to Bavaria, and to + protect that quarter from their ravages. The Imperialists, under + Hatzfeldt, had formed a junction with the Bavarians under Mercy; and the + Duke of Lorraine, who, during the whole course of the war, was generally found + everywhere except in his own duchy, joined their united forces. It was + resolved to force the quarters of the French in Duttlingen, and the + neighbouring villages, by surprise; a favourite mode of proceeding in this + war, and which, being commonly accompanied by confusion, occasioned more + bloodshed than a regular battle. On the present occasion, there was the + more to justify it, as the French soldiers, unaccustomed to such + enterprises, conceived themselves protected by the severity of the winter + against any surprise. John de Werth, a master in this species of warfare, + which he had often put in practice against Gustavus Horn, conducted the + enterprise, and succeeded, contrary to all expectation. + </p> + <p> + The attack was made on a side where it was least looked for, on account of + the woods and narrow passes, and a heavy snow storm which fell upon the + same day, (the 24th November, 1643,) concealed the approach of the + vanguard till it halted before Duttlingen. The whole of the artillery + without the place, as well as the neighbouring Castle of Honberg, were + taken without resistance, Duttlingen itself was gradually surrounded by + the enemy, and all connexion with the other quarters in the adjacent + villages silently and suddenly cut off. The French were vanquished without + firing a cannon. The cavalry owed their escape to the swiftness of their + horses, and the few minutes in advance, which they had gained upon their + pursuers. The infantry were cut to pieces, or voluntarily laid down their + arms. About 2,000 men were killed, and 7,000, with 25 staff-officers and + 90 captains, taken prisoners. This was, perhaps, the only battle, in the + whole course of the war, which produced nearly the same effect upon the + party which gained, and that which lost;—both these parties were + Germans; the French disgraced themselves. The memory of this unfortunate + day, which was renewed 100 years after at Rosbach, was indeed erased by + the subsequent heroism of a Turenne and Conde; but the Germans may be + pardoned, if they indemnified themselves for the miseries which the policy + of France had heaped upon them, by these severe reflections upon her + intrepidity. + </p> + <p> + Meantime, this defeat of the French was calculated to prove highly + disastrous to Sweden, as the whole power of the Emperor might now act + against them, while the number of their enemies was increased by a + formidable accession. Torstensohn had, in September, 1643, suddenly left + Moravia, and moved into Silesia. The cause of this step was a secret, and + the frequent changes which took place in the direction of his march, + contributed to increase this perplexity. From Silesia, after numberless + circuits, he advanced towards the Elbe, while the Imperialists followed + him into Lusatia. Throwing a bridge across the Elbe at Torgau, he gave out + that he intended to penetrate through Meissen into the Upper Palatinate in + Bavaria; at Barby he also made a movement, as if to pass that river, but + continued to move down the Elbe as far as Havelburg, where he astonished + his troops by informing them that he was leading them against the Danes in + Holstein. + </p> + <p> + The partiality which Christian IV. had displayed against the Swedes in his + office of mediator, the jealousy which led him to do all in his power to + hinder the progress of their arms, the restraints which he laid upon their + navigation of the Sound, and the burdens which he imposed upon their + commerce, had long roused the indignation of Sweden; and, at last, when + these grievances increased daily, had determined the Regency to measures + of retaliation. Dangerous as it seemed, to involve the nation in a new + war, when, even amidst its conquests, it was almost exhausted by the old, + the desire of revenge, and the deep-rooted hatred which subsisted between + Danes and Swedes, prevailed over all other considerations; and even the + embarrassment in which hostilities with Germany had plunged it, only + served as an additional motive to try its fortune against Denmark. + </p> + <p> + Matters were, in fact, arrived at last to that extremity, that the war was + prosecuted merely for the purpose of furnishing food and employment to the + troops; that good winter quarters formed the chief subject of contention; + and that success, in this point, was more valued than a decisive victory. + But now the provinces of Germany were almost all exhausted and laid waste. + They were wholly destitute of provisions, horses, and men, which in + Holstein were to be found in profusion. If by this movement, Torstensohn + should succeed merely in recruiting his army, providing subsistence for + his horses and soldiers, and remounting his cavalry, all the danger and + difficulty would be well repaid. Besides, it was highly important, on the + eve of negotiations for peace, to diminish the injurious influence which + Denmark might exercise upon these deliberations, to delay the treaty + itself, which threatened to be prejudicial to the Swedish interests, by + sowing confusion among the parties interested, and with a view to the + amount of indemnification, to increase the number of her conquests, in + order to be the more sure of securing those which alone she was anxious to + retain. Moreover, the present state of Denmark justified even greater + hopes, if only the attempt were executed with rapidity and silence. The + secret was in fact so well kept in Stockholm, that the Danish minister had + not the slightest suspicion of it; and neither France nor Holland were let + into the scheme. Actual hostilities commenced with the declaration of war; + and Torstensohn was in Holstein, before even an attack was expected. The + Swedish troops, meeting with no resistance, quickly overran this duchy, + and made themselves masters of all its strong places, except Rensburg and + Gluckstadt. Another army penetrated into Schonen, which made as little + opposition; and nothing but the severity of the season prevented the enemy + from passing the Lesser Baltic, and carrying the war into Funen and + Zealand. The Danish fleet was unsuccessful at Femern; and Christian + himself, who was on board, lost his right eye by a splinter. Cut off from + all communication with the distant force of the Emperor, his ally, this + king was on the point of seeing his whole kingdom overrun by the Swedes; + and all things threatened the speedy fulfilment of the old prophecy of the + famous Tycho Brahe, that in the year 1644, Christian IV. should wander in + the greatest misery from his dominions. + </p> + <p> + But the Emperor could not look on with indifference, while Denmark was + sacrificed to Sweden, and the latter strengthened by so great an + acquisition. Notwithstanding great difficulties lay in the way of so long + a march through desolated provinces, he did not hesitate to despatch an + army into Holstein under Count Gallas, who, after Piccolomini’s + retirement, had resumed the supreme command of the troops. Gallas + accordingly appeared in the duchy, took Keil, and hoped, by forming a + junction with the Danes, to be able to shut up the Swedish army in + Jutland. Meantime, the Hessians, and the Swedish General Koenigsmark, were + kept in check by Hatzfeldt, and the Archbishop of Bremen, the son of + Christian IV.; and afterwards the Swedes drawn into Saxony by an attack + upon Meissen. But Torstensohn, with his augmented army, penetrated through + the unoccupied pass betwixt Schleswig and Stapelholm, met Gallas, and + drove him along the whole course of the Elbe, as far as Bernburg, where + the Imperialists took up an entrenched position. Torstensohn passed the + Saal, and by posting himself in the rear of the enemy, cut off their + communication with Saxony and Bohemia. Scarcity and famine began now to + destroy them in great numbers, and forced them to retreat to Magdeburg, + where, however, they were not much better off. The cavalry, which + endeavoured to escape into Silesia, was overtaken and routed by + Torstensohn, near Juterbock; the rest of the army, after a vain attempt to + fight its way through the Swedish lines, was almost wholly destroyed near + Magdeburg. From this expedition, Gallas brought back only a few thousand + men of all his formidable force, and the reputation of being a consummate + master in the art of ruining an army. The King of Denmark, after this + unsuccessful effort to relieve him, sued for peace, which he obtained at + Bremsebor in the year 1645, under very unfavourable conditions. + </p> + <p> + Torstensohn rapidly followed up his victory; and while Axel Lilienstern, + one of the generals who commanded under him, overawed Saxony, and + Koenigsmark subdued the whole of Bremen, he himself penetrated into + Bohemia with 16,000 men and 80 pieces of artillery, and endeavoured a + second time to remove the seat of war into the hereditary dominions of + Austria. Ferdinand, upon this intelligence, hastened in person to Prague, + in order to animate the courage of the people by his presence; and as a + skilful general was much required, and so little unanimity prevailed among + the numerous leaders, he hoped in the immediate neighbourhood of the war + to be able to give more energy and activity. In obedience to his orders, + Hatzfeldt assembled the whole Austrian and Bavarian force, and contrary to + his own inclination and advice, formed the Emperor’s last army, and the + last bulwark of his states, in order of battle, to meet the enemy, who + were approaching, at Jankowitz, on the 24th of February, 1645. Ferdinand + depended upon his cavalry, which outnumbered that of the enemy by 3000, + and upon the promise of the Virgin Mary, who had appeared to him in a + dream, and given him the strongest assurances of a complete victory. + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:60%;"> + <img alt="1p362 (157K)" src="images/1p362.jpg" style="width:100%;" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <p> + The superiority of the Imperialists did not intimidate Torstensohn, who + was not accustomed to number his antagonists. On the very first onset, the + left wing, which Goetz, the general of the League, had entangled in a + disadvantageous position among marshes and thickets, was totally routed; + the general, with the greater part of his men, killed, and almost the + whole ammunition of the army taken. This unfortunate commencement decided + the fate of the day. The Swedes, constantly advancing, successively + carried all the most commanding heights. After a bloody engagement of + eight hours, a desperate attack on the part of the Imperial cavalry, and a + vigorous resistance by the Swedish infantry, the latter remained in + possession of the field. 2,000 Austrians were killed upon the spot, and + Hatzfeldt himself, with 3,000 men, taken prisoners. Thus, on the same day, + did the Emperor lose his best general and his last army. + </p> + <p> + This decisive victory at Jancowitz, at once exposed all the Austrian + territory to the enemy. Ferdinand hastily fled to Vienna, to provide for + its defence, and to save his family and his treasures. In a very short + time, the victorious Swedes poured, like an inundation, upon Moravia and + Austria. After they had subdued nearly the whole of Moravia, invested + Brunn, and taken all the strongholds as far as the Danube, and carried the + intrenchments at the Wolf’s Bridge, near Vienna, they at last appeared in + sight of that capital, while the care which they had taken to fortify + their conquests, showed that their visit was not likely to be a short one. + After a long and destructive circuit through every province of Germany, + the stream of war had at last rolled backwards to its source, and the roar + of the Swedish artillery now reminded the terrified inhabitants of those + balls which, twenty-seven years before, the Bohemian rebels had fired into + Vienna. The same theatre of war brought again similar actors on the scene. + Torstensohn invited Ragotsky, the successor of Bethlen Gabor, to his + assistance, as the Bohemian rebels had solicited that of his predecessor; + Upper Hungary was already inundated by his troops, and his union with the + Swedes was daily apprehended. The Elector of Saxony, driven to despair by + the Swedes taking up their quarters within his territories, and abandoned + by the Emperor, who, after the defeat at Jankowitz, was unable to defend + himself, at length adopted the last and only expedient which remained, and + concluded a truce with Sweden, which was renewed from year to year, till + the general peace. The Emperor thus lost a friend, while a new enemy was + appearing at his very gates, his armies dispersed, and his allies in other + quarters of Germany defeated. The French army had effaced the disgrace of + their defeat at Deutlingen by a brilliant campaign, and had kept the whole + force of Bavaria employed upon the Rhine and in Suabia. Reinforced with + fresh troops from France, which the great Turenne, already distinguished + by his victories in Italy, brought to the assistance of the Duke of + Enghien, they appeared on the 3rd of August, 1644, before Friburg, which + Mercy had lately taken, and now covered, with his whole army strongly + intrenched. But against the steady firmness of the Bavarians, all the + impetuous valour of the French was exerted in vain, and after a fruitless + sacrifice of 6,000 men, the Duke of Enghien was compelled to retreat. + Mazarin shed tears over this great loss, which Conde, who had no feeling + for anything but glory, disregarded. “A single night in Paris,” said he, + “gives birth to more men than this action has destroyed.” The Bavarians, + however, were so disabled by this murderous battle, that, far from being + in a condition to relieve Austria from the menaced dangers, they were too + weak even to defend the banks of the Rhine. Spires, Worms, and Manheim + capitulated; the strong fortress of Philipsburg was forced to surrender by + famine; and, by a timely submission, Mentz hastened to disarm the + conquerors. + </p> + <p> + Austria and Moravia, however, were now freed from Torstensohn, by a + similar means of deliverance, as in the beginning of the war had saved + them from the Bohemians. Ragotzky, at the head of 25,000 men, had advanced + into the neighbourhood of the Swedish quarters upon the Danube. But these + wild undisciplined hordes, instead of seconding the operations of + Torstensohn by any vigorous enterprise, only ravaged the country, and + increased the distress which, even before their arrival, had begun to be + felt in the Swedish camp. To extort tribute from the Emperor, and money + and plunder from his subjects, was the sole object that had allured + Ragotzky, or his predecessor, Bethlen Gabor, into the field; and both + departed as soon as they had gained their end. To get rid of him, + Ferdinand granted the barbarian whatever he asked, and, by a small + sacrifice, freed his states of this formidable enemy. + </p> + <p> + In the mean time, the main body of the Swedes had been greatly weakened by + a tedious encampment before Brunn. Torstensohn, who commanded in person, + for four entire months employed in vain all his knowledge of military + tactics; the obstinacy of the resistance was equal to that of the assault; + while despair roused the courage of Souches, the commandant, a Swedish + deserter, who had no hope of pardon. The ravages caused by pestilence, + arising from famine, want of cleanliness, and the use of unripe fruit, + during their tedious and unhealthy encampment, with the sudden retreat of + the Prince of Transylvania, at last compelled the Swedish leader to raise + the siege. As all the passes upon the Danube were occupied, and his army + greatly weakened by famine and sickness, he at last relinquished his + intended plan of operations against Austria and Moravia, and contented + himself with securing a key to these provinces, by leaving behind him + Swedish garrisons in the conquered fortresses. He then directed his march + into Bohemia, whither he was followed by the Imperialists, under the + Archduke Leopold. Such of the lost places as had not been retaken by the + latter, were recovered, after his departure, by the Austrian General + Bucheim; so that, in the course of the following year, the Austrian + frontier was again cleared of the enemy, and Vienna escaped with mere + alarm. In Bohemia and Silesia too, the Swedes maintained themselves only + with a very variable fortune; they traversed both countries, without being + able to hold their ground in either. But if the designs of Torstensohn + were not crowned with all the success which they were promised at the + commencement, they were, nevertheless, productive of the most important + consequences to the Swedish party. Denmark had been compelled to a peace, + Saxony to a truce. The Emperor, in the deliberations for a peace, offered + greater concessions; France became more manageable; and Sweden itself + bolder and more confident in its bearing towards these two crowns. Having + thus nobly performed his duty, the author of these advantages retired, + adorned with laurels, into the tranquillity of private life, and + endeavoured to restore his shattered health. + </p> + <p> + By the retreat of Torstensohn, the Emperor was relieved from all fears of + an irruption on the side of Bohemia. But a new danger soon threatened the + Austrian frontier from Suabia and Bavaria. Turenne, who had separated from + Conde, and taken the direction of Suabia, had, in the year 1645, been + totally defeated by Mercy, near Mergentheim; and the victorious Bavarians, + under their brave leader, poured into Hesse. But the Duke of Enghien + hastened with considerable succours from Alsace, Koenigsmark from Moravia, + and the Hessians from the Rhine, to recruit the defeated army, and the + Bavarians were in turn compelled to retire to the extreme limits of + Suabia. Here they posted themselves at the village of Allersheim, near + Nordlingen, in order to cover the Bavarian frontier. But no obstacle could + check the impetuosity of the Duke of Enghien. In person, he led on his + troops against the enemy’s entrenchments, and a battle took place, which + the heroic resistance of the Bavarians rendered most obstinate and bloody; + till at last the death of the great Mercy, the skill of Turenne, and the + iron firmness of the Hessians, decided the day in favour of the allies. + But even this second barbarous sacrifice of life had little effect either + on the course of the war, or on the negociations for peace. The French + army, exhausted by this bloody engagement, was still farther weakened by + the departure of the Hessians, and the Bavarians being reinforced by the + Archduke Leopold, Turenne was again obliged hastily to recross the Rhine. + </p> + <p> + The retreat of the French, enabled the enemy to turn his whole force upon + the Swedes in Bohemia. Gustavus Wrangel, no unworthy successor of Banner + and Torstensohn, had, in 1646, been appointed Commander-in-chief of the + Swedish army, which, besides Koenigsmark’s flying corps and the numerous + garrisons disposed throughout the empire, amounted to about 8,000 horse, + and 15,000 foot. The Archduke, after reinforcing his army, which already + amounted to 24,000 men, with twelve Bavarian regiments of cavalry, and + eighteen regiments of infantry, moved against Wrangel, in the hope of + being able to overwhelm him by his superior force before Koenigsmark could + join him, or the French effect a diversion in his favour. Wrangel, + however, did not await him, but hastened through Upper Saxony to the + Weser, where he took Hoester and Paderborn. From thence he marched into + Hesse, in order to join Turenne, and at his camp at Wetzlar, was joined by + the flying corps of Koenigsmark. But Turenne, fettered by the instructions + of Mazarin, who had seen with jealousy the warlike prowess and increasing + power of the Swedes, excused himself on the plea of a pressing necessity + to defend the frontier of France on the side of the Netherlands, in + consequence of the Flemings having failed to make the promised diversion. + But as Wrangel continued to press his just demand, and a longer opposition + might have excited distrust on the part of the Swedes, or induce them to + conclude a private treaty with Austria, Turenne at last obtained the + wished for permission to join the Swedish army. + </p> + <p> + The junction took place at Giessen, and they now felt themselves strong + enough to meet the enemy. The latter had followed the Swedes into Hesse, + in order to intercept their commissariat, and to prevent their union with + Turenne. In both designs they had been unsuccessful; and the Imperialists + now saw themselves cut off from the Maine, and exposed to great scarcity + and want from the loss of their magazines. Wrangel took advantage of their + weakness, to execute a plan by which he hoped to give a new turn to the + war. He, too, had adopted the maxim of his predecessor, to carry the war + into the Austrian States. But discouraged by the ill success of + Torstensohn’s enterprise, he hoped to gain his end with more certainty by + another way. He determined to follow the course of the Danube, and to + break into the Austrian territories through the midst of Bavaria. A + similar design had been formerly conceived by Gustavus Adolphus, which he + had been prevented carrying into effect by the approach of Wallenstein’s + army, and the danger of Saxony. Duke Bernard moving in his footsteps, and + more fortunate than Gustavus, had spread his victorious banners between + the Iser and the Inn; but the near approach of the enemy, vastly superior + in force, obliged him to halt in his victorious career, and lead back his + troops. Wrangel now hoped to accomplish the object in which his + predecessors had failed, the more so, as the Imperial and Bavarian army + was far in his rear upon the Lahn, and could only reach Bavaria by a long + march through Franconia and the Upper Palatinate. He moved hastily upon + the Danube, defeated a Bavarian corps near Donauwerth, and passed that + river, as well as the Lech, unopposed. But by wasting his time in the + unsuccessful siege of Augsburg, he gave opportunity to the Imperialists, + not only to relieve that city, but also to repulse him as far as Lauingen. + No sooner, however, had they turned towards Suabia, with a view to remove + the war from Bavaria, than, seizing the opportunity, he repassed the Lech, + and guarded the passage of it against the Imperialists themselves. Bavaria + now lay open and defenceless before him; the French and Swedes quickly + overran it; and the soldiery indemnified themselves for all dangers by + frightful outrages, robberies, and extortions. The arrival of the Imperial + troops, who at last succeeded in passing the Lech at Thierhaupten, only + increased the misery of this country, which friend and foe + indiscriminately plundered. + </p> + <p> + And now, for the first time during the whole course of this war, the + courage of Maximilian, which for eight-and-twenty years had stood unshaken + amidst fearful dangers, began to waver. Ferdinand II., his + school-companion at Ingoldstadt, and the friend of his youth, was no more; + and with the death of his friend and benefactor, the strong tie was + dissolved which had linked the Elector to the House of Austria. To the + father, habit, inclination, and gratitude had attached him; the son was a + stranger to his heart, and political interests alone could preserve his + fidelity to the latter prince. + </p> + <p> + Accordingly, the motives which the artifices of France now put in + operation, in order to detach him from the Austrian alliance, and to + induce him to lay down his arms, were drawn entirely from political + considerations. It was not without a selfish object that Mazarin had so + far overcome his jealousy of the growing power of the Swedes, as to allow + the French to accompany them into Bavaria. His intention was to expose + Bavaria to all the horrors of war, in the hope that the persevering + fortitude of Maximilian might be subdued by necessity and despair, and the + Emperor deprived of his first and last ally. Brandenburg had, under its + great sovereign, embraced the neutrality; Saxony had been forced to accede + to it; the war with France prevented the Spaniards from taking any part in + that of Germany; the peace with Sweden had removed Denmark from the + theatre of war; and Poland had been disarmed by a long truce. If they + could succeed in detaching the Elector of Bavaria also from the Austrian + alliance, the Emperor would be without a friend in Germany and left to the + mercy of the allied powers. + </p> + <p> + Ferdinand III. saw his danger, and left no means untried to avert it. But + the Elector of Bavaria was unfortunately led to believe that the Spaniards + alone were disinclined to peace, and that nothing, but Spanish influence, + had induced the Emperor so long to resist a cessation of hostilities. + Maximilian detested the Spaniards, and could never forgive their having + opposed his application for the Palatine Electorate. Could it then be + supposed that, in order to gratify this hated power, he would see his + people sacrificed, his country laid waste, and himself ruined, when, by a + cessation of hostilities, he could at once emancipate himself from all + these distresses, procure for his people the repose of which they stood so + much in need, and perhaps accelerate the arrival of a general peace? All + doubts disappeared; and, convinced of the necessity of this step, he + thought he should sufficiently discharge his obligations to the Emperor, + if he invited him also to share in the benefit of the truce. + </p> + <p> + The deputies of the three crowns, and of Bavaria, met at Ulm, to adjust + the conditions. But it was soon evident, from the instructions of the + Austrian ambassadors that it was not the intention of the Emperor to + second the conclusion of a truce, but if possible to prevent it. It was + obviously necessary to make the terms acceptable to the Swedes, who had + the advantage, and had more to hope than to fear from the continuance of + the war. They were the conquerors; and yet the Emperor presumed to dictate + to them. In the first transports of their indignation, the Swedish + ambassadors were on the point of leaving the congress, and the French were + obliged to have recourse to threats in order to detain them. + </p> + <p> + The good intentions of the Elector of Bavaria, to include the Emperor in + the benefit of the truce, having been thus rendered unavailing, he felt + himself justified in providing for his own safety. However hard were the + conditions on which the truce was to be purchased, he did not hesitate to + accept it on any terms. He agreed to the Swedes extending their quarters + in Suabia and Franconia, and to his own being restricted to Bavaria and + the Palatinate. The conquests which he had made in Suabia were ceded to + the allies, who, on their part, restored to him what they had taken from + Bavaria. Cologne and Hesse Cassel were also included in the truce. After + the conclusion of this treaty, upon the 14th March, 1647, the French and + Swedes left Bavaria, and in order not to interfere with each other, took + up different quarters; the former in Wuertemberg, the latter in Upper + Suabia, in the neighbourhood of the Lake of Constance. On the extreme + north of this lake, and on the most southern frontier of Suabia, the + Austrian town of Bregentz, by its steep and narrow passes, seemed to defy + attack; and in this persuasion, the whole peasantry of the surrounding + villages had with their property taken refuge in this natural fortress. + The rich booty, which the store of provisions it contained, gave reason to + expect, and the advantage of possessing a pass into the Tyrol, Switzerland + and Italy, induced the Swedish general to venture an attack upon this + supposed impregnable post and town, in which he succeeded. Meantime, + Turenne, according to agreement, marched into Wuertemberg, where he forced + the Landgrave of Darmstadt and the Elector of Mentz to imitate the example + of Bavaria, and to embrace the neutrality. + </p> + <p> + And now, at last, France seemed to have attained the great object of its + policy, that of depriving the Emperor of the support of the League, and of + his Protestant allies, and of dictating to him, sword in hand, the + conditions of peace. Of all his once formidable power, an army, not + exceeding 12,000, was all that remained to him; and this force he was + driven to the necessity of entrusting to the command of a Calvinist, the + Hessian deserter Melander, as the casualties of war had stripped him of + his best generals. But as this war had been remarkable for the sudden + changes of fortune it displayed; and as every calculation of state policy + had been frequently baffled by some unforeseen event, in this case also + the issue disappointed expectation; and after a brief crisis, the fallen + power of Austria rose again to a formidable strength. The jealousy which + France entertained of Sweden, prevented it from permitting the total ruin + of the Emperor, or allowing the Swedes to obtain such a preponderance in + Germany, as might have been destructive to France herself. Accordingly, + the French minister declined to take advantage of the distresses of + Austria; and the army of Turenne, separating from that of Wrangel, retired + to the frontiers of the Netherlands. Wrangel, indeed, after moving from + Suabia into Franconia, taking Schweinfurt, and incorporating the imperial + garrison of that place with his own army, attempted to make his way into + Bohemia, and laid siege to Egra, the key of that kingdom. To relieve this + fortress, the Emperor put his last army in motion, and placed himself at + its head. But obliged to take a long circuit, in order to spare the lands + of Von Schlick, the president of the council of war, he protracted his + march; and on his arrival, Egra was already taken. Both armies were now in + sight of each other; and a decisive battle was momentarily expected, as + both were suffering from want, and the two camps were only separated from + each other by the space of the entrenchments. But the Imperialists, + although superior in numbers, contented themselves with keeping close to + the enemy, and harassing them by skirmishes, by fatiguing marches and + famine, until the negociations which had been opened with Bavaria were + brought to a bearing. + </p> + <p> + The neutrality of Bavaria, was a wound under which the Imperial court + writhed impatiently; and after in vain attempting to prevent it, Austria + now determined, if possible, to turn it to advantage. Several officers of + the Bavarian army had been offended by this step of their master, which at + once reduced them to inaction, and imposed a burdensome restraint on their + restless disposition. Even the brave John de Werth was at the head of the + malcontents, and encouraged by the Emperor, he formed a plot to seduce the + whole army from their allegiance to the Elector, and lead it over to the + Emperor. Ferdinand did not blush to patronize this act of treachery + against his father’s most trusty ally. He formally issued a proclamation + to the Bavarian troops, in which he recalled them to himself, reminded + them that they were the troops of the empire, which the Elector had merely + commanded in name of the Emperor. Fortunately for Maximilian, he detected + the conspiracy in time enough to anticipate and prevent it by the most + rapid and effective measures. + </p> + <p> + This disgraceful conduct of the Emperor might have justified a reprisal, + but Maximilian was too old a statesman to listen to the voice of passion, + where policy alone ought to be heard. He had not derived from the truce + the advantages he expected. Far from tending to accelerate a general + peace, it had a pernicious influence upon the negociations at Munster and + Osnaburg, and had made the allies bolder in their demands. The French and + Swedes had indeed removed from Bavaria; but, by the loss of his quarters + in the Suabian circle, he found himself compelled either to exhaust his + own territories by the subsistence of his troops, or at once to disband + them, and to throw aside the shield and spear, at the very moment when the + sword alone seemed to be the arbiter of right. Before embracing either of + these certain evils, he determined to try a third step, the unfavourable + issue of which was at least not so certain, viz., to renounce the truce + and resume the war. + </p> + <p> + This resolution, and the assistance which he immediately despatched to the + Emperor in Bohemia, threatened materially to injure the Swedes, and + Wrangel was compelled in haste to evacuate that kingdom. He retired + through Thuringia into Westphalia and Lunenburg, in the hope of forming a + junction with the French army under Turenne, while the Imperial and + Bavarian army followed him to the Weser, under Melander and Gronsfeld. His + ruin was inevitable, if the enemy should overtake him before his junction + with Turenne; but the same consideration which had just saved the Emperor, + now proved the salvation of the Swedes. Even amidst all the fury of the + conquest, cold calculations of prudence guided the course of the war, and + the vigilance of the different courts increased, as the prospect of peace + approached. The Elector of Bavaria could not allow the Emperor to obtain + so decisive a preponderance as, by the sudden alteration of affairs, might + delay the chances of a general peace. Every change of fortune was + important now, when a pacification was so ardently desired by all, and + when the disturbance of the balance of power among the contracting parties + might at once annihilate the work of years, destroy the fruit of long and + tedious negociations, and indefinitely protract the repose of Europe. If + France sought to restrain the Swedish crown within due bounds, and + measured out her assistance according to her successes and defeats, the + Elector of Bavaria silently undertook the same task with the Emperor his + ally, and determined, by prudently dealing out his aid, to hold the fate + of Austria in his own hands. And now that the power of the Emperor + threatened once more to attain a dangerous superiority, Maximilian at once + ceased to pursue the Swedes. He was also afraid of reprisals from France, + who had threatened to direct Turenne’s whole force against him if he + allowed his troops to cross the Weser. + </p> + <p> + Melander, prevented by the Bavarians from further pursuing Wrangel, + crossed by Jena and Erfurt into Hesse, and now appeared as a dangerous + enemy in the country which he had formerly defended. If it was the desire + of revenge upon his former sovereign, which led him to choose Hesse for + the scene of his ravage, he certainly had his full gratification. Under + this scourge, the miseries of that unfortunate state reached their height. + But he had soon reason to regret that, in the choice of his quarters, he + had listened to the dictates of revenge rather than of prudence. In this + exhausted country, his army was oppressed by want, while Wrangel was + recruiting his strength, and remounting his cavalry in Lunenburg. Too weak + to maintain his wretched quarters against the Swedish general, when he + opened the campaign in the winter of 1648, and marched against Hesse, he + was obliged to retire with disgrace, and take refuge on the banks of the + Danube. + </p> + <p> + France had once more disappointed the expectations of Sweden; and the army + of Turenne, disregarding the remonstrances of Wrangel, had remained upon + the Rhine. The Swedish leader revenged himself, by drawing into his + service the cavalry of Weimar, which had abandoned the standard of France, + though, by this step, he farther increased the jealousy of that power. + Turenne received permission to join the Swedes; and the last campaign of + this eventful war was now opened by the united armies. Driving Melander + before them along the Danube, they threw supplies into Egra, which was + besieged by the Imperialists, and defeated the Imperial and Bavarian + armies on the Danube, which ventured to oppose them at Susmarshausen, + where Melander was mortally wounded. After this overthrow, the Bavarian + general, Gronsfeld, placed himself on the farther side of the Lech, in + order to guard Bavaria from the enemy. + </p> + <p> + But Gronsfeld was not more fortunate than Tilly, who, in this same + position, had sacrificed his life for Bavaria. Wrangel and Turenne chose + the same spot for passing the river, which was so gloriously marked by the + victory of Gustavus Adolphus, and accomplished it by the same means, too, + which had favoured their predecessor. Bavaria was now a second time + overrun, and the breach of the truce punished by the severest treatment of + its inhabitants. Maximilian sought shelter in Salzburgh, while the Swedes + crossed the Iser, and forced their way as far as the Inn. A violent and + continued rain, which in a few days swelled this inconsiderable stream + into a broad river, saved Austria once more from the threatened danger. + The enemy ten times attempted to form a bridge of boats over the Inn, and + as often it was destroyed by the current. Never, during the whole course + of the war, had the Imperialists been in so great consternation as at + present, when the enemy were in the centre of Bavaria, and when they had + no longer a general left who could be matched against a Turenne, a + Wrangel, and a Koenigsmark. At last the brave Piccolomini arrived from the + Netherlands, to assume the command of the feeble wreck of the + Imperialists. By their own ravages in Bohemia, the allies had rendered + their subsistence in that country impracticable, and were at last driven + by scarcity to retreat into the Upper Palatinate, where the news of the + peace put a period to their activity. + </p> + <p> + Koenigsmark, with his flying corps, advanced towards Bohemia, where Ernest + Odowalsky, a disbanded captain, who, after being disabled in the imperial + service, had been dismissed without a pension, laid before him a plan for + surprising the lesser side of the city of Prague. Koenigsmark successfully + accomplished the bold enterprise, and acquired the reputation of closing + the thirty years’ war by the last brilliant achievement. This decisive + stroke, which vanquished the Emperor’s irresolution, cost the Swedes only + the loss of a single man. But the old town, the larger half of Prague, + which is divided into two parts by the Moldau, by its vigorous resistance + wearied out the efforts of the Palatine, Charles Gustavus, the successor + of Christina on the throne, who had arrived from Sweden with fresh troops, + and had assembled the whole Swedish force in Bohemia and Silesia before + its walls. The approach of winter at last drove the besiegers into their + quarters, and in the mean time, the intelligence arrived that a peace had + been signed at Munster, on the 24th October. + </p> + <p> + The colossal labour of concluding this solemn, and ever memorable and + sacred treaty, which is known by the name of the peace of Westphalia; the + endless obstacles which were to be surmounted; the contending interests + which it was necessary to reconcile; the concatenation of circumstances + which must have co-operated to bring to a favourable termination this + tedious, but precious and permanent work of policy; the difficulties which + beset the very opening of the negociations, and maintaining them, when + opened, during the ever-fluctuating vicissitudes of the war; finally, + arranging the conditions of peace, and still more, the carrying them into + effect; what were the conditions of this peace; what each contending power + gained or lost, by the toils and sufferings of a thirty years’ war; what + modification it wrought upon the general system of European policy;—these + are matters which must be relinquished to another pen. The history of the + peace of Westphalia constitutes a whole, as important as the history of + the war itself. A mere abridgment of it, would reduce to a mere skeleton + one of the most interesting and characteristic monuments of human policy + and passions, and deprive it of every feature calculated to fix the + attention of the public, for which I write, and of which I now + respectfully take my leave. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0009" id="link2H_4_0009"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <p> + [Note From the first PG etext of this work: + </p> + <p> + Separate sources indicate that at the beginning of this war there were + about 15 million people in Germany, and at the end of the war there were + about 4 million. If this is not surprising enough, war broke out again + only 10 years after the conclusion of this war.] + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Thirty Years War, Complete +by Friedrich Schiller + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE THIRTY YEARS WAR, COMPLETE *** + +***** This file should be named 6775-h.htm or 6775-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/6/7/7/6775/ + +Produced by David Widger + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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