diff options
| -rw-r--r-- | .gitattributes | 4 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | LICENSE.txt | 11 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | README.md | 2 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/67752-0.txt | 2783 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/67752-0.zip | bin | 57089 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/67752-h.zip | bin | 5007169 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/67752-h/67752-h.htm | 3522 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/67752-h/images/cover.jpg | bin | 246297 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/67752-h/images/fig1.jpg | bin | 228177 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/67752-h/images/fig10.jpg | bin | 244391 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/67752-h/images/fig11.jpg | bin | 107075 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/67752-h/images/fig12.jpg | bin | 190982 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/67752-h/images/fig13.jpg | bin | 197935 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/67752-h/images/fig14.jpg | bin | 167178 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/67752-h/images/fig15.jpg | bin | 90356 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/67752-h/images/fig16.jpg | bin | 223877 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/67752-h/images/fig17.jpg | bin | 233347 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/67752-h/images/fig18.jpg | bin | 212506 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/67752-h/images/fig19.jpg | bin | 244973 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/67752-h/images/fig2.jpg | bin | 17530 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/67752-h/images/fig20.jpg | bin | 219250 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/67752-h/images/fig21.jpg | bin | 228063 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/67752-h/images/fig22.jpg | bin | 231526 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/67752-h/images/fig23.jpg | bin | 228491 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/67752-h/images/fig24.jpg | bin | 78860 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/67752-h/images/fig25.jpg | bin | 219432 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/67752-h/images/fig3.jpg | bin | 229925 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/67752-h/images/fig4.jpg | bin | 219754 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/67752-h/images/fig5.jpg | bin | 121202 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/67752-h/images/fig6.jpg | bin | 206431 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/67752-h/images/fig7.jpg | bin | 162716 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/67752-h/images/fig8.jpg | bin | 225010 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/67752-h/images/fig9.jpg | bin | 238646 -> 0 bytes |
33 files changed, 17 insertions, 6305 deletions
diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..93a0178 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #67752 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/67752) diff --git a/old/67752-0.txt b/old/67752-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index d4491f5..0000000 --- a/old/67752-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,2783 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of On building a theatre, by Irving -Pichel - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: On building a theatre - Stage construction and equipment for small theatres, schools and - community - -Author: Irving Pichel - -Release Date: April 1, 2022 [eBook #67752] - -Language: English - -Produced by: Alan, Charlene Taylor and the Online Distributed - Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was - produced from images generously made available by The - Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ON BUILDING A THEATRE *** - - - - - - THEATRE ARTS MONOGRAPHS. No. 1 - - -[Illustration: Façade and entrance of the Beechwood Theatre and -Scarborough School, Scarborough, New York. Welles Bosworth, Architect. -(Photograph by Arnold Genthe.)] - - - - - ON BUILDING A - THEATRE - - STAGE CONSTRUCTION AND EQUIPMENT - FOR SMALL THEATRES, SCHOOLS - AND COMMUNITY BUILDINGS - - BY - IRVING PICHEL - - [Illustration] - - NEW YORK - THEATRE ARTS INC. - 1920 - - - - - Copyright 1920 by THEATRE ARTS, Inc. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - INTRODUCTION - - I. ARCHITECTURAL TRADITION IN THE THEATRE: - THE AUDITORIUM - - II. THE STAGE PLAN - - III. PROVISION FOR BACK-STAGE WORKERS - - IV. THE EQUIPMENT OF THE STAGE - - V. STAGE LIGHTING - - VI. STAGE MACHINERY AND SETTINGS - - BIBLIOGRAPHY - - - - -LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS - - - Entrance of the Beechwood Theatre _Frontispiece_ - - Stage of the _Teatro Farnese_ at Parma 15 - - Sketch of an Elizabethan Theatre 16 - - Interior of the Little Theatre, New York 25 - - Exterior of the Little Theatre, New York 26 - - The Munich Art Theatre 39 - - Exterior of the Munich Art Theatre 40 - - Section of the Munich Art Theatre 41 - - Auditorium of the Munich Art Theatre 42 - - The Arts and Crafts Theatre, Detroit 55 - - The Carnegie Institute Theatre, Pittsburgh 56 - - The Neighborhood Playhouse, New York 65 - - The Artist’s Guild Theatre, St. Louis 66 - - - ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT-- - - 1. Plan of the _Teatro Olympico_ at Vicenza 19 - - 2. Plans of the Berlin _Volksbühne_ 20 - - 3. Plan and section of the Little Theatre, New York 22 - - 4. Plan of the Carnegie Institute Theatre, Pittsburgh 28 - - 5. First-floor plan of the Munich Art Theatre 30 - - 6. Second-floor plan and section of the Munich Art Theatre 31 - - 7. Plan of the 39th Street Theatre, New York 35 - - 8. Plan of the Beechwood Theatre 37 - - 9. Stage of the _Théâtre du Vieux Colombier_ 71 - - - - -INTRODUCTION - - -Architectural ineptitudes are more likely to be perpetuated and in -time condoned than those in any other art. Generally speaking, a bad -painting is scrapped, poor music remains unpublished and unplayed -(along with much good music, no doubt), and bad books, after a time, -cease to be read. But a building is somehow inescapable. Having a -durability that needs no treasuring, and being erected more often for -use than for beauty, a building generally achieves longevity, and the -bad art crumbles no sooner than the good stone. Usefulness, great -initial cost, sturdy stuff, are all against a building’s being put out -of the way merely because it is ugly. Or even, as a matter of fact, -because it does not successfully serve the purpose for which it was -erected. - -As people live in a house, or work, day after day, in a store or -factory or public building, they become used to inconveniences, bad -arrangement, and lack of proper facilities. They complain for a time, -perhaps, and then forget. And after a while, when the house has -become home, or the large building has gathered tradition, a sort of -admiration settles upon it. What is really plain ugly or wrong or -bad appears quaint and full of “atmosphere.” And is imitated. Style -and tradition embalm the very features that make the building a bad -building. - -In the theatre, this perpetuation of musty, tradition-hallowed -faults of construction has been carried to an extraordinary extreme. -There is more ritual, one might believe, in constructing a stage and -auditorium in accordance with honored custom than there is in the -building of a church. In the more modern theatres, there have been -notable improvements over the theatres of a generation ago; but in the -auditoriums and stages of schools, clubs and societies, and in other -public or semi-public buildings in which such facilities are included -as a sort of side issue, the ancient law is observed. The average -high school stage seems to be inspired by the faint recollection of a -visit to the theatre, supplemented by the examination of old prints -illustrating the stage of Inigo Jones. - - * * * * * - -To-day, by a concerted movement throughout the country, hundreds of -community houses are being planned as war memorials. These buildings -are designed to include facilities for all the social and recreational -interests of the communities they will serve. Practically all of -them will include stages and auditoriums. At the same time, hundreds -of new school buildings are being planned, and these, too, will have -stages intended to be useful for dramatic productions. But unless -architects have at their disposal much more technical knowledge of -the producers’ requirements than in the past, it is certain that most -of these auditoriums and stages will be bad--as are the auditoriums -and stages in most existing schools. It is to forestall some of the -common mistakes that this paper has been prepared--to describe them in -detail, and to set up against them the ideal features toward which the -designers of such structures should strive. - -I believe that the memorial halls are destined to play so large a part -in community life that they must have removed from them every obstacle -to their fullest usefulness. In every community of moderate size and -culture there is a releasing to-day of dramatic impulse, and folks turn -more and more toward the theatre as a mode of group expression. The -Little Theatre movement, with its eighty-five or more centers renewing -their life, now that the war is over, is an evidence of the birth of -a new theatre in this country. Innumerable community pageants and -masques are an indication that people turn to the drama as a means of -expressing their corporate æsthetic. The production of worthy plays by -schools and colleges, the interest such institutions are showing in -the writing of plays and in the fostering of an indigenous drama, the -widespread discussion of the drama and the theatre by clubs, reading -circles and drama leagues, all are portents of a theatre that shall -be a vital and integral part of our daily community life. And at the -very moment these words are being written, the commercial theatre -that has so long held the arena is being convulsed by a revolution -that may mean nothing short of its eventual extinction. The system -of wholesale manufacture and distribution of theatre products is on -the wane, and the theatre as an art, as a social institution of the -rank and significance of the school or the church, may soon have the -field to itself. Hourly, in the little theatres, in community drama -undertakings, in the municipal theatres, in the classrooms and the -clubs, and on the school stages, the new theatre is growing up. - -One of the finest services that the memorial community house can render -is to provide a home for the dramatic impulse of the community--not a -makeshift home, but one worthy of the fine art of the drama and the -fine craft of the theatre. It does not matter whether or not the -building is to be large and pretentious or small and inexpensive; but -it matters that it should be fitted to the least detail to fulfill its -function efficiently and beautifully. - -I do not write these pages as an architect or as an instructor of -architects, but as one knowing fairly well the conditions which a stage -has to meet when it is used for dramatic representations of any sort. -In the course of a rather varied experience in the theatre--amateur and -professional, little and big, commercial and “art”--I have encountered -practically all the mistakes that are made in stage construction. I -have found them to be of two sorts: mistakes of imitation, and mistakes -of ingenuity. - -The first type of mistake is easy enough to account for. Usually, the -auditoriums and stages of schools have been intended primarily for -use as “chapels” or assembly halls. There has been a feeling on the -part of school authorities that the dramatic instinct is in some way -unwholesome and that its expression should be discouraged. As often -as not the design of the school stage has been a conspiracy to thwart -its growth. The attitude of the authorities has recently changed -somewhat, but with the change has come very little more intelligence -in the matter. Where, before, they were careful to obstruct, they are -now merely negligent, leaving the architect to his own devices. The -proceeding is very much at random, and experts are rarely consulted. -It is not wholly the architect’s fault that he builds as he does. -Opportunities to build stages are not frequent; he knows more about -building them than using them, and the models he follows have not been -often enough refreshed by the innovations of theatre experts. His -patterns are largely outmoded. In the largest high school in one of the -greatest midwestern cities, I have seen a stage built no more than five -years ago in which is exemplified almost every stage feature of the -civil war period--a vast curved apron, grooves for wings, and a stage -floor sloping from the back wall toward the footlights. In addition, -there are one or two mistakes peculiar to high schools,--notably the -omission of an entrance to the stage, save on one side. - -The other type of error which one encounters is usually made by a -clever man who has observed the more modern practices in building large -theatres and attempts to adapt them to a space utterly inadequate or -wrongly shaped for the purpose. Usually he cramps his space hopelessly -and renders it even less useful for its purpose than it might have been -had no such ingenuity been displayed. The finely equipped stage of the -Artists’ Guild Theatre in St. Louis is an admirable replica in little -of a fully equipped stage of the commercial theatre. But the stagehouse -is so small that the fly gallery at the left and the paint bridge at -the back are a constant embarrassment. The stage would have been more -workable if these devices had not been employed. - -These errors of construction, after all, indicate but one thing--that -the stage has been regarded as a characteristic type of structure, -to be built according to established rules, rather than as a place -designed to fulfill a peculiar function. A stage is a space on which -a dramatic action is to be revealed before an audience. Whatever the -space at the builder’s disposal--its size or shape--or whatever the -building he must remodel, that is the only thing to be considered. A -play is to be given. The players must be seen and heard. There must -be means for them to enter the presence of the audience, and exit. -The space on which they appear must be illuminated. Somehow the space -set aside for the player shall be able to suggest, either by means -of scenery as it is commonly understood, or by some conventional -arrangement, permanent or variable, a world in which the character he -portrays might move. - -Beginning with this much specification and no more, I propose to work -out with some definiteness the principles underlying the construction -of an ideal stage and the relation of the auditorium to it, bearing in -mind all the while the fact that many of the stages in the War Memorial -Buildings and little theatres are to be small, that large sums cannot -always be spent on them, and that they must in most cases serve a -variety of purposes. - -If we remember always the function our stage is to fulfill, we have two -good sources from which to draw practical details for its construction, -and a third source, debatable but interesting. First, there are the -errors which I have referred to. Some of these I shall discuss in -detail in the next chapter. Then, most valuable of all sources, are -the conclusions to be drawn from the practice of the most skilled -architects and artists of the theatre. And finally, to be considered -briefly, there are speculations as to the demands which the drama of -the future may make on the theatre,--demands that can be forecasted -inaccurately at best, but deserving a glance, perhaps, if only to call -attention to the certainty that such demands will be made. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -ARCHITECTURAL TRADITION IN THE THEATRE: THE AUDITORIUM - - -There are, of course, other types of auditorium and platform than -that of the theatre. Churches, lecture halls, and the chambers of -legislative assemblies are planned with the same general end of making -a person or persons at one part of the room audible and visible to -many persons gathered in another part. The ready defense of much bad -planning in school auditoriums is that they were not modelled after -theatres but after one of these other forms. To-day this will not serve -as a defense. Interest in the drama is too widespread, and recognition -of the social potency of the theatre is too general. And whereas -none of these other forms of audience chamber meets the needs of the -theatre, a well-planned theatre can serve any use to which a gathered -community may care to put it. - -The rocks which threaten disaster to our intent to devise a room which -may serve as theatre, assembly hall, chapel, or whatever, are, if we go -to beginnings, the traditional form of the theatre and its traditional -_décor_. In the latter, time has wrought many changes. It was once felt -that a theatre was not a theatre if it was not adorned with a wealth -of gilded cupids, masks, tambours, and daggers, surrounded by stucco -wreaths and garlands in high relief, and interspaced with pictured -panels of the muses, especially those most at home in a playhouse. -And, indeed, about those old houses, their garishness now mellowed, -there is a glamor peculiarly of the theatre, and a sweet mustiness -in the air bespeaking audiences of perfumed ladies, long since dead, -the grease-paint and pomade of a long line of players, old scenery, -the fine fustian of the old plays. It is somewhat like the odor in a -garret stored with the treasures of our grandparents, or the mustiness -of an old book. But these are faded flowers that cannot be brought -to life, and the theatre of to-day, its plays and its players, are -moved by a different spirit. Whatever lure these tinselly old temples -have is a reminiscent one. To-day, there may be found theatres with -the simplicity and peace of a church, the unobtrusive luxury of the -drawing-room, and even, by overshooting the mark of simplicity, the -bareness of the lecture-room or the legislative chamber. - -The greater sincerity that has come into the theatre, and that fear of -romance that marks the first decade or more of the Twentieth Century, -did much to overcome traditional over-elaboration. There has come, too, -a marked freedom from tradition in the planning of the usual large -show-houses. The more modern theatres are, for the most part, free from -those glaring structural ineptitudes that several centuries of custom -had imposed. In Germany especially (the traditional form of the theatre -did not develop there), great progress has been made, and the theatres -of such architects as Max Littmann and Oskar Kaufmann serve as models. -Stage machinery in Germany has been brought to a point of perfection -not yet reached in any other country. Lautenschlager, Brandt, and -Fortuny (a Spaniard) have contributed inventions that have only -occasionally been experimented with in this country, and then somewhat -half-heartedly. - -Tradition clings close to its native heath, nevertheless, and in -England, to which America looks first, perhaps, and in the Latin -countries, it has enough vitality still to be a source of danger. It -may be worth while to scan the history of the tradition, especially -from the “front of the house”, before we consider the stage itself. -For it is from here that the gravest criticism against a stage can be -made,--that it is not easily visible from all parts of the house.[1] - -[1] I shall not consider it expedient, in any part of this discussion, -to go into questions of engineering detail. It is assumed that the -architect is equipped or will equip himself with such technical -knowledge. Nor shall I refer to structural modifications brought about -by the regulations of Boards of Fire Underwriters. These matters have -been treated more or less efficiently in several other works, to which -reference will be found in the Appendix. - -The form of the stage and the manner in which it has been used have, -throughout the history of the theatre, been the primary factors in -determining the shape of the auditorium. The Greek theatre was devoted -to a ceremonial drama in honor of Dionysus, acted about an altar -erected to him. So the stage took the form of a circular space with an -altar in the center. The seating was arranged in concentric tiers, with -the altar as a center, and more than half surrounded the stage space or -orchestra. Tangent to this circle, and perpendicular to a line drawn -through the center of the seating space, was built the skene, or back -scene. At first, this was merely a dressing tent; later it was a wall, -of wood or stone, masking the dressing-rooms of the actors. It was -pierced with doors, giving access to the stage before it, and served -as the palace, temple, or city wall, in front of which the scene of the -play was laid. There is no satisfactory evidence that it gave on to a -raised space conforming to the later stage platform. Chorus and actors -were on the ground level of the orchestra. All the seats being raised, -the spectator looked down upon the action of the play, and all the -seats were set on radial lines drawn from the altar or center of the -orchestra. - -[Illustration: Stage of the _Teatro Farnese_ at Parma, Italy. An -example of the picture-frame stage set into the plastic stage of -an antique theatre. See page 18. (From Hammitzsch’s _Der Moderne -Theaterbau_.)] - -[Illustration: Contemporary sketch of an Elizabethan Theatre. (From -Caffin’s _Appreciation of the Drama_.)] - -In the Roman theatre, a number of radical changes are to be noted. The -large orchestra is no longer needed for a chorus, and the space is cut -to a semicircle, in which are placed the chairs of the Senators. Since -spectators are now on the ground level, the actors must be raised, and -the stage becomes a long, shallow platform, beginning at the diameter -of the circle. Raised tiers of seats, as in the Greek theatre, surround -the semicircular ground space. At the back of the stage is a wall, -or _scæna_, which also closes in each side of the stage, meeting the -seats at the diameter ends. It is built to the height of the uppermost -tier of seats. Since the stage extended almost the whole width of the -seating, and was raised above the ground, sight lines were ideal. - -Between the fall of the Roman Empire and the revival of classic -learning in Italy, the theatre had no settled home. The drama went -through various vicissitudes, took on new functions, expressed itself -in new forms. The mediæval theatre of mysteries and miracles, after -it had become secularized, went forth from the chancel of the church, -and became a vagrant and an opportunist. It set up its paraphernalia -in the public square, in the inn-yard, in the guild hall. For the -most part, it was a daylight, outdoor recreation, with no fixed -home, and no such special ceremonial functions as in the Greek and -Roman state. It was proletarian, distinctly. With the Renaissance, -in addition to the popular itinerant theatre of the people, there -were two new manifestations. The humanists, in their academies, -revived the Roman comedies of Plautus and Terence; the courts of the -ruling families of the free cities became the scenes of magnificent -productions of masques, pageants, “triumphs” and fêtes. These were -usually allegories based on classic mythology or on ancient history, -but presented largely in the form and manner of the popular drama -of the time. To the presentation of the court fêtes, the greatest -artists,--Bramante, Leonardo da Vinci, Giulio Romano, etc.,--brought -their talents. They were given in the gardens of the palaces at night, -illuminated by flares and fireworks. The “pageant” or wheeled stage -of the mediæval popular drama, was used for the display of some -large piece of decoration or machinery. As early as 1491, however, -at Perugia, the first indoor performances were given. The stage went -through various modifications, still keeping its resemblance to the -stage of the mediæval drama, until one invention enforced the most -radical development that had yet taken place,--perspective scenery. -Hammitzsch[2] traces the invention of scenery in painted perspective -to Bramante’s decoration of the sacristy of the Church of San Satiro -in Milan. The wall painting represents in perspective an extended -vista of the sacristy, in an attempt to make it appear larger. The -modern counterpart is the mirrored restaurant. It is certain, at all -events, that Peruzzi employed such scenery in dramatic representations -in Rome before 1510. With these painted prospects came a variety of -changes in the arrangements of the rooms in which the masques were -given; the stage became more a place apart; it was set at the end of -the room rather than along the sides, that the effect of distance -produced by the painted prospects might be enhanced, and the proscenium -frame enclosed it. However, when the theatre as a building designed -specifically for the presentation of plays came into being, the form of -auditorium was not so thoughtfully adapted to this new type of stage as -had been the case with the ancient theatres. For it was to them that -architects turned for models for the auditorium, though the stage was -no longer the stage that went with the amphitheatre form of seating. - -[2] Hammitzsch, _Der Moderne Theaterbau_, I. Teil, p. 11. - -The theatre of the Academy of Olympians at Vicenza, begun in 1580 by -the architect Palladio and completed in 1584 by his son Scillo (Fig. -1), is practically a Roman theatre roofed over, and equipped with a -stage that compromises with the stage then in mode. It has a sloping -floor (to increase the effect of the perspective) and alleys of scenery -giving off each entranceway in the stage wall. - -The Teatro Farnese in Parma, completed in 1619 by Aleotti, is the first -modern theatre. In it appear theatre features that have come down to -our own day,--the elongation of the amphitheatre auditorium into the -horseshoe form, and a stage completely separated from the auditorium -and equipped not only to handle the new scenery but to manipulate it -quickly, so that changes of scene might be effected in the presence -of the audience. In this theatre, Aleotti not only broke away from -the classic stage but also from the multiple setting of the mediæval -stage and definitely introduced the modern form of picture stage. Less -completely did he break away from the classic seating, but he modified -it somewhat to meet new conditions. - -[Illustration: Figure 1--Plan of the _Teatro Olympico_, Vicenza.] - -With Aleotti passed the period of primitive experiment with a new -instrument. From his day until very recent years, there was to be no -marked change, except the introduction of balconies, a feature already -anticipated in the theatres of other countries and soon employed in -Italy, and the further accentuation of the horseshoe form. The old -circle plan became an ellipse, and still later, as the side balconies -were brought in closer to the stage, an oval. - -In England, very much the same history was enacted. The old English -miracle and mystery gave the theatre its platform stage, but the -imitations of Latin comedy first gave it a permanent home. - -Public performances of university-made imitations of Roman comedy were -common during the reign of Edward the Sixth, and during the reign of -Elizabeth (1558-1603) seventeen professional theatres were licensed -for the exhibition of contemporary plays. In something like sixty -years, the English drama and the English theatre had grown from crude -beginnings to the highest point they have yet reached. And it was by -professional companies of actors presenting dramas and not by the -court or academic presentations, that the theatre was first given -form. These companies, like the craftsmen bands of miracle and mystery -players, acted wherever they could find a place or wherever they were -bidden,--at court, in great halls, in the provinces, in the church or -the moot hall or the inn, and in London, in the inn-yard or bear pit. -It was the inn-yard that was most used and had the greatest influence -on the form of the playhouse. - -[Illustration: Figure 2--Plans of the theatre just completed in Berlin -for the Berliner Volksbühne. The form of the auditorium is typical -of the latest practice in continental and American theatre design -(see page 27). The large amount of stage space, in proportion to the -auditorium, however, is unfortunately not typical of American theatres. -The second-floor plan is included to illustrate the general arrangement -rather than to show the balcony form, which is neither typical nor -particularly good.] - -The inns were usually built in the form of a hollow square. A small -passage gave access to the inner court, which was surrounded by -galleries. The stage would be erected at the end of the court opposite -the entrance, and spectators stood on the level ground of the yard or -found seats in the galleries. The bear pits or bull rings were usually -circular buildings with several galleries similar to those of the -inn-yards. - -The earliest theatres, built about 1576, were round in shape, -with these characteristic galleries. They seem to have been used -interchangeably for theatrical performances and for bear-baiting. -The centers were open to the sky, like the inn-yards, and only the -galleries and part of the stage were roofed. The stages projected into -the center, and could be viewed, both by spectators on the ground and -by those in the galleries, from three sides. The only contemporary -drawing of the Elizabethan stage is that of Johannes De Witt of the -University of Utrecht, who visited London in 1596. His drawing of the -Swan Theatre differs in many details from the specifications of the -contract, but it gives a general idea of the form of auditorium and -stage. With the building of these theatres,--The Theatre, The Curtain, -The Hope, The Globe, Blackfriar’s, The Swan,--the use of the inn-yards -did not cease, and the Queen’s men performed regularly at The Boar’s -Head in Eastcheap as late as 1603.[3] - -[3] Ashley H. Thorndike, _Shakespeare’s Theatre_, p. 42. - -Contemporaneously, there were in England, as abroad, spectacular -performances at court, richly costumed and decorated. They were -performed in spacious palace halls, being acted on pageant wagons or on -the main floor, and were viewed from benches and balconies around the -sides. Eventually the pageant gave way to a stage temporarily erected -at one end of the room, the dancers descending to the main floor for -large ensembles and ballets. As early as 1607, scenery, curtains, and -a proscenium arch had been used. The picture stage, with its scenery -in painted perspective, was an importation from Italy, following a -visit there of Inigo Jones, and under his hand reached a high degree of -development during the third decade of the Seventeenth Century. - -[Illustration: Figure 3--Above is the section of the Little Theatre, -New York, showing clearly the relationship of the stage, auditorium -and other portions of the building. The dressing-rooms are above the -auditorium and are reached by both stairs and elevator. On the opposite -page is the first-floor plan of the building. It is a notable example -of the best contemporary American practice in auditorium arrangement. -These drawings illustrate the building as originally constructed, -without the recently added balcony and other changes. Harry Creighton -Ingalls and F. B. Hoffman Jr., Associate Architects.] - -[Illustration] - -With the reopening of the theatres after the Restoration, the practice -of the Italian theatre and opera house superseded the old-English -tradition practically altogether, the only noteworthy remnant being -the social distinction that made the ground level or “pit” the place -of the proletariat in the theatre. The visits of the aristocracy to -the theatre during the Elizabethan period, even when theatres were -under court patronage, were something in the nature of an escapade. -The sheltered galleries were reserved for the gentry, and the unroofed -ground space or pit was open to the crowd. From the galleries, -moreover, a better view of the protruding three-sided stage was to be -had. In the later, wholly-roofed theatres, the stage still protruded -somewhat. A great curved “apron” projected beyond the proscenium. -Nor was the proscenium the mere picture-frame of to-day, but a deep -portal. The balconies extended over the stage to the curtain, so that -spectators at the forward ends of the balconies were directly above the -stage. The balconies were given swelling curves, bringing them further -toward the center of the stage, so that those who occupied these -forward seats could not only see but could be seen. The stage boxes of -to-day are a relic of this type of apron-stage theatre, and to-day, -with the picture frame stage, serve no purpose but the stupid social -one of self-display. - -The apron stage preserved one great advantage of the platform -stage: that of keeping the stage grouping, for at least a part of -the audience, plastic. And the dimness of candle or oil footlights -compelled the actors to keep to the front of the stage as much as -possible. The disappearance of the apron has been due wholly to the -improved lighting of the modern theatre. With its disappearance should -go the auditorium features that belonged with it. And even though -there have been occasional reversions to the platform stage and apron -in the productions of Granville Barker or Jacques Copeau, there is no -occasion for the revival of the horseshoe balcony or the stage box. In -later pages of this paper, where I deal specifically with the stage, I -shall recommend provision being made for an apron, either permanent or -movable; but the auditorium should not revert. - -[Illustration: Auditorium of the Little Theatre, New York. This -building, constructed for Winthrop Ames in 1912, still stands as -probably the best-designed small theatre in America. This photograph -shows the absence of boxes, the carefully adjusted floor slope, and the -harmony of all the decorative elements, although it hardly does justice -to the intimate “feel” of the room. Recently large changes have been -made in the building, a balcony having been added and a new decorative -scheme carried out. Harry Creighton Ingalls and F. B. Hoffman Jr., -Associate Architects.] - -[Illustration: Exterior of the Little Theatre, New York. Harry -Creighton Ingalls and F. B. Hoffman Jr., Architects. (From _The New -Movement in the Theatre_, by courtesy of Mitchell Kennerley.)] - -With modern resources in lighting and construction engineering, most -of the “practical” considerations that determined the form of the old -houses do not apply, and the social considerations that called for -the display of certain parts of the audience are not even tacitly -acknowledged in the more democratic theatre of to-day, except at the -opera. Accordingly, the procedure of the architect should be governed -wholly by considerations of utility. - -The first consideration is that of visibility. A sight line drawn from -any seat in the auditorium should give a clear view of the entire -stage. As a general rule, therefore, the seating space should be very -little wider than the stage opening. A sight line drawn from a seat to -the right or the left of the proscenium arch past the corresponding -side of the arch will cut off that corner of the stage. The closer the -seat is to the stage the greater is the part of the stage concealed. -(See Fig. 4.) Accordingly, it is the custom in most modern theatres to -narrow the auditorium as it approaches the stage, so that the front of -the seating is no greater in width than the width of the proscenium. -The rear of the auditorium is slightly wider. (See Figs. 2 and 3.) - -As a concession to this plan, the back of a stage setting is often -narrower than the front. That is, in the case of an interior setting, -the side walls of the room represented, instead of being set at right -angles to the back wall, as is the case in most rooms, are set at an -angle corresponding to the sight lines drawn from the extreme right -and left ends of the last row of seats. This is purely a convention, -required by the shape of the playhouse, and pardonable on the ground -that it is less irritating to look at a distorted room than to be -unable to see its corners. - -At all events, this form of auditorium affords a higher visibility -than did the old horseshoe shape. The most noteworthy move toward the -adoption of this type of seating was made by Richard Wagner in the -construction of the Opera House at Bayreuth. Here the auditorium is in -the shape of a fan or blunt-nosed wedge, with the stage at the narrow -end. The most approved type of modern auditorium follows this form -to some extent. In such theatres as the Künstler Theater in Munich -(Littmann), or his Prinz-Regenten Opera House, this plan is developed. -(See Fig. 5.) - -The general plan of the best modern American theatres is rectangular -with the side walls converging toward the stage, beginning at a point -about two-thirds of the way from the back. The seats are in concentric -rows following a curve drawn from a center approximately at the middle -of the back wall of the stage. The back wall of the auditorium follows -the curve of the seats. The Little Theatre in New York is built on this -plan. Where balconies are included, they have only a slight curve, -approximately the same as that of the orchestra seats. - -[Illustration: Figure 4--Plan of the theatre at the Carnegie Institute -of Technology, Pittsburgh. The sight-lines from the sides of the -auditorium are badly distorted, evidently to preserve the novel -architectural effect of an elliptical room. By drawing lines from the -outmost seats in the first five rows, it can be seen that spectators -there will be shut off from any view of more than half the stage space. -The one outstanding feature here is the large amount of space given to -scenery storage-room and green-room.] - -It is a common fault of school auditoriums that the seating is extended -to the right and the left of the stage, so that a considerable number -of seats are valueless for seeing. They preserve, also, for no known -reason, other than that it has been the theatre practice, the apron, -projecting far beyond the line of the proscenium arch. - -A second requirement for assuring direct sight lines from every seat -to the stage is an inclined floor. In many cases, this appears an -insuperable difficulty. Auditoriums which must be used as gymnasiums or -dance halls require level floors. Often, then, the stage is elevated -at a greater height from the floor than usual, in the belief that this -device will overcome the lack of an inclined floor. On the contrary, -it merely makes the spectator tilt his head at an uncomfortable angle, -makes the players appear preternaturally tall, and, as they move toward -the back of the stage, conceals the lower part of their bodies. The -best height for a stage, whether with inclined or flat auditorium, is -three feet, nine inches. - -A number of means may be used to provide an inclined floor when -performances are to be given in a hall which must be used for many -purposes. In Copley Hall, Boston, movable risers were installed, each -row of seats being lifted about six inches above the row in front. This -scheme has the advantage of being the least costly at the beginning, -but this consideration is outweighed by a host of disadvantages. The -trestles and platforms occupy a large storage space when not in use, -they are not a hundred percent safe, and they emit a squeak with every -footstep. Moreover, they increase, to some degree, the fire hazard. - -Far more ingenious and needing no storage space is the device employed -by Laurence Ewald in building the Little Theatre of the Artists’ Guild, -St. Louis. The theatre occupies a wing of the building used ordinarily -as an art gallery, and has a level floor. When performances are to be -given, the theatre seats are bolted to the floor, and the back half of -the floor, which is built in one piece, hinged at the middle of the -auditorium, is lifted at the rear by a four-ton hydraulic jack until a -pitch of about one inch per foot is obtained. - -Mr. Ewald has provided me with the following account of the -construction of the floor: - - “The movable part of the floor consists of a floor-bearing structure - of steel which extends from a hinge half-way between the back of the - house and the stage, and parallel with the front of the stage, to the - back of the house. - - “This structure is made up of four I-beams at right angles to the - front of the stage, and another I-beam attached to them at right - angles at the back end of the house. In the cellar, immediately - beneath this cross beam, is placed an ordinary four-ton hydraulic - jack, which, when operated, revolves the back floor structure on the - hinges at the middle of the house. When the floor has been raised - thirty inches, four legs suspended from the four I-beams drop of - their own weight into position and support the load, and the jack is - removed.” - -Had it not been for the structure of the room under the auditorium, -Mr. Ewald would have constructed the _entire_ floor on a steel frame, -as described above, and balanced it on an axle at the center, where -the hinges now are. With suitable space under the front half of the -floor, it could have been tipped on its axle, depressing the front and -elevating the back, giving an incline to the entire auditorium. Built -thus, the floor would require no jack and would be amply supported at -three points; or, with the understructure built in the form of a -truss, the floor could be made to rock on the apex of the truss. With -this arrangement, the front half of the floor would have support along -its entire length. - -[Illustration: Figure 5--First-floor plan of the Munich Art Theatre. -Note that the seats shown here form only a part of the main floor -section, as indicated in the plans on the page opposite. Max Littmann, -Architect.] - -[Illustration: Figure 6--Above is a section showing the arrangement -and structural features of the Munich Art Theatre. Below is the -second-floor plan. It should be noted that the seats here are not a -balcony but a continuation, on the same floor slope, of the seats shown -in the plan on the page opposite.] - -Another device, proposed for a great municipal auditorium in a western -city, will not so readily commend itself for general use, because -of the great initial cost and because of the depth of cellarage -required under the auditorium. Here the entire floor was to make a -semi-revolution. On one side of the revolving plane was a smooth -flooring; on the other, seats were bolted. When the building was to be -used as a theatre, the side with the seats was turned uppermost and -held at the proper pitch. When the hall was used for a ball or for a -dog show, or any function needing a level floor, the smooth side was -turned up and secured at a horizontal position. - -When the floor can be built with a permanent slope, either a simple -incline or an incline in the form of a parabolic curve is used. The -latter form is preferable. - -In many places the fire laws limit the pitch of the floor to one inch -per foot. With rows of seats spaced at the legal minimum of thirty-two -inches this does not give enough clearance for the people in each row -to see over the heads of those in the row in front. For a decent degree -of comfort, a little seating capacity should be sacrificed, and the -rows spaced thirty-six inches apart. - -If possible, there should be a gradient of two inches to the foot, -giving a difference of elevation between rows of six inches. If the -law prevents the two-inch grade, the same effect can be produced by -“staggering” the seats. That is, the seats of alternate rows are set in -direct alignment, while the intermediate rows are set half a seat-width -to the right or left. Thus spectators will look between the shoulders -of those immediately in front of them, and will be able to see over the -heads of those in the second row in front, who, by such an arrangement, -will be sitting in a direct line with them. There will thus be a -six-inch difference between each two rows of seats. - -Beyond all these considerations of adequate sight lines, however, there -is another requirement far more important, far less well understood, -even in the light of any guiding or misguiding tradition, by the -average architect. That is the requirement of good acoustics. Until -quite recently, this was left wholly to accident. Buildings were -erected, and the acoustic properties were tested afterwards. If they -chanced to be good, the owners were to be congratulated. If they were -bad, great sums were spent stringing piano wires, or nets of raw silk, -or padding the walls. And then, quite as often as not, the acoustics -remained bad. - -The late Wallace Sabine, however, demonstrated that it was possible to -predict the acoustic properties of a proposed structure with scientific -accuracy, and to forestall defects by structural modification. In _The -American Architect_, Dec. 31, 1913, Professor Sabine described the -experiments by which the causes of the acoustic difficulties in the New -Theatre (now the Century) in New York were discovered and overcome, and -the methods which he employed in helping plan a number of the theatres -designed by C. H. Blackhall, perhaps the most experienced theatre -architect in the United States. This paper and others by Professor -Sabine should be read by any architect who contemplates building -an auditorium of any sort. The matter is too vital to be left to a -hit-or-miss chance of success. - -With an auditorium from every part of which the stage can be seen, from -every seat of which all the words of the actors can be heard, there -will be little fault to be found. Its comfort, its ventilation, its -isolation from street noises, its protection against fire--these are -matters which need not be treated here, and which have been written -of elsewhere more adequately than I could write of them. As for its -decoration, there are no rules to govern that. If the designer has -bad taste, there is no help for it, except to avoid him. If he is an -artist, let him exercise his art on the interior of the auditorium and -forget the sort of thing that has traditionally adorned theatres and -wedding cakes. - -But, most of all, let him talk with the artist, if there should luckily -be one, who is going to work in the particular theatre, and learn from -him the sorts of play that are to be done, and the æsthetic of the -group that is to present them, if it has one, and so find some clue to -the atmosphere the auditorium should evoke. From then on, his task is -one of high creation. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -THE STAGE PLAN - - -We are accustomed to regard as the stage of a theatre that part on -which the actors appear, immediately behind the footlights, bounded, -right and left, by the proscenium arch. As a matter of fact, this is -a very small part of the stage. From the construction of many school -stages and many of the stages of the little and experimental theatres, -I am convinced that this misconception really exists. It is true that -many little theatre groups have been obliged to choose between a -cramped stage and no stage at all. On the whole, the work they have -done, in the light of their limited equipment, is nothing short of -amazing. - -One well-known little theatre director has declared to me that he -values these inadequacies because of the ingenuity required to overcome -them. And I imagine that very frequently admiration for this sort of -ingenuity passes current for the evaluation on its own merits of work -done in these theatres. - -No director could be hindered, however, by having excellent facilities -at his command. His imagination, instead of visioning means of -overcoming too low a roof to his stage or the lack of off-stage space, -would be free to interpret the matter of the play itself. It would be -a great pity to lose the work of many earnest groups who have been -presenting plays in remodelled dwellings, saloons, or stables, with -what appear to be hopelessly inadequate stages. But if a building is to -be erected for the purpose of housing a theatre, it will mean greater -freedom for the artists (in fact or intent) who are to occupy it, if -they are given every facility that foresight can provide. - -The stage, properly speaking, is about five times as large as the part -of it that is visible to the audience when the curtain is raised. The -spaces to right and left of the proscenium arch should equal the center -space within the proscenium. Then there is the space above the stage, -the space under the stage and the space required adjacent to the stage -for dressing rooms, shops, etc. - -Dimensions for practically all of these spaces can best be derived -from the dimensions of the proscenium arch. The width of the opening -generally is equal to half the width of the auditorium at its widest -part. It may be somewhat less or somewhat greater, but it is well to -establish a minimum of twenty-four feet for the width of the opening. -Less than this will not give adequate space without serious crowding -for the presentation of scenes with more than a very few people. - -[Illustration: Figure 7--Plan of the Thirty-Ninth Street Theatre, New -York. An example of good planning for sight-lines, illustrating an -auditorium with center aisle.] - -In height the proscenium should be fittingly proportioned to the -width, with a minimum of about twelve feet in mind. A stage too low -and too narrow will throw the human figure out of proportion to his -surroundings on the stage. Let us assume that we have a stage with a -proscenium opening twenty-four feet wide and not less than twelve feet -high. The aggregate off-stage space right and left should then equal -about twenty-four feet, making the total width of the stage-house -forty-eight feet. The depth of the stage should be not less than -twenty-four feet. The height of the stage, from floor to “rigging loft” -should be not less than thirty-six feet. The cellar under the stage -should be not less than ten or twelve feet deep. This is merely a rough -guide, using the measurements of the proscenium as index. - -Claude B. Hagen, construction engineer for the Century Theatre in -New York, suggests a “rule of seven” for the derivation of these -dimensions, making all of them multiples of seven. The following table -gives his measurements for stages of various sizes: - - ---------------------------------------------------------------------- - Proscenium width 28 ft. 35 ft. 42 ft. - ---------------------------------------------------------------------- - Proscenium height Seven feet less than width - ---------------------------------------------------------------------- - Height of loft 56 ft. 63 ft. 70 ft. to 84 ft. - ---------------------------------------------------------------------- - Height of fly-gallery floor 28 ft. 35 ft. (7 ft. back of proscenium) - ---------------------------------------------------------------------- - Width of stage 42 ft. 56 ft. 70 ft. - ---------------------------------------------------------------------- - Depth of stage 21 ft. 28 ft. 35 ft. to 42 ft. - ---------------------------------------------------------------------- - Cellar 14 ft. 21 ft. - ---------------------------------------------------------------------- - Distance between border lights Seven feet from center to center - ---------------------------------------------------------------------- - -These measurements, while customary, are hardly ideal, and are -generalizations from the more or less arbitrary dimensions imposed by -high land values. It goes without saying that however small a theatre -is, its stage should be as large as the plot on which the building -stands will allow. - -The off-stage space at the sides is particularly important. Without it, -entrances to the scene are cramped, there is no place to pack furniture -and scenery for other acts than the one in progress on the stage, and -there is no place for the actors to await their entrances. Such space -is needed, often, for the suggestion of other rooms than the one before -the audience, and an important part of the lighting of the scene is -done from the sides. - -Next in importance is the space above the stage, the “flies,” in the -technical vocabulary of the theatre. In this space, above the line of -vision of the spectator, much scenery is hung until needed, lighting -units are suspended, and with good overhead space, effects of height -can be produced and ampler places revealed than that in which the -audience sits. - -The cellar under the stage is of especial importance where the -off-stage spaces at the sides are cramped. It is used for the storage -of scenery and furniture, for stage machinery and for entrances from a -lower floor (with the aid of traps), and it often provides passage from -one side of the stage to the other during the progress of a scene that -occupies the entire depth of the stage. In some theatres, a part of the -stage floor may be lowered by an elevator, and properties or furniture -disposed of during the changes of scene, thus preventing crowding of -the stage-house itself. - -[Illustration: Figure 8--Plan of the Beechwood Theatre and Scarborough -School. The entire space under the stage is given up to a workshop, and -over the vestibule and lobby is a library. Additional dressing-rooms -and a property-room are over the stage-level dressing-rooms shown here. -The building is practically a complete theatre with two school-room -wings. Welles Bosworth, Architect.] - -Hardwood should never be used for the stage floor. The architect of the -excellent Arts and Crafts Theatre in Detroit, in his desire to use only -the best of building materials, specified a stage floor of maple. As a -consequence, it is almost impossible to support scenery by the use of -stage braces, screwed to the floor with a stage screw or “peg.” Soft -wood into which the pegs bite easily, is the only sort to use. - -It is particularly important in small theatres that the stage walls be -as unbroken by entrances as possible. At least two there must be: a -large high door, opening to an alley or street, by which scenery may -be brought in and taken out, and a small one, a stage entrance for the -people of the theatre. It is well so to contrive the building that this -one door gives access to the stage from the dressing-room corridors, -shops, cellar, stairs, street and front of the house. With many doors -opening on the stage, it is difficult to find space for the stacking -of scenery without blocking them. It is often desirable to have one -dressing room very near the stage or opening immediately upon it, not -for the use of the star, but for the player who may happen to have the -quickest change of costume. - -Stages intended for the housing of large productions and traveling -companies should include also a fly gallery, built out from one of -the side walls of the stage at a height of not less than twenty feet -from the floor. The ropes by which drop curtains, ceilings, and -“frame-pieces” of scenery are raised and lowered are operated from -this floor and are tied off to pins fastened in the gallery railing, -technically known as the pin-rail. In smaller stages, of no great -height, it will save space, construction costs and operating expense to -have the pin-rail at the floor level. - -Before discussing the equipment of the stage in detail, I wish to -digress for a moment and consider the provisions to be made for the -work that is done out of sight of the audience,--by the carpenters and -property men, the seamstresses, the electricians, and the actors before -they are ready to appear before the footlights. - -[Illustration: Auditorium of the Munich Art Theatre. The plates on -this and the following three pages, and the plans on pages 30 and -31 illustrate the interior and exterior appearance, as well as the -structural features, of a modern European theatre which comes close -to being a model for architects everywhere. Above is a view of the -auditorium as seen from a point near the boxes at the back. The -decoration in paneled wood (for acoustic reasons), the absence of -proscenium boxes, the uniform slope of the auditorium, and the simple -decorative curtain, are characteristic of the best contemporary -European practice. (The photographs are reproduced by courtesy of the -architect, Prof. Max Littmann.)] - -[Illustration: Exterior of the Munich Art Theatre.] - -[Illustration: A cross-section model of the Munich Art Theatre, showing -clearly the arrangement of boxes, auditorium, exits, stage, hidden -orchestra pit, double proscenium, etc.] - -[Illustration: A part of the auditorium of the Munich Art Theatre as -seen from the stage. This is interesting chiefly as illustrating the -arrangement of the boxes at the back, and the unbroken tiers of seats -with side exits.] - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -PROVISION FOR BACK-STAGE WORKERS - - -I have noted in an earlier chapter that the architecture of the theatre -is always governed by the function of the drama performed in it. The -use to which the stage is put determines always the shape and style of -the auditorium. There is no doubt that some great change is soon to -overtake the theatre; the drama will assume a new form, demanding a new -mode of presentation, and so a new theatre. Presently I shall discuss -what forms this new theatre may assume, but for the moment it is enough -to observe that it will be marked by a closer bond, one way or another, -between the audience and the players, between the audience and the play. - -For a long while, the theatre has shrouded itself in a sort of -pseudo-mystery. “Back-stage” has had the lure for the layman of a -hat from which rabbits are drawn by a conjurer. Of course, under -inspection, such a hat is found to be as empty as any other, bearing -even, in most cases, the mark of a respectable maker. And the -inspection deepens the mystery. The stage has shunned this sort of -scrutiny, because our drama of to-day and our theatre live mostly -by “effects”. And if the effect is stripped of wonder, the theatre -is almost as good as dead. What a sign of weakness this is! If the -snowstorm is seen to be bits of paper shaken out of a bag, and if it is -found that the imitation wind is produced by the scraping of paddles on -canvas, the public will lose interest in the theatre. - -And the people of the stage! How hungrily necks are craned for a -glimpse of the popular actor or of the beautiful actress, should -one pass in a hotel or on the street. They inhabit that mysterious, -unexplored back-stage. And a clever manager will encourage this sort -of curiosity by advising his people not to show themselves in the -street, except unavoidably. The matter of seeing the actors close -may be dismissed with a quip,--they might be found respectable upon -acquaintance, or, more likely, dull. But the truth about the back of -the theatre is the truth about the conjurer’s hat,--there’s nothing -there to see, except the pitiful little bag of tricks, the snowstorm -and the wind. There is not even the maker’s label. But this emptiness -is not all, for as with the hat, it’s quite engrossing while the -rabbits are there. The worst of it is that it is so poor, so mean -often, so dirty, so cramped and littered, to the last, dark cranny, -that we wonder how the actor-rabbits endure it all and keep their fur -so white. - -A rudimentary shame on the part of the managers, and a very human pride -on the part of the actors, have helped to keep these matters from the -theatregoer. Out front, there is warmth, light, comfort, elegance. The -spectator is lulled into forgetfulness of work, and the play casts -its spell over him. But a glimpse of the wretched barrenness of the -dressing-room or shop would make short work of his peace of mind, just -as a knowledge of the tricks sheers them of illusion. - -These things are becoming known, because the bond between the spectator -and the theatre-worker is already being formed. When it is full grown, -such facts will not be discovered; they will no longer exist. For -two movements that are bound to affect the theatre of the future are -bringing the lay public clambering over the footlights and crowding -in at the stage door. One, the Little Theatre Movement, is almost -altogether a lay insurgency. In scores of communities, it has made -its way; tradesmen, students, clerks, mechanics, people of leisure -and working people with a little leisure, have come together and in a -short time have plumbed the silly little mysteries of back-stage, and -have brought into their theatres a little bit of the real Mystery of -life and art that belongs there. And the more extensive, democratic -Community Drama movement is making play-actors and theatre-workers of -thousands who have heretofore been auditors. There will always be a -professional group of artists of the theatre, but in their theatres -there will be a close understanding and perhaps a physical connection -between the audience and the stage; in the great, popular theatre it -is conceivable that there will be very little distinction between the -auditorium and the stage. It may be that they will be interchangeable -or be one and the same. Then, it is certain that the conditions of -comfort and convenience that apply to the one shall apply fully to the -other, that the actor shall be as well cared for in the theatre as the -public. - -Let those who are building to-day look to this: Visit the -dressing-rooms, see the workplaces of the other workers of the -theatre,--the carpenter, electrician, property-man, and wardrobe -workers. Consider these workplaces, not only in comparison with the -front of the house, but as fit places for human beings to spend as much -as an hour a day. Consider them as places where work that should have -in it joy and beauty may develop. - -The community theatres that are going to be built within the next few -years are bound to be a blessing to those who have access to them. But, -for the most part, their projectors and builders are laymen, knowing -little of the vast work of preparation that must be done before a play -is ready for an audience. Where the commercial theatre builder does not -care how the actor and the theatre mechanic fare, the lay builder is a -little likely to overlook their existence. I have seen dozens of clubs -and schools, with fairly adequate stages and auditoriums, but with no -more than two small dressing-rooms, one for men and one for women. I -have seen several with no more than one, originally intended for a -closet but set aside as a dressing-room when it was discovered that -something of the sort is indispensable. - -Aside from the fact that the players and the workmen are human beings, -quite often of the same tastes and breeding as those who occupy the -front of the theatre, they have a long and exacting work to perform, -most of which can be done only in the theatre. And their domain is -the part of the theatre behind the proscenium line. The actors must -rehearse for several weeks before the play can be acted. They must -be in the theatre some time before the curtain rises on the play and -they leave it some time after the play has ended and the audience has -gone home. For they must dress and “make-up”, and should be allowed a -little while to shake off John Smith and enter into Hamlet. There is, -moreover, scenery to be built and painted, furniture and properties to -be made, lights to be arranged, effects to be devised, costumes to be -cut, fitted and sewed. - -How should these activities and these workers be taken care of? - -First, the actors. - -For their rehearsals, first of all, the stage should be used. If the -stage is otherwise occupied, with scenery, or with the rehearsals of -another production, as it often is in busy theatres, there should be -another place in the same building where rehearsals can be held, a room -with as large a floor as that of the stage proper. But, as often as -possible, the stage should be used for rehearsals. - -Then, for their preparation to appear in a performance, their dressing -and make-up. Dressing-rooms must be provided, sufficient in number to -accommodate the cast of the average play without crowding more than -two people to a room. Under ideal conditions, each player will have a -separate room, so that he can prepare for his performance, mentally -as well as physically, without disturbance. The rooms should be not -less than eight by ten feet, should each have a window, and should -be heated in winter. Against one wall there should be a long shelf or -table, about eighteen inches wide. Above it, should be a good mirror, -with lights so placed that the face of an actor seated at the shelf -and looking into the mirror will be well illuminated. Under the shelf, -there should be a drawer in which make-up materials may be kept. -Each dressing room should be provided with a washstand and with hot -and cold water. There should be a high clothes-closet or wardrobe in -which costumes may be hung. Where this is impractical, there should -be sufficient hooks to accommodate a number of costumes, and means of -covering them with a cloth to protect them from dust. Above the clothes -hooks, or at the top of the closet, should be a shelf for hats, shoes, -etc. - -It is well to provide from eight to twelve dressing-rooms, each large -enough to accommodate two persons. In addition, there should be two -large rooms, each with space for about a dozen persons, these to be -used for chorus, supernumeraries, or players of small parts. - -On each dressing-room floor there should be proper toilet -accommodations for each sex. Also, the ideally equipped building will -have shower baths. In these days of Dunsany, Hindus and Arabs and -Ethiopians may be met in many a town en route from the little theatre -to their homes, there to wash themselves white. - -It has been noted that, to preserve the unbroken wall space of the -stage as far as possible, dressing-rooms should not open directly upon -the stage floor. In many theatres, they are ranged off galleries above -the stage. On the whole, this is inadvisable. A dressing-room door, -inopportunely opened, will let a beam of light fall upon the stage, -often spoiling the lighting of a scene. The slamming of doors, sound -of voices, and other noises are almost unavoidable. And the argument -usually advanced for so arranging dressing-rooms--that the actors -can hear what is going on on the stage and thus be in time for their -entrances, is fallacious. This very fact breeds in them a confidence -that makes them careless, and they are more often late than if they -were required to wait for their cues on the stage. - -One more thing should be provided for the actor, not indispensable, but -making for fellowship and comfort--the feature known in German theatres -as the Konverzations-Zimmer and in older English and American theatres -as the Green Room. This should be a comfortable lounge, furnished more -as a room in a home or club, than in a theatre, and stocked with books -and periodicals relating to the theatre. - -With the actor carefully considered in the matter of cleanliness -and cheerfulness backstage, a new pleasure will come into his work. -Likewise, with the other workers of the theatre. Closest to the actor, -perhaps, the wardrobe people. In the ideal theatre two rooms should -be set aside for the wardrobe, one for the making of clothes and -another for their storage. The sewing room, needless to say, should be -well lighted, should have a space partitioned off as a fitting room, -should be provided with proper closets in which to hang dresses in the -process of making, and should be large enough to allow for a number -of seamstresses and a large cutting table. There should be a built-in -closet equipped with shelves and drawers in which to store cloths, -trimmings, findings, etc., for the making of costumes. For the costume -storage room, a loft space that might otherwise go to waste can often -be utilized. This room should have long closets, fitted with bars on -which dresses can be hung, and should have drawers in which other items -of dress can be packed--hats, shoes, wigs, stockings, tights, etc. -These drawers should be numerous enough to allow for the sorting out of -costumes by colors or periods, and should be properly labelled. - -Each of the mechanical departments should likewise have its two rooms, -one a shop and the other for storage. The carpenter, if the scenery -is built in the theatre, often can use the space under the stage -for building. If he cannot build his scenery there, either another -place should be set aside or the scenery should be built outside -the building. He should not use the stage. It must be kept free for -rehearsals. He should have, however, a room in which to keep his -tools, draw his plans, and file his ground and framing plans, bills, -time-sheets, etc. - -The matter of storage space for scenery is to be determined wholly by -the amount of space at the builder’s disposal and the use to which -the theatre is to be put. If many productions are to be made, a space -should be provided for a scene-dock, adjacent to the stage but separate -from it, unless the building is small, in which case a storehouse -elsewhere may be used. Scenery should not be allowed to accumulate -on the stage. The theatre of the Carnegie Institute of Technology at -Pittsburgh has an excellent dock, shown on the ground plan, Figure 4. - -The property department needs a shop for the making of furniture, -papier mâché work, etc., and a storage room in which furniture and -other stage furnishings can be stored. Often one large room can be made -to do for both. - -The electrical department likewise must not be overlooked. There must -be closets for the keeping of incandescent bulbs, lamp dyes, plugs, -connectors, cable, wire, and other electrical hardware, gelatines, -color frames, etc. There must be provision in the shop for the dyeing -of lamps, testing, repairing, etc. - -The property and electrical departments, like the carpenter’s, must -also be fitted in a sense as offices, for the keeping of electric and -property plots, full records relating to past and coming productions, -bills, orders, receipts, time sheets, and like data. - -It may be objected at this point that these various demands presuppose -a large-sized plant with elaborate equipment. As a matter of fact, -they apply quite as much to the tiniest of little theatres--even more -so, for in such, proper ordering of space and isolation of separate -activities is equivalent, in getting efficiency, to more ample space -less carefully sub-divided. For, inevitably, these various kinds of -work must be done in the theatre, and the people who do them must find -space here or there for their work, and the things they make must be -kept somewhere. Unless each job and each product is assigned its proper -corner, the building is soon a clutter of stuff, accumulating dust, -getting jostled about and broken. Then we are back at the old, dark, -dirty theatre we are trying so hard to improve upon. The provisions -discussed above, though they are not on the stage, are very much a part -of it, and go far toward making it an instrument of precision. - -In community buildings and schools, the various workshops, rehearsal -room, etc., can often be combined with rooms serving other purposes. -In any case some provision for them is quite as important as the open -stage itself. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -THE EQUIPMENT OF THE STAGE[4] - - -[4] Throughout this chapter I am at a disadvantage in that I do not -thoroughly believe in the standards which I here set up. It is true -that I am recommending higher standards than usually prevail in the -sort of building which is here considered, or higher even than those -that prevail in the well-equipped professional theatre. It is true, -also, that these recommendations as viewed in the light of the known -and tried methods of play production, are in the nature of reform and -improvement. As such, I believe in them. As viewed in the light of the -theatre of the future, I do not so thoroughly believe in them. But -only a revolution in theatre methods can refresh our conceptions of -what sort of place this theatre of the future is to be. This matter we -shall leave for discussion in a final chapter. I should be ill-advised -in advising ambitious groups interested in building adequate little -playhouses to set aside finally the known and tried methods of play -production and the stage they involve for methods adapted to a type of -drama that may not yet exist, for methods that must be evolved only -by sensitive and versed artists of the theatre. It is true that many -signal new ideas come into any art through workers who do not know or -trouble about tradition, young hands who blunder upon valuable methods -through attacking their medium experimentally. For instance, Antoine, a -gas-fitter by trade, who began his theatrical career as an amateur, by -his daring innovations in the _Théâtre Libre_, renewed the life-force -of the French theatre. But, in the main, I believe that the most -important revolutionary changes in the stage are wrought by men who are -thoroughly versed in the old practice, as was Gordon Craig. Hence, if -the little theatres and community playhouses continue for the coming -generation with a theatre modelled after the best practice of this our -day, they may in good season contribute mightily to that theatre of the -future to which I referred. Hence, for the present it is best that I -continue in the rôle of reporter, rather than that of prophet. - -The outstanding point about the stage, apart from the life the actors -bring to it, is that it is a machine. It is a mechanical device used to -aid in the setting forth of a play, much as a potter’s wheel aids the -maker of vases, or a mortise and tenon machine helps the cabinet-maker. -Perhaps the cabinet-maker is no less a hand-craftsman because he uses -the mechanical device to shorten his labor, and it is probable that -the vase has a truer form for being turned on a wheel. But cabinets -have been made wholly by hand and vases turned without the potter’s -wheel. There are people who treasure works made wholly by hand above -the machine-aided work, however artistic. The theatre once did without -the adventitious aids it now employs. Once it was merely a platform set -in the sunlight, revealed to the sight of an assembled audience. Many -believe that the theatre of the future will be something of that sort, -welcoming, however, in addition to or instead of the sun, the more -constantly available, controllable and subtly colorable electric light. - -But the Greeks had their machines for the revelation of gods, and -there is something about _periaktoi_, or revolving pieces of scenery. -It is with the machines that the theatre has concerned itself most of -all. Every developed stage has employed an amount of mechanism for -the producing of those “effects” which I mentioned in the preceding -chapter; and it may be that the theatre always will,--one wing of the -theatre, the Right, doubtless. - -Of late years, with the advent of the naturalistic or realistic type -of drama, the stage has sought more and more illusion, not only in -its imitations of the movements and acts of men and women but in its -representation of their surroundings. It has tried to become a more -perfect machine,--more nearly an _instrument of precision_. It may -be significant to observe that, although masterpieces of drama gave -impetus to the development of the illusion stage,--outstandingly the -plays of Ibsen,--the illusion stage has brought forth no masterpieces. -In this country, it may be held responsible for the buzz-saw, -train-wreck, or horse-race type of melodrama, a type now happily -removed from the theatre by the moving picture with its still higher -degree of visual veracity. In Germany, the stage as machine has been -developed to an extraordinary degree, and, for the most part, never -debauched by exhibitions of effects for their own sake, as in our -sensational melodrama of half a generation ago. I shall discuss a -number of these German inventions in a later chapter, but for the -present propose to consider the stage as a machine adapted to average -demands. - -There are two primary demands--that the machine shall be able to -do the work demanded of it efficiently and with a minimum danger -of breakdown, and that the machine be subject to control. The work -of the stage-machine is, of course, the handling of scenery, the -illusion-stuff of the present-day stage. This scenery is of two types: -pieces that are suspended from ropes (hanging pieces), and pieces that -stand on the floor (set pieces). For exterior scenes, the first type -includes drops, “borders” representing foliage, leg-drops representing -trees, pillars, arches, etc., or sections of wall, house-front, or -other flat architectural units, large enough to warrant hanging -overhead when out of use, so as to save floor space; and--for interior -scenes--ceilings and back walls. The second type includes, for exterior -scenes, any low-standing units, such as walls, hedges, fences, tree -trunks, “wings” or set-houses; and for interior scenes, the side-walls -of the room and very often part or the whole of the back wall. - -For the manipulation of hanging scenery, the most important piece of -stage machinery is the grid-iron. This is a slatted platform of steel -or iron joists, built a few feet below the roof of the stage, just -enough below to allow head-room for a man standing on it. Along the -center of the grid-iron, on a line at a right angle to the foot-lights, -is set a row of blocks and sheaves of a special type, manufactured -for stage use. Equidistant right and left of this center row by half -the width of the stage proper (the part of the stage within the -proscenium) are other rows. Over these sheaves, ropes are passed. Thus, -hanging over the stage parallel to the back wall, in sets of three, -are lines to which scenery may be attached. The other ends of the -lines in each set are brought together at one side or the other of the -stage, so that the three ropes of each set may be operated as one. On -the side to which the lines are led is located the pin-rail, either -on a fly-gallery or at the floor level. Of each set of three, the -line hanging nearest the side from which the lines are operated--the -pin-rail side--is known as the short line, the line most remote from it -is known as the long line, and the other as the center line. On very -large stages, with an opening of forty feet or more, four lines to each -set are advisable, not only to bear the greater weight of the larger -pieces of scenery required, but also to secure a better trim, or level -hang of the scenery. - -These lines, needless to say, should be of the best hemp rope, of -a weight adjusted to the size of the stage. Half-inch line is the -lightest it is wise to use. This rope should be subjected to periodical -inspection, to forestall breaking and the falling of scenery, with -consequent damage to the scenery, the play, or the actors. - -On some grid-irons, the blocks are screwed to the under side of the -grid. This is unsafe, as they have been known to tear loose. They -should ride the joists, the lines dropping between each two. At least -twenty-five sets of lines should be provided. - -When a set of lines is not weighted with scenery, sandbags are tied to -the loose ends, so that they may be lowered to the floor when needed. -Frequently a piece of scenery will be found too heavy for one or two -men to raise from the floor. In such cases, counterweights in the -form of large sand-bags are hung on the part of the lines between the -grid-iron and the pin-rail. - -The primary purpose of hanging scenery in this fashion is to be able to -haul it out of sight in the upper part of the stage when it is not in -use. Hence large overhead space is necessary. This system also makes -possible the use of unstiffened scenic units, such as drop curtains and -borders, which, literally, have no legs to stand on. - -In large stages the lines are controlled from a pin-rail on a gallery, -built out from one of the side walls of the stage. In smaller stages -the pin-rail may be built against one of the side walls on the floor -level. This has various advantages--ease of access the foremost, and -the saving of a stage-hand, who would otherwise have to remain on the -fly-gallery, besides. The advantages to be claimed for the fly-gallery -are that its use leaves the stage floor clear of ropes, leaves the side -wall clear for the stacking of scenery, and is a valuable vantage point -from which to cast light upon the stage. - -The stage of the Century Theatre is equipped with a counterweight -system that practically eliminates hand-power in the raising and -lowering of hanging scenery. To each set of lines is attached a metal -case, or container, which rides up the stage wall between tracks. At -the top of the stage, above each container, there is a magazine filled -with buckshot. By an ingenious mechanism, when a piece of scenery -hanging in the loft is to be lowered to the floor level, a quantity of -the shot in the container is allowed to flow out, so that the scenery -outweighs the counterweight and descends. Its descent can be stopped -at any point by brakes on the lines. When it is to be raised, shot -from the magazine above is allowed to flow into the container until -the counterweight outweighs the scenery, and the scenery ascends. The -shot that flows to the bottom of the chute is conveyed by an endless -chain-and-bucket conveyer to the magazines at the top. Such a system -is only warranted on stages of opera-house proportions. There are -also systems for controlling the lines by motors; but on the stage of -average size, man-power is the safest and most dependable. - -Scenery that stands on the floor requires little by way of machinery. -Some of it is self-supporting, as are the “wings,”--folding, -screen-like pieces used to mask the sides of the stage. All set scenery -is “framed,” so that it stands rigid enough when braced from the back. -Part of the equipment of every stage is a supply of stage-braces -for the support of such scenery. These are made of hardwood, can be -extended to any desired length, have a prong at the top which hooks -into a screw-eye fastened to the scenery, and a foot-iron at the bottom -which can he fastened to the stage floor by means of a stage screw -or “peg.” The use of these pegs demands a soft-wood stage floor into -which they will bite easily. Good stage braces can be obtained from any -reliable dealer in stage equipment. - -The main curtain of the theatre, if it raises and lowers, is often -operated from the fly-gallery. It is better, however, to have it -operated from the stage level, on the same side of the stage as the -fly-gallery or the pin-rail. The draw type of curtain is always handled -from the stage floor. “Travelers” for these curtains can be more -cheaply bought than made, and are kept in stock by any stage-rigging -firm. - -It is well to have the stage flooring built in lateral sections resting -on joists that run the width of the stage. When traps are needed in the -floor, they can then be cut without difficulty at any point. - -The lighting equipment of the stage, by far the most important of its -mechanical attributes, I shall describe later, but I shall treat here -of one device, which is structural. It is one of the German inventions -for the perfection of illusion to which I have referred, and the only -one I recommend to little theatres, far and wide. I recommend it -because of the added beauty it can bring into the playhouse, rather -than because of its merit as a part of the perfect machine. This is the -Kuppel-horizont, or sky-dome. - -The sky-dome approximates in shape a quarter-sphere, much like the -shells commonly placed behind out-door band stands. The base line -begins far enough toward the front of the stage and behind the -proscenium to be masked from the opposite side of the auditorium, and -sweeps around the back of the stage. The back and sides of the dome -rise vertically for some distance and then arch at the top toward the -front of the stage. The higher the dome is, the less the canopy need -overhang the front of the stage; and the less it overhangs, the more -grid-iron space is available for hanging scenery. But it will be seen -at once that the more dome there is to take the place of the usual -hanging stuff, the fewer of the usual tawdry borders are needed. - -The late Wallace Sabine, in a series of experiments conducted with a -model built at Harvard University by Theodore C. Browne and the present -writer, concluded that the quarter-sphere was disadvantageous to the -acoustics of the stage and was not required in order to obtain the -best results in lighting. He recommended a form flatter at the back and -with a sharper curvature at the sides and top. - -Three modifications of this device have been installed in little -theatres in America--one at the Neighborhood Playhouse in New York, one -at the Beechwood Theatre in Scarborough, and one at the Arts and Crafts -Theatre in Detroit. The Neighborhood Playhouse “dome” is really little -more than a cyclorama built in plaster. It has no canopy overhead, and -the ends extend toward the front of the stage only a little distance. -The one at the Beechwood Theatre is similarly simplified. But even this -plaster cyclorama is a great improvement over the canvas cyclorama in -its stability, freedom from wrinkles, and better diffusion of light. - -At the Arts and Crafts Theatre, the ends of the dome do not curve -toward the front of the stage at all, but the top arches, forming a -canopy over the back part of the stage. The only true dome in this -country was installed by Samuel J. Hume at the Madison Theatre in -Detroit, now used as a moving-picture playhouse. - -With such a dome, a great deal of the litter of painted scenery can -be done away with. A background of light takes the place of the usual -painted back-drop, and much of the scenery usually set at the sides -or hung overhead, merely to keep the eye from penetrating to the -back-regions of the stage, is no longer needed. - -Added to the stage at the time of construction, the dome costs little -more than the price of its materials. The initial cost will be saved -many times over in the decreased cost of scenery. The very least that -should be done, if the budget does not allow for the construction -of an entire dome, is to plaster the back wall of the stage. This, -more than counterweights, traps, revolving stages, and all the other -paraphernalia of advanced construction, will extend the possibilities -of the stage machine, not only for the uses of illusion but for the -service of the imagination. - -A familiar feature of most theatres in which productions are made is -the paint-bridge and paint-frame at the back of the stage. Here the -scenery to be painted, mounted on the frame, is raised and lowered -before the bridge. To my mind, this is a waste of space and money. -Primarily it is a waste of space at the back of the stage. If the dome -is used it is quite out of the question. But, strongest argument of -all, it is not needed. If the scenery must be painted in the theatre, -it can be painted lying flat on the floor. The saving on this item may -well be enough to cover the cost of the sky-dome. - -[Illustration: Auditorium of the Arts and Crafts Theatre, Detroit. -This theatre is of particular interest in connection with the movement -to build community houses as war memorials. It shows how a playhouse -may be fitted informally and beautifully into a building not designed -primarily for dramatic purposes.] - -[Illustration: Auditorium of the theatre at the Carnegie Institute -of Technology, Pittsburgh. This is an admirable example of dignified -decoration, uniform floor slope, and generously spaced seats; but the -auditorium is too wide to secure adequate sight-lines from all seats. -See plan on page 28.] - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -STAGE LIGHTING - - -The most vital part of the stage machine is yet to be touched upon, -the only part in which any mystery is involved. After all, most of our -machinery of the theatre is of the simplest type,--ropes and pulleys -and simple bracing. In a double sense, the electrical equipment is -approached with more awe. While most people know a little about the -simpler laws of mechanics, electricity, guarded by an element of -danger, is a matter too recondite to be brought into the fold of -everyday information out of mere curiosity, or to be reasoned out as -the childish working of a pulley can be figured out by common sense; -it has to be studied and learned. And besides being outside common -matter-of-fact, light is mystery itself, unplumbed nature, a fraction -of the inscrutable life of the world led by strings to the stage. - -If the little playhouse is without any mechanical convenience, if its -stage is cramped and mean, it can still achieve visual beauty through -light. This force brings into the playhouse the most vibrant, subtle -and affecting gift of the physical world, barring only the human -presence. - -Ultimately it will be seen that a forthright attempt to imitate nature -on the stage can result only in failure; the painted or modeled -semblances of rocks, trees, grass or distant prospects are in the long -run seen to be what they are not what they pretend to be. Similarly, -close as the light of the stage can be brought to resemble the light -of the outer world, it will still be short of complete fidelity to -its original. But it is, in itself, a force of beauty, an authentic -transplanting of the revealer of nature’s divers beauties, so that, if -it fails to achieve what the manipulator tries to make it do, it may -achieve something possibly more beautiful. - -More and more can this be true in the theatre, as the artist comes to -regard light as a pure medium, as he learns more of its profound effect -on human emotion, even on the working of the body’s organs, and as -he becomes familiar with the thousand subtle ways in which the earth -and its atmosphere modify the light sent by the sun, reflecting and -refracting it, stealing certain colors from its whiteness and leaving -others, resolving it prismatically by mists and clouds and the swirls -of atmosphere. These are a few of the ways in which nature plays the -artist with light. They point to unlimited lessons in technique that -the theatre artist in light has yet to learn. - -The little theatre, or any theatre for that matter, cannot go wrong -by beginning at the beginning. Let it revalue the customary machinery -for stage lighting, and the results achieved by its use. Later I shall -describe this customary equipment, for it has its great uses, and much -of the criticism that I shall apply to it applies perhaps with greater -justice to the manner in which it is used. But, implicit in the system -itself, is a criticism of its purpose to reproduce the effects of -nature under conditions that in nowise resemble those of nature, or its -laying over a convention (artistic at its best, futilely anachronistic -at its worst) not another convention, but a lantern of Diogenes, -showing up shams. - -Go back to the beginning. One candle rightly used, as in Robert Edmond -Jones’ lighting of the den scene in _Redemption_, is both drama and -beauty. Imagine Wallace Stevens’ _Carlos Among the Candles_ shown upon -the stage by the candle light of the strange room-world which is the -play’s universe. Here is a complete wedding of drama and the mobile -beauty of light itself, a light we can readily achieve. From these -candles to the sun of Shakespeare’s comedies, the storms of his _Lear_ -or the mists and fogs of _The Tempest_ is a far cry. He begged the -question, in extraordinary verse, and acted the words and emotions of -his plays in the plain light of day, which is bound to be beautiful, -even when it is not illusive of the moon. - -Right here lies the crux of the problem of installing lights in -the little theatre. A dual approach is required, as in any art: -the creator’s vision of what he wishes to do, and the technician’s -knowledge of how to go about it. The greater responsibility rests -on the first function, for we must settle whether we are to try to -reproduce nature or attain a correlative beauty. To me the beauty of a -stage sunset has rarely been the beauty of a real sunset; it has been -the beauty of rosy light. If anything, the unreality of the sunset has -stood in the way of my appreciation of the reality of red. The beauty -of red was accidental, and not the artist’s intention. It could not -have been avoided, for it is germane to sunset, but the fact remains -that the artist achieved something other than he set out to achieve. It -would have been better to go in for red and attain it than to go in for -sunset and attain red. If blue light intimates the moon, well and good. -It is beautiful itself, and does not awaken marvel at the cleverness -with which we have contrived an effect. Whereas a nicely operated -moonrise, or a jiggling procession of stereoptican clouds leaves us -gaping while the tragedy hobbles, unattended, to it close. - -When the theatre forsook the sunlight, it faced the question of light -solely as illumination. By various means,--torches and tapers, gas, -“limes” and electricity,--it has made its art visible indoors and -at night. The introduction of electric light into the theatre has -made possible an illumination so dependable and controllable that of -late years attention has been turned to other phases of the lighting -problem. Thanks must be given for most of the advance thus far to the -effort of the illusion-theatre to imitate the light of nature. My -belief is that the greater advance lies ahead, in the study of light on -the stage as an art medium _per se_. - -Two important things the stage worker of the modern theatre -contributed, through his rough approximations of realistic effect, two -things that will serve, whatever our aim in lighting. He saw that the -light at some seasons, in some weathers, and at some times of day, -is less bright than at others, and that it fades at dusk. He devised -means, therefore, of varying its intensity. Second, he perceived -that at sunset light is one color, at noon another, and by full moon -another. He gave us dyes and color screens, and with them and his -dimmers brought to the stage the important element of control. - -Other advances, through other agencies in the theatre, tend to -subtilize the function of light, carrying it beyond primary -illumination. Second, perhaps, comes the scene designer, who demands -that the light, in addition to illuminating the players and stating the -time of day or year, shall contribute values to his design as picture. -It shall be made to cast shadows where dark masses are wanted in his -composition. It shall highlight other features of the scene; it shall -reinforce the painter’s work with color; it shall give plasticity to -the builder’s work with its highlight and shadow. - -Next, the dramatist and producer make their demands--the light -shall reinforce the mood and meanings of the play. By its intensity -or dimness, it gives “atmosphere”; by its color it has a direct -psychological and physiological effect on the spectator, sensitizing -him to values in the play he might not perceive were it enacted in -light of another sort. Dramatist, director and designer, in the -lighting of a play, if nowhere else, should be so much at one that it -is easy to understand Gordon Craig’s wish that one man should combine -the functions of all three. - -Light, in the theatre, then: (1) illuminates the stage and actors; -(2) states hour, season, and weather, through suggestion of the light -effects in nature; (3) helps paint the scene (stage picture) by -manipulation of masses of light and shadow and by heightening color -values; (4) lends relief to the actors and to the plastic elements of -the scene; and (5) helps act the play, by symbolizing its meanings and -reinforcing its psychology. - -To achieve these five functions of stage light, five different kinds -or sources of light are not, of course, needed. One light may combine -several, or all, of these functions. In Joseph Urban’s lighting and -setting of the last act of _Tristan and Isolde_ some years ago at the -Boston Opera House, a beam of late afternoon sunlight struck across the -stage to the figure of Tristan lying beneath a great oak tree. Slowly, -as the day waned, the sun patch crept from the figure, until, at his -death, it had left him in cool shadow. Thus, a light that illuminated, -that told the time of day, that gave the figure of the singer and the -bole of the great tree high relief by striking from only one side, also -aided symbolically and psychologically in the interpretation of the -drama. Thus to make light function in many ways is to use it with a -sense of its ductility and subtlety as a medium of theatre art. In it -we have the only single agency in the theatre that can work with all -the other agencies, binding them together--that can reveal with the -dramatist, paint with the designer, and act with the actors. - -The machinery by which this medium is brought to the stage and through -which its wonders are wrought commands a deep respect. Tradition -has already laid its heavy hand here, and innovation in lighting -equipment moves slowly. It is almost wholly within the last five years -in the United States that lighting units of marked novelty have been -introduced. - -Of first importance is the machinery of control, the switchboard and -dimmers. The customary place for the board in American theatres is at -one side of the proscenium arch, either on the stage floor level, or -on a perch raised some nine or ten feet above the stage floor. The -manifest disadvantage of this location is that the operator cannot -see the whole of the stage, and must depend for his cues upon a stage -manager. It has, therefore, become the practice in many European -theatres to place the operator in a pit directly in front of the -stage, shielded from the auditorium and facing the actors. From here -he can watch the action and see the effects of his lights constantly. -Telephone connections with lamp operators at the back of the stage -enable him to keep them under his control. - -The construction of the board and mounting of the switches are strictly -prescribed by boards of fire underwriters in various cities, and need -not be detailed here. The important consideration at this point is -that, so far as possible, each light unit on the stage shall be subject -to central control from a vantage point from which the stage can be -seen; that each unit shall be subject to _separate_ control; that -groups of like units, classed by location or color, shall be subject to -group control, apart from other groups; and that the stage light, as a -whole, shall be controllable apart from the house lights. - -That is, assuming, for purposes of illustration, the arrangement of -lights common to most theatres, the white lights of the first border -shall be controlled by a switch apart from that controlling the white -lights of the second border or the third or the fourth. So, likewise, -for each color circuit of each border, separately. Then there should -be a white border main switch, controlling the white lights of all the -borders, and a blue border main, etc. Above these, there should be a -border main switch controlling all the border lights simultaneously. -And thus with each division of the stage lights. Over all, one stage -main switch should control all the lights of the stage. The auditorium -lights, with their own switches, should be controlled from the same -board as the stage lights. - -The outstanding item of expense in building a good switchboard is the -cost of dimmers, the resistance devices by which the intensity of the -light is controlled. They vary in capacity with their wattage and -type. But the dimmers, more than any other part of the control system, -contribute to the flexibility of the machine. In a modern theatre they -are indispensable. - -So far as possible, there should be a dimmer for each switch on the -board, controlling each light unit separately. With “master” levers, -related light units can be ganged and controlled simultaneously. When -only a limited number of dimmers can be afforded, it is possible so to -construct the switchboard that circuits to be dimmed can be “shunted” -through the dimmers, while circuits that need not be dimmed remain -on constant. A very ingenious board of this type was designed by Mr. -Bassett Jones for the Artists’ Guild Theatre in St. Louis. This board -has eight dimmers which can be used for any eight light units on the -stage, giving it a far greater flexibility than it would have if only -a particular eight could be dimmed. It is, however, rather complicated, -with its dual system of constant and dimmer plugs and connectors, so -that only great familiarity with it makes it quick in action. - -In addition to the switchboard type of dimmer, there are also smaller -dimmers made for use with nitrogen lamp spots and floods. Where -these are used I believe they should be set by the main switchboard, -rather than on the lamp itself. Attached to the lamp they require an -additional operator and break up the centralization of control. - -The actual stage lights fall into two classes--stationary and movable. -The stationary or fixed equipment has remained, on the whole, highly -conventional. It consists, primarily, of the footlights, a trough of -lights set along the floor at the front edge of the stage, throwing -light upward upon the actors and the scene, and the border lights, -hanging troughs, adjustable in height, throwing their light downward. -The first of these border lights, often known as the concert border, -hangs immediately behind the curtain or proscenium drapery, and the -others are hung at intervals of seven feet from center to center. -The footlights and borders are usually wired in three circuits, each -circuit being filled with lamps of a different color, customarily -white, red or amber, and blue. - -Of late, these customary units have been put on trial and found -wanting. They serve principally, and almost exclusively, the first -function of stage light--illumination--and are found, on the modern -stage, not to serve it well. Footlights, especially, have come under -the ban, though the campaign against them has been waged a little -indiscriminately. When footlights alone are used in a realistic scene, -they are bad. If the light from the floor dominates, the under surfaces -of the face--chin, nose-tip, eyelids--are unnaturally and disagreeably -accentuated. If the light from below and above is balanced, the result, -though more natural, is perhaps as bad, for the lighting is flat, and -there is no relief in the features or figures of the players. For -plays and scenes of a heroic or fantastic sort, treated decoratively, -rather than literally, lighting entirely from above gives interesting -and picturesque results. It shadows the features heavily, and lends a -sculptured, massive quality to the face. More and more, this overhead -lighting has come to be used, and with some producers has been made a -fetish. - -The very quality that makes this sort of lighting interesting in scenes -of a certain kind exhibits its strongest disadvantage in naturalistic -lighting. In the average room, during the daytime, light pours in -through windows, striking faces at face level. The light comes mostly -from one side of the room, or if there are windows on more than one -side, and the light comes in several directions, it comes in varying -degrees. The sun does not shine in two directions at once. That is -to say, though light may come from more than one direction, and be -reflected multitudinously by walls and ceiling and, in less degree, the -floor, the balance of intensity is always in favor of one direction. -And this direction is not up or down, but in a line approaching a right -angle to the erect figure. - -Something of the same sort is usually true out-of-doors. Only at noon -do we have literally overhead lighting. Even then, the beam of light -is so broad as to envelop the figure on all sides, and is so variously -reflected by the dome of the sky, by trees, rocks, water, houses, that -there is, in addition to the direct downward light, a considerable -“general” diffused illumination. At most hours of the day, the rays of -the sun fall upon the earth and its people at a long angle. The factor -that gives relief and prevents a dull flatness in the light of nature -is the dominance of east over west in the morning and of west over -east in the afternoon. Night illumination indoors, though usually from -fixtures above head-level, is reflected by all the walls of the room -and by all the objects in it. - -A soft, diffused face-level lighting is thus warranted in almost -all circumstances. The hard glare of foots and borders, used -unrestrictedly, does not supply this need most happily. Used -moderately, footlights have a distinct function, until better means of -moderating the crude shadows cast from above shall have been devised. - -An effort to throw light upon the stage at an angle less perpendicular -than that of footlight and border has been made at the Little Theatre -in New York. Here, certain sections of the ceiling panelling can be -lowered and light thrown upon the stage by diffused spot lamps at an -angle of 45°. In Mr. Belasco’s theatre, lights have been installed -in the face of the balcony, achieving the same result even more -satisfactorily. I believe that, in good time, beautifully designed -lighting units will be frankly set or hung in the auditorium of the -theatre. - -The footlight equipment of most theatres is, as it has long been, -unmodified, consisting merely of rows of incandescent lamps of -low standard (usually forty watts). The border lights have seen -more innovation during the past few years, especially the first (or -concert) border, most used in lighting interior scenes. Originally, -these border lights were intended to light not only the stage, but -also the hanging strips of canvas (known as borders) formerly used -to suggest a ceiling in interior scenes, and still used to represent -foliage and to misrepresent the blue sky in exterior scenes. With the -use of flat ceilings for interiors comes a demand for a light that -illuminates the scene rather than the ceiling. This is best supplied -by the X-Ray border, made up of a smaller number of lamps than the old -border but of higher standard, each lamp being 150 or 250 watts. Each -lamp is set in a separate compartment, separated from its neighbor, -and each lamp is backed by an X-Ray reflector of mirrored glass with -whorled corrugations, diffusing the light evenly over a large area. -Each compartment may be fitted with a color screen of gelatine or dyed -glass. Often, too, spot lamps, large and small, are mounted on this -border to accentuate the light on certain areas of the stage. - -The other borders, used mostly for exterior scenes, must serve to -flood stage and scene with light. The old type of border does not -serve adequately, even in the type of scene for which it was designed. -The use of sky borders has largely given way to the high cyclorama of -canvas or plaster, leaving the sky prospect open to the eye as far -as the sight line reaches. The overhead lighting must be powerful -enough to flood stage and sky with light. It is becoming more and more -common to reinforce the ordinary border-light equipment with hanging -thousand-watt lamps in specially constructed steel hoods. In the Arts -and Crafts Theatre, in Detroit, Sam Hume installed his entire overhead -equipment of such hanging lamps, and did away with the old border light -altogether. In the average theatre, however, these lamps are more in -the nature of movable lamps than of permanent equipment, and will be -further spoken of below. - -[Illustration: The Neighborhood Playhouse, New York. This building -is one of the most satisfying examples of recent theatre design in -America, being free from overdecoration and admirably fitted to its -purpose technically. Harry Creighton Ingalls and F. B. Hoffman Jr., -Associate Architects.] - -[Illustration: Auditorium of the Artists’ Guild Theatre, St. Louis. -This little auditorium is made useful for both dramatic productions and -art exhibitions by means of an ingenious device for tilting the floor, -described on page 29. Above is the view toward the balcony, below the -view toward the stage. Laurence Ewald, Architect.] - -The footlights and border lights, and, occasionally, vertical strips -inside the proscenium frame at the sides, constitute the whole of the -stage-lighting equipment that is more or less a part of the structure. -They “go with the building.” Everything else is movable and falls into -the second classification of lighting units. But, in the structure -of the stage, provision must be made for the use of such additional -lights. Outlets in the form of “stage pockets” are set at regular -intervals in the stage floor; into these pockets, spot and flood -lamps may be plugged. The pockets are set in the stage floor in two -lines running up and down stage, a short distance behind the proscenium -opening, at either side of it. There are usually from four to six such -pockets on each side of the stage. Sometimes there is one at the back -of the stage, and one or more in the fly-gallery. Occasionally, also, -in houses served by alternating current, there are pockets served by -a small house generator, supplying direct current for the use of arc -lamps. In some theatres, also, there are pockets connected with storage -batteries, intended to supply an emergency service or for use with -lighting units of a voltage other than the usual 110 volts. The pockets -must, of course, be carefully insulated, and covered with a hinged iron -lid set flush with the floor. - -The movable lights are of two general types: flood lights, for general -diffused illumination, and lens lights, for concentrated, direct -“spotting.” Under the first heading may be classed all special lights -known, in stage parlance, as strips, floods, or bunches. Strips are -small troughs, fitted with from three to ten sockets, and are used -in lighting off-stage “backings,” set-pieces of scenery, and small -areas where a special accent of color or intensity is wanted. Bunches, -now largely obsolete, are hoods set on extension standards, fitted -with ten or twelve sockets each. These have been replaced by flood -lamps, burning 500 and 1,000-watt nitrogen-filled mazda bulbs. The -hoods of these flood lamps have diverging sides or are fitted with a -reflector behind the light, and have grooves at the front of the hood -for carrying color-frames. Formerly such lamps were equipped with arc -lights, but the nitrogen lamp has wholly displaced the arc in flood -lighting. Its advantages are that it does not require an attendant to -“feed” the light, that it can be dimmed, giving it range of intensity -to make up for decreased brilliance, and that it can be burned on -either direct or alternating current, without the annoying buzz of an -arc light burning alternating current. - -Spot lamps are mounted in closed iron hoods, emitting light from only -one end through a lens. The hoods, like those of flood lamps, are set -on extension standards, and can be tipped up or down and turned from -side to side. Arc spots are still in general use, as the thousand-watt -lamp is not sufficiently brilliant for use on large stages or for long -throws. In little theatres, however, the thousand-watt spot is bright -enough and has all the advantages over the arc that apply to the newer -type of flood lamp. For such small stages, the principal consideration -always should be centralized control, and it cannot be got with the arc -light. As incandescent, gas-filled bulbs of still higher standard are -developed, the arc spot will cease to be used, even in large theatres. - -There is also a small variant of the spot light, known as a “baby” -spotlight, burning a lamp of 150 or 250 watts. Used with care, this is -one of the most valuable stage lights we have for producing delicate -variations in light volume and color in particular areas of the stage. -These small lights may also be dimmed. - - * * * * * - -I have referred above to hanging hoods with thousand-watt lamps -for general illumination. Where these are not made a part of the -permanent lighting equipment of the theatre, they may be introduced -for special scenes and effects, being hung where desired, and massed -in such numbers and of such colors as needed. The hoods are equipped -with chains by which they may be hung upon pipe battens and tipped -as desired. They are plugged, like other movable lights, into floor -pockets or fly-gallery pockets. - -The color of light on the stage is obtained in three ways. Where lamps -of low standard (twenty-five or forty watts) are used, as in the foots -or borders, they may be coated with dyes, put up for the purpose, made -with a collodion base. The burning lamp is dipped into the liquid and -left alight until the dye coat has thoroughly dried and hardened. -Bulbs of high standard, however, cannot be dyed, as the dye does not -stand up under the intense heat generated by a lamp of one hundred or -more watts. As a matter of fact, few of the commercial dyes are wholly -satisfactory, even with smaller bulbs. The blues especially deteriorate -under heat, either fading or cracking, or burning to a purple or black. - -The rays of larger lamps, burned either in flood or spotlight hoods, -are colored with gelatine mediums, held before the light in frames -of proper size. The gelatine colors also fade under heat, and, being -very fragile, crack and tear, and must be frequently renewed. For -durability, the best color medium is a sheet of glass with the color -blown in. Unfortunately such glass is very costly, cannot be had in a -large range of colors, and is usually not as translucent as might be -wished. - -Mr. Munroe Pevear of Boston has made interesting experiments with -mediums of dyed glass. He manufactures his own dyes, and claims for -them a much longer life than the commercial variety enjoys. His mediums -are highly translucent, and are, of course, far more durable than the -gelatine mediums. He makes them, however, in only the three primary -colors, for his development of color screens has been ancillary to -experiments of a larger intent--the development of a synthetic lighting -system. - -The principle of his color system is simply the principle of the prism -inverted. The prism breaks white light up into its primaries. Mr. -Pevear unites the primaries to make white. By combining his red, green, -and blue light in varying degrees of each, he is able to obtain any -color in the spectrum. To pale out his lights to tints, he includes in -his border and footlight equipment a fourth circuit of white lights. -To my knowledge, only one theatre has been equipped by Mr. Pevear--the -Toy Theatre of Boston, now the Copley. But in the short-lived tenancy -of the house by the Toy Theatre Company there was never a whole-hearted -effort to test Mr. Pevear’s equipment. Experiments with synthetic -lighting have been conducted at various times and places by Sam Hume, -Norman Geddes, the present writer, and others. The results more than -reward the effort of such experiment, and I commend a study of its -possibilities to all workers in little theatres. - -In addition to the typical theatrical lighting units, other units, not -designed primarily for theatrical use, are being adopted. Foremost -among these are the reflectors of the X-Ray type. These are made in a -number of sizes and shapes, but are of two types, the whorled reflector -and the parabolic reflector. The first type gives a diffused light and -the second a concentrated beam. The X-Ray flood lamps, manufactured -for lighting the exteriors of buildings and for illuminating night -construction jobs, are coming to be used on the stage. They can be -focused, have a higher efficiency than a lens light burning the same -number of watts, and produce a more pleasant spot than the sharply -defined light-area of the conventional spot light, projecting a -brilliant ray, most intense at the center and fading toward the edges -of the field. There are a number of firms manufacturing lights of this -type, and they are now generally used for lighting outdoor pageants. -They are quite as valuable in the indoor theatre as on the pageant -field. - -I have used frequently, instead of baby spots of the regular type, -automobile windshield spots, burning a six-volt lamp. These cost -perhaps one-tenth as much as the regular type, and can be used on -a special circuit supplied with current either through a small -step-down transformer or from a storage battery, kept continually -charged by running current into it from a strip of carbon lights -wired in series-multiple. These windshield spots are usually equipped -with a swivel and trunnion mounting, so that they can be turned in -any direction, are focusable, and have a clamp by which they can -be fastened to pieces of scenery or upright pipe standards in the -proscenium entrance. - -Besides a goodly number of well-distributed stage pockets into which -movable lamps may be plugged, there should be points of vantage from -which lights may be cast, perches and bridges elevated above the level -of the stage. Most useful is a bridge across the stage, just inside -and above the proscenium. From this bridge, special flood and spot -lamps may be manipulated. Often perches are built out from the wall -at either side of the proscenium from which spots may be thrown down -to the stage. Occasionally these are movable structures with several -levels and can be wheeled to various points off stage. The fly-gallery, -also, is used for spot lighting. When a false proscenium is used, the -overhead bridge and side perches are sometimes built into the structure. - -In planning the lighting equipment for a small stage, all thought of -the usual theatre installation can be set aside. Border lights of the -old type are not useful enough to warrant the expenditure of the money -they cost. Footlights, too, though useful when no better means of front -lighting can be devised, can well be replaced by face-level lights -from the auditorium, concealed by wall traps or by the balcony rail, -or hidden in decorative coverings suspended, chandelier-like, from the -ceiling. The essentials for a flexible, adaptable lighting system are -centralization and delicacy of control, numerous and well-situated -current outlets, and as wide a variety as possible of movable lamps for -flooding and spotting. There should be enough circuits to allow the -use of a three- or four-color system, along the lines of the synthetic -system of Mr. Pevear, described above. Along with this there must be -facilities for throwing light from above the stage from bridges and -movable platforms. The only permanently installed piece of lighting -equipment that is absolutely necessary is the X-Ray border at the front -of the stage for the lighting of interior scenes. - -With a carefully planned switchboard and dimmer-bank, and numerous -pockets or current outlets, for the initial equipment, there is -hardly any limit to the development of the little theatre’s lighting -facilities, for if it must begin with only a few lighting units, it -can acquire more from time to time, and with each acquisition build up -its means of achieving beauty. And in this direction the most vital -contributions to the craft of the theatre are yet to be made. - -[Illustration: Figure 9--The permanent “scene” of the _Théâtre du -Vieux Colombier_. See page 74. (From _Album du Vieux Colombier_ by -Fauconnet.)] - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -STAGE MACHINERY AND SETTINGS - - -I have made mention earlier of the ingenuity so often demanded of -the little theatre stage director. The limitations of his stage -often compel him to an inventiveness different only in scale from -that displayed by the great German technicians of the theatre. No -Harvard student who ever shifted scenery for the Dramatic Club in -Brattle Hall can outgrow his enthusiasm for the feats achieved on -that absurd stage. At the Artists’ Guild in St. Louis, it gave us -unbounded glee to set the massive chamber of _The Queen’s Enemies_ on -the cramped stage there. To be confronted with deficiencies of one -sort or another--mechanical or fiscal--which must be overcome, is -unquestionably a spur to ambition. To struggle with material barriers, -space, time, physical means, and accomplish results in spite of them; -to wring beauty out of meagre cheesecloth and tinsel when there is no -money for silk and gold galloon, is a victory of sorts; and without the -fighting and winning of such battles as these, half our little theatres -might never have been, and much of their best work might not have been -done.[5] Practically all modern stage machinery has been devised to -heighten effects of nature, and therein it differs from the machinery -of the theatre of the greatest eras, which was devised to produce -effects _beyond_ nature. The Greeks and Elizabethans left Nature -strictly to herself, but had a fairly elaborate mechanical system by -which they exhibited gods, demons, ghosts, and visions. - -[5] NOTE.--I wish to qualify fundamentally my admiration for the -ingenuity of the mechanical features of the modern stage. In fact, -I do not believe they can advance the theatre one jot. They are -marvelously ingenious in denying the limitations of the stage and in -part triumphing over them. Yet I have a persistent feeling that the -recognition of the limitations and the acceptance of them is more -fundamental in the development of an art or craft than the denial of -them and the triumphing over them. Even such a triumph has its ultimate -boundaries, and when they have been reached, there is little to do but -acknowledge defeat. When matter has been twisted and beaten into the -cunningest perversions of its first form, the craftsman is still not -satisfied; for his spirit can soar to further reaches where none of the -elements can follow. This is truer of the theatre artist, perhaps, than -of any other, save the musician (who is, after all, a theatre artist). -The theatre has been, these many centuries, the theatre _because_ of -the limitations that encompass it, not in spite of them. Likewise is -the church (as a field of art) limited, and it is by merit of its -limitations that the church has been great. Utter _churchliness_ owes -little to the style of architecture of any specific church edifice. -And the transcendent theatre art of the Deutsches Theater in Berlin or -of the Art Theatre in Moscow does not hang upon the skill with which -the one has used a revolving stage or with which the other has devised -its scenery. The German theatres have to a remarkable degree increased -natural illusion in scenery and lighting; but in spite of that there -is about as much bad theatre art in Germany as good. Where greatness -is found, where the artist has most truly realized the function of the -theatre, it will be seen that his spirit has transcended utterly the -possibilities of his physical stage; and, like as not, he has made no -effort to strain the capacities of his medium, but has worked utterly -within them. One of the remarkable facts about the stage technique of -Robert Edmond Jones is that he demands nothing impossible to achieve. -His designs are easy to execute, and his scenery easy to handle. - -Here, again, is the dilemma which we faced in the discussion of the -approach to the stage lighting problem. There are limits to our -ability to reproduce on the stage the light effects of nature. But -there are practically no limits to the theatrical expressiveness of -light, regarded as a medium, _per se_. There are limits beyond which -mechanical skill or inventive genius cannot alter the obdurate confines -of the physical stage. But there are no heights to which a human -spirit, set in public upon a platform, however narrow and close-walled, -cannot rise. In view of this great spiritual fact, I would solemnly -warn any little theatre or community house that has money to spend -for modernity, not to spend it on the kind of advance stage machinery -discussed in this chapter, but to spend it on artists. - -One of the first mechanical improvements of our present-day stage was -the _drehbühne_, or revolving stage, invented by Herr Lautenschlager. -Its purpose is to move, without inordinate intermissions between acts, -scenery far heavier than men can handle. The cult for realism demanded -a greater plasticity in scenery, and consequent increase in mass -and structural complexity. The revolving stage is a great turntable -on which as many as six or seven scenes can be set at one time, and -revealed successively to an audience by revolving the table. The -scenery for the entire play is set up on the day of the performance, -and no shifting of scenes need be done during the progress of the play. - -The designing of scenery to fit the revolving stage, developed to its -highest point by Reinhardt, is so little understood in this country -that our few revolving stages are seldom used. The Century Theatre -stage in New York has a turntable, but I do not know of any instance -in which the scenery for an entire performance was set upon it. Mr. -Winthrop Ames had a revolving stage installed in his Little Theatre -in New York; but, as this stage is only thirty-five feet in diameter, -he found it inadequate for the setting of many of the scenes. Mr. -Harry Bishop, in building the Liberty and Fulton Theatres in Oakland, -California, constructed revolving stages of adequate size, but evaded -the problem of devising scenery especially for them by installing a -revolving gridiron also, so that the old-fashioned sky and foliage -borders could ride around the stage with the set to which they belong. -A little labor is saved in shifting scenes during performances, but I -doubt whether the saving equalizes the cost of installation of these -expensive devices. - -A device of similar intent is the sliding stage, a great wagon the -size of the stage opening--or, rather, two or three of them--run, as -desired, before the proscenium opening, and capable of being pushed -off, after being used, into houses at either side of the stage or -lowered to the basement, there to be reset for another scene. This -device avoids some of the limitations of the revolving stage, in that -scenes need not be made to articulate closely as they must in order -to fit the circular bounds of the turntable; but it is tremendously -costly, and requires a great stage space. - -There are other devices of like intent, such as the Asphalia stage, -built in transverse sections that can be raised and lowered on -hydraulic plungers, and Steele MacKaye’s elevator stage installed in -the old Madison Square Theatre, New York. None of these devices can -serve either the little theatre movement or the art of the theatre. -They are deadening, and divert effort from the true end of all -experiment and advance in the theatre. There is no doubt in my mind -that the sort of theatre that wants to be built is one in which the -machinery is reduced to a minimum,--efficient, controllable, but never -controlling the sort of work that must be done on the stage. In order -to have a modern, well-equipped stage, none of these innovations is -needed. - -Of far more purpose, for the modern theatre, are certain tendencies -now manifest that appear at first glance like reversions to an older -type of stage. I refer chiefly to such a stage as that built by M. -Jacques Copeau for his _Théâtre du Vieux Colombier_, which, for two -seasons, was a strange intruder among the more literal stages of New -York. Indeed, save for the use M. Copeau made of modern mechanical -flexibility, his stage was a first cousin to the Elizabethan stage, -though his arrival at its particular form was not a case of atavism but -a philosophic realization of the true limitations of the theatre. His -stage consisted of three parts: a fore-stage, reached from the rear -stage, or from the main floor of the auditorium by steps upward, or -from doors high in the walls flanking the proscenium, whence steps led -down to the stage level; second, the stage proper; and third, an upper -stage, or balcony, engirdling the main stage. This balcony and the -space below it might be variously shut off from the main portion of the -stage, by tapestries, lattices, screens, or sections of scenery, flat -or pierced with windows or doors. Steps could be variously placed to -give access to the balcony. - -Thus, without the use of strictly representative scenery, Copeau -had a stage which provided every facility for the presentation of -a play,--entrances, exits, and elevations. It gave scope to the -necessities of action and the agility of the actor. Such a construction -may be said to be as much scenic reform as reform in mechanics, except -that it largely renders the latter unnecessary. - -I should not deem it part of the purpose of this paper to mention -scenic matters at all, were it not that, very often, a certain amount -of scenery, like a certain amount of lighting equipment, “goes with -the building”. The contract for the building and its rigging often -specifies also a “garden”, “plain chamber number one”, and “fancy -parlor number three”, or the like. Whether they are thrown in or not, -without extra charge, they should be courteously but firmly refused. -They stunt the timid imagination, and somehow, perhaps because they are -“real” scenery, never get thrown away. - -For the scenic equipment of the stage I can do nothing better than -refer the reader to the permanent setting devised by Sam Hume for the -Detroit Arts and Crafts Theatre, of which he was for two seasons the -director. This setting consists of a certain number of interchangeable -units, flats, door pieces, window pieces, arches, and pylons.[6] Its -initial cost is low, far lower than that of several sets out of the -scene painter’s catalogue, and its usefulness infinitely greater. In -addition to this it has beauty. - -[6] Mr. Sheldon Cheney in his _The Art Theatre_ has fully described and -illustrated this set, showing the multiple variations it is capable of. - -It may be that the stage of the future is to be something quite -different than that we now have. As a theatre of truth supplants the -theatre of illusion, it may be found that the stage of to-day does not -answer at all. The theatre is undoubtedly in a transitional period and -artists are striving for new forms and new methods of presentation. -What directions these tendencies may take it is not the purpose of -this paper to forecast. Nor would it do to advise the adoption of a -type of stage not yet tested or of widespread use. Where there is -an experimental and creative attitude toward the theatre such types -will be evolved without any such rudimentary manual as this. Where a -manual is wanted, a stage should be built that can be used easily, -by everybody who wishes to use it, and which will give readily, in -return for effort spent upon it, a revenue of beauty. These pages will -achieve enough if they go a little way toward eliminating the usual -inept, difficult constructions that for these many years have cumbered -the way of folks, young and old, who wish to entertain themselves in -the theatre. More and more, they seek such entertainment at their own -hands. More and more, their efforts are being fostered by educational -bodies and organizations allied with the theatre. Such aid as this -pamphlet may bring them is hopefully dedicated to their service. - - - - -A SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY - - -HISTORICAL AND DESCRIPTIVE - -Martin Hammitzsch, _Der Moderne Theaterbau_ (Teil I). Berlin: E. -Wasmuth, 1905. -(This is perhaps the best book on the historical aspect, although only -the first volume has so far appeared.) - -Edwin O. Sachs and E. A. Woodward, _Modern Opera Houses and Theatres_. -3 volumes. London: B. T. Batsford. 1896-98. -(This monumental and very useful series is generally considered the -standard descriptive and technical work, but is now somewhat out of -date.) - -Edwin O. Sachs, _Stage Construction_. London: B. T. Batsford, 1898. (A -supplement to the above.) - -Manfred Semper, _Theater_. Stuttgart: Arnold Bergsträsser, 1904. -(Handbuch der Architektur, Teil 4, Halb-Band 6, Heft 5.) - -Roy C. Flickinger, _The Greek Theatre and Its Drama_. Chicago: The -University of Chicago Press, 1918. -(Contains the best summary of the conflicting views about the form of -the ancient theatre.) - -Arthur Elam Haigh, _The Attic Theatre_. Third Edition, revised. Oxford: -The Clarendon Press, 1907. -(A standard work on the Greek Theatre.) - -Brander Matthews, _A Study of the Drama_. Boston: Houghton Mifflin -Company, 1910. -(Chapter III treats of the form of the theatre in relation to the forms -of drama.) - -William Harvey Birkmire, _The Planning and Construction of American -Theatres_. New York: J. Wiley and Sons, 1896. -(Contains many plans and descriptions of the older American theatres.) - -Max Littmann, _Das Münchner Künstlertheater_. Munich: I. Werner, 1908. -(A monograph describing one of the best small theatres in Europe, fully -illustrated with plans and photographs.) - -Julius Bab, _Die Volksbühne in Berlin_. Berlin: E. Wasmuth, 1919. -(Describes and illustrates one of the best large buildings of the -“people’s theatre” type.) - -Max Littmann, _Die Königlichen Hoftheater in Stuttgart_. Darmstadt: A. -Koch, 1912. -(Describes and illustrates an excellent example of the institutional or -“court” playhouse, in a building containing two complete theatres.) - - -TECHNICAL - -Edward Bernard Kinsila, _Modern Theatre Construction_. New York: The -Moving Picture World, 1917. - -Arthur S. Meloy, _Theatres and Motion Picture Houses_. New York: -Architects’ Supply and Publishing Company, 1916. - -William Paul Gerhard, _Theatres: Their Safety from Fire and Panic, -Their Comfort and Healthfulness_. New York: Baker and Taylor, 1915. - -Arthur Edwin Krews, _Play Production in America_. New York: Henry Holt -and Company, 1916. -(Contains brief but comprehensive chapters on stage machinery, -lighting, and other technical matters.) - -_Bühnen Beleuchtung System Fortuny._ -(Describes the important Fortuny lighting system.) - - -SCENERY - -Edward Gordon Craig, _Towards a New Theatre: Forty Designs for Stage -Scenes_. New York: E. P. Dutton and Company, 1913. - -Jacques Rouché, _L’Art Théâtrale Moderne_. Paris: Edouard Cornély & -Cie., 1910. - -Sheldon Cheney, _The Art Theatre_. New York: Alfred Knopf, 1917. - -Hiram Kelly Moderwell, _The Theatre of To-Day_. New York: John Lane -Company, 1914. - -_Theatre Arts Magazine._ 1916 to date. -(Contains several hundred illustrations of stage settings, stage plans, -etc.) - - - - -THEATRE ARTS MAGAZINE - -_An Illustrated Quarterly_ - -Subscription price, $2.00 a year - -BACK NUMBERS - -containing articles, plays and sketches by - - - Gordon Craig - Lee Simonson - W. B. Yeats - Robert E. Jones - Gilbert Cannan - Stark Young - Walter Prichard Eaton - Susan Glaspell - Eugene O’Neill - Sam Hume - Arthur Hopkins - Rollo Peters - Zoe Atkins - John Drinkwater - - -PRICES--UNBOUND--POSTPAID - -Volumes I-IV (complete), $20.00; Volume II, $3.00; Volume IV, $4.00. -(Volumes I and III sold only with complete sets). All issues except -those for February and May 1917, May 1918, October 1919, January and -October 1920, can still be had singly at 75 cents. - - -SPECIAL: Volume I-IV, bound, $25.00. - -THEATRE ARTS MAGAZINE - - - - - Transcriber’s Notes: - - Variations in spelling and hyphenation are retained. - - Perceived typographical errors have been changed. - - - - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ON BUILDING A THEATRE *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm -concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, -and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following -the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use -of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for -copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very -easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as creation -of derivative works, reports, performances and research. Project -Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given away--you may -do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks not protected -by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark -license, especially commercial redistribution. - -START: FULL LICENSE - -THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE -PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK - -To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full -Project Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at -www.gutenberg.org/license. - -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works - -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or -destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your -possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a -Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound -by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the -person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph -1.E.8. - -1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this -agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below. - -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the -Foundation" or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection -of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual -works in the collection are in the public domain in the United -States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the -United States and you are located in the United States, we do not -claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, -displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as -all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope -that you will support the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting -free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm -works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the -Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with the work. You can easily -comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the -same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg-tm License when -you share it without charge with others. - -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are -in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, -check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this -agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, -distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any -other Project Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no -representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any -country other than the United States. - -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: - -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other -immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear -prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work -on which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the -phrase "Project Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, -performed, viewed, copied or distributed: - - This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and - most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no - restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it - under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this - eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the - United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where - you are located before using this eBook. - -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is -derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not -contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the -copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in -the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are -redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply -either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or -obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg-tm -trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any -additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms -will be linked to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works -posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the -beginning of this work. - -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. - -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg-tm License. - -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including -any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access -to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format -other than "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official -version posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm website -(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense -to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means -of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original "Plain -Vanilla ASCII" or other form. Any alternate format must include the -full Project Gutenberg-tm License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. - -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -provided that: - -* You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed - to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he has - agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid - within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are - legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty - payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in - Section 4, "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg - Literary Archive Foundation." - -* You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm - License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all - copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue - all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg-tm - works. - -* You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of - any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of - receipt of the work. - -* You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work or group of works on different terms than -are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing -from the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of -the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the Foundation as set -forth in Section 3 below. - -1.F. - -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project -Gutenberg-tm collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may -contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate -or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other -intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or -other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or -cannot be read by your equipment. - -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right -of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. - -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium -with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you -with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in -lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person -or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second -opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If -the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing -without further opportunities to fix the problem. - -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO -OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT -LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. - -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of -damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement -violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the -agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or -limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or -unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the -remaining provisions. - -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in -accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the -production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, -including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of -the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this -or any Project Gutenberg-tm work, (b) alteration, modification, or -additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any -Defect you cause. - -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm - -Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of -computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It -exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations -from people in all walks of life. - -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future -generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see -Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at -www.gutenberg.org - -Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation - -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by -U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. - -The Foundation's business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, -Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up -to date contact information can be found at the Foundation's website -and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact - -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation - -Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without -widespread public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. - -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND -DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular -state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate - -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. - -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. - -Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To -donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate - -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works - -Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project -Gutenberg-tm concept of a library of electronic works that could be -freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and -distributed Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of -volunteer support. - -Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in -the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not -necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper -edition. - -Most people start at our website which has the main PG search -facility: www.gutenberg.org - -This website includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. diff --git a/old/67752-0.zip b/old/67752-0.zip Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 6a9b5c6..0000000 --- a/old/67752-0.zip +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67752-h.zip b/old/67752-h.zip Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 9ee98a0..0000000 --- a/old/67752-h.zip +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67752-h/67752-h.htm b/old/67752-h/67752-h.htm deleted file mode 100644 index 39c4087..0000000 --- a/old/67752-h/67752-h.htm +++ /dev/null @@ -1,3522 +0,0 @@ -<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" - "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> -<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> - <head> - <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=utf-8" /> - <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> - <title> - On Building a Theatre, by Irving Pichel—A Project Gutenberg eBook - </title> - <link rel="coverpage" href="images/cover.jpg" /> - <style type="text/css"> - -body { - margin-left: 10%; - margin-right: 10%; -} - - h1,h2 { - text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ - clear: both; -} - -h1 { - font-weight: normal; - font-size: 300%; - margin-top: 2em; - margin-bottom: 1em; - word-spacing: 0.2em; - } - -h2 {font-weight: normal;} - -p { - margin-top: .51em; - text-align: justify; - margin-bottom: .49em; -} - -.p2 {margin-top: 2em;} -.p3 {margin-top: 3em;} -.p4 {margin-top: 4em;} -.p6 {margin-top: 6em;} - -hr { - width: 33%; - margin-top: 2em; - margin-bottom: 2em; - margin-left: 33.5%; - margin-right: 33.5%; - clear: both; -} - - -hr.full {width: 95%; margin-left: 2.5%; margin-right: 2.5%;} - -hr.r5 {width: 5%; margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 47.5%; margin-right: 47.5%;} - - -div.chapter {page-break-before: always;} -h2.nobreak {page-break-before: avoid;} - - -table { - margin-left: auto; - margin-right: auto; -} - -.bdr { - margin-left: auto; - margin-right: auto; - border-collapse: collapse; -} - - -.tdl {text-align: left;} -.tdr {text-align: right;} -.tdc {text-align: center;} -.tdrt {text-align: right; - vertical-align: top;} - -.pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ - /* visibility: hidden; */ - position: absolute; - left: 92%; - font-size: smaller; - text-align: right; - font-style: normal; - font-weight: normal; - font-variant: normal; -} /* page numbers */ - - - -.blockquot { - margin-left: 5%; - margin-right: 10%; - font-size: 0.9em; -} - - - - -.big {font-size: 230%;} -.xlarge {font-size: 140%;} -.large {font-size: 120%;} -.more {font-size: 80%;} - -.c {text-align: center;} - -.caption {margin: 4em 0 2em 50%; - font-size: 70%;} - -.caption1 {margin: 4em 0 2em 60%; - font-size: 70%;} - -.caption2 {text-align: center; - font-size: 70%;} - -.caption3 { - font-size: 70%; - margin-right: 15%; - margin-left: 15%;} - -.caption4 {margin: 4em 10% 2em 40%; - font-size: 70%;} - -.caption5 { - font-size: 70%; - margin-right: 20%; - margin-left: 20%;} - -.caption6 {margin: 4em 0% 2em 72%; - font-size: 70%;} - -.sp {word-spacing: 0.2em;} - -.lsp {line-height: 1.5em;} - - -.ph2 {text-align: center; text-indent: 0em; - font-size: 160%; - margin-top: 3em;} - -.pad {padding-left: 2em;} - -.gtb {letter-spacing: 3em; - font-size: 130%; - text-align: center; - margin-right: -2em; - font-weight: bold;} - -.hang { - text-indent: -2em; - padding-left: 2em; -} - -.ad {margin-right: 20%; - margin-left: 20%;} - -.bb {border-bottom: 2px solid;} - -.bl {border-left: 2px solid;} - -.bt {border-top: 2px solid;} - -.br {border-right: 2px solid;} - -.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} - - - -.gesperrt -{ - letter-spacing: 0.2em; - margin-right: -0.2em; -} - - - -/* Images */ - -img { - max-width: 100%; - height: auto; -} - - - -.figcenter { - margin: auto; - text-align: center; - page-break-inside: avoid; - max-width: 100%; -} - -.figcenter1 { - padding-top: 4em; - margin: auto; - text-align: center; - page-break-inside: avoid; - max-width: 100%; -} - - - -/* Footnotes */ - - -.footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} - -.footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} - -.fnanchor { - vertical-align: super; - font-size: .8em; - text-decoration: - none; -} - - -@media handheld { - .pagenum {visibility: hidden; display: none;} -} - -/* Transcriber's notes */ -.transnote {background-color: #E6E6FA; - color: black; - font-size:smaller; - padding:0.5em; - margin-bottom:5em; - font-family:sans-serif, serif; } - - </style> - </head> -<body> -<p style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of On building a theatre, by Irving Pichel</p> -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: On building a theatre</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:0; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:1em;'>Stage construction and equipment for small theatres, schools and community</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Irving Pichel</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: April 1, 2022 [eBook #67752]</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p> - <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: Alan, Charlene Taylor and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)</p> -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ON BUILDING A THEATRE ***</div> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/cover.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - - -<p class="c p4">THEATRE ARTS MONOGRAPHS. No. 1</p> - -<div class="figcenter1" id="fr"> -<img src="images/fig1.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Façade and entrance of the Beechwood Theatre and<br /> -Scarborough School, Scarborough, New York. Welles<br /> -Bosworth, Architect. (Photograph by Arnold Genthe.)</p> -</div> - - -<h1> -ON BUILDING A<br /> -THEATRE</h1> - - -<p class="c sp lsp"> -STAGE CONSTRUCTION AND EQUIPMENT<br /> -FOR SMALL THEATRES, SCHOOLS<br /> -AND COMMUNITY BUILDINGS</p> - -<p class="c more p4"> -BY</p> - -<p class="c sp xlarge"> -IRVING PICHEL -</p> - -<div class="figcenter1"> -<img src="images/fig2.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - - -<p class="c p6 sp lsp large"> -NEW YORK<br /> -THEATRE ARTS <span class="smcap">Inc.</span><br /> -<span class="gesperrt">1920</span> -</p> - - -<p class="c more p2">Copyright 1920 by <span class="smcap">Theatre Arts</span>, Inc.</p> - - -<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<p class="ph2">CONTENTS</p> -</div> - -<table class="large" summary="chapters"> - -<tr><td class="tdr"></td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap"><a href="#d1">Introduction</a></span></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdrt"><a href="#c1">I.</a></td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Architectural Tradition in the Theatre:<br /> - <span class="pad">The Auditorium</span></span></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdr"><a href="#c2">II.</a></td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Stage Plan</span></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdr"><a href="#c3">III.</a></td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Provision for Back-stage Workers</span></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdr"><a href="#c4">IV.</a></td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Equipment of the Stage</span></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdr"><a href="#c5">V.</a></td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Stage Lighting</span></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdr"><a href="#c6">VI.</a></td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Stage Machinery and Settings</span></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdr"></td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap"><a href="#c7">Bibliography</a></span></td></tr> - -</table> - -<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p class="ph2">LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</p> -</div> - -<table class="large" summary="pics"> - -<tr><td class="tdl">Entrance of the Beechwood Theatre</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fr"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl">Stage of the <i>Teatro Farnese</i> at Parma</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f3">15</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl">Sketch of an Elizabethan Theatre</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f4">16</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl">Interior of the Little Theatre, New York</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f9">25</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl">Exterior of the Little Theatre, New York</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f10">26</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl">The Munich Art Theatre</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f16">39</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl">Exterior of the Munich Art Theatre</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f17">40</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl">Section of the Munich Art Theatre</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f18">41</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl">Auditorium of the Munich Art Theatre</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f19">42</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl">The Arts and Crafts Theatre, Detroit</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f20">55</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl">The Carnegie Institute Theatre, Pittsburgh</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f21">56</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl">The Neighborhood Playhouse, New York</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f22">65</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl">The Artist’s Guild Theatre, St. Louis</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f23">66</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl"></td> - <td class="tdr"></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl"></td> - <td class="tdr"></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Illustrations in the Text</span>—</td> - <td class="tdr"></td></tr> - -</table> - -<table class="large" summary="textpics"> - -<tr><td class="tdr">1.</td> - <td class="tdl">Plan of the <i>Teatro Olympico</i> at Vicenza</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f5">19</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdr">2.</td> - <td class="tdl">Plans of the Berlin <i>Volksbühne</i></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f6">20</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdr">3.</td> - <td class="tdl">Plan and section of the Little Theatre, New York</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f7">22</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdr">4.</td> - <td class="tdl">Plan of the Carnegie Institute Theatre, Pittsburgh</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f11">28</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdr">5.</td> - <td class="tdl">First-floor plan of the Munich Art Theatre</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f12">30</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdr">6.</td> - <td class="tdl">Second-floor plan and section of the Munich Art Theatre </td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f13">31</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdr">7.</td> - <td class="tdl">Plan of the 39th Street Theatre, New York</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f14">35</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdr">8.</td> - <td class="tdl">Plan of the Beechwood Theatre</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f15">37</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdr">9.</td> - <td class="tdl">Stage of the <i>Théâtre du Vieux Colombier</i></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f24">71</a></td></tr> - -</table> - -<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="d1">INTRODUCTION</h2> -</div> - - -<p><span class="smcap">Architectural</span> ineptitudes are more likely to be perpetuated and -in time condoned than those in any other art. Generally speaking, -a bad painting is scrapped, poor music remains unpublished and -unplayed (along with much good music, no doubt), and bad -books, after a time, cease to be read. But a building is somehow -inescapable. Having a durability that needs no treasuring, and -being erected more often for use than for beauty, a building -generally achieves longevity, and the bad art crumbles no sooner -than the good stone. Usefulness, great initial cost, sturdy stuff, -are all against a building’s being put out of the way merely -because it is ugly. Or even, as a matter of fact, because it does -not successfully serve the purpose for which it was erected.</p> - -<p>As people live in a house, or work, day after day, in a store or -factory or public building, they become used to inconveniences, -bad arrangement, and lack of proper facilities. They complain -for a time, perhaps, and then forget. And after a while, when -the house has become home, or the large building has gathered -tradition, a sort of admiration settles upon it. What is really -plain ugly or wrong or bad appears quaint and full of “atmosphere.” -And is imitated. Style and tradition embalm the very -features that make the building a bad building.</p> - -<p>In the theatre, this perpetuation of musty, tradition-hallowed -faults of construction has been carried to an extraordinary extreme. -There is more ritual, one might believe, in constructing -a stage and auditorium in accordance with honored custom than -there is in the building of a church. In the more modern theatres, -there have been notable improvements over the theatres of a generation -ago; but in the auditoriums and stages of schools, clubs -and societies, and in other public or semi-public buildings in which -such facilities are included as a sort of side issue, the ancient law -is observed. The average high school stage seems to be inspired -by the faint recollection of a visit to the theatre, supplemented by -the examination of old prints illustrating the stage of Inigo Jones.</p> - -<p class="gtb">******</p> - -<p>To-day, by a concerted movement throughout the country, hundreds -of community houses are being planned as war memorials. -These buildings are designed to include facilities for all the social -and recreational interests of the communities they will serve.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</span> -Practically all of them will include stages and auditoriums. At -the same time, hundreds of new school buildings are being -planned, and these, too, will have stages intended to be useful for -dramatic productions. But unless architects have at their disposal -much more technical knowledge of the producers’ requirements -than in the past, it is certain that most of these auditoriums and -stages will be bad—as are the auditoriums and stages in most -existing schools. It is to forestall some of the common mistakes -that this paper has been prepared—to describe them in detail, and -to set up against them the ideal features toward which the -designers of such structures should strive.</p> - -<p>I believe that the memorial halls are destined to play so large -a part in community life that they must have removed from -them every obstacle to their fullest usefulness. In every community -of moderate size and culture there is a releasing to-day of -dramatic impulse, and folks turn more and more toward the -theatre as a mode of group expression. The Little Theatre -movement, with its eighty-five or more centers renewing their -life, now that the war is over, is an evidence of the birth of a -new theatre in this country. Innumerable community pageants -and masques are an indication that people turn to the drama as -a means of expressing their corporate æsthetic. The production -of worthy plays by schools and colleges, the interest such institutions -are showing in the writing of plays and in the fostering -of an indigenous drama, the widespread discussion of the drama -and the theatre by clubs, reading circles and drama leagues, all -are portents of a theatre that shall be a vital and integral part of -our daily community life. And at the very moment these words -are being written, the commercial theatre that has so long held -the arena is being convulsed by a revolution that may mean -nothing short of its eventual extinction. The system of wholesale -manufacture and distribution of theatre products is on the -wane, and the theatre as an art, as a social institution of the -rank and significance of the school or the church, may soon -have the field to itself. Hourly, in the little theatres, in community -drama undertakings, in the municipal theatres, in the -classrooms and the clubs, and on the school stages, the new -theatre is growing up.</p> - -<p>One of the finest services that the memorial community house -can render is to provide a home for the dramatic impulse of the -community—not a makeshift home, but one worthy of the fine -art of the drama and the fine craft of the theatre. It does not<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</span> -matter whether or not the building is to be large and pretentious -or small and inexpensive; but it matters that it should be fitted -to the least detail to fulfill its function efficiently and beautifully.</p> - -<p>I do not write these pages as an architect or as an instructor -of architects, but as one knowing fairly well the conditions which -a stage has to meet when it is used for dramatic representations -of any sort. In the course of a rather varied experience in the -theatre—amateur and professional, little and big, commercial and -“art”—I have encountered practically all the mistakes that are -made in stage construction. I have found them to be of two -sorts: mistakes of imitation, and mistakes of ingenuity.</p> - -<p>The first type of mistake is easy enough to account for. -Usually, the auditoriums and stages of schools have been intended -primarily for use as “chapels” or assembly halls. There has been -a feeling on the part of school authorities that the dramatic -instinct is in some way unwholesome and that its expression -should be discouraged. As often as not the design of the school -stage has been a conspiracy to thwart its growth. The attitude -of the authorities has recently changed somewhat, but with the -change has come very little more intelligence in the matter. -Where, before, they were careful to obstruct, they are now merely -negligent, leaving the architect to his own devices. The proceeding -is very much at random, and experts are rarely consulted. -It is not wholly the architect’s fault that he builds as he does. -Opportunities to build stages are not frequent; he knows more -about building them than using them, and the models he follows -have not been often enough refreshed by the innovations -of theatre experts. His patterns are largely outmoded. In -the largest high school in one of the greatest midwestern -cities, I have seen a stage built no more than five years ago in -which is exemplified almost every stage feature of the civil war -period—a vast curved apron, grooves for wings, and a stage floor -sloping from the back wall toward the footlights. In addition, -there are one or two mistakes peculiar to high schools,—notably -the omission of an entrance to the stage, save on one side.</p> - -<p>The other type of error which one encounters is usually made -by a clever man who has observed the more modern practices in -building large theatres and attempts to adapt them to a space -utterly inadequate or wrongly shaped for the purpose. Usually -he cramps his space hopelessly and renders it even less useful for -its purpose than it might have been had no such ingenuity been -displayed. The finely equipped stage of the Artists’ Guild Theatre -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</span>in St. Louis is an admirable replica in little of a fully equipped -stage of the commercial theatre. But the stagehouse is so small -that the fly gallery at the left and the paint bridge at the back are -a constant embarrassment. The stage would have been more -workable if these devices had not been employed.</p> - -<p>These errors of construction, after all, indicate but one thing—that -the stage has been regarded as a characteristic type of structure, -to be built according to established rules, rather than as a -place designed to fulfill a peculiar function. A stage is a space -on which a dramatic action is to be revealed before an audience. -Whatever the space at the builder’s disposal—its size or shape—or -whatever the building he must remodel, that is the only thing -to be considered. A play is to be given. The players must be -seen and heard. There must be means for them to enter the presence -of the audience, and exit. The space on which they appear -must be illuminated. Somehow the space set aside for the player -shall be able to suggest, either by means of scenery as it is commonly -understood, or by some conventional arrangement, permanent -or variable, a world in which the character he portrays -might move.</p> - -<p>Beginning with this much specification and no more, I propose -to work out with some definiteness the principles underlying the -construction of an ideal stage and the relation of the auditorium -to it, bearing in mind all the while the fact that many of the -stages in the War Memorial Buildings and little theatres are to -be small, that large sums cannot always be spent on them, and -that they must in most cases serve a variety of purposes.</p> - -<p>If we remember always the function our stage is to fulfill, we -have two good sources from which to draw practical details for -its construction, and a third source, debatable but interesting. -First, there are the errors which I have referred to. Some of -these I shall discuss in detail in the next chapter. Then, most -valuable of all sources, are the conclusions to be drawn from the -practice of the most skilled architects and artists of the theatre. -And finally, to be considered briefly, there are speculations as -to the demands which the drama of the future may make on -the theatre,—demands that can be forecasted inaccurately at -best, but deserving a glance, perhaps, if only to call attention to -the certainty that such demands will be made.</p> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak p3 sp" id="c1">CHAPTER I.</h2> -</div> - -<p class="c">ARCHITECTURAL TRADITION IN THE THEATRE:<br /> -THE AUDITORIUM</p> - - -<p><span class="smcap">There</span> are, of course, other types of auditorium and platform -than that of the theatre. Churches, lecture halls, and the -chambers of legislative assemblies are planned with the same -general end of making a person or persons at one part of the -room audible and visible to many persons gathered in another -part. The ready defense of much bad planning in school auditoriums -is that they were not modelled after theatres but after -one of these other forms. To-day this will not serve as a defense. -Interest in the drama is too widespread, and recognition -of the social potency of the theatre is too general. And whereas -none of these other forms of audience chamber meets the needs -of the theatre, a well-planned theatre can serve any use to which -a gathered community may care to put it.</p> - -<p>The rocks which threaten disaster to our intent to devise a -room which may serve as theatre, assembly hall, chapel, or -whatever, are, if we go to beginnings, the traditional form of the -theatre and its traditional <i>décor</i>. In the latter, time has wrought -many changes. It was once felt that a theatre was not a -theatre if it was not adorned with a wealth of gilded cupids, -masks, tambours, and daggers, surrounded by stucco wreaths -and garlands in high relief, and interspaced with pictured panels -of the muses, especially those most at home in a playhouse. -And, indeed, about those old houses, their garishness now mellowed, -there is a glamor peculiarly of the theatre, and a sweet -mustiness in the air bespeaking audiences of perfumed ladies, -long since dead, the grease-paint and pomade of a long line of -players, old scenery, the fine fustian of the old plays. It is -somewhat like the odor in a garret stored with the treasures of -our grandparents, or the mustiness of an old book. But these -are faded flowers that cannot be brought to life, and the theatre -of to-day, its plays and its players, are moved by a different -spirit. Whatever lure these tinselly old temples have is a reminiscent -one. To-day, there may be found theatres with the -simplicity and peace of a church, the unobtrusive luxury of the -drawing-room, and even, by overshooting the mark of simplicity, -the bareness of the lecture-room or the legislative chamber.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</span></p> - -<p>The greater sincerity that has come into the theatre, and that -fear of romance that marks the first decade or more of the -Twentieth Century, did much to overcome traditional over-elaboration. -There has come, too, a marked freedom from -tradition in the planning of the usual large show-houses. The -more modern theatres are, for the most part, free from those -glaring structural ineptitudes that several centuries of custom -had imposed. In Germany especially (the traditional form of -the theatre did not develop there), great progress has been made, -and the theatres of such architects as Max Littmann and Oskar -Kaufmann serve as models. Stage machinery in Germany has -been brought to a point of perfection not yet reached in any -other country. Lautenschlager, Brandt, and Fortuny (a Spaniard) -have contributed inventions that have only occasionally -been experimented with in this country, and then somewhat -half-heartedly.</p> - -<p>Tradition clings close to its native heath, nevertheless, and -in England, to which America looks first, perhaps, and in the -Latin countries, it has enough vitality still to be a source of -danger. It may be worth while to scan the history of the -tradition, especially from the “front of the house”, before we -consider the stage itself. For it is from here that the gravest -criticism against a stage can be made,—that it is not easily -visible from all parts of the house.<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[1]</a> I shall not consider it expedient, in any part of this discussion, to go into -questions of engineering detail. It is assumed that the architect is equipped -or will equip himself with such technical knowledge. Nor shall I refer to -structural modifications brought about by the regulations of Boards of Fire -Underwriters. These matters have been treated more or less efficiently in -several other works, to which reference will be found in the Appendix.</p> - -</div> - -<p>The form of the stage and the manner in which it has been -used have, throughout the history of the theatre, been the -primary factors in determining the shape of the auditorium. -The Greek theatre was devoted to a ceremonial drama in honor -of Dionysus, acted about an altar erected to him. So the stage -took the form of a circular space with an altar in the center. -The seating was arranged in concentric tiers, with the altar as -a center, and more than half surrounded the stage space or -orchestra. Tangent to this circle, and perpendicular to a line -drawn through the center of the seating space, was built the -skene, or back scene. At first, this was merely a dressing tent; -later it was a wall, of wood or stone, masking the dressing-rooms -of the actors. It was pierced with doors, giving access to the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</span>stage before it, and served as the palace, temple, or city wall, -in front of which the scene of the play was laid. There is no -satisfactory evidence that it gave on to a raised space conforming -to the later stage platform. Chorus and actors were on the -ground level of the orchestra. All the seats being raised, the -spectator looked down upon the action of the play, and all the -seats were set on radial lines drawn from the altar or center of -the orchestra.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="f3"> -<img src="images/fig3.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption1">Stage of the <i>Teatro Farnese</i> at Parma, Italy. An<br /> -example of the picture-frame stage set into the<br /> -plastic stage of an antique theatre. See page 18.<br /> -(From Hammitzsch’s <i>Der Moderne Theaterbau</i>.)</p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter1" id="f4"> -<img src="images/fig4.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Contemporary sketch of an Elizabethan Theatre.<br /> -(From Caffin’s <i>Appreciation of the Drama</i>.)</p> -</div> - -<p>In the Roman theatre, a number of radical changes are to be -noted. The large orchestra is no longer needed for a chorus, and -the space is cut to a semicircle, in which are placed the chairs -of the Senators. Since spectators are now on the ground level, -the actors must be raised, and the stage becomes a long, shallow -platform, beginning at the diameter of the circle. Raised tiers -of seats, as in the Greek theatre, surround the semicircular -ground space. At the back of the stage is a wall, or <i>scæna</i>, which -also closes in each side of the stage, meeting the seats at the -diameter ends. It is built to the height of the uppermost tier of -seats. Since the stage extended almost the whole width of the -seating, and was raised above the ground, sight lines were ideal.</p> - -<p>Between the fall of the Roman Empire and the revival of -classic learning in Italy, the theatre had no settled home. -The drama went through various vicissitudes, took on new functions, -expressed itself in new forms. The mediæval theatre of -mysteries and miracles, after it had become secularized, went -forth from the chancel of the church, and became a vagrant and -an opportunist. It set up its paraphernalia in the public square, -in the inn-yard, in the guild hall. For the most part, it was a -daylight, outdoor recreation, with no fixed home, and no such -special ceremonial functions as in the Greek and Roman state. -It was proletarian, distinctly. With the Renaissance, in addition -to the popular itinerant theatre of the people, there were two -new manifestations. The humanists, in their academies, revived -the Roman comedies of Plautus and Terence; the courts of the -ruling families of the free cities became the scenes of magnificent -productions of masques, pageants, “triumphs” and fêtes. -These were usually allegories based on classic mythology or on -ancient history, but presented largely in the form and manner -of the popular drama of the time. To the presentation of the -court fêtes, the greatest artists,—Bramante, Leonardo da Vinci, -Giulio Romano, etc.,—brought their talents. They were given in -the gardens of the palaces at night, illuminated by flares and fireworks. -The “pageant” or wheeled stage of the mediæval popular<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</span> -drama, was used for the display of some large piece of decoration -or machinery. As early as 1491, however, at Perugia, the -first indoor performances were given. The stage went through -various modifications, still keeping its resemblance to the stage -of the mediæval drama, until one invention enforced the most -radical development that had yet taken place,—perspective -scenery. Hammitzsch<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> traces the invention of scenery in painted -perspective to Bramante’s decoration of the sacristy of the -Church of San Satiro in Milan. The wall painting represents -in perspective an extended vista of the sacristy, in an attempt -to make it appear larger. The modern counterpart is the -mirrored restaurant. It is certain, at all events, that Peruzzi -employed such scenery in dramatic representations in Rome before -1510. With these painted prospects came a variety of -changes in the arrangements of the rooms in which the masques -were given; the stage became more a place apart; it was set at -the end of the room rather than along the sides, that the effect -of distance produced by the painted prospects might be enhanced, -and the proscenium frame enclosed it. However, when -the theatre as a building designed specifically for the presentation -of plays came into being, the form of auditorium was not -so thoughtfully adapted to this new type of stage as had been -the case with the ancient theatres. For it was to them that -architects turned for models for the auditorium, though the stage -was no longer the stage that went with the amphitheatre form -of seating.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">[2]</a> Hammitzsch, <i>Der Moderne Theaterbau</i>, I. Teil, p. 11.</p> - -</div> - -<p>The theatre of the Academy of Olympians at Vicenza, begun -in 1580 by the architect Palladio and completed in 1584 by his -son Scillo (Fig. 1), is practically a Roman theatre roofed over, -and equipped with a stage that compromises with the stage then -in mode. It has a sloping floor (to increase the effect of the -perspective) and alleys of scenery giving off each entranceway -in the stage wall.</p> - -<p>The Teatro Farnese in Parma, completed in 1619 by Aleotti, -is the first modern theatre. In it appear theatre features that -have come down to our own day,—the elongation of the amphitheatre -auditorium into the horseshoe form, and a stage completely -separated from the auditorium and equipped not only to -handle the new scenery but to manipulate it quickly, so that -changes of scene might be effected in the presence of the -audience. In this theatre, Aleotti not only broke away from<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</span> -the classic stage but also from the multiple setting of the mediæval -stage and definitely introduced the modern form of picture -stage. Less completely did he break away from the classic -seating, but he modified it somewhat to meet new conditions.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="f5"> -<img src="images/fig5.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption2">Figure 1—Plan of the <i>Teatro Olympico</i>, Vicenza.</p> -</div> - -<p>With Aleotti passed the period of primitive experiment with -a new instrument. From his day until very recent years, there -was to be no marked change, except the introduction of balconies, -a feature already anticipated in the theatres of other -countries and soon employed in Italy, and the further accentuation -of the horseshoe form. The old circle plan became an -ellipse, and still later, as the side balconies were brought in -closer to the stage, an oval.</p> - -<p>In England, very much the same history was enacted. The -old English miracle and mystery gave the theatre its platform -stage, but the imitations of Latin comedy first gave it a permanent -home.</p> - -<p>Public performances of university-made imitations of Roman -comedy were common during the reign of Edward the Sixth, and -during the reign of Elizabeth (1558-1603) seventeen professional -theatres were licensed for the exhibition of contemporary plays. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</span>In something like sixty years, the English drama and the -English theatre had grown from crude beginnings to the highest -point they have yet reached. And it was by professional companies -of actors presenting dramas and not by the court or academic -presentations, that the theatre was first given form. These companies, -like the craftsmen bands of miracle and mystery players,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</span> -acted wherever they could find a place or wherever they were -bidden,—at court, in great halls, in the provinces, in the church -or the moot hall or the inn, and in London, in the inn-yard or -bear pit. It was the inn-yard that was most used and had the -greatest influence on the form of the playhouse.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="f6"> -<img src="images/fig6.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption3">Figure 2—Plans of the theatre just completed in Berlin for the Berliner -Volksbühne. The form of the auditorium is typical of the latest practice in continental -and American theatre design (see <a href="#Page_27">page 27</a>). The large amount of stage -space, in proportion to the auditorium, however, is unfortunately not typical -of American theatres. The second-floor plan is included to illustrate the general -arrangement rather than to show the balcony form, which is neither typical -nor particularly good.</p> -</div> - -<p>The inns were usually built in the form of a hollow square. -A small passage gave access to the inner court, which was -surrounded by galleries. The stage would be erected at the end -of the court opposite the entrance, and spectators stood on the -level ground of the yard or found seats in the galleries. The -bear pits or bull rings were usually circular buildings with several -galleries similar to those of the inn-yards.</p> - -<p>The earliest theatres, built about 1576, were round in shape, -with these characteristic galleries. They seem to have been used -interchangeably for theatrical performances and for bear-baiting. -The centers were open to the sky, like the inn-yards, and only -the galleries and part of the stage were roofed. The stages projected -into the center, and could be viewed, both by spectators -on the ground and by those in the galleries, from three sides. -The only contemporary drawing of the Elizabethan stage is that -of Johannes De Witt of the University of Utrecht, who visited -London in 1596. His drawing of the Swan Theatre differs in -many details from the specifications of the contract, but it gives -a general idea of the form of auditorium and stage. With the -building of these theatres,—The Theatre, The Curtain, The Hope, -The Globe, Blackfriar’s, The Swan,—the use of the inn-yards did -not cease, and the Queen’s men performed regularly at The -Boar’s Head in Eastcheap as late as 1603.<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">[3]</a> Ashley H. Thorndike, <i>Shakespeare’s Theatre</i>, p. 42.</p> - -</div> - -<p>Contemporaneously, there were in England, as abroad, spectacular -performances at court, richly costumed and decorated. -They were performed in spacious palace halls, being acted on pageant -wagons or on the main floor, and were viewed from benches -and balconies around the sides. Eventually the pageant gave -way to a stage temporarily erected at one end of the room, the -dancers descending to the main floor for large ensembles and -ballets. As early as 1607, scenery, curtains, and a proscenium -arch had been used. The picture stage, with its scenery in -painted perspective, was an importation from Italy, following a -visit there of Inigo Jones, and under his hand reached a high -degree of development during the third decade of the Seventeenth -Century.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="f7"> -<img src="images/fig7.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Figure 3—Above is the section of the Little Theatre, -New York, showing clearly the relationship of the stage, -auditorium and other portions of the building. The dressing-rooms -are above the auditorium and are reached by -both stairs and elevator. On the opposite page is the first-floor -plan of the building. It is a notable example of the -best contemporary American practice in auditorium arrangement. -These drawings illustrate the building as -originally constructed, without the recently added balcony -and other changes. Harry Creighton Ingalls and F. B. -Hoffman Jr., Associate Architects.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig8.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</span></p> -<p>With the reopening of the theatres after the Restoration, the -practice of the Italian theatre and opera house superseded the -old-English tradition practically altogether, the only noteworthy -remnant being the social distinction that made the ground level -or “pit” the place of the proletariat in the theatre. The visits -of the aristocracy to the theatre during the Elizabethan period, -even when theatres were under court patronage, were something -in the nature of an escapade. The sheltered galleries -were reserved for the gentry, and the unroofed ground space -or pit was open to the crowd. From the galleries, moreover, -a better view of the protruding three-sided stage was to be had. -In the later, wholly-roofed theatres, the stage still protruded -somewhat. A great curved “apron” projected beyond the proscenium. -Nor was the proscenium the mere picture-frame of -to-day, but a deep portal. The balconies extended over the -stage to the curtain, so that spectators at the forward ends of the -balconies were directly above the stage. The balconies were -given swelling curves, bringing them further toward the center -of the stage, so that those who occupied these forward seats -could not only see but could be seen. The stage boxes of to-day -are a relic of this type of apron-stage theatre, and to-day, -with the picture frame stage, serve no purpose but the stupid -social one of self-display.</p> - -<p>The apron stage preserved one great advantage of the platform -stage: that of keeping the stage grouping, for at least a part -of the audience, plastic. And the dimness of candle or oil footlights -compelled the actors to keep to the front of the stage as -much as possible. The disappearance of the apron has been -due wholly to the improved lighting of the modern theatre. -With its disappearance should go the auditorium features that -belonged with it. And even though there have been occasional -reversions to the platform stage and apron in the productions of -Granville Barker or Jacques Copeau, there is no occasion for -the revival of the horseshoe balcony or the stage box. In -later pages of this paper, where I deal specifically with the -stage, I shall recommend provision being made for an apron, -either permanent or movable; but the auditorium should not -revert.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="f9"> -<img src="images/fig9.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Auditorium of the Little Theatre, New York. This -building, constructed for Winthrop Ames in 1912, still -stands as probably the best-designed small theatre in -America. This photograph shows the absence of boxes, -the carefully adjusted floor slope, and the harmony of all -the decorative elements, although it hardly does justice to the -intimate “feel” of the room. Recently large changes have -been made in the building, a balcony having been added -and a new decorative scheme carried out. Harry Creighton -Ingalls and F. B. Hoffman Jr., Associate Architects.</p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" id="f10"> -<img src="images/fig10.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption4">Exterior of the Little Theatre, New York. Harry Creighton -Ingalls and F. B. Hoffman Jr., Architects. (From <i>The New -Movement in the Theatre</i>, by courtesy of Mitchell Kennerley.)</p> -</div> - -<p>With modern resources in lighting and construction engineering, -most of the “practical” considerations that determined -the form of the old houses do not apply, and the social considerations -that called for the display of certain parts of the audience -are not even tacitly acknowledged in the more democratic -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</span>theatre of to-day, except at the opera. Accordingly, the procedure -of the architect should be governed wholly by considerations -of utility.</p> - -<p>The first consideration is that of visibility. A sight line drawn -from any seat in the auditorium should give a clear view of the -entire stage. As a general rule, therefore, the seating space -should be very little wider than the stage opening. A sight line -drawn from a seat to the right or the left of the proscenium arch -past the corresponding side of the arch will cut off that corner -of the stage. The closer the seat is to the stage the greater is -the part of the stage concealed. (See <a href="#f11">Fig. 4.</a>) Accordingly, it -is the custom in most modern theatres to narrow the auditorium -as it approaches the stage, so that the front of the seating is no -greater in width than the width of the proscenium. The rear of -the auditorium is slightly wider. (See <a href="#f6">Figs. 2</a> and <a href="#f7">3.</a>)</p> - -<p>As a concession to this plan, the back of a stage setting is -often narrower than the front. That is, in the case of an interior -setting, the side walls of the room represented, instead of being -set at right angles to the back wall, as is the case in most rooms, -are set at an angle corresponding to the sight lines drawn from -the extreme right and left ends of the last row of seats. This is -purely a convention, required by the shape of the playhouse, -and pardonable on the ground that it is less irritating to look -at a distorted room than to be unable to see its corners.</p> - -<p>At all events, this form of auditorium affords a higher visibility -than did the old horseshoe shape. The most noteworthy move -toward the adoption of this type of seating was made by Richard -Wagner in the construction of the Opera House at Bayreuth. -Here the auditorium is in the shape of a fan or blunt-nosed -wedge, with the stage at the narrow end. The most approved -type of modern auditorium follows this form to some extent. -In such theatres as the Künstler Theater in Munich (Littmann), -or his Prinz-Regenten Opera House, this plan is developed. -(See <a href="#f12">Fig. 5.</a>)</p> - -<p>The general plan of the best modern American theatres is rectangular -with the side walls converging toward the stage, beginning -at a point about two-thirds of the way from the back. The -seats are in concentric rows following a curve drawn from a -center approximately at the middle of the back wall of the stage. -The back wall of the auditorium follows the curve of the seats. -The Little Theatre in New York is built on this plan. Where -balconies are included, they have only a slight curve, approximately -the same as that of the orchestra seats.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="f11"> -<img src="images/fig11.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption3">Figure 4—Plan of the theatre at the Carnegie Institute of Technology, -Pittsburgh. The sight-lines from the sides of the auditorium are badly distorted, -evidently to preserve the novel architectural effect of an elliptical room. -By drawing lines from the outmost seats in the first five rows, it can be seen -that spectators there will be shut off from any view of more than half the stage -space. The one outstanding feature here is the large amount of space given to -scenery storage-room and green-room.</p> -</div> - -<p>It is a common fault of school auditoriums that the seating is -extended to the right and the left of the stage, so that a considerable -number of seats are valueless for seeing. They preserve, -also, for no known reason, other than that it has been the theatre -practice, the apron, projecting far beyond the line of the proscenium -arch.</p> - -<p>A second requirement for assuring direct sight lines from -every seat to the stage is an inclined floor. In many cases, this -appears an insuperable difficulty. Auditoriums which must be -used as gymnasiums or dance halls require level floors. Often, -then, the stage is elevated at a greater height from the floor than -usual, in the belief that this device will overcome the lack of an -inclined floor. On the contrary, it merely makes the spectator -tilt his head at an uncomfortable angle, makes the players appear -preternaturally tall, and, as they move toward the back of the -stage, conceals the lower part of their bodies. The best height -for a stage, whether with inclined or flat auditorium, is three -feet, nine inches.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</span></p> - -<p>A number of means may be used to provide an inclined floor -when performances are to be given in a hall which must be used -for many purposes. In Copley Hall, Boston, movable risers were -installed, each row of seats being lifted about six inches above the -row in front. This scheme has the advantage of being the least -costly at the beginning, but this consideration is outweighed by -a host of disadvantages. The trestles and platforms occupy a -large storage space when not in use, they are not a hundred percent -safe, and they emit a squeak with every footstep. Moreover, -they increase, to some degree, the fire hazard.</p> - -<p>Far more ingenious and needing no storage space is the device -employed by Laurence Ewald in building the Little Theatre of -the Artists’ Guild, St. Louis. The theatre occupies a wing of the -building used ordinarily as an art gallery, and has a level floor. -When performances are to be given, the theatre seats are bolted -to the floor, and the back half of the floor, which is built in one -piece, hinged at the middle of the auditorium, is lifted at the rear -by a four-ton hydraulic jack until a pitch of about one inch per -foot is obtained.</p> - -<p>Mr. Ewald has provided me with the following account of the -construction of the floor:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>“The movable part of the floor consists of a floor-bearing -structure of steel which extends from a hinge half-way between -the back of the house and the stage, and parallel with the front -of the stage, to the back of the house.</p> - -<p>“This structure is made up of four I-beams at right angles -to the front of the stage, and another I-beam attached to them -at right angles at the back end of the house. In the cellar, -immediately beneath this cross beam, is placed an ordinary four-ton -hydraulic jack, which, when operated, revolves the back floor -structure on the hinges at the middle of the house. When the floor -has been raised thirty inches, four legs suspended from the four -I-beams drop of their own weight into position and support the -load, and the jack is removed.”</p> -</div> - -<p>Had it not been for the structure of the room under the -auditorium, Mr. Ewald would have constructed the <i>entire</i> floor -on a steel frame, as described above, and balanced it on an axle -at the center, where the hinges now are. With suitable space -under the front half of the floor, it could have been tipped on -its axle, depressing the front and elevating the back, giving an -incline to the entire auditorium. Built thus, the floor would -require no jack and would be amply supported at three points; -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</span>or, with the understructure built in the form of a truss, the floor -could be made to rock on the apex of the truss. With this -arrangement, the front half of the floor would have support -along its entire length.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="f12"> -<img src="images/fig12.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption4">Figure 5—First-floor plan of the Munich Art Theatre. -Note that the seats shown here form only a part of the main -floor section, as indicated in the plans on the page opposite. -Max Littmann, Architect.</p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter1" id="f13"> -<img src="images/fig13.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption3">Figure 6—Above is a section showing the arrangement and structural features of the Munich -Art Theatre. Below is the second-floor plan. It should be noted that the seats here are not a balcony -but a continuation, on the same floor slope, of the seats shown in the plan on the page opposite.</p> -</div> - -<p>Another device, proposed for a great municipal auditorium in -a western city, will not so readily commend itself for general use, -because of the great initial cost and because of the depth of -cellarage required under the auditorium. Here the entire floor -was to make a semi-revolution. On one side of the revolving -plane was a smooth flooring; on the other, seats were bolted. -When the building was to be used as a theatre, the side with -the seats was turned uppermost and held at the proper pitch. -When the hall was used for a ball or for a dog show, or any -function needing a level floor, the smooth side was turned up -and secured at a horizontal position.</p> - -<p>When the floor can be built with a permanent slope, either a -simple incline or an incline in the form of a parabolic curve is -used. The latter form is preferable.</p> - -<p>In many places the fire laws limit the pitch of the floor to -one inch per foot. With rows of seats spaced at the legal minimum -of thirty-two inches this does not give enough clearance for -the people in each row to see over the heads of those in the row -in front. For a decent degree of comfort, a little seating capacity -should be sacrificed, and the rows spaced thirty-six inches apart.</p> - -<p>If possible, there should be a gradient of two inches to the -foot, giving a difference of elevation between rows of six inches. -If the law prevents the two-inch grade, the same effect can be -produced by “staggering” the seats. That is, the seats of alternate -rows are set in direct alignment, while the intermediate rows -are set half a seat-width to the right or left. Thus spectators -will look between the shoulders of those immediately in front of -them, and will be able to see over the heads of those in the -second row in front, who, by such an arrangement, will be sitting -in a direct line with them. There will thus be a six-inch difference -between each two rows of seats.</p> - -<p>Beyond all these considerations of adequate sight lines, however, -there is another requirement far more important, far less -well understood, even in the light of any guiding or misguiding -tradition, by the average architect. That is the requirement of -good acoustics. Until quite recently, this was left wholly to accident. -Buildings were erected, and the acoustic properties -were tested afterwards. If they chanced to be good, the owners<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</span> -were to be congratulated. If they were bad, great sums were -spent stringing piano wires, or nets of raw silk, or padding the -walls. And then, quite as often as not, the acoustics remained bad.</p> - -<p>The late Wallace Sabine, however, demonstrated that it was -possible to predict the acoustic properties of a proposed structure -with scientific accuracy, and to forestall defects by structural -modification. In <i>The American Architect</i>, Dec. 31, 1913, -Professor Sabine described the experiments by which the causes -of the acoustic difficulties in the New Theatre (now the Century) -in New York were discovered and overcome, and the methods -which he employed in helping plan a number of the theatres -designed by C. H. Blackhall, perhaps the most experienced -theatre architect in the United States. This paper and others -by Professor Sabine should be read by any architect who contemplates -building an auditorium of any sort. The matter is -too vital to be left to a hit-or-miss chance of success.</p> - -<p>With an auditorium from every part of which the stage can -be seen, from every seat of which all the words of the actors can -be heard, there will be little fault to be found. Its comfort, -its ventilation, its isolation from street noises, its protection -against fire—these are matters which need not be treated here, -and which have been written of elsewhere more adequately than -I could write of them. As for its decoration, there are no rules -to govern that. If the designer has bad taste, there is no -help for it, except to avoid him. If he is an artist, let him exercise -his art on the interior of the auditorium and forget the sort -of thing that has traditionally adorned theatres and wedding -cakes.</p> - -<p>But, most of all, let him talk with the artist, if there should -luckily be one, who is going to work in the particular theatre, -and learn from him the sorts of play that are to be done, and -the æsthetic of the group that is to present them, if it has one, -and so find some clue to the atmosphere the auditorium should -evoke. From then on, his task is one of high creation.</p> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak p3 sp" id="c2">CHAPTER II.</h2> -</div> - -<p class="c">THE STAGE PLAN</p> - - -<p><span class="smcap">We are</span> accustomed to regard as the stage of a theatre that part -on which the actors appear, immediately behind the footlights, -bounded, right and left, by the proscenium arch. As a matter of -fact, this is a very small part of the stage. From the construction -of many school stages and many of the stages of the little and -experimental theatres, I am convinced that this misconception -really exists. It is true that many little theatre groups have been -obliged to choose between a cramped stage and no stage at all. -On the whole, the work they have done, in the light of their -limited equipment, is nothing short of amazing.</p> - -<p>One well-known little theatre director has declared to me that -he values these inadequacies because of the ingenuity required -to overcome them. And I imagine that very frequently admiration -for this sort of ingenuity passes current for the evaluation -on its own merits of work done in these theatres.</p> - -<p>No director could be hindered, however, by having excellent -facilities at his command. His imagination, instead of visioning -means of overcoming too low a roof to his stage or the lack -of off-stage space, would be free to interpret the matter of the -play itself. It would be a great pity to lose the work of many -earnest groups who have been presenting plays in remodelled -dwellings, saloons, or stables, with what appear to be hopelessly -inadequate stages. But if a building is to be erected for the -purpose of housing a theatre, it will mean greater freedom for -the artists (in fact or intent) who are to occupy it, if they are -given every facility that foresight can provide.</p> - -<p>The stage, properly speaking, is about five times as large as the -part of it that is visible to the audience when the curtain is raised. -The spaces to right and left of the proscenium arch should equal -the center space within the proscenium. Then there is the space -above the stage, the space under the stage and the space required -adjacent to the stage for dressing rooms, shops, etc.</p> - -<p>Dimensions for practically all of these spaces can best be -derived from the dimensions of the proscenium arch. The width -of the opening generally is equal to half the width of the auditorium -at its widest part. It may be somewhat less or somewhat<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</span> -greater, but it is well to establish a minimum of twenty-four feet -for the width of the opening. Less than this will not give adequate -space without serious crowding for the presentation of -scenes with more than a very few people.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="f14"> -<img src="images/fig14.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption5">Figure 7—Plan of the Thirty-Ninth Street Theatre, -New York. An example of good planning for sight-lines, -illustrating an auditorium with center aisle.</p> -</div> - -<p>In height the proscenium should be fittingly proportioned to the -width, with a minimum of about twelve feet in mind. A stage -too low and too narrow will throw the human figure out of proportion -to his surroundings on the stage. Let us assume that we -have a stage with a proscenium opening twenty-four feet wide -and not less than twelve feet high. The aggregate off-stage space -right and left should then equal about twenty-four feet, making<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</span> -the total width of the stage-house forty-eight feet. The depth of -the stage should be not less than twenty-four feet. The height -of the stage, from floor to “rigging loft” should be not less than -thirty-six feet. The cellar under the stage should be not less than -ten or twelve feet deep. This is merely a rough guide, using the -measurements of the proscenium as index.</p> - -<p>Claude B. Hagen, construction engineer for the Century Theatre -in New York, suggests a “rule of seven” for the derivation -of these dimensions, making all of them multiples of seven. The -following table gives his measurements for stages of various -sizes:</p> - -<table class="bdr" cellpadding="4" summary="size"> - -<tr><td class="tdl bt bl">Proscenium width</td> - <td class="tdl bt bl">28 ft.</td> - <td class="tdl bt bl">35 ft.</td> - <td class="tdl bt bl">42 ft.</td> - <td class="tdl bl br bt"></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl bl bt br">Proscenium height</td> - <td class="tdl bt br" colspan="4">Seven feet less than width</td> - <td class="tdl"></td> - <td class="tdl"></td> - <td class="tdl"></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl bt bl br">Height of loft</td> - <td class="tdl bt br">56 ft.</td> - <td class="tdl bt br">63 ft.</td> - <td class="tdl bt br" colspan="2">70 ft. to 84 ft.</td> - <td class="tdl"></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl bl bt">Height of fly-gallery floor</td> - <td class="tdl bl bt br">28 ft.</td> - <td class="tdl bt br bb" colspan="3">35 ft. (7 ft. back of proscenium)</td> - <td class="tdl"></td> - <td class="tdl"></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl bl bt">Width of stage</td> - <td class="tdl bl bt br">42 ft.</td> - <td class="tdl br">56 ft.</td> - <td class="tdl br bb">70 ft.</td> - <td class="tdl br bb"></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl bl bt">Depth of stage</td> - <td class="tdl bl bt">21 ft.</td> - <td class="tdl bl bt">28 ft.</td> - <td class="tdl bl br bb" colspan="2">35 ft. to 42 ft.</td> - <td class="tdl"></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl bl bt">Cellar</td> - <td class="tdl bl bt">14 ft.</td> - <td class="tdl bl bt br">21 ft.</td> - <td class="tdl"></td> - <td class="tdl br"></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl bl bt bb">Distance between border lights</td> - <td class="tdl bl bt br bb" colspan="4">Seven feet from center to center</td> - <td class="tdl"></td> - <td class="tdl"></td> - <td class="tdl"></td></tr> - - - -</table> - - -<p>These measurements, while customary, are hardly ideal, and -are generalizations from the more or less arbitrary dimensions -imposed by high land values. It goes without saying that however -small a theatre is, its stage should be as large as the plot -on which the building stands will allow.</p> - -<p>The off-stage space at the sides is particularly important. -Without it, entrances to the scene are cramped, there is no place -to pack furniture and scenery for other acts than the one in -progress on the stage, and there is no place for the actors to -await their entrances. Such space is needed, often, for the suggestion -of other rooms than the one before the audience, and an -important part of the lighting of the scene is done from the sides.</p> - -<p>Next in importance is the space above the stage, the “flies,” in -the technical vocabulary of the theatre. In this space, above the -line of vision of the spectator, much scenery is hung until needed, -lighting units are suspended, and with good overhead space,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</span> -effects of height can be produced and ampler places revealed than -that in which the audience sits.</p> - -<p>The cellar under the stage is of especial importance where the -off-stage spaces at the sides are cramped. It is used for the -storage of scenery and furniture, for stage machinery and for -entrances from a lower floor (with the aid of traps), and it often -provides passage from one side of the stage to the other during -the progress of a scene that occupies the entire depth of the -stage. In some theatres, a part of the stage floor may be lowered -by an elevator, and properties or furniture disposed of during the -changes of scene, thus preventing crowding of the stage-house -itself.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="f15"> -<img src="images/fig15.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption3">Figure 8—Plan of the Beechwood Theatre and Scarborough School. The -entire space under the stage is given up to a workshop, and over the vestibule and -lobby is a library. Additional dressing-rooms and a property-room are over the stage-level -dressing-rooms shown here. The building is practically a complete theatre -with two school-room wings. Welles Bosworth, Architect.</p> -</div> - -<p>Hardwood should never be used for the stage floor. The -architect of the excellent Arts and Crafts Theatre in Detroit, in -his desire to use only the best of building materials, specified a -stage floor of maple. As a consequence, it is almost impossible to -support scenery by the use of stage braces, screwed to the floor -with a stage screw or “peg.” Soft wood into which the pegs bite -easily, is the only sort to use.</p> - -<p>It is particularly important in small theatres that the stage -walls be as unbroken by entrances as possible. At least two<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</span> -there must be: a large high door, opening to an alley or street, -by which scenery may be brought in and taken out, and a small -one, a stage entrance for the people of the theatre. It is well so -to contrive the building that this one door gives access to the -stage from the dressing-room corridors, shops, cellar, stairs, -street and front of the house. With many doors opening on the -stage, it is difficult to find space for the stacking of scenery without -blocking them. It is often desirable to have one dressing -room very near the stage or opening immediately upon it, not -for the use of the star, but for the player who may happen to -have the quickest change of costume.</p> - -<p>Stages intended for the housing of large productions and traveling -companies should include also a fly gallery, built out from -one of the side walls of the stage at a height of not less than -twenty feet from the floor. The ropes by which drop curtains, -ceilings, and “frame-pieces” of scenery are raised and lowered -are operated from this floor and are tied off to pins fastened in -the gallery railing, technically known as the pin-rail. In smaller -stages, of no great height, it will save space, construction costs -and operating expense to have the pin-rail at the floor level.</p> - -<p>Before discussing the equipment of the stage in detail, I wish -to digress for a moment and consider the provisions to be -made for the work that is done out of sight of the audience,—by -the carpenters and property men, the seamstresses, the electricians, -and the actors before they are ready to appear before -the footlights.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="f16"> -<img src="images/fig16.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption4">Auditorium of the Munich Art Theatre. The plates on -this and the following three pages, and the plans on pages -30 and 31 illustrate the interior and exterior appearance, as -well as the structural features, of a modern European -theatre which comes close to being a model for architects -everywhere. Above is a view of the auditorium as seen -from a point near the boxes at the back. The decoration in -paneled wood (for acoustic reasons), the absence of proscenium -boxes, the uniform slope of the auditorium, and the -simple decorative curtain, are characteristic of the best contemporary -European practice. (The photographs are reproduced -by courtesy of the architect, Prof. Max Littmann.)</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter1" id="f17"> -<img src="images/fig17.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption6">Exterior of the Munich Art Theatre.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter1" id="f18"> -<img src="images/fig18.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">A cross-section model of the Munich Art Theatre, showing -clearly the arrangement of boxes, auditorium, exits, -stage, hidden orchestra pit, double proscenium, etc.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter1" id="f19"> -<img src="images/fig19.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption4">A part of the auditorium of the Munich Art Theatre -as seen from the stage. This is interesting chiefly -as illustrating the arrangement of the boxes at the -back, and the unbroken tiers of seats with side exits.</p> -</div> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak p3 sp" id="c3">CHAPTER III.</h2> -</div> - -<p class="c">PROVISION FOR BACK-STAGE WORKERS</p> - - -<p><span class="smcap">I have</span> noted in an earlier chapter that the architecture of the -theatre is always governed by the function of the drama performed -in it. The use to which the stage is put determines always -the shape and style of the auditorium. There is no doubt -that some great change is soon to overtake the theatre; the -drama will assume a new form, demanding a new mode of presentation, -and so a new theatre. Presently I shall discuss what -forms this new theatre may assume, but for the moment it is -enough to observe that it will be marked by a closer bond, one -way or another, between the audience and the players, between -the audience and the play.</p> - -<p>For a long while, the theatre has shrouded itself in a sort of -pseudo-mystery. “Back-stage” has had the lure for the layman -of a hat from which rabbits are drawn by a conjurer. Of course, -under inspection, such a hat is found to be as empty as any -other, bearing even, in most cases, the mark of a respectable -maker. And the inspection deepens the mystery. The stage -has shunned this sort of scrutiny, because our drama of to-day -and our theatre live mostly by “effects”. And if the effect is -stripped of wonder, the theatre is almost as good as dead. What -a sign of weakness this is! If the snowstorm is seen to be bits of -paper shaken out of a bag, and if it is found that the imitation -wind is produced by the scraping of paddles on canvas, the -public will lose interest in the theatre.</p> - -<p>And the people of the stage! How hungrily necks are craned -for a glimpse of the popular actor or of the beautiful actress, -should one pass in a hotel or on the street. They inhabit that -mysterious, unexplored back-stage. And a clever manager will -encourage this sort of curiosity by advising his people not -to show themselves in the street, except unavoidably. The -matter of seeing the actors close may be dismissed with a quip,—they -might be found respectable upon acquaintance, or, more -likely, dull. But the truth about the back of the theatre is the -truth about the conjurer’s hat,—there’s nothing there to see, except -the pitiful little bag of tricks, the snowstorm and the wind. -There is not even the maker’s label. But this emptiness is not -all, for as with the hat, it’s quite engrossing while the rabbits are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</span> -there. The worst of it is that it is so poor, so mean often, so dirty, -so cramped and littered, to the last, dark cranny, that we wonder -how the actor-rabbits endure it all and keep their fur so white.</p> - -<p>A rudimentary shame on the part of the managers, and a very -human pride on the part of the actors, have helped to keep -these matters from the theatregoer. Out front, there is warmth, -light, comfort, elegance. The spectator is lulled into forgetfulness -of work, and the play casts its spell over him. But a -glimpse of the wretched barrenness of the dressing-room or shop -would make short work of his peace of mind, just as a knowledge -of the tricks sheers them of illusion.</p> - -<p>These things are becoming known, because the bond between -the spectator and the theatre-worker is already being formed. -When it is full grown, such facts will not be discovered; they -will no longer exist. For two movements that are bound to -affect the theatre of the future are bringing the lay public clambering -over the footlights and crowding in at the stage door. -One, the Little Theatre Movement, is almost altogether a lay -insurgency. In scores of communities, it has made its way; -tradesmen, students, clerks, mechanics, people of leisure and -working people with a little leisure, have come together and in -a short time have plumbed the silly little mysteries of back-stage, -and have brought into their theatres a little bit of the real -Mystery of life and art that belongs there. And the more extensive, -democratic Community Drama movement is making -play-actors and theatre-workers of thousands who have heretofore -been auditors. There will always be a professional group -of artists of the theatre, but in their theatres there will be a -close understanding and perhaps a physical connection between -the audience and the stage; in the great, popular theatre it is -conceivable that there will be very little distinction between the -auditorium and the stage. It may be that they will be interchangeable -or be one and the same. Then, it is certain that the -conditions of comfort and convenience that apply to the one -shall apply fully to the other, that the actor shall be as well -cared for in the theatre as the public.</p> - -<p>Let those who are building to-day look to this: Visit the -dressing-rooms, see the workplaces of the other workers of the -theatre,—the carpenter, electrician, property-man, and wardrobe -workers. Consider these workplaces, not only in comparison -with the front of the house, but as fit places for human beings -to spend as much as an hour a day. Consider them as places -where work that should have in it joy and beauty may develop.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</span></p> - -<p>The community theatres that are going to be built within the -next few years are bound to be a blessing to those who have -access to them. But, for the most part, their projectors and -builders are laymen, knowing little of the vast work of preparation -that must be done before a play is ready for an audience. -Where the commercial theatre builder does not care how the -actor and the theatre mechanic fare, the lay builder is a little -likely to overlook their existence. I have seen dozens of clubs -and schools, with fairly adequate stages and auditoriums, but -with no more than two small dressing-rooms, one for men and -one for women. I have seen several with no more than one, -originally intended for a closet but set aside as a dressing-room -when it was discovered that something of the sort is indispensable.</p> - -<p>Aside from the fact that the players and the workmen are -human beings, quite often of the same tastes and breeding as -those who occupy the front of the theatre, they have a long and -exacting work to perform, most of which can be done only in -the theatre. And their domain is the part of the theatre behind -the proscenium line. The actors must rehearse for several weeks -before the play can be acted. They must be in the theatre -some time before the curtain rises on the play and they leave it -some time after the play has ended and the audience has gone -home. For they must dress and “make-up”, and should be -allowed a little while to shake off John Smith and enter into -Hamlet. There is, moreover, scenery to be built and painted, -furniture and properties to be made, lights to be arranged, effects -to be devised, costumes to be cut, fitted and sewed.</p> - -<p>How should these activities and these workers be taken care of?</p> - -<p>First, the actors.</p> - -<p>For their rehearsals, first of all, the stage should be used. If -the stage is otherwise occupied, with scenery, or with the rehearsals -of another production, as it often is in busy theatres, -there should be another place in the same building where rehearsals -can be held, a room with as large a floor as that of the -stage proper. But, as often as possible, the stage should be -used for rehearsals.</p> - -<p>Then, for their preparation to appear in a performance, their -dressing and make-up. Dressing-rooms must be provided, sufficient -in number to accommodate the cast of the average play -without crowding more than two people to a room. Under -ideal conditions, each player will have a separate room, so that -he can prepare for his performance, mentally as well as physically, -without disturbance. The rooms should be not less than eight<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</span> -by ten feet, should each have a window, and should be heated -in winter. Against one wall there should be a long shelf or -table, about eighteen inches wide. Above it, should be a good -mirror, with lights so placed that the face of an actor seated at -the shelf and looking into the mirror will be well illuminated. -Under the shelf, there should be a drawer in which make-up -materials may be kept. Each dressing room should be provided -with a washstand and with hot and cold water. There should be -a high clothes-closet or wardrobe in which costumes may be -hung. Where this is impractical, there should be sufficient -hooks to accommodate a number of costumes, and means of -covering them with a cloth to protect them from dust. Above -the clothes hooks, or at the top of the closet, should be a shelf -for hats, shoes, etc.</p> - -<p>It is well to provide from eight to twelve dressing-rooms, each -large enough to accommodate two persons. In addition, there -should be two large rooms, each with space for about a dozen -persons, these to be used for chorus, supernumeraries, or players -of small parts.</p> - -<p>On each dressing-room floor there should be proper toilet -accommodations for each sex. Also, the ideally equipped building -will have shower baths. In these days of Dunsany, Hindus -and Arabs and Ethiopians may be met in many a town en route -from the little theatre to their homes, there to wash themselves -white.</p> - -<p>It has been noted that, to preserve the unbroken wall space -of the stage as far as possible, dressing-rooms should not open -directly upon the stage floor. In many theatres, they are ranged -off galleries above the stage. On the whole, this is inadvisable. -A dressing-room door, inopportunely opened, will let a beam -of light fall upon the stage, often spoiling the lighting of a scene. -The slamming of doors, sound of voices, and other noises are -almost unavoidable. And the argument usually advanced for -so arranging dressing-rooms—that the actors can hear what is -going on on the stage and thus be in time for their entrances, -is fallacious. This very fact breeds in them a confidence that -makes them careless, and they are more often late than if they -were required to wait for their cues on the stage.</p> - -<p>One more thing should be provided for the actor, not indispensable, -but making for fellowship and comfort—the feature -known in German theatres as the Konverzations-Zimmer and in -older English and American theatres as the Green Room. This<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</span> -should be a comfortable lounge, furnished more as a room in a -home or club, than in a theatre, and stocked with books and -periodicals relating to the theatre.</p> - -<p>With the actor carefully considered in the matter of cleanliness -and cheerfulness backstage, a new pleasure will come into his -work. Likewise, with the other workers of the theatre. Closest -to the actor, perhaps, the wardrobe people. In the ideal theatre -two rooms should be set aside for the wardrobe, one for the making -of clothes and another for their storage. The sewing room, -needless to say, should be well lighted, should have a space partitioned -off as a fitting room, should be provided with proper -closets in which to hang dresses in the process of making, and -should be large enough to allow for a number of seamstresses -and a large cutting table. There should be a built-in closet -equipped with shelves and drawers in which to store cloths, trimmings, -findings, etc., for the making of costumes. For the costume -storage room, a loft space that might otherwise go to waste -can often be utilized. This room should have long closets, fitted -with bars on which dresses can be hung, and should have drawers -in which other items of dress can be packed—hats, shoes, wigs, -stockings, tights, etc. These drawers should be numerous enough -to allow for the sorting out of costumes by colors or periods, and -should be properly labelled.</p> - -<p>Each of the mechanical departments should likewise have its -two rooms, one a shop and the other for storage. The carpenter, if -the scenery is built in the theatre, often can use the space under -the stage for building. If he cannot build his scenery there, -either another place should be set aside or the scenery should -be built outside the building. He should not use the stage. It -must be kept free for rehearsals. He should have, however, a -room in which to keep his tools, draw his plans, and file his -ground and framing plans, bills, time-sheets, etc.</p> - -<p>The matter of storage space for scenery is to be determined -wholly by the amount of space at the builder’s disposal and the -use to which the theatre is to be put. If many productions are -to be made, a space should be provided for a scene-dock, adjacent -to the stage but separate from it, unless the building is small, in -which case a storehouse elsewhere may be used. Scenery should -not be allowed to accumulate on the stage. The theatre of the -Carnegie Institute of Technology at Pittsburgh has an excellent -dock, shown on the ground plan, Figure 4.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</span></p> - -<p>The property department needs a shop for the making of furniture, -papier mâché work, etc., and a storage room in which -furniture and other stage furnishings can be stored. Often one -large room can be made to do for both.</p> - -<p>The electrical department likewise must not be overlooked. -There must be closets for the keeping of incandescent bulbs, lamp -dyes, plugs, connectors, cable, wire, and other electrical hardware, -gelatines, color frames, etc. There must be provision in the shop -for the dyeing of lamps, testing, repairing, etc.</p> - -<p>The property and electrical departments, like the carpenter’s, -must also be fitted in a sense as offices, for the keeping of -electric and property plots, full records relating to past and -coming productions, bills, orders, receipts, time sheets, and like -data.</p> - -<p>It may be objected at this point that these various demands -presuppose a large-sized plant with elaborate equipment. As a -matter of fact, they apply quite as much to the tiniest of little -theatres—even more so, for in such, proper ordering of space and -isolation of separate activities is equivalent, in getting efficiency, -to more ample space less carefully sub-divided. For, inevitably, -these various kinds of work must be done in the theatre, and the -people who do them must find space here or there for their work, -and the things they make must be kept somewhere. Unless each -job and each product is assigned its proper corner, the building is -soon a clutter of stuff, accumulating dust, getting jostled about -and broken. Then we are back at the old, dark, dirty theatre we -are trying so hard to improve upon. The provisions discussed -above, though they are not on the stage, are very much a part of -it, and go far toward making it an instrument of precision.</p> - -<p>In community buildings and schools, the various workshops, -rehearsal room, etc., can often be combined with rooms serving -other purposes. In any case some provision for them is quite as -important as the open stage itself.</p> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak p3 sp" id="c4">CHAPTER IV.</h2> -</div> - -<p class="c">THE EQUIPMENT OF THE STAGE<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p> - - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="label">[4]</a> Throughout this chapter I am at a disadvantage in that I do not -thoroughly believe in the standards which I here set up. It is true that I am -recommending higher standards than usually prevail in the sort of building -which is here considered, or higher even than those that prevail in the well-equipped -professional theatre. It is true, also, that these recommendations -as viewed in the light of the known and tried methods of play production, -are in the nature of reform and improvement. As such, I believe in -them. As viewed in the light of the theatre of the future, I do not so -thoroughly believe in them. But only a revolution in theatre methods can -refresh our conceptions of what sort of place this theatre of the future is to -be. This matter we shall leave for discussion in a final chapter. I should -be ill-advised in advising ambitious groups interested in building adequate -little playhouses to set aside finally the known and tried methods of play -production and the stage they involve for methods adapted to a type of -drama that may not yet exist, for methods that must be evolved only by -sensitive and versed artists of the theatre. It is true that many signal new -ideas come into any art through workers who do not know or trouble about -tradition, young hands who blunder upon valuable methods through attacking -their medium experimentally. For instance, Antoine, a gas-fitter by -trade, who began his theatrical career as an amateur, by his daring innovations -in the <i>Théâtre Libre</i>, renewed the life-force of the French theatre. -But, in the main, I believe that the most important revolutionary changes in -the stage are wrought by men who are thoroughly versed in the old practice, -as was Gordon Craig. Hence, if the little theatres and community playhouses -continue for the coming generation with a theatre modelled after -the best practice of this our day, they may in good season contribute mightily to -that theatre of the future to which I referred. Hence, for the present it is -best that I continue in the rôle of reporter, rather than that of prophet.</p> - -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> outstanding point about the stage, apart from the life the -actors bring to it, is that it is a machine. It is a mechanical -device used to aid in the setting forth of a play, much as a -potter’s wheel aids the maker of vases, or a mortise and tenon -machine helps the cabinet-maker. Perhaps the cabinet-maker -is no less a hand-craftsman because he uses the mechanical device -to shorten his labor, and it is probable that the vase has a -truer form for being turned on a wheel. But cabinets have been -made wholly by hand and vases turned without the potter’s -wheel. There are people who treasure works made wholly by -hand above the machine-aided work, however artistic. The -theatre once did without the adventitious aids it now employs. -Once it was merely a platform set in the sunlight, revealed to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</span> -the sight of an assembled audience. Many believe that the -theatre of the future will be something of that sort, welcoming, -however, in addition to or instead of the sun, the more constantly -available, controllable and subtly colorable electric light.</p> - -<p>But the Greeks had their machines for the revelation of gods, -and there is something about <i>periaktoi</i>, or revolving pieces of -scenery. It is with the machines that the theatre has concerned -itself most of all. Every developed stage has employed an -amount of mechanism for the producing of those “effects” which -I mentioned in the preceding chapter; and it may be that -the theatre always will,—one wing of the theatre, the Right, -doubtless.</p> - -<p>Of late years, with the advent of the naturalistic or realistic type -of drama, the stage has sought more and more illusion, not only -in its imitations of the movements and acts of men and women -but in its representation of their surroundings. It has tried to -become a more perfect machine,—more nearly an <i>instrument -of precision</i>. It may be significant to observe that, although -masterpieces of drama gave impetus to the development of the -illusion stage,—outstandingly the plays of Ibsen,—the illusion -stage has brought forth no masterpieces. In this country, it -may be held responsible for the buzz-saw, train-wreck, or horse-race -type of melodrama, a type now happily removed from the -theatre by the moving picture with its still higher degree of -visual veracity. In Germany, the stage as machine has been -developed to an extraordinary degree, and, for the most part, -never debauched by exhibitions of effects for their own sake, -as in our sensational melodrama of half a generation ago. I -shall discuss a number of these German inventions in a later -chapter, but for the present propose to consider the stage as a -machine adapted to average demands.</p> - -<p>There are two primary demands—that the machine shall be -able to do the work demanded of it efficiently and with a minimum -danger of breakdown, and that the machine be subject to -control. The work of the stage-machine is, of course, the handling -of scenery, the illusion-stuff of the present-day stage. This -scenery is of two types: pieces that are suspended from ropes -(hanging pieces), and pieces that stand on the floor (set pieces). -For exterior scenes, the first type includes drops, “borders” representing -foliage, leg-drops representing trees, pillars, arches, -etc., or sections of wall, house-front, or other flat architectural -units, large enough to warrant hanging overhead when out of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</span> -use, so as to save floor space; and—for interior scenes—ceilings -and back walls. The second type includes, for exterior scenes, -any low-standing units, such as walls, hedges, fences, tree trunks, -“wings” or set-houses; and for interior scenes, the side-walls of -the room and very often part or the whole of the back wall.</p> - -<p>For the manipulation of hanging scenery, the most important -piece of stage machinery is the grid-iron. This is a slatted platform -of steel or iron joists, built a few feet below the roof of the -stage, just enough below to allow head-room for a man standing -on it. Along the center of the grid-iron, on a line at a right angle -to the foot-lights, is set a row of blocks and sheaves of a special -type, manufactured for stage use. Equidistant right and left of -this center row by half the width of the stage proper (the part of -the stage within the proscenium) are other rows. Over these -sheaves, ropes are passed. Thus, hanging over the stage parallel -to the back wall, in sets of three, are lines to which scenery may -be attached. The other ends of the lines in each set are brought -together at one side or the other of the stage, so that the three -ropes of each set may be operated as one. On the side to which -the lines are led is located the pin-rail, either on a fly-gallery or -at the floor level. Of each set of three, the line hanging nearest -the side from which the lines are operated—the pin-rail side—is -known as the short line, the line most remote from it is known as -the long line, and the other as the center line. On very large -stages, with an opening of forty feet or more, four lines to each -set are advisable, not only to bear the greater weight of the larger -pieces of scenery required, but also to secure a better trim, or -level hang of the scenery.</p> - -<p>These lines, needless to say, should be of the best hemp rope, -of a weight adjusted to the size of the stage. Half-inch line is -the lightest it is wise to use. This rope should be subjected to -periodical inspection, to forestall breaking and the falling of -scenery, with consequent damage to the scenery, the play, or the -actors.</p> - -<p>On some grid-irons, the blocks are screwed to the under side of -the grid. This is unsafe, as they have been known to tear loose. -They should ride the joists, the lines dropping between each two. -At least twenty-five sets of lines should be provided.</p> - -<p>When a set of lines is not weighted with scenery, sandbags are -tied to the loose ends, so that they may be lowered to the floor -when needed. Frequently a piece of scenery will be found too -heavy for one or two men to raise from the floor. In such cases,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</span> -counterweights in the form of large sand-bags are hung on the -part of the lines between the grid-iron and the pin-rail.</p> - -<p>The primary purpose of hanging scenery in this fashion is to -be able to haul it out of sight in the upper part of the stage when -it is not in use. Hence large overhead space is necessary. This -system also makes possible the use of unstiffened scenic units, -such as drop curtains and borders, which, literally, have no legs -to stand on.</p> - -<p>In large stages the lines are controlled from a pin-rail on a gallery, -built out from one of the side walls of the stage. In smaller -stages the pin-rail may be built against one of the side walls on -the floor level. This has various advantages—ease of access the -foremost, and the saving of a stage-hand, who would otherwise -have to remain on the fly-gallery, besides. The advantages to be -claimed for the fly-gallery are that its use leaves the stage floor -clear of ropes, leaves the side wall clear for the stacking of -scenery, and is a valuable vantage point from which to cast light -upon the stage.</p> - -<p>The stage of the Century Theatre is equipped with a counterweight -system that practically eliminates hand-power in the -raising and lowering of hanging scenery. To each set of lines -is attached a metal case, or container, which rides up the stage -wall between tracks. At the top of the stage, above each container, -there is a magazine filled with buckshot. By an ingenious -mechanism, when a piece of scenery hanging in the loft -is to be lowered to the floor level, a quantity of the shot in the -container is allowed to flow out, so that the scenery outweighs -the counterweight and descends. Its descent can be stopped -at any point by brakes on the lines. When it is to be raised, -shot from the magazine above is allowed to flow into the container -until the counterweight outweighs the scenery, and the -scenery ascends. The shot that flows to the bottom of the chute -is conveyed by an endless chain-and-bucket conveyer to the -magazines at the top. Such a system is only warranted on -stages of opera-house proportions. There are also systems for -controlling the lines by motors; but on the stage of average size, -man-power is the safest and most dependable.</p> - -<p>Scenery that stands on the floor requires little by way of -machinery. Some of it is self-supporting, as are the “wings,”—folding, -screen-like pieces used to mask the sides of the stage. -All set scenery is “framed,” so that it stands rigid enough when -braced from the back. Part of the equipment of every stage is a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</span> -supply of stage-braces for the support of such scenery. These -are made of hardwood, can be extended to any desired length, -have a prong at the top which hooks into a screw-eye fastened to -the scenery, and a foot-iron at the bottom which can he fastened -to the stage floor by means of a stage screw or “peg.” The use of -these pegs demands a soft-wood stage floor into which they will -bite easily. Good stage braces can be obtained from any reliable -dealer in stage equipment.</p> - -<p>The main curtain of the theatre, if it raises and lowers, is often -operated from the fly-gallery. It is better, however, to have it -operated from the stage level, on the same side of the stage as -the fly-gallery or the pin-rail. The draw type of curtain is always -handled from the stage floor. “Travelers” for these curtains can -be more cheaply bought than made, and are kept in stock by any -stage-rigging firm.</p> - -<p>It is well to have the stage flooring built in lateral sections resting -on joists that run the width of the stage. When traps are needed -in the floor, they can then be cut without difficulty at any point.</p> - -<p>The lighting equipment of the stage, by far the most important -of its mechanical attributes, I shall describe later, but I shall -treat here of one device, which is structural. It is one of the -German inventions for the perfection of illusion to which I have -referred, and the only one I recommend to little theatres, far and -wide. I recommend it because of the added beauty it can bring -into the playhouse, rather than because of its merit as a part of -the perfect machine. This is the Kuppel-horizont, or sky-dome.</p> - -<p>The sky-dome approximates in shape a quarter-sphere, much -like the shells commonly placed behind out-door band stands. -The base line begins far enough toward the front of the stage and -behind the proscenium to be masked from the opposite side of the -auditorium, and sweeps around the back of the stage. The back -and sides of the dome rise vertically for some distance and then -arch at the top toward the front of the stage. The higher the -dome is, the less the canopy need overhang the front of the stage; -and the less it overhangs, the more grid-iron space is available -for hanging scenery. But it will be seen at once that the more -dome there is to take the place of the usual hanging stuff, the -fewer of the usual tawdry borders are needed.</p> - -<p>The late Wallace Sabine, in a series of experiments conducted -with a model built at Harvard University by Theodore C. Browne -and the present writer, concluded that the quarter-sphere was -disadvantageous to the acoustics of the stage and was not required<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</span> -in order to obtain the best results in lighting. He recommended -a form flatter at the back and with a sharper curvature at the -sides and top.</p> - -<p>Three modifications of this device have been installed in little -theatres in America—one at the Neighborhood Playhouse in New -York, one at the Beechwood Theatre in Scarborough, and one at -the Arts and Crafts Theatre in Detroit. The Neighborhood Playhouse -“dome” is really little more than a cyclorama built in -plaster. It has no canopy overhead, and the ends extend toward -the front of the stage only a little distance. The one at the Beechwood -Theatre is similarly simplified. But even this plaster cyclorama -is a great improvement over the canvas cyclorama in its -stability, freedom from wrinkles, and better diffusion of light.</p> - -<p>At the Arts and Crafts Theatre, the ends of the dome do not curve -toward the front of the stage at all, but the top arches, forming a -canopy over the back part of the stage. The only true dome in -this country was installed by Samuel J. Hume at the Madison -Theatre in Detroit, now used as a moving-picture playhouse.</p> - -<p>With such a dome, a great deal of the litter of painted scenery -can be done away with. A background of light takes the place of -the usual painted back-drop, and much of the scenery usually set -at the sides or hung overhead, merely to keep the eye from penetrating -to the back-regions of the stage, is no longer needed.</p> - -<p>Added to the stage at the time of construction, the dome costs -little more than the price of its materials. The initial cost will -be saved many times over in the decreased cost of scenery. The -very least that should be done, if the budget does not allow for -the construction of an entire dome, is to plaster the back wall of -the stage. This, more than counterweights, traps, revolving -stages, and all the other paraphernalia of advanced construction, -will extend the possibilities of the stage machine, not only for the -uses of illusion but for the service of the imagination.</p> - -<p>A familiar feature of most theatres in which productions are -made is the paint-bridge and paint-frame at the back of the stage. -Here the scenery to be painted, mounted on the frame, is raised -and lowered before the bridge. To my mind, this is a waste of -space and money. Primarily it is a waste of space at the back -of the stage. If the dome is used it is quite out of the question. -But, strongest argument of all, it is not needed. If the scenery -must be painted in the theatre, it can be painted lying flat on the -floor. The saving on this item may well be enough to cover the -cost of the sky-dome.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="f20"> -<img src="images/fig20.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption4">Auditorium of the Arts and Crafts Theatre, Detroit. This -theatre is of particular interest in connection with the movement -to build community houses as war memorials. It shows -how a playhouse may be fitted informally and beautifully -into a building not designed primarily for dramatic purposes.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter1" id="f21"> -<img src="images/fig21.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Auditorium of the theatre at the Carnegie Institute of Technology, Pittsburgh. This is an -admirable example of dignified decoration, uniform floor slope, and generously spaced seats; but -the auditorium is too wide to secure adequate sight-lines from all seats. See plan on page 28.</p> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak p3 sp" id="c5">CHAPTER V.</h2> -</div> - -<p class="c">STAGE LIGHTING</p> - - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> most vital part of the stage machine is yet to be touched -upon, the only part in which any mystery is involved. After all, -most of our machinery of the theatre is of the simplest type,—ropes -and pulleys and simple bracing. In a double sense, the -electrical equipment is approached with more awe. While most -people know a little about the simpler laws of mechanics, electricity, -guarded by an element of danger, is a matter too recondite -to be brought into the fold of everyday information out of -mere curiosity, or to be reasoned out as the childish working of -a pulley can be figured out by common sense; it has to be studied -and learned. And besides being outside common matter-of-fact, -light is mystery itself, unplumbed nature, a fraction of the inscrutable -life of the world led by strings to the stage.</p> - -<p>If the little playhouse is without any mechanical convenience, -if its stage is cramped and mean, it can still achieve visual beauty -through light. This force brings into the playhouse the most -vibrant, subtle and affecting gift of the physical world, barring -only the human presence.</p> - -<p>Ultimately it will be seen that a forthright attempt to imitate -nature on the stage can result only in failure; the painted or modeled -semblances of rocks, trees, grass or distant prospects are in -the long run seen to be what they are not what they pretend to -be. Similarly, close as the light of the stage can be brought to -resemble the light of the outer world, it will still be short of complete -fidelity to its original. But it is, in itself, a force of beauty, -an authentic transplanting of the revealer of nature’s divers beauties, -so that, if it fails to achieve what the manipulator tries to -make it do, it may achieve something possibly more beautiful.</p> - -<p>More and more can this be true in the theatre, as the artist -comes to regard light as a pure medium, as he learns more of its -profound effect on human emotion, even on the working of the -body’s organs, and as he becomes familiar with the thousand -subtle ways in which the earth and its atmosphere modify the -light sent by the sun, reflecting and refracting it, stealing certain -colors from its whiteness and leaving others, resolving it prismatically -by mists and clouds and the swirls of atmosphere. These<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</span> -are a few of the ways in which nature plays the artist with light. -They point to unlimited lessons in technique that the theatre -artist in light has yet to learn.</p> - -<p>The little theatre, or any theatre for that matter, cannot go -wrong by beginning at the beginning. Let it revalue the customary -machinery for stage lighting, and the results achieved by -its use. Later I shall describe this customary equipment, for it -has its great uses, and much of the criticism that I shall apply to -it applies perhaps with greater justice to the manner in which it -is used. But, implicit in the system itself, is a criticism of its purpose -to reproduce the effects of nature under conditions that in -nowise resemble those of nature, or its laying over a convention -(artistic at its best, futilely anachronistic at its worst) not another -convention, but a lantern of Diogenes, showing up shams.</p> - -<p>Go back to the beginning. One candle rightly used, as in Robert -Edmond Jones’ lighting of the den scene in <i>Redemption</i>, is -both drama and beauty. Imagine Wallace Stevens’ <i>Carlos Among -the Candles</i> shown upon the stage by the candle light of the -strange room-world which is the play’s universe. Here is a complete -wedding of drama and the mobile beauty of light itself, a -light we can readily achieve. From these candles to the sun of -Shakespeare’s comedies, the storms of his <i>Lear</i> or the mists and -fogs of <i>The Tempest</i> is a far cry. He begged the question, in -extraordinary verse, and acted the words and emotions of his -plays in the plain light of day, which is bound to be beautiful, -even when it is not illusive of the moon.</p> - -<p>Right here lies the crux of the problem of installing lights in -the little theatre. A dual approach is required, as in any art: the -creator’s vision of what he wishes to do, and the technician’s -knowledge of how to go about it. The greater responsibility -rests on the first function, for we must settle whether we are to -try to reproduce nature or attain a correlative beauty. To me the -beauty of a stage sunset has rarely been the beauty of a real sunset; -it has been the beauty of rosy light. If anything, the -unreality of the sunset has stood in the way of my appreciation -of the reality of red. The beauty of red was accidental, and not -the artist’s intention. It could not have been avoided, for it is -germane to sunset, but the fact remains that the artist achieved -something other than he set out to achieve. It would have been -better to go in for red and attain it than to go in for sunset and -attain red. If blue light intimates the moon, well and good. It -is beautiful itself, and does not awaken marvel at the cleverness<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</span> -with which we have contrived an effect. Whereas a nicely operated -moonrise, or a jiggling procession of stereoptican clouds -leaves us gaping while the tragedy hobbles, unattended, to it close.</p> - -<p>When the theatre forsook the sunlight, it faced the question of -light solely as illumination. By various means,—torches and -tapers, gas, “limes” and electricity,—it has made its art visible -indoors and at night. The introduction of electric light into the -theatre has made possible an illumination so dependable and controllable -that of late years attention has been turned to other -phases of the lighting problem. Thanks must be given for most -of the advance thus far to the effort of the illusion-theatre to -imitate the light of nature. My belief is that the greater advance -lies ahead, in the study of light on the stage as an art medium -<i>per se</i>.</p> - -<p>Two important things the stage worker of the modern theatre -contributed, through his rough approximations of realistic effect, -two things that will serve, whatever our aim in lighting. He saw -that the light at some seasons, in some weathers, and at some -times of day, is less bright than at others, and that it fades at -dusk. He devised means, therefore, of varying its intensity. -Second, he perceived that at sunset light is one color, at noon -another, and by full moon another. He gave us dyes and color -screens, and with them and his dimmers brought to the stage the -important element of control.</p> - -<p>Other advances, through other agencies in the theatre, tend to -subtilize the function of light, carrying it beyond primary illumination. -Second, perhaps, comes the scene designer, who demands -that the light, in addition to illuminating the players and stating -the time of day or year, shall contribute values to his design as -picture. It shall be made to cast shadows where dark masses are -wanted in his composition. It shall highlight other features of -the scene; it shall reinforce the painter’s work with color; it shall -give plasticity to the builder’s work with its highlight and shadow.</p> - -<p>Next, the dramatist and producer make their demands—the -light shall reinforce the mood and meanings of the play. By its -intensity or dimness, it gives “atmosphere”; by its color it has a -direct psychological and physiological effect on the spectator, -sensitizing him to values in the play he might not perceive were -it enacted in light of another sort. Dramatist, director and -designer, in the lighting of a play, if nowhere else, should be so -much at one that it is easy to understand Gordon Craig’s wish that -one man should combine the functions of all three.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</span></p> - -<p>Light, in the theatre, then: (1) illuminates the stage and -actors; (2) states hour, season, and weather, through suggestion -of the light effects in nature; (3) helps paint the scene (stage picture) -by manipulation of masses of light and shadow and by -heightening color values; (4) lends relief to the actors and to the -plastic elements of the scene; and (5) helps act the play, by symbolizing -its meanings and reinforcing its psychology.</p> - -<p>To achieve these five functions of stage light, five different -kinds or sources of light are not, of course, needed. One light -may combine several, or all, of these functions. In Joseph -Urban’s lighting and setting of the last act of <i>Tristan and Isolde</i> -some years ago at the Boston Opera House, a beam of late afternoon -sunlight struck across the stage to the figure of Tristan -lying beneath a great oak tree. Slowly, as the day waned, the -sun patch crept from the figure, until, at his death, it had left -him in cool shadow. Thus, a light that illuminated, that told the -time of day, that gave the figure of the singer and the bole of the -great tree high relief by striking from only one side, also aided -symbolically and psychologically in the interpretation of the -drama. Thus to make light function in many ways is to use it -with a sense of its ductility and subtlety as a medium of theatre -art. In it we have the only single agency in the theatre that can -work with all the other agencies, binding them together—that can -reveal with the dramatist, paint with the designer, and act with -the actors.</p> - -<p>The machinery by which this medium is brought to the stage -and through which its wonders are wrought commands a deep -respect. Tradition has already laid its heavy hand here, and innovation -in lighting equipment moves slowly. It is almost wholly -within the last five years in the United States that lighting units -of marked novelty have been introduced.</p> - -<p>Of first importance is the machinery of control, the switchboard -and dimmers. The customary place for the board in American -theatres is at one side of the proscenium arch, either on the stage -floor level, or on a perch raised some nine or ten feet above the -stage floor. The manifest disadvantage of this location is that -the operator cannot see the whole of the stage, and must depend -for his cues upon a stage manager. It has, therefore, become the -practice in many European theatres to place the operator in a pit -directly in front of the stage, shielded from the auditorium and -facing the actors. From here he can watch the action and see the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</span> -effects of his lights constantly. Telephone connections with lamp -operators at the back of the stage enable him to keep them under -his control.</p> - -<p>The construction of the board and mounting of the switches are -strictly prescribed by boards of fire underwriters in various cities, -and need not be detailed here. The important consideration at -this point is that, so far as possible, each light unit on the stage -shall be subject to central control from a vantage point from -which the stage can be seen; that each unit shall be subject to -<i>separate</i> control; that groups of like units, classed by location or -color, shall be subject to group control, apart from other groups; -and that the stage light, as a whole, shall be controllable apart -from the house lights.</p> - -<p>That is, assuming, for purposes of illustration, the arrangement -of lights common to most theatres, the white lights of the first -border shall be controlled by a switch apart from that controlling -the white lights of the second border or the third or the fourth. -So, likewise, for each color circuit of each border, separately. -Then there should be a white border main switch, controlling the -white lights of all the borders, and a blue border main, etc. -Above these, there should be a border main switch controlling all -the border lights simultaneously. And thus with each division of -the stage lights. Over all, one stage main switch should control -all the lights of the stage. The auditorium lights, with their own -switches, should be controlled from the same board as the stage -lights.</p> - -<p>The outstanding item of expense in building a good switchboard -is the cost of dimmers, the resistance devices by which the -intensity of the light is controlled. They vary in capacity with -their wattage and type. But the dimmers, more than any other -part of the control system, contribute to the flexibility of the -machine. In a modern theatre they are indispensable.</p> - -<p>So far as possible, there should be a dimmer for each switch on -the board, controlling each light unit separately. With “master” -levers, related light units can be ganged and controlled simultaneously. -When only a limited number of dimmers can be -afforded, it is possible so to construct the switchboard that circuits -to be dimmed can be “shunted” through the dimmers, while -circuits that need not be dimmed remain on constant. A very -ingenious board of this type was designed by Mr. Bassett Jones -for the Artists’ Guild Theatre in St. Louis. This board has eight -dimmers which can be used for any eight light units on the stage,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</span> -giving it a far greater flexibility than it would have if only a -particular eight could be dimmed. It is, however, rather complicated, -with its dual system of constant and dimmer plugs and connectors, -so that only great familiarity with it makes it quick in -action.</p> - -<p>In addition to the switchboard type of dimmer, there are also -smaller dimmers made for use with nitrogen lamp spots and -floods. Where these are used I believe they should be set by the -main switchboard, rather than on the lamp itself. Attached to -the lamp they require an additional operator and break up the -centralization of control.</p> - -<p>The actual stage lights fall into two classes—stationary and -movable. The stationary or fixed equipment has remained, on -the whole, highly conventional. It consists, primarily, of the footlights, -a trough of lights set along the floor at the front edge of -the stage, throwing light upward upon the actors and the scene, -and the border lights, hanging troughs, adjustable in height, -throwing their light downward. The first of these border lights, -often known as the concert border, hangs immediately behind the -curtain or proscenium drapery, and the others are hung at intervals -of seven feet from center to center. The footlights and borders -are usually wired in three circuits, each circuit being filled -with lamps of a different color, customarily white, red or amber, -and blue.</p> - -<p>Of late, these customary units have been put on trial and found -wanting. They serve principally, and almost exclusively, the first -function of stage light—illumination—and are found, on the modern -stage, not to serve it well. Footlights, especially, have come -under the ban, though the campaign against them has been waged -a little indiscriminately. When footlights alone are used in a -realistic scene, they are bad. If the light from the floor dominates, -the under surfaces of the face—chin, nose-tip, eyelids—are -unnaturally and disagreeably accentuated. If the light from -below and above is balanced, the result, though more natural, is -perhaps as bad, for the lighting is flat, and there is no relief in -the features or figures of the players. For plays and scenes of a -heroic or fantastic sort, treated decoratively, rather than literally, -lighting entirely from above gives interesting and picturesque -results. It shadows the features heavily, and lends a sculptured, -massive quality to the face. More and more, this overhead lighting -has come to be used, and with some producers has been made -a fetish.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</span></p> - -<p>The very quality that makes this sort of lighting interesting in -scenes of a certain kind exhibits its strongest disadvantage in -naturalistic lighting. In the average room, during the daytime, -light pours in through windows, striking faces at face level. The -light comes mostly from one side of the room, or if there are -windows on more than one side, and the light comes in several -directions, it comes in varying degrees. The sun does not shine -in two directions at once. That is to say, though light may come -from more than one direction, and be reflected multitudinously -by walls and ceiling and, in less degree, the floor, the balance of -intensity is always in favor of one direction. And this direction -is not up or down, but in a line approaching a right angle to the -erect figure.</p> - -<p>Something of the same sort is usually true out-of-doors. Only -at noon do we have literally overhead lighting. Even then, the -beam of light is so broad as to envelop the figure on all sides, -and is so variously reflected by the dome of the sky, by trees, -rocks, water, houses, that there is, in addition to the direct downward -light, a considerable “general” diffused illumination. At -most hours of the day, the rays of the sun fall upon the earth -and its people at a long angle. The factor that gives relief and -prevents a dull flatness in the light of nature is the dominance -of east over west in the morning and of west over east in the -afternoon. Night illumination indoors, though usually from -fixtures above head-level, is reflected by all the walls of the room -and by all the objects in it.</p> - -<p>A soft, diffused face-level lighting is thus warranted in almost all -circumstances. The hard glare of foots and borders, used unrestrictedly, -does not supply this need most happily. Used moderately, -footlights have a distinct function, until better means of moderating -the crude shadows cast from above shall have been devised.</p> - -<p>An effort to throw light upon the stage at an angle less perpendicular -than that of footlight and border has been made at the -Little Theatre in New York. Here, certain sections of the ceiling -panelling can be lowered and light thrown upon the stage by diffused -spot lamps at an angle of 45°. In Mr. Belasco’s theatre, -lights have been installed in the face of the balcony, achieving -the same result even more satisfactorily. I believe that, in good -time, beautifully designed lighting units will be frankly set or -hung in the auditorium of the theatre.</p> - -<p>The footlight equipment of most theatres is, as it has long been, -unmodified, consisting merely of rows of incandescent lamps of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</span> -low standard (usually forty watts). The border lights have seen -more innovation during the past few years, especially the first -(or concert) border, most used in lighting interior scenes. Originally, -these border lights were intended to light not only the -stage, but also the hanging strips of canvas (known as borders) -formerly used to suggest a ceiling in interior scenes, and still used -to represent foliage and to misrepresent the blue sky in exterior -scenes. With the use of flat ceilings for interiors comes a demand -for a light that illuminates the scene rather than the ceiling. This -is best supplied by the X-Ray border, made up of a smaller number -of lamps than the old border but of higher standard, each -lamp being 150 or 250 watts. Each lamp is set in a separate compartment, -separated from its neighbor, and each lamp is backed -by an X-Ray reflector of mirrored glass with whorled corrugations, -diffusing the light evenly over a large area. Each compartment -may be fitted with a color screen of gelatine or dyed -glass. Often, too, spot lamps, large and small, are mounted on -this border to accentuate the light on certain areas of the stage.</p> - -<p>The other borders, used mostly for exterior scenes, must serve to -flood stage and scene with light. The old type of border does not -serve adequately, even in the type of scene for which it was -designed. The use of sky borders has largely given way to the -high cyclorama of canvas or plaster, leaving the sky prospect open -to the eye as far as the sight line reaches. The overhead lighting -must be powerful enough to flood stage and sky with light. It is -becoming more and more common to reinforce the ordinary border-light -equipment with hanging thousand-watt lamps in specially -constructed steel hoods. In the Arts and Crafts Theatre, in -Detroit, Sam Hume installed his entire overhead equipment of -such hanging lamps, and did away with the old border light altogether. -In the average theatre, however, these lamps are more -in the nature of movable lamps than of permanent equipment, and -will be further spoken of below.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="f22"> -<img src="images/fig22.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption4">The Neighborhood Playhouse, New York. This building -is one of the most satisfying examples of recent theatre -design in America, being free from overdecoration and -admirably fitted to its purpose technically. Harry Creighton -Ingalls and F. B. Hoffman Jr., Associate Architects.</p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter1" id="f23"> -<img src="images/fig23.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption4">Auditorium of the Artists’ Guild Theatre, St. Louis. This little auditorium is -made useful for both dramatic productions and art exhibitions by means of an -ingenious device for tilting the floor, described on page 29. Above is the view -toward the balcony, below the view toward the stage. Laurence Ewald, Architect.</p> -</div> - -<p>The footlights and border lights, and, occasionally, vertical -strips inside the proscenium frame at the sides, constitute the -whole of the stage-lighting equipment that is more or less a part -of the structure. They “go with the building.” Everything else -is movable and falls into the second classification of lighting units. -But, in the structure of the stage, provision must be made for -the use of such additional lights. Outlets in the form of “stage -pockets” are set at regular intervals in the stage floor; into these -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</span>pockets, spot and flood lamps may be plugged. The pockets are -set in the stage floor in two lines running up and down stage, a -short distance behind the proscenium opening, at either side of it. -There are usually from four to six such pockets on each side of -the stage. Sometimes there is one at the back of the stage, and -one or more in the fly-gallery. Occasionally, also, in houses -served by alternating current, there are pockets served by a small -house generator, supplying direct current for the use of arc -lamps. In some theatres, also, there are pockets connected with -storage batteries, intended to supply an emergency service or for -use with lighting units of a voltage other than the usual 110 volts. -The pockets must, of course, be carefully insulated, and covered -with a hinged iron lid set flush with the floor.</p> - -<p>The movable lights are of two general types: flood lights, for -general diffused illumination, and lens lights, for concentrated, -direct “spotting.” Under the first heading may be classed all -special lights known, in stage parlance, as strips, floods, or -bunches. Strips are small troughs, fitted with from three to ten -sockets, and are used in lighting off-stage “backings,” set-pieces -of scenery, and small areas where a special accent of color or -intensity is wanted. Bunches, now largely obsolete, are hoods set -on extension standards, fitted with ten or twelve sockets each. -These have been replaced by flood lamps, burning 500 and 1,000-watt -nitrogen-filled mazda bulbs. The hoods of these flood lamps -have diverging sides or are fitted with a reflector behind the -light, and have grooves at the front of the hood for carrying -color-frames. Formerly such lamps were equipped with arc -lights, but the nitrogen lamp has wholly displaced the arc in -flood lighting. Its advantages are that it does not require an -attendant to “feed” the light, that it can be dimmed, giving it -range of intensity to make up for decreased brilliance, and that -it can be burned on either direct or alternating current, without -the annoying buzz of an arc light burning alternating current.</p> - -<p>Spot lamps are mounted in closed iron hoods, emitting light -from only one end through a lens. The hoods, like those of -flood lamps, are set on extension standards, and can be tipped up -or down and turned from side to side. Arc spots are still in -general use, as the thousand-watt lamp is not sufficiently brilliant -for use on large stages or for long throws. In little theatres, -however, the thousand-watt spot is bright enough and has -all the advantages over the arc that apply to the newer type of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</span> -flood lamp. For such small stages, the principal consideration -always should be centralized control, and it cannot be got with -the arc light. As incandescent, gas-filled bulbs of still higher -standard are developed, the arc spot will cease to be used, even -in large theatres.</p> - -<p>There is also a small variant of the spot light, known as a -“baby” spotlight, burning a lamp of 150 or 250 watts. Used -with care, this is one of the most valuable stage lights we have -for producing delicate variations in light volume and color in -particular areas of the stage. These small lights may also be -dimmed.</p> - -<p class="gtb">******</p> - -<p>I have referred above to hanging hoods with thousand-watt -lamps for general illumination. Where these are not made a -part of the permanent lighting equipment of the theatre, they -may be introduced for special scenes and effects, being hung -where desired, and massed in such numbers and of such colors -as needed. The hoods are equipped with chains by which they -may be hung upon pipe battens and tipped as desired. They are -plugged, like other movable lights, into floor pockets or fly-gallery -pockets.</p> - -<p>The color of light on the stage is obtained in three ways. -Where lamps of low standard (twenty-five or forty watts) are -used, as in the foots or borders, they may be coated with dyes, -put up for the purpose, made with a collodion base. The burning -lamp is dipped into the liquid and left alight until the dye coat -has thoroughly dried and hardened. Bulbs of high standard, -however, cannot be dyed, as the dye does not stand up under the -intense heat generated by a lamp of one hundred or more watts. -As a matter of fact, few of the commercial dyes are wholly satisfactory, -even with smaller bulbs. The blues especially deteriorate -under heat, either fading or cracking, or burning to a purple or -black.</p> - -<p>The rays of larger lamps, burned either in flood or spotlight -hoods, are colored with gelatine mediums, held before the light -in frames of proper size. The gelatine colors also fade under -heat, and, being very fragile, crack and tear, and must be frequently -renewed. For durability, the best color medium is a -sheet of glass with the color blown in. Unfortunately such glass -is very costly, cannot be had in a large range of colors, and is -usually not as translucent as might be wished.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</span></p> - -<p>Mr. Munroe Pevear of Boston has made interesting experiments -with mediums of dyed glass. He manufactures his own -dyes, and claims for them a much longer life than the commercial -variety enjoys. His mediums are highly translucent, and are, -of course, far more durable than the gelatine mediums. He -makes them, however, in only the three primary colors, for his -development of color screens has been ancillary to experiments -of a larger intent—the development of a synthetic lighting -system.</p> - -<p>The principle of his color system is simply the principle of the -prism inverted. The prism breaks white light up into its primaries. -Mr. Pevear unites the primaries to make white. By -combining his red, green, and blue light in varying degrees of -each, he is able to obtain any color in the spectrum. To pale out -his lights to tints, he includes in his border and footlight equipment -a fourth circuit of white lights. To my knowledge, only -one theatre has been equipped by Mr. Pevear—the Toy Theatre -of Boston, now the Copley. But in the short-lived tenancy of the -house by the Toy Theatre Company there was never a whole-hearted -effort to test Mr. Pevear’s equipment. Experiments with -synthetic lighting have been conducted at various times and places -by Sam Hume, Norman Geddes, the present writer, and others. -The results more than reward the effort of such experiment, and -I commend a study of its possibilities to all workers in little -theatres.</p> - -<p>In addition to the typical theatrical lighting units, other units, -not designed primarily for theatrical use, are being adopted. -Foremost among these are the reflectors of the X-Ray type. -These are made in a number of sizes and shapes, but are of two -types, the whorled reflector and the parabolic reflector. The first -type gives a diffused light and the second a concentrated beam. -The X-Ray flood lamps, manufactured for lighting the exteriors -of buildings and for illuminating night construction jobs, are -coming to be used on the stage. They can be focused, have a -higher efficiency than a lens light burning the same number of -watts, and produce a more pleasant spot than the sharply defined -light-area of the conventional spot light, projecting a brilliant -ray, most intense at the center and fading toward the edges of the -field. There are a number of firms manufacturing lights of this -type, and they are now generally used for lighting outdoor -pageants. They are quite as valuable in the indoor theatre as on -the pageant field.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</span></p> - -<p>I have used frequently, instead of baby spots of the regular -type, automobile windshield spots, burning a six-volt lamp. -These cost perhaps one-tenth as much as the regular type, and -can be used on a special circuit supplied with current either -through a small step-down transformer or from a storage battery, -kept continually charged by running current into it from a -strip of carbon lights wired in series-multiple. These windshield -spots are usually equipped with a swivel and trunnion mounting, -so that they can be turned in any direction, are focusable, and -have a clamp by which they can be fastened to pieces of scenery -or upright pipe standards in the proscenium entrance.</p> - -<p>Besides a goodly number of well-distributed stage pockets into -which movable lamps may be plugged, there should be points of -vantage from which lights may be cast, perches and bridges -elevated above the level of the stage. Most useful is a bridge -across the stage, just inside and above the proscenium. From -this bridge, special flood and spot lamps may be manipulated. -Often perches are built out from the wall at either side of the -proscenium from which spots may be thrown down to the stage. -Occasionally these are movable structures with several levels and -can be wheeled to various points off stage. The fly-gallery, also, -is used for spot lighting. When a false proscenium is used, the -overhead bridge and side perches are sometimes built into the -structure.</p> - -<p>In planning the lighting equipment for a small stage, all -thought of the usual theatre installation can be set aside. Border -lights of the old type are not useful enough to warrant the expenditure -of the money they cost. Footlights, too, though useful -when no better means of front lighting can be devised, can -well be replaced by face-level lights from the auditorium, -concealed by wall traps or by the balcony rail, or hidden -in decorative coverings suspended, chandelier-like, from the ceiling. -The essentials for a flexible, adaptable lighting system are -centralization and delicacy of control, numerous and well-situated -current outlets, and as wide a variety as possible of movable lamps -for flooding and spotting. There should be enough circuits to -allow the use of a three- or four-color system, along the lines of -the synthetic system of Mr. Pevear, described above. Along with -this there must be facilities for throwing light from above the -stage from bridges and movable platforms. The only permanently -installed piece of lighting equipment that is absolutely necessary -is the X-Ray border at the front of the stage for the -lighting of interior scenes.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</span></p> - -<p>With a carefully planned switchboard and dimmer-bank, and -numerous pockets or current outlets, for the initial equipment, -there is hardly any limit to the development of the little theatre’s -lighting facilities, for if it must begin with only a few lighting -units, it can acquire more from time to time, and with each acquisition -build up its means of achieving beauty. And in this direction -the most vital contributions to the craft of the theatre are -yet to be made.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="f24"> -<img src="images/fig24.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption5">Figure 9—The permanent “scene” of -the <i>Théâtre du Vieux Colombier</i>. See page -74. (From <i>Album du Vieux Colombier</i> by -Fauconnet.)</p> -</div> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak p3 sp" id="c6">CHAPTER VI.</h2> -</div> - -<p class="c">STAGE MACHINERY AND SETTINGS</p> - - -<p><span class="smcap">I have</span> made mention earlier of the ingenuity so often demanded -of the little theatre stage director. The limitations of his stage -often compel him to an inventiveness different only in scale -from that displayed by the great German technicians of the -theatre. No Harvard student who ever shifted scenery for the -Dramatic Club in Brattle Hall can outgrow his enthusiasm for -the feats achieved on that absurd stage. At the Artists’ Guild -in St. Louis, it gave us unbounded glee to set the massive -chamber of <i>The Queen’s Enemies</i> on the cramped stage there. -To be confronted with deficiencies of one sort or another—mechanical -or fiscal—which must be overcome, is unquestionably -a spur to ambition. To struggle with material barriers, -space, time, physical means, and accomplish results in spite of -them; to wring beauty out of meagre cheesecloth and tinsel when -there is no money for silk and gold galloon, is a victory of sorts; -and without the fighting and winning of such battles as these, -half our little theatres might never have been, and much of their -best work might not have been done.<a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> Practically all modern<span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</span> -stage machinery has been devised to heighten effects of nature, -and therein it differs from the machinery of the theatre of the -greatest eras, which was devised to produce effects <i>beyond</i> nature. -The Greeks and Elizabethans left Nature strictly to herself, but -had a fairly elaborate mechanical system by which they exhibited -gods, demons, ghosts, and visions.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="label">[5]</a> <span class="smcap">Note.</span>—I wish to qualify fundamentally my admiration for the ingenuity -of the mechanical features of the modern stage. In fact, I do not believe they -can advance the theatre one jot. They are marvelously ingenious in denying -the limitations of the stage and in part triumphing over them. Yet I have -a persistent feeling that the recognition of the limitations and the acceptance -of them is more fundamental in the development of an art or craft than the -denial of them and the triumphing over them. Even such a triumph has its -ultimate boundaries, and when they have been reached, there is little to do -but acknowledge defeat. When matter has been twisted and beaten into -the cunningest perversions of its first form, the craftsman is still not satisfied; -for his spirit can soar to further reaches where none of the elements -can follow. This is truer of the theatre artist, perhaps, than of any other, -save the musician (who is, after all, a theatre artist). The theatre has been, -these many centuries, the theatre <i>because</i> of the limitations that encompass -it, not in spite of them. Likewise is the church (as a field of art) limited, -and it is by merit of its limitations that the church has been great. Utter -<i>churchliness</i> owes little to the style of architecture of any specific church -edifice. And the transcendent theatre art of the Deutsches Theater in Berlin -or of the Art Theatre in Moscow does not hang upon the skill with which the -one has used a revolving stage or with which the other has devised its scenery. -The German theatres have to a remarkable degree increased natural illusion -in scenery and lighting; but in spite of that there is about as much bad theatre -art in Germany as good. Where greatness is found, where the artist has -most truly realized the function of the theatre, it will be seen that his spirit -has transcended utterly the possibilities of his physical stage; and, like as -not, he has made no effort to strain the capacities of his medium, but has -worked utterly within them. One of the remarkable facts about the stage -technique of Robert Edmond Jones is that he demands nothing impossible to -achieve. His designs are easy to execute, and his scenery easy to handle.</p> - -<p>Here, again, is the dilemma which we faced in the discussion of the approach -to the stage lighting problem. There are limits to our ability to -reproduce on the stage the light effects of nature. But there are practically -no limits to the theatrical expressiveness of light, regarded as a medium, -<i>per se</i>. There are limits beyond which mechanical skill or inventive genius -cannot alter the obdurate confines of the physical stage. But there are no -heights to which a human spirit, set in public upon a platform, however -narrow and close-walled, cannot rise. In view of this great spiritual fact, I -would solemnly warn any little theatre or community house that has money -to spend for modernity, not to spend it on the kind of advance stage machinery -discussed in this chapter, but to spend it on artists.</p> - -</div> - -<p>One of the first mechanical improvements of our present-day -stage was the <i>drehbühne</i>, or revolving stage, invented by Herr -Lautenschlager. Its purpose is to move, without inordinate -intermissions between acts, scenery far heavier than men can -handle. The cult for realism demanded a greater plasticity in -scenery, and consequent increase in mass and structural complexity. -The revolving stage is a great turntable on which as -many as six or seven scenes can be set at one time, and revealed -successively to an audience by revolving the table. The scenery -for the entire play is set up on the day of the performance, and no -shifting of scenes need be done during the progress of the play.</p> - -<p>The designing of scenery to fit the revolving stage, developed -to its highest point by Reinhardt, is so little understood in -this country that our few revolving stages are seldom used. -The Century Theatre stage in New York has a turntable, but I do -not know of any instance in which the scenery for an entire performance -was set upon it. Mr. Winthrop Ames had a revolving -stage installed in his Little Theatre in New York; but, as this -stage is only thirty-five feet in diameter, he found it inadequate -for the setting of many of the scenes. Mr. Harry Bishop, in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</span> -building the Liberty and Fulton Theatres in Oakland, California, -constructed revolving stages of adequate size, but evaded the -problem of devising scenery especially for them by installing a -revolving gridiron also, so that the old-fashioned sky and foliage -borders could ride around the stage with the set to which they -belong. A little labor is saved in shifting scenes during performances, -but I doubt whether the saving equalizes the cost of -installation of these expensive devices.</p> - -<p>A device of similar intent is the sliding stage, a great wagon -the size of the stage opening—or, rather, two or three of them—run, -as desired, before the proscenium opening, and capable of -being pushed off, after being used, into houses at either side of -the stage or lowered to the basement, there to be reset for -another scene. This device avoids some of the limitations of -the revolving stage, in that scenes need not be made to articulate -closely as they must in order to fit the circular bounds of -the turntable; but it is tremendously costly, and requires a great -stage space.</p> - -<p>There are other devices of like intent, such as the Asphalia -stage, built in transverse sections that can be raised and lowered -on hydraulic plungers, and Steele MacKaye’s elevator stage installed -in the old Madison Square Theatre, New York. None -of these devices can serve either the little theatre movement or -the art of the theatre. They are deadening, and divert effort -from the true end of all experiment and advance in the theatre. -There is no doubt in my mind that the sort of theatre that -wants to be built is one in which the machinery is reduced to a -minimum,—efficient, controllable, but never controlling the -sort of work that must be done on the stage. In order to have -a modern, well-equipped stage, none of these innovations is -needed.</p> - -<p>Of far more purpose, for the modern theatre, are certain tendencies -now manifest that appear at first glance like reversions -to an older type of stage. I refer chiefly to such a stage as that -built by M. Jacques Copeau for his <i>Théâtre du Vieux Colombier</i>, -which, for two seasons, was a strange intruder among the -more literal stages of New York. Indeed, save for the use M. -Copeau made of modern mechanical flexibility, his stage was a -first cousin to the Elizabethan stage, though his arrival at its -particular form was not a case of atavism but a philosophic -realization of the true limitations of the theatre. His stage consisted -of three parts: a fore-stage, reached from the rear stage, -or from the main floor of the auditorium by steps upward, or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</span> -from doors high in the walls flanking the proscenium, whence -steps led down to the stage level; second, the stage proper; -and third, an upper stage, or balcony, engirdling the main stage. -This balcony and the space below it might be variously shut off -from the main portion of the stage, by tapestries, lattices, screens, -or sections of scenery, flat or pierced with windows or doors. -Steps could be variously placed to give access to the balcony.</p> - -<p>Thus, without the use of strictly representative scenery, -Copeau had a stage which provided every facility for the presentation -of a play,—entrances, exits, and elevations. It gave -scope to the necessities of action and the agility of the actor. -Such a construction may be said to be as much scenic reform -as reform in mechanics, except that it largely renders the latter -unnecessary.</p> - -<p>I should not deem it part of the purpose of this paper to -mention scenic matters at all, were it not that, very often, a -certain amount of scenery, like a certain amount of lighting -equipment, “goes with the building”. The contract for the -building and its rigging often specifies also a “garden”, “plain -chamber number one”, and “fancy parlor number three”, or -the like. Whether they are thrown in or not, without extra -charge, they should be courteously but firmly refused. They -stunt the timid imagination, and somehow, perhaps because they -are “real” scenery, never get thrown away.</p> - -<p>For the scenic equipment of the stage I can do nothing better -than refer the reader to the permanent setting devised by Sam -Hume for the Detroit Arts and Crafts Theatre, of which he was -for two seasons the director. This setting consists of a certain -number of interchangeable units, flats, door pieces, window -pieces, arches, and pylons.<a id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> Its initial cost is low, far lower than -that of several sets out of the scene painter’s catalogue, and its -usefulness infinitely greater. In addition to this it has beauty.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6" class="label">[6]</a> Mr. Sheldon Cheney in his <i>The Art Theatre</i> has fully described and -illustrated this set, showing the multiple variations it is capable of.</p> - -</div> - -<p>It may be that the stage of the future is to be something quite -different than that we now have. As a theatre of truth supplants -the theatre of illusion, it may be found that the stage of -to-day does not answer at all. The theatre is undoubtedly in a -transitional period and artists are striving for new forms and new -methods of presentation. What directions these tendencies may -take it is not the purpose of this paper to forecast. Nor would -it do to advise the adoption of a type of stage not yet tested or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</span> -of widespread use. Where there is an experimental and creative -attitude toward the theatre such types will be evolved without -any such rudimentary manual as this. Where a manual is -wanted, a stage should be built that can be used easily, by -everybody who wishes to use it, and which will give readily, in -return for effort spent upon it, a revenue of beauty. These -pages will achieve enough if they go a little way toward eliminating -the usual inept, difficult constructions that for these many -years have cumbered the way of folks, young and old, who wish -to entertain themselves in the theatre. More and more, they -seek such entertainment at their own hands. More and more, -their efforts are being fostered by educational bodies and organizations -allied with the theatre. Such aid as this pamphlet may -bring them is hopefully dedicated to their service.</p> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak p3 sp" id="c7">A SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY</h2> -</div> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p class="c sp">HISTORICAL AND DESCRIPTIVE</p> - -<div class="blockquot hang"> - -<p>Martin Hammitzsch, <i>Der Moderne Theaterbau</i> (Teil I). Berlin: E. Wasmuth, -1905. -(This is perhaps the best book on the historical aspect, although only -the first volume has so far appeared.)</p> - -<p>Edwin O. Sachs and E. A. Woodward, <i>Modern Opera Houses and Theatres</i>. -3 volumes. London: B. T. Batsford. 1896-98.<br /> -(This monumental and very useful series is generally considered the -standard descriptive and technical work, but is now somewhat out of -date.)</p> - -<p>Edwin O. Sachs, <i>Stage Construction</i>. London: B. T. Batsford, 1898.<br /> -(A supplement to the above.)</p> - -<p>Manfred Semper, <i>Theater</i>. Stuttgart: Arnold Bergsträsser, 1904.<br /> -(Handbuch der Architektur, Teil 4, Halb-Band 6, Heft 5.)</p> - -<p>Roy C. Flickinger, <i>The Greek Theatre and Its Drama</i>. Chicago: The University -of Chicago Press, 1918.<br /> -(Contains the best summary of the conflicting views about the form of -the ancient theatre.)</p> - -<p>Arthur Elam Haigh, <i>The Attic Theatre</i>. Third Edition, revised. Oxford: -The Clarendon Press, 1907.<br /> -(A standard work on the Greek Theatre.)</p> - -<p>Brander Matthews, <i>A Study of the Drama</i>. Boston: Houghton Mifflin -Company, 1910.<br /> -(Chapter III treats of the form of the theatre in relation to the forms -of drama.)</p> - -<p>William Harvey Birkmire, <i>The Planning and Construction of American Theatres</i>. -New York: J. Wiley and Sons, 1896.<br /> -(Contains many plans and descriptions of the older American theatres.)</p> - -<p>Max Littmann, <i>Das Münchner Künstlertheater</i>. Munich: I. Werner, 1908.<br /> -(A monograph describing one of the best small theatres in Europe, fully -illustrated with plans and photographs.)</p> - -<p>Julius Bab, <i>Die Volksbühne in Berlin</i>. Berlin: E. Wasmuth, 1919.<br /> -(Describes and illustrates one of the best large buildings of the -“people’s theatre” type.)</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</span></p> - -<p>Max Littmann, <i>Die Königlichen Hoftheater in Stuttgart</i>. Darmstadt: -A. Koch, 1912.<br /> -(Describes and illustrates an excellent example of the institutional or -“court” playhouse, in a building containing two complete theatres.)</p> - - -<p class="c">TECHNICAL</p> - - - -<p>Edward Bernard Kinsila, <i>Modern Theatre Construction</i>. New York: The -Moving Picture World, 1917.</p> - -<p>Arthur S. Meloy, <i>Theatres and Motion Picture Houses</i>. New York: Architects’ -Supply and Publishing Company, 1916.</p> - -<p>William Paul Gerhard, <i>Theatres: Their Safety from Fire and Panic, Their -Comfort and Healthfulness</i>. New York: Baker and Taylor, 1915.</p> - -<p>Arthur Edwin Krews, <i>Play Production in America</i>. New York: Henry -Holt and Company, 1916.<br /> -(Contains brief but comprehensive chapters on stage machinery, lighting, -and other technical matters.)</p> - -<p><i>Bühnen Beleuchtung System Fortuny.</i><br /> -(Describes the important Fortuny lighting system.)</p> - - -<p class="c">SCENERY</p> - - - -<p>Edward Gordon Craig, <i>Towards a New Theatre: Forty Designs for Stage -Scenes</i>. New York: E. P. Dutton and Company, 1913.</p> - -<p>Jacques Rouché, <i>L’Art Théâtrale Moderne</i>. Paris: Edouard Cornély & -Cie., 1910.</p> - -<p>Sheldon Cheney, <i>The Art Theatre</i>. New York: Alfred Knopf, 1917.</p> - -<p>Hiram Kelly Moderwell, <i>The Theatre of To-Day</i>. New York: John Lane -Company, 1914.</p> - -<p><i>Theatre Arts Magazine.</i> 1916 to date.<br /> -(Contains several hundred illustrations of stage settings, stage plans, etc.)</p> - -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</span></p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter1"> -<img src="images/fig25.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="c big sp">THEATRE ARTS<br /> -MAGAZINE</p> - - -<p class="c large sp"><i>An Illustrated Quarterly</i></p> - -<p class="c sp">Subscription price, $2.00 a year</p> - -<p class="c sp">BACK NUMBERS</p> - -<p class="c sp">containing articles, plays and sketches by</p> - -<table summary="people"> - -<tr><td class="tdl">Gordon Craig</td> - <td class="tdl">Robert E. Jones</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl">Lee Simonson</td> - <td class="tdl">Gilbert Cannan</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl">W. B. Yeats</td> - <td class="tdl">Stark Young</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2">Walter Prichard Eaton</td> - <td class="tdl"></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl">Susan Glaspell</td> - <td class="tdl">Arthur Hopkins</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl">Eugene O’Neill </td> - <td class="tdl">Rollo Peters</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl">Sam Hume</td> - <td class="tdl">Zoe Atkins</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2">John Drinkwater</td> - <td class="tdl"></td></tr> - - -</table> - - -<p class="c">PRICES—UNBOUND—POSTPAID</p> - -<p class="ad">Volumes I-IV (complete), $20.00; Volume II, -$3.00; Volume IV, $4.00. (Volumes I and III -sold only with complete sets). All issues except -those for February and May 1917, May 1918, -October 1919, January and October 1920, can -still be had singly at 75 cents.</p> - - -<p class="c">SPECIAL: Volume I-IV, bound, $25.00.</p> - -<p class="c xlarge sp">THEATRE ARTS MAGAZINE</p> - - - -<div class="transnote"> - -<p class="c">Transcriber’s Notes:</p> - -<p>Variations in spelling and hyphenation are retained.</p> - -<p>Perceived typographical errors have been changed.</p> - -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ON BUILDING A THEATRE ***</div> -<div style='text-align:left'> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will -be renamed. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg™ electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG™ -concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, -and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following -the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use -of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for -copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very -easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as creation -of derivative works, reports, performances and research. Project -Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given away—you may -do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks not protected -by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark -license, especially commercial redistribution. -</div> - -<div style='margin:0.83em 0; font-size:1.1em; text-align:center'>START: FULL LICENSE<br /> -<span style='font-size:smaller'>THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE<br /> -PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK</span> -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -To protect the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase “Project -Gutenberg”), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full -Project Gutenberg™ License available with this file or online at -www.gutenberg.org/license. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; font-size:1.1em; margin:1em 0; font-weight:bold'> -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg™ -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or -destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in your -possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a -Project Gutenberg™ electronic work and you do not agree to be bound -by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person -or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.B. “Project Gutenberg” is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg™ electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg™ electronic works if you follow the terms of this -agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg™ -electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation (“the -Foundation” or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection -of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. Nearly all the individual -works in the collection are in the public domain in the United -States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the -United States and you are located in the United States, we do not -claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, -displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as -all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope -that you will support the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting -free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg™ -works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the -Project Gutenberg™ name associated with the work. You can easily -comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the -same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg™ License when -you share it without charge with others. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are -in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, -check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this -agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, -distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any -other Project Gutenberg™ work. The Foundation makes no -representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any -country other than the United States. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other -immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg™ License must appear -prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg™ work (any work -on which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” appears, or with which the -phrase “Project Gutenberg” is associated) is accessed, displayed, -performed, viewed, copied or distributed: -</div> - -<blockquote> - <div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> - This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most - other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions - whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms - of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online - at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you - are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws - of the country where you are located before using this eBook. - </div> -</blockquote> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is -derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not -contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the -copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in -the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are -redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase “Project -Gutenberg” associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply -either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or -obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg™ -trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any -additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms -will be linked to the Project Gutenberg™ License for all works -posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the -beginning of this work. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg™ -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg™. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg™ License. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including -any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access -to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg™ work in a format -other than “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other format used in the official -version posted on the official Project Gutenberg™ website -(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense -to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means -of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original “Plain -Vanilla ASCII” or other form. Any alternate format must include the -full Project Gutenberg™ License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg™ works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works -provided that: -</div> - -<div style='margin-left:0.7em;'> - <div style='text-indent:-0.7em'> - • You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg™ works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed - to the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark, but he has - agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid - within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are - legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty - payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in - Section 4, “Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg - Literary Archive Foundation.” - </div> - - <div style='text-indent:-0.7em'> - • You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg™ - License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all - copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue - all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg™ - works. - </div> - - <div style='text-indent:-0.7em'> - • You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of - any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of - receipt of the work. - </div> - - <div style='text-indent:-0.7em'> - • You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works. - </div> -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project -Gutenberg™ electronic work or group of works on different terms than -are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing -from the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of -the Project Gutenberg™ trademark. Contact the Foundation as set -forth in Section 3 below. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.F. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project -Gutenberg™ collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg™ -electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may -contain “Defects,” such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate -or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other -intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or -other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or -cannot be read by your equipment. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the “Right -of Replacement or Refund” described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg™ trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg™ electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium -with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you -with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in -lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person -or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second -opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If -the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing -without further opportunities to fix the problem. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’, WITH NO -OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT -LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of -damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement -violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the -agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or -limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or -unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the -remaining provisions. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in -accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the -production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg™ -electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, -including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of -the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this -or any Project Gutenberg™ work, (b) alteration, modification, or -additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg™ work, and (c) any -Defect you cause. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; font-size:1.1em; margin:1em 0; font-weight:bold'> -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg™ -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Project Gutenberg™ is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of -computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It -exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations -from people in all walks of life. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg™’s -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg™ collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg™ and future -generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see -Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; font-size:1.1em; margin:1em 0; font-weight:bold'> -Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by -U.S. federal laws and your state’s laws. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -The Foundation’s business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, -Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up -to date contact information can be found at the Foundation’s website -and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact -</div> - -<div style='display:block; font-size:1.1em; margin:1em 0; font-weight:bold'> -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without widespread -public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND -DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular state -visit <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/donate/">www.gutenberg.org/donate</a>. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To -donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate -</div> - -<div style='display:block; font-size:1.1em; margin:1em 0; font-weight:bold'> -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg™ electronic works -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project -Gutenberg™ concept of a library of electronic works that could be -freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and -distributed Project Gutenberg™ eBooks with only a loose network of -volunteer support. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Project Gutenberg™ eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in -the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not -necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper -edition. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Most people start at our website which has the main PG search -facility: <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This website includes information about Project Gutenberg™, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. -</div> - -</div> -</body> -</html> diff --git a/old/67752-h/images/cover.jpg b/old/67752-h/images/cover.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 6cdf99a..0000000 --- a/old/67752-h/images/cover.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67752-h/images/fig1.jpg b/old/67752-h/images/fig1.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index ea95a8f..0000000 --- a/old/67752-h/images/fig1.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67752-h/images/fig10.jpg b/old/67752-h/images/fig10.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 613255a..0000000 --- a/old/67752-h/images/fig10.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67752-h/images/fig11.jpg b/old/67752-h/images/fig11.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index c616aba..0000000 --- a/old/67752-h/images/fig11.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67752-h/images/fig12.jpg b/old/67752-h/images/fig12.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 9852b2d..0000000 --- a/old/67752-h/images/fig12.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67752-h/images/fig13.jpg b/old/67752-h/images/fig13.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index de01d81..0000000 --- a/old/67752-h/images/fig13.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67752-h/images/fig14.jpg b/old/67752-h/images/fig14.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index c980c67..0000000 --- a/old/67752-h/images/fig14.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67752-h/images/fig15.jpg b/old/67752-h/images/fig15.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index c02bb01..0000000 --- a/old/67752-h/images/fig15.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67752-h/images/fig16.jpg b/old/67752-h/images/fig16.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 1c00ae7..0000000 --- a/old/67752-h/images/fig16.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67752-h/images/fig17.jpg b/old/67752-h/images/fig17.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 1c803bb..0000000 --- a/old/67752-h/images/fig17.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67752-h/images/fig18.jpg b/old/67752-h/images/fig18.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 76e7776..0000000 --- a/old/67752-h/images/fig18.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67752-h/images/fig19.jpg b/old/67752-h/images/fig19.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 3be16a1..0000000 --- a/old/67752-h/images/fig19.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67752-h/images/fig2.jpg b/old/67752-h/images/fig2.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index ae55d45..0000000 --- a/old/67752-h/images/fig2.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67752-h/images/fig20.jpg b/old/67752-h/images/fig20.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index fb5f164..0000000 --- a/old/67752-h/images/fig20.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67752-h/images/fig21.jpg b/old/67752-h/images/fig21.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 7cc73a5..0000000 --- a/old/67752-h/images/fig21.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67752-h/images/fig22.jpg b/old/67752-h/images/fig22.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 648beb8..0000000 --- a/old/67752-h/images/fig22.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67752-h/images/fig23.jpg b/old/67752-h/images/fig23.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 1499702..0000000 --- a/old/67752-h/images/fig23.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67752-h/images/fig24.jpg b/old/67752-h/images/fig24.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index bed5e00..0000000 --- a/old/67752-h/images/fig24.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67752-h/images/fig25.jpg b/old/67752-h/images/fig25.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 828a4e6..0000000 --- a/old/67752-h/images/fig25.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67752-h/images/fig3.jpg b/old/67752-h/images/fig3.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index cbe8d39..0000000 --- a/old/67752-h/images/fig3.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67752-h/images/fig4.jpg b/old/67752-h/images/fig4.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 6becfe5..0000000 --- a/old/67752-h/images/fig4.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67752-h/images/fig5.jpg b/old/67752-h/images/fig5.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 794a6a8..0000000 --- a/old/67752-h/images/fig5.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67752-h/images/fig6.jpg b/old/67752-h/images/fig6.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 97fe27b..0000000 --- a/old/67752-h/images/fig6.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67752-h/images/fig7.jpg b/old/67752-h/images/fig7.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index d83d2ed..0000000 --- a/old/67752-h/images/fig7.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67752-h/images/fig8.jpg b/old/67752-h/images/fig8.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 5489d79..0000000 --- a/old/67752-h/images/fig8.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67752-h/images/fig9.jpg b/old/67752-h/images/fig9.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 935c339..0000000 --- a/old/67752-h/images/fig9.jpg +++ /dev/null |
